THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

ESSAYS ON DARWINISM.

BY

THOMAS R. R. STEBBING, M.A.

Late Fellow and Tutor of Worcester College, Oxford.

LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

1871.

[All rights reserved]

OXFORD:

BY T. COMBE, M.A., E. B. GAEDNEB, AND E. PICKAKD HALL,
PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY.

ss

Bu-M9
Lib,

PREFACE.

THE opinions of Mr. Darwin have now been for many
years before the world. His own book on ' The Origin
of Species by means of Natural Selection,' unfolds and
supports them with admirable clearness of argument. Far
from being an abstruse and tedious work, it carries the
reader on with unflagging interest to the close. Observa-
tions and experiments, some the most simple, some the
most elaborate, notes on natural history, as well from every
quarter of the globe as from almost every province of nature,
are brought to bear upon the subject without confusion of
thought or embarrassment of style. The language flows
easily in its calm, temperate, unegotistical course. There
is no disguising of objections, no seeking of opponents. There
is an evident searching after truth. Of its form or of its
shadow the author's mind as evidently retains a bright
clear vision, and what he sees he tries to make others see
as clearly as he sees it himself. The suspicion and dislike
which are aroused in some minds by the very name of
Darwinism cannot be retained by those who read Mr.
Darwin's own description of his theory and the grounds
which slowly led him to adopt it. Few readers can be
dull enough to feel no charm at finding the most unlooked-
for results deduced from the simplest illustrations, from old
familiar facts, from every-day occurrences, or at finding what

M368785

IV PREFACE.

seem examples of the most special and varied contrivance
reconciled to the simplicity of a single general law. Many
readers will be inclined to whisper to themselves at many
passages, ' we never thought of that before/ ' we never looked
at the matter in that light/ * how curious if after all it should
be true/ ' it looks less wicked and silly than we used to think
it.' Whether the theory itself be right or wrong, the general
effect of the book which describes it can only be to quicken
the minds of its readers, to enlarge for them the circle of
ideas, to open up before them new lines of thought and
enquiry, to let them see the whole face of nature teeming
with mysteries and revelations, an inexhaustible vintage
for the human reason to gather in.

Such being the character of Mr. Darwin's own Work,
the handful of Essays and Letters contained in the present
volume, supporting the same views by almost the same
arguments, may seem a superfluous contribution to the
literature of the question. And so it would be if all who
condemn and ridicule Darwinism would be at the pains to
study Mr. Darwin's Work. But opinions passed upon it
and allusions made to it in common conversation and in
popular lectures often testify to nothing except supreme
ignorance of its general merits. To judge by such hearsay,
one might believe that Mr. Darwin had lived all his life shut
up in a dove-cote, and never seen or examined any other
living creature than a pigeon. Another estimate will dismiss
the whole subject, scathed with indignant laughter, by simply
explaining, that, according to this fatuous theory, man is
descended from a monkey. Naturally no well-minded per-
sons will consent to be pithecoid in origin, whether they
know what pithecoid means or not ; still less can a theory be
accepted as moral and good, according to which, as some will
tell you, the giraffe lengthened its neck by a series of stretch-
ings, and the elephant acquired a trunk by continually

PREFACE. V

pulling its own nose. A disinterested advocate will perhaps
be allowed to deprecate these burlesque and ignorant repre-
sentations, and to strip from what is merely vulgar prejudice
the guise of magnanimity and fine feeling. The range of topics
embraced in the present volume, however feebly handled,
and however inaccurate that handling may in some points
prove to be, should at least teach those who are willing
to learn, that the whole subject is a great one, and worthy of
attention, claiming earnest thought and varied learning to
decide upon it in all its bearings ; it cannot be disposed of
by caricaturing ; it cannot be settled in deference to any
religious prepossession ; it must be examined with open eyes,
and with the full candour of mind which great subjects
demand, and which great subjects nobly repay.

Some of the following papers treat of matters on which no
man of scientific education can be supposed at the present
day to retain even a vestige of doubt. But thousands of per-
sons, whom in ordinary courtesy we must call well-educated,
although they know nothing of science, hold opinions on
the Flood and the age of the world as irreconcileable with
the best-approved scientific conclusions as they are with the
Darwinian Theory. In appealing to the judgment of such
persons, as well as in considering the measure of his own
powers, the present writer has thought it expedient to confine
himself, for the most part, to the clearest and simplest argu-
ments, leaving on one side the subtle and intricate.

The letters collected at the end of the volume may be
looked on as short essays of a somewhat informal character.
The apology for reprinting them is this, that whereas in a
regular essay the writer assumes his own standpoint, and
may be suspected of ignoring the vantage-ground of his
opponents, in replying to a correspondent he must, at least
to some extent, follow the lead of an antagonist, and fight,
if he fights at all, on the field which another has chosen.

VI PREFACE.

As I cannot reprint the various able compositions which I
have attempted to answer, it will be fair, to one at least of
the writers, to remark that I have personal reason to know
that he still retains the opinions of which I attempted to
disabuse him. He contrives to reconcile this obduracy to
his own intelligence by laying stress on the candid admission
made by Darwinians, that the Theory of Development is for
the present that which they call it, — a Theory, and not a
demonstration. No one pretends to answer fully every
objection that has been urged against the Theory. The
evidence is as yet incomplete. By its very nature it must
perhaps always to some extent remain so. The proof depends
in part upon analogy, which leads to conclusions possible or
probable, rather than to what is demonstrably certain. But
the advocates of the Theory, remembering Bishop Butler's
maxim, that ' to us probability is the very guide of life,'
endeavour to maintain that their opinions have far more than
that minimum of preponderance which, in Butler's view, not
only justifies, but imperiously exacts, the adhesion of reason-
able beings.

THOMAS E. K. STEBBING.

Torquay, Feb. 6, 1871.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

DAEWINISM1 3

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD l 34

INSTINCT AND REASON2 62

HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE . . . 82

THE LAPSE OF TiME1 93

NOTE ON THE HYPOTHESIS OF SPONTANEOUS GENERA-
TION1 126

IMPERFECTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD1 . -133
DARWINISM : THE NOACHIAN FLOOD . . .147
DARWINISM : SCIENCE AND RELIGION . . .152
DARWINISM, AND THE FIRST VERTEBRATE . .156
THE FIRST VERTEBRATE, AND THE BEGINNING OF

REASON . . 160

OYSTERS OF THE CHALK, AND THE THEORY OF

DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . .165

THE MATHEMATICAL TEST OF NATURAL SELECTION . 168
THE GENESIS OF SPECIES . ... . . 173

INDEX 181

1 These papers were read at various dates between February 1869
and January 1871, before the Torquay Natural History Society.

2 Head before the Devonshire Association, July 1870.

NOTES to pp. 13 and 34.

It has been kindly pointed out to me by Mr. James Parker of
Oxford that there is an error in Mr. Darwin's calculation reproduced
in page 13 of this volume. Upon the data supplied, the increase in the
number of elephants there mentioned would require 750 years instead
of 500. The further increase calculated in the same page, would in
like manner require seven or eight additional centuries instead of five.

Mr. Parker also suggests that the expressions in page 34, ' taken for
granted,' ' taught for centuries,' seem to ignore Bishop Stillingfleet and
other writers of his time, v\ ho saw good reason for believing the Flood
in the days of Noah not to have been universal. I am glad to explain that
I did not by any means intend to imply that there were no exceptions
to the general state of opinion, for I am well aware that there are at
the present day some schools, a few nurseries, and even one or two
pulpits, into which the truth on this point has been allowed to
penetrate.

DARWINISM.

DAKWINISM.

THE object of this lecture is to explain, with as much
simplicity as possible, the opinions of Darwin on the
chain of secondary causes which has resulted in the
wonderful structures known to us as living creatures,
and including, in an almost infinite variety, lichen and
moss, mite and mildew, grass and flower and branch-
ing tree ; mollusk and reptile and fish ; the swan, the
petrel, the ostrich and the eagle ; the cunning ape ;
the faithful hound ; the elephant, sagacious and mind-
ful of insults; the lion, capable of generosity; the
horse, patient of labours and eager for victory ; and,
along with a multitude of others diversely qualified,
One, without doubt partaking of the animal nature
that lives and dies, yet seeming to partake of some-
thing beyond it, seeming to be distinguished from all
the rest by its postures, by its laughing, by its cooking
its food, by its articulate language, by its powers of
reasoning ; and yet linked and united to its inferiors by
a multitude of affinities and sympathies, resemblances
of form and nature, and by the very details of its supe-
riority. So ran the Pagan legend that Providence had
compacted man's moral nature out of particles taken
from each of the lower animals, giving him the wisdom

B 3

4 DARWINISM.

of the serpent and the fiery courage of the lion1. To
this sense of an intimate union between man and the
rest of the animate creation have the writers of fahles
in all ages appealed, while imparting their lessons of
prudence and virtue under the guise of transactions
between birds and beasts and trees of the forest.

It is well known that after the discovery of almost
every great truth a sort of feeling or instinct of it
can be traced back in obscure hints, in chance expres-
sions, in vague guesses, in flights of imagination, so
that people very soon begin to fancy that they have
all along understood and maintained the veiy theory,
which, on its first appearance, they violently rejected
as something false and even vicious. Darwinism has
this characteristic of truth, that it has often been
obscurely anticipated. It has this other characteristic,
that its fiercest opponents have already begun insensibly
to adopt its conclusions, and to speak its language, to
opine, even, that the credit of its promulgation belongs
to themselves.

In Mr. Darwin's own historical sketch of the rise and
progress of his doctrine, he does full justice to those
who have preceded and who have worked with him in
bringing it to light and in establishing its foundations.
The opinion that species originate, not by successive
miraculous interpositions or acts of creation, but by

1 Horace, Odes, I. xvi. 13 : —

Fertur Prometheus addere principi
Limo coactus particulam nndique
Desectam, et insani leonis
Vim stomacho apposuisse nostro.

DARWINISM. 5

birth, was held as far hack as 1794-5, hy four men of
distinguished genius, hy Lamarck, by Mr. Darwin's
own grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, by Geoffrey
Saint Hilaire, and by the poet Goethe. In the present
day, Mr. Wallace, Mr. Herbert Spencer, the great
zoologist Van Baer, and others, independently of Mr.
Darwin, seem to have come more or less to the same
conclusions, which have been warmly espoused and
powerfully vindicated by Dr. Hooker, Professor Huxley,
and Sir Charles Lyell. I mention these names because
it seems to be their due, and not for the sake of giving
weight to any argument because of the scientific renown
of its advocates ; there are names, it may be, equally
distinguished on the opposite side. But one thing ought
to be observed, that the progress of scientific enquiry
has achieved so much during the last hundred years
that the opinions of the older Naturalists have an im-
portance when they agree with modern conclusions,
which they cannot have when they differ from them,
unless it can be shown that the observations, the experi-
ments, the discoveries of late years had all been made
by, or were known to, the earlier enquirers. For those,
however, who think the opinions of a past generation
of necessity more trustworthy than those of the present,
Sir Charles Lyeli has done well to point out that
LinnaBus himself looked forward to a time when it
should be proved that in botany, at least, all species of
a genus had descended from the same mother l.

This is precisely Mr. Darwin's opinion on the origin
1 Lyell, « Principles of Geology,' vol. ii. p. 324. Tenth Edition.

0 DARWINISM.

of species at large. He applies it to the animal as well
as to the vegetable kingdom. He extends it by con-
sidering genera themselves as species of the orders which
contain them, and orders as species of the great classes
to which they as orders respectively belong. In a word,
he considers that all living forms whatsoever are de-
scended from a very few original ancestors of the
simplest type, and that this primaeval group itself had,
probably, a common parentage. Wildly improbable,
ludicrously absurd, degrading to humanity, and ir-
religious, no doubt this hypothesis has appeared to
many, and will continue so to appear till it has been
studied with attention, and studied without prejudice.
To rescue it from the prejudice which would make it
in the eyes of some a pernicious and forbidden study,
is the hope which underlies the object of the present
lecture.

Round Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square there
are four colossal statue lions, the conception of a great
artist. They look unnatural, not because of their size,
or their position, or the material of which they are
made, but because they are all so exactly alike; and
exact likenesses are scarcely ever found in animate
nature, unless it be among the very simplest organisms.
When we speak of a striking likeness between two
human beings, we evidently imply that a high degree
of similarity is uncommon, and, therefore, noteworthy.
What is true of even the most highly organized animals,
is true, as far as observation goes, of all below them.
Horses, dogs, sheep, kine, afford familiar illustrations

DARWINISM: 7

of this principle. To the uneducated eye, individual
differences may be totally unapparent, which are yet
perfectly conspicuous to the trainer, the huntsman, the
shepherd, and the drover. Wild creatures know their
mates ; wild herds select their leaders ; the bee and the
ant are capable of distinguishing the various individuals
of their own communities, for strangers of the very self-
same species with themselves they repel or destroy1.
As each creature is, in numberless cases, the offspring
of two unlike parents, it cannot be an exact copy of
either, and the influences of the two parents may be
combined in various proportions in each of the offspring;
but the parents themselves are continually changing,
with the variations of age and food and climate, so that
the very rule of resemblance between the producers and
the produced will entail another rule of unlikeness
between the several members of an offspring not born
all at once.

It is a fact, which cannot be denied, that in number-
less instances the young of a creature differ more or
less from the parents and likewise among themselves.
Why it should be so has been in part explained. This
is the Variability, without which Natural Selection could

i/ '

never have been thought of, because without differences
there would have been nothing to select. But this
Variability being granted, the Darwinian theory be-
comes possible — becomes quite capable of referring
back the elephant and the pig, for instance, to the
same ancestry. The difference between progenitors and

1 Darwin, ' Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol.ii.p. 251.

8 DARWINISM.

their immediate offspring are, it is true, comparatively
slight. It would, indeed, be a prodigious birth if one
family contained at once a young monkey, a little pig,
a big donkey, and a great goose; but it is obviously
possible that any amount of unlikeness may be found
between the descendants of common ancestors, if we are
not confined to the differences of a single generation,
but are allowed to multiply them through as many
thousands as we require. Say that two race-courses
differ in length by one yard; multiply that difference
1760 times and they will then differ by a whole mile.
If, on leaving this Lecture-room, you found the trees —
which half-an-hour ago were bare and leafless — clothed
with summer verdure, your gardens blooming with a
wealth of roses, your orchards laden with autumnal
fruits, you would scarcely credit your senses; and yet,
when the requisite number of half-hours, reckoned by
days and months, shall have elapsed, you will greet
these wonderful changes as perfectly natural and nothing
to be wondered at. In a dissolving view that is well
managed, Alpine peak and glacier-pass melt impercep-
tibly into some tall cathedral and sunshiny market-
place. The two scenes are wholly unlike, and yet it is
contrived that at* no moment should the passage from
one to the other be discernibly abrupt. Is it not
possible then to conceive that through an immense
multitude of generations the form of an ape might be
derived from the form of a fish ? We do not mean to
say that this has actually happened, but supposing the
descendant of the fish to vary continuously in the direc-

DARWINISM. 9

tion of the ape-like form, the result would be intelligible
enough. What, then, is there to determine variation in
any particular direction., and what limits are there, if
any, to the system of interminable change which the
principle of variation seems to involve ?

Of course it is understood that the general mass of
characters or qualities belonging to any creature are
inherited by one generation from its immediate ancestors
and transmitted to its immediate descendants, so that
for a long period there would be a large number of
individuals in the world united into a group by
common characters, which according to their supposed
importance we might call specific or generic. But
besides this, there is the very curious principle of Re-
version to be taken into account, as largely conducing
to the comparative permanence of species. In Norway,
I believe, when the father's name is Jack, and the
son's name is Tom, Tom is called Tom Jackson, and
Tom is in the habit of giving his own eldest son the
grandfather's name, and then Tom Jackson's son is
called Jack Tomson. Now, in the same way, in nature
it not unfrequently happens that when a long-nosed
man is father of a short-nosed son, the son of the
short-nosed man inherits by reversion the more elon-
gated feature of his grandsire. Under certain condi-
tions, which however greatly limit it, the operation
of this principle of Reversion may extend, so far as
we know, to any quality whatever after an interval of
any number of generations. The tendency, therefore,
is to the permanence of species, and yet, as will be

10 DARWINISM.

shown in the sequel, it has furnished Mr. Darwin with
an additional argument to prove that species are not
permanent. It must be borne in mind that when a
character reverts from a very distant ancestor, the
creature which inherits it will have numerous other
qualities, all probably more or less differing from those
originally united to the reversionary character ; just as
if, in the School of Art, a picture by Raffaelle were
shown to fifty pupils, and when it had been copied by
the first, the second pupil were to make a copy of the
copy, and so on to the end, each of the copies would
no doubt differ more and more from the original, and
yet in the very last, by the help of memory or sym-
pathetic genius, there might be some beauty not to
be found in any of the others, recalling the hand of
the great master; while it is true, that if the sketch
were something exceedingly simple, the fiftieth copy,
and all the intermediate ones, might be almost exactly
like the original ; and so in nature, exceedingly simple
organisms are seemingly reproduced for almost endless
generations with no change, or scarcely any.

If it be true that all living creatures on this earth
spring from a very few, extremely simple, original
germs of life, we have to explain how it is that now
there is an enormous variety of highly organised crea-
tures, and at the same time some of extreme simplicity.
For, if the simplest forms are permanent, how can the
more complex be derived from them ? On the other
hand, if the simplest forms vary, how is it that we
find, as we do, the very earliest known form of life

DARWINISM. II

still living at the present day? The solution is easy
to suggest, that the offspring of very simple forms are
sometimes exactly like their parents, and sometimes
not exactly like. From what has been said above of
Inheritance and Variation, this is in the highest degree
probable, and, this being admitted, it will follow that ac-
cording to circumstances the progeny that are like their
parents, or those that are unlike, will have the best of
it. Why this follows will now have to be explained.

All over the surface of our globe there is a struggle
for life going on. The instinct of self-preservation
is probably stronger than any other, so that we may
rely upon it that the creatures of every race will strive
to preserve their own existence, if need be, at the
expense of that of others. It may be horrible to
the sentimentalist, but it is true; and remember that
man as well as the tiger is a carnivorous mammal.
There is no beast or bird of prey that can be compared
with man for his ravaging, destructive, butchering, re-
morseless dissipation of other forms of life, to preserve
his own existence and make it comfortable. He secures
his gluttony from famine, as far as he can, by being
omnivorous. Moss and fungus, grass and herb, leaf
and flower and stem and fruit, all alike find a grave in
man. The lion and the flea are the victims of his fear ;
many a harmless snake and toad of his antipathy ; the
otter and the fox die for his sport ; the ostrich and the
ermine for his vanity. For his food, like a wolf, he
slays the harmless sheep; like a hawk, he pounces
on the innocent chicken ; like a wily panther, surprises

12, DARWINISM.

the antlered stag1; devours fish like a shark; spreads
nets for his prey like a spider ; and in some instances
acquires a well-developed taste for the flesh of his
fellow-man. Practically with all living animals, the
first consideration is food. If all living- animals could
obtain abundance of pleasant and suitable food without
preying on one another, the scene of war which Nature
presents would perhaps in a great measure disappear.
Yet this warfare is as conspicuous in the vegetable as
it is in the animal kingdom. There is a certain amount
of nourishment in a given piece of ground, and for
that nourishment the plants upon it will compete, some
thriving and multiplying to the hindrance and de-
struction of the others. Here again, if the surface
of the globe supplied nutriment for all its plants,
there would be at least no need for this destructive com-
petition.

And how is it that this wide, wide world does not
supply food enough for all the vegetable forms that
make an effort to live upon it? The answer to this
curious question has long been known, though not
sufficiently attended to. It would not be fair to say
that Nature is stingy in her supplies of food, but
rather that she is too generously prolific of forms of
life. For, take the supposition that all living creatures,
whether animal or vegetable, were shielded from all
enemies and influences at present hurtful to them, and
let us see to what it would bring us. A single grain
of wheat produces an ear containing ten, twenty, or
some larger number of grains. But if the ear con-

DARWINISM. 13

tained only two grains, still, at that rate of increase,
a single grain would in thirty years be represented by
more than a thousand millions of grains1. What, then,
would be the position of the world, if, starting with a
thousand millions of grains, this rate of increase were
allowed to continue unchecked, not for thirty years,
but for three thousand ? But Mr. Darwin has calcu-
lated in regard to the elephant, which is reckoned the
slowest breeder of all known animals, that, according
to the very lowest probable rate of natural increase, a
single pair would in five hundred years have a progeny
of fifteen million living elephants 2. Now fancy an
island like our own, only in a climate suitable to
elephants, into which a couple should have found their
way a thousand years back. At the end of five hundred
years, if all that were born were enabled to breed un-
checked, there would be at least fifteen millions of their
huge descendants stalking about the land ; but, at the
end of five hundred years more, there would be one
hundred and twelve millions of millions of elephants.
Goodness ! What a stupendous menagerie ! What a
zoological garden ! What a prospect at the end of the
next five hundred years ! And all this time, remember,
according to our sentimental, philanthropic, philele-
phantine, nature-improving scheme, the men and women,
the donkeys with a soul above thistles, the thistles no
longer toothsome to donkeys, the mice, the rats, the
cats, the oaks, the cabbages, the toadstools, would have

1 1,073,741,824 grains.

2 ' On the Origin of Species,' p. 74. Fourth Edition.

14 DARWINISM.

been multiplying, not in the same proportion as the
elephants, but very much more rapidly. The great
desideratum would be standing room. The back of
an elephant, or the branch of an oak, would no doubt
command an enormous rent, and a right of way across
the heads of your neighbours would be religiously
guarded by the law of the land. Nor would the posi-
tion of affairs be better in the surrounding sea ; for
while these elephants have been computed to breed at
the rate of two young ones in thirty years, a single
codfish has been found to produce in one year more
than six millions of eggs, and there are other creatures
infinitely more prolific l.

You see, then, that the struggle for existence is an
absolute necessity; and out of this all-essential strife
springs what has been well called Natural Selection.
What is meant by this will more easily be understood
by looking first at Artificial Selection, which has been
practised by man, sometimes consciously, and oftener
unconsciously, in the process of domesticating a great
number of plants and animals. Dogs, sheep, bulls, pigs,
horses, fowls, pigeons, cabbages, and other culinary
vegetables, strawberries, and all manner of edible fruits,
together with gay-coloured, curiously-formed, sweetly-
perfumed garden-flowers innumerable, have been, and
are still being, subjected to man's selection. That the
wonderful changes which occur are indeed due to man's
repeated choice of the varieties which suit his purposes,

1 Darwin, 'Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii.
P- 379-

DARWINISM. 15

is clear from this, that all the remarkable changes have
taken place in those particular qualities which man
has valued, leaving the other qualities comparatively
unaltered. Let it be speed, size, taste, colour, form,
temper, the coat, the feathers, the flesh, the muscular
strength, the powers of endurance ; in a vegetable, let
it be the root, the stem/ the leaf, the flower, the fruit,
the seed, let it be what it will that is of value, that
part and that character have been in each case most
highly developed. To take a few examples : You are
fond of peas, and you sow in your garden what your
seedsman tells you are the finest new varieties ; you like
strawberries, you admire roses, you fancy a good cab-
bage, you are particular about having a mealy potato ;
so in each case you plant what you understand to be
the best new kinds. What will you say if it turns out
that the roses have improved in their roots but not in
the bloom, and the potatoes in the bloom but not in
their tubers ; that the strawberries have remarkably fine
leaves but very small fruit; that the peas and the
cabbages have indeed enormous stems, while the seed
of the one and the leaf of the other are insignificant
in size and tasteless to the palate? So, too, if you
purchase a race-horse and a pig from the most noted
breeders of those animals, will you not be disgusted
if it turns out that the horse has a remarkable pro-
pensity for fattening, while the pig is distinguished
by nothing but its extreme fleetness of foot? These
disappointments do not occur, because the variations
of domesticated plants and animals are selected by

l6 DARWINISM.

competent persons. Were strawberry-leaves of as much
importance in horticulture as they are in heraldry, many
fine varieties would soon be exhibited. As soon as the
most minute tendency to vary in any particular direc-
tion has been descried in any living1 creature, the fancier
can exaggerate the difference to an extent inconceiv-
able to the inexperienced. As a popular illustration
of this we may take the Big Gooseberry, which fills
so large a space in the newspapers when Parliament
is prorogued. A gooseberry has been grown weighing
more than 37 pennyweights — that is, nearly two ounces1.
But mere size is not a fair test of the extreme plasticity
of living organisms. You may have your trees growing
stiffly upright, or with pendulous branches and prostrate
stems; you may have your cattle long-horned, short-
horned, or with no horns at all ; your rabbits straight-
eared or lop-eared; your fowls with every variety of
comb and crest and wattles and plumage ; and your
pigeons pretty well at discretion. A type is prefigured,
and the fancier produces it ; and what is done for
amusement with pigeons, is done for food, for profit,
for the good of mankind at large, by the grower of
corn, by the breeder of sheep, by all the wise produce-
masters of the world 2.

Such is Artificial Selection ; but man is after all but
one of Nature's works, and one of her numerous agents.

1 37 dwts. 7 grs., or 895 grs., between seven and eight times the
size of the wild fruit. See 'Animals and Plants under iJomestication,'
vol. i. p. 356.

2 Darwin, ' Animals and Plants under Domestication,' passim.

DARWINISM. 17

All that lie does, however miraculous it may seem, can
only be done under her conditions, and by the means
which she supplies. In Artificial Selection man does
but take advantage of the natural laws of Inheritance
and Variation, and while he is seeking by means of
these to produce one alteration, Nature herself is pro-
ducing perhaps a hundred others. For, by the law of
Correlation, when one part changes, some other or others
almost inevitably change with it. Whether it be
shortening the beak of a pigeon or lengthening the
neck of a giraffe that is in question, Nature takes care,
along with the change, to make other adaptations of the
structure in the creature's interest under its altered
circumstances. Surely, the working of this principle
of Correlation indicates a far-sighted Providence of
the results, the disastrous monstrosities, that would
otherwise have sprung from the law of Variation.

Man's efforts are considerably limited, moreover, by
the law of Reversion. Now, supposing many differing
species to be descended, as we maintain, from common
ancestors, what ought to be the observable effects of this
law ? Evidently, we should expect the character of one
species now and then to appear in species allied to it, or
species of kindred origin to vary in the same manner.
In accordance with such an expectation, we find the
horse and the ass sometimes assuming the stripes of
the quagga and the zebra; certain varieties of the
pigeon, the fowl, the turkey, the canary-bird, the duck,
and the goose, all have top-knots or reversed feathers on
their heads ; one kind of melon resembles a cucumber in

c

1 8 DARWINISM.

everything but taste ; there are purple-leaved varieties
of the beech and the hazel; and a great multitude of
plants sometimes exhibit their leaves cut, blotched, and
variegated 1.

Now, from the working of Nature under, as it were,
man's guidance, we pass to the working of Nature when
left to her own discretion. The work of Natural Selec-
tion is a very slow and secret work ; the slowness of it
veils the movement. As with the hour-hand of a tiny
watch travelling but an inch in a day, there is progress
which you cannot discern, there is change that can be
marked and registered at intervals, though each succes-
sive moment and each successive movement seem to
leave things exactly as they were. You have heard
of the Greek simpleton who had been told that a raven
lived three hundred years, and so bought one to see.
We might live three thousand years instead of three
hundred without being able to prove the theory of
Natural Selection by actual observing. But when a
group of most important observed facts can be explained
consistently by this theory, and by none other, while no
fact has been brought forward to make it inadmissible,
it ought to be accepted till some theory can be pro-
duced equally unimpeachable and explanatory of a larger
group of facts.

Qualities are inherited ; but with this peculiarity, that
very generally, and sometimes of necessity, the inheritor
comes into possession of the inherited quality at the
same period of life at which it was acquired by the

1 'Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. pp. 348-351.

DARWINISM. 19

parent. As, for instance, the child of a gouty father,
though it may be destined in old age to inherit the
disease, is not born with the gout, any more than a
calf is born with horns, or a cherry-tree produced
covered with cherries. In the life of every creature
there is not merely growth, but development. At
every stage of life it is possible for some quality ac-
quired by variation to be fixed by Natural Selection.
But in the embryonic and earliest stages of develop-
ment, variation is least likely to be of service to any
creature. Such variations, therefore, will less often be
selected than others, and if it be true that many species
have a common ancestry, then it ought to be found that
in their embryonic and earliest stages they resemble one
another. This is precisely what we do find. Plants,
the most remote in appearance and properties when
full grown, differ but slightly in their cotyledons: the
difference between the egg of a nightingale and the egg
of an ostrich bears no proportion to the dissimilarity
between the two birds when fully developed; nor by
comparing the roe of a herring with the roe of a salmon
could you possibly guess, before experience, how the
full-grown fish would differ. But in the life of every
human being there is a stage of development, at which
the most sagacious physician could not distinguish him
from the embryo of a snake, a lizard, a bird, or an ape1.

1 An important caution may here be quoted from Mr. Herbert
Spencer. ' An impression,' he says, ' has been given by those who have
popularized the sentiments of Embryologists, that, during its develop-
ment, each higher organism passes through stages in which it resembles
the adult forms of lower organisms — that the embryo of a man is at oife

c a

20 DARWINISM.

Now, if the simplest embryonic forms of life were the
progenitors of all existing- forms, this is intelligible ; but
how else can it be explained ?

But, again, if species do not vary, how comes it that
those living at the present day are for the most part
not to be found among the fossil creatures of the ancient
rocks ? Well, some will tell you there have been many
distinct creations, following after many catastrophes
potent to destroy all the previous inhabitants of the
globe. Well, I will answer, if you rest on Scripture,
that view has no basis in Scripture, but if you do not
rest on Scripture, it certainly has no scientific founda-
tion, for though the crust of the globe has been made
what it is almost exclusively by the action of fire and
water, the effect of any sudden convulsions has been
a mere nothing as compared with the results from the
steady, slow-going, ceaselessly-operating forces of those
two agents. Besides, when you look back through the
rocks of different ages, not only do you find some forms
the same in all, which testifies to the permanent unity
of the living creation, but in those forms which differ,
you find the differences increasing the further you go
back, and some forms you find which have no modern
representatives, forms, that is, which have been beaten
in the struggle for existence.

time like a fish, and at another time like a reptile. This is not the fact.
The fact established is, that up to a certain point the embryos of a man
and a fish continue similar, and that then differences begin to appear
and increase — the one embryo approaching more and more towards the
form of a fish ; the other diverging from it more and more. And so
with the resemblances to the more advanced types.' — Principles of
t, vol. i. p. 143.

