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ESSAYS

Peak NEO Ks

COMMERCIAL MANURES.

By SAMUEL? W. JOHNSON,

CHEMIST TO THE CONNECTICUT STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AND PROFESSOR OF
ANALYTICAL AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY IN YALE COLLEGE.

FeA kK TE OR D:
PUBLISHED BY BROWN & GROSS.
"1859.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by
BROWN &-GROSS.
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Connecticut.

——eeer

PRESS
OF

WILLIAMS & WILEY.

PREFACKH.

“

In 1856 the writer attempted to turn his chemical knowledge to the
use of Agriculture, by examining the commercial fertilizers then offered
for sale in the markets of Connecticut and New York.

In a business having such prospects of extension as lay before the
trade in manures, in a region where convenient markets largely coun-
terbalance the disadvantages of poor and worn-out soils, it was to be
anticipated that frauds would arise, especially since it is so difficult or
even in many cases impossible, to judge accurately of the quality of a
fertilizer from its external characters.

Chemistry which has done so much for all the practical arts during the
last 50 years, and which has made possible the extensive use of artificial
fertilizers, fortunately offers the farmer complete protection against every
attempt to defraud him by worthless mixtures, sold under high-sounding
names and forged certificates; and although there is no scientific merit
in analyzing manures, there is great practical use in saving the hard-
toiling farmer from profitless and ruinous expenditures.

In the year just mentioned, the writer published in the Fomestcad a
series of papers on the principal fertilizers then on sale in Connecticut.
These articles excited much interest among the readers of that Journal,
and at the Annual Meeting of the Connecticut State Agricultural
Society, in Jan. 1857, the writer was invited to address that body upon
‘Frauds in Commercial Manures.” It was then shown that gross de-
ceit had actually been practised by parties soliciting the patronage of the
farmers of thise State, and the great facilities for perpetrating further
frauds were made the subject of a lengthened exposition. At that time
the writer was commissioned on behalf of the State Agricultural Society
to make chemical analyses of all commercial manures offered for sale in
the State, and to report upon them through the columns of the Homestead.
At the annual meeting of the Society in 1858, he presented his First
Annual Report as Chemist to the Society, comprising the analysis and
valuation of forty-three samples of commercial manures, with an intro-

4

duction giving some general considerations on the nature and use of man-
ures, and followed by a prelimimary notice of an extended investigation
into the agricultural merits of Peat and Muck, which was undertaken at
the suggestion of Henry A. Dyer, Esq., the able Secretary of the Society.

At the Executive Meeting of the State Society in 1859, a Second
Annual Report was offered, which contained the completed investigation
of Peat and Muck, together with analyses of such fertilizers as had been
found in market during the previous year.

This volume embodies these two Reports,* and consists of a series
of disconnected essays, retaining nearly the form in which they were
originally presented to the Society.

The analyses of commercial fertilizers have been duplicated in most
instances, in order to ensure entire accuracy, and the statement of re-
sults has been accompanied with such explanations as appear adapted to
facilitate their use.

The methods of analysis are indicated m appendices, so that those
versed in such matters may judge of the reliability of the analytical ex-
aminations.

The writer has had the gratification of finding his labors appreciated,
not only by the State Society, which continues to appropriate the fund
requisite for their prosecution ; but also by practical farmers, who point
with satisfaction to instances in which they have been saved from loss
by the contents of these pages. .

By demonstrating the immediate practical and pecuniary advantage
which the Agriculturist may derive from Chemisttry, the writer hopes
to excite more interest in this noble science, among those whom it is
especially adapted to benefit; being confident that it has but just begun
to reveal its power, and if properly encouraged will im time become a
most useful aid to the farmer in nearly every step of his yearly routine.

SAMUEL W. JQHNSON,
Analytical Laboratory of Yale College, New Haven, Ct., Aug. 18, 1859.

* The first 58 pages are oceupied with the Reports made in the year 1857, (presented complete in
January, 1858), and now revised, and are referred to in the table of contents on page5. The re-
mainder of the book comprises investigations made in 1858, and has a separate table of contents on
page 59.

ESSAYS ON MANURES.

Bo fs,

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CONTENTS,

Ot BSsAYS IN 1857.

INTRODUCTORY.—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON MANURES, -
1. What are manures? - : - - - : 5
2. How manures act, - - - - = ZA
I. As direct nutriment, - - - - : 3
II. As solvents or absorbents, - - : a“
III. They may improve the physical characters of the soil, :
. Exhaustion and renovation of the soil, — - - : ;
. Comparative agricultural value of manures, - - : :
. What manures are most generally useful? - -s -
. Uses of special or partial manures, - - - : :
. Comparative commercial value of manures, - = °
. Valuation of manures—substances to be regarded as commercially im-
portant, - - - = EN oe :
9. Mechanical condition of manures, — - - : p
10. Chemical condition of manures—actual and potential ammonia—solu-
ble and insoluble phosphoric acid, - - - -
11. Priges of the important ingredients of commercial fertilizers, -

OTD OP &

I. Insoluble phosphoric acid, - : - :
IJ. Soluble phosphoric acid, - - - 2 :
III. Actual ammonia, - : - - : és

IV. Potential ammonia, : - - - :

V. Potash, - - - - - - -
12. Potash may be usually neglected in valuing a manure, - ~~ -
13. Computing the approximate money value of concentrated fertilizers,
14. Estimating the value of cheap manures, - : - E

EXAMINATION OF COMMERCIAL MANURES.—GUANO. -

1, Peruvian Guano, - : - = = :
2. Pacific Ocean Guano, . : - - - 2
3. Ichaboe Guano, - : : - : : é
5, Baker’s Island or American Guano, . - : :

Superphosphates,
Chemistry of the Phosphates of Lime,

Bone-Phosphate,

Neutral-Phosphate,

Superphosphate,

Standard of composition of commercial superphosphates,
nosphate,

Mape’s Superph
Deburg?s =
Coe’s
Coe & Co's.“
Lloyd's “
Rhodes’
Other fe

Columbian or Rock Guano,

Poudrette, -

Liebig Manufacturing Co’s.,

Lodi Co’s.,

Deburg’s Bone Meal,
Ivory Dust and Turnings,

Beef Scraps,

Cotton-seed Cake—its agricultural value,

CONTENTS.

Peat and Muck—Preliminary Notice,
Appendix—Methods of Analysis,

.

Seat

INTRODUCTORY.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON MANURES.

1. What are manures.

Manures are substances which are incorporated with the soil
for the purpose of supplying some deficiency in the latter. How-
ever numerous and different may be the materials which assist
the growth of plants, judging them by their origin, external
characters and names, chemistry has in late years demonstrated
that they all consist of only about a dozen forms of maiter,
which will be specified below.

2. How manures act.

Manures may act in three distinct ways.

I. They may enter the plant as direct nutriment. Carbonic acid,
water, ammonia or nitric acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid,
silica, oxyd of iron, chlorine, lime, magnesia, potash and soda,
are the elements of vegetable nutrition—the essential plant-food.

Tn a fertile soil all these materials are accessible to the plant.
If one of them be absent, the soil is barren; if a substance that
contains the missing body be applied to the soil, it makes the
latter fertile.

Il. Manures may act partly as solvents, or absorbents, and thus
indirectly supply food to the plant, e. g., lime, gypsum, salts of
ammonia, &¢.

Soils are infertile not only from the absence or deficiency of
some one or more of the above-named forms of plant food, but
also for other reasons. The food of the plant must be soluble
in water, so as thus to be transmitted into the plant as rapidly
as needed. Soils are often unproductive because the stores of
plant-food they contain are locked up in insoluble forms. Lime,
euano, the products of the decay of vegetable matters, often fer-
tilize a field merely by their solvent action on the soil. Gypsum
acts as an absorber or fixer of ammonia.

8

III. Manures improve the physical character of the soil, i. e.,
make it warmer, lighter or heavier, more or less retentive of
moisture, &c. Such are some manures that are often applied in
large quantity, as lime, marl and muck.

A soil is often barren, not because it has no supplies of nutri-
ment for the plant, neither for the reason that those supplies are
insoluble; but because the soil itself is so wet or dry, so tenacious
and impenetrable, or so light and shifting, that vegetation fails
to find the physical conditions of its growth and perfection.

Almost all our ordinary fertilizers exercise to a greater or less
degree all these effects. Thus lime, on a clay soil, may, 1st.,
mechanically destroy the coherence and tenacity of the clay, and
give it the friability of a loam; 2d., chemically decompose the
clay, making potash, soda, sities &e., soluble, and, 8d, be
directly absorbed and appropriated by the plant.

3. Hxhaustion of the soil by cropping, and renovation by weath-
ering.

Under cultivation there is removed from the soil by each crop,
a greater or less quantity of plant-food. The stores of nutri-
ment in the soil thus continually become smaller and smaller.

By the action of the atmosphere (weathering,) assisted by pul-
sa as of the soil (tillage,) the insoluble matters of the soil
are gradually made soluble and available to vegetation.

There is thus constantly going on in the soil an exhausting,
and as constantly, a renovating process. In most soils under
ordinary cultivation, the exhaustion, or removal of plant-food,
proceeds more rapidly than the supply by weathering. Such
soils therefore tend to become unproductive. In a few cases, the
solution of the materials of the soil itself goes on so rapidly that
there is always present in them an excess of all the matters re-
quisite to nourish vegetation. ‘These soils are inexhaustible.

To assist in maintaining the first class of soils in a state of
productiveness, manures are employed.

4, Comparative agricultural value Sacnaien ene

It is obvious from the foregoing considerations that manures
are required to exercise very different functions in different cases,
according to the character of the soil, as determined by its ori-
ein and by its previous treatment. The soil itself is constantly

a

—- ee ie. i a a

9

changing under culture, so that what is useful on my neighbor's
soil that has been tilled and cropped for twenty years, may be
quite valueless on mine which is just reclaimed from the forest.
What benefits my soil this year may be of no perceptible advan-
tage next year.

In how far manure is needed for the special purpose of sup-
plying the soil with food for vegetation, it is often difficult to de-
cide. If a new and good soil is repeatedly cropped until it
ceases to yield remunerative returns, it may be that addition of
some one substance, lime, or potash, or sulphuric acid, will restore
its fertility. It more often happens that several bodies are defi-
cient; but what is deficient can only be certainly learned by
actual trial. In any special case that substance is most valuable
as a manure, (in so far as the direct nutrition of the plant is con-
cerned,) which is most deficient in the soil im accessible form.

As regards the indirect action of manures, in virtue of their
absorbent or solvent powers, and as regards their effects in me-
liorating the texture and other physical characters of the soil,
practical men have established certain rules, founded on extend-
ed experience, which it is not needful to recapitulate here.

Thus much is certain: that one fertilizing agent has no abso-
lute and invariable superiority over another, for all are equally
indispensable. The superiorty that any one manure may be
reputed to possess, epends upon circumstances. Circumstances
are exceedingly various and continually changing. The reputa-
tion and local value of manures is equally various and changing.

In some regions, as in certain districts of Pennsylvania, lime
is considered the best manure. In numerous localities, plaster
(sulphuric acid and lime,) is chiefly depended upon. In some
districts, superphosphate of lime; in others, Peruvian guano is °
almost exclusively used.

Among the substances essential to vegetation, there are. some
which almost never fail from the soil. Thus, oxyd of iron and
silica are present in every soil. Lime and sulphuric acid may
often be wanting. Potash and soda are not unfrequently de-
ficient. Available ammonia and phosphoric acid are likewise
often lable to exhaustion. :

Ammonia and phosphoric acid, which possess the highest

10

commercial value among fertilizers, have been considered by
some whose opinions are of weight in the agricultural world, to
possess also a decidedly greater agricultural value than other
manures. It is asserted that in the growth of certain crops, and
in fact those crops which best remunerate the farmer, these sub-
stances are most rapidly exhausted from the soil. Now it is un-
doubtedly true that on the soils of certain districts, and im certain
courses of cropping, the application of ammoniacal and phos-
phatic manures produces the most striking results; yet it is by
no means proved, or even probable, that on the whole, all soils
and all systems of cropping included, these bodies are oftener
lacking, or oftener and more permanently useful, than some of
the other fertilizing substances.

5. What manures are most often and most generally useful 2

While we can not accord to any simple manure, or to any
single ingredient of a manure, a universal fertilizing superiority,
it is true that some manures are more useful than others, on ac-
count of their compound nature. The more ingredients a ma-
nure can supply to vegetation the more useful it is. Stable
manure is the universal and best fertilizer, because it contains
everything which can feed the plant. Swamp muck, straw, and
vegetable refuse generally, are of similar character. Fertilizers,
like lime, plaster, salt, &c., which contain but a few ingredients,
can not in general be depended upon for continuously maintain-
ing the fertility of the soil.

6. Uses of special or partial manures.

Special manures, 1. e., manures which contain some one or few
ingredients, are of use, very rarely as the farmer’s chief reliance,
but often as adjuncts to stable manure. Several special ma-

-nures may often be so combined as to make an effectual substi-
tute for stablemanure. In high-farming, and in market garden-
ing, and generally where circumstances admit of raising the
most exhausting crops without fallow, laying down to grass, or
rotation of any sort, special manures are most advantageously
employed. In ordinary mixed farming they are useful in assist-
ing to reclaim or improve poor lands; but in the best practice
they play as yet a very subordinate part, unless peculiar cireum-
stances make them extraordinarily cheap,

— ee | ee

i.

eo

LE

7. Comparative commercial value of manures.

The commercial value of a manure is measured by its price, and
may be quite independent of its real agricultural value, though
it usually depends considerably on its reputed agricultural value.
The scarcity of a substance, the cost of preparation and trans-
portation, the demand for it on account of other than agricultur-
al uses—all these considerations of course influence its price. It
is commercially worth what the dealer can get for it, so much
per bushel or ton.

8. Valuation of manures.— What substances are to be regarded ¢ as
commercially important in costly manures.

In any fertilizer which is sold as high or higher than half a
cent a pound, there are but three ingredients that deserve to be
taken account of in estimating its value. These are ammonia,
phosphoric acid, and potash. Every thing else that has a ferti-
lizimg value may be more cheaply obtained under its proper
name. If the farmer needs sulphuric acid he purchases gypsum ;
if he needs soda, common salt supplies him. Every thing but
these three substances may be procured so cheaply, that the far-
mer is cheated if he pays ten dollars per ton fora manure, unless
it contains or yields one or all of these three substances in con-
siderable proportion.

9. Mechanical condition of Manures.

Nothing is so important to the rapid and economical action of
a manure as its existing in a finely pulverized or divided state.
All costly fertilizers ought to exist chiefly as fine, nearly im-
palpable powders, and the coarser portions, if any, should be
capable of passing through a sieve of say eight or ten holes to
the linear inch. The same immediate benefits are derived from
two bushels of bones rendered impalpably fine by treatment
with oil-of-vitriol, ten bushels of bone-dust, and one hundred
bushels of whole bones. Fineness facilitates distribution, and
economizes capital,

10. Chemical condition of manures— State of solubility, &e.—Am-
mona, potential and actual—Phosphoric acid, soluble and insoluble.

The solubility of a manure is a serious question to be consid-
ered in its valuation. We are accustomed to speak of ammonia
as existing in two states, viz: actual and potential. By actual

12

ammonia, we mean ready-formed ammonia; by potential ammo-
nia, that which will result by decomposition or decay—“ that
which exists in possibility, not in act.” Now the former is al-
most invariably soluble with ease in water, and is thus readily
and immediately available to plants; while the latter must first
become “actual” by decay, before it can assist in supporting
vegetation.

In Peruvian guano, we have about half of the ammonia ready
formed, and easily soluble in water, the remainder exists in the
form of uric acid, which yields ammonia by decay in the soil,
but may require weeks or months to complete the change. In
leather shavings or woolen rags the ammonia isall potential, and
as these bodies decay slowly, they are of less value than guano
as sources of ammonia. Oil-cake, (limseed and cotton seed,) con-
tains much potential ammonia, and in a form that very speedily
yields actual ammonia.

We do not know with what precise results the process of the
decay of ammonia-yielding bodies is accomplished in the soil.
Out of the soil such bodies do not give quite all their nitrogen
in the form of ammonia: a portion escapes in the uncombined
state, and thus becomes unavailable.

Phosphoric acid may occur in two different states of solubili-
ty; one readily soluble, the other slowly and slightly soluble in
water. The former we specify as soluble, the latter as insoluble
phosphoric acid. In Peruvian guano we find 3.5 per cent. of

soluble phosphoric acid, existing there as phosphates of ammo-

nia and potash. The remaining 10 to 12 per cent. is insoluble,
being combined with lime and magnesia. In most other manures,
genuine superphosphates excepted, the phosphoric acid is in-
soluble.

Among those phosphates which are here ranked as insoluble,
there exist great differences in their availability, resulting from
their mechanical condition. The ashes of bones, and the porous
rock-guano when finely ground, exert immediate effect on crops,
while the dense, glassy, or crystallized phosphorite of Hurds-
town, N. J.,and the fossil bones (so-called coprolite of England,)
are almost or quite inert unless subjected to treatment with oil-
of-vitriol, (see page 381.)

ee

13

11. The reasonable price of phosphoric acid, ammonia, and
potash.

I. Insoluble phosphoric acid.—There are several substances now
in market, which, as fertilizers, are valuable exclusively on ac-
count of their content of phosphoric acid ; which, moreover, are
at present the cheapest sources of this substance that possess the
degree of fineness proper to an active fertilizer. These sub-
stances are the phosphatic guanos, (Columbian and American
euano,) and the refuse bone-black of the sugar refineries. From
them we can easily calculate the present lowest commercial value
of phosphoric acid. If we divide the price per ton of Colum-
bian guano, $385, by the number of pounds of phosphoric acid
in a ton, which, at 40 per cent., amounts to 800 pounds, then we
have the price of one pound as nearly 44 cents.

Refuse bone-black may be had for $30 per ton; it usually
contains 82 per cent. of phosphoric acid. The same division as
above gives us 43 cents asthe cost of phosphoric acid per pound.

In this report I shall adopt the average of these figures, viz. :

$ cents, as the reasonable price of insoluble phosphoric acid.

Phosphoric acid is much cheaper in crushed bones; but this
material is not in a suitable state of division to serve as the basis
of a fair estimate.

IL. Soluble phosphoric acid.—This is nearly always the result
of a manufacturing process. Professor Way, chemist to the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, estimates its worth at
10% cents per pound. Dr. Voelker, of the Royal Agricultural
College of England, and Dr. Stoeckhardt, the distinguished
Saxon Acericultural Chemist, reckon it at 124 cents per pound.
They have deduced these prices from that of the best commer-
cial superphosphates. In this report the price will also be as-
sumed at 124 cents. This, I believe, is considerably more than
it is really worth, but is probably the lowest rate at which it can
now be purchased.

III. Actual ammonia.—The cheapest commercial source of
this body is Peruvian guano. Although it contains several per
cents. of potential ammonia, yet the latter is so readily converted
into actual ammonia, that the whole effect of the manure is pro-
duced in one season, and therefore we may justly consider the
whole as of equal value with actual ammonia.

14

Good Peruvian guano contains:
2 per cent., or 40 pounds per ton of potash.

oi a «© «soluble phosphorie acid.
Hoe we ag 7 “insoluble ::
and yields
1Gumee. “ 290 ¢ Ci Ae ammonia?

If we add together the values of the potash, (see next page,)
and of the phosphorie acid, soluble and insoluble, and subtract
the same from the price of guano we shall arrive at the worth
of the ammonia—as follows:

40 x4=$1.60; 60 x 124=$7.50; and 240 x 44=$10.80; total
$19.90. ,

$65.00—$19.90=$45.10 the value of 8320 pounds of ammonia.

$45.10+820=14 cents nearly, the value of one pound.

This price, 14 cents per pound, will be employed in this report.

IV. Potential ammonia. The value of this varies so greatly,
being, for example, as uric acid in guano, not inferior to actual
ammonia, while in woolen rags it is not worth more than one-
half as much, that we can fix no uniform price, but must de-
cide what it shall be, in each special case, separately.

V. Potash. The value of potash is difficult to estimate, be-
cause it may vary exceedingly according to circumstances. Wood
ashes are its chief sources; these are poor or rich in potash ac-
cording to the kind of tree that yields them, and the soil on
which it has grown. It may vary from five to twenty per cent.

Stoeckhardt, who estimates the value of ammonia at twenty

cents, makes potash worth four cents per pound. The price of
potashes can not serve asa guide, for they are never used for
agricultural purposes. Four cents is certainly high enough for
this country if it is correct for Germany.

12. Potash may be usually neglected.

Most concentrated manures contain very little or no potash.
In guano it rarely exceeds three per cent. Superphosphate of
lime can contain none of consequence. Potash can not be econ-
omically added to manufactured manures, because nearly pure
potash, or even the raw material from which it is extracted, viz. :
wood-ashes, has a higher commercial value for technical than for
agricultural purposes. Besides, potash is not generally deficient
in soils, and therefore farmers do not wish to pay for it as an in-

15

gredient of costly manures. It is only when a manure is pro-
fessedly sold as containing much potash, that this ingredient
deserves to be taken account of in its valuation.

13. Computing the money-value of concentrated manures.

In what immediately precedes, is contained the data for caleu-
lating approwimatively the price that can be afforded for a high-
priced manure, if we have before us the results of a reliable an-
alysis. The actual calculation is very easy, and has been illus-
trated already in deducing the value of ammonia from Peruvian
guano. We give here a resume of the prices adopted in this
report, Viz. :

Potash, per pound, - . : . - 4 cents.
Insoluble phosphoric acid, per pound, - - 45."
Soluble ‘ is re - : ba

Actual, and some forms of potential ammonia, 14 “

Asa further example of the calculation, here may follow the
details of the valuation of a superphosphate of lime. Analysis
gave the following percentages:

Actual ammonia, - -

- - - 2.89, say 2.4

Pacer yore - . - - LOG; tore mie
Soluble phosporie acid, . - A Dy ae ARO
Insoluble “ a - - : 22.98,“ 23.0

Multiplying the percentage of each ingredient by its estimated
price, and adding together the products thus obtained, gives the
value of one hundred pounds; this taken twenty times, gives us
the worth of a ton of two thousand pounds.

In the case before us, the quantity of potential ammonia is so
small that we may reckon it with the actual ammonia without
materially influencing the result. Thus,

2.44+1.0=8.4; 3.414 = 48, value of ammonia in 100 lbs,

2.6x12$= .33, value of soluble phos. acid
in 100 pounds.

23 x .044—=$1.08, value of insol. phosphoric
acid in 100 Ibs.

$1.84, total value of 100 Ibs.
20

$36.80, value of one ton.

16

It is not claimed that this method of valuation is more than
rough and approximate. Usually the price demanded is more
than that obtained by calculation. In case of the superphosphate
just mentioned, the selling price is $45. There is no doubt that
it ought to be better for that money. The farmer must decide
for himself whether he can get the same fertilizing materials
more cheaply. If he cannot he may purchase such a super-
phosphate. For comparing the worth of different fertilizers this
method of computation is of great value, as will be seen further
on, where will be found tables giving the calculated values of all
the high-priced manures that have come into my hands officially,
during the last two years.

It is but just to mention here, that this method of estimating
the value of fertilizers was first proposed nine years ago by Dr.
J. A. SrorckHArpt, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry in the
Royal Academy of Agriculture and Forestry, at Tharand, near
Dresden, in Saxony, and has been adopted in principle by the
chemists of the agricultural societies in Great Britain.

The estimates I made in 1856 were much lower than those
now given. ‘The price of manures has advanced since that time,
(Peruvian guanos ten dollars per ton,) and the prices I then pro-
posed for phosphoric acid were too small. All the estimated

values in this report are founded on the prices just given.

14. Estimation of the value of cheap manures.

The method of valuation above described is not applicable to
cheap manures, which contain but little ammonia or phosphoric
acid. Their One often depends more upon the mechanical and
chemical condition of their ingredients, than upon the quantity
of any one. The few manufactured manures of this sort, may
best be compared with some similar fertilizer of standard com-
mercial value, viz.: stable manure, leached ashes, &c. Under
the head Poudrette, examples will be given.

EXAMINATION OF COMMERCIAL MANURES.
GUANO. :

1. Peruvian Guano.—The manner in which the importation

guys

and sale of this standard fertilizer has been hitherto conducted,
is such as to afford a sufficient guarantee of its genuineness.
But four samples have been analyzed. All were good, as shown
by the following results:

ANALYSES OF PERUVIAN GUANO.

I. I. II. | IV.
WMV © eisai aor ah he ) rc 12.63/12.70 aa nial
Organic WHE SB oo cog ota der j 66.32)65.18)) 56. onl51. 46 68.00 68.70 |69.46
Ammonia potenial,.......... 5.82)" 5195
3 actual, i SODnOCnOGut 8.93} 9.08} 16. o3l16. He 17.86) 18.85))16.32
Luo tere acid, ‘sol. in water, . 4.69] 3.64
“ ingol. “ 10.05/10.50 15.19} 14.08
Sand, &c., insoluble in acids, 1.69] 1.52 2.45] 2.66
Phosphate of lime equivalent }
to total phosphoric acid, § as eae ae | |
I. Came from the store of Wm. Kellogg, Hartford, 1856.
10s - “ Wm. B. Johnson, New Haven, 1857.
10 aay - “ Backus & Barstow, Norwich, 1857.

ye. * a “ ©. Leonard, Norwalk, 1857.

A Peruvian guano is genuine and good, when it contains 15
per cent. of ammonia, a the same amount of phosphor ic acid.
The first analyses were made more complete than is necessary
for judging of the quality of this manure. It is sufficient, as in
the last two analyses, to ascertain the amount of loss, (water and
organic matter,) by burning, and the amount of ammonia.

I believe the fact that guano may rapidly depreciate in quality
by keeping, is not sufficiently thought of. In a note by Dr.
Krocker, in a recent German Agricultural paper, it is stated that
the loss in guano may amount to one-fifth or even one-fourth of
the whole ammonia originally present, during a single winter,
especially when access of moist air is allowed. If guano is kept
dry and away from the air the loss is trifling. The ammonia of
a genuine guano, although to a considerable extent “ existing in
possibility not in act,” passes so readily into actual ammonia
that it must be reckoned as such. The phosphoric acid also, in
a Peruvian guano, is all in a readily soluble state, and it is not
fair to make so great a distinction between the portions soluble
and insoluble in water, as would be right in case of a manure
which has been reduced to powder by mechanical means.

18
2. Pacific Ocean Guano.

ANALYSES.

AVIGUENME ET cine cs0s o1a./cid aie she, coat age castors eleiore oc
ORATOR Ne PaaenOOH Ihab JadS Gols > bobagooms
Ammonia potential,

= actual,. 300
Phosphori ic acid, ‘soluble in water,

iz “

ee ey

ed

insoluble in water,
mand (c&c.,,1nsolublennva cides seve cvericlosiere
Phosphate of lime equivalent to total phosphoric

AGE TAVETACO MY Ne kis wel cajabales 'ojtie a sjeueurernc
Deal erate Cr tON etree. «Ceca: siolasmiaete Sone
Calculated value per ton

OS CLC Yer Sac tt Ser}

pees ee eee eer ee re seen

iz | “ie
l | 91.70)

36.24 36.10) a y ener
5] .6sil)
snake a 58
9.971 2.7711) oa 6

gares| aaoroilMice eee
2.75] 2.10|| Bl
53.76 51.86
50.00
$34.00 $30.00

I. From a sample sent by the importers to a dealer in Hart-

ford, 1856.

II. From a sample sent by the dealers in New York to the
agricultural store of Wm. B. Johnson, taken from the bags by

this gentleman in my presence.

The sample 1. when sent into this State was advertised as

nearly if not quite equal to Peruvian guano.

this statement the following certificate was given:
alyzedasample of guano for Willet & Co., and find it to contain

the following:

In support of

“T have an-

Phosphate of lime, 42.48
Carbonate a 2.26
Urate of Ammonia,
Phosphate “ d&c., 20.04
Carbonate “
Chloride of Sodium,

. Potassium, 14.46
Sulphate of Soda, &c.,

Undecomposed organic | 296
matter, feathers, Xc., ic
Silicious matter, 5.10
Water and loss, 12.00

100.00

New York, October 4th,

JAMES CumTon, M. D., Chemist.”
1854.

The above analysis has a very elaborate appearance, but does
not instruct us as to the value of the sample analyzed by Dr.

Y

19

Chilton. In fact, it is eminently adapted to deceive; it gives
the impression that the substance in question contains 20.5 per
cent. of ammonia salts, yet without actually asserting that it
contains even 1 per cent. of ammonia. Calculation shows that
so far from being “nearly if not quite equal to Peruvian guano,”
it is not worth so much by $31 per ton, and that $16 was charged
for it above its real value.

The second sample analyzed last summer, is still poorer. In
calculating its value, I have admitted it to contain the same
amount of soluble phosphoric acid that was found in I. This
ingredient was not determined and is probably less than thus
admitted.

3. Ichaboe Guano. I quote the analysis and history of this
manure from my investigations made in 1856, in order to show
what sort of impositions have vanished from the State of Con-
necticut since a chemical scrutiny has been exercised over our
fertilizers. Ten years ago a very good guano was obtained from
the Ichaboe islands, containing 7 per cent. of ammonia, and 15
per cent. of phosphorie acid; worth therefore now, about $35
per ton. In 1851 the deposits were exhausted. In 1856 it was
announced that there was a new arrival of this superior guano,
and it was offered in New York at $40 per ton. An authentic
sample was procured at the store of the agent, A. Longett, in
New York City, and subjected to analysis.

It had a very unpromising appearance, and contained some
feathers, together with much coarse sand and gravel. Several
pounds were rubbed in a mortar to break down any soft lumps,
and then were shaken on a sieve of sixteen holes to the linear
inch.

89.1 per cent. passed the sieve.