DARWINISM. 21

Travel over the globe, and every country will present
you with some new species; distant rivers, distant
islands, in the ocean shallows separated by great deeps,
the opposite sides of a continent, the twin sides of a
mountain chain, the foot, the spur, the knee, the breast,
the snow-clad head of an Alpine range, will all present
you with their own peculiar forms of life. And how
came they there? Created, some will say, in those
regions and for those regions, because of their special
adaptation to them. Yet, since the globe has been
inhabited, vast tracts of it have changed their climates
from tropical heat to frozen gloom, and again, yielded
the thick-ribbed ice to genial suns and fragrant zephyrs.
Unhappy species, the creatures of a fixed idea, created
for the temperate meridian of Devonshire, and con-
demned by the thoughtlessness of nature, to pass their
lives in a climate like that of Nova Zembla !

But further, had each species been assigned to its
station as some suppose, by a single act of creation, is
it not reasonable, does not reverence require us to expect,
that each species would have been best oif in its own
station? But this is not the case. On the contrary,
imported species of plants and animals often thrive pro-
digiously in their new habitat, and over-run it.

Once more, we find in numberless plants and animals
rudimentary organs that are of no use to the possessors,
— mammse, that give no milk ; pistils, in male florets ;
in insects wings too small for flight, and soldered to the
wing cases ; the fifth toe in the hind-foot of the dog ;
the spur of the hen ; the wing of the Apteryx ; and the

22 DARWINISM.

stunted, ineffectual, but ever-present tail in our noble
selves.

On the old theory of creation, in face of these facts,
we cannot save the admired doctrine that nature does
nothing in vain; but on the Darwinian theory of
creation, that doctrine still holds good, and wisdom is
still justified by all her productions; for Natural Se-
lection works only for the good of a species ; it does
not work in vain, or waste its efforts in getting rid
of any organ simply because it is useless, so long as
it is not injurious ; it leaves it as it was and where it
was, a germ, a capacity, perhaps, in the future, to be
re-developed or fitted for a new purpose.

Here we have incidentally touched upon what seems
to be morally the grandest part of the whole theory, an
even sublime explanation,, as far as it goes, of that small
fraction which we see in terrestrial life of the great and
manifold works of God. We noted above that it is to
death, a necessity much hated, much maligned, that we
owe the possibility of our own birth and standing-room
on the face of the globe ; but the theory of Natural
Selection makes it further clear that the causes of death
which we most dread and think evil of — war and famine
and pestilence — are tending continually to improve the
races of living creatures. On the whole, the wisest, the
strongest, the healthiest survive to propagate their
species. In the long ran, prudence, courage, and tem-
perance prevail, and their owners become the parents
of the later generations.

When the competition for life becomes severe, as to

DARWINISM. 23

every race of creatures, man included, it does at times
become, the smallest advantageous variation will give
its possessor a superior chance of surviving, while the
smallest that is disadvantageous will diminish the
chance. Take the apposite instance of a number of
quadrupeds incapable of climbing, supported by brows-
ing on the leaves of trees during a dearth of other
suitable food. When the lower leaves within the
general reach were exhausted, the famine still con-
tinuing, those animals alone would survive which, by
some peculiarity, could reach the higher leaves. In
this way, those that could spring best, those that could
assume even a climbing posture, those endowed with
the longest legs, snouts, or necks, would be selected.
In some such a way, then, we can conceive the jumping
powers of the kangaroo and the antelope, the climbing
powers of the bear and the cat, the trunk of the elephant,
and the long neck of the giraffe to have been evolved
by natural selection. The keen scent of the hound, the
sharp eye of the lynx, the gay colours of the butterfly,
the splendid plumage of the bird of Paradise, are all
easy to account for on this principle of natural selection.
So, too, are the dull colours of many female birds, to
whom obscurity is useful in protecting their young ;
so, too, the almost blindness of the mole, which works
in the dark, and to which an instrument at once delicate
and useless, would entail the risk of positive injury.

The principle explains what no other hypothesis has
ever done, not only Nature's perfection, which, in the
hour of ease, we are ready to believe in, but what has

24 DARWINISM.

hitherto been a much greater puzzle to those who knew
of its existence, Nature's imperfection. The whole crea-
tion is in constant travail to bring forth something
better than its present best. The products of man's
reason are not, you will readily admit, always perfect,
and yet man's reason is a part of the creation, and of
nature's work. The waste of life is prodigious, if such
a term is applicable to the circumstance that often
millions of spores are produced in order that half a
dozen plants may grow; millions of eggs in the roe
of a fish, in order that the parents may be represented
by three or four individuals. The bee defends itself
by its sting, but its weapon of defence is fatal to itself.
Were a merchant habitually to send five or six million
articles of merchandize across the Atlantic on the bare
possibility that five or six articles out of the number
might reach their destination; or, were a father to
arm his son with a weapon on the presumption that
the first time he used it, it would cost him his life ;
you would think the man mad, not wise. Yet, if the
astonishing fecundity of the braken, the mushroom, and
the codfish, if the sting of the bee with its backward
serratures, be the products of direct creation, the analogy
is somewhat telling. How different, on the other hand,
must our judgment be of those contrivances, when we
trace them to the simple, primary, beneficent law of
natural selection, working always steadily for the good
of each species, and so working, that we may feel
tolerably sure that when any species dies out and dis-
appears, it has been replaced by something better. For

DARWINISM. 25

by this law, we see that fertility itself is a character
which will be selected as tending to the preservation of
a species, and that many creatures must have acquired
the power of what looks like wasteful reproduction in
the long-continued struggle for existence. We can see,
too, how in that same struggle, it may have proved ex-
pedient for a creature to be armed with a weapon capable
of inspiring terror, yet so contrived that its possessor
should, of necessity, be peaceful towards its neighbours.
True, this might have been done by a single act of
creation, but why, then, was it not done also in the case
of the mosquito, the wasp, and the hornet ?

On the theory of sudden creation, how can we account
in any but an arbitrary manner, for the innumerable
cases in which slight differences separate various species;
for the confused neutral ground between different classes,
as where, for example, a creature seems half animal half
plant ; for the isolation of many forms from the stations
they are admirably fitted to occupy; for the fact that
many creatures are hideous, weak, timid, violent, and
venomous; for the imperfection of an instinct in one
species found perfected in another, which Mr. Darwin
exemplifies by comparing the cells of the humble-bee,
the melipona domestica of Mexico, and the hive-bee,
ranging from great simplicity to an extreme perfection T ?

1 ' Origin of Species,' p. 270. Mr. Darwin shows how the hexagonal
cells of the hive-bee can have arisen from the simple cylindrical form,
by bringing the cylinders sufficiently near together, so that their out-
lines, if completed, would intersect.

The humble-bee makes separate and very irregular rounded cells.

The melipona domestica makes cells that are nearly spherical, but

26 DARWINISM.

But the principle of natural selection offers a solution
to every one of these enigmas. It embraces all the
various phases of life of the ancient world as well as the
modern, and gives a key to the whole grand uninter-
rupted plan. It carries back the mind to a period when
the earth was destitute of life ; when yet, as it were, the
thought in the Divine mind was still unspoken, that of
one, and that as good as dead, should spring seed like
the sand which is upon the sea-shore for multitude.
Then it came to pass that the dust of the earth was
called into life by the Life- Giver, and received the
strange command and the mysterious power to multiply,
and to replenish the earth. As soon as living creatures
multiplied to any great extent, they would spread them-
selves into different lands and seas and climates; they
would find different sources of nourishment, and then
variation would come into play, and close upon variation
would follow selection, not of necessity destroying the
old forms, but establishing new ones, because in some
stations the form that had not varied might thrive best,
in others the variety would have an advantage1. As
time went on, through the constant changes that the
surface of the globe is undergoing, one variety would be
isolated from another, and in such an isolation the
differences would increase. And the more a species

too near together for the spheres to be complete, flat walls of wax being
built where they tend to intersect.

A little extra regularity, advantageous for the saving of wax and
labour, would produce the symmetrical comb of the hive-bee with its
two layers of hexagonal prisms.

1 See 'Principles of Biology,' vol. i. pp. 428-431.

DARWINISM. 27

varied, the more fitted it might become for some habitat^
from which it was completely cut off by a chain of
mountains, a rapid river, or a deep sea. As the com-
petition became more intense, variations would become
more and more valuable, enabling creatures to occupy
positions before untenable, ocean-depths, sandy shores,
holes in rocks, fresh-water lakes, tops of mountains,
branches of trees, the bodies of other living beings.
Some would be taught by necessity and enabled by
favourable variations to prey, as well as take up their
abode, on other creatures. And as the strife became
more and more urgent, all sorts of qualities that from
our point of view may seem noxious and degrading
might prove of the highest service and advantage to
their own possessors. Plants with sharp thorns and
envenomed hairs, poisonous snakes, trichinae and other
parasites horrible to man, would find their advantage
at our cost, or by unparalleled fertility would defy all
efforts to extirpate them. Some species would profit by
minuteness, others by size; others, in various ways, by
talons, beak, thread-like tongue, prehensile tail, or furry
coat ; and, just as men are said to go through fire and
water for the sake of money, so for the sake of preserva-
tion, no habit, no locality would be too uncongenial for
a species to develope adaptation thereunto. And, accord-
ingly, we find that the water-ouzel, which is a species of
thrush, subsists entirely by diving ; there is a tree-
climbing lobster in the Mauritius; there are fishes
which ramble about on the land, and one fish, the

28 DARWINISM.

anabas scandens, can climb eight or ten feet up the
trunk of a palm1.

The choice of food, the choice of habitation, the
construction of dwelling-places for themselves or their
offspring, methods of defence, methods of attack, are
variously carried out by myriads of species. The pro-
cesses employed, in man we call for the most part
rational ; in the lower animals we call them instinctive ;
but there are processes employed for these self-same
objects by vegetables as well as by men. For plants,
in one sense stationary, travel towards water by their
roots, towards light by their branches ; they assimilate
the elements of nutriment that suit them, rejecting
others. The Sensitive plant shrinks from the touch,
Venus's fly-trap closes round unwary insects and de-
stroys them. Tendrils fasten on the supports that are
offered them. Trees keep in their delicate blossoms
till the weather is genial. Many a corolla folds care-
fully round stamens and pistils when the chilly twilight
approaches.

Pass from proceedings like these to the swimming
movements of a beheaded Dytiscus 2, and other reflex
actions in animals, to the food-seeking movements of the
tentaculse of the Hydra or fresh-water Polype, which

1 ' Origin of Species,' p. 213 ; ' Principles of Biology,' vol. i. pp. 392,
394. The walking-fishes of India and the mud-fishes of Ceylon and
New Zealand are described in an interesting article by Dr. Day of
Torquay, in 'All the Year Round' for June nth, 1870. Dr. Day
seems to think the climbing powers of the anabas scandens less satis-
factorily attested than other attributes of these extraordinary groups.

2 Carpenter, 'Animal Physiology,' chap. 14.

DARWINISM. 29

hover doubtfully between reflex and instinctive action :
go forward through the innumerable gradations of in-
stinct till you come, for instance, to the spider, weaving
its symmetrical web, rushing out of its lair to seize the
prey when the web is shaken lightly, but keeping itself
close from a too dangerous foe when the web is vehe-
mently shaken. Examine the nest of the Mygale (the
trap-door spider) lined with silken tapestry, furnished
with a door on a silken hinge, which it covers above
with materials like the surrounding soil, and holds from
beneath against an intruder, by applying its claws to
the most advantageous point, the point most distant
from the hinge : consider the little Sylvia Sutoria, or
tailor-bird, which draws filaments of cotton from the
cotton-plant, and sews leaves together with its beak
and feet to form a nest ; go to the huts and river-dams
of the beaver ; attend a conclave of rooks judging an
offender ; look into the hive of the hive-bee ; observe
the conscious vanity of the peacock; preach liberty to
the slave-making ants; watch the sagacious ways of
dogs and horses ; and then lastly see if it be possible
to resist the conclusion that, were all forms that ever
existed, from the earliest geological times to our own,
present before us in the order of their genealogies, we
should see them to be the members of a single family,
now, indeed, immensely divergent, yet all united by
some affinity or affinities, whether dimly or conspicu-
ously shown.

How strangely men and beasts are united by simi-
larity of blood and fibre !. How strangely fishes, birds,

30 DARWINISM.

and mammals by the likeness of the vertebrate skeleton !
How strangely plants and animals by the phenomena
of generation, not only in the union of the sexes, but
also in (agamogenesis) or asexual reproduction ! Need
we wonder at community of origin between a coral and
a cactus, a whale and a sloth, a wolf and a Shylock,
when we find that a lady's silken tresses, the bristles
of a boar, the quill of the porcupine, the feathers of
the owl, and the horns of the buffalo, are parallel and
specifically interchangeable developments ?

Consider the vine, with its stem, branches, twigs,
roots, rootlets, leaves, tendrils, and the luscious grapes
of the ripe cluster. From one seed sprang all of these.
On the bough of an orange tree there live and grow
together leaf and petiole, flower and fruit, the green
unripe fruit, the yellow and the golden-ripe. All these
from one seed. Yet there is no jealousy among them.
No one disowns a kindred origin for the root of the
tree and its golden fruit, utterly unlike as these are,
but, like so many other utterly unlike things in this
world, sprung from the same germ. •

To have produced and accumulated the vast diver-
gences that now exist, a lapse of time, indeed, must be
conceded, unmeasured and perhaps immeasurable; but
this lapse of time is precisely what geology, independ-
ently of Darwinism, has already demanded. As the
Scriptures speak of the earth as immoveable, because
so it is in reference to the senses of man, they speak
also of the everlasting mountains, and with them the
rocks are a type of the eternal : compared with the

DARWINISM. 31

life of man these expressions are truthful and well-
chosen, but they do not mean to say the rocks are
as eternal as God, nor yet everlasting compared with
the existence of the globe. It may have taken ten
thousand centuries to rear up a mountain, and yet, if
we reckon the age of the globe on the scale of a man's
life, the mountain be but of yesterday.

The immense antiquity, not only of the globe, but of
that thin crust of it open to our inspection, has been
ascertained by geology. Geology, again, has made it
certain that during millions of years, changes on the
earth's surface have been in continual progress, so that
not once merely, but many times over, continents and
oceans must have yielded to one another, yet by no
sudden, but ever by a gradual transposition, such as is
in constant progress at the present day.

Seeing that the dwelling-place of living creatures
is thus continually and continuously changing, how
clumsy an arrangement it would have been had the
forms of life been made constant, instead of being
endowed, as they clearly have been, with a wonderful
power of adaptation. The question, be it remembered,
is not for a moment whether God has made the uni-
verse, but how He has made that portion of it which
He has enabled us to see and examine. Nor yet, to
be thoroughly accurate, is it in question how He has
worked, but how He has been pleased to exhibit His
operations to the reasoning minds of men. What is
worthy of God we cannot indeed judge. We can only
believe that the things which are, stand worthiest of

33 DARWINISM.

His wisdom and goodness, whatever faults may seem
in them to our rashly-judging short-sightedness. But
comparing theories of creation according to human
notions, is it a nobler conception that God should
have made successively groups of beings to fill the
world, and then swept them away to make room for
others nearly like them ; each time, as it were, im-
proving on His first idea, and so arguing the imper-
fection of what had gone before by the very improve-
ment of what followed ; or that, foreseeing the perfect
types from the beginning, He should have called into
existence seeds of life capable, under the laws He gave
them, of rising in successive generations through count-
less ages, to endowments of the noblest order, to a
conscious life, to a reasoning faculty, to a moral sense,
to a knowledge of God? In such an origin there is
for man no degradation, since the lowliness of his
parentage has ever been traced back to the dust of
the ground ; and the lowest form of life is higher in
our imaginations than the dull brute earth. Indeed,
if we desire to exalt our self-appreciation, whether is
it grander for us to have been the work of an instant,
or to have been elaborated with Divine care through
millions of ages ? Will not any miracle in our behalf,
however stupendous, seem more credible on the latter
than on the former supposition? When we see what
Development has already done for the human species,
we can the more readily imagine what, under the same
Lawgiver, it may do in the future for the individuals
of our race. When we find it possible or probable

DARWINISM. 33

that our own bodies contain resemblances to ancestors
enormously remote in time, simply because they con-
tain atoms from the bodies of those very ancestors
living again in ourselves, we can understand how in
a future, whether near or enormously remote, atoms
from the very body of the man that dies may be
called into a renewed existence, and clothed again with
all that is necessary to personal identity, though haply
more transformed and higher raised above the old self,
than would be an orang-outang or a naked savage,
were either of these enabled to combine the chivalric
courtesy of Sir Philip Sydney with the genius of
Sophocles and Shakespeare.

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD1.

DARWINISM implies almost throughout that no uni-
versal Deluge has drowned our globe, either within the
last ten thousand years, or even within a period in-
definitely longer. Let us speak with due respect of the
contrary belief. It seems to rest upon the testimony of
a Volume the most precious in the world. It was taken
for granted till a few years back as much in science as
in religion. For a while, the arguments that began to
be raised against it were met by counter-arguments so
plausible, and the objectors differed so widely among
themselves, that unscientific opinion had a kind of right
and prudence in adhering to that which had been taught
for centuries, and was still taught without deviation in
nursery, and school, and pulpit.

We should have asserted a better right and shown a
higher prudence, had we waited, in a matter which
concerned science full as much as it concerned religion,

1 The design of this Essay was not, as has been erroneously supposed,
to disprove the universality of the Deluge by help of Darwinism, but to
remove one great obstacle to the general acceptance of Darwinism by
disproving the universality of the Deluge. Taking the Theory of
Development for granted, a recent universal Deluge would be too
obviously impossible to need arguing against.

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 35

till, by learning facts and weighing arguments, we had
become able to form an opinion no longer unscientific,
or, at the very least, to appreciate the difficulties in-
volved in the ancient belief.

We are forced to take a controversy of this kind as it
stands; otherwise, there is a simple principle which
ought to make all controversy on the subject needless.
All authors ^endowed with common sense, let alone
divine inspiration, use language which their intended
readers may be expected to understand, and language
appropriate to the scope and design of their writings.
Unless, therefore, we suppose that the Old Testament
writers proposed to teach natural science to the Hebrew
nation, we ought to expect from them what we actually
find : as to natural phenomena, past and present, they
use the language not of far-advanced knowledge and
minute particular research, but simply the language
current in their own day and nation.

But, setting aside the general principle, in the present
instance there is a second possibility of quashing the
controversy, if it can be shown or made probable that
the author, whose narrative is in question, never meant
to imply that which for thousands of years has been
held to be his meaning.

The whole point at issue is the universality of the
Noachian Deluge, and the narrative has been thought
to be uncompromising in its declarations that all the
earth, to the very mountain-tops, was indeed enveloped
in water, and, excepting the handful rescued in the ark,
that all men and cattle and creeping things and fowls of

D 2

36 THE NOACHIAN FLOOD.

the air were inexorably destroyed. But to this view of
the narrative there is more than one objection upon the
very surface of the narrative itself. And, by way of
preface, let it be remarked how vague arid indefinite is
the use in ordinary language of such terms as f all' and
* every' and ' universal.' For instance, if a popular lady
gives a kettledrum, we say, ' all the world was at it/
although 500 persons could not have been squeezed into
the rooms without being suffocated ; or we say, ' so and
so is a thing which every school-boy knows,' when we
only mean that a good many lads of a particular age, in
a particular rank of life, and belonging to one particular
country, have most probably been taught it. And again
we say, * smoking is universal with the Dutch/ without
implying that every baby in Holland has a pipe instead
of a rattle. You are not to suppose that this is a view
of language invented for the occasion, frivolously ex-
plaining grave and sacred composition by the trivialities
of common speech. On the contrary, it is precisely to
the unquestioned prevalence of such phraseology, in all
but the most exact scientific writing, that the late Dr.
M'Caul appealed, and appealed successfully, against more
than one of the objections to the authority of the Pen-
tateuch, which were raised some time ago by the well-
known and ingenious arithmetician who presides over
the see of Natal. When we read that ' there went out
a decree from Caasar Augustus that all the world should
be taxed : and all went to be taxed, every one into his
own city/ are we to infer either that the clever practical
Roman decreed the taxation of barbarians over whom he

THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD. 37

had not the faintest shadow of control, or that every
Israelite, without exception, found and visited his an-
cestral home in Palestine — merchants from Gades and
Ophir and Tarshish, slaves and prisoners, sucking
children, bed-ridden old men, dying sufferers? "We
shall not, if we are wise, shut up either Caesar Augustus
or the Evangelist St. Luke to so preposterous a meaning.
In this and ten thousand other instances, our general
knowledge of the attendant circumstances, or what we
call 'the nature of the case/ supplies the necessary
exceptions. To have them all drawn out in detail would
be tedious and troublesome. Suppose a glorious comet
is about to make its appearance, and some astronomer
publicly advises every one to be on the look-out for it on
a certain night, how ridiculous would he appear if he
made express exception of persons on the other side of
the globe, of persons immured in dungeons, of persons
not yet born, of persons who were blind, of persons who
were dead ! Yet an author, writing some three or four
thousand years back, and borrowing perhaps from
picture-records, certainly from the traditions, however
delivered, of an age long anterior to his own, when
language was far less ample and precise than it has
since become, is treated as though every word must
bear the full and exact force which it would have in a
carefully- written treatise upon logic in the present day.
We may assume that the author either had sound and
accurate information in the ordinary course of human
tradition, or else that he was endowed with a super-
human knowledge of the historical events in question.

38 THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD.

But, on either assumption, what conceivable warrant
have we for imagining that he was deprived of common
sense ? Either he knew the contradictions which natural
science offers to the belief in a recent universal deluge,

O •*

or he did not know them. If he knew them, we may
infer from his silence that his narrative was not open to
those contradictions ; in other words, that the deluge of
which he speaks was not universal. If he did not know
them, his ignorance points to the same conclusion :
otherwise, we shall have a divine miracle, intended for
the warning and the benefit of the human race, yet so
contrived that all its most surprising circumstances
should be absolutely unknown to one half of mankind,
and as absolutely incredible to the other half.

The historical account informs up that 'the waters
prevailed exceedingly upon the earth ; and all the high
hills that were under the whole heaven were covered.
Fifteen cubits upwards did the waters prevail ; and the
mountains were covered.' But Europe possesses moun-
tains rising to a height of more than 10,000 cubits or
15,000 feet — one peak in Asia is 29,000 feet above the
level of the sea — so that, on the common interpretation,
the waters of the flood must have risen to a thickness
above the ordinary sea-level of nearly 30,000 feet over
the whole of the globe. But, on this supposition, the
narrative is not only bewildering and morally impossible,
but positively untruthful, for it declares the physical
means employed in the production of the flood to be the
fountains of the great deep and the rain from heaven —
means entirely sufficient to produce a partial flood over

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 39

a limited area, but utterly and ludicrously inadequate to
produce a total deluge enveloping 'all the high hills
under the whole heaven/ The notion is self-contra-
dictory that the ocean can be employed to raise its own
level, or that its general height can be increased by the
rain which it is its own part to supply. Nor is there
any indication afforded that a supernatural supply of
water was added to our planet, to the extent of several
hundred millions of cubic miles of liquid, which would
have been required for the purpose of drowning the
Caucasus and the Alps and Teneriffe and Popocatapetl
and Chimilari. We must consider also the difficulty of
breathing, and the intense cold that would have been
experienced at that stupendous altitude. There is the
old question of space in the ark; there is the old ques-
tion of the food-supply, sufficient and appropriate, to be
stored and sorted for its various occupants, carnivorous
and herbivorous, beasts of prey, carrion-birds, and am-
phibious monsters. But what are these compared with
the question how life could be sustained in the bitter
freezing atmosphere, thousands of feet above the line of
perpetual snow, by creatures accustomed to the lowlands
of the tropics ? Supposing, however, the atmosphere to
have been completely warmed by the rise of the ocean,
or even if the air within the ark was kept warm by its
enormous crowd of denizens, we are confronted by a new
difficulty, one that might seem laughable and improper
to mention but for its vast and pressing importance in
our own days, thwarting the physician, perplexing the
statesman, baffling the chemist and the engineer. To

40 THE NOACHIAN FLOOD.

this supposed epitome of the world's inhabitants, shut up
for months within the ark, who were the scavengers ?

But suppose every one of these problems to be solved
by a miracle, although of such miracles not a hint is
given, there still remains the statement to be dealt with,
that ' God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the
waters assuaged.' Surely this, if nothing else, is con-
clusive that the writer had all along been describing a
local and partial deluge upon which a wind could have
some sensible effect, not an universal flood wrapping all
the mountains of the globe in water, in which case the
mightiest wind that ever was, or could be dreamed of,
could only have laid bare the surface of the land by
piling up great hills and precipices of water upon the
ocean.

When we wish to expose the miracles of a false
religion or of a superstitious aberrant creed, we point
out, as the case may be, that they are frivolous, useless,
unmeaning, devoid of adequate motive, the end achieved
and the means employed bearing no reasonable propor-
tion ; or we show that the testimony in their favour is
inconsistent with itself, or that the consequences which
should have flowed from the miracle, had it been gen-
uine, are certainly wanting, unless, to bolster up one
extreme improbability, a hundred others are invented
and swallowed. To every one of these imputations the
common theory of the Noachian Deluge lies open. But
concede a few grains of common sense to the narrator ;
read his narrative in the spirit in which such a person
must have written it ; remember that he is not writing

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 41

a scientific treatise, nor using the phraseology of modern
Europe ; bear in mind that he is speaking in an idiom
110 longer or now but seldom used, yet a just and noble
idiom, which ascribes to God all that is done upon
earth, whether good or evil, the works of man and the
common processes of nature, as well as things super-
human and miraculous ; and, with these considerations
before us, we shall save the venerable record from every
imputation, either of folly or of falsehood.

That which we have described to us is a vast penal
catastrophe sweeping away some great centre of civili-
zation by means of a terrible inundation. Along some
ocean-border the far-stretching plains were dotted
thickly with towns and villages. There were fields
waving with corn ; the vine and the olive, the orange
and the palm abounded; there were cattle feeding in
green pastures beside the still waters ; there were popu-
lous tribes and nations carrying on all the business and
revelry of life ; they bought, they sold, they builded,
they planted, they were marrying and giving in mar-
riage, when suddenly the fountains of the great deep
were broken up, and the earthquake wave rolled in upon
them, and swept all the beauty and the glory and the
sin remorselessly away. At the same time, the angry
heavens were overcast, and the floodgates of the clouds
poured down their volumes of ceaselessly-descending
rain. The distant mountains were torn from the sight ;
nay, every high hill under the whole heaven was itself
covered and enfolded in a liquid veil, for every rill was
now a torrent, every tiny silver thread of a cascade now

43 THE NOACHIAN FLOOD.

a dark unbroken avalanche of waters. One family alone,
alone obedient to the warning which all had received,
were saved amidst this universal ruin, and took with
them into the ark of their refuge specimens of every
bird and beast and creeping thing that their own
country produced, and that was in any way serviceable
to man. When cloud and mist had rolled away from
the mountain-tops, when the face of the ground was
once more dry — with these creatures they stocked their
new settlement. The well-watered plain was speedily
replenished ; the vine nourished ; the cattle brought
forth abundantly ; the children of the patriarch multi-
plied rapidly and spread far and wide over their rich and
undisputed inheritance.

Such is the narrative as it glimmers through the haze
of forty centuries, only told in the original with unri-
valled simplicity and force, grander than any description
by forbearing to describe, told as one would tell it, who
in that convulsion of nature had lost kindred, friends
and countrymen, as one who had seen the whole world,
so far as he knew it or cared for it, foundering in the
waves, and yet had lived on through all the unutterable
calamity to see himself once more surrounded by fruitful
fields and smiling homesteads, and all that might make
what was to him emphatically a new world the counter-
part of the old.

Some may permit themselves for a moment to set
aside the limitation we have suggested to the number of
animals in the ark as fanciful and unwarranted. It will
be proper therefore to draw out the consequences attach-

THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD. 43

ing to the old opinion. We find from the words of the
narrative, that the patriarch Noah was intrusted with the
task of collection. To achieve it, then, he must have
gone in person, or sent expeditions, to Australia for the
kangaroo and the wombat, to the frozen North for the
Polar bear, to Africa for the gorilla and the chimpanzee;
the hippopotamus of the Nile, the elk, the bison, the dodo,
the apteryx, the emeu and the cassowary must have been
brought together by vast efforts from distant quarters.
The patriarch or his agents must have been endowed
with a supernatural knowledge of natural history far
surpassing Solomon's or that of our own times, that they
might properly distinguish varieties and species, so that
no species might be omitted and none represented by
more than one variety. To accomplish this with the
minutest insects, they must have been provided with
powerful microscopes. Every portion of the dry land of the
globe must have been accessible to them ; every jungle,
cavern, and ravine. The little islands that lose them-
selves in mid-ocean must all have been ransacked; the
search, too, that might not neglect any acre of ground
in all the continents of the world, would be distracted
with the most varied and incongruous pursuits. Sheep,
game, caterpillars, beasts of prey, snails, eagles, fleas and
titmice, must all have their share of attention. Unusual
pains must be employed to secure them uninjured. They
must be fed and cared for during a journey, perhaps, of
thousands of miles, till they reach the ark ; they must
be hindered from devouring one another while the search
is continued for rats and bats and vipers and toads and

44 THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD.

scorpions, and other animals which a patriarch, specially
singled out as just and upright and a lover of peace,
would naturally wish and naturally be selected to trans-
mit as a boon to his favoured descendants.

It might be asked how, with the supernatural know-
ledge requisite for collecting all the terrestrial animals
of the globe,, and the unique opportunity for observation
afforded by a residence of some months with them in
the ark, no more scientific classification was arrived at
than that into birds and beasts and creeping things ?
But letting this pass, or scattering it and other objec-
tions to the winds by inventing a miracle to explain the
gathering together of the animals, we shall then have to
give some account of their re-distribution. Instead of
worrying ourselves with the problem, shall we at once
solve it by asserting that they were miraculously re-
transferred to the habitations from which they came?
This will be a highly satisfactory plan, if only it will
stop the mouths of those inquisitive persons who never
know when they are beaten in an argument. But one
cavil may easily be foreseen, requiring a new miracle to
satisfy it; for many of the animals must either have
been miraculously supplied with provisions, or miracu-
lously enabled to do without them ; or else, to take a
single instance, two spiders would have been limited to
a couple of flies, and when the flies had become ex-
tinct, because devoured by the spiders, the spiders also
would have become extinct through having no more
flies to devour ; and thus their preservation in the
ark, at the expense of a great many unrecorded and

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 45

highly improbable miracles, would have been utterly
useless.