Debs ates coarse sand and gravel.
1S feathers remained.
100.0

This fine portion was analyzed as usual. The results were
calculated on the whole, including the 9.4 per cent. of sand and
gravel, under the item “‘sand and insoluble matters,” and the
feathers under organic matter.” To the potential ammonia

20

found in the fine guano, was added 0.2 per cent. as the greatest
amount that could be yielded by the feathers.

Analysis of Ichaboe Guano.

Water and organic matter, , : Yo a AS Pee
Ammonia potential, i : : Lot eee
actual, . : . ‘ 108 leon
Phosphoric acid, . : : 6.97 7.64
Sand and matter insoluble in ata ‘ a aD.) RODEO
Phosphate of lime equivalent to total phosphoric
acid, average, : : ; 4 15.82
Dealer’s price, $40.
Calculated value, $15.

This is the only manure I have examined that contained 65
per cent. of sand and gravel.

4, Baker's Island or American Guano.—The specimen of this
euano furnished me by Mr. Secretary Dyer, is of excellent
mechanical condition, and gave results essentially agreeing with
those of Dr. Higgins and Dr. Gale, viz:

Water, organic and vegetable matters, ; Og), laltO

Insoluble matters, sand, . : : 10 1s,

Phosphoric acid, : ] : 5 88.16 88.68

Ammonia, . : 68

Phosphate of lime Sinner to ae acid, 83.36
Calculated value, $384.50

It thus appears that the above is an excellent quality of phos-
phatie guano. So finely divided is the phosphate of lime that
it must be dissolved with sufficient rapidity, in any moderately
retentive soil, and if it can be had at $85 per ton, I should not
hesitate to use it in preference to any superphosphate or other
phosphatic manure now in our market. It can not, however,
produce the remarkable effects of Peruvian guano, or of other
ammoniacal manures, whose efficacy depends greatly on their
ammonia.*

* Analyses made during the present year demonstrate that what is now sold in
this State as American Guano, is a very inferior article containing but 7.9 per cent.
of )hosphoric acid, and chiefly consisting of sulphate of lime.

8. W. J., 1859.

21

SUPERPHOSPHATES.

The manufacture of manures bearing the general designation
of Superphosphate of Lime, first begun in this country about five
years ago, and has rapidly extended. As was to be expected,
they have proved highly useful in very numerous instances, and
when well prepared are to be looked to as the best means of
supplying phosphoric acid to crops. There is, however, no oth-
er fertilizer which so easily admits of adulteration or fraud, as
this, and none whose real value is so difficult to determine.
Simple inspection or any other means short of a thorough and
costly analysis, furnishes not the slightest clue to its genuineness
and excellence.

There is so much confusion with regard to the different phos-
phates of lime, arising mainly from the great variety of names
that have been applied to them, that perhaps it will bea service.
to many of the readers of this report, to set forth the chemistry
of this subject in a few words. For this purpose I copy from
my published articles.

Chemistry of the Phosphates of Lime.

The reader will please bear in mind, that phosphate of lime is
in chemical language a salé: which means—in a chemical sense
be it remembered—a compound of two classes of bodies, the
one called acids, the other bases.

These bodies follow the universal natural laws of combination
in definite proportions, and the numbers expressing these propor-
tions, are termed equivalents.

We can best illustrate this with a body like sulphate of lime,
(plaster of Paris, gypsum,) which is a salt consisting of but one
acid, and one base, and but one equivalent of each.

The acid is sulphuric acid, its equivalent is 40

The base is ime, its equivalent is 28

The salt is sulphate of lime, its equivalent is 68

The above becomes intelligible when it is considered that in
every specimen of pure gypsum that has ever been examined,
the lime and sulphuric acid are present in exactly the propor-

as

22

tions indicated by the numbers 40 and 28, and it has been proved
a hundred times, that when lime and sulphuric acid are brought
together in such circumstances that they can unite, they always
do unite in the above proportions.’ This is what is meant by
the law of definite proportions.

The word equivalent simply means that 28 parts by weight,
grains, pounds, &c., of lime, are equal to, or go as far, in making
a salt, as 40 grains, pounds, &c., of sulphuric acid.

Unlike sulphuric acid, (one equivalent of which usually com-
bines with but one equivalent of a base,) one equivalent of phos-
phoric acid usually unites with three equivalents of base; and
these three equivalents may be all of one base, or two of one
base and one of another, or, finally, may be all of different ba-
ses. What is most remarkable is, that water may act as a base;
but it is not customary to allow the water to figure in the name
of the compound; and in this way, the three phosphates that
contain lime and water as the basic ingredients, are all called
phosphates of lime. They are distinguished from each other by
a variety of prefixes, unfortunately numerous, and none of which
are strictly in accordance with the general principles that regu-
late chemical name-making.

The constitution of these three phosphates of lime may be
represented as follows:

The first is phosphoric acid (72), lime (28), lime (28), lime (28).
The second is phosphoric acid (72), lime (28), lime (28), water (9.)
The third is phosphoric acid (72), lime (28), water (9), water (9.)

The equivalents are given with each ingredient, and by adding

them together we find the equivalent of each phosphate.

The Ist, 72 of acid, and 84 of base. is 156.
Tren20 ener ane AUC IOO ec awe mas Eloi
The 3d, 72“ “ and46“ “ ig 118,

What is the use of these equivalents? may be asked. In 156
parts (ozs. or lbs.) of the 1st are 75 parts, (ozs. or Ibs.) of phos-
phoric acid: in 187 parts of the 2d, and in 118 parts of the éd,
is the same quantity. A simple operation of “rule of three,”
will reduce these quantities to percents, and thus we may more
readily compare their composition. |

23

Percent composition of the phosphates of lime.

1 2 3

" Phosphoric acid, - 4615 52.55 61.02
Limes ° - - 53.85 40.88 23.73
Water, - - - 6.57 15.25

100.00 100.00 100.00

With regard to the names of these phosphates, I have already
hinted that much confusion exists.

To No. 1 have been applied the names, neutral, basic, ordi-
nary, tri-, and bone-phosphate. ‘To No. 2, bi-, di-, and neutral
phosphate. To No. 8, mono-, bi-, acid, and superphosphate.

No. 1, we may designate as bone-phosphate of lime, because it
is the chief earthy ingredient of bones, or at any rate it remains
when bones are burned, and constitutes the larger share of bone-
ashes. It is almost absolutely insoluble in pure water; but dis-
solves perceptibly in water eontaining in solution salts of am-
monia, or common salt, or carbonic acid. It is also the principal
ingredient of the so-called mineral phosphates,—of Apatite, that
occurs abundantly in the iron mines of northern New York, of
the Eupyrchroite of Crown Point, and the Phosphorite of Estra-
madura in Spain, and of Hurdstown, New Jersey. In the fossil
bones, the so-called Coprolites of certain districtsin England, and
in the phosphatic nodules of the silurian rocks of Canada, a va-
riable quantity of bone-phosphate of lime is contained. The
phosphoric acid of all the genuine guanos exists mostly in com-
bination with lme as bone-phosphate.

No. 2, most commonly called the neutral phosphate of line,
deserves notice as occurring mixed with bone phosphate in the
Columbian guano, and in the similar phosphatic guanos recently
imported by the Philadelphia Guano Company. It will be no-
ticed further on.

The agricultural value of phosphoric -acid, and of the phos-
phates of lime is sufficiently understood. To them, bones main-
ly owe their efficacy as a fertilizer. It is well known that, al-
though bones are highly useful when applied to the soil in a
coarsely-broken state, they are far more valuable if reduced to
small fragments, or better still, if ground to dust. This is be-

24.

cause nothing can enter the plant in a solid form. All that a
crop absorbs through its roots must be dissolved in the water of
the soil. The bone-phosphate of lime is only slightly soluble in
water, and isof course very slowly presented to the plant. The
more finely it is divided or pulverized, the more surface it expo-
ses to the action of water and the more rapidly it dissolves. By
grinding it is only possible to reduce bones to a gritty dust, fine
perhaps to the unaided eye, but still coarse, when seen under the
microscope. Chemistry furnishes a cheap means of extending
the division to an astonishing degree, and enables us to make
bone-manure perfect both m its mechanical and chemical quali-
ties.

This brings us to No. 8, or superphosphate of lime, which is
the characteristic ingredient of the genuine commercial article
known by that name, in which, however, it is largely mixed
with other substances. Its peculiarity is, ready solubility in
water. It may be prepared from either No. 1, or No., 2, by
adding to these phosphoric acid, or by removing lime, in pres-
ence of water. In practice lime is removed.

If to 156 parts (one equivalent) of bone phosphate of lime,
we add 80 parts (two equivalents) of sulphuric acid,* with suf-
ficient water to admit of an intimate and perfect mixture, then
the 80 parts of sulphuric acid take 56 parts (two equivalents) of
lime and form sulphate of lime, while the phosphoric acid re-
tains 28 parts (one equivalent) of lime, and 18 parts (two equiv-
alents) of water replace the lime removed by the sulphuric acid,
so that there results 186 parts of sulphate of lime, and 118 parts
of superphosphate.

The manufacture of good superphosphate of lime, consists es-
sentially in subjecting some form of bone-phosphate of lime—
it may be fresh or burned bones, mineral-phosphates or phos-
phatic guanos—to the action of sulphuric acid. The product of
such treatment contains sulphate of lime, superphosphate of lime,
and still a greater or less share of undecomposed bone-phosphate,
together with some free snlphuric acid, because the materials
can not be brought into such thorough contact as to ensure com-
plete action.

* Oil of Vitriolis a compound of about 75 per cent. of sulphuric acid, with 25
per cent. of water.

25

The reader can easily perform a simple experiment that illus-
trates the change which superphosphate of lime, or any soluble
phosphate, always undergoes when brought into the soil. Stir
a spoonful of superphosphate in a tumbler of water; let it settle
and then pour off the clear liquid into another tumbler, (if no
superphosphate is at hand, use instead of the liquid just men-
tioned, strong vinegarin which some bits of bones have stood
for a few days.) Now stira few lumps of saleratus or soda, in
water, and pour it gradually into the first liquid. Immediately
a white cloud, or precipitate, as the chemist calls it, is formed ;
at the same time the liquid will foam like soda water, from the —
escape of carbonic acid gas.

This white cloud is precipitated bone-phosphate of lime, and does
not essentially differ from the original bone-phosphate, except
that it is inconceivably finer than can be obtained by any me-
chanical means. The particles of the finest bone-dust will not
average smaller than one hundredth of an inch, while those of
this precipitated phosphate are not more than one twenty-thou-
andth of an inch in diameter.*

Since the particles of the precipitated phosphate are so very
much smaller than those of the finest. bone-dust, we can under-
stand that their action as a manure would be correspondingly
more rapid.

In fact, the application of superphosphate to the soil, is always
speedily followed by the formation of this precipitated phosphate ;
the iron, lime, potash, &c., of the soil, having the same effect as
that produced by the salzeratus or soda in the above experiments.

The advantage of dissolving, or rather acting upon bones with
sulphuric acid, is then, not to furnish the plant with a new food;
but to present an old dish in a new shape, more readily accessi-
ble to the plant. In addition to the advantage of sub-division
thus presented, another not less important is secured; viz: dis-
tribution. This may be illustrated as follows: If one part of a
quantity of superphosphate be mixed with chalk, lime, or ashes
before use, while another portion is directly applied, in both ca-
ses precipitated phosphate will be furnished to the soil. The

* ProF. OGDEN N. Roop, of the Troy University, has had the kindness to meas-
ure them under the microscope at my request.

26

sub-division will be equal, but the distribution will be unlike. In
the first case, the ready-formed phosphate is very imperfectly
mixed with the soil, by the mechanical operations of tillage. . In
the latter instance, if the superphosphate be scattered on the
surface, it is unaffected until a rain falls upon it. Then the su-
perphosphate dissolves, and trickles or soaks down into the soil,
meeting here with a particle of lime or potash, and depositing
a particle of bone-phosphate, traveling on a little way, and de-
positing another, and so filling the whole soil to a certain depth
with the precious fertilizer.

It seems then that it is important not only that the super-
phosphate be made, but that it remain such, until strewn on the
soil. .

I would suggest that the simplest, and for agricultural pur-
poses, the most accurate way of designating the phosphates of
lime, and all other phosphates, is to divide them into two classes,
soluble and insoluble, and always to base calculations on the phos-
phoric acid they contain, because it, and not lime or water, 1s the
valuable ingredient of them all. Accordingly, in all my an-
alyses, I have invariably stated separately the amount of phos-
phoric acid soluble in water and the quantity insoluble in that
vehicle of vegetable nutriment.

For the sake of comparison with the common standards, the
quantity of bone phosphate equivalent or corresponding to the
phosphorie acid, has been included in the analytical tables. The
amount of bone phosphate of lime is obtained by multiplying
the phosphoric acid by 18 and dividing the product by 6.

What ought to be accepted as the standard of composition in a com-
mercial superphosphate ?

The answer to this question is: as good an article as can be
manufactured on the large scale.

There are two classes of good superphosphates. One is repre-
sented by the following analysis made by me in 1852, on what
then was Mapes’ improved superphosphate:

Ammonia, - - - - =) aes
Soluble phosphoric acid, — - - 10.65
Insoluble - tt - ne OAT

— a os

27

Here we have 21 per cent. of phosphoric acid, one-half of
which is soluble in water. The proportion of soluble phosphoric
acid is sufficiently large for a quick and energetic action, while
the still insoluble phosphoric acid renders its effect more lasting.
The 8 per cent. of ammonia is a constituent which makes the
manure more generally useful than it would be otherwise. Such
a manure is worth as follows:

Ammonia 8 per centx14 =$0.42 x20= $8.40
Soluble phos. acid, 11 “ “ x124= 1.87$ x 20=$27.50
Insoluble “ LO Ee i se, 4h DAG x 20 150.08
Total value, $44.90

This sample is the only one of its*class that has hitherto fallen
into my hands.

The other kind is, strictly speaking, a superphosphate, con-
taining but little insoluble phosphoric acid, and no ammonia. It
is precisely what it is called, and is intended to be an adj unct to
other fertilizers. The following statement of composition and
worth—the average of four best English samples, according to
Prof. Way’s analyses—gives an idea of this manure:

Soluble phosphoric acid, 13.28, worth per ton, $33.20
Insoluble i Shed. SOLO cy oe $2.80
Total value, - 7 - dh Dh: - $36.00

The only specimen of such a superphosphate that I have
analyzed, is that made by B. M. Rhodes & Co., of Baltimore,
Maryland.

Besides these two classes of superphosphates, there is another,
which indeed includes many good manures, but they hardly de- _
serve to be called superphosphates, as they contain but two or
three per cent. of soluble phosphoric acid. They are, however,
called superphosphates, but we cannot admit that they are any
thing better than second-rate articles. s

In stating the composition and value of the superphosphates I
have examined, I shall class together those coming from the same
manufacturer, or otherwise such as most nearly agree in com-
position. This plan will enable us to trace the improvement of

i;

28

deterioration in the manufacture, when numerous samples have
been examined, and, otherwise, will facilitate comparison.

Mapes’ Superphosphate—Newark, New Jersey.

The best superphosphate that has ever come under my exam-
ination, was the one that is first given in the table below. The
sample analyzed in 1856 had but half the value of the first; and
in 1857 the three specimens analyzed are worth but one-third as
much. It is clear that this is a brand not to be depended upon,
and the material that has come into Connecticut the past year is
hardly worth a long transportation.

Mapes’ Improved. || Mapes’ Nitrogenized.
all Te | Til. Via eVis
1852.|| 1857. || 1856. 1857. || 1857.
rey) P| Soneee
Water 4,54|| 7.90 (vives ace 11.15 rae
Organic and vol. matter, |22.96 15.04 | j pe IES | SAS tee
Sse Giana ea 1.48 13.90 6.20! 6.57! 7.76] 16.91
insol. in acids. | | |
Lime, (28.08 23.55 |
Sulphuric acid, | | Keene 3
Carbonic acid, none || 6.54 | none WD 200 seen
Phos. acid soluble, 10.65) none Is 12) 10%)" 0:58} none’ | ae
« & insoluble, {10.17|/13.56-13.20|/ 9.18} 9.11|10.12/10,19-9.60|| 7°
Ammonia actual, 1.54 UES ers
“potential, Anis) tte | 1 1 Glica gha eee ae
Phos. lime equiva- } ea | e ||
lent to phos. acia, ¢ |45-11||28.99 | av, 22,44 21.43 |) 21.34
Calculated value, $44, ||$15 $21. $14.50 !|$12.50

I. Furnished by Edwin Hoyt, Est., New Canaan, Ct.

II. From store of Backus & Barstow, Norwich, Ct.

III. From a Hartford dealer.

IV. From store of Backus & Barstow, Norwich, Ct., average
from many bags.

V. From C. Leonard’s store, Norwalk, Ct.

Mechanical state mostly good.

29
Deburg’s Superphosphate—W illiamsburg, Brooklyn, L. I.

The sample analyzed in 1856 was of a very fair quality.
The last year it is seen, however, that there is a serious falling

off.

Deburg’s Superphosphate.
Ve | 1; | IIT.
1852. 1856 | 1857.
|| as
Water, organic and volatile matters, 27.65|26.24), 24.57|21.23)| 25.2
Sand and matters insoluble in acids, 8.45] 8.80]| 6.89] 7.37]
Phosphoric acid soluble in water, 5.96 | 2.56] 2.46)| 51
if “insoluble of 14.37/15.78)| 22.98)22.53)| 17.61
Ammonia actual, 2.39] 2.25]|
«potential, re 38 1.06| 1.24|| 5 “4
|
Phosphate of lime equiy. to phosphoric acid, av. 45.56 54.74 | 39.26
Calculated value, $32. | $36.25 | $21.50
)

I. From the agricultural store, New Haven, Ct.
II. From the factory—taken from a heap in my presence.
III. From Messrs Backus & Barstow, Norwich—sample made
up by taking a spoonful from each bag of a large lot.
Mechanical condition, good.

Coe’s Superphosphate—Middletown, Ct.

This fertilizer, manufactured in Connecticut, has been sub-
jected to pretty severe scrutiny, and has maintained a good de-
gree of uniformity in composition. The variations are perhaps
not greater than are necessarily incidental to the manufacture.

30

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L, IL, IIL, IV. From the agricultural stores of New Haven
and Hartford.

V. From store of Backus and Barstow, Norwich, Ct.

VI. and VII. From Henry Hull, Esq., Naugatuck, Ct.

Mechanical condition uniformly good.

Coe & Company's Superphosphate—Boston, Mass.

This manure, furnished by Henry Hull, Esq., of Naugatuck,
Ct., is of a grayish white color, and is in good mechanical con-
dition. Its analysis resulted as follows:

Water, organic and volatile matters, - - 26.70 26.19

Sand and insoluble matter, - - - TL -" 6.19

Soluble phosphoric Oo - - - none

Insoluble . : : - 19.98 20.27

Potential ammonia, - : - . 3.06

Phosphate of lime equivalent to phos. acid, av., 43.59
Calculated value, $26.50.

This manure is wrongly named.* It is a good bone-manure
at $80 per ton.

Lloyd's Superphosphate—Proyidence, R. I.

This fertilizer I believe enjoys a good reputation as compared
with other similar manures. Its texture is fine. Itis apparently
made from unburned bones. Its composition is as follows:

Water, organic aud volatile matters - - 42.15 42.48
Sand and insoluble Ae ine . TOO. e220
Lime, - - - - - 20:61 19:50
Sulphuric acid, - - - - 11.80
Soluble Ptoertigtic acid, - - - a bw aes
Insoluble ie a = 2 = ale at 15.50
Potential ammonia, - - - = 248. O55

Phosphate of lime, equivalent to phos. acid, av., 35.14
Calculated value, e381.
The proportion of soluble phosphoric acid is considerably
above the average. The total amount is however small.

* | have since learned that this sample was mis-labelled. Messrs. Coe & Co., sell
it as “Steamed Bone.” 8 W. J.

82
Rhodes’ Superphosphate—Baltimore, Md.

In my address before the State Agricultural Society a year
ago, I made mention of Rhodes’ superphosphate to illustrate a
common fault in the analysis of commercial manures, viz: cal-
culating or inferring a result from insufficient grounds, instead
of actually deciding the matter experimentally. An analysis
of this manure was quoted from the proprietor’s circular, where-
in the total amount of phosphoric acid is estimated, and from
the quantity of sulphuric acid present is inferred the proportion
of soluble phosphoric acid. I stated that doubtless a fuller anal-
ysis would demonstrate that the amount of the soluble phos-
phorie acid was considerably smaller than represented.

The sample with which I have been furnished by Mr. Dyer
gave the following results in three analyses:

Average.

Water, organic and volatile matters, - - 27.60 27.73 26.60 27.31
Insoluble matters, sand, &e., - : - 3.22 i 2.470 10105.) 5124!
Lime, - - - - - - 20:13 20.25 20.19
Soluble phosphoric acid, - - - 2S) 165 11803) 5 1160
Insoluble a a - - - - BOL Sit Grol 8
Total Hy at - - - 16.04 15.42 14.97 15.47
Potential ammonia, - - - - 24 24 24.
Phosphate of lime equivalent to phosphoric acid, 38.80

Calculated value, $32.25.

The variation in the analytical results is due to the difficulty
of averaging the manure. Whenrubbed in a mortar it becomes
slightly pasty and can not be very thoroughly intermixed.

The mechanical condition of this superphosphate is unexcep-
tionable.

In a new edition of their circular, Messrs. Rhodes & Co. pub-
lish analyses and report made by Drs. Higgins and Bickel], ac-
cording to which this superphosphate contained, in four samples
respectively, the following amounts of phosphoric acid :

iL 2 3 4. 5
Soluble phosphoric acid, - - : 14°32 16:01 “Lis = 1i-56) s11k6o
Insoluble YY it —_ - none. 1.49 ‘none. » 1322. 3:87
Total, - - - - - LBA LAI Ws SiS ela

4 Is the statement made in their circular which I read last
year before this Society. 5 Is the average result of my own ac-

30

tual determinations. It is seen that the statement in my address
is confirmed, in case of the sample I analyzed. At the same
time. the difference is not seriously great.

In the analyses of Messrs. Higgins and Bickell, several per
cent of soda are given. I have not taken the trouble to estimate
this ingredient, which has no significance in case of an expen-
sive fertilizer.

Other Superphosphates.

Buck’s bone super-
phosphate,
Wallingford, Ct. Hartford, Ct.
Iu IL.
1857. 1857.
Water, organic and volatile matters, Titehe Noe 48.30 48.05) 51.59 51.46
Seendisolapla- ° uli se cahint ae 8.98 8.78 .60 .98
Iilinleye 3 acs SOCEM EOS CREE CO0A Oe BOD UAOCDOD Cr 20.53 20.36
Sulphuric acid,.......-cse cece eee e cece teeee 10.67 )
Soluble phosphori ic acid, Si ereietetel coeierstenelenetessel ska 's 2.02 12.00 (14.25 41
Tones» Te BT oS ieooceoe Sco ogcdo 9.72 § ee ty 25 14.11
Potential Ammonia, {22.2 2. 0. eres se oe owes 7.35 6.92 2.50 2.54
Phosphate of lime, equivalent to phosphoric acid, 21.34 30.79
Calculated! valweye < </seles sic ale atere «cis! ere sieielere = $34.50 831.00

I. This was furnished me by Mr. Parmelee of New Haven.
It contains much potential ammonia in the form of gelatine, but
the material is so poorly pulverized, consisting of coarsely-crush-
ed bones, that its action must be slow. A large reduction must
therefore be made from the calculated price.

Il. Is in good form. The sample furnished was small, so that
T was unable to determine the soluble phosphoric acid.

COLUMBIAN OR ROCK GUANO.

This substance, which has also been called a native superphos-
phate of lime, is reported to come from certain islands in the
Caribbean Sea. It occursin hard stony masses, which vary much
in structure, color and composition. The rock that is richest in
phosphorie acid is concretionary in structure. Externally its
color is gray or white, internally brown or black. This rock,
though quite tough under the hammer, may be readily reduced
to a fine powder, having a yellowish or brownish-gray color, and
in this form it now appears in the market. It has been supposed

34

that this guano is formed from the excrements of gulls, pelicans,
and cormorants, which are the sole inhabitants of the islands
where it is found. These islands area hundred or more in num-
ber, and it is said that the guano exists there In enormous quan-
tities. The rock guano consists essentially of phosphates, but
is more or less intermixed with other mineral matters. It con-
tains but a trifling amount of ammonia, or of ammonia-yielding
substances.
The composition is seen from the following table:

ANALYSES OF

Ce

Water anClOreAnic Matters... .:. «<< cle quens s owes.e
Sand and matter insoluble in acid,...........
ATT Oyeretcnemistetste: sues hfe Ge eee es shine ware esas
NEV NESE Grom bos COCRIG HOO UE DIGG On Oe
RO UASIIMMY. ancter<fev< stores syetoleire one
SOU nates sccie esere tec etorene rahe
OxyGeOnsITONy setereiece se ses
BIITINIT dese eet Pan patceshaicns aise MienareTaizce sieron cine oreo eaiere sas ees
PVULPMNUITIC A CIC, eracercrcrayageloveVedeseers is stele eleyevs cojevapaiety ereasle rece ssters loners als
IAHOSPNOMICHACI Csr. teievets vie .aia cketcrsralese nis cin ce slarsters ves a stem yaniee
Carbonic "3

(CIOTINION hercicttee ster cteiets > alererera icralal ale GMM oie forsie's

PECPOMEeCE PUM Pes BCPA PC UO

rd

wis 6. vireie. 6) 6.0) e016) 4.01670

ee a

Sr MM CCE) CL CE

@1e €) 0.6.0 buG16).6 0) 616.6) 6c wn 0le eee 6

O40) ole) t: 6.0 6) 66 6 6100 006) 8,916 6 0's,

Gier9l- 6 ern6. 6-040) 6108" 016) 0's) 0.0.16 16 (916161560 618)'6 @ Sis, 6 vies 6 oles

MTD GOONUUE Ke, oer CE Bt Ron COC IOC CRE a EEC
Phosphoric acid soluble in water,.............---
Phosphate of lime equivalent to phosphoric acid,...

ee es

ey

ey

COLUMBIAN

GUANO.

Il.

100.

IV.

MANE

aVAELTS

8.62
5.93
36.00)
1.82
1.19}
.36
1.36

4.13
39.45|

8.65
6.51
35.95
1.83
1.38
23
1.36

4.10
40.40

11.75
9.05
28.85

33.50

much,
much.

34.69

4.0.60)

1.93)
7

99.65

28)
85

86.86

OB leulsted oy AlWGy niece's eizes ves sauce sds eee

98.86)
28
70

85.47

$36.00 $36.00

$36.00

$30.00)

* Dissolved by long-continued washing with hot water,

4.00
42.98

81
93.16

22.87
13.18
2.66

68.59

42.18

100.69

94.25 a

$38.70 $28.50 $17.50 $39.00

56

I. and II., ground guano, sent to editors of Homestead, by the
proprietors of the guano.

III., unground guano, sent to editors of Homestead, by the
proprietors of the guano.

IV., from a gentleman
Pennsylvania.

V., from the store of C. Leonard, Norwalk.

a purchaser—near Philadelphia,

The above five analyses were made under my direction.

VIL, VIL, VIII. and IX., are quoted from a paper by Wm. F.
Taylor, of Philadelphia, in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia
Academy of Natural Sciences, March, 1857. The specimens were
rock-samples, furnished by Dr. D. Buther, President of the Phil-
adelphia Guano Company.

X., ground commercial sample; analysis by Drs. Higgins &
Bickell.

Richness in phosphoric acid.—This, the only important ingre-
dient, ranges in the majority of the above analyses at about
forty per cent. In analyses V., IV., and VIIL, it falls 5, 6, and
8 per cent. lower. In case of IX., we have but 20 per cent. of
phosphoric acid. Analysis VIII. and IX., were made on a
material quite different in external appearance from the rock fur-
nishing the other samples. The Philadelphia Guano Company
sent me specimens of these inferior kinds a year or more ago.
They appear to be, and actually are, largely intermixed with
sand, though when pulverised they can scarcely be distinguished
by the eye from the best sorts. I had begun analyses of the
specimens putinto my possession, but their completion was ren-
dered unnecessary by the appearance of Mr. Taylor’s extended
investigation. They contain little or no lime, and the phosphoric
acid is combined with oxyd of iron or alumina.

The best qualities of Columbian guano form the richest known
source of large quantities of phosphoric acid, if, indeed, there are
large quantities of the best quality. But the above analyses
show that even the commercial article found in the agricultural
stores, varies considerably in value, while some of the rock sam-
ples are worth but half asmuch as the best qualities; and, there-
fore, bone-black, or bone-ash, is equal in this respect to the
average of the best samples hitherto analyzed.

o7

Solubility of the phosphoric actd—The circulars of the Philadel-
phia Guano Company give an analysis of this guano, by Dr.
Chilton off New York, according to which it contains 18.14 per
cent. of soluble phosphate of lime. J.C. Booth reports therein,
that Columbian guano contains 6.05 per cent. of free phosphoric
acid, or 82.27 per cent. of soluble phosphate of lime. Dr. David
Stewart, chemist to the State Agricultural Society of Maryland,
in an analysis he furnishes, makes it to contain 5.23 per cent. of
soluble phosphoric acid. Dr. A. A. Hayes of Boston, in his an-
-alyses, states that it contains 11.4 per cent. of phosphoric acid
more than is requisite to form bone-phosphate of lime. He says
it is in fact a kind of natural bi-phosphate of lime. J.C. Booth,
in analyzing another sample, found 9.6 per cent. of free phosphorie
acid, On the strength of these statements, the Columbian guano
has been called a native superphosphate of lime. It is easy to un-
derstand how some of the gentlemen above-named have com-
mitted the inadvertency of asserting that the substance in ques-
tion contains free phosphoric acid, or superphosphate of lime.
The error is more to be attributed to the looseness of language
than to any other cause.