Suppose, however, that they were spread over the
earth again by the slow process of natural distribution.
Certain perplexities, indeed, may have arisen when they
first issued from the ark, when the cobra and the rattle-
snake, the hungry wolf and the relentless tiger were let
loose upon the impoverished world and its defenceless
inhabitants. For at that conjuncture to have destroyed
even one cruel and venomous beast might have blotted
out a whole species. It is surely a little remarkable
that ravenous beasts and birds of prey should have been
limited, even while in the ark, to feeding upon animals
in a ceremonial or ecclesiastical sense clean ; but if, after
they had left the ark, and had once more to provide for
themselves, the wily panther and the treacherous hyena
must be imagined debating before every meal whether
their victim belonged to the sevens of the clean or the
couples of the unclean animals, shall we not turn in pity
and vexation from any view that involves and admits
so monstrous a supposition ?

But we will concede that every creature bore a
charmed life, that it might not perish by famine or
violence till it had propagated its kind. We should
then expect to observe that species had distributed
themselves over the globe in lines either tortuous or
direct, single or branching, broad or narrow, but all
diverging from a common centre. Yet nothing of the
kind is found. On the contrary, the species of the new
world differ from those of the old, the species of one

45 THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD.

continent from those of another1. The marsupials of
Australia and Polynesia are generically distinct from all
other animals on the globe except the opossum. The
elephant of Africa is not the same species as the elephant
of India : so with the lion, so with the rhinoceros. The
apes and bahoons of the old world are nowhere to be
found in America, nor the American monkeys anywhere
in the old world. In Madagascar, separated from Africa
by less than the breadth of England, all the species ex-
cept one, and nearly all the genera, are peculiar2. Every-
where species are found limited in their range by natural
barriers, such as climate, rivers, mountains, oceans. Are
we to suppose that the prisoners could scramble into
their prisons, and then suddenly became incapable of
scrambling out again ? Everywhere, as a rule, this
range is consistent with the hypothesis of an origin
central to the range, inconsistent with that of an origin
distant from it. Where, as on mountain ranges, we find,
contrary to the general rule, the same species in differ-
ent localities, the migration from the door of the ark
loses all semblance of probability, unless we are pleased
to imagine that creatures, now without the instinct of
migration, for a long time possessed it, and roamed
about the world through many a sultry plain to pick
out a hill-side here and there with a temperature suited
to their constitutions. But the exceptional phenome-
non, otherwise so hard to account for, Darwin has ad-
mirably explained, by pointing out that species adapted

1 Lyell, 'Principles of Geology,' ii. 332. 2 Ibid. ii. 344.

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 47

to a low temperature would naturally have occupied
lowlands in the Glacial Period, from which, as the cold
gradually grew less and less intense, they would as
naturally have retired, some of- them northwards, others
to the cool heights of various mountains.

That there was a Glacial Period, when great icebergs
travelled over England, a period geologically as but
of yesterday, though enormously more remote than any
historical dates, is now beyond all question. Equally
beyond question is it that countless ages and genera-
tions of living beings on the earth preceded that Glacial
Period. And, added to this, we find that there are forms
of life just where they would have been left by the effect
of that period, had there been an unbroken succession
from that time to this, and just where it is most unlikely
they should be found, had they been forced to travel to
those habitations from the door of the ark within the
practically insignificant period of 4300 years.

But still further, we may compare the world of life
before the Flood with the world of life since. And here
surely it needs not the genius of Darwin or Lyell or
Owen to perceive the conclusiveness of the argument
which their genius has pointed out and enforced. For
instance, where the marsupials now live, there lived
marsupials in ages long before Noah, as the fossil
remains testify. The fossils are fossil marsupials, but
marsupials of species now extinct. So that the ' door of
the ark' theory requires us to believe that the marsupials
found their way to Australia, leaving no traces of their
route on land, crossing seas which they never subse-

48 THE NOACHIAN FLOOD.

quently recrossed, and planting themselves precisely in
that region which other marsupials, generically the same
but specifically different, had occupied before them.

We are to believe this of countless other species in all
parts of the world. "We are to believe that they slowly
and in many generations worked their way back to
these quasi-ancestral homes, and yet neglected to occupy
vast tracts equally or even better adapted to their wants.
We must believe also that some of the fleetest, strong-
est, and most sagacious animals, as the horse and the
elephant, failed to trace out the abodes of their ancient
representatives, since America, when discovered a few
years ago, possessed these quadrupeds only in fossil and
in no living species *.

There is indeed one animal, whose powers of con-
trivance would account for its distribution over the
globe, even supposing it to have begun with a single
family, not more than 4300 years ago, and to have
ranged from a single centre. Man is that animal. Yet,
if all the other facts that bear on the universality of the
Noachian Deluge were in an agreement with it as entire
as their irreconcilability is utter and complete, still the
circumstances of the human race alone would disable us
from believing that the Flood of Noah's epoch extended
over all the globe. With other animals it might be
advanced that the different species and main varieties
had been represented in the ark and were thence dis-
seminated; but in the case of man we are precluded
from such an explanatory device by the express terms

1 Lyell, ii. 336.

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 49

of the diluvian record. If the Noachian Flood was
universal, then from Noah alone must be descended all
the races of man now upon the earth : all the great and
curious variations they display must have been evolved,
not in countless generations as Darwinism supposes, but
in some two or three hundred or less. From Noah alone
must have sprung within a mere handful of centuries
races so widely unlike one another as Greeks and
Negroes, Jews and Egyptians, Saxons and Ojibbeways,
Caffirs and Hottentots, Fuegians and Patagonians, Cali-
fornians and Chinese, Arabs and Esquimaux. In the
same archipelago we have the Malay, the Papuan, and
the dwarf snub-nosed Negrito. To give the contrast
between the two former in the words of Mr. Wallace1: —
' The Malay is of short stature, brown-skinned, straight-
haired, beardless, and smooth-bodied. The Papuan is
taller, is black -skinned, frizzly- haired, bearded, and
hairy-bodied. The former is broad-faced, has a small
nose, and flat eyebrows ; the latter is long-faced, has a
large and prominent nose, and projecting eyebrows.
The Malay is bashful, cold, undemonstrative, and quiet ;
the Papuan is bold, impetuous, excitable, and noisy. The
former is grave, and seldom laughs ; the latter is joyous
and laughter-loving, — the one conceals his emotions, the
other displays them.' Such is the description and con-
trast of two types of mankind geographically separated
from one another by an interval of not more than 300
miles ; yet the line which separates these two races of
the human family is almost exactly coincident with that

1 ' The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. p. 448.
E

50 THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD.

deep-sea line which forms the boundary between two
great zoological provinces. Either, then, in these two
distinct but neighbouring localities, the whole multitude
of species, man included, must have been undergoing
variation simultaneously for tens of thousands of years,
or else the differences in the whole multitude, man
included, must have been already established, or nearly
so, when first they stepped forth in singular procession
from the door of the ark. But the former alternative,
which is the Darwinian, is consistent with the record of
the Noachian Flood in implying that the inundation
was only partial ; while the latter alternative contradicts
the record in an essential point on which it is perfectly
explicit, by necessitating the presence in the ark of more
than one human family.

As long as we are content to speak of 4000 years
or so, some one might be tempted to fancy, however
erroneously, that such a period would be adequate to
produce the existing varieties of mankind, because there
is some evidence of comparatively rapid changes of colour
having taken place under the influence of climate, and
because a new type of features appears to be forming
itself with a noticeable progress under the absolutely
unique circumstances which have governed the recent
colonization of North America. Unique those circum-
stances are, because never before has there been so much
mingling of the blood of different nations and races in
a new and unoccupied field, with much to stimulate and
nothing to curb or repress variation. Never before have
men's minds and bodies in every faculty been so taxed

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 51

and strained to activity by the very superabundance of
their resources, the virgin soil of a new country, an
inherited civilization, enormous and ever -enlarging
facilities for doing, for living, moving, and learning —
facilities sometimes that cannot be declined or escaped
from, though they ' fret the pigmy body to decay, and
o'er-inform the tenement of clay.'

But, in truth, there is no question of 4000 years in
the matter ; for there were black people in the time of
Herodotus and in the time of Solomon. Already in the
time of Moses there existed a race in Palestine so differ-
ent from the Israelites, that the first Hebrew explorers
were daunted by the sight of them, although, in fact,
they were looking on a race no longer in its prime, but
one that was dying out. Egyptian monuments, dating
back to the same period and earlier, give representations
of Africans, Asiatics, and Europeans, with their physical
characteristics then as now unmistakeably distinct ; they
portray the Negro as the Negro still is both in colour
and in features1.

If it took only 800 years, then, which is the interval
between the Flood and the birth of Moses, to originate
and establish types so distinct as Jews, Egyptians,
Negroes, and Anakim, all gathered together in a little
corner of the world, might not Nature, having done
so much in so short a time for the highest animal, do a
little more in a longer time for lower animals, and
so supply that origin of species by variation for which

1 ' Genesis of the Earth and of Man,' p. 117 ; quoted in Sir J. Lub-
bock's ' Prehistoric Times/ p. 314.

E 2,

52 THE NOACH1AN FLOOD.

Mr. Darwin contends? Would not the obvious infer-
ence be that Nature had done so, if it were not fancied
that such an origin of species was still more repugnant
to the Book of Genesis than even a limitation of the
area covered by the Flood ? But the Darwinian theory,
happily for itself, is not dependent upon any supposition
so incredible as one which would warrant us in expect-
ing among the descendants, for example, of William the
Conqueror, people as little like one another as John Bull
and John Chinaman, Uncle Sambo and the last of the
Mohicans. There are circumstances of immense weight
to convince us that certain marked divisions of mankind
originated in the regions which they are now occupying.
There are other circumstances preponderating for the
common origin of mankind. Darwinism has at length
shown how these phenomena can be reconciled, by
simply connecting the history of man with that vast
duration of life upon the globe which geological science
has unveiled. The likenesses among races of men
demand a common parentage for all those races ; the
unlikenesses can only be accounted for on the view
of an isolation immensely protracted of one race from
another. Thus the primary origin is common to all;
the secondary origin is peculiar to each : but now that
the primary origin has been proved to be so vastly
more remote than was once supposed, the secondary
origin recedes of itself into a far distant past, to give
time for differences to arise and develope, since, if
the actually existing unlikenesses were only skin-deep,
instead of affecting, as they do, the bones of the

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 53

skeleton and the whole fibre of the mind, they would
still be too great to admit a common derivation of the
whole human family from the patriarch Noah.

What Geology teaches to demonstration is, that all
parts of the dry land have been not once only but many
times under the waters of the ocean ; but it teaches like-
wise to demonstration that at least for many and many
an age, almost beyond our powers of conceiving duration
of time, there has been no total submergence of the land.
That interchange of lake and sea with isle and continent
which is now going on under our eyes, has been going
on for ages innumerable. By this and kindred means
human beings, like all kinds of animals and all kinds
of plants, have at intervals experienced severance into
groups and isolation. Thus has mankind been broken
up into distinct families, at first with no line of demar-
cation except the geographical, but gradually in suc-
cessive generations becoming more and more unlike in
manners, morals, language, features, intelligence, and
civilization. But since the era of the Noachian Deluge
neither has there been time for Nature, with her slow
though certain processes, to effect so great a recon-
struction of barriers as to break up the human family,
if till then continuous and united ; nor, if there had been
time for the geographical severance, would there have
been time for the constitutional changes.

Among the ancients some believed that the sun, moon,
and stars were in reality about the size which they
appear to the unassisted eyesight; others supposed the
vault of the sky to be a revolving dome of solid crystal

54 THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD.

pierced with little holes through which men saw in
starry shapes the fire of the ethereal region beyond it.
Persons with such ideas of space and physical science
might not readily have accepted on the moment the
Copernican system of astronomy. In the same way
persons with a narrow and limited view of the duration
of time may find a difficulty in receiving arguments
based on or implying the enormous extent of it, which
all sciences are now combining to demonstrate. But
this mental incapacity, the result of false education and
early prejudice, may be defied to resist any real investi-
gation of the facts or study of what has been written
upon them. Let any man of mature mind and average
intellect read through Sir John Lubbock's ' Prehistoric
Times,' Mr. Darwin's ' Origin of Species,' and Sir
Charles Lyell's 'Principles of Geology/ and retain if
he can the opinion that our globe was first peopled
about 6000 years ago, and subsequently all but de-
populated by an universal Flood. Let him see, indeed,
whether he can read Sir Charles Lyell's account of the
progress of opinion and controversy on these subjects
and refrain from blushing. He will recognize in that
account a turmoil and clamour of fools and philosophers,
of laymen and divines. He will have to set to the credit
of intelligent humanity and enlightened Christendom a
long tissue of pious frauds, Jesuitical defences, arguments
based on imaginary facts, and facts perverted by imagi-
nation, till he comes down to the present time and finds
a great multitude of all classes at length agreed in
affirming that life has endured on the globe with

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 55

unbroken continuity through, a past as yet unfathomable.
His own mind, he will perceive, has actually reached
maturity without having admitted the voice of this
multitude, although, to apply almost literally the words
of his great Master, ' If these should hold their peace,
the stones would cry out1.'

The world and its wonders are of no mushroom growth,
although even the mushroom, which is commonly sup-
posed to spring up in a single night, requires a much
longer period, often many weeks, for its production2.
The Book of Genesis itself most clearly warns any care-
ful reader against attempting to build a chronology upon
the brief memoranda of names and dates which for other
reasons are inserted in it. For, taking them simply as
they stand, Shem, the son of Noah, is represented as
long surviving the birth of Isaac, while Abraham, the
father of Isaac, appears as the contemporary of a vast
number of different and strange tribes and nations —
Egyptians, Philistines, Canaan ites, Syrians, and many
more, besides the Chaldeans from among whom he
came. To find a parallel to all this, we should imagine
our own Edward III, instead of dying in 1377 as ne
did, living on and on to the present day, a forgotten old
man, not noticed in the page of history throughout 500
eventful years, during which the whole of Europe was
becoming peopled with descendants of himself and his

1 A religious and supremely orthodox poet of the last century en-
quires, 'Where is the dust that has not been alive ?' — Young, 'Night
Thoughts,' Night IX, 1. 87.

2 ' Mushrooms and Toadstools.' — Worthington G. Smith, p. 17.

5^ THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD.

father, men speaking languages mutually unintelligible,
holding creeds mutually abhorrent, with strange diver-
sities in dress, manners and government, and some pre-
vented by national custom from even eating at the same
table with guests of another neighbouring and kindred
tribe. In vain should we search through history for any
actual parallel, for any instance of developments so ex-
traordinary, and estrangements so complete, occurring
within a space of only 500 years. If all the nations
spoken of as contemporary with Abraham were only 500
years distant from the Flood, as the Book of Genesis
shows them to have been, we may be certain that they
could trace back their lineage, independently of Noah
and his family, far beyond the era of the Deluge. The
monumental evidence of Egyptian chronology carries us
back to a Pharaoh reigning some three or four hundred
years before that date1. The Book of Genesis introduces
us to another Pharaoh reigning some 400 years after it.
Are we to set aside the monumental evidence, and make
this later Pharaoh a descendant of Noah, reigning as a
powerful monarch, while Abraham, the rightful heir of
a patriarchal monarchy over all the earth, was nothing
but a wandering shepherd ? Religion, morals, civiliza-
tion, as far as we know anything about them in those
ages, whether we regard their advancement in some
quarters or their decay in others, all protest against
having their progress cramped into those four or five
hundred years. They protest against being ascribed
with all their conspicuous diversities to the offspring of
1 ' Genesis of the Earth and of Man,' pp. 113, 114.

THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD. 57

one man, whose son, grandson, great-grandson and
great -great -grandson, Shem, Arphaxad, Salah, and
Eber, were actually still living during all these sup-
posed revolutions1.

Indeed, if we go back from our 400 to our 4000 years,
the protests on these points are almost equally forcible.
In the matter of language, estimate how many genera-
tions must have passed away before the children of a
common parent came to vary in speech as much as
Chinese, Russians, Englishmen, and clucking Hotten-
tots. Form some estimate of the time required for the
rise and growth of civilization, not only in the old-world
centres of Nineveh and Babylon and Egyptian Thebes,
but in the separate and independent centres of Mexico
and Peru. Explain, moreover, what, on the hypothesis
of a common Noachian descent, must be called the rise
and growth of barbarism. Show, if it be possible, how,
amidst the rapid strides of civilization, side by side with
the advancement of taste, literature, and science, the
descendants of Noah in some cases degenerated from all
culture, sank away from all morality, lost all religion,
forgot all useful arts, even those most essential to the
lowest degree of comfort, the kindling of fire, the use of
metals, the construction of dwellings, while they learned
the habits and acquired something more than the inno-
cent shamelessness of brutes — learned to prefer the flesh
of their own species to any other, learned to make a
duty in some regions of putting their parents to death,

1 Genesis, chap. xi.

58 THE NOACHIAN FLOOD.

in others, of eating their dead bodies1. Such customs
we have on record four centuries before Christ, such
customs on record as existing nineteen centuries after.
Will any one attempt to persuade us that the savages of
Andaman and the Feejee Islands are cousins, through an
ancestor no more remote than Noah, of Chatham and
Wilberforce, and Lesseps and Brunei ?

Traditions of a Deluge, it is true, are found almost
everywhere. The reason doubtless is that almost every-
where some tremendous calamity of this description has
at one time or another occurred. Inundations on a small
scale are common and frequent, but on a scale great
enough to surprise the imagination and become tradi-
tional in the memories of a people, they would naturally
be rare and infrequent in the extreme, so that the fact of
such an experience belonging to the history of so many
different races, is but another proof, or at least another
indication, of the antiquity of man. If stress is to be
laid on the points of similarity between the traditions,
as proving that every land has been ravaged by the
waters of a flood, equal stress may in fairness be laid on
the points of difference, as proving that not one common
universal Deluge is spoken of, but many separate and
partial floods, distinct in time, in place, and in results.
If stress again is to be laid on the tradition because it
is common to so many tribes, let equal importance be
granted to the traditions of time among the Chaldeans
and the Egyptians, the Chinese and the Hindus, who

1 Sir John Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' pp. 338, 346, 452 ; Hero-
dotus, iv. 26.

THE NO A CHI AN FLOOD. 59

reckon the years of their uninterrupted histories by tens
of thousands *.

Finally, we may ask, where are the traces of so tre-
mendous and unparalleled a convulsion as one that could
wrap the whole world in water, and hold all its dsedal
beauty for many months in that drowned condition, till
a tempest still more furious and unparalleled drave
heaven and earth, the clouds and ocean, once more
asunder? We know how the little trilobite in the
Devonian seas behaved in its hour of peril millions of
years back ; we know what food men ate long ages
before the Flood, what weapons they used, what houses
they built, what animals they tamed ; but what became
of man and beast and bird and forest in the supposed
universal Deluge, no one knows. The signs and natural
monuments of the catastrophe, which should have been
visible or discoverable on every side, can nowhere be
ascertained, — things that the waters should have swept
away or torn down they have left undisturbed, shell-
mounds and glacier moraines and boulderstones on the
mountain-side; while the great museum of the dead
which they should have formed, one would think, over
all the earth, to constitute one striking and indisputable
geological date, as well as a world-wide monument of
religion, is nowhere to be found.

What became of flower and herb, of creatures that
live between the zones of high and low water, of mollusk
and coral and fish that require an appropriate depth and
a fitting temperature in their liquid homes, it will be

1 See Mill's 'History of British India,' book ii. eh. i, and notes.

60 THE NOACHIAN FLOOD.

useless to speculate, if, after all that has been urged
upon other points, there are some who still think that
the description in Genesis is the description of a Flood
that prevailed over all the world, and intend still to
believe in such a Flood, and to teach it as a part of
religious doctrine, notwithstanding any argument or
scientific proof to the contrary. For them we can do no
more than commend to their daily reflection a few lines
from the lives of two famous men : — ' In spite/ says
Dr. Wilson, ' alike of the science and the devout religious
spirit of Columbus, the Salamanca divines pronounced
the idea of the earth's spherical form heterodox, and
a belief in antipodes incompatible with the historical
traditions of our faith : since to assert that there were
inhabited lands on the opposite side of the globe would
be to maintain that there were nations not descended
from Adam, it being impossible for them to have passed
the intervening ocean. This would therefore be to dis-
credit the Bible, which expressly declares that all men
are descended from one common parent1/ And thus
another author describes a well-known incident in the
life of Galileo : — ' Clad in a penitent's sackcloth, the
mighty, self-relying philosopher and genius fell upon his
knees, and, with his hands laid on the Holy Evangelists,
declared that he abjured, detested, and would never
again teach, the doctrine of the sun's stability and the
earth's motion. Having confirmed his oath in writing,
and promised to perform the enjoined penance, he rose
from his knees a pardoned man ; and turning about
1 ' Prehistoric Man/ Dr. Daniel Wilson, p. 101.

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 6 1

to one of his friends, stamped on the ground, and pro-
nounced in an emphatic whisper, " Eppure si muove V'
— but still it does move.'

As the antipodes exist, as the earth goes round the
sun, and as the Bible continues to be true, in spite of
the theologians and inquisitors at Salamanca and at
Rome, so will it continue to be true and full of truth,
when at length it shall be acknowledged, as it will be,
that there is nothing universal about the Noachian
Deluge except the disbelief in its universality.

1 ' The Daughter of Galileo,' by the author of « Mary Powell,' p. 283.

INSTINCT AND EEASON.

AN initial probability has been established by Mr.
Darwin and Mr. Wallace that the reason or mind of
man, as well as his body, has attained its present com-
plete excellence through gradual development. No one
denies that, between a man's birth and his prime of life,
time is required for the intellectual powers to unfold ;
but it demands an effort which few have as yet made to
see in this progression of the individual mind a com-
pendious history of the indefinitely slow process by
which the human mind itself has been formed, passing
upward, step by step, from simple vitality, dawning
consciousness, the various grades of so-called instinct,
to the full capacities of the most enlightened reason.

The theory of development or evolution has excited
immense opposition and distrust, because of its obvious
application to the human body. Its application to the
human mind, which, though less obvious at the first
glance, almost inevitably follows, seems to have inspired
Mr. Wallace himself with alarm. He winds up the
admirable series of essays in which he supports the
theory under discussion with one that earnestly pro-
pounds ' the limits of natural selection as applied to
man.' His arguments on this subject are drawn from

INSTINCT AND REASON. 63

physical science, though his mind is evidently, and even
confessedly, swayed throughout by other than physical
considerations. He represents, in fact, and endeavours
to reconcile to his own scientific views, the weight of
popular prejudice which has hitherto condemned those
views with some vehemence of opposition.

The sentiment in question amounts to this, that cer-
tain powers or faculties of the human mind are so
wonderful and so unique, that they could not have
originated in the ordinary processes of nature without
some special intervention. Antecedents conforming to
the usual observed order in other living productions are
not sufficiently magnificent for the soul of man. Some-
thing sudden, something mysterious, is demanded in the
agency of its creation. It must be like Pallas Athene,
springing from the brain of Zeus, a goddess fully armed
from her birth in the panoply of wisdom and virtue.
Yet the whole feeling thus to be described of what is fit
and worthy must be accredited, as we desire to show,
simply to prejudice. Nothing can really depend for its
intrinsic grandeur upon our knowledge or ignorance
of its origin. A single cause instantaneously producing
its effect does not make the result in any way more
admirable or magnificent than the like result coming at
the close of an indefinitely extended chain of causation.
Feelings of surprise and wonder are excited when we
find that ten thousand copies of the Times newspaper
can be printed within a single hour ; but the same
feelings move us in the granite-yards of Scotland, when
we learn that many months are required for cutting

64 INSTINCT AND REASON.

through a single block. At the first proposal of rail-
ways^ a pace of twenty or five-and-twenty miles an hour
was thought too wonderful for belief; while now, from
familiarity with far higher rates of speed, we think it
miserably slow. A child is surprised to learn that the
light of the sun requires time to reach the eye ; but a
new and even greater surprise is aroused by the infor-
mation that the time so required is only a few minutes
for ninety millions of miles. The swiftness of thought
is proverbial. A single act of thought is commonly
supposed to be absolutely instantaneous ; and yet pre-
sence of mind, which depends on rapidity of thought, is
fully recognized as an uncommon quality, while it has
now been ascertained by experiment that every thought
requires a definite, and in many cases measurable, length
of time for its production and exercise. Following the
analogy of these illustrations, we may expect that the
popular opinion or prejudice as to the instantaneous
creation of the human mind will vanish and subside
when men become familiar with the idea of its slow
development. It will at least be seen that there is no
special dignity and grandeur in the supposed suddenness
of its introduction into the universe. The general scheme
of nature, so far as we can penetrate its working, seems
to show that there is some proportion observed between
the time spent in producing and the perfection of the
thing produced. Religion itself is an unquestionable
witness to this method of procedure. There is no .great
religion of which the adherents claim to have had it
revealed to them from the first in its full perfection.

INSTINCT AND REASON. 65

What is true of religion, is true of all arts and sciences.
Their progress has been gradual. The greatness of na-
tions, even when it seems to blaze forth in history most
suddenly, ever finds its true origin in numerous steps of
slow preparation. A hardy, frugal tribe of warriors is
nursed in some obscure mountain cradle. The struggle
for existence fosters their preservative virtues. A line
of rulers is evoked, forced by the circumstances of their
tenure to acquire, as their leading qualities, cunning,
prudence, self-control, fertility of resource, promptitude
of action, till at length the hour and the man coincide,
and a handful of barbarians give their name to a great
empire. The same rule prevails with languages, and the
literatures that adorn them. So fully is this established
in regard to literature, that men who examine the sub-
ject deeply are almost led to disbelieve in originality of
genius altogether, from the invariable indebtedness of
the noblest authors to the thoughts and imaginings
of earlier minds. There is, therefore, no antecedent
improbability that can fairly be pleaded against the
gradual development of the human mind. On the
contrary, every possible analogy is in its favour. A
supposition so favoured becomes at least a lawful and
reasonable subject of enquiry. If it be true that the
theory of evolution applies to the mind of man, we
should expect to find in that mind itself traces of the
earlier steps, or grades of development, through which
it has passed, and also in the world around creatures
lower than humanity in some sort representing those
earlier stages of slowly unfolding reason. In other

66 INSTINCT AND REASON.

words, we should expect to find in human nature itself
those very inequalities, that very conflict of the higher
and the lower elements on which moralists so urgently
insist, and we should expect to find affinities and
resemblances, more or less close, pervading the whole
animal creation, and exhibiting human reason and brute
intelligence as, upon a broad view, one in kind, however
different in degree.

The first requisite for intelligence is the possession
of memory. Without this faculty, intelligence is im-
possible ; but, on the other hand, memory that does not
subserve some sort of intelligence, is a useless faculty ;
and in this the old theory of creation agrees with the
new, that nothing obtains a footing in the world with-
out a use. It may be urged, that the human memory
is incomparably superior to that of the lower animals ;
but there are surprising differences in the powers of
memory among human beings, and the effects of culti-
vation, with the facilities for that cultivation supplied
by language, should be taken into account. It is im-
portant to observe also, that with brutes, as with men,
some individuals are quicker than others ; that the
memory of brutes, like our own, can be improved by
training ; and that its powers are not equally distributed
to all classes. The dog, the horse, the parrot, the
elephant, are probably not further below mankind in
the faculty of memory, than they are superior in it to
the oyster and the jelly-fish.

To make the most of humanity, without introducing
the question of man's material form and structure, one

INSTINCT AND REASON. 6j

would naturally insist upon his docility or power of
being taught ; upon his versatility or power of adapting
various means to the same or various ends ; upon his
moral nature, embracing the different passions and affec-
tions, and the knowledge of good and evil ; and, lastly,
no doubt, one would be inclined and one would have
a right to insist on the grandeur of his aspirations. A
crafty rhetorician would perhaps dwell on the collective
value of these endowments, and then exhibit them,
separately, rising to their height and fulness in men
like Archimedes, and Chrysostom, and Dante. He
would dare us to trace back the mental ancestry of
these true heroes to apes and fishes. Yet the reason,
piety, and imagination of such men, are themselves
developed between childhood and maturity; their very
pre-eminence shows that improvement in such qualities
is possible from one generation to another, and that
therefore meanness of origin needs only to be coupled
with remoteness in time to reconcile the supremacy of
man's intelligence with its ultimate derivation from the
lowest powers of consciousness.

Mr. Wallace has pointed out very clearly and conclu-
sively the fallacious character of the evidence on which
the old theory of instinct was founded. Starting with
the notion that wild animals had none of that docility
and versatility which man possesses through his reason-
ing powers, yet seeing them produce effects like those
which man produces by the help of teachers or his own
choice of means, we inferred the existence of as many
separate faculties as there are kinds of animals. Each

68 INSTINCT AND REASON.

of these faculties was thought to resemble reason about
as much as a jack-in-the-box resembles a man. The
faculty came into exercise in one invariable way without
any choice on its owner's part, just as the jack starts up,
whether he will or no, when his lid is taken off. We
wondered at the admirable contrivance and design by
which these very limited faculties were adapted in each
case to the wants and preservation of the species to
which they belonged. At times, it is true, with some
inconsistency, we permitted ourselves to upbraid the
goose with its stupidity ; to speak of the sheep as silly,
and the ostrich as wanting intelligence; we even ex-
punged the dodo, with its self-preserving instinct, from
the face of the earth ; but in spite of these slips and
mischances, we still kept gaping and wondering at our
own explanation of things, and calling it an excessively
wise and ingenious contrivance that every species of
animal should have a separate faculty to itself, when one
and the same faculty for them all would not only do just
as well, but a great deal better. We were far from
perceiving how strong a support to Materialism our
theory involved, since if the lower animals without
reason produce effects like those of reason, then effects
like those of reason in a number of cases beyond cal-
culation must be the result of bodily structure. It
might not follow that the effects of reason itself were
the results of bodily structure, but it would become
startlingly probable.

The history of domesticated animals is a continuous
proof that some at least of the lower creatures are

INSTINCT AND REASON. 69

capable of learning, and how learning can be achieved
without intelligence has never yet been explained, and
is never likely to be. But Mr. Wallace points out that
we have made a gratuitous assumption,, unsupported by
evidence, in supposing birds, for example, to build their
nests by instinct rather than by following the example
and instruction of their parents. Many things, he
remarks, which we ourselves are said to do instinctively,
such as putting out our hands to save ourselves from
falling, are acquired habits, not instinctive actions, and
in fact not possessed by infants. Mr. Darwin 1 tells us
of a species of ant which behaves differently towards its
slaves in England and in Switzerland respectively. In
his memorable account of the busy bee, he shows that
some species of bees are less clever at their work than
others, and that the accuracy even of the most advanced
cell-makers has been overrated. This is the more
worthy to be noted, because the same persons who are
extremely zealous to set forth reason as superior in kind
to what they call instinct, are yet often eager to extol
the effects of the lower faculty above those of the
higher. An interesting account has recently been given
of baboons in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good
Hope combining to pursue, and after a chase of two
days and a night, successfully destroying a leopard
which had invaded their haunts. Two tribes of baboons
in the same locality, the occupants of separate rocky
strongholds, are described as upon one occasion meeting
in battle, the result being, that nearly a hundred

1 ' Origin of Species,' p. 268.

7O INSTINCT AND REASON.

were afterwards found dead or dying on the scene of
action1. The shape of the creature, and the combina-
tion for warlike purposes, which carries with it such a
tinge of humanity/ can scarcely fail to affect the ima-
gination. Yet these isolated instances must be far less
telling than the comparison which Mr. Wallace has so
ingeniously instituted between man as a builder and
birds in the same capacity. The shelter of the savage
is in many cases a less finished contrivance than the
nest which the bird prepares for its young. The
featherless biped, like the feathered one, takes the
materials readiest to its digits. Generations upon ge-
nerations follow one another without improvement or
signs of inventive skill. Even in the days of enlight-
enment, and in nations which pride themselves most
upon it, the human nest is repeatedly constructed with-
out the smallest attention to comfort, health, or beauty.
Men, whose fathers before them have built long rows
of red-brick boxes to live in, build, by instinct if you
will, for it can scarcely be by reason, more lengthening
chains of red-brick boxes. There is no reason, indeed,
for supposing that the bird consults any principle of
beauty in the construction of its nest, but a principle of
expedience some birds certainly do consult ; the orchard
oriole, for example, building its nest shallow or deep,
according as it is placed among firm and stiff branches,
or suspended from the slender wind -swayed twigs of
the weeping -willow 2. The fact that birds build in

1 ' Good Words for the Young,' June 1870. Animal Defences. By
A. W. Drayson.

2 Wallace, 'Essays on Natural Selection,' p. 227.

INSTINCT AND REASON. 71

human habitations, and make use of human manufac-
tures, is a proof that they are capable of choice both as
to locality and materials. The often-observed circum-
stance, that animals in a newly-discovered country are
without fear of man, — a fear which they speedily acquire
from experience of his mischievous propensities, — is a
clear proof that they are capable of learning caution.
It cannot be pretended that a caution which thus only
comes in conjunction with experience is instinctive, or
anything- else than the result of observation, and there-
fore a sign of intelligent judgment. The lower animals,
then, can learn prudence ; can profit by experience. In
the training of domesticated animals, the same motives
of pleasure and pain are applied, and applied effectually,
as are used in the education of human beings by parents
and schoolmasters and lawgivers. This could not be if
the groundwork of the moral nature were not the same
in man and the lower animals. Addison was inclined
to hold the old opinion, that ' God himself is the soul of
brutes,' Deus est anima brutorum. ' One would wonder,'
he says, ' to hear sceptical men disputing for the reason
of animals, and telling us it is only our pride and preju-
dices that will not allow them the use of that faculty1.'
And yet his charming essays upon the natural history of
animals, in which he took so keen a personal pleasure,
with very little alteration, might be read as arguments
in defence of the opinion he thus condemns. He re-
marks that birds, which ordinarily drive away their
young as soon as they are able to get their own liveli-

1 ' The Spectator/ No. 120.

72 INSTINCT AND REASON.

hood, nevertheless continue to feed them if they are tied
to the nest, or confined within a cage, or by any other
means appear to he out of a condition of supplying their
own necessities. He observes, that the brood-hen will
leave her eggs longer in summer than in winter, because
in summer they will cool less speedily. But apart from
the ingenuity necessary for the propagation of the spe-
cies, he considers the same bird to be a very idiot, with-
out the least glimmering of thought or common sense,
mistaking a piece of chalk for an egg, and sitting upon
it as though it were one, insensible of an increase or
diminution in the number of those she lays, not distin-
guishing between her own and those of another species ;
and when the birth appears of never so different a bird,
cherishing it for her own.

It is curious that we should abuse the hen for being
now and then deceived by our impostures, considering
the immense quantities of counterfeit coin we ourselves
accept as currency, and the strange compounds of chalk
and mud and alum and poisonous herbs and minerals
which, according to the analysts, we contentedly swal-
low down as milk and butter, bread and beer. But the
hen in a wild state is not subject to our impositions, and
possibly the domestic hen finds it better for herself to
overlook them. At any rate, as the mistakes concern
her progeny, if her conduct is other than beneficial, it is
an argument against the perfection of instinct, which it
tends to bring down to the level of imperfect human
reason. It is commonly supposed that ducklings take
to the water by instinct. And Addison tells us that on

INSTINCT AND REASON. 73

one occasion, as he was walking in the yard of his
friend's country-house, he 'was wonderfully pleased to
see the different workings of instinct in a hen followed
by a brood of ducks. The young, upon the sight of
a pond, immediately ran into it ; while the step-mother,
with all imaginable anxiety, hovered about the borders
of it, to call them out of an element that appeared to
her so dangerous and destructive1.' In order to test the
real force of nature in this matter, as distinct from ex-
perience and education, I ventured on the experiment of
placing some little orphan ducklings, which had been
reared away from any pond, in a shallow bath of water
just deep enough for them to swim in. The experiment
was two or three times repeated, but in each case with
a sort of impiety, or, at any rate, gross disrespect to-
wards the grand principle of instinct, the ducklings,
instead of enjoying themselves in their appropriate
element, made the most violent and unceasing efforts
to escape from it. The whole theory of instinct, indeed,
probably rests on a multitude of evidences which have
themselves been taken for granted. At every point
minute observation, or actual questioning of the facts
asserted, undermines it. Addison himself must have
begun to waver, before he inserted in the numbers of
the ' Guardian 2' the French philosopher's account of the
ant, and its wonderful ingenuity and perseverance.
Nor are passages wanting in his works, which might
have been expressly written in support of the theory
of development. After commenting on the various

1 ' Spectator,' No. xai. 2 Nos. 156, 157.

74 INSTINCT AND REASON.

insensible gradations of perceptive being-, ' If we look/
he says, * into the several inward perfections of cunning
and sagacity, or what we generally call instinct, we
find them rising after the same manner, imperceptibly
one above another, and receiving additional improve-
ments, according to the species in which they are im-
planted. This progress in nature is so very gradual,
that the most perfect of an inferior species comes very
near to the most imperfect of that which is immediately
above it.' Again : ' The whole chasm in nature, from
a plant to a man, is filled up with divers kinds of
creatures, rising one over another, by such a gentle and
easy ascent, that the little transitions and deviations
from one species to another are almost insensible ; ' and
he quotes with approbation a passage from Locke, in
which we read, ' There are some brutes that seem to
have as much knowledge and reason as some that are
called men1.' Pope, who pursues much the same track
in his ' Essay on Man,' permits himself to speak of ' the
half-reasoning elephant.' Any one who doubts the
appropriateness of such an epithet, not only to the
elephant but to many other animals, should begin to
study the ways and doings of the lower creatures with
an eye to this very question, — at every turn asking
himself how the action observed can be accounted for
by a blind irrational instinct. A stumbling horse, for
example, that is generally beaten for stumbling, starts
after a false step before the lash is applied. How ridi-
culous will it be to ascribe to horses an instinct of

1 'Spectator,' No. 519.

INSTINCT AND REASON. 75

starting after stumbling- — a conditional instinct, that
appears only in those horses that have been pre-
viously beaten when they stumbled ! We need not
suppose, as Lord Bacon appears to have done, that
' dogs know the dog-killer ' by a kind of power of
divination1. By their watchful habits, and quick in-
ference from acute observation of the few particulars
they are able to comprehend, it can scarcely be doubted
that dogs learn something of the dispositions and in-
tentions of mankind, recognize their humours, and
distinguish those who are friendly to themselves from
those who are hostile.

Numberless writers have noticed the different dis-
positions of the lower animals, differing not merely in
separate species, but in various individuals of the same.
There has been no scruple in taking the brutes them-
selves as types and emblems of moral qualities. Almost
every vice and virtue has been unsparingly assigned to
one or other of the brute creation. They are brave
or cowardly, savage and treacherous, gentle and gene-
rous, industrious, idle, obedient, wayward, affectionate,
malicious, working always for the common good, or full
of rapacity and selfishness. It is likely enough that we
often misapply these epithets, and call that courage
which is only consciousness of strength, and that malig-
nant ferocity which is really a hungry stomach and a

1 'Natural History,' § 985. ' It is a common experience that dogs
know the dog-killer ; when, as in times of infection, some petty fellow
is sent out to kill the dogs ; and that though they have never seen him
before, yet they will all come forth, and bark and fly at him.'

76 INSTINCT AND REASON.

badly-furnished larder; for such mistakes we commit
also in judging of our fellow-men. But there are many
beautiful instances on record in which dumb creatures
have shown themselves capable beyond question of faith-
ful friendship, and therefore as possessing at least the
beginnings, if not any high advancement, of a moral
nature. None perhaps is more beautiful than that told
by Henry Brookes, a writer of the last century, about
one of the lions in the Tower of London. A little
spaniel picked up in the streets was thrown into the
cage of the largest of these beasts, called for his size
the king's lion. ' Immediately the little animal trem-
bled, and shivered, and crouched, and threw itself on
its back, and put forth its tongue, and held up its
paws, in supplicatory attitudes, as an acknowledgment
of superior power, and praying for mercy. In the
meantime the lordly brute, instead of devouring it,
beheld it with an eye of philosophic inspection. He
turned it over with one paw, and then turned it over
with the other, and smelled to it, and seemed desirous
of courting a further acquaintance. From this day the
strictest friendship commenced between them, a friend-
ship consisting of all possible affection and tenderness on
the part of the lion, and of the utmost confidence and
boldness on the part of the dog, insomuch that he would
lay himself down to sleep, within the fangs and under
the jaws of his terrible patron.'

The sequel of the story is pathetic. To tell it briefly,
in twelve months the little spaniel sickened and died.
The lion at first supposed him to be asleep, but finding

INSTINCT AND REASON. 77

that all his efforts to awaken him were in vain, he was
filled with intense anguish, would not allow the dead
body to be removed, refused all sustenance or comfort,
spending his time between rage and grief, till after five
days of such an existence, one morning he was found
dead, with his head lovingly reclined on the carcase of
his little friend1.

Were this only a fable instead of an actual incident,
there is nothing in it revolting to our sense of prob-
ability, because we are perfectly aware that the lower
animals constantly give indications of what in ourselves
we call the moral feelings. We continually see them
behaving as we ourselves behave when we submit to
self-sacrifice for the sake of those we love.

We see many animals in possession of laws and con-
stitutions answering to our own in all but one particular,
namely, that theirs appear to be fixed while ours are
continually changing. But most likely we overrate
both the fixed character of theirs, and the instability
of our own. Changes in the politics of an oyster may
easily escape the notice of a man in the midst of some
vast revolution (as he thinks it) of human affairs, some
vast revolution which proves in the end to be nothing
more than a change of names. For mankind the ac-
quisition of language has indefinitely quickened the
movement of ideas, but where language is without the
aids of writing and printing, as among savage tribes, and
where the language itself is an imperfect instrument

1 See ' Knight's Half-Hours with the Best Authors.' No. 185 : from
'The Fool of Quality.'

78 INSTINCT AND REASON.

of thought, the same routine seems to prevail from
generation to generation. Fashion in dress changes but
slowly when the dress itself is nothing but a girdle ;
and the fashions of the mind change with as little
facility when ideas and wants, and the means of ex-
pressing the one and gratifying the other, are all
alike few and extremely simple.

So simple are the wants and ideas of the savage, so
little above those of the elephant and the ape, that
Mr. Wallace finds himself driven to the conclusion
that the savage fin his large and well-developed brain
possesses an organ quite disproportionate to his actual
requirements — an organ that seems prepared in ad-
vance, only to be fully utilized as he progresses in
civilization/ But anything quite disproportionate to its
actual place in nature cannot have been produced ac-
cording to the theory of development. This theory
therefore Mr. Wallace deems and declares inapplicable
to the brain and mind of man. In support of his
view he adduces several circumstances both of man's
bodily and mental constitution, which he considers
this theory incapable of explaining. He maintains
that natural selection will not account for those rudi-
ments of logical, moral, and aesthetic faculties which
are to be found in uncivilized man ; for the naked-
ness of the human skin, though hair upon the back
would be of essential service to the unclad savage ;
for the absence of prehensile power from the human
foot, a power which he thinks would be useful, or for
those perfections of hand and voice which he thinks

INSTINCT AND REASON. 79

would be useless, to uncultivated human beings. The
inference he draws ' from this class of phenomena is,
that a superior intelligence has guided the develop-
ment of man in a definite direction and for a special
purpose, just as man guides the development of many
animal and vegetable forms/

In this illustration he overlooks the circumstance
that man's selection is after all nothing more nor
less than part and parcel of natural selection. In his
argument from the various uses and powers of the
hand and brain, which could have been of no service
to men in a wild state, he neglects the consideration
that what is selected through being useful in one
direction may incidentally become useful in another.
Had he employed his usual ingenuity on the question
of man's hairless skin, he might have seen the pos-
sibility of its ' selection' through its superior beauty
or the health attaching to superior cleanliness. At
any rate it is surprising that he should picture to
himself a superior intelligence plucking the hair from
the backs of savage men, (to whom according to his
own account it would have been useful and beneficial)
in order that the descendants of the poor shorn wretches
might, after many deaths from cold and damp, in the
course of many generations take to tailoring and dab-
bling in bricks and mortar. In regard to the voice
he makes an assertion which is surely impossible for
himself or any one else to prove, namely, that { savages
certainly never choose their wives for fine voices.' But
upon this assertion the whole of his argument about

80 INSTINCT AND REASON.

the voice depends. And as for the stress which he
lays upon the rudimentary moral and aesthetic facul-
ties of savages, we have shown that numbers of other
animals likewise have rudimentary moral faculties,
while Mr. Wallace himself makes it probable that
many have a taste for colour1, and that { their powers
of vision and their faculties of perception and emo-
tion must be essentially of the same nature as our
own2/

Truly in one sense every variation is prepared in
advance, only to be fully utilized in the future pro-
gress of the creature that varies. Every variation,
I doubt not, is so prepared in advance by a superior
intelligence, but under the general laws which that
intelligence has ordained, and not by a special inter-
ference. The real progress of each creature, within
the spheres at least of consciousness and intelligence,
would seem to consist in its growing capacity for
perceiving and understanding, for entering into fel-
lowship with, beings superior to itself. In mental
powers the dog- and the horse become more and more
like man, the closer and the more continuous the inter-
course. Could they learn our language or we theirs,
the progress might be indefinitely hastened. In the
general progress onwards and upwards, man, it may
be believed, then first became the indisputable lord
and chief over his fellow animals, when his reason
had so far advanced that he could comprehend the

1 'Essays on Natural Selection/ p. 248. 2 Ibid. p. 128.

INSTINCT AND REASON. 8 1

idea of God, when his reason had grown into a capa-
city of hearing the divine voice, which since then,
not by interference with physical conditions, but by
intercourse of mind with mind, has led him forward
step by step from darkness into twilight, from the
twilight is still leading him forward, as his eyes be-
come able to bear it, towards the beauty of the rosy-
fingered dawn ; and just as those of the lower animals
are considered the most intelligent which make the
most successful efforts at intercourse with man and
at serving him, so, by a true analogy, may the phi-
losopher deem those men and those races of men to
be furthest on the path of enlightenment who know
most of God and serve Him best.

HUMAN NATURE
AND BEUTE NATURE1.

A POOR slave, named Androcles, escaped from his
master into a sandy desert. While there a lion came
suddenly upon him, and by signs made him under-
stand that it was in an agony of pain. This the
slave was able to relieve by extracting a large thorn
from its paw and by gentle treatment of the wound.
From this time the lion shared its prey with the
man, till Androcles, pining for human society, and
facing even death to regain it, at length gave himself
up to his master. It so happened that the slave was
sent to Rome to be exposed to wild beasts at the

1 This Essay was originally prepared as a sermon for Trinity
Sunday. For the text were quoted the well-known words of i Peter
ii. 1 6, ' The dumb ass, speaking with man's voice, forbad the mad-
ness of the prophet.' The design was to show that some of the
most unpopular novelties in scientific opinion bore no necessary
antagonism to the deepest mysteries of Christian doctrine. In re-
gard to such an attempt it is perhaps needless to add that the
kindliness of the design was not fully appreciated by those for
whose benefit it was intended.

HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE. 83

same time that the very lion which he had hefriended
was sent thither, among many others, to supply the
cruel sports of the amphitheatre. The moment came
when Androcles was to he torn in pieces. A huge
famished lion rushed forth in fury upon him ; then
paused, crept gently towards him, and ended by
fawning upon him with caressing movements. It was
the lion lie had known in the desert.

This is no fable, but a piece of well-known history ;
and the sequel is equally well-known, that the ap-
plause and admiration of all beholders at this won-
derful instance of fraternity between man and beast,
at this marvellous exemplification of the powers of
memory and gratitude in a wild animal, secured the
lives both of slave and lion.

Had this been recorded in the Hebrew Scriptures,
in that noble and reverent phraseology which so often
leaves out of sight all secondary causes as by com-
parison insignificant, and ascribes all that is good and
wonderful directly to God, there can be little doubt
that it would have borne a striking resemblance to
the miracles wrought in favour of Elijah and Daniel ;
when for the one God commanded the ravens to feed
him, and the ravens brought him bread and flesh in
the morning and bread and flesh in the evening ; and
for the other God sent his angel and stopped the
mouths of the lions even in their den, and they did
him no hurt. Explain these miracles as you will, and
the kindred one quoted by St. Peter, or accept them
all without explanation as occurrences out of the

G I

84 HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE.

course of nature and beyond our comprehension, it
still follows from the language of the sacred writers
that they at least supposed these brute creatures
capable of intelligence, an intelligence sufficient to
receive the divine commands and to avoid, so far as
they might, opposition to God's will. For how else
could there be any moral teaching in the circumstance
that ' the dumb ass speaking with man's voice forbad
the madness of the prophet ? ' How else can the mi-
racle seem anything else or anything better than a
piece of puerile conjuring ? But this faculty, which
the sacred writers therefore attribute to the brutes,
the faculty of hearing and obeying the voice of God,
is the basis of the highest intelligence, the basis of
all true morality and religion.

That which we are now concerned to prove is, that
human reason is an outgrowth and development of a
faculty common to the whole animal creation; that
we are the heirs of the past in fact, as we are inheri-
tors of the future in hope ; that an incalculable mul-
titude of small advantages acquired in successive
generations has brought man to his present vantage-
ground of superiority ; and that this very footing of
advantage has now become in its turn simply the
starting - point for future improvement to an estate
indefinitely higher and better. It may well be im-
possible in a few minutes' discourse to do more than
indicate the bare outline of the proof; and even this
might seem inappropriate to the time and place, did
we not hope to show further that these opinions,

HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE. 85

startling or even dangerous as they may seem to
some, give support to high principles of humanity,
and are in accordance with the course and progress
of God's revelation of Himself to mankind.

It is well established that the human body in all its
parts corresponds to the structure of certain of the lower
animals. When first discovered this was extremely
shocking to the sentiments of mankind, shocking to
their pride, but shocking also to their religious senti-
ment, because they had been accustomed to speak of
the ' human form divine,' to represent the supreme God,
f Jehovah, Jove, or Lord,' as wearing the form and
acting with the members of a man, and because in the
writings sacred alike to the Jew and to the Christian,
they found it written that ' God created man in His
own image ; in the image of God created He him.'
They did not stop to enquire what sort of creation
was intended or what sort of likeness. They failed to
observe that the vague indefinite notion they entertained
of a bodily likeness was inconsistent with the Christian's
cardinal doctrine of the Incarnation, according to which
it is not man that wears the form of God, but God that
took upon him the form of man.

It will now for a time perhaps seem equally shocking
that the mind of man, which alone is left him for the
divine resemblance, should notwithstanding have been
developed from the mind of a brute creature, or if not
developed, at any rate framed upon the same type and
pattern.

A broad line has till lately been drawn between reason

86 HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE.

and instinct, instinct appearing in a large number of
instances to do or even to surpass the work of reason,
but within an exceedingly limited sphere, and according
to a fixed invariable course. Ingenious and thoughtful
men, however, taking their opinions not from hearsay
and tradition, but founding them on careful observation
of the works and ways of God in nature itself, have now
shown the baselessness of this ancient estimate.

The bird building its nest does not follow an invari-
able rule, but accommodates itself to circumstances, to
the materials of the locality, to the requirements of
defence, as man does with his own habitations. There
is no proof that the bird builds untaught by its elders,
or that it does not improve by practice. Since wasps
have been known to construct their nest out of paper,
itself a fabric of human invention, it is impossible they
can have chosen their material by an original instinct.
The cells which various bees construct attain to various
degrees of perfection, and imperfections may be found in
the most perfect. It has indeed been a curious fancy for
men so long to entertain, that though they were created
in the image of God to have dominion over the lower
creatures, yet those creatures without reason, without
teaching, without the God-likeness, should be able to
surpass them, by a miracle or a mystery, in the accuracy
or perfection of their works.

The pursuit which man in a low state of civilization
has ever thought most noble is that of war. The
essence of war lies in the combination of forces and
the choice of opportunity. Of both these the lower

HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE. 87

animals are known to be capable. Their armies re-
semble human armies in following leaders, in posting-
sentinels, in carrying off captives, in making slaves.
Creatures that are very weak combine not unfrequently
to repel or to destroy an antagonist immensely too
strong for their individual efforts. That rooks and other
animals try, and execute justice upon, offenders against
the laws and customs of their society is probable, if it
cannot be absolutely proved.

The objection is sure to be urged that if the dumb
animals have the progressive plastic intelligence which
is thus claimed for them, it ought, in the innumerable
generations which have existed, to have attained to
something far higher than there is any pretence for
thinking it to have done. But this objection leaves
important considerations out of sight. It is true here,
as in so many cases, that to him that hath shall more
be given. The intelligence of man reached a point not
all at once but by degrees, at which it was able to
invent helps and appliances for its own benefit and
improvement, and thenceforward its strides were more
rapid and its distinction from lower intelligences more
marked. Cancel the art of printing, cancel the signs of
the alphabet, cancel the forms of articulate language,
and with each one of these steps you will thrust back
and degrade, not perhaps every single human intellect,
but certainly the whole mass and average of human
intelligence. There is no need to ask or answer the
question whether thought without language is possible :
without language thought cannot move, it has no

88 HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE.

grasp upon the world ; it may flicker for a moment in
the mind that kindles it, as a light under a bushel, but
it cannot shine before men that they may see its good-
ness and glorify their Father in heaven. We see the
proof of this in races of men that have no printed books,
no symbols for writing, and but feeble imperfect lan-
guages. Civilization is wanting to them ; their worship
is degraded ; in their habits and general morality they
rise but little above the brute creation. Moreover,
century after century they continue without making
any apparent improvement or advance. Contrast or
compare with these the lower animal creation, and it
will be found, if not in its separate members, still in
the whole group, not to fall so infinitely below
humanity as human beings have long been pleased to
imagine : for the lower animals can be taught to re-
cognize man as their superior and friend, though his
mind is beyond their comprehension, and a similar
recognition is exactly what we men have to attain to
in regard to God ; they can be taught by pleasure and
pain, motives by which we ourselves both in childhood
and in age are taught, motives by which God Himself
declares that He teaches us, if we are to believe His
word.

That they are capable of our virtues has been shown
in a notable instance ; that they are capable of our
follies is clear in the conspicuous vanity of the peacock ;
and no weakness cleaves more pertinaciously to the
human mind than this of vanity, which is often found
combined even with the noblest intellect. That they

HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE. 89

are influenced by feelings like ours may be learned from
the gay plumage of the bird of Paradise, acquired under
the same influence of the preference and admiration of
others, for which fair women wear fair raiment, and for
which the soldier, at extra risk to his life, is clad in
scarlet.

According to a principle now well known, the earlier
the period of life the greater the resemblance is likely to
be between creatures akin to one another. Hence we
may explain the phenomenon that some children, through-
out their childhood prone to causeless mischief and
stubborn resistance, become at length reasonable and
self-controlled men. As for the child, so for the brute,
a future of enlightened reason and self-control may be in
store. The largest and most generous minds are now
beginning to contemplate the possibility of an immortal
destiny for all animals whatsoever. To my own mind,
as doubtless to many of yours, such a conception has
often seemed fanciful and ridiculous, as the greatest and
best notions often do to minds that are narrow or un-
expanded by a wisdom higher than their own. So it
was that the gossips and philosophers of Athens mocked
when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, though
St. Paul was preaching only the resurrection of human
beings. To extend this belief in the resurrection to all
the animate creation is to extend our conception of the
power and the goodness of God, to make easy many
things that otherwise seem appallingly difficult in
regard to His justice and His mercy. Does it seem
a thing impossible with you that God should raise

90 HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE.

the dead ? Is the Lord's arm shortened that it cannot
save, whether it be man, or the worm that Scripture
deems his fitting emblem? Or, as the Jews were
jealous that the Gentiles should be saved, are we jealous
that for creatures which we slaughter, trample on,
enslave, and crowd out of existence, happiness and life
should yet be in store as well as for ourselves ?

Be willing to believe that language, reason, spiritual
insight, which is the reason elevated to the capacity of
knowing God — be willing to believe that these have
been gradual acquisitions to humanity, and the whole
course of God's Providence will at once stand out in
a clearer, purer light. Supposing the soul of man
thousands of years back to have been precisely what
the soul of man is now, its requirements and its
aptitudes must have been the same then as they are
to-day, so that if the doctrine of the Trinity is essential
now, it must have been essential then, when it had not
been revealed. On the same supposition, too, either the
record of God's will in the earliest portion of the Bible
is incredibly defective, or the record of it in the com-
pleted canon of Scripture must be charged with be-
wildering superfluity.

But God has not dealt so with His children. He has
given them their heavenly food as they were able to bear
it. First by allegory and parable He unfolds His will,
as a father tells his little ones the stories which they
love to hear, minding ever within the stories and by
means of the stories to present the truth, the lessons
of the beautiful and the upright. The earliest re vela-

HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE. 91

tion of God presents Him in the simplest form, the
easiest for us to understand, as the Great Patriarch of
mankind. Along with this revelation came simple
commands and prohibitions, the requirements of ex-
ternal sacrifice, the promise and warning- of temporal
rewards and punishments. The law of retaliation, an
eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, seems brutal now,
but it is the beginning of a noble education. It says
indeed, ' Do to others as they have done to you,' but
then in regard to injuries it bids you exact no more
than you have suffered, instead of taking a brutal
revenge by repaying the injury tenfold : and in regard
to benefits it bids you never forget to be grateful.
From it springs the higher and better law, of doing
to others, not as they have done to you, but as you
would have them do to you. Without these begin-
nings the human mind could never have comprehended
or received the highest education — that we are not only
to forgive but to love our enemies. The system of
material sacrifices trained men to a capability of under-
standing and of offering the sacrifice of the heart ; the
outward cleansings demanded by the law led them by
degrees to recognize the need of inward purity. By the
law came the knowledge of sin. Not till man knew that
sin was sinful could he either wish for or receive a
Saviour. Hence it was that Christ came not at the
beginning, but only in the fulness of time. The gift of
the Holy Ghost was not outpoured till men in part
were ready to receive it. That it is still bestowed with
so sparing a hand is not the fault of God's liberality,

92 HUMAN NATURE AND BRUTE NATURE.

but of our backwardness to believe in God, to commune
with Him, and thereby to grow up into His likeness.
We are the mirror in which the divine image shines, if
only the mirror can be made to receive the requisite
brightness.

To know that sin is sinful is to become conscious of
the will of God, to become conscious of a good and
perfect will to which our own ought to be conformed.
Not to know this will is to be still brutish ; to know it
only by the teaching of others is to be still among the
things of a child ; to know it of oneself, which is in
other words to know it by the teaching of the Holy
Ghost, who alone can implant the doctrine with un-
failing demonstration and enable us to receive His
discipline, — this at length is to be a man made in the
image of God. For the fear of the Lord is the begin-
ning of wisdom, and to depart from evil that is under-
standing; and to love God with all the heart and all
the understanding and all the soul and all the strength,
is the single aim as it is the crowning effort of the
highest and purest intelligence. To be able to pray to
God is the glory of reason ; to do it, is the safeguard
of life.

THE LAPSE OF THE.

THE divergence of opinion between scientific and
unscientific persons is scarcely anywhere more con-
spicuous than in their measurements of the age of
the world we live in. A popular impression still pre-
vails that the old beldame earth, as Hotspur calls it,
is about six thousand years of age. A little margin
is sometimes allowed. By an exercise of heroic liber-
ality a period of ten or twelve thousand years is oc-
casionally conceded for the earth's existence. Any
chronology discontented with these ample limits comes
within the domain of rash and dangerous speculation.
Some, indeed, who would fain conciliate all parties,
are willing to extend the bounds on certain conditions.
They will grant a large extra slice of time, provided
that during that period the earth was a shapeless un-
inhabited lump, or if inhabited, not inhabited by men.
' Come, now,' says the cheap-jack, ' I '11 tell you what
I '11 do with you ; I '11 throw you in another five
thousand years ; fifteen thousand years ! and take
the lot. What ! not do ? I '11 make it twenty thousand.