The fact is, that some of these specimens of Columbian guano
contain, in addition to the ordinary bone-phosphate of lime, the
composition of which is—

phosphoric acid, lime, lime, lime—
more or less of the generally called neutral phosphate, which
is—
phosphoric acid, lime, lime, water.
There is in it, however, no superphosphate of lime, which is—
phosphoric acid, lime, water, water.*

This neutral phosphate is slightly soluble in water, and is slowly
decomposed by boiling water. Thus, in analyses I, IL, VI.
and VIL, about 0.8 per cent. of phosporic acid was dissolved ;
and in IL., by long continued washing with hot water, 2.67 per
cent was made soluble. This neutral phosphate is decomposed,
by carbonic acid, and hence is doubtless readily available to
vegetation.

* See that part of this report relative to superphosphate of lime.

38

As concerns the value of those varieties which consist chiefly
of phosphates of iron, and alumina, V., VIII. and [X., Iam un-
able to state whether or not they are capable of readify yielding
their phosphoric acid to vegetation. As artificially prepared,
these phosphates are totally insoluble in pure water, and are not
easily decomposable. In fact, nearly all the knowledge we have
of these compounds, leads to the idea that they are unadapted to
feed the growing plant. Some writers have not hesitated to de-
clare them quite valueless for agricultural purposes. The only
satisfactory evidence, however, must be brought from direct
trials with them in the soil, for bodies are soluble there, which
ordimanly are accepted as the types of insolubility.

The PrincE SALM Horsrmar, of Germany, who has devoted
much time and means, to studies haying adirect bearing on aeri-
culture, found, indeed, that phosphate of iron is actually assimi-
lated by vegetation; but we do not yet know whether it may be
appropriated with such ease as to adapt it for a fertilizer. ;

T had hoped to institute some experiments with a view to de-
termine this point, but have not found the opportunity.*

POUDRETTE.

Since chemistry has explained in such a beautiful manner the
action of manures, and made evident what enormous quantities
of fertilizing material are daily lost to agriculture, the question
of cconomizing the effefe matters which accumulate in large
towns, has excited deep interest.

The subject is not merely one of agricultural importance, but
has extensive bearings upon the health of densely populated
countries. Those substances which most easily pass into putre-
faction, and then become in the highest degree disagreeable and
dangerous to the inhabitants of cities, possess, as fertilizers, the
greatest value to the farmer.

Not many years since it was common to find large cities filled
with filth, which had accumulated during generations, with no
other means of removal than the natural agencies of decay, or

* Tnvestigations that have recently come to my knowledge, prove that the phos-

phates of iron and alumina are available as food to plants.
8. W. J., 1859.

39

e

rains might furnish. Not a few of the fearful plagues that in
former centuries have ravaged the capitals of the old world, trace
their origin most unequivocally, to the disgusting negligence in
these matters, then prevalent.

It is therefore fortunate for a people, when the refuse of the
town, instead of poisoning the atmosphere and generating terri-
ble pestilences, can be transported to the fields of the country,
and under the wonderful transmutations of agriculture be con-
verted into healthful food.

Numerous efforts have been made with a view to produce a
good manure from the night-soil of cities, but so far as I can
learn, with very limited success, if the quality of the product
hitherto brought into market is a proper criterion for judgment.

Practice and science concur in attributing to human excre-
ments, very high fertilizing properties. Itis well-known that the
richness of manure depends upon the richness of the food that
supports the animal producing the manure. It is equally well-
known that, on the whole, no animal is so well fed as man.

Notwithstanding these facts the manures that have been pre-
pared from night-soil, and brought into commerce under the
names Poudrette, Ta-Feu, &c., are not remarkable for their value.
It is true that good manures are made, but they are by no means
so concentrated as reasonably to command a high price, or war-
rant much outlay for their transportation.

Some of the causes that conspire te this result, become evident
from the following considerations :

The night-soil as usually collected has already lest the chief
part of its original value. Unless special arrangements are made
to prevent the escape of urine from the vaults of privies, the
greater part of it soaks away directly into the adjoining ground
and is lost. Now the value of the urine voided by an adult ma
during one year, for example, is much greater than that of the
corresponding solid excrements. It contains, according to
Stoeckhardt, (Chem. Field Lectures, page 72):

Double the quantity of phosphoric acid.

Four times as much nitrogen.

Six times as much alkalies.

Not only is the urine itself lost to a considerable degree, but

40

in the usual construction of privies it falls upon the solid excre-
ments and washes away a considerable share of their soluble and
active matters, so that the contents of a vault, even though quite
fresh, are of very inferior value.

Again, the vaults are only emptied at considerable intervals,
between which, especially in warm weather, a rapid putrefaction
of their contents takes place, by which a good share of the
nitrogen that remains after the urine has leached out the mass,
escapes into the air inthe shape of ammonia compounds, and is
lost. After the night-soil has passed these two stages of deteri-
oration, it is usually no longer suitable for the preparation of a
concentrated manure, even supposing it free from foreign mat-
ters.

But again, considerable quantities of worthless matter, coal-
ashes, &c., find their way into the vaults, which are, indeed,
often an omnium gatherum for all sorts of refuse. Often the
slops of the kitchen run into them, and the rains flow through
them on their way to the deeper earth, washing in sand and
dirt, and washing out the valuable ingredients.

From these facts, it is seen that the raw material used in mak-
ing poudrette and tafeu, must be of variable, and for the most
part, of inferior value.

The process of manufacturing ought to consist merely in con-
verting the night-soil into a shape convenient for transportation,
and if possible concentrating the valuable ingredients. ~The
manure is made of the best quality by treating the night-soil with
sulphuric acid and then rapidly drying by artificial heat. The
acid prevents the loss of ammonia, while the drying removes
the worthless water, and brings the mass into a suitable state
for handling. The manure is manufactured most cheaply by
mixing it with some drying or absorbent material, as peat, or
swamp muck, or the charcoal of the same, and drying by expo-
sure to the air. The first method is expensive and raises the
cost of the product far above its value, unless the raw material
is of unusually good quality. The second process dilutes the
night-soil with matters which are indeed very useful, but must
be sold very cheaply.

According to Nesbit’s careful calculation, fresh human excre-

41

ments, solid and liquid together, when dried completely, yield a
material haying the following per centage composition in round
numbers :

Ammonia, (a considerable share not actual but

potential, ) - - : : 2 ‘i E 20)
Other organic matters, = - : : per reD
Phosphorie acid, . . 2 : : ¢ 3
Other inorganic matters, . - - - - 26

100

The value of this, estimated by the prices adopted in the pres-
ent report, is $60, and it therefore approaches Peruvian guano
in commercial worth.

How effectually the causes I have enumerated deteriorate the
value of night-soil before it is converted into a portable manure,
is seen by the following analyses :

42

——

gh"

18°

‘TIX
“u0Os
-PAVGOU

*poqqor
Teas
I.MUB]Y
-9s10H

8V

06°

TIX
“4ynu3
-ulssnog.

‘s81d puv
‘sxpoorpnqd
“‘sostoy
jo Sunp)
poXrU |

‘OINUL]AT |

-pavy

9¢°

0¢F

16
“ABM ‘JOIg

“YSosy
‘I9}}T] puv
‘Sunp pox tur
‘qaURyY XOg |

H

Pa

a
~e

>.6
‘Iayo[o0 A “ACT

“pomp
pue pez}01
[Jos ou
“prey

CHEE OT ST TL GEile {66a
00°00T
Socal
61°
981 6TT 90°T GOT L18°
*o0RI}
col
| 9o'@
CVs
TICP |LEOE (866s
5 ; ° lyeqz
08 FL OF'8T 88°F 10°09 Lo'06
69'°SE 09°ST CGE 1L6°6§)
“XI TITA TIA 20.
“BUIOLM ‘SUIUIATL,| “SULULAAT, “£[a0g
*MOISAIVET
‘pavuoay “yO yy suyoug) ‘o10js “Au 40
‘Y[BAMON — | YOLAMMION |WOAVTT AMON) ‘ployyAvy, FSVGL

“MUO YAOK MON

‘Auvduiog AuLmMyzounuvyy 1poT

‘ayjorpnog

| OD “UBT B1qorT

‘aqqorpnog

FIT 9% S61 |84T PIT
9°0
GT
GS
Gs
L°0
|L°G
oo |
soIc OCF, OG EF 00°86 Des
GZ'118'°0% OLS 00°63 80'F9
|
GP 8 o6l 09'ET 00°86 TF'82
SASS | eeANT TI al T
‘UaA | Moy | IBIOqnog “UTereqnog) “WeAl][ Ng
“OOS |-TT
“0090
‘uopsoaqy | ‘fomege ‘oq)) -nvyzUOHY
wmoOdy furore
‘ourny
uoxtg | ‘ogjoapnog 0}70ApNog |'0}}94pnog

—

‘s19}7 eu O1UvS.I0
woy vruomlUy

sss H10e OTUOGIBO
> ROTIS OTNLOS
“‘epog pue ysei0g
*+-‘p1ow ormmydyig
** Hoe omoydsoyg
ee ‘eisoudE yy
ed * ‘QUIT,
eee teens ‘eUlUIA Ty

Iss" tott JO pAXO

‘splov ut eTqn
-josat “oxy ‘pueg
‘Jo}VUL OT}
-B[OA puB O1UBSIC)
Sce® 35s ade? TOUR AK

S

XG AUZATIVNV

43

The analyses IV. are quoted from foreign journals. Anal-
yses VI.-IX. were made in the Yale Laboratory. I. represents
the composition of a mixture of two parts of turf-coal, with one
part of night soil, and shows how poor an article is procured
when it is known what is the process of making. It will be
seen that although no dirt or sand was mixed with the night sou,
yet the amount of fertilizing matter is very small. The further
details of the original analysis show that besides the ingredients
stated above, there was but 5.8 per cent. of valuable matter in
the poudrette, and this was mostly sulphate of lime.

IT. and III. are analyses of poudrette made in France, the
country where this manufacture originated, and from whose lan-
guage the name is derived. There is every reason to suppose
that these specimens were prepared in the best manner; blood
and butchers’ offal were employed in the latter.

TV. and V. show the composition of a poudrette made at Dres-
den in Saxony, the addition to which of some sulphate of am-
monia, is claimed by Dr. Abendroth, the chemist who superin-
tends its manufacture, to entitle it to the name of a guano. It
does not differ materially in value from the French poudrette.
I have before me a pamphlet setting forth the principles that, it
is professed, guide the production of this manure, and have full
faith that the business is managed as well as can be. The price
of the article is about $1.00 per ewt. Dr. Mueller, chemist to
the Agricultural Experiment Station at Chemnitz, in Saxony,
the author of one of the above analyses, remarks concerning it,
as follows: ‘In an experimental trial made last year (1855) at
the Chemnitz Agricultural Experiment Station, with the pur-
pose of testing the effect of various manures, the same amount of
money being invested in each application, it resulted that the
Saxon guano had the least effect of all. This led me to make
the accompanying analysis. A glance at the figures is enough,
without any actual trial, to show that no great effect can be ex-
pected from such amanure. From the quantity of valuable mat-
ters present, six ewt. of this might be considered equivalent to
one cwt. of Peruvian guano; but when the form is taken into
account—nearly one-half of the ammonia being inert, and the
phosphoric acid existing as almost insoluble phosphate of iron—

44

its value must be estimated lower. The other ingredients are
of less importance, and, at any rate, may be procured more
cheaply from other sources.”

VI. represents the composition of a poudrette manufactured
by the so-called Liebig Manufacturing Co., at Hast Hartford, Ct.
It does not claim to be a concentrated fertilizer, its price bemg
but $1.50 per barrel when sold in quantity. It is not just then
to estimate its value from the ammonia and phosphoric acid alone,
for the cheaper a manure is, the more must its less valuable in-
eredients figure in estimating its worth.

These have not been separately estimated, for the reason that
no calculation of any permanent value, could be founded on one
analysis of a material that is so hkely to vary in these ingre-
dients, especially where it is sold by bulk. This being a kind
of manure that is applied in large quantity, and the ingredients
being in proportions more nearly approaching the demands of
the growing plant, than is the case with concentrated fertilizers,
whose true function is to make up special deficiencies in the soil,
we must appeal to practice for precise information as to its worth.
Again, it has but a local value, for beng bulky, it can not re-
pay much expense in transportation, and therefore should not
be judged by the general principles that commend or condemn
a superphosphate or guano; but by the particular wants of the
soil in the neighborhood where it is sold, and the local circum-
stances that there affect the price of other cheap fertilizers.

VIL, VIIL. and IX. are analyses of the Lodi Co's. Poudrette,
prepared from the night soil of New York city. The extrava-
gant and persistent claims that have been set up in favor of this
manure, led to a complete investigation of its merits. ‘To insure
a fair examination, general analyses were made on three sam-
ples, and one of them was submitted to a full and minute analy-
sis. ‘Thesamples differed much in their degree of dryness. VII.
fresh from New York, was quite moist, almost wet. VIII. was
moist, but still powdery. IX. was dry to the feel.

In all these commercial poudrettes we observe a very large
proportion of valueless water and sand, viz: 60 to 75 per cent.

The quantity of organic matters averages at about 20 per
cent. This yields but 1.2 per cent of ammonia. There remains

45

but 4.5 pe® cent. of other fertilizing substances. The analyses,
X.-XIIL. enable us to compare these poudrettes with common
stable or yard manure. Analysis X. represents the composition
of dried yard manure. Fresh yard manure contains from 65 to
75 per cent. of water, so that we must take but one-third to one-
fourth of the numbers there given. We see then that the best of
these poudrettes does not exceed dried yard manure in value, or vs
worth but three to four times as much as its weight of common yard
manure, if we judge alone from chemical composition.

But the question of manurial value is by no means a purely
chemical one. As already insisted upon, the form as well as the
kind and quality of matter, must be duly considered. In a con-
centrated fertilizer the assumption that the ingredients are in a
state to be readily available to the plant, is the indispensable
basis of calculations founded on composition. In discussing the
value of cheap manures, this matter becomes of paramount im-
portance. In these respects the Liebig Manufacturing Co’s. Pou-
drette is unexceptionable. It is free from coarse refuse, and hav-
ing undergone fermentation, it would seem able to produce an
immediate and rapid effect. It can be apphed with seeds by a
drill, does not impregnate the soil with the germs of noxious
weeds, and has other obvious advantages over barn-yard or stas
ble manure. From a chemical point of view we may assume it
to be worth as much as three times its weight of stable manure.
Farmers must decide for themselves whether it is economical for
their use. For some it will not be; for many others who com-
mand city prices for their produce, and are obliged to transport
all their manure some miles, it can hardly fail to be highly val-
uable. Its modest price is certainly in its favor, and I am cred-
ibly informed that it 1s in good repute among those who have
used it. >

The Lodi Co’s. Poudrette can not be recommended. The or-
ganic matter of the Hast Hartford Poudrette isa fermented peat
or muck, is highly divided and absorbent of moisture and am-
monia. The Lodi poudrette contains nearly as much organic
matter, but it mostly consists of sticks and the dust of hard coal.
In fact all manner of city refuse, old nails, apple-seeds, &c., &c.,
are found in it. It is coarse and lumpy in texture. Its selling

46

price is $1.50 per bbl. of about 200 Ibs. So long as*the farmer
ean procure 400 Ibs. of good stable manure for $1.50, so long it
is cheaper than this poudrette. ”

In this connection the question occurs—can not the night soil
of cities be profitably secured for agricultural purposes without
losing any of its original value. Undoubtedly it can be, and it
is a subject worthy of the most careful consideration of the par-
ties concerned in such an undertaking, viz: those on whose pre-
mises it 18 inevitably produced, those who may find profitable
employment in making it portable, and finally, those who are
in perpetual need of just such a material for increasing the yield
of their farms. :

Nesbit has estimated the total amount of dry matter annually
excreted by an adult, well but not highly fed, at 90 Ibs., con-
taining 16.85 Ibs. of ammonia, and 2.75 of phosphoric acid, the
former at 14 cents per lb.=$2.36; the latter at 44 cts.=12 cts.
Both amount. to $2.48. If this estimate be correct, a city of
80,000 inhabitants, ike New Haven, furnishes yearly $75,000
worth of the most valuable fertilizing material, which now is not
only lost, but is anuisance. Could alittle prejudice be overcome,
undoubtedly the whole of this might be economized in a most
profitable manner. The raw material, if collected fresh, is rich
enough to warrant the outlay of considerable money in prepar-
ing it for use.