94 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

Now, I '11 tell you what I '11 do with you : I '11 make
it five -and -twenty thousand years, and if that won't
satisfy you, you aren't worth arguing with.'

What scientific men think of the cheap-jack's offer
it is the object of this essay to consider.

The problem upon which many thoughts and specu-
lations of science are for the moment converging is
the origin of life. There are some who believe that
under certain chemical conditions living creatures are
continually coming into existence, ungenerated by any
living parent, born as it were without birth, acquiring
an animated existence, with powers of motion, feeding,
and reproduction, from substances previously wanting
in one or all of these capacities ; such creatures, in
short, as, if asked for their parentage, could but answer,
each for itself, my father was an atom, and my mother
a molecule. It should be remembered that the little
animals supposed to arise in the manner described first
become visible, if at all, as the tiniest objects that
microscopes can detect. But whether there is or is
not in these days a continual coming into existence
of these infinitesimal pigmies, they are just such pro-
ductions as the Theory of Development would sup-
pose to have arisen originally, constituting the first
outburst of life upon the globe, ancestral to the noblest
forms of animated nature now extant, progenitors in
an unbroken line of man himself. As a rule, among
living things we find that offspring bear a tolerably
exact resemblance to their parents. The lower the
organism the less easy is it to distinguish specimens

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 95

of one generation from those of another ; and even
in the most highly organized creatures the points of
resemblance generally far outweigh the points of dif-
ference between the parents and their children. In
short, under ordinary circumstances, not one genera-
tion only, but a hundred, may pass away without
registering any perceptible alteration in the character
of a species. A hundred generations of mankind would
require a period of about three thousand years. A
hundred generations of less important creatures might
not perhaps require even as large a number of hours.
But between the two extremes the necessary periods
would bear a kind of ratio to the perfection of the
organism. Variations might now and then follow one
another in quick succession, and then a pause come
of a thousand generations or so before any further
changes in the character of a species.

Such are the conditions under which Mr. Darwin
and his followers believe it possible for the whole se-
quence of changes to have been effected, which have
ended in peopling the whole earth with a countless
variety of the most diverse forms of life. Many per-
sons are horrified at the notion of linking together a
man and a monkey even by the most distant ties of
consanguinity ; what will they say to a genealogy
which begins with an almost invisible speck and ends
with a Patagonian giant — a genealogy which asserts
that, through the slow process of minute changes oc-
curring for the most part at rare intervals, our fair
humanity has been developed or evolved out of creatures

96 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

which no unaided human eye could distinguish from
the dust on which we carelessly trample. To some
ears such a theory must sound wild and prepos-
terous beyond all the boundaries of sane and rational
thinking. And, in truth, no censure could be too
severe, no ridicule too keen for so extravagant a piece
of folly as this theory must be, if the old and still
prevailing notions about the age of the world have
any foundation in fact. It only begins to be reason-
able, if we can afford to stretch our notions of history
from the narrow margin of six thousand to the broader
field of six hundred thousand years, with an indefi-
nite past in the background.

This vast lapse of time, as commensurate with the
existence of the inhabited globe, is essential to the
Theory of Development. It must be established, as
it has been, by independent evidence of its own, be-
fore it can give to that theory its absolutely necessary
support. But the Theory of Development in its turn
helps the mind to believe and realize this enormous
lapse of time, with its seemingly never-ending march
and flow, rank upon rank, wave upon wave, by find-
ing work and employment for all its almost measure-
less duration. It explains, as it were, why the drama
of life still goes on, why the play was not long ago
played out, and the curtain let fall upon all the busy
multitudinous actors.

Time of itself does nothing ; but nothing can be done
without time. It is not a personal agent, but a neces-
sary condition. We cannot even think, much less rea-

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 97

son, of things as occurring out of time and independently
of it, any more than we can think or reason of matter as
existing independent of space. Every occurrence takes
time : and yet we may not leap from this fact to the
conclusion that a countless multitude of occurrences will
re'quire a vast duration of time. Professor Tyndal, in
his Lecture on the Scientific Use of the Imagination,
refers to waves of light less than 3^^-^ of an inch in
length. How many do you suppose of such waves
would be required to compass a mile ? How many to
accomplish the 185,000 miles which light travels in a
second ? Each undulation is a separate occurrence, so
that we have millions of millions of occurrences follow-
ing one upon another in a second of time. In studying,
therefore, the complete fabric of the globe, or even of
the whole material universe as far as it comes within
our ken, the problem for solution is not whether these
great results could or could not have been brought to
pass in an indefinitely short space of time, in the twink-
ling of an eye, as one might say, but whether the space
of time employed in their production has actually and
in fact been indefinitely short or indefinitely long. We
ought also to bear in mind that the terms we use when
we speak of long and short, are relative not absolute —
relative to the duration of our own lives, or to some
other arbitrary standard which we are pleased to set up
for purposes of comparison. Thus a year is long com-
pared with a minute, but short compared with a millen-
nium ; a thousand years would be an enormous length

H

98 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

for the life of a mortal man, but compared with the
ceaseless flow of ages, which we call eternity, this same
thousand years becomes, as it were, an imperceptible
speck, less than a drop of water compared to the
Atlantic, a point of time so inconceivably minute, that
no human mind could grasp it as an intelligible unit of
measurement. For time, we have an inexhaustible past
on which to draw. Against any given theory of pro-
duction, no objection pure and simple that the theory
makes too large a demand upon time, can be maintained.
An objection, to be valid against the existence of life on
the earth a million of years back, must postulate that
there was no earth then in existence, or none capable of
supporting life ; for if we choose to stand by the doctrine
of final causes, life upon the earth must have begun as
soon as life upon the earth was possible, otherwise we
should have a fair and perfect design with its purpose
unaccomplished ; or, if we prefer the Theory of Develop-
ment carried out to its legitimate consequences, equally
must we admit, that as soon as the earth was fitted for
living creatures, living creatures would be generated
upon it.

In tracing back the duration of the globe, the first
demand of the uninitiated will be for the written evi-
dence of historical records. The popular impression
claims to be founded upon such evidence of the most
authoritative description. Little do the upholders of
this impression in general understand that they are
building their faith, not upon the Book of Genesis,

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 99

or the inspiration of the Hebrew lawgiver, but on the
arithmetical speculations of an Irish archbishop, who
lived in the seventeenth century.

Before we can accept the Hebrew genealogies as com-
petent data for historical chronology, we must under-
stand the principles on which they were framed. In
ancient languages we have abundant evidence to show
that the ties of blood were not as sharply distinguished
as among ourselves. The same word sufficed to designate
son and grandson, and even the most remote descendant.
A man's heir was called his son ; an usurping successor
might receive the same title l ; and, beyond all this, it
has been shown to have been ' a common practice with
the Jews to distribute genealogies into divisions, each
containing some favourite or mystical number ; and
that, in order to do this, generations were either re-
peated or left out.' Some persons, perhaps, will say,
' We don't believe it, or we don't believe it in regard to
any of the biblical genealogies.' And yet the very first
chapter of the New Testament is the most conclusive
and incontrovertible proof of the statement j for our
Lord's genealogy2 is there expressly divided into three
periods of fourteen generations each, and the middle
period has been stripped of three generations in order
to bring it down to the pre-determined number. The

1 As in the inscription ' Jehu, the son of Omri,' referred to by Lord
A. C. Hervey, in Smith's Diet, of the Bible, Art. 'Genealogy.'

2 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, Art. 'Genealogy of Jesus Christ,'
Lord A. C. Hervey, referring to Dr. Mill. Compare also Hengstenberg,
Genuineness of the Pentateuch, vol. ii. p. 294, Translation, 1847.

H 3

100 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

names of three well-known princes (Ahaziah, Joash,
Amaziah), whose histories occupy several chapters in the
Second Eook of Kings, are omitted, and Amaziah's son
is described, without further note or comment, as a
son begotten by one who was really his father's great-
grandfather. In a matter so obvious, there cannot at-
tach to the compiler of the genealogy the very faintest
suspicion of bad faith, He was following the custom
of his country, for reasons then deemed, and perhaps
in those days actually being, good and sufficient.
Can we make as satisfactory an apology for men in
the present day, who shut their eyes to the nature of
the evidence on which they build opinions about the
age of the world opposed to the discoveries of science ?
If in the first century of the Christian era, in times of
comparative enlightenment, by men of approved truth
and uprightness, genealogies could be compiled without
the smallest regard being paid to the actual number of
successive generations, it becomes impossible to attach
any value as chronological evidence to Hebrew genea-
logies fifteen hundred, or, for all that we can tell, fifteen
thousand years more ancient. Had the genealogy on
which this conclusion rests admitted a chance of 'error,
had there been any motive for fraud in its construction,
did any suspicion lie against its authenticity, the case
would be weakened. But just because there neither was
nor could have been error in the mind of the writer, or
deceit in his intention, just because what he wrote, he
wrote deliberately and of set purpose, it is certain that
his record is not, and was never meant to be, a measure

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 1C I

of time ; and that those who persist in measuring time
by similar records, are the victims of a manifest delu-
sion, ensnared, it may be feared in too many cases, with
their eyes open.

There is an old jest that, in the pride of antiquity, a
Welshman generally traces back his lineage not only as
far as Adam, but a great deal further. Nothing was
easier, before the age of historical criticism, than for
men or nations, whose real origin was lost in obscurity,
to link their names to an illustrious past. Nothing was
easier than to develope the obscurity itself into a long
line of remote ancestors, whose names and virtues could
be invented and multiplied at pleasure. What the poet
was only too willing to imagine, the mathematician
seemed able to confirm, by registering astronomical
occurrences in far-distant long-past ages with as much
precision as those which he predicted, and predicted
truly, for his own and future times. The Hindoo
chronology reckons the age of the world by millions
of years. The Egyptians twenty centuries ago used
to tell of 330 kings of whom they knew no more than
the names. There were Greeks who claimed to be
older than the moon ; others who anticipated the theory
of biogenesis by claiming to be sprung from the earth
itself without the intervention of parents; and yet
others, who with more modesty or more pride, as we
please to regard it, derived their origin from gods
and demigods. None were willing to be thought new
people. The man of yesterday, the novus homo, the
upstart, the parvenu, has ever been disliked and laughed

103 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

at by society. And in like manner, among nations,
a new rival excites the fears and encounters the ridicule
of the established clique. Claims to antiquity, therefore,,
were as advantageous to possess as they were easy to
forge. Those that have been mentioned, being un-
attested by any corroborative facts, and, where they
are not obviously false, being unsusceptible of proof,
are worthless in themselves. One thing they tend to
show, namely, that all remembrance of the real origin
of mankind, and of the date of that origin, had been
absolutely lost to those ancient peoples. From over the
sea, from beyond the mountains, from the bright east
or the frozen north, they might know that their fore-
fathers had made pilgrimage in distant ages — or they
might know of no time, however far back, when the seat
of their habitation had not been occupied by their own
progenitors. In either case their ignorance of primeval
history is as absolute as it is conspicuous. One pre-
vailing tradition, it is true, is current alike in sacred
and profane literature, of a far-off golden time, an age
of simplicity, when man conversed with the beasts of
the field, when the earth brought forth her fruits
spontaneously, with her bosom as yet unvexed by the
ploughshare, ere the knowledge or the discrimination
of good and evil had come into the world — the record,
in one word, as all these details tend to prove, of a time
before man had become a moral being; a dim myste-
rious recollection, almost like a dream, of a time before
the animal nature had been decisively exalted into
humanity.

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 103

Some persons believe, against all probability of
evidence, that spoken language was a sudden original
inspiration instead of a gradual invention. None, how-
ever, assert the right of believing the same thing in
regard to letters or written language. The progressive
origin of alphabetical signs is admitted on all sides, so
that there must have been a time when man had to trust
to his fallible memory instead of written memoranda.
The growth of picture-writing itself must have been
extremely slow, from the difficulty of establishing an
agreement as to the meaning of particular representa-
tions. What this difficulty amounts to may to some
extent be tested any day in a picture-gallery, where
all the appliances and skill of modern art are at our
service. Without the aid of a descriptive catalogue,
it is but seldom that any two accounts of the meaning
of the same picture would be found to agree. The art
of drawing, it may well be supposed, was not an in-
spiration. It had to be invented. The very idea of
transmitting a record to future ages would only occur
with the advance of civilization. The crumbling surface
of the rock, the decaying bark of trees, would be the
first perishable and soon obliterated manuscripts. Be-
fore account could be taken of months and years, as-
tronomy must have made some progress. Before the
flow of centuries could be accurately noted, arithmetic
must have advanced far beyond the stage at which
we still find it among numerous savage nations. An
Esquimaux couple, it is said, find it difficult to count

104 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

their own children, even when they are no more than
four or five1.

From these considerations alone we may feel perfectly
certain that numbers of ages elapsed before men acquired
the means of recording the duration of time by any
definite measurements. Unconsciously and without set
purpose, perhaps the very earliest tribes and the most
untutored have left behind them traces not only of their
existence but of the date and era at which they lived ;
traces which we are only now beginning to decipher,
and to read with faltering lips.

All around us in England, in Devonshire, in Torquay,
and all over the globe, lie the memorials of human
beings, of whose day and generation the oldest historical
records we possess know absolutely nothing. Here
and there the tale is told by a heap of shells. From
such heaps we know what dishes were served at the
Dane's dinner-table, at a time when cereal crops were
unknown in Denmark, and sea-weed was used instead
of salt2. Oysters and cockles, mussels and periwinkles,
seem to have been ad libitum; the stag, the roe-deer,
and the wild boar were at the service of that ancient
Dane as often as he could catch them with his weapons
of wood, stone, horn, or bone3; when pork and
venison were scarce, his palate could content itself with
dog or fox. From the waters of the mountain -lake,
from the centre of the high-piled barrow, in the circles

1 Sir J. Lubbock, ' Prehistoric Times/ p. 502, second edition.
2 Ibid. p. 223. 8 Ibid. p. 233.

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 105

of giant stones upon broad-stretching plain or wild
moorland, from peat-moss and rail way- cutting and lime-
stone cavern, we obtain, as Sir John Lubbock and Mr.
Pengelly and others have so well shown, the unwritten
records of prehistoric man, of human beings unnoticed
in any credible history, and preceding all well-established
definite historical dates whether of sacred or profane
literature. Who reared the Titanic monuments of
Stonehenge and Abury we know not. We know not
who constructed the extraordinary animal-mounds of
Wisconsin in North America — mounds hundreds of feet
long, reared a few feet above the level plains, in the
figures of men and beasts and birds and reptiles. These
monuments, if such they were intended to be, must
have demanded prodigious industry for their construc-
tion. They imply a considerable population, and some
advance in artistic skill. But why they were designed,
and who designed them, are circumstances alike un-
known. It is necessary to press home this argument
founded upon our ignorance, and to dwell upon it with
some emphasis, because numbers of persons are pleased
to imagine and assert that, within two or three thousand
years before the Christian era, the whole human popu-
lation of the globe was as it were still in the bud, and
that from a single family, not mustering a dozen mem-
bers to start with, all its tribes have since then been
derived, with their endless diversities of features, hair,
complexion, customs, tastes, and other qualities both of
mind and body. According to the old chronology we
are to suppose that within this limited space of time,

IO6 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

from under a single roof, the children went forth,
spreading over all lands, not only miraculously for-
getting the common ancestral language, but forgetting
the arts, the traditions, the sentiments, which they had
in common, retrograding in some cases into a savage
ferocity or an almost imbecile simplicity, in others re-
taining or developing forms of an advanced civilization.
Esquimaux and Hottentots, Japanese and Red Indians,
the Negro and the Greek, are thus united in ties of
cousinship by no means remote. Arts, monuments, and
modes of life essentially different in spirit and character
are supposed, within these narrow bounds of time, to
have sprung up ; nor only to have sprung up, but to have
passed away, leaving only a few faint vestiges to recall
the artists, the heroes, the lawgivers, the national tem-
per, the genius of the time, whereunto they owed their
existence. It must surely be allowed that marriage
customs change with slow reluctance ; an alteration of
the sentiment with which women are regarded is not
easily or quickly produced. Yet on no subject are the
practices and opinions of mankind more widely diver-
sified. One wife to one husband is in some places the
rule ; but in others, one husband to many wives, one wife
to many husbands, or husbands and wives without any
special appropriation, which some societies consider a
selfish infringement of the general right. According
to the customs of different nations, wives must be fought
for, or stolen, or purchased, or caught in a race, or wooed
and won with pin-money and other endearments. Ac-
cording to the feeling of different races, the wife is a

THE LAPSE OF TIME. IO;

chattel, a beast of burden, a slave, a stewardess, a
domestic ornament, an equal, or a master1. Let it be
granted that many of these customs and sentiments may
have been contemporaneous in their growth or develop-
ment, the same thing cannot be admitted of the dif-
ferent centres of colonization in which, they grew and
developed. Men do not without cause quit their ances-
tral homes to found colonies in remote parts of the
world; and the causes only arise at intervals. When
the cause has arisen, and the new settlement been
occupied, the exiles retain for the most part, and long •
retain in affectionate remembrance the manners and
customs, the religion and laws, of the mother-country ;
or when the remembrance is other than affectionate,
they retain them from the want of an alternative, from
the conservatism in which all men to a greater or less
degree participate, from the incapacity of the human
mind to strike out new customs, or revolutionize ideas,
except by a gradual and half-unconscious progression.

Among the visible and tangible proofs of man's and
the earth's antiquity, few are more interesting than
those presented in the section, well known to geologists,
cut by the railway through the delta of the Tiniere,
a torrent flowing into the Lake of Geneva2. Three
layers of vegetable soil appear in the section, at depths
of four and ten and nineteen feet respectively below the

1 See chapter on Marriage, in Sir J. Lubbock's ' Origin of Civiliza-
tion.'

2 Sir J. Lubbock, ' Prehistoric Times,' p. 380 ; Sir C. Lyell, 'Anti-
quity of Man,' p, 27.

108 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

present surface. These layers contained distinctive relics.
In the first were found * Roman tiles and a coin,' in the
second { fragments of unvarnished pottery, and a pair of
tweezers in bronze ;' in the third, ' fragments of rude
pottery, pieces of charcoal, broken bones, and a human
skeleton having a small, round, and very thick skull.'
The thick-headed owner of that skull is computed to
have lived, at the lowest estimate, about five thousand
years ago. But the cone of the delta began to be
formed long before the man was buried in it, and higher
up the stream another cone is found about twelve times
as large, requiring therefore a time for its formation
about twelve times as long, unless we have recourse
to that miserable refuge for the destitute in argument,
which consists in supposing that causes now slow and
comparatively regular, operated in former times with
an incomparably greater speed and a more spasmodic
violence, of which no trace remains, nor likelihood
appears in the record. In a word, we may infer that,
so far from the shapely order and decorous arrangement
of the earth's surface being only six thousand years old,
it has taken no less than fifty or a hundred thousand
years to pile up this one little heap of mud and gravel.
The age of human works buried under the fertilizing
sediment of the stately Nile is much disputed, but there
can be little doubt, if we take into consideration the
ancient fluviatile deposits in terraces sometimes hundreds
of feet above the present alluvial plain, that the long-
unknown sources of the mysterious river have pro-
duced ten myriad repetitions of the annual overflow,

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 109

pouring down its waters to the sea through a thousand
centuries l.

But Egypt and Switzerland are a long way off;
geologizing in a railway- cutting has been before now
a fatal employment ; and digging pits forty feet deep
into the mud of the Nile is an operation attended with
difficulties peculiar to itself. Here, however, in Torquay,
close at hand, we possess a register of time as compact,
as accessible, as genuine, as the Library of the British
Museum. Limestone, it is well known, is formed be-
neath the waters of the sea. When it appears above
the sea-level, it must have been upheaved from its
ocean-bed. How long a period must be allowed for the
hill which contains Kent's cavern to have been formed
by this double process, may be left for the present to
the imagination. How long a time elapsed before the
cavern was burst open or eaten out from the solid
limestone, we will not enquire. Thanks to the diligent
exploration of it; thanks to the unwearied courtesy of
its scientific curators2, the contents of the cavern, or at
least a portion of them, are now well known. Not only
do they embrace the remains of animals not now ex-
isting in England, but they embrace the remains of
animals long since lost to the globe. With these are
mingled the products of human intelligence, the weap-
ons of the savage. The cave-earth which, as well as
the stalagmite, contains these relics of a most remote

1 Lyell, 'Elements of Geology,' p. 118, ed. 1865.

2 Messrs. Pengelly and Vivian, resident at Torquay, acting members
of the distinguished committee of exploration.

110 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

antiquity, is itself permeated with films of stalagmite, a
conclusive proof of its gradual introduction. Over the
lower portions have been formed in succession three
solid stalagmitic floors, remnants of which have quite
lately been discovered still imbedded in the cavern1.
Let us for a moment consider what this implies. If
we transport ourselves to Matlock Bath in Derbyshire,
for the small fee of a penny, any one of its ' petrifying
wells '2 will be open to our inspection. In these curious
grottoes whatever object you please, natural or artificial,
be it skull or the cap that once covered it, be it basket
or bird, or shell or leaf, may be encrusted with a coating
of stalagmite. The inexperienced visitor would like to
place an object in the well, and to wait while the
' petrifying' waters do their work. He is surprised to
find that in that case he must wait and watch for
months and years, while the slow persevering stream
falls upon his treasure with its ceaseless drip, drip, drip,
and that the work so slowly accomplished would not be
accomplished at all if the flowing of the stream were
hastened. Imagine, then, in this famous cavern of ours
what an interminable song, though an intermittent one,
must have been sung with this drip, drip, drip, through
ages and ages, to produce, as in one place it has done,
a solid stalagmitic mass full twelve feet in thickness.
Now, according to Usher's chronology, we have seven-
teen centuries from Adam to the Flood, and twenty-

1 See Reports of British Association, 1868, p. 57, and 1869, p. 199,
by W. Pengelly, Esq., F.R.S.

2 This is the popular name for them. They do not petrify the speci-
mens placed in them, but only coat them with stalagmite.

THE LAPSE OF TIME. Ill

three centuries from the Flood to the age of Julius
Caesar. If this chronology is to be accepted, Kent's
cavern must have been filled either in the first period or
in the second. As the same arguments will apply to
each, let us assume that the second or longer period
sufficed for this purpose, and see what further admis-
sions this assumption will involve. We have three and
twenty centuries at our disposal. At the end of that
time we know historically that Britain was occupied by
tribes more or less savage, some of them going about
almost naked, destitute of almost all the arts of civili-
zation. We are to imagine the ancestors of this wild
race migrating from Asia and slowly pioneering their
way to the western limits of Europe. Necessity is the
mother of invention; but these men in their difficult
adventurous travel through unknown seas and path-
less jungles tenanted by dangerous beasts, learn only
how to forget. They forget the use of brass and iron,
and take to weapons and tools of flint ; they give up
tillage ; they give up building strong towers, and
shelter themselves in wooden huts or caves and dens of
the earth. The climate of Western Asia is warm and
sunny, that of England often, and in many parts, bleak
and foggy and cold ; therefore these intelligent children
of Noah, in order perhaps to harden themselves in the
process of acclimatization, as they force their way into
the fog and mist, instead of keeping or assuming the
flowing robes of the Asiatic, exchange their garments,
at any rate in battle, for a wash of paint. How inter-
esting it would be to have the family portraits of a

112 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

Highland clan from the earliest times, showing how they
gradually made it fashionable to do without the various
articles of clothing which one by one they have been
induced to resume1 ! During the same epoch, within
the same limits of time, migrating also from the warm
regions of Asia, came elephants and lions, hyenas and
bears, the rhinoceros and the elk. Little recked they
then of change of climate, which now they so ill endure.
They prowled all over Europe; they swam across the
English Channel. Yet before the historical period
begins in Gaul and Britain, most of these species had
had time not only to make their way thither, not only
to flourish and abound in these habitations, but to die
out and to be forgotten. We know for certain that
elephants once roamed over Devon. Did they succumb
to the flint weapons of the savage? Was the same
savage able to extirpate the hyena and the lion,
though the representatives of those fierce beasts still
partially set us at defiance in India, notwithstanding

1 The resuming process has not yet been adopted by the modern
Fuegians, for Dr. Hooker informs us that at the extreme south of Tierra
del Fuego, and in mid- winter, he has often seen the men lying asleep
in their wigwams, without a scrap of clothing, and the women standing
naked, and some with children at their breasts, in the water up to their
middles gathering limpets and other shell fish, while the snow fell thickly
on them and on their equally naked babies.' — Sir J. Lubbock, ' Pre-
historic Times,' p. 532. Jerome declares that he had himself seen the
Attacotti, a British tribe, eating human flesh. See Gibbon (vol. iii.
p. 270, ed. 1854), who in several passages refers to the practice
among various British tribes of going naked, especially in war, citing
Appian, Ammianus, and Giraldus Cambrensis as his authorities for
British customs. It will be remembered that Caesar speaks even of the
Southern Britons as fighting ' omnibus membris expediti.'

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 113

the rifles and gunpowder of modern civilization? Let
us imagine that within the specified time all that has
been mentioned could have happened, and that some of
the animals, such as the woolly rhinoceros, had time to
assume the characters of northern species, or that the
climate had time for vast changes and alterations, or
that the winds perhaps in those days blew hot and cold
with the same breath so as to suit arctic and tropical
species indifferently ; — we must imagine further that
within the same limits the three floors of stalagmite
could have been formed in succession, and two of them
successively broken up. They must have been formed,
not during the whole of the period, but only during
that part of it which followed the introduction into
Britain of wild beasts, and of men who used flint
weapons ; for one unmistakeable weapon of human
manufacture, and innumerable bones of the great old
cave bear have been found within the rock-like breccia
of stone and stalagmite and cave-earth, some feet be-
low both the floors of more recent formation1. The
longer the period, therefore, we allow for the migra-
tion from the East and the dying out of civilized
life, the shorter is the period left for the stalagmitic
formation. Yet probably the whole twenty-three cen-
turies would not suffice for the formation of one of
the floors ; how much less could a fraction of the
period suffice to form all three, and to supply
the intervals during which, through some change of

1 'Eeport of British Association, 1869,' p. 201.

I

114 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

circumstances, the cave-earth was accumulating, and
consequently no solid floor being formed.

At Matlock the drip is continuous, being supplied
by a stream, and not being, as in Kent's cavern, de-
pendent on the chances of the rainfall and the quantity
of water that may percolate through a limestone roof.
At Matlock, for purposes of trade, it is an object that
a coating of stalagmite should be formed as quickly
as possible. With this view the water is allowed to
fall at the rate of fifty or sixty drops a minute, the
drip being maintained at numerous points simultane-
ously. At Matlock we may roughly estimate that an
inch of stalagmite would require four years for its
formation, so that twelve feet and a half would require
six hundred years. In Kent's cavern, on the other
hand, the drip is often interrupted. There is no com-
mercial interest at hand to regulate the speed in the
most advantageous manner, so that it falls sometimes
too quickly and sometimes too slowly. The points
at which it falls are few and far between. It cannot
reasonably be supposed in any year to produce even
a twentieth of the' effect we have estimated for the
drip at Matlock. In other words, the two later floors
of the cavern would alone require a period of twelve
thousand years for their formation. Even at this rate
the cavern would probably have been so extremely
damp and uncomfortable that no men or beasts would
have chosen it for a shelter in rainy weather.

But the cavern inscriptions make it as certain as
can be that the rate of speed here allowed for the

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 1 15

formation of stalagmite is vastly too high, and there-
fore that the time allowed for the formation is vastly
too low. The famous inscription of 1688 was shown
to me a few days back1. It was at that very "time
wet with the drip from the cavern roof, a drip falling
at the rate of thirty-four drops a minute. If the date
were really cut in the year 1688 (and there is no
reason to suppose that it was not), by our first calcu-
lation more than two inches of stalagmite ought to
have formed over it. Instead of which there is but
a thin veneer, a veneer that was observed upon it
more than forty years ago, and which has not in all
those forty years increased enough to make such a
description of it inappropriate. If the date 1615 be
authentic, over which, in the opinion of the superin-
tendents of the exploration, not one-eighth of an
inch of stalagmite has been formed in more than two
centuries and a-half, at the same rate of progression
twelve feet and a-half of stalagmite would demand
for its formation three hundred thousand years.

This cavern by itself, therefore — this one little crack
in the outermost rind of the earth's surface — proves a
comparatively immense antiquity for the existence of
organic life and of human beings upon the globe. But
to compare the antiquity of the cavern contents with the
antiquity of the limestone formation in which they are
contained is positively beyond any intelligible numerical
measurement. Yet the limestone formation itself is
filled with the relics of living creatures, and in some

1 Nov. 21, 1870.
i 2

Il6 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

parts, if not in all, is one gigantic mass of such re-
mains.

In cliffs of sea-shore and river, in railway-cuttings, in
mine-shafts and quarries, we may often see layers of the
earth's crust in the order of their original deposition.
Except where the signs are present of some subsequent
violent interference, this order is uniform and invariable.
It is not that all the members of the series are inva-
riably present, far from it; but in order of deposition
the relations of higher and lower are never interchanged.
Every one of the many different layers which have been
distinguished by geologists has a distinctive group of
fossils. You may, if you please, suppose that for each
of these layers of the earth's crust there was a new
creation of living creatures, wonderfully like at each
successive step, though wonderfully different at long
intervals, as though they were the work of an artist
whose ideas moved but slowly ; but for such a supposi-
tion you have no authority ; the conception has neither
simplicity nor grandeur ; it does not even accord with
the facts, since, amid the general change of organic
structures, we find the permanence of a few ; and while
the groups of two successive layers have, each of them,,
numerous distinctive forms, it is impossible to draw any
definite boundary-line between the groups themselves,
which sometimes intermingle with an inextricable inter-
lacing on their confines. Nothing comes out more
clearly to the student of the rocks, than that the world
of to-day is the world of millions of years back ; from
one point of view ever-changing, yet ever essentially

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 1 17

the same ; from another point of view, out of the utmost
regularity of alternation, never producing the same
thing, or presenting the same aspect twice. We think
that the stage has been essentially altered, because in
the days of that immeasurable past we did not strut
upon it. We are unable to fathom the depth of our
own insignificance, and are unwilling to believe in a
march of time, compared with which the span of our
own lives seems so contemptible. In the depths of the
ocean the formation of chalk is said to be going on at
this very day. Probably there is no time known to the
geologist at which the formation of chalk has not been
going on in the depths of the ocean; but its older
layers have been altered by chemical and mechanical
forces, by fire, by pressure, and by other means.