DEBURG’S BONE MEAL.

This substance sent me by Messrs. Backus & Barstow, of
Norwich, had the appearance of bone-ash or the residue of burnt
bones, and proved to be such on analysis.

Water, - . - - - - . 3.04
Organic and volatile matters, mostly charcoal, - 2.07
Sand and insoluble matters, — - - - =, @.19
Lime, - - - - - - ANAT
Phosphoric:acid, : - - - 84.06—35.42
Carbonic ES - - - - : 1.23
Magnesia, sulphuric acid, with undetermined matters, 4.88

100.00

47

Bone Meal is a term that has long been in use in England, to
signify finely ground bones, and it is a departure from good
usage to apply the name to bone-ash. This is a good phosphatic
fertilizer, and comes very near in composition to the average
samples of Columbian guano. The calculated value is $31.75.

IVORY DUST AND TURNINGS.

The examination of these substances from the comb factory
at Meriden, has led to the following analytical results :
Dust. Turnings.

Water = - - - - - T1220" ext Oras,
Organic matter, - - - - 83.70 M7.94
Lime, - - : - - 21.09 25.80
Phosphoric acid, - : - - 23.22 22.11
Ammonia yielded by organic matter, - 6.00 6.46

The above is nearly the composition of the bones of domestic
animals, and it is obvious that this material must be a valuable
fertilizer, though the quantity that can be procured is small.

BEEF SCRAPS.

This material is a residue of the soap-boiling processes. It
occurs in the form of cakes, which having been very strongly
pressed, are so hard as to withstand any attempts at pulveriza-
tion. In composition it is almost pure muscular fibre or cellular
tissue. It contains 97.42 per cent. of organic matter, and yields
13 per cent. of ammonia on decay. It must be exceedingly val-
uable to manufacturers as a source of ammonia, but from its
hardness can not be directly useful, except it is reduced by some
solvent, or is softened by soaking with water. I understand it
now commands a good price from the manufacturers of super-
phosphates.

ON THE COMPOSITION AND AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF COTTON-
SEED CAKE.

Recently a process has been patented for remoying the hulls
from cotton-seed, so that this material may be expressed for its
oil. This new industry is now prosecuted in Providence, R. L,
and so enormous are the quantities of cotton-seed that hitherto
have been nearly useless refuse, which may thus be profitably

48

economized, that this manufacture will doubtless be a permanent
and extended one. The important agricultural uses to which
the cake remaining after the expresssion of flax, rape and other
oily seeds, have been applied, makes it important to study what
are the properties of the cotton-seed cake. J have examined
specimens from the Providence mills, and find that its composi-
tion is not inferior to that of the best flax-seed cake, and in some
points its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of
oil-cake of which I have knowledge; as will appear from the
following statement of its composition compared with that of
linseed cake.

ie 10E; Tui Vic Wi

Water, silo (elfesasa: elieleil ie) elel erie! e/.eles'si afelistevelbuelapieis 6.82 11.19 | 9.93 16.94
Oeics aya w etetioneiss 6 ss migiele viele civ 8 0 16.47 9.08 | 12.96
Albuminous bodies,...... --- | 44.41 | 48.82 | 95.16 | 28.28 | 10.69
Mucilaginous and si accharine matters, . -» | 19.74 | | 34.22 | 40.11
JNOWE Weg aececIoo eo Gicod adit Glo domoanes 11.76 j 48.93 | 9.00 | 27.16
Ash, i i ei i ec aici 7.80 8.96 5.64 6.21 5.04

100.00 100.00, 100.00; 100.00
NIKO REL eos te Neen <meta teeta ¢ 4.05) 77:15 | 3.95] 4.47)
Bhosphorieacidsiniashy yevetta rogers steleoseie> 2.36| 2.45
Shih ws gcocdiongo0v s40> - “dodo bbooae 94 1.32

No. I. is the cake from Providence.

No. Il. gives some of the results of an analysis made by Dr.
C. T. Jackson, on cake prepared by himself from hulled cotton-
seed. (Patent Office Report for 1855, agricultural part.)

No. IIL, analysis of Dr. Anderson on cotton-cake, made at
Edinburgh, Scotland.

No. IV., average composition of eight samples of American
linseed cake. (Journal of Highland and Ag. Soe. of Scotland,
July, 1855, p. 51.)

No. V., Meadow Hay, Saxony, Dr. Wolff.

The two points of interest before us are, the nutritive and ma-
nurial value of this cake. With reference to both, chemistry
and practical results agree in their conclusions. The great value
of linseed cake, as an adjunct to hay for fat cattle and milch
cows, has long been recognized; and is undeniably traceable in
the main, to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding

49

plants. The value of food depends upon the quantity of mat-
ters it contains which may be appropriated by the animal which
consumes the food. Now, it is proved that the fat of animals is
derivable from the starch, gum and sugar, and more directly and
easily from the oz! of the food. These four substances, are, then,
the fat-formers. The muscles, nerves and tendons of animals,
the fibrine of their blood, and the curd of their milk, are almost
identical in composition, and strongly similar in many of their
properties, with matters found in all vegetables, but chiefly in
such as form the most concentrated food. These blood- (and mus-
cle-) formers are characterized by containing about 15$ per cent.
of nitrogen; and hence are called nitrogenous substances. Since
albumin (white of egg) is the type of these bodies, they are also
often designated as the albuminous bodies.

The bony frame-work of the animal owes its solidity to phos-
phate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by the food.
A. perfect od must supply the animal with these three classes
of bodies, and in proper proportions. What proportions are the
proper ones, we have at present no means of knowing with ac-
curacy. The ordinary kinds of food for cattle, contain a large
quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, which is more or
less indigestible, but which is indispensable to the welfare of the
herbivorous animals, as their digestive organs are adapted toa
bulky and rough food. (See analysis V.) The addition of a
small quantity of a food rich in oil and albuminous substances,
to the ordinary kinds of feed, has been found highly advanta-
geous in practice. Neither hay alone, nor concentrated food
alone, gives the best results. A certain combination of the two
presents the most advantages.

For fattening animals, and for increasing the yield and quality
of milk, linseed cake has long been held in high estimation.
This is to be expected from its composition. The muscle of
flesh and the curd of milk are increased in quantity, because the
albuminous substances of the linseed constitute an abundant and
ready source of them; the fat of the animal and the butter of
the milk are increased by the presence in the food of so much
oil and mucilaginous matters.

A year or two since, Mr. M’Lagan of Scotland, reported in the

50

Journal of the Highland Society, some trials on the value, as
food, of linseed cake, cotton-seed cake, and bean meal. Analy-
sis II]. represents the composition of the cotton cake; IV. that
of the linseed cake. The bean meal has 25 per cent. of albumi-
nous matters, but 14 per cent of oil, and correspondingly more
of the bodies that have the same nutrient function as the muci-
laginous and saccharine matters. Six animals of nearly equal
size and quality were fed during three months in Winter, with
all the turnips and straw they would eat, and in addition, two of
them received daily, four pounds of linseed cake, two, four
pounds of cotton-seed cake, and two, four pounds of bean meal.
The animals thrived as well on the cotton-seed cake as on the
other kinds of food—as shown by their appearance, and by
their weight when slaughtered.

When linseed cake is fed in too large quantity it purges the
animal, The quality of beef is excellent when the daily dose
of oil-cake does not exceed six pounds for an animal of 700
pounds. Cases are on record when more than this quantity has
spoiled the beef, giving it a taste like tallow.

Probably like results would follow excessive feeding with cot-
ton-seed cake. In the best cotton districts of India, the cotton-
seed bears a high value as food for fat cattle. I know of no ex-
periments with it on milch cows, but it is to be expected that
here also it will have the same effects as linseed cake.

A Bavarian farmer has recently announced that heifers. fed
for three months before calving with a little linseed cake in ad-
dition to their other fodder, acquire a larger development of the
milk vessels, and yield more milk afterward, than similar ani-
mals fed as usual, If this be a fact, cotton-seed cake must have
an equally good effect. °

Some of those who have used cotton-seed cake have found
difficulty in inducing cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in
small doses, mixed with other palatable food, they soon learn to
eat it with relish.

On comparing the analyses II. and I., with the average com-
position of linseed cake, IV., it will be seen that the cotton-seed
cake is much richer in oil and albuminous matters than the lin-
seed cake. A correspondingly less quantity will therefore be

51

required. Three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent
to four of linseed cake of average quality.

The value of the article in question as a manure, is obviously
very considerable. The dung of cattle, etc., fed upon it, will be
greatly richer both in nitrogen and phosphates, than that of an-
imals fed on hay alone. Where stock is kept, probably the best
manner of using this cake as a fertilizer, is to feed it to the cat-
tle, and carefully apply the manure they furnish. In this way,
whatever is not economized as fat or flesh, will be available as
manure.

In England and on the continent of Europe, linseed-and rape-
cake have been used directly as a dressing for the soil, and with
results fully equal to what is indicated by their composition.
These kinds of cake decompose readily, and their effect is usu-
ally finished in one season. 6500 or 600 pounds per acre is con-
sidered a good application; more is lable to be injurious. It is
found that when applied with the seed, these kinds of cake pre-
vent germination to a considerable degree; but if applied a week
or so previous to sowing, this detriment is not encountered.

The cotton-seed is often employed in the Southern States, with
good effects, ay a manure for Indian corn, &. I do not know
whether like rape and linseed cake, it destroys the seed. For
manuring purposes it is about one-third richer than linseed eake.
Its effects are mostly due to the nitrogen it contains, and there-
fore are similar to those of guano. It is best used in conjunc-
tion with other fertilizers. I should judge that a mixture of
400 pounds of this cotton-seed cake with 50 bushels of leached
wood-ashes per acre, would make an excellent application for
most crops. It is highly important that the cake be uniformly
distributed, and thoroughly intermixed with the soil.

This cotton-seed: cake is doubtless an excellent material for
composts, owing to its ready decomposability.

Its commercial value as a manure, if calculated from the prices.
adopted in this Report, is $21.60. The market price is $25.00.
Therefore, next to Peruvian guano, this is a substance which, if
its composition proves uniform, is most nearly worth what it
costs.

Nore. In making the analyses which are included in this
£

52

(3)

Report, I have been greatly assisted by the following gentlemen,
students in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, viz: Messrs. A. D.
Willson, A. P. Rockwell, M. Watson, and G. F. Barker. I am
especially indebted also to my skillful professional assistants,
Messrs. Henry M. Seely and Edward H. Twining, who have
each made numerous analyses.

PEAT AND MUCK—-PRELIMINARY NOTICE.

The investigation of the Peats and Mucks sent in to me from
various parts of the State, last summer, has been prosecuted as
far as has been possible. Seventeen specimens have been sub-
mitted to analysis, and in them have been made the following
determinations, viz:

Water. >
Organic matter.
Ash.
Portion soluble in water.
insoluble in water.
soluble in carbonate of soda.
insolublean 5. ** rice
Total nitrogen or potential ammonia.

In two cases, complete analyses of the ash have been carried
out. In all of them, the ash has been more or less analyzed,
where the quantity of it has allowed.

This labor has occupied my able assistant, Edward H. Twi-
ning, nearly the whole of four months. Some of the analytical
processes consumed a great deal of time, and the consequence
is, that now, when I must present my report, many interesting
points remain uninvestigated. I therefore prefer not to enter
into the details of the results already obtained, but to reserve
this most important subject for further and more extended stud-
ies, if such be the pleasure of the Society. The analytical re-
sults as far as finished, serve to indicate the direction in which
new researches may be undertaken with most promise of use-
fulness.

I may mention in brief, some of the more important facts that
heave transpired in this research. Very great differences exist

53

between different specimens. Some are but slightly advanced
in the peaty decomposition, and yield but a few per cent. of
matter soluble in alkalies; others consist almost entirely of sol-
uble peaty substance, the so-called humic, ulmiec and geie acids.
An important question, yet very undecided, so far as my knowl-
edge extends, is, how do these differences stand connected with
the readiness of decomposition which is essential to the fertili-
zing applications of peat? This is a branch of inquiry that
deserves to be studied experimentally, both in the laboratory
and on the farm. Hereafter I shall attempt to offer some sug-
gestions for a practical study of this subject, which may lead
to a better knowledge of the best methods of composting, &e.
Some of the peats examined, have dissolved in water to the ex-
tent of only three-fourths of a per cent. Others have yielded
to water, five, six, and one as much as twelve per cent., viz:
five per cent. of mineral, and seven per cent. of vegetable mat-
ter. The precise nature of the matters thus dissolved has not
been accurately studied in any one case. It is shown, however,
that the character of the portion soluble in water varies very
widely ; for example, in the specimen yielding twelve per cent.,
it is chiefly compounds of the peaty acids with oxyd of iron,
that are extracted by water. In other cases much lime and little
iron is dissolved. These particulars deserve the most minute
study, because the matters soluble in water are those which are
immediately serviceable to vegetation. Very likely some of
these peats may be at first injurious from the quantities of solu-
ble salts of iron they contain.

That part of the investigation relating to the estimation of
nitrogen, has furnished the most interesting results. No speci-
men of peat that I have examined, though all have been merely
air-dried, and contain from ten to thirty per cent. of water, has

yielded less than one per cent. of potential ammonia, while the
average yield is two per cent., and one specimen gave three and
one-half per cent., which is one-fifth as much as is found in the
best Peruvian guano.

Mr. Daniel Buck, of Poquonock, has long employed peat as
fucl, and some time ago brought to the notice of Messrs. Dyer

_ and Weld the fact that the peat he employs, exhales a strong

54

odor of ammonia when burning. This observation has been
made in my laboratory with other samples.

In the two specimens of peat-ashes, one furnished by Mr.
Buck, and coming from the peat just mentioned, the other by
Mr. Stanwood, of Colebrook, were found, besides large quanti-
ties of carbonate of lime, considerable sulphate of lme and
magnesia, also nearly one per cent. of phosphoric acid and the
same amount of alkalies.

The gentlemen who have furnished these peats, namely:
Messrs. T. S. Gold, Nathan Hart, Titus L. Hart of West Corn-
wall, Lewis M. Norton of Goshen, Messrs. Pond and Miles of
Milford, Messrs. Russell Peck of Berlin, B. F. Northrop of Gris-
wold, J. H. Stanwood of Colebrook, S. Loveland of North
Granby, Daniel Buck of Poquonock, Adams White, Philip
Scarborough, Perrin Scarborough, and the Messrs. Dyer of
Brooklyn, have communicated to mea large amount of valuable
imformation respecting the character and value of the deposits,
which would be most appropriately embodied in a future report,
should I be permitted to complete this investigation.

Practical men have already abundantly proved that many
peats are of exceeding agricultural value. This is no discovery
of mine, or of those who have already subjected these substan-
ces to a chemical examination. Mr. Daniel Buck of Poquonock,
has used his peat without any preparation, as a top-dressing on
erass, and has experienced the most decided results from its use
in this simple manner. He estimates his raw peat as equal to
cow-dung in fertilizing value.

What may be expected from a thorough chemical investiga-
tion of these deposits is this: We shall be able to decide which
are valuable, and which are indifferent for fertilizing purposes.
We shall excite throughout the State and the whole country, in
fact, an interest in these deposits, that will lead to their extended
and systematic use. We shall thus acquire a full practical
knowledge of their merits, and of the best methods for convert-
ing them into grain and flesh and milk.

Unquestionably, the greatest service we can render to our
farming interests is to develop our internal resources. ‘The im-

ortation of- foreign fertilizers is enriching foreign merchants,

5d

and withdrawing cash from the pockets of our farmers. Their
use is extremely liable to run to excess, and makes our agricul-
ture unsteady and improvident. We need, not only to live and
make money from our soils, but to constantly improve the soil,
and thus extend our agricultural capital. The enlightened econ-
omy of the enormous masses of muck and peat which Connecti-
cut contains, which probably exceed in extent those of any other
State, can not fail to exercise the most beneficent influence on
our material prosperity. We shall thus at once fertilize those
fields that are already arable, and reclaim from waste a large
area of land that is now all but useless.

I dowbt not that the peat beds of our State are destined to be
of immense value for other than merely agricultural purposes.
As fuel, they have already been employed to some extent. In
Europe a vast deal of ingenuity has been bestowed upon the
means of preparing peat-fuel, so as to adapt it to transportation
and advantageous use. In Bristol of this State, the Copper
Company have for some time employed a furnace in connection
with their steam engine, which receives the peat as it comes drip-
ping wet from the swamp, and consumes it with the greatest
economy, even the water it contains being made to contribute
to its heating effect.

In Germany, a method has been invented for converting the
porous, bulky, and friable peat, into dense hard cakes, or bricks,
which contain little of the coarse impurities of the peat, and may
be transported without loss or pulverization, and burn with a
great degree of freedom. All this is accomplished without any
pressure, by simply diffusing the peat in water, allowing the
latter to settle, and drying the deposit.

Again, in Ireland and Germany, peat 1s consumed in large
quantities in an entirely new industry, which has originated and
grown to a good deal of vigor within the last five to six years.
The peat is distilled, either over a free fire, or by over-heated
steam, and a large number of useful products are thus obtained,
quite analogous to those now prepared to some extent in this
country from bituminous coals.

As an example of the kind and quantity of these products,
the following statement may be adduced:

56

From a turf or peat excavated in Hanover, Germany, and
worked in the air-dry state, were obtained :
2 per cent. of a clear, colorless, light-turf-oil or photogene.

2 : dark, heavy es
ifaee f Bet ‘asphalt.
oo sf ‘¢ peat coal or coke.
15 4 ¢ illuminating gas.
ci (paraffin.
4 * ‘« kreosote.
40 i ‘water containing 1—38 per cent. ammonia.

These products are all susceptible of useful applications for
purposes of illumination, lubrication, heating, preservation of
wood, manufacture of lamp-black, varnish, and even of per-
fumery.

If I should be authorized to continue my labors, I shall com-
municate to the Society a full account of all these various tech-
nical applications of peat, in so far as they promise to be of ser-
vice to the industrial interests of this State.

Thave taken measures to provide myself with means of in-
formation on all these topics, as furnished by the scientific and
technical journals and publications of Great Britain, Germany
and France. [also wish to examine personally, the more im-
portant of our peat-beds, so as to be able to compare their phys-
ical with their chemical characters, and thus to establish rules
by which practical men may be guided mm the economy of the
different varieties.

APPENDIX.—Metuops or ANALYSIS.

The general method of analysis for guanos, superphosphates,
&c., whose commercial value hes almost exclusively in ammo-
nia and phosphorie acid, is as follows:

1. Of the well averaged and pulverized sample, a quantity
of 2 grams is weighed off and dried at a temperature of 212 deg.
until it ceases to lose weight; the loss is water. If loss of am-
monia is feared, a known quantity of oxalic acid is added before
drying.

2. The dried residue of 1, is gradually heated to low redness
in a porcelain cup, and maintained at such a heat, until all organic
matter is burned off. The loss is organic and volatile matter.
Usually the substance is directly heated to redness without sep-
arately estimating the water.

3. The residue of 2, is pulverized if need be, and digested
for some time with moderately concentrated hydrochloric acid.
The diluted solution is filtered off and washed, the residue
weighed as sand and insoluble matters.

4, The solution 8, is brought to the bulk of three or four
liquid ounces, mixed with rather more than its volume of strong
alcohol and enough sulphuric acid to unite with all the lime
which is thereby completely separated as sulphate. The lquid
is filtered off, the sulphate of lime is washed with dilute alcohol,
dried and weighed; from it is calculated the amount of lime.

5. The solution 4, is evaporated until the alcohol is removed,
then without filtration, to it is added an excess of a liquid made
by dissolving in 2 quarts of water, 80 grams of sulphate of mag-
nesia, 41 grams of chlorid of ammonium, 874 grams of tartaric
acid, and 40 grams of carbonate of ammonia, (see W. Mayer, in
Liebig’s Annalen, Vol. 101, p. 168,) and finally excess of am-
monia. After five to six hours, the precipitate of ammonia-
phosphate of magnesia, usually mixed with some brown organic
matters, is collected in a filter and washed three or four times
with ammonia water; it is then dissolved from the filter by
dilute hydrochloric acid, and again thrown down by ammonia,

58

after addition of alittle tartaric acid. It is now pure, and is
finally washed and weighed as usual for the estimation of phos-
phoric acid.

6. 1 gram of the manure is burned in the usual way, with
soda lime. The resulting ammonia is collected in 20 cubic cen-
timeters of a fifth-solution of oxalic acid, (12.6 grams of pure
oxalic acid to a liter of water,) and estimated by titrition with
a dilute potash solution.

7. The soluble phosphoric acid of a manure is estimated by
washing 2 grams of it with several ounces of water and treating
the solution as in 4 and 5.

8. To determine actual ammonia, one or two grams are mixed
in a flask, with a pint of water; a piece of caustic potash is
added, and three-fourths of the water slowly distilled off through
a Liebig’s condenser into a standard oxalic acid. ‘The ammonia
is then estimated by titrition.

In complete ash-analysis of manures, or in examining organic
bodies, e. g., cotton-seed cake, the usual and approved methods
are employed.

ESSAYS ON MANURES.

LSS:

CONTENTS

Ome yo ok. YS WN Vsinse

PEAT AND Muck.—IESSAY ON THEIR NATURE AND AGRICULTURAL USES.

1. What is Peat? - - - - : = 2
2. Conditions of its formation, - . - -
3. Different kinds, = - . - - - = =
4, Chemical composition, - - : :

a. Organic or combustible part, - - 2 :

b. Mineral part—<Ashes, - - . - =
c. Nitrogen or potential ammonia, = - - - -
5. Characters that adapt Peat for agricultural use, - .
A. Physical or amending characters, — - - - -
I. Absorbent power for water, as liquid and vapor, -
Jal se ns ‘“* ammonia, - - - -
III. Influence in modifying decay, - - -
IV. Influence in disintegrating the soil, - - .
V. Influence on the temperature of soils. - -
B. Fertilizing characters, - - - - -
I. Fertilizing effects of the organic matters, including nitrogen,
1st. Organic matters as direct food to plants, - -
2d. Organic matters as indirect food to plants, -
3d. Peculiarities in the decay of Peat, - - -
Il. Fertilizing effects of ths ashes of Peat, - .
III. Comparison of Peat with stable manure, - -
6. Characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that need correction,
Ist. Possible bad effects on heavy soils, - - -
2d. Noxious ingredients, — - - - - -
a. Vitriol Peats, - - - - - .
b. Acidity, - - - - - -
c. Resinous matters, - - - - - -
3d. Deficient ingredients, - - - -

7. Preparation of Peat for agricultural use, . - -
a. Wxeavation, - - - - - =

b. Exposure, or seasoning, ~ - - - =
c. Composting with stable manure, - - -

* might soil, - - - -

“guano, - - - -
i “fish, and other animal matters, -

“ potash-lye and soda-ash, - -

* wood-ashes, marl, lime, salt and lime mixture, &e.,

8. Plan followed in the analysis of Peat, - - -
Note-—Dr. R.A. Fistier’s description of the process of analysis,
9, The value of analyses and of practical information, 5
Cireular of inquiry, ‘ » - . >

66

Om 0 © WO HO C& CH ©
St Ot Ot Ot HR & & Bb bO

ai

-

” vag ta

CONTENTS.

10, Results of analyses, and answers to circular :—
- No. 1, from Lewis M. Norton, Goshen,

“cc

» No.

~ ~~ aS a

4
°
OMDTA NP Ww

No. 35.

“ “ ac
oe “ “

Messrs. Pond & Miles, Milford,

aw ve (74
rd

Samuel Camp, Plainville,
Russell U. Peck, Berlin
Rey. B. F. Northrop, Griswold,
John H. Stanwood, Colebrook,
N. Hart, Jr., West Cornwall,
A. L. Loveland, North Granby,
Daniel Buck, Jr., Poquonock,
isa ce 74

Philip Scarborough, Agnes:
Adams white,

Paris Dyer,

Perrin Scarborough, “
Geo K. Virgin, Collinsville,

“ce cc

a“ ce

Solomon Mead, New Haven,
Edwin Hoyt, New Canaan,

oc “ce
oe ‘

A. M. Haling, Rockville,
te “e

(73 oe

Albert Day, Brooklyn,

Chauncey Goodyear, N. Haven,

Rev. Wm. Clift, Stonington,
Henry Keeler, South Salem,
John Adams, Salisbury,

11. Tabulated Analyses, - - = :

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS—SCALE OF PRICES.

Fish manure, Quinnipiac Company’s, -
Green-sand marl, of New Jersey, -
“Animalized phosphate of lime,” -
Guanos.—Peruvian guano, - -
Elide guano, - - -
Superphosphates of lime.—Pike & Co’s: Coe & Co's: Greene & Preston’s: Coe’s,

Castor pummace,

Bone dust and bone meal, - 2
Appendix--Sombrero Guano, : 5

ce

INE AYE
: Ct.

No. 33. Appendix—Salt marsh mud from Rev. Wm. Clift, Stonington,
Shell marl from John Adams, Salisbury, Ct.,
Marsh mud from Solomon Mead, New Haven, Ct.,

2

-~

&

ie

PEAT AND MUCK.

ESSAY ON THEIR NATURE AND AGRICULTURAL USES.

1. What is Peat?

By the general term Peat we understand the vegetable soil of
salt-marshes, beaver-meadows, bogs and swamps.

It consists of vegetable matters resulting from the decay of
many generations of aquatic or marsh plants, as mosses, sedges,
coarse grasses, and a great variety of shrubby plants, mixed with
more or less mineral substances, partly derived from these plants,
and partly washed in from the surrounding lands.

2. The conditions under which Peat is formed.

The production of Peat from fallen and decaying plants, de-
pends upon the presence of so much water as to cover or satu-
rate the vegetable matters, and thereby hinder the full access of
air. Saturation with water also has the effect to maintain the
decaying matters at a low temperature, and by these two causes
in combination, the process of decay is made to proceed with

~ great slowness, and the final products of such slow decay, are

compounds that themselves resist decay, and hence they accu-
mulate.

In New England there appears to be nothing like the exten-
sive moors that abound in Ireland, Scotland, the north of Eng-
land, North Germany, Holland, and the elevated plains of
Bavaria, which are mostly level or gently sloping tracts of coun-
try covered with peat or turf to a depth often of 20 feet. In this
country it is only in low places, where streams become obstructed
and form swamps, or in bays and inlets on salt water, where the
ebb and flow of the tide keeps the soil constantly wet, that our
peat-beds occur.

GS

62

In the countries above named the weather is more uniform
than here, especially are the summers cooler, and rain falls are
more frequent. Such is the greater humidity of the atmosphere
that some species of mosses,—the so-called sphagnums,—which
have a wonderful avidity for moisture, (hence used for packing
plants which require to be kept moist on journeys,) are able to
keep fresh and in growth during the entire summer. These
mosses decay below and throw out new vegetation above, and
thus produce a bog wherever the earth is springy. It is in this
way that in those countries, the moors and peat-bogs actually
grow, increasing in depth and area, from year to year, and raise
themselves above the level of the surrounding country.

There the reclamation of a moor is usually an expensive ope-
ration, for which not only much draining, but actual cutting out
and burning of the compact peat is necessary.

The warmth of our summers and the dryness of our atmos-
phere prevent the accumulation of peat above the highest level
of the standing water of our marshes, and so soon as the marshes
are well drained, the peat ceases to form, and in most cases the
swamp may be easily converted into good meadow land.

- Springy hill-sides, which in cooler, moister climates would be-
come moors, here dry up in summer to such an extent that no
peat can be formed upon them. ,

3. The different kinds of Peat.

Very great differences in the characters of the deposits in our
peat beds are observable. These differences are partly of color,
some peats being gray, others red, others again black, the
majority when dry possess a brown-red or snuff color. They also
vary remarkably in weight and consistency. Some are compact,
destitute of fibres or other traces of the vegetation from which
they have been derived, and on drying shrink greatly and yield
tough dense masses which burn readily, and are employed as
fuel. Others again are light and porous, and remain so on dry-
ing; these contain much intermixed vegetable matter that is but
little advanced in the peaty decomposition. Some peats are
almost entirely free from mineral matters, and on burning leave
buta few per cent. of ash, others contain considerable quantities

jess

SSE SE.

ibe

63

of lime or iron, in chemical combination, or of sand and clay
that have been washed in from the hills adjoining the swamps.

The peat of some swamps is mostly derived from mosses, that
of others from grasses, some contain much decayed wood and
leaves, others again are free from these.

In the same swamp we usually observe more or less of all
these differences. We find the surface peat is light and full of
partly decayed vegetation, while below the deposits are more
compact. We commonly can trace distinct strata or layers of
peat, which are often very unlike each other in appearance and
quality, and in some cases the light and compact layers alter-
nate so that the former are found below the latter.

The light and porous kinds of peat appear in general to be
formed in shallow swamps or on'the surface of bogs, where there
is considerable access of air to the decaying matters, while the
compacter peats are found ata depth, and seem to have been
formed beneath the low-water mark, in more complete exclusion
of the atmosphere.