We know that chalk and limestone do not form in
the open air. If we find them piled up in enormous
hills and mountains high above the level of the sea, and
far from its coasts, we know that they did not grow in
that position; that once their proud crests and ridges
lay low in an ocean bed. They could not have been
formed on a sudden, or rapidly, or by any other than
the slow steps of infinitesimally small successive accu-
mulations : for we find them filled throughout with the
evidences of life, shells and sponges, and corals of ex-
quisite beauty and delicacy, generations after generations
of which must have had time to build up their beautiful
fabrics. Many things may be hastened ; you may
quicken the growth of many; but you can't hurry
a sponge. Every foot and inch of a chalk cliff, of a

Il8 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

limestone mountain, must have been formed originally
under water with almost incredible slowness. It must have
been raised up to meet the clouds of heaven since its
formation in the ocean-depth. Do you think that this
can have been a rapid process ? Volcanic cones, it is
true, are sometimes piled up by a sudden effort. But
with widespread platforms of solid rock the upheaving
forces deal more respectfully. An average elevation of
a foot or two in a century, is perhaps a high exceptional
speed for such movements. But this rate requires a
thousand centuries for a hill only one or two thousand
feet high, to rise, not from the depths, but from the
surface of the water. If we had only a single formation
to deal with instead of scores of them ; if we had a
thickness of only one thousand feet of the earth's crust
to consider, instead of scores of thousands, the proved
antiquity of the globe would be enormous. What is to
be said, then, when we stand face to face with what
geologists have been pleased to call the new red sand-
stone ? This formation cannot be less than millions of
years old, although in relation to the Devonian lime-
stone it is indisputably new. Those deep red rocks, that
with their fantastic profiles in so many places fringe the
southern border of Devon, must have been formed since
the limestone ; for the simple reason, that in every part
they are full of pebbles or fragments of the limestone
containing characteristic fossils of the earlier formations.
It will at least be granted that you cannot break off a
piece from a rock before the rock itself exists. Prior,
then, to the very beginning of the formation of these

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 119

red conglomerates, the limestone rock must have been
formed; it must have been heaved up above the level
of the sea; fragments must have been broken off from
it, rolled into pebbles, triturated into sand. As the
breaking, and the rolling, and the grinding went on, so
with equal steps would the growth of the conglomerate
proceed. But the workshop and the wx>rk must still
have been beneath the waters of the ocean,, and not till
the whole work of formation was finished could the
further process be begun of raising the work above the
level of the waves.

It is not uncommon to find fossils in the pebbles of a
conglomerate rock showing lines of a dislocating fracture
filled with spar. The fossil shell or coral once had an
inhabitant. We must allow time for its life and death.
Its vacant tabernacle must then have become filled with
extraneous matter. This must have required time to
harden into rock. While that rock was still in the
mass, some cause must have operated to fracture it, and
such causes are not of every-day operation. After this,
more time was needed to fill up the divisional line with
spar; more time to break off the fragment containing
the shell from the general mass of the rock ; more time
to roll it into a pebble ; more time to imbed it hard and
fast in a conglomerate rock ; more time to raise the rock
high out of the waters ; and, lastly, one more vast addi-
tion of time for the crumbling away of the conglomerate
formation, so as to .expose the tall sea-cliff from which
human hands might gather this memorial relic of
untold ages.

ISO THE LAPSE OF TIME.

The same tale is told by tlie coal-measures. Dr.
Dawson, of Montreal, has drawn out the argument from
the carboniferous formation1 with extraordinary force
and a convincing plainness that leaves nothing to be
desired, for the benefit of any one who will read his
great work on Acadian geology. The formation of coal
depends on sub-aerial growths, affected by sub-aqueous
action. The trees and plants, out of which coal is
formed, for the most part could not possibly have grown
under water. The mud, the sand, the stone which
cover seams of coal, could not have been laid over them
without the agency of water to bring them down, and
spread them out in regular layers of stratification.
When the hollow bark of a tall tree is found erect upon
its roots, with those roots still permeating the clay from
which they once drew nourishment, it is evident that
time must be allowed for the growth of the tree, for the
almost complete decay which left nothing of it but its
bark and roots, and for the slow accumulation of sedi-
ment which has encased without overthrowing it. A
complete alteration must have taken place in the con-
ditions of the ground in the interval between the time
when the tree began to grow, and the time when a
length of seven or eight feet of its upright stem was
buried in mud. Layers, indeed, of sand and mud may
be spread out over small areas by storms and inunda-
tions with comparative speed ; but if above the sands
we come to thicknesses of limestone composed almost

1 A formation later than the Devonian, and earlier than the New
Ked Sandstone.

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 121

entirely of animal remains, such as those of shells and
fish, not only are we forced to admit a long period for
the successive generations of those creatures, but we are
forced to observe the products of the ocean lying
actually above the products of the dry land, as though,
according to the old poetical extravagance, the stag and
doe had taken to the waters and the fishes been building
in the tree-tops. The conclusion is inevitable, that what
was once dry land, fruitful in vegetation, in process of
time became a swamp, and from the swamp became a
sea. It will be a fresh surprise, but a fresh evidence
of time's duration, if above the limestone we find more
clay with more plants buried in more mud, and over-
topped by more limestone. Bearing in mind the old
supposition, that order and beauty and life upon the
globe are only six thousand years' old, astonishment
should reach its climax when we find, as we do, that
within the thickness of only a few feet of the earth's
crust, the record that we have been describing is re-
peated again and again and again ; but beyond the
climax, a fresh and overpowering marvel awaits us,
when, as at one spot in British America, the record
expands itself from a few feet into sixteen thousand,
showing conclusively by eighty successive bands of coal
that fourscore times at least, and perhaps many more,
while that thickness of the earth's crust was forming,
the waters gave place to dry land, and in turn the dry
land to the waters, — showing conclusively that during
all the period of these changes tall forests of graceful
trees abounded on the globe, along with exquisite ferns

122 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

and curious reptiles, and beetles and winged insects of
great size and beauty ; while fish replenished the waters,
along with an infinity of shells and corals, and other
inhabitants of the deep. Yet these sixteen thousand
feet, these eighty successive forests, these hundred and
sixty changes, comprise but a small fraction of the whole
known succession of strata.

It is true that different strata not only may, but must
have been forming at one and the same time in different
parts of the world. But when one stratum has been
formed out of the wreck of another, it is self-evident
that they cannot have been formed together. The same
thing is obvious in regard to any number of layers
found lying in undisturbed succession one above the
other. They must have been formed successively, the
lowest first, the highest last. But one point about them
is far from obvious, namely, the length of the interval
that may have intervened between the end of one forma-
tion and the beginning of another. The great African
desert has been the great African desert as far back as
human histories extend ; yet in times geologically recent
it lay beneath the waters of the ocean. Should it be
again submerged before any fertilizing agencies have
covered it with signs of its sub-aerial exposure, another
layer of sand may be thrown down upon it, containing
new marine fossils, and no memorial be left to the future
geologist of the vast era during which its kindly influ-
ence was warming the winds of Europe, and saving us
from a glacial climate. The ground you stand on is
passing through such an interval. It was under the sea

THE LAPSE OF TIME.

once; doubtless it will be under the sea again in the
future. Look into that future ; look into that past. Can
you measure either of those intervals in the years of
common chronology ? Yet all over the world the suc-
cession of geological strata proclaims the recurrence over
and over again of such intervals; silent, indeed, as to
positive evidence, but widening the possible limits of
time's duration to the furthest stretch of fancy.

All our great continents have been ever so many
times, either in the mass or piecemeal, under the waves
of the ocean. Nothing hinders that the bed of every
great ocean should have been ever so many times turned
into dry land. This interchange is going on now in
numberless regions of sea and land. All the facts as we
find them are such as they might be expected to be .had
this interchange been going on, as no doubt it has been,
through an indefinite past. We are bound to allow
millions of years for the formation of the strata that
have been already examined. There may be depths
below the lowest depths yet explored by geologists ;
there have certainly been immense intervals which have
left no materials for the geologist to explore ; and when
all the profoundest deep of stratification shall have been
explored, we may still find that the record of all these
unnumbered millions of years is but, as it were, the
latest page of the volume — a page that may have been
preceded by a thousand others now almost irrevocably
lost or become utterly illegible. There is nothing to
hinder the supposition that those earlier pages, if they
existed, were, amidst innumerable differences, still in

124 THE LAPSE OF TIME.

their general aspect very like the latest, as long or
longer, as full of the memorials of eventful circumstance,
of constant change dominated by and springing from
the operation of unchanging laws. As the time is
absolutely incalculable which the theory of evolution
requires to account for the highest forms of life upon
the earth, so the time which all these considerations
leave open for the work is absolutely beyond calculation.
The theory cannot ask for more than the facts make it
possible to offer.

We hear men sometimes dwell on an expression which
they fancy to be Scriptural, ' that there should be time
no longer1 ;' as if time by any possibility could ever
come to an end ! It is a pity that they should com-
pletely misinterpret the passage on which their opinion
fancies itself to be grounded. It is a still greater pity
that they should use the language of rational human
beings, without being at the pains to determine whether
their words have any intelligible meaning : for certainly
to the human mind any beginning or end of time is
wholly inconceivable. Language itself will not bear
with the conception, unless it be consistent to speak
of a time when time was not, of a time when time will
be no more.

There is a poem, and a sweet one, by the present
Poet-Laureate, in which the murmuring brook is made
to speak the language of the moralist, and to proclaim
the transitory nature of all human affairs, by a com-

1 Revelation x. 6, Authorised Version.

THE LAPSE OF TIME. 125

parison between the short duration of man's life and its
own unceasing current —

' For men may come, and men may go,
But I flow on for ever.'

Such is the proud language of the murmuring brook.
Yet the boast is an untrue one; for if any conclusion
in regard to the future can be warranted from the facts
of the past, none can be more sure than that no parti-
cular brook will flow on for ever. Instead of a brook,
it may become a mighty river like the St. Lawrence ;
it may dash over precipitous cliffs with a vaster fall and
volume than Niagara ; and, after all, the slow inexorable
changes of the earth's crust will one day make its flow
impossible, and the channel of it shall know its stream
no more. Only the flow of time is unending, of time
which does nothing, but out of or without which nothing
can be done, — of time, replete with glorious wonders
as far back as the knowledge or the imagination of
man can penetrate, through every age, through every
million of years that can be rescued from forgetfulness,
bearing fresh testimony, in the greatness and the end-
lessness of the work, to the eternal power and wisdom
of the Supreme Worker.

NOTE ON THE HYPOTHESIS

OF

SPONTANEOUS GENEBATION.

PRESUMING that there is not a particle of evidence as
yet established in favour of the supposition known as
the doctrine of abwgenesis, it does not follow that no
such evidence ever will, or ever can, be forthcoming.
The advancement of science is continually doing away
with harsh, abrupt outlines, and revealing the softest
shades of transition in the varied scenery of nature.
Between organic and inorganic matter, between the
inert and the living mass, the line of separation has
been hitherto, to our minds, the hardest and sharpest
of all. We have indeed become so accustomed to this
violation of the cosmos, this harsh interruption to the
continuous order of nature, and to the simplicity of its
general plan, that we are apt to be rather annoyed than
pleased with the first efforts made to prove them only
imaginary. There is a dignity about life which requires, it
is thought, to be defended from too close a proximity in
character to the chemical solids and liquids amongst

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. 12 j

which it makes its appearance, even though the life
whose dignity is thus maintained exhibit little more
than the functions of a stomach, or be presented in the
somewhat dull animation of a chrysalis and the torpor
of a slug.

A Wellingtonia gigantea^ with its stupendous height
and graceful form, with its bark and wood, and sap and
pith, and cones and innumerable spikelets, seems won-
derfully noble and vastly superior in the scale of crea-
tion to a spoonful of salt ; yet every one of the tiny
grains has, so far as we know, full as much sense and
as much power of enjoyment as the stately tree. "The
mineral and the vegetable are, in fact, alike desti-
tute of any qualities on which a comparison of dignity
can properly be founded. The organic depends ultimately
upon the inorganic for its nutriment. It is itself ulti-
mately reduced to the inorganic. It does not, therefore,
seem incredible that living organisms, simpler perhaps
than any yet detected by the microscope, should be or
should have been produced without generation proper
by the mere combining of inorganic materials.

This is the hypothesis of Spontaneous Generation, so
called, or abio gene sis, unproved and extremely difficult
of proof, but precisely filling that gap in the order and
continuity of nature which is so puzzling without it.

Practically it makes no difference to the theory
of development whether the simple organisms from
which that theory supposes the more complicated to be
derived, originated at a single era or at several. The
theory does not deny the perpetuation throughout vast

128 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.

ages of extremely simple organisms. To the general
cohesion of the theory, therefore, it is unimportant
whether we affiliate each of these living motes to a
parent like itself, or to a combination of chemical sub-
stances previously without life.

Considering the vast results attributed to the prin-
ciple of variability) it has been thought strange that
any organisms should through great cycles of time have
escaped its operation, and transmitted their original
simplicity to an endless succession of descendants.

On the hypothesis of spontaneous generation working
continuously this difficulty would disappear ; simple
organisms would be continually losing their simplicity
by variation, but new organisms of equal simplicity
would continually appear in the world, spontaneously
generated.

It might still be true that all but the least conspicuous
members of the world's population belong to a single
family, or to an extremely small number of separate
lines of descent. If we suppose that, as soon as the
globe was fitted for living occupants, a single simple
organism was spontaneously generated, or, if you please,
created, or, in any other way that may be named, intro-
duced upon the earth, the results in accordance with
actual facts may be logically deduced agreeably to the
various principles of the theory of development. Its
descendants would multiply and replenish the earth,
unchecked, in all parts suited to their conditions of
existence, till all such parts were occupied. No further
advance in the population of the world could then take

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. 129

place until some variation had occurred, making possible
the occupation of new regions, or of the old regions,
under new conditions. But the new species, constituted
by some advantageous variation, would be likely to
overrun the whole field, to the almost complete sup-
pression of the earlier and more simple form. The dis-
tance thus gained in the race of progressive organization
it would be likely not only to maintain, but greatly to
increase. Its descendants would vary in more than one
useful direction, till it might, as we have said, become
the parent of all the conspicuous members of the earth's
population. The earliest and simplest form might still
have representatives inheriting its likeness by direct
descent, but unable to make their way in the world, not
from wanting the power to vary, but from finding the
world pre-occupied by species too powerful for them to
compete with. In this way they would be restrained to
their original insignificance.

Now exactly the same result would follow, if, instead
of being born in what we consider the ordinary course
of parentage, these simple forms were ever being spon-
taneously generated. They would find the world pre-
occupied against their advancement in the scale of
organization; they would rarely, if ever, be allowed
to lead up by successive useful variations to highly-
organized forms; and if ever, only in periods of time
so enormous as to perplex the acutest human under-
standing.

What is commonly supposed to be the Biblical theory of
Creation, is in truth a theory of spontaneous generation,

K

130 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.

only multiplying a million-fold the difficulty, if it be
a difficulty, involved in that hypothesis. Unless we
suppose the globe to have always existed, and always to
have been tenanted by creatures endowed with life, we
are forced to believe in the occurrence at some time or
other of what, in the language of science, must have
been spontaneous generation. As there is no historical
reason for confining such an occurrence to any particular
era ; as science can give no reason why, if it happened
once, it should not happen an indefinite number of
times; as all analogy is in favour of uniform laws of
nature rather than exceptional surprises ; and, lastly, as
numerous phenomena that have to do with the repro-
duction and maintenance of life are all continuous, and
not interjectional — it seems at least an open question
whether the origin of life itself may not also be
sometimes, or even continually repeated. For, imagine
what conditions we will to have prevailed when the
elementary substances coalesced, out of which were
compounded the first living being, it is difficult to
imagine that the same conditions should never have
recurred to produce a similar result, since the conditions
are so far limited, that they must have been consistent,
not only with the birth, but with the life after its birth,
of that most antique animalcule. So many wonderful
and hitherto unsuspected effects in the working of
Nature have of late years been unveiled, so much of
marvellous analysis successfully carried out, that it
would surely be superstitious to despair of finding fresh
links in the chain that binds together the lifeless and the

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. 131

living. Experiments in this direction may hitherto have
failed from want of skill or care, or proper means at the
command of those who conducted them. Yet it is not
too much to ask of men renowned in science, that in
pointing out the errors, they should abstain from dis-
couraging the efforts.

Let it not be thought irreligious to anticipate the
possible establishment of the supposition now under
discussion. It cannot be irreverent to think that the
bestowal of life upon a particle of matter too minute for
human eye to see, requires no more special apparatus
than that allotted to the exquisite crystals of the frost.
' Out of whose womb came the ice ? and the hoary frost
of heaven, who hath gendered it ? J Yet in the work-
manship of these a Divine hand is to the full as visible
as in a diatom or a puff-ball. That the life-giving
energy should have been exhausted in a single effort,
is contrary beyond doubt to the analogy of religion,
whatever may be thought of the analogy of nature.

On the other hand, let it not be thought unscientific
to advocate the claims of an unproved hypothesis. It
is the nature of hypotheses to be unproved. As they
gather proof, the hypothetical becomes a theory. At
length the theory goes on to demonstration. The use
of hypotheses has often been explained. The human
mind is easily exhausted by the observation of numerous
incoherent facts. It is impelled to arrange and classify,
to find some thread or threads of association on which
the facts may be strung, some principle on which they
may be parcelled out into groups. The arrangement

K 2

132 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.

may be erroneous, the explanatory principle untrue ;
they may be so plausible, so apparently satisfactory,
so fascinating withal in general aspect, as for a long
time to hinder the real solution of great problems ;
and nevertheless it may be judged that their services
in the advancement of knowledge far outweigh the
hindrances caused by the too servile acceptance ac-
corded them. The foibles of a great writer may long
infect the literature which his greatness has ennobled.
A constitution grandly conceived in proportion to the
moral and social ideas prevailing at the time of its
conception may be clung to with servility long after
it has been outstripped by the progress of civiliza-
tion. But neither the genius of the poet nor the skill
of the lawgiver could be spared in its own day and
generation ; neither could have been sacrificed to prevent
the follies of the plagiarist, or the dulness of eyes that
in after ages might read the letter without discerning
the spirit.

We may almost say that a bad hypothesis is better
than none ; but a wrong hypothesis need not be a bad
one. It may tend so to group around it the facts con-
tributed by supporters and opponents, that when the
real explanation of them all comes to be suggested, the
fraternization of the confronting armies may be easy,
and the truth be greeted and acknowledged with general
acclaim.

THE IMPERFECTION

OP

THE GEOLOGICAL EECOED.

THE general who is for ever counter-marching and
skilfully executing retrograde movements cannot always
sustain the enthusiasm of his own troops, much less
excite in his favour that of the civilian multitude. To
many minds, the reliance placed on the imperfection of
the geological record appears to be a rather damaging
retreat in the strategy of science. They were just
beginning to believe in geology as a wonderful reve-
lation of the past history of the globe, when suddenly
they are told that the fragments of that history which
have been saved are merely tattered pages out of
different chapters, giving no adequate notion of the
enormous bulk and varied contents of the whole volume.
Since, without the geological evidence of time's duration
and of the countless changes in organic structures which
that duration embraces, the theory of development could
never have been imagined, it seems half ungrateful and

J34 THE IMPERFECTION OF

inconsistent in the author of the theory to turn round
upon geological evidence and tax it with its extreme
poverty and even delusive misleading appearances. But,
in fact, Mr. Darwin in no way detracts from the value
of geological evidence. The researches necessary to
extend it are invested, to those who accept his theory,
with tenfold interest. The deficiencies and interruptions
in it which he has pointed out as necessarily occurring
must sooner or later have become apparent. They were
dangerous to science only as long as they were unobserved,
or not sufficiently taken into account.

That the record is really imperfect is not a matter
which admits of controversy. No one supposes that
every species and variety that ever existed in past ages
on the globe is represented at this very day by fossil
specimens in prime enough condition to exhibit all the
characteristics of the creature as it once lived. No one
supposes that, if such specimens existed, all of them
ever could or would be found by human beings. It is
not in the nature of a fossil to present all the character-
istics of the creature as it once lived. It cannot
possibly do it ; for the fossil is without life and motion.
There is no respiration, no circulation of the blood
going on. As a rule, only the hard parts of the
creature, such as shell, scales, or bony skeleton, can be
preserved. In most cases all these relics have been
chemically altered. Nevertheless, in fossils from the
very lowest strata, from the very earliest formations
that yield any, we find certain analogies to creatures
now living. We reason from these analogies without

THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD. 135

any hesitation to the characteristics which the fossil
creature will probably have presented in its living- state.
Our reasonings may often be erroneous, but the mere
fact of our accepting the apparent analogies as a ground
for reasoning at all, implies a belief in the uniformity
of the conditions of animal existence between our own
times and the most distant ages of the past. We argue
as if generation had succeeded generation without
interruption, not as if there had been new independent
creations from time to time, since these would imply
new conditions replacing the old, and make the argument
from analogy between the items of the different creations
of no value. For these independent creations, whether
capricious or not in themselves, could only exhibit to
our minds the symptoms of caprice. The mere fact of
their being independent one of another would be so
wanting in congruity with all the rest of our experience,
that we should reasonably expect their minor details as
well as the general plan to be wholly fantastic. In
other words, the fossil memorials of life in past ages,
imperfect as we confess and maintain them to be, still
present so many general resemblances to one another
and to living structures of the present day, that if they
do not prove the continuity of life upon the globe, they
cannot be held to prove anything at all ; they should
be regarded as a very elaborate practical joke played
upon the human reason.

Palaeontology is defined as e the science which treats
of fossil remains both animal and vegetable.' This
principle of the continuity of life from age to age may

136 THE IMPERFECTION OF

be considered as one of its definite acquisitions. There
is no single point of geological time at which it can be
said, fat this epoch clearly all old species had passed
away, all kinds of life had become new.' Not only is
there no indication of such a break, but there is the
strongest evidence against any such having ever occurred.
In spite, however, of the completeness of the evidence
required for proving this single conclusion, the general
incompleteness and enormous deficiencies in some parts
of the palseontological record can be established beyond
dispute. We are in the position of a man who has
kept the title-deeds to a large estate, while almost all
the estate itself has been buried under the encroach-
ments of the sea. Here and there some old landmarks
may be discernible far out in the waters, showing
the extent of what had once been meadow and
woodland, farm and garden, but unable to show
how these were distributed, or to exhibit any of their
details.

Mr. Parfitt, in his paper on ' Fossil Sponge Spicules,'
told the Devonshire Association last year (1870) that we
have evidence more or less' exact of sponges in a fossil
state as far back in time as the Silurian system,
mentioning specimens of AcantJiospongia Siluriensis,
Cliona antiqiia, and Cliona prisca, and stating in regard
to the two latter that the genus is still in our own seas.
He then referred to large masses of a fossil in the
Devonian rocks of Cornwall, believed by some to be
sponges, and by others to be the remains of fish. That
these are in reality fish-remains has, in fact, been shown

THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD. 137

pretty conclusively1. From this point, however, up to
the Great Oolite, Mr. Parfitt tells us that scarcely a
vestige of the sponges is to be found, although since
that time they have been very abundant. Between the
Silurian and the Great Oolite the interval of time must
have been enormous. It is occupied by a vast series
of sedimentary rocks, embracing very varied mineral
characteristics. From this series our museums have
been, and are still being, supplied with vast heaps of
fossil organic structures, including among numerous
others, plants and corals and fish and reptiles. Through
all that protracted period there is no reason to
suppose, in regard to the outer rind of the globe,
that the general conditions of earth, air, and
water were other than they are now. All England
may have been under water; delicate creatures may
have wintered at the North Pole for the sake of its
genial climate ; and an infinity of other local and
temporary differences may have prevailed, without
making the habitable globe of those days essentially
different from our own. The laws of chemistry and
mechanics, the laws of heat and motion, must have been
just the same as they are now. Then, as now, there
must have been oceans and continents, winds and
currents, forests growing, decaying, and being buried,
sand and chalk being deposited in layers, molten
minerals thrown up by volcanoes, ice forming at a

1 See Mr. Pengelly's paper on the subject in the Transactions of the
Devonshire Association for 1868.

138 THE IMPERFECTION OF

definite temperature, glaciers scoring the rocks, icebergs
transporting boulders, rains and rivers slowly washing
down the hills, and waves corroding the cliffs on the
sea-shore. We have evidence also that life in many
forms abounded. Those forms, though seldom trans-
mitted to creatures of the present day with anything
approaching an exact likeness, can yet be classified
under the same general names with the most modern
forms of life. Now sponges are forms of an extremely
simple organization. The silicious spicules are well
adapted for the wear and tear of a fossil existence.
In the greensand and the chalk they are actually found
in extraordinary abundance. It would be inconvenient
upon any theory to have to suppose these very simple
structures introduced into the world for the first time
quite late in the series of living organisms, and after
beings much more complicated and higher in the scale
of existence, unless, indeed, we suppose that about the
time of the Great Oolite the evolution of man was first
thought of, and the sponge accordingly prepared for him
to wash his face with. But even if the bath and the
basin be admitted as the final causes of sponge-existence,
the conception of it must be carried back, as we have
seen, to the Silurian period ; while, according to Mr.
Parfitt, the immense interval of Lias and Trias, Per-
mian, Carboniferous, and Devonian remains black and
spongeless, as though it were the appropriate era of
the great unwashed. But if the Darwinian theory be a
true one, sponge-life having begun in the Silurian
period, and being in existence now, must have been

THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD. 139

continuous through the whole interval ; every single
deposit in the entire series since the Silurian must have
been contemporary with some of the sponges; and, as
a matter of fact, Mr. Parfitt's statement, however true
of the condition of our knowledge a few years back,
must now be qualified by the addition of several species
spread over the interval in Britain alone, even if we
exclude some indefinite structures, of which no opinion
can be at present pronounced with safety. Mr.* Parfitt
himself, in a paper read at Honiton in 1868, remarks
that ' the Devonian formation has furnished a great
number of specimens of what appear to be species of
sponges.' From Permian and Triassic beds on the con-
tinent of Europe, a very large number of forms are
said to be more or less distinctly made out. Mr. Salter,
in 1864, reported the discovery of Protospongia Fene-
strata-in the Lingula flags of St. David's, thus carrying
back this form of life beyond the Silurian to the Cam-
brian era. It is an interesting illustration of the great
ambiguity of these ancient fossils, that two such autho-
rities as Mr. Salter and Dr. Bowerbank differed about
the Protospongia, the one supposing it to exhibit the
spicules, the other the fibre of the sponge. The simple
facts that species have to be moved backwards and
forwards between the amorphozoic and zoophytic groups,
that relics may pass for fish in one year and sponges
in another, and by-and-by be recognised again as fish,
show the often imperfect condition of the record, even
where it is not a complete blank.

Where direct evidence of any kind is still unavailable,

140 THE IMPERFECTION OF

it may possibly be said that no sponges are found for
such and such a period, because none existed in it.
The plausibility of such an opinion can only be tested in
fresh illustrations of the general argument. The coal-
field of Nova Scotia has been described by Professor
Dawson of Montreal. As it afforded a fine field for the
exertions of the geologist, so it repaid him by its great
richness in the fossil remains of plants. But in the
coal formations of England and of Westphalia insects
also had been found of different genera in addition to
plants, while Nova Scotia, with all its vegetable wealth,
yielded the anxious explorer but a single specimen of the
still more interesting relics. That specimen consisted
of the head and some other fragments of a large insect,
probably neuropterous. That single specimen Professor
Dawson tells us he found in a coprolite, in the fossil
excrement of a reptile enclosed in the trunk of an erect
sigillaria. Could any one invent a more curious cabinet
to preserve so fragile a specimen for millions of years ?
Can it in this case be argued, that of insect remains
nothing was found in the carboniferous of Nova Scotia
but the head and some other appurtenances of a single
neuropterous insect, because that head and those
appurtenances were all that had ever flourished there?
It cannot so be argued, not only because the analogies
of the carboniferous formation in other parts of the
world are conclusive against such argument, but also
because within the last three or four years, after long
and diligent search, two more species have been added
to the collection of carboniferous insects from Nova

THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD. 141

Scotia itself. Two delicate wings, one very large and
one small, have been found, each sealed, as it were,
with a fern-leaf ; each a frail but enduring record of life
that must once have been brilliant and abundant1.

When the zeal of a collector adds a new species to
those already known, by finding the fragment of a
butterfly's wing that had been for millions of years in
a seam of coal, how many considerations are forced upon
the mind ! Our sensitive nerves are comparatively
seldom troubled by the perceived presence of dead crea-
tures. With the exception of our own food, such sights
are pretty well confined to the carcase of a dog floating
on a pool, the feathers of a torn bird, a parched mole,
and a sprinkling of blue-bottles in an unused room. Yet
countless millions of creatures are annually dying, ready
and willing to become fossils. Fossils, however, they do
not become, simply because other creatures eat them up.
For this reason alone, not one in ten thousand of any
particular terrestrial species is likely to become fossil,
because to some creature or another it is almost sure to
be good eating, and therefore in the living state or the
dead, sure to be ravenously seized upon and devoured.

Some forms of marine life are indeed represented
by a wonderful number of specimens or fragments of
specimens. Silicious and calcareous exuviae of minute
creatures deposited in the still depths of the ocean may
be preserved by myriads, but neither these ' in number
numberless5 nor the giant-bones of ancient Saurians
convey any adequate notion of the whole population of

1 'Acadian Geology,' Dawson, p. 386.

142 THE IMPERFECTION OF

the globe at any one era. The paleontologist, guiding
himself only by prominent details of this description,
would be like a child over a child's history of England,
to whom the fabric of the Constitution arid the Reforma-
tion of the Church seem matters obscure, and scarcely
worthy of notice, while Alfred burning the, cakes, and
Henry VIII in his well-known character of Bluebeard,
stand out in bold relief.

No one will doubt, that within the last ten years tens
of thousands of the common white butterfly have dis-
ported themselves in England, yet a man might easily
starve if he were allowed no food till he had found some
of their fossil remains. The dodo has not long been
extinct, but nevertheless fossil dodos are extremely rare.
It may be thought that the date of extinction has little
to do with the matter, and that each relic when enshrined
in the rock, may claim to be by a sort of indelible cha-
racter ' once a fossil and always a fossil.' This, however,
is in reality far from its true condition. Let a creature's
remains escape being devoured, or burnt, or trampled to
pieces, or being dissolved by the rain, or crumbled into
dust by rolling waves and mud and stones gathered
upon them, their perils are not yet over. Even in the
grasp of the hard rock, the fossil may be horribly dis-
torted by pressure, split asunder by cleavage, boiled and
baked and crystallized, till none of its features remain
what they were, or till the very fact of its presence
becomes only the question of a dim surmise. The rude
jolt of an earthquake, that splits asunder a mountain,
may sometimes be tender over a butterfly's wing ; but

THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD. 143

there are chemical agencies which work without any
compassion for what is fine and delicate, and by these
we find great thicknesses of rock apparently stripped
of their fossils. Where the whole stratum consists of
remains of once living organisms, as in seams of coal,
it has been shown that we have no reason to suppose
that any complete or adequate memorials are left us of
the whole vegetation of any particular period or any
particular area; since Dr. Lindley has found, by actual
experiment, that diiferent vegetables have very different
powers of resisting decay, and that pines and ferns and
lycopodia will be well preserved after long immersion in
water, while the same treatment causes the disappearance
of grasses and sedges, of the oak-tree and the ash1.

Even those rocks which preserve fossils most carefully
may themselves be crumbled to pieces, fossils and all,
by the process of denudation.

Denudation is the laying bare of one stratum, or por-
tion of a stratum , by the removal of another. It is
carried on principally by rains and rivers and the action
of the sea-waves upon the sea-border. To the last-
mentioned agency the geologist is highly indebted ; to
the others also he owes a debt : but consider how they
all do their work. Much of the material dealt with they
pound into mud or sand, and in these any fragments
that escape the trituration are, sooner or later, again
buried. They may tear open the rocks, and expose for
a brief period the most interesting and unique fossils;

1 See 'Lecture on Coal/ by W. Boyd Dawkina, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Manchester, 1870.

144 THE IMPERFECTION OF

but, unfortunately, they carry on their work by night
as well as day, on desolate coasts, in places where the
Palseontographical Society has no missionaries, or when
the missionary, if there be one, is in-doors writing
a book; so that a very small percentage of all that
might be discovered is ever actually found.

In the artificial denudation of mining and quarrying,
though the rude forces of Nature are dispensed with,
the enlightened hammer of the geologist can do very
little by itself. In most cases it can but follow where
commercial enterprise leads the way, and be grateful for
permission to rummage among the debris, when pickaxe
and blasting have done their work.

The chances against a fossil's being found to any
useful purpose in quarrying are very numerous. The
rock must chance to split so as to disclose it ; the work-
man must chance to notice it ; he must chance to have
knowledge enough to think it worth notice ; have time
enough to stop from his work and take it ; have sense
enough to keep it safe ; have memory enough to recol-
lect where he hides it ; and, lastly, have the luck to
meet with a customer who knows its scientific value.

Numbers of rare specimens must continually be con-
signed to the furnace and the limekiln, or buried under
mounds and hills of refuse. Sometimes the character
of the matrix, by its hardness or its softness, makes it
impossible to disengage the fossil without complete dis-
figurement ; sometimes the fossil itself is so fragmentary
as rather to confuse than to teach. Dr. Hooker gives
an instance, in which a geologist assigned three pieces

THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD. 145

of fossil-leaf to plants of three different genera, which a
subsequent observer maintained to be merely the separated
portions of a single leaf of one and the same plant l.

In the slates and limestones of Torquay, full as they
are of marine fossils, no fish-remains have been identified,
with one exception. Yet these rocks have been searched
by numerous sharp eyes and clever hands, professional
as well as amateur, with regular investigation, and in
the sometimes more successful trifling of idle moments.
It is worthy of note that the one exception is no
scarcely decipherable relic, the nature of which might
remain an open question, but a beautiful and finely-
preserved scale of pJiyllolepls concentricus 2. Had there
been only one fish in the ' Devonian' waters of the neigh-
bourhood, the one fish must have had more than one
scale ; yet none of the others are forthcoming. The
science of to-morrow may find them ; to the science of
to-day they are lost irrecoverably.

The still-living varieties of the oyster are a miserable
remnant of the 255 fossil species from the chalk
described in Coquand's recent work. Professor Flower,
in reviewing this monograph, remarks, that ' with these
mollusks, numerous as they are, there are no forms that
can fairly be recognized as transitional.' But inasmuch
as the succession in time of these species is well-estab-
lished by the different zones of the chalk in which they
are found, we must either accept some nine or ten suc-
cessive creations concerned in the production of oysters,

1 Address to the British Association, 1868, p. 66 of the Report.

2 In the Collection of W. Pengelly, Esq., F.R.S.

146 THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD.

or we must allow the various fossil species to be con-
nected with one another by descent. Upon the latter
alternative, a whole chain of transitional links must once
have existed between the earliest form of oyster and the
latest ; and though many of these links have been pre-
served,, still more must have been lost, or deprived of
their distinctive features ; so that here, where the geo-
logical record is, to all appearance, unusually perfect, its
actual imperfection is more clearly than ever established.

To conclude, then, in few words : — The majority of
dead creatures never become fossils at all.

The majority of fossils perish miserably in their
hiding-places.

Of those that are saved, the majority cannot be got
at by man.

Of thdse that can be, the majority never are.

Of those that are, a large number prove illegible ; a
large number are fragments ; a large number duplicates ;
and, lastly, a large number fall into hands which again
lose or destroy them.

We cannot therefore argue, because fossils of such-
and-such forms of life have never been found, that such-
and-such forms never existed. They may have existed,
and left no fossils. The fossils may have been left, and
subsequently destroyed. The fossils may be undestroyed,
but never have been found. The sum-total of acquisi-
tions is small, but precious ; it never can make a com-
plete record, but it may make one sufficiently ample to
establish the Darwinian Theory, or to replace it by some
still wider and still simpler generalization.

DAEWINISM,

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD.

SIR, — A friendly correspondent has done me the
honour of noticing* my lecture on the Noachian Flood
in more than one contribution to your columns. The
easy way in which he admits the possibility of a partial
deluge and of pre- Adamite races, together with other
symptoms of liberal thought and a trust in the conclu-
sions of science, makes me tremble to think what would
have befallen him had he lived ' in happier ages of the
Church.5 At the same time these dangerous and lament-
able tendencies towards free-thinking make it needless
for me to urge upon him those other and further con-
clusions towards which he is evidently of his own accord
rapidly finding his way. But there are numerous per-
sons who may read his pleasantly-written letters without
perceiving how very far gone he himself is from the
original simplicity of an unquestioning faith, and may,
therefore, fancy that he is a champion of orthodoxy
putting down an anti- Scriptural disputant, or showing
at least, if he shows nothing more, that the questions in
dispute are still too unsettled and vague for plain folks
to meddle with or understand. Such a result is directly

L 3

148 DARWINISM.

opposed to that which my lecture aimed at, which was
to show plain folks that the subject not only could be
understood, but ought to be; to convince them, if pos-
sible, that on this subject, and perhaps a few others,
they were bound by all the laws of truth and honesty
either to learn what there was to be learned, or for the
future to hold their peace. Two striking examples were
quoted, from the lives of Columbus and Galileo, to
show that theologians had dragged the Holy Scriptures
through the dirt, by presuming to use their authority
for a purpose for which it was never designed, in a pro-
vince to which it never lays claim, namely, the trial of
evidence in natural science. It seems to have escaped
the notice of your correspondent, that geography and
astronomy were no more advanced in those days than
geology and palaeontology in our own. But will any
one presume to tell us that the Bible is a match for
struggling infant sciences, and may be quoted to contra-
dict, suppress, and crush them, but that when they are
full-grown it must in turn succumb to their dictation ?
That is indeed the principle on which, in the old Greek
comedy, the son justifies his thrashing his aged father,
because in bygone years, when their strength was dif-
ferent, his aged father had thrashed him. Only this, we
must remember, is the invention of an incomparable
satirist, meant for avoidance, not for imitation.

It may be remarked, by the way, that in taking
objection to the opening sentence of the lecture, my
friendly opponent seems to have misconceived its pur-
port. « Darwinism implies,' it says, ' almost throughout,

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 149

that no universal deluge has drowned our globe, either
within the last ten thousand years, or even within a
period indefinitely longer.' Now, since certainly no
Darwinian accepts the old views about the Deluge, this
sentence could scarcely have been written for the benefit
of Darwinians; and it would have been a very unso-
phisticated piece of rhetoric to say to a popular audience
— ' Darwinism is true, so you see the old views about
the Deluge are false,' seeing that the popular audience
might have disposed of the argument by the simple plan
of interchanging the two adjectives. But the lecture
opens with an acknowledgment that a recent universal
deluge would be an argument sufficient to upset the
Darwinian Theory, prior to showing that so important
an objection to the theory is itself on numerous in-
dependent grounds untenable. Some arguments are
equally in harmony with Darwinism, and inconsistent
with the universality of the Noachian Flood. One of
these is to be found in the existing diversities of the
human race : but your correspondent appears to suppose
that the element of time has nothing to do with the
theory of development, when he says that ' to represent
the divergence of races as impossible in any given pe-
riod, however short, is strange ground for a Darwinian
to take up/ He might as well require an engineer to
believe that an engine had been driven at six hundred
miles an hour, because the engineer himself believed it
to have been driven at the rate of fifty or sixty.
He only half states the argument against a common
Noachian descent founded on the difference between the

150 DARWINISM.

Papuans and the Malays. The striking point is, that
these two contrasted races are separated by almost the
very same line which separates two great zoological pro-
vinces. On the old supposition of migration from the
ark, that the lower animals, as well as men, should have
' agreed to differ' on the opposite sides of a narrow
deep-sea channel, was indeed a remarkable bundle of
coincidences.

That traditions of a deluge are wide-spread is acknow-
ledged. That they are traditions of a universal deluge
neither is nor can be proved. That with all their local
variations and discrepancies they point to one and the
same deluge, is a question of probability, much more
proper to follow than to lead the main argument. We
shall not gain much for science or religion out of the
story of Deucalion's flood, which attributes the origin
of the new stock of men and women to the pebbles that
Deucalion and his wife threw over their shoulders ; an
ancestry surely less dignified even than that from the
orang-outang and the gorilla with which Mr. Pengelly
and Professor Huxley are supposed to have mortified the
dignity of mankind.

It is surprising that so many good Christian people
should feel touchy on this question of an enormously
remote ancestry, although they would, upon occasion,
join with earnestness and true humility in the confession
that ( dust we are, and unto dust shall we return.' In
their reluctance even to examine the real truth of the
question, they fail to perceive that the true sons of the
Prophets are not their lineal descendants, but those who

THE NOACHIAN FLOOD. 151

inherit their wisdom ; and that ' a man's a man for a'
that,' although his great-grandfather should prove to
have been a lob-worm or a toad-stool.

Too much injury to religion has been done already by
confounding false science with Scriptural truth, to make
it either ' fair or reverent ' to hold back from protesting,
whenever occasion offers, against the mischief. Persons
accustomed with presumptuous or careless ignorance
to denounce geology and Darwinism, and the results
connected with them, may have had their consciences
soothed and encouraged by your correspondent. My
charitable object is to make those consciences uneasy
again1.

March 23rd, 1870.

1 This and the three following letters were originally addressed to
the Editor of the Torquay Directory, in answer to a gentleman who,
in company with large multitudes of his fellow-Britons, both male and
female, holds and upon occasion upholds a mass of opinions on Science
and Religion, any one of which opinions individually may be right or
may be wrong, but which, when held collectively, seem to my humble
understanding to be logically incoherent.

152 DARWINISM.

SCIENCE AND RELIGION,

SIB, — One of your correspondents has pithily
observed, that if he has denounced Darwinism, it is
simply because he believes it to be untrue. Could
you not. Sir, in the interests of science and Christian
charity, prevail upon him to recal his denunciation, by
showing him that intellectual error requires not to be
denounced, but to be set right ? The prejudice against
Darwinism has undoubtedly arisen from a conflict — real
or apparent — between its conclusions and certain pas-
sages of Scripture. Such a prejudice arose against the
earlier advancement of astronomy and geology, and the
new conclusions arrived at were ' denounced in the in-
terests of Christian orthodoxy/ simply because those who
denounced them believed them to be untrue. It is a little
sad, though withal a little amusing, to observe how many
persons, eminent at once for piety and Protestantism,
inveigh against the Papal assumption of infallibility,
while assuming an infallibility of their own. They know
precisely what is Scripture doctrine and what is not.
They know exactly what measure of inspiration God has
been pleased to give to this writer or the other. At one
time they are sure that a science is not true, because the
Bible does not speak in accordance with the language

SCIENCE AND RELIGION. 153

of the science ; at another time they discover that the
science had all along been very clearly revealed in the
Bible under a disguise. It unfortunately escapes their
notice that by this means, while they are reverently
denouncing the science 4 in the interests of Christian
orthodoxy/ they are under a disguise denouncing the
Bible.

' In my view,' says your correspondent above referred
to, ' the Mosaic writers were divinely taught, and knew
what they wrote about with a most perfect knowledge.'
In one sense, no doubt, they did know what they were
writing about — they knew that it was religion, and,
therefore, they never pretended to ' enunciate ' science,
whether false or true ; but in any other sense to say that
they knew what they wrote about with a most perfect
knowledge, is to assert what is highly improbable, and
cannot be proved. Either it makes every writer a kind of
god, so far as the attribute of infallibility is concerned,
or it destroys all independence of testimony. To claim
for them a perfect knowledge of which they made no
use, except to mislead the world for thousands of years,
is surely to commit the capital offence of { inciting to
hatred and contempt' of their writings. How alien,
moreover, is it to the spirit of the writers themselves
— men who are constantly confessing their own errors,
doubts, and perplexities ; men whose path in moral, let
alone intellectual excellence, was not always direct and
straightforward, and who knew and owned their infirmity
of nature. How contrary, too, to every analogy of life
is this notion of a Book, written in perfect language by

154 DARWINISM.

men of perfect knowledge in every subject that may be
even incidentally referred to in its pages. For not only
is man an imperfect being, but his language is an im-
perfect instrument of his imperfect thoughts. His con-
science is fallible ; his understanding is fallible ; let the
Book which guides him be as infallible as you please, he
will still bring it back to the inherent imperfection of
things human by misreading and misconceiving it. That
the law of God is perfect, follows from the very thought
of God ; that any particular exposition of that law to
finite minds either is or can be perfect, is almost, or
altogether, a contradiction in terms. Far from knowing
all about modern systems of Botany, Moses did not even
know all about religion as the later prophets knew ; nor
did they know as we know. Their mission would prob-
ably have been hidden rather than forwarded, had they
been able to ( enunciate ' scientific truths in advance of
their age. Their new views in religion were often
roundly abused; their new views in science would hardly
have escaped denouncing.

As a caution to the unwary, it should be remarked
that the opposition supposed to exist between Mr.
Darwin's phrase ' Natural Selection/ and Mr. Herbert
Spencer's ' Survival of the Fittest/ is purely imaginary.
The latter, no doubt, is the more philosophically
accurate, the former is a convenient, popular, and telling
metaphor. They both express the same conception of
a large and wonderful group of facts. Perhaps it will
be scarcely necessary to caution the unwary against
taking for granted that ' vestigiform structures are

SCIENCE AND RELIGION. 155

proofs of a typical formation ;' but if they are, they
prove that in the typical formation of man a tail was
included, which would be such a disgrace to the typical
formation as would prevent all worthy and decorously-
minded persons from believing in typical formations for
a moment.

1 56 DARWINISM,

DARWINISM, AND THE FIRST
VERTEBRATE.

SIR, — Your amiable and earnest correspondent does
not seem to understand that men like Darwin and
Wallace, who have spent years of patient labour and
thought in amassing observations of nature, and
grouping together the facts out of which their theories
have been formed, have a right to ' an air of philo-
sophical superiority,' if they choose to display it, when
questions are asked or arguments put forward which
imply ignorance or misconception of all they have been
doing in the interests of science. When Mr. Wallace
' very coolly' asserts that he sees no force in an argu-
ment, it will as a rule be advisable for the argument
either to withdraw itself from the public gaze, or get
itself stated a little more lucidly. Again, when Mr.
Darwin 'rashly affirms that he has distinct evidence"
of a thing, it would perhaps be a good plan to get the
Commissioners in Lunacy to examine the astonishing
number of hard-headed men whom he induces to believe
his unfounded assertion.

But now that I have prevailed with your corre-
spondent to give up ' denouncing' Darwinism, I wish

AND THE FIRST VERTEBRATE. 157

further to press upon him the advantage of ceasing to
' deny ' it, and, above all, of ceasing to deny it with any
admixture of religious phraseology in his denial. He
has himself allowed that sciences, seemingly most at
variance with the language of Scripture, have come to
be reconciled with it; he must see, therefore, that the
appearances of Scriptural language can be no objection
to Darwinism or to any other scientific theory whatever.
Darwinism is founded on the comparison of an enormous
number of well-ascertained facts issuing in a few gene-
ralizations of extreme importance if true, but also of
considerable importance, even if far short of the truth.
Every hypothesis which will explain a large number of
hitherto disconnected facts, though it may be in itself
erroneous, helps and guides men in the end towards
the true explanation. To ' deny,"* or, in other words, to
make a public protest against such hypotheses without
having anything better or equal, or a tenth part as
good to offer in their stead, is to be a hinderer of
science, and, instead of being really pious and reverent,
is a very pretty, though doubtless unconscious imitation
of that rhetoric which, because of the acknowledged
difficulties in every form of religion, ' denies' religion
altogether.

That your correspondent does lay just a little tiny
claim to infallibility is clear from the very letter in
which he modestly disowns it : for he therein prays
always to be enabled to think and act about the inter-
pretation of Scripture as he now thinks and acts, which
would be a foolish prayer, if his present thoughts and

actions might possibly be wrong- or misguided. And
yet he differs from a very large number of divines, in
supposing that the prophets, for instance, knew all
that their own prophecies portended ; so that if all those
worthy divines be right in assuming that the inspired
writers did not always ' know what they wrote about/
then your correspondent, who makes the contrary sup-
position, must be wrong, — and there will still be some
hope for Darwinism.

It is scarcely fair to ask for space to answer his
momentous challenge about the first vertebrate, or to
explain the thoroughly sceptical form which the chal-
lenge assumes. When the Apostle Thomas said, ' except
I see the print of the nails, I will not believe/ he had
no logical claim to receive the proof of the resurrection
which he demanded,, because a priori it would have been
quite fair to suppose our Lord's resurrection-body would
retain no such signs of previous outrage ; and it is a
kindred mistake to suppose that the truth of the
development-theory in any way hinges upon the pos-
sibility of constructing an effigy of the first vertebrate
either as it actually was, or to suit an anti-Darwinian's
notions of what it ought to have been. According to
the development-theory, it must have been the product
of innumerable antecedent factors, itself the heir of
many far-descended and often modified characters ; and
yet, for all that, it will probably have been a far simpler
organism than the simplest modern vertebrate. It
is well known by what insensible gradations the natural
kingdoms and the classes in those great divisions pass,

AND THE FIRST VERTEBRATE. 159

so to speak, into one another ; it need, therefore, cause
no surprise if the primary vertebrate of all the ver-
tebrates should prove neither to have been fish, flesh,
fowl, nor good red herring ; but for an actual specimen
of a living vertebrate that can neither ' swim, crawl, fly,
nor walk,' I cannot do better than refer my philoso-
phical opponent to a new-born baby.

160 THE FIRST VERTEBRATE,

THE FIRST VERTEBRATE, AND THE
BEGINNING OF REASON.

SIR, — Against your correspondent's preference for
vernacular terms may be set a remark by Dr. Whewell,
that ' the loose and infantine grasp of common language
cannot hold objects steadily enough for scientific
examination, or lift them from one stage of gene-
ralization to another. They must be secured by the
rigid mechanism of a scientific phraseology.' To say
that ' the first vertebrate must have been the product
of innumerable antecedent factors,' is, perhaps, an
expression more puzzling than if one merely said that
'its immediate progenitors' were 'a single pair;' but
then it has the advantage of being considerably more
suggestive, and a good deal more to the purpose.
Among these ' factors ' of a living creature parents
commonly find a place, — two parents generally ; in some
cases, only one ; in some cases, not even one, if we are
to believe the advocates of spontaneous generation, or
the still popular view in regard to the Creation. To
the parental factors of any particular offspring must be

AND THE BEGINNING OF REASON. l6l

added those which are constituted by food and climate
and a multitude of changes and chances in the whole
course of its existence. Some characters it may derive
from remote ancestors, transmitted through, though
not developed in, its ' immediate progenitors/ It is
now forty years since two French anatomists showed the
possibility, or even probability, of a connection between
the molluscous cuttle-fish and the vertebrate type ; and,
considering the propensity of the highest vertebrate
for perpetually squirting ink at those who meddle with
it, most readers of controversy will think the instance
well selected. Those who wish to be told what the first
vertebrate was probably like, should first accurately
define what they mean by a vertebrate. Is a jointed
backbone the only essential? And if so, how many
vertebrae are essentially requisite ? A creature with
two vertebra would be as much a vertebrate as a creature
with three. What shall we say, then, of a creature
possessing, if we may use the expression, but a single
vertebra ? It would not have a jointed backbone. It
would not be a vertebrate. Yet, by the simple multi-
plication of similar parts, in accordance with a thousand
analogies, a vertebrate could be developed from it. By
the differentiation of these similar parts, which not only
might follow, but must follow, a great variety of species
could easily be evolved. Those who really take an
interest in the problems connected with this subject,
and whose ' convictions' are not too strong and absolute
to be swayed by ascertained facts and logical reasoning
will do well to study the ' Principles of Biology,'

M

1 62 THE FIRST VERTEBRATE,

Herbert Spencer. They will there see by what extra-
ordinarily simple gradations the lowliest organisms are
connected with higher and the highest forms. They
will there find that ' modification of characters' is a
doctrine less intricate than might be supposed, even if
it cannot be wholly explained in words of one syllable.

If any intelligent persons can discern the undulatory
theory of light and the modern system of botany in the
first chapter of Genesis, no one would wish to complain
of their ingenuity, unless they proposed to support a
particular theory of inspiration by these discoveries.
But then, if the theories of science are only c the un-
dulations of human opinion,1 it becomes necessary to
ask why the botanical undulation of the present day
is accepted as a witness, and the Darwinian undulation
rejected. Had the famous Pagan critic, to whom your
correspondent ' R. T. E.' refers, imagined the sentence,
' Let there be light, and there was light,' to be a
scientific description instead of a theological one, we
may feel sure that he would have condemned it for
bombast instead of praising it for its majesty of ex-
pression. As it is, he does not declare it to be the
sublimest sentence ever uttered, but remarks that
'the lawgiver of the Jews, no common man, having
comprehended the power of the divinity according
to the just conception of it, unfolded it agreeably
thereto,' both in this and in the parallel phrase, { Let
the dry land appear, and it was so/ That all things
which are and which become, both are what they are
and become what they become by the simple fiat of the

AND THE BEGINNING OF REASON. 163

supreme God, is a piece of elementary philosophy and
religion, which, I conceive, Sir, none of your corre-
spondents can have any wish to dispute ; but that the
writer of Genesis anticipated by his scientific knowledge
the epoch of Copernicus and Newton, Young and Fresnel ,
Linnaeus, De Jussieu and Cuvier, is not only not proven
by the few simple phrases of his writings that have
anything remotely to do with the branches of science
which they so nobly illustrated ; much more than this,
it would be a disgrace and heavy imputation upon him
had he known all they believed, and yet expressed
himself so badly as to leave the world for thousands
of years in ignorance of the very germs of the true
theories, so obscurely that no one should ever have
dreamed that he was alluding to the true theories till
after they had been independently discovered.

Your correspondent fXn' will find both his pleasure
and his profit in reading the chapter on Instinct in
c Darwin's Origin of Species.' It will give him some
idea, I say not, how the reasoning faculty was first
acquired, but how it may have been gradually developed.
By a careful study of the same work he, and many
others who need the knowledge, will see that in accord-
ance with Darwinism the deterioration of a species is
quite possible. His quaintly expressed argument about
Adam's ' immediate progenitor' omits to notice that in
the moral world it is a step upward to become capable of
sinning, just as in the physical world it is a step upward
to become capable of dying, so that the wretchedest
man with reason is higher in the scale than the noblest

M 2

164 THE FIRST VERTEBRATE.

dog, and the humblest plant than the costliest and most
beautiful stone. The other difficulty which he puts
forward of an abrupt transition between the first man
with reason and the parents of such a man without
reason is a difficulty, like that in regard to the first
vertebrate, one of words rather than of facts. As with
the origin of language and of languages, as with the
origin of the natural kingdoms and of every individual
form of life, so with the origin of reason ; could we see
the whole series of steps, with their infinitely numerous
and sometimes almost infinitely fine and subtle points of
discrimination, we should probably be unable to fix
upon any one definite division and say, here noise ends
and articulate language begins; or, here Saxon ends
and English begins ; or, this is the top of instinct, and
Ihis the dawn of reason.

OYSTERS OF THE CHALK,
AND THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT1.

THE interesting notice in your last number, of M.
Coquand's ' Oysters of the Chalk/ draws inferences
unfavourable to the theory of development or evolution
which scarcely seem warranted by the facts. It need
not be ' difficult to imagine the creature as existing
under such conditions, that one species, while engaged
in ' ' the struggle for existence/' should starve out and
extinguish another/ for however widely we may find
a fossil species dispersed, it is not probable that it
occupied the whole of its territory at one and the same
time, and in the limited area occupied immediately
before its extinction, new varieties may have prevailed
over and displaced the old by some slightly superior adap-
tation to the food-supply of the region. The extinction
of any particular species may in some instances have
been due to the extinction, or loss by other means, of its
own appropriate food. Again, it is not necessary to
suppose that the hinge, or the internal or external
structure of the shell of an oyster, has been altered by

1 Reprinted from 'Nature,' No. 30.

166 OUSTERS OF THE CHALK,

what may be called the direct action of c natural
selection,' since by the well-established principle of
' correlation' the variation in one part of an organism is
nearly or quite certain to produce variations in other
parts. ' If any such change did occur,' it is argued, ' it
must have been per saltum> since with these mollusks,
numerous as they are, there are no forms that can
fairly be recognised as transitional.' But this appeal
to the evidence of facts is somewhat premature. The
immense difference pointed out between the geological
records of England and France in regard to these very
oysters of the chalk, leaves it perfectly open for us to
suppose that even the comparatively full French record
is itself exceedingly imperfect, and that the transitional
forms have either not been preserved, or remain yet to
be discovered. Mr. Darwin gives reasons for believing
that when variation once begins it continues with some
vigour ; hence, between two settled wide-spread species
connected genealogically together we might expect a
large number of transitional varieties, each represented
by only a few individuals, so that the whole number of
these transitional forms might well be lost to the
genealogical record.

Finally, the objection from the scarcity of oysters at
the present day, compared with the great abundance of
species in the past, does not really touch the theory of
development, which is concerned to explain how species
come into existence, not how they go out of it. That
varieties, species, genera, have been superseded or ex-
tinguished, within longer or shorter periods, is a fact

AND THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT. l6j

admitted on all hands. The general principle of natural
selection will account for this in the rough, maintaining
as it does that fresh varieties, species, and genera better
adapted to the surrounding circumstances have arisen.,
and by their superior adaptation unavoidably ousted the
older forms. Digging down into the records of history
we find a time when the Romans were supreme in the
civilized world ; no two consecutive years of the interval
present any remarkable divergence of the prevailing
conditions, yet now we may say of that Roman supremacy
in the civilized world, that, ' like the Mastodon, it is a
thing of the past.'

Torquay, May 14, 1870.

THE MATHEMATICAL TEST

OF

NATURAL SELECTION1.

THE soul of many an anti-Darwinian will have been
cheered by Mr. A. W. Bennett's paper on ' The Theory of
Natural Selection from a Mathematical Point of View/
It is, in fact, a very admirable piece of special pleading,
based on a skilful assumption of premisses which, to a
careless or biassed observer, might seem indisputable.

The tendency to variation is spoken of as something
very mysterious, of which no adequate account has ever
yet been given. Yet the very simple explanation is no
bad one, — that where two parents are concerned in the
production of any offspring, the product in part re-
sembling each of the producers must of necessity also
in part differ from each of them. Between the parents
themselves, Mr. Herbert Spencer has shown that differ-
ences of age and external circumstances would ensure
the requisite want of resemblance in the absence of any
other cause.

1 The rigid test of mathematical calculation' is then

1 Reprinted from ' Nature,' No. 56.

MATHEMATICAL TEST OF NATURAL SELECTION. 169

applied to the case of mimetic butterflies, with the view
of showing that they could not have been produced
simply according1 to the laws of variation, inheritance,
and natural selection. In the application of this rigid
test,, the very first step is a perfectly gratuitous assump-
tion, { that it would require, at the very lowest calcula-
tion, one thousand steps to enable the normal Leptalis to
put on its protective form.' Who is to prove that fifty
differences would be insufficient ? An interval of a thou-
sand years might be granted for establishing each one of
these variations. Suppose even fifty thousand, instead of
only fifty steps, to be necessary, it is another gratuitous
assumption that ' the smallest change in the direction
of the It/iomia, which we can conceive on any hypothesis
to be beneficial to the Leptalis, is at the very lowest
one-fiftieth of the change required to produce perfect
resemblance.' How small a difference must decide the
choice made by a donkey placed equidistant between
two bundles of hay ! Certainly, then, a bird on the
wing, having to choose amidst myriads of butterflies,
may be determined by an almost infinitesimal distinction.
Further, though the whole change may be produced by
an immense number of small changes, it is not necessary
to suppose that all the changes will be equally small.
It is merely begging the question to assume that the
first change could not possibly be large enough to be of
any use. And if it may be of use, the whole mathematical
calculation, based on its being useless, breaks down from
the beginning. Again, since the Leptalis may have
spent one million years in arriving at its present likeness

17° THE MATHEMATICAL TEST

to the present Itkomia> it is impossible to assert that the
normal forms of the two butterflies were as wide apart
at the beginning of that period as they are at present.
The mimicry having once set in, might be retained by
parallel variations. This, indeed, cannot fail to be the
case, if the protection is to be a lasting one ; for when
the Itkomia varies in outward appearance, unless the
Leptalis varies in the same direction, the resemblance
will be lost. This progressive mimicry would be more
valuable than an imitation in which no changes occurred,
since the enemies of a mimetic species would in time
become aware of a fraud which had no variations at its
command, as birds are said now-a-days to pounce without
hesitation upon caterpillars which very much resemble
twigs 1. Even ' a rough imitation' may be useful in the
first instance, and yet when hostile eyes have long been
exercised, and have acquired greater and greater sharp-
ness, finally nothing less than absolute identity of appear-
ance may be thoroughly effective. Thus the perfecting
of the resemblance will be no ' mere freak of Nature,'
nor shall we be ' landed in the dilemma that the last
stages are comparatively useless' in this procedure.

The array of figures brought forward to prove that the
Leptalu could not have made twenty steps of variation
in the direction of the Itkomia by chance, would be much
to the purpose if any exponent of the theory of Natural

1 Applying to these caterpillars Mr. A Murray's recent hypothesis
for explaining 'mimicry' by hybridization, we should draw the poetical
inference that a happy marriage is possible between a butterfly and
a rose-bush.

OF NATURAL SELECTION. IJ I

Selection had ever argued or supposed that it could.
The calculation takes it for granted that the theory is
erroneous, instead of proving1 it to be in error. Upon
this assumption, it might have been put far more
strongly, only that a stronger way of putting it would
have borne on the face of it the suspicion of some in-
herent fallacy. It begins by supposing that there are
c twenty different ways in which a Leptalls may vary,
only one of these being in the direction ultimately re-
quired;' it might quite as truthfully, or even more so,
have said a thousand instead of twenty, and then the
second step would have given the chance as only one in
a million, instead of one in four hundred. But while
the theory of Natural Selection speaks of numerous
minute useful variations, Mr. Bennett will not allow
that combination of terms. Let them be numerous and
minute, if you will, he says ; but if small, they cannot
be useful ; if useful, they cannot be small. He claims
to have Mr. Darwin's own word for it, that a large va-
riation would not be permanent, as though Mr. Darwin
had said, 'living creatures have come to be what they
are by successive useful deviations of structure perma-
nently propagated, but no large deviations are perma-
nent, and no small ones are useful/ It is quite obvious
that in the use of relative terms, such as great and small,
Mr. Darwin neither intended to stultify himself nor has
done so. A thing may be large enough to be useful
without being large as compared with something twenty
times its own size ; and a man may be said to have a
huge brain in a very small body, although the body in

172 [THE MATHEMATICAL TEST, &c.

solid content far exceeds the brain. When Mr. Darwin
says that ( Natural Selection always acts with extreme
slowness, he does not imply that its steps must therefore
be so numerous as to be too small to confer any advan-
tage. This would be a contradiction in terms. But
the steps may be exceedingly small notwithstanding-,
and also sometimes separated by enormous intervals
of time from one another.

In introducing his own explanation of thing's, Mr.
Bennett affirms that ' resemblances, and resemblances
of the most wonderful and perfect kind' in the vegetable
kingdom, ' are in no sense mimetic or protective.' This
may be so, but it can hardly be said to be proved.
When he speaks of ' man's reason ' having ' assisted him
so to modify his body as to adapt himself to the circum-
stances with which he is surrounded/ and suggests that
the instinct of animals may have assisted them also to
modify their bodies by slow and gradual degrees to the
same purpose, it is difficult to imagine the process in-
tended, and still more difficult to see how ' the slow and
gradual degrees' will escape the rigid test of mathe-
matical calculation which Mr. Bennett has elsewhere
applied ; for if the steps are great, they ought not to be
permanent ; and if small, they ought not to be useful.
A theory which makes it possible for a bee to ' modify
its proboscis ' by instinct, or for a man to treat his nose
in the same manner by reason, seems harder of digestion
than the Darwinian.

Torquay, Nov. 12, 1870.

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

A review in ' Nature,' by Mr. A. W. Bennett, of
Mr. Mivart's ' Genesis of Species,' contains the follow-
ing passage : —

'It behoves, therefore, every Darwinian to satisfy
himself that either Mr. Mivart's premisses or his line
of argument is unsound.

' The objections brought forward by the author
are summed up as follows : — (i) That Natural Selection
is incompetent to account for the incipient stages of
useful structures. (2) That it does not harmonize
with the co-existence of closely similar structures of
diverse origin. (3) That there are grounds for think-
ing that specific differences may be developed sud-
denly instead of gradually. (4) That the opinion that
species have definite though different limits to their
variability is still tenable. (5) That certain fossil
transitional forms are absent which might have been
expected to be present. (6) That some facts of geo-
logical distribution supplement other difficulties. (7)
That the objection drawn from the physiological differ-
ence between " species" and "races" still exists unre-
futed. (8) That there are many remarkable phenomena
in organic forms upon which Natural Selection throws

J74 THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

no light whatever, but the explanations of which, if
they could be attained, might throw light upon specific
origination.

' If these objections are not new, they are at least
sustained by new arguments. They are evidently of
very unequal value. The third is very difficult of
proof or disproof. The fifth may be true in our pre-
sent state of knowledge, but would be very unsafe by
itself as the basis of an argument. The first, second,
and eighth are of greatest value, and are those which
Mr. Mivart has most closely worked out1.'

The review containing the above passage did not
appear till the present volume was on the very eve
of publication. Even a hasty glance at Mr. Mivart 's
book is sufficient to show that Mr. Bennett has
not over-estimated its importance and value. It is
scarcely possible here to do more than make a
few reflections upon its general scope, in reply to the
challenge offered to Darwinians. The first objection,
as it stands in the summary, wears the appearance
of a misconception. It is almost certain to produce
one. When Mr. Darwin attributes the origin of
species to Natural Selection, he includes expressly,
and where not expressly, by obvious implication, the
principle of Variability. He never maintains that
the first or any subsequent stage of a useful structure
can be produced by Natural Selection. Natural Selec-
tion only operates to preserve. Without Variation it
would have no sphere in which to operate, so that
1 ' Nature,' No. 65.

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES. 175

from one point of view Mr. Darwin may be said to
attribute the origin of species to Variation rather
than Natural Selection. He is, moreover, far from
ignoring the influence of other principles, such as
Inheritance, Reversion, and Correlation, upon the
total result. He may be thought inconsistent with
himself in laying stress at times upon the minuteness
of the variations which he supposes to have slowly
accumulated into specific differences, and at other times
admitting the sudden appearance of variations which
may be considered as large ones, and which are cer-
tainly striking. But in the first instance the great and
almost overwhelming difficulty was to induce a belief
that forms specifically different could be connected with
one another by descent. By showing that a multitude
of small differences accumulated would make a large
total difference, he made as it were a bridge for the
existing incredulity. It now appears that the gulf
may be passed with easy strides instead of the little
slow steps at first thought necessary. This fortifies the
doctrine of the Transmutation of Species, in proportion
as there are fewer ' missing links,' fewer transitional
forms that need to be accounted for.

Of ' the coexistence of closely similar structures of
diverse origin,' illustrated so forcibly by the instance of
the eye, ( in at least three independent lines of descent,
the Mollusca, the Annulosa, and the Vertebrata/ it can
scarcely be denied that Natural Selection alone would
be an inadequate explanation. But here again it should
be observed that Darwinism does not attribute every-

176 THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

thing to Natural Selection. It assumes, what must be
allowed, that ^7ariations occur. In obedience to what
laws those variations themselves are produced is an
interesting speculation, and a most important subject
of inquiry. That such, laws or conditions of Variation
exist no one can doubt, unless he has been seduced by
Ovidian metamorphoses to believe in trees bleeding
human blood and human foreheads branching with the
antlers of the stag. A knowledge of those conditions
might fully explain the coexistence of similar structures
of diverse origin, consistently with the principle of
Natural Selection. The ignorance of them is scarcely a
proof that such coexistence does not harmonize with it.

The objection that giraffes, which profited by long
necks in a time of drought, would find them a dis-
advantage subsequently, as requiring a greatly increased
size and strength of muscles to support them, overlooks
the law of correlation, by assuming that the elongated
neck would be out of proportion to the other conditions
of the creature's fabric.

Mr. Mivart's fourth objection seems at least an ex-
tremely improbable opinion. He refers to Mr. Darwin's
expression, that the goose appears to have a highly in-
flexible organization, as if he himself thought it possible
for a species at length to attain to an organization com-
pletely inflexible. Such a view would imply two parents
exactly like one another, producing offspring exactly
like themselves ; and of such exact likenesses no known
families afford examples.

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES. 177

The seventh objection recalls the still unexplained
physiological difference between ' species ' and ' races,'
unions between the former being sterile, and between
the latter fertile. In this branch of the subject there
is much scope still for inquiry. Some of the difficulty
may be due to a trick played us by language. True
species have been defined to be those that are not fertile
together ; and from the definition it follows that races
which are fertile together are not true species. But the
question is obscured by the use of the two different
words ( races' and ( species,' the real issue being, whether
races that are and races that are not fertile together can
originate in the same way. The subject in its other
bearings has been largely discussed by Mr. Darwin
in his work on ' Animals and Plants under Domesti-
cation.'

It remains only to say a few words on the argument
from the calculation of chances which is supposed to
reduce the survival by natural selection of any particular
useful variation almost or altogether to an arithmetical
impossibility. * The advantage/ we are told, ( whatever
it may be, is utterly outbalanced by numerical inferiority.
A million creatures are born : ten thousand survive to
produce offspring. One of the million has twice as good
a chance as any other of surviving : but the chances are
fifty to one against the gifted individual's being one of
the hundred survivors. No doubt the chances are twice
as great against any one other individual, but this does
not prevent their being enormously in favour of some

178 THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

average individual1.' In this calculation it seems to be
overlooked that every individual will vary more or less,
and that out of a million variations there is a very
great probability that one should give much more than
the amount of advantage which the calculation sup-
poses. Nor does it follow that a variation conferring
great advantage in the struggle for life should be great
in comparison with a creature's general organization.
There is a very probable alternative, that when the
advantages are exceedingly slight they may be shared
by a great many, and that when falling to the lot of
only one or a few, they may be exceedingly important.
The doctrines of reversion and inheritance are pressed
into the service of the arithmetical argument to show
that the acquired advantage would be gradually di-
minished and finally lost. But Mr. Darwin tells us
that, ' when a new character appears, it is occasionally
from the first well-fixed2.' The chances upon one
principle that a character will not be transmitted are
not worth consideration, if, under the operation of some
other principle known or unknown, the transmission of
the character actually takes place. We are asked
whether one white man, introduced into an island
otherwise inhabited only by negroes, would be likely to
give the whole island eventually a white, or even -a
yellow, population. Without trying the experiment,
we may perhaps safely answer in the negative. But

1 'Genesis of Species,' p. 57, quotation (somewhat obscure as it stands)
from the North British Review for June, 1867.

2 'Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 63.

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES. 179

the illustration loses much or all of its point, when we
consider how little the circumstances of the experiment
would correspond with what ordinarily happens in
nature, how little we know whether the white man's
colour would be really an advantage or the reverse, and
how complicated are the differences between a white
man and a negro. If the blackness of the negro be
due to Natural Selection in any considerable degree, we
should expect it to suit the conditions which surround
him in his native habitation better than a white skin
would do. In this case the pallor introduced into the
breed by a solitary stranger would gradually disappear
in obedience to the principles of Natural Selection, not
in opposition to them. To take once more the instance
of the giraffe ; the useful variation is here by hypothesis
an elongated neck ; it is conceivable that out of large
herds the few survivors of a drought might be exclu-
sively such as possessed this advantage to some extent.
These would probably transmit to a large majority of
their descendants the tendency to vary in a given
direction which they had themselves all more or less
exhibited. Their progeny, moreover, would be placed
in exceptionally favourable circumstances by the very
fact that in the previous drought so many of the same
species had been starved to death, who would otherwise
have furnished their chief competitors in the struggle
for existence. It is still objected that upon this sup-
position many other animals ought to have acquired
giraffe-like necks. But such an expectation is far from
being warranted by the principles of Natural Selection.

l8o THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

Since all variations are potentially useful, but only those
are preserved which suit the surrounding* conditions
among which they are exhibited, the calculation of
chances will itself plead for the probability that a
variety of variations will be preserved, rather than the
same many times over. Other species competing with
the giraffe for food would be little likely to gain an
advantage over it by a slight increase in length of neck,
though by other variations they might achieve a decided
superiority. It is obvious, also, that the advantage
assigned to the elongated neck would belong to many
other possible variations, such as a lengthened proboscis,
far-reaching arms, the climbing powers of the snake or
the monkey, the flight of the bird or the insect ; all of
which may be due to Natural Selection and the sub-
sidiary principles which the theory of Development
embraces.

The calling in of subsidiary principles may be thought
to spoil the boasted simplicity of the theory. But such
an opinion is hypercritical. One might truthfully say
of a great patriot that all he did was in obedience
to the simple law of duty, without implying that he
was exempt from the law of association of ideas, or
independent of the mechanical, chemical, and vital laws
which regulate many of the functions of all human
beings alike.

INDEX.

Abiogenesis, note on hypothesis of,
126-132.

Addison, his opinion about Instinct,
71 ', his description of the brood-
hen, 72 ; his account of a hen
with brood of ducks, 73 ; on the
insensible gradations of species, 74.

African desert, geological evidence
of, 122.

Anabas scandens, its climbing powers,
28 ; Dr. Day's opinion thereon,
28, note.

Androcles, story of, 82.

Animal mounds, of Wisconsin, 105.

Ants, slave-making, 29, 69 ; French
philosopher's account of, 73.

Artificial selection, part of Natural
selection, 1 6.

Baboons, warfare of, 69.

Bacon, Lord, his statement about
dogs, 75.

Barbarism, time required for deve-
lopment of, 57.

Bees, progress of, in cell-making,
25 ; their accuracy over-rated,
69, 86.

Bennett, Mr. A. W., Mathematical
test applied by, 168; Review by,

173-

Birds' nests, reasoning powers em-
ployed in construction of, 69, 86;
compared with human dwellings,
70 ; use of human manufactures
in, 71.

British Association, exploration of
Kent's cavern by, 109.

Britons, ancient, condition of, nr.

Brookes, Henry, story of a lion
quoted from, 76.

Brutes, man's treatment of, II, 90 ;
opinion that God is the soul of,
71 ; compared with men, 74;
their moral qualities, 75, 88 : their
laws and constitutions, 77 j their
perceptions and emotions, 80 ;
language of scripture about, 84 ;
motives of pleasure and pain
applied to, 88 ; children compared
with, 89.

Cannibalism, 57; of British tribes,
112.

Caterpillars, resembling twigs, 170.

Chalk, continuous formation of, 117.

Civilization, its dependence on lan*-
guage and the art of writing, 88.

Coal-measures, 119-121, 140.

Columbus, his opinion of the earth's
spherical form condemned, 60, 148.

Coquand's Oysters of the Chalk,
Professor Flower's review of, 14=,
165.

Correlation, 17, 166, 176.

Creation, sudden, not reconcilable
with the order of nature, 25 ;
theories of, compared, 32 j pre-
judice in favour of its suddenness,
63, 64 ; Biblical theory of, 1 29.

Creations, many distinct, not war-
ranted by scripture or science, 20,
116, 135 ; special, for special loca-
lities, untenable, 21.

1 83

INDEX.

Danes, ancient, food and weapons of,
104.

Darwin, his account of the deve-
lopment of his theory, 4 ; his
calculation about elephants, 13 ;
allusion to his theory of Pangenesis,
33 ; his explanation of the fauna
and flora of mountain-tops, 46 ; his
account of slave-making ants, 69 ;
his treatment of geology, 134,
his chapter on instinct, 163.

Darwinism, 3-33 ; obscurely anti-
cipated, 2 ; its supporters, 3 ;
prejudice against, 4, 152 ; its
bearing on the seeming imper-
fection of nature, 24 ; inconsistent
with a recent universal deluge,

31, 34-

Dawkins, Mr. W. Boyd, lecture on
coal by, 143.

Dawson, Dr., Acadian Geology, 120,
140.

Day, Dr., paper by, on the Mud-fish
and Anabas scandens, 28.

Denudation, 143.

Deucalion's Flood, argument from
rebutted, 150.

Development, theory of, by whom
originated and supported, 4 ; opin-
ion of its absurdity, 6 ; facts and
principles necessary to, (variation,
7 ; Inheritance and Reversion, 9 ;
struggle for life, 1 1 ; antiquity of
the globe, 30 ; freedom of the globe
from any recent universal cata-
strophe 31) ; application of, to
human body and mind, 62, 95 ;
time required for, 122; not ma-
terially affected by hypothesis of
spontaneous generation, 127.

Ducklings, experiment with, 73.

Earth, immense age of, required by
Theory of Development, 30, 67 ;
proved by geology, 31, 54, 107,
121 ; popular impression as to age
of, 93, 121; reckoned by millions

. of years, 123.

Egypt, its monuments, 51; its
chronology, 56, 101.

Elephant, its sagacity, 3 ; its rate of
breeding, 13 ; its different species,

46 ; its memory, 66 ; epithet ap-
plied to it by Pope, 74 ; in
Devonshire, 112.

Esquimaux, their ignorance of arith-
metic, 103.

Flint-tools, 109, in, 113.

Flood, the Noachian, 34-61 ; his-
torical account of, 38 ; explanation
suggested, 41 ; how consistent with
Darwinism, 50; traditions of a, 58 ;
no traces of its universality, 59.

Food, its influence on the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, 12 ; in
the competition for life, 22.

Fossils, an evidence of variation, 20 ;
different in different strata, 116;
time required for vicissitudes of,
119; necessary imperfection of,
134 ; their scarcity and abundance,
141 ; numerous chances of loss and
destruction for, 146.

Fuegians, nakedness of, 112, note.

Galileo, his doctrine of the earth's

motion condemned, 60, 148.
Genesis, book of, its chronology, 55.
' Genesis of Species,' by Mr. Mivart,

173-

Geology, its conclusions, 31, 53 ;
imperfection of its record, 133-146.

Giraffe?, 176, 179.

Glacial Period, its effect on dis-
tribution of species, 47.

Gooseberry, the big, 16.

Horse, career of, in America, 48 ;
its endurance and ambition, 3 ; its
intelligence, 66 ; instance thereof,
74 ; its intercourse with man, So.

Hypotheses, use of, 131.

Inheritance, 9 ; at different periods
of life, 1 8.

Instinct, of bees, 25 ; employment
and gradations of, in various
animals, 28 ; compared with rea-
son 62-81, 164; fallacious theory
of, 67 ; ignored by ducklings, 73 ;
fancied excellence of, 86.

Kent's cavern, 109-115.

INDEX.

Language, time required for varia-
tions of, 57; its influence on man-
kind, 77, 87 ; origin of, 103.

Light, rapidity 0^.97.

Limestone, formation of, 109 ; con-
tents of, 115; slow formation of,
117 ; Devonian, older than the
New Red Sandstone, 1 18.

Lindley, Dr., his experiment with
immersed vegetables, 143.

Linnaeus, on the common descent of
species, 3.

Lion, its generosity, 3 ; instance of
its affection, 76 ; instance of its
gratitude, 83; in Britain, 112.

Locke, on the reason of brutes, 74.

Lubbock, Sir John, ' Pre-historic
Times/ 54, 104, 107, 112; ' Origin
of Civilization,' 107.

Lyell, Sir Charles, ' Principles of
Geology,' 3, 54 j ' Antiquity of
Man,' 107 ; * Elements of Geo-
logy,' 109.

Madagascar, its species and genera,
46.

Malay, compared with the Papuan
by Mr. Wallace, 49, 150.

Man, his destructiveness, II ; his
likeness to other animals in blood,
fibre, and skeleton, 29 ; distribu-
tion of his varieties, 48 ; traced
back for thousands of years, 51;
a common origin for all families
of, 52 ; his chief endowments, 67 ;
compared as a builder with birds,
70 ; his brain and hairless skin,
73 ; his bodily structure, 85 ; his
opinion of war, 86 ; real origin of,
forgotten, 102.

Marriage- customs, slow change of,
106.

Marsupials, 46 ; fossil, 47.

Matlock Bath, formation of stalag-
mite at, no, 114.

Memory, necessary to intelligence,
66 ; unequal distribution of, 66.

Miracles, treatment of false ones,
40 ; of the Old Testament, 83.

Mivart, St. George, Mr., ' Genesis of
Species' by, 173.

Mushroom, time required for its
growth, 55.

Mygale, the trap-door spider, its in-
genious nest, 29.

Natural Selection, illustrated by
artificial selection, 14 ; the slow-
ness of its movement, 18 ; ex-
plains the order of nature, and in
part its seeming disorder, 26 ;
limits of, propounded by Mr.
Wallace, 62.

Nile, articles in sediment of, 108.

Origin of life, opinions on, 94.
Oysters, memory of, 66 ; obscure
politics of, 77..

Palaeontology, Lyell's definition of,

135.
Papuan, compared with the Malay,

49, 150.
Parfitt, Mr., on Fossil Sponge Spi-

cules, 136, 139.
Pengelly, Mr., on pre-historic man,

105 ; exploration of Kent's cavern

by, 109, no, 113.
Pigeons, subjected to man's selec-
tion, 14, 1 6, 17.
Plants, their struggle for* food, 1 2 ;

their movements, 28.
Pope, his epithet for the elephant,

74-

Reason, progressive development of,
in individual minds, 62, 67 ; that
of men, one in kind with the in-
telligence of brutes, 66, 84 ; helps
to, 86.

Relative terms, 97, 171.

Religion, development of, 64, 90.

Reversion, 9 ; limits artificial selec-
tion, 17.

Rudimentary organs, ai.

Sandstone, New Red, 118.

Savages, question of their degen-
eracy, 57 ; brain, skin, and voice
of, 78.

Science, not antagonistic to Christian
doctrine, 82, note.

Scripture, no warrant for distinct
creations, 20; does not profess to

184

INDEX.

teach Natural Science, 35 ; its use
of ordinary language, 36 ; its his-

. torical account of the Flood, 38 ;
explanation thereof, 41 ; disregard
of secondary causes in, 83 ; cha-
racter of genealogies in, 99 ; mis-
taken quotation of, 124 ; invidious
connection of, with false -science,
151 ; supposed opposition between
it and Darwinism, 157.

Species, permanence of, 9 ; some
benefited by change of habitat,
2 1 ; variations of, how advanta-
geous, 27 ; difficulty of collecting
all for the Ark, 43 ; distribution

of, 45-

Spencer, Mr. Herbert, his caution
about embryonic forms, 19, note;
his accurate phrase, ' Survival of
the fittest,' 154; his * Principles
of Biology,' 161.

Sponges, not to be hurriedj 117 ;
range of in geology, 136 ; final
cause of, 138.

Stalagmite, thickness of in Kent's ca-
vern, no; time required for form-
ing, 113; dates carved upon, 115.

Stratification, uniform order of, 116,
122.

Struggle for life, 1 1 ; great fecundity
useful to a species in, 24.

Sylvia Sutoria, the tailor-bird, its
nest, 29.

Tails, rudimentary, in man, 22, 155.

Tennyson, language of 'the Brook'
in, 125.

Theories, when to be accepted, 1 8.

Thought, time required for, 64 ;
movement of, depending on lan-
guage, 87.

Time, immense duration of, required
by the Theory of Natural Selec-
tion, 30, 67 ; lapse of, 93-125 ;
(see Earth, age of); inexhaustible,
98, 125.

Tiniere, delta of, 107.

Tyndal, Professor, on ' The Minute-
ness of Waves of Light,' 97.

Usher, archbishop, Bible-chronology
of, 99, 1 10.

Variability, 7 ; objection to, consi-
dered, 128.

Vertebrate, the first, how originated,
158 ; type of, supposed to be con-
nected with cuttle-fish, 161 ; defi-
nition of, investigated, 161.

Vivian, Mr., exploration of Kent's
cavern by, 109.

Wallace, Mr., his originality recog-
nized, 5 ; his opinion of the limits
of Natural Selection, 62 ; his ex-
posure of fallacious views about
Instinct, 67 ; his theory of birds'
nests, 69 ; his comparison of birds
with men as builders, 70 ; his spe-
culation about the brain of the
savage, 78.

War, in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, 12 ; combination of
baboons for, 69 ; comparison of
man and other animals engaged
in, 86.

Wasps, their defensive weapon, 25 ;
materials used by, 86.

Whewell, Dr., his remark on Scien-
tific Phraseology, 160.

Writing, invention of, 103.

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INDEX

ACTON'S Modern Cookery .................. 28

ALCOCK'S Residence in Japan .............. 22

ALLEN'S Four Discourses of Chrysostom .. 27

ALLIES on Formation of Christendom .... 20

Alpine Guide (The) ........................ 23

ALTHAUS on Medical Electricity.

.

ARNOLD'S Manual of English Literature . . 7

AHNOTT'S Elements of Physics ............ 1 1

Arundines Cami ............................ 26

Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson .... 5

A YEE'S Treasury of Bible Knowledge ...... 20

BACON'S Essays, by WHATELY

Life and Letters, by SPEDDING ..

Works, edited by SPEDDING

BAIN'S Logic, Deductive and Inductive —
. Mental and Moral Science

on the Emotions and Will

on the Senses and Intellect

on the Study of Character

BALL'S Alpine Guide

BARING'S Staff College Essays

BAYLDON'S Rents and Tillages

Beaten Tracks

BECKER'S Charicles and Gallus

BENPEY'S Sanskrit Dictionary

BERNARD on British Neutrality

BERWICK'S Forces of the Universe

BLACK'S Treatise on Brewing

BLACKLEY'S Word-Gossip

German-English Dictionary .

ELAINE'S Rural Sports

Veterinary Art

BOURNE on Screw Propeller .

BOURNE'S Catechism of the Steam Engine .
-- Handbook of Steam Engine ....

-- Improvements in the Steam
Engine ........................

_ Treatise on the Steam Engine . .
-- Examples of Modern Engines ..
BOWDLER'S Family SHAKSPEARE ........

BRAMLBY-MOORE'S Six Sisters of the

BRANDE'S Dictionary "of Science, Litera-
ture. and Art ..............................

BRAY'S (C.) Education of the Feelings ....

--- Philosophy of Necessity ........

-- on Force ........................

BROWNE'S Exposition of the 39 Articles —
BRITNKL'S Life of BRUNEL ................

BUCKLE'S History of Civilization ..........

BULL'S Hints to Mothers ..................

__ Maternal Management of Children
BUNSEN'S (Baron) Ancient Egypt ..........

in History ........

God i
Memoirs

BUSSES (E. DE) on Apocrypha
___ -s' Keys of St. Peter'

BURKE'S Vicissitudes of Families 5

BURTON'S Christian Church 4

Vikram and the Vampire 24

Cabinet Lawyer 28

CAL VERT'S Wife's Manual 26

CARR'S Sir R. WHITTINGTON 21

CATES'S Biographical Dictionary 5

CATS' and FARLIE'S Moral Emblems 16

Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths .... 9

CHESNEY'S Euphrates Expedition 22

IndianPolity 3

Waterloo Campaign 2

and REEVE'S Military Resources

of Prussia and France, &c 2

CHILD'S Physiological Essays 15

Chorale Book for England 16

CLOUGH'S Lives from Plutarch 2

COLENSO (Bishop) on Pentateuch 20

Commonplace Philosopher 9

CONINGTON'S Translation of the sEneid. ... 26

CONTANSEAU'sFrench-EnglishDictionaries 8

CONYBEARE and HOWSON'S St. Paul .... 19

COTTON'S (Bishop) Life

COOPER'S Surgical Dictionary 14

COPLAND'S Dictionary of Practical Medicine 15

COULTHART'S Decimal Interest Tables .... 28

Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit. ... 9

Cox's Aryan Mythology 3

Manual of Mythology 25

Tale of the Great Persian War 2

Tales of Ancient Greece 25

CRESY'S Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering 17

Critical Essays of a Country Parson 9

CROOKES on Beet-Root Sugar 15

CULLEY'S Handbook of Telegraphy 17

CUSACK'S History of Ireland 3

D'AusifiNE's History of the Reformation

in the time of CALVIN 2

DAVIDSON'S Introduction to New Testament 19

Dead Shot (The), by MARKSMAN 26

DE LA RIVE'S Treatise on Electricity 12

DENISON'S Viee-Regjil Life — . . . . 1

24
24
IS

DE TOCQUEVILLE'S Democracy in America

DISRAELI'S Lothair

Novels and Tales

DOBELL'S Medical Reports

DOBSON on the Ox 27

DOVE on Storms ) 1

DOYLE'S Fairyland 16

DYER'S City of Rome 3

EASTLAKE'S Hints onHcrasehold Taste .... 17

NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.

EASTLAKE's'llistory of Oil Painting

Gothic Revival

Life of Gibson

EDMUNDS'S Names of Places

Elements of Botany

ELLICOTT on the Revision of the English

New Testament 19

'S Commentary on Ephesians 19

Commentary on Galatians 1!)

PastpralEpist. 19

Philippians,&c. 19

Thessalonians 19

Lectures on the Life of Christ. . 19

Essays and Contributions of A. K. H. B 8

EWALD'S History of Israel 20

FAIRBAIRN on Iron Shipbuilding

'S Applications of Iron

. Information for Engineers . .

Mills and Mill work

FARADAY'S Life and Letters

FARRAR'S Families of Speech

Chanters on Language

FELKIN on Hosiery and Lace Manufactures

FENNELL'S Book of the Roach

FFOULKES'S Christendom's Divisions

FITZWYGRAM on Horses and Stables

FORBES'S Earls of Granard

FOWLER'S Collieries, and Colliers

FRANCIS'S Fishing Book.

FRESHFIELD'S Travels in the Caucasus —
FROTJDE'S History of England

Short Studies on Great Subjects

GANOT'S Elementary Physics 11

GILBERT'S Cadore, or Titian's Country .... 22

GILBERT and CHURCHILL'S Dolomites 23

GIRDLESTONE'S High Alps without Guides 24

GLEDSTONE'S Life of WHITEFIELD 4

GODDARD'S Wonderful Stories 24

GOLDSMITH'S Poems, Illustrated 25

GOULD'S Silver Store 26

GRAHAM'S Book about Words 7

GRANT'S Home Politics 3

Ethics of Aristotle 6

Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 9

GRAY'S Anatomy 15

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Treatise on Human Nature — 10

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26

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