The nature of the vegetation that flourishes in a bog, no doubt
has some effect on the character of the peat. The peats chiefly
derived from mosses-that have grown in the full sunlight, have
a red color, especially in their upper layers, while those produced
principally from grasses are often grayish in appearance, or are
full of silvery fibres—the skeletons of the blades of grasses and
sedges,

The accidental admixtures of soil often greatly affect the ap-
pearance and value of a peat, but on the whole it would appear
that its quality is most influenced by the nature and degree of
decomposition it has been subjected to.

The term muck is chiefly used among us to designate what is
more correctly called peat. In proper usage, muck is a general
term for manure of any sort, and if applied to peat should be
qualified as swamp-muck.

Some intelligent farmers call the surface layers of their swamps,
which are loose and light in texture, swamp-muck, and to the
bottom layers, which are more compact and often serviceable as
fuel, they apply the term peat. This distinction is not very
definite, but is convenient in many cases, and will be employed

64

in this Report as far as practicable; although according to usage
it is often necessary to use the words peat and muck synony-
mously.

4, The Chemical Composition of Peat.

Pure peat is derived from the decay of woody-fibre, which
constitutes the organic basis of nearly all plants, and is essen-
tially the same thing whether found in true wood or in grasses
and mosses.

Like the vegetation from which it is formed, it is for the most
part combustible, and if free from accidental admixtures of earthy
matters, leaves but a few per cent. of ash when burned.

(a) The organic or combustible part of peat varies exceedingly
in composition. It isin fact an indefinite mixture of several
or perhaps of many bodies whose precise nature is little known.
These bodies have received the collective names humus and
geine. In order to understand the general characters of Humus,
as we shall designate the organic matters of peat, it is necessary
to remind ourselves of the nature of the processes of decay, by
which it is produced.

In a chemical sense, decay is strongly similar to combustion
or burning. It is in fact a burning at low temperatures, a com-
bustion going on so slowly that there is no accumulation of heat,
and no exhibition of light. To go back one step further, both
these processes are cases of oxydation. A piece of wood whether
consumed in the fire, or allowed to decay in the soil, is finally
brought to the same result. Its organic portion is dissipated in
the form of invisible gases, its mineral matters remain behind
as ashes or earth. It is the vital principle of the atmosphere—
oxygen gas, which is consumed in these changes, and which if it
be supplied in sufficient quantity, burns, i. e., unites with the
carbon and the hydrogen of the wood, and converts them into
carbonic acid and water.

When wood instead of being burned with full access of air is
heated in close vessels or in coal-pits, with imperfect supply of
oxygen, then its most easily combustible parts—those portions
which give flame—are burnt off, and charcoal is left—a substance
that burns without flame. |

65

When wood or vegetable matters generally, instead of being
permitted to moulder away in the free atmosphere, with just
enough moisture and sufficient warmth to promote complete
decay, are kept under water and thus nearly shut off from the
action of oxygen,* a similar burning out of the more combusti-
ble (oxydable) matters of the wood takes place, and peat results,
a substance, which like charcoal, burns without or with little
flame, is highly indestructible, and is richer in carbon than the
wood from which it was formed.

In the formation of peat this removal of the more combustible
parts of the wood cannot go on nearly to the degree it does in
the preparation of charcoal, on account of the lower tempera-
ture, and the far smaller supply of air. With the changes in
temperature, and with the variable access of air, are connected
the differences in the nature and relative quantity of the ingre-
dients of peat. The larger share of the organic matters that
may be separated from peat, possesses acid characters.

If peat be agitated, or better, boiled a short time with water, it
is partly dissolved. The quantity taken up by water varies from
1 to 17 per cent., and of this a variable portion is organic acids.
The extract or solution in water has generally an amber or pale
brown color, like the water of swamps or of forest streams, and
the acids it contains are two in number, and have received the
names crenic and apocrenie acids, -

In the water extract these acids are in general partly uncom-
bined and partly united to various bases, as lime, magnesia, oxyd
of iron and alumina.

The great mass of the peat remaining after the treatment with
water, consists of one or several acids which are soluble in solu-
tions of an alkali, and may thus be removed from the remaining
ingredients. To exhibit these acids, the so-called hwmie acids,—
we boil the peat with a solution of carbonate of soda; a dark
brown liquid is shortly obtained which contains the humic acids
united with soda.

If now, any strong acid as sulphuric acid, is added in excess
to the solution of humate of soda, the soda is taken by the sul-

* Not entirely, for water dissolves a certain quantity of oxygen which supports
the respiration of fishes.

e

66

phuric acid, and the humic acids are separated, and subside as a
black or brown sediment.

In most peats, after the extraction with water and carbonate
of soda, there still remains a black residue which is insoluble in
alkalies and has been termed humine. This substance is usually
mixed with more or less undecomposed vegetable matter or fibre,
from which we know no means of separating it. It is not an
acid, else it would combine with alkalies. Its composition, how-
ever, does not differ much from that of the humic acids just men-
tioned.

Besides the bodies above named, a small amount of resinous
matters exists in some, perhaps in all peats; occasionally too, a
bituminous or pitchy matter has been found in them, but these
substances are doubtless of no agricultural significance whatever.

Such is a concise sketch of the organic or combustible ingre-
dients of peat, and it is of sufficient fullness and accuracy for our
present purpose.*

(0) The mineral part of peat which remains as ashes when the
organic matters are burned away is variable in quantity and
composition. Usually a quantity of sand or soil is found in it,
and not unfrequently constitutes its larger portion. Some peats

leave on burning much carbonate of lime, the ash of others’

again is mostly oxyd of iron; silicic, sulphuric and phosphoric
acids, magnesia, potash, soda, alumina and chlorine, also occur
in small quantities in the ash of all peats.

In some rare instances peats are found which are so impreg-
nated with soluble sulphates of iron and alumina as to yield
these salts to water in large quantity, and sulphate of iron (green
vitriol,) has actually been manufactured from such peats, which
have in consequence been characterized as vitriol peats.

(c) The nitrogen or potential ammonia of peats is an important
ingredient, which is never absent, though its quantity varies from

1 to 5 per cent.

* The varieties of humic and ulmic acids, of humine and ulmine, described by
Mulder and Herrmann are not noticed here, for the reasons that these chemists dis-
aeree as to their properties and existence, and they are of no agricultural impor-

tance.

—————

67

5. After this general statement of the composition of peat,
we may proceed to notice: Zhe characters that adapt ut for agrt-
cultural uses.

These characters are conveniently discussed under two heads,
viz:

(A.) Those which render it useful in improving the texture
and other physical characters of the soil, and indirectly contri-
bute to the nourishment of crops,—characters which constitute
it an amendment to use the language of French agricultural
writers ; and, =i

(B.) Those which make it a direct fertilizer.

(A.) Considered as an amendment, the value of peat depends
upon ‘

I. Its remarkable power of absorbing and retaining water, both
as a liquid and as vapor :

Il. Its power of absorbing ammonia:

Ill. Jts action in modifying the decay of organic (animal and
vegetable) bodies :

IV. Its effect in promoting the disintegration and solution of
mineral matters, (the stony matters of the sorl): and

V. Lis influence on the temperature of the soil.

The agricultural importance of these properties of peat is best
illustrated by considering the faults of a certain class of soils,

Throughout Connecticut are found abundant examples of
light, leachy, hungry soils, which consist of coarse sand or fine
gravel; are surface-dry in a few hours after the heaviest rains,
and in the summer drouths, are as dry as an ash-heap to a depth
of several or many feet.

These soils are easy to work, are ready for the plow early in
the spring, and if well manured give moderate crops in wet sea-
sons. Ina dry summer, however, they yield poorly, and at the
best they require constant and very heavy manuring to keep
them in heart.

Crops fail on these soils from two causes, viz.: want of moisture
and want of food. Cultivated plants demand as an indispensa-
ble condition of their growth and perfection, to be kept within
certain limits of wetness. Buckwheat will flourish best on dry
soils, while cranberries and rice grow in swamps. The crops

~

oO

68

that are most profitable to us, wheat, oats, etc., require a medium
degree of moisture, and in all cases it is fesnebie that the soil
be. equally protected from excess of water and from drouth.

Soils must be thus situated either naturally, or as the result of
improvement, before any steadily good results can be obtained
in their cultivation.

In wet seasons these light soils are tolerably productive if well
manured. It is then plain that if we could add anything to them
which would retain the moisture of dews and rains in spite of
the summer-heats, our crops would be uniformly fair, provided
the supply of manure be kept up.

But why is it that light soils need more manure than loamy
or heavy lands? We answer—because, in the first place, the
rains which quickly descend through the open soil, wash down
out of the reach of vegetation the soluble fertilizing matters, and
in the second place, from the porosity of the soil the air has too
great access, so that the vegetable and animal matters of manures
decay too rapidly, their volatile portions, ammonia and carbonic
acid, escape into the atmosphere, and are in measure lost to the
crops. From these combined causes we find that a heavy dress-
ing of well-rotted stable manure almost, if not quite entirely,
disappears from such soils in one season, so that another year
the field requires a renewed application; while on loamy soils
the same amount of manure would have lasted several years,
and produced each year a better effect.

We want then to amend light soils by incorporating with
them something that prevents the rains from leaching through
them too rapidly, and, that at the same time, renders them less
open to the air, or absorbs and retains for the use of crops the
volatile products of the decay of manures.

Now for these purposes vegetable matter of some sort, is the
best and almost the only amendment that can be economically
employed. In many cases a good peat or muck is the best form
of this material, that lies at the farmer’s command.

I. Lis absorbent power for liquid water is well known to every
farmer who has thrown it up ina pile to season for use. It holds
the water like a sponge, and after exposure for a whole summer
is still distinctly moist to the feel.

69

Tis absorbent power for vapor of water is so great that more than
once it has happened in Germany, that barns or close sheds filled
with dried peat, such as is used for fuel, have been burst by the
swelling of the peat in damp weather, occasioned by the absorp-
tion of moisture from the air. This power is further shown by
the fact that when peat has been kept all summer long in a dry
room, thinly spread out to the air, and has become hike dry snuff
to the feel, it still contains 10, 20, 30, and in some of the speci-
mens I have examined, even 40 per cent. of water. To dry a
peat thoroughly, it requires to be exposed for some time to the
temperature of boiling water. It is thus plain that no summer
heats can dry up a soil which has had a good dressing of this
material, for on the one hand, it soaks up and holds the rains
that fall upon it, and on the other, it absorbs the vapor of water
out of the atmosphere whenever it is moist, as at night and in
cloudy weather.

Il. Absorbent power for ammonia.

All soils that deserve to be called fertile, have the property of
absorbing and retaining ammonia and the volatile matters which
escape from fermenting manures, but light and coarse soils may
be deficient in this power. Here again in respect to its absorp-
tive power for ammonia, peat comes to our aid.

We may easily show by direct experiment that peat absorbs
and combines with ammonia.

I took for example a weighed quantity of the peat No. 29
from the New Haven Beaver Pond, the specimen furnished me
by Chauncey Goodyear Esq., and poured upon it a known quan-
tity of djlute solution of ammonia, and agitated the two together
for 48 hours. I then distilled off at a boilmg heat the unab-
sorbed ammonia and determined its quantity. This amount
. subtracted from that of the ammonia originally employed, gave
the quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained by the peat at
the temperature of boiling water.

The peat retained ammonia to the amount of .95 of one per
cent.

T made another trial with carbonate of ammonia, adding ex-
cess of solution of this salt to a quantity of peat, and exposing
it to the heat of boiling water, until no smell of ammonia was

70

perceptible. The entire ammonia in the peat was then deter-
mined, and it was found that the dry peat which originally gave
2.4 percent. of ammonia (potential,) now gave 3.7 per cent. The
absorbed quantity was thus 1.3 per cent.

This last experiment most nearly represents the true power of
absorption, because in fermenting manures ammonia mostly oc-
curs in the form of carbonate, and this is more largely retained
than free ammonia, on account of its power of decomposing the
humate of lime, forming with it carbonate of lime and humate
of ammonia. :

The absorbent power of peat for ammonia is beautifully shown
by the analyses of three specimens sent me by Edwin Hoyt, Ksq.,
of New Canaan. The first of these (No. 22,) is the swamp muck
he employs. It contains in the dry state but .58 per cent. of
ammonia (potential.) The second sample (No. 28,) is the
same muck that has lain under the flooring of the horse stables,
and has been in this way partially saturated with urine. It con-
tains 1.15 per cent. of ammonia. The third sample is, finally,
the same muck composted with white-fish. It contains 1.31 per
cent. of ammonia.

The quantities of ammonia thus absorbed, both in the labora-
tory and field experiments is small—from .7 to 1.3 per cent.
The absorption is without doubt almost entirely due to the or-
ganic matter of the peats, and in all the specimens on which
these trials were made, the per centage of inorganic matter is
large. The results therefore become a better expression of the
power of peat in general to absorb ammonia, if we reckon them
on the organic matter alone. Calculated in this way, the organic
matter of the Beaver Pond peat (which constitutes but 68 per
cent. of the dry peat) absorbs 1.4 per cent. of free ammonia and
1.9 per cent. of ammonia out of the carbonate of ammonia. In
the same manner we find that the organic matter of Hoyt’s muck
has absorbed 2.85 per cent. of ammonia.

We observe that the peat which is, naturally, richest in am-
monia, absorbs less, relatively, than that which is poor in this
substance.

When we consider how small an ingredient of most manures
ammonia is, viz.: less than one per cent. in case of stable ma-

oy '

nure, and how little of it in the shape of guano for instance is
usually applied to crops—not more than 40 to 60 Ibs. to the acre.
(The usual dressings with guano are from 250 to 400 Ibs. per
acre, and ammonia averages but 15 per cent. of the guano) we at
once perceive that an absorptive power of two or even one per
cent. is adequate for every agricultural purpose.

Ill. The influence of peat in modifi ying the decay of organic
matters deserves notice.

Peat itself in its native bed or more properly the water which
impreenates it and is charged with its soluble principles has a
remarkable anti-septic or preservative power. Many instances
are on record of the bodies of animals being found in a quite
fresh and well-preserved state in peat bogs, but when peat is
removed from the swamp, and so far dried as to be convenient
for agricultural use, it does not appear to exert this preservative
quality to the same degree or even in the same kind.

Buried in a peat bog or immersed in peat water, animal mat-
ters are absolutely prevented from decay, or decay only with
extreme slowness; but if covered with peat that is no longer
quite saturated with water, their decay is indeed checked in
rapidity, and the noisome odors evolved from putrifying animal
substances are not perceived, still decay does go on, and in warm
weather, no very long time is needed to complete the process.

The effect of peat in modifying decay is analogous to that of
charcoal, and is probably connected with its extreme porosity.
If a piece of flesh be exposed to the air during summer weather
it shortly putrifies and acquires an intolerable odor. If it be now
repeatedly rubbed with charcoal dust, and kept in it for some
time, the taint which only resides on the surface, may be com-
pletely removed, and the sweetness of the meat restored, or if
the fresh meat be surrounded with a layer of charcoal powder of
a certain thickness, it will pass the hottest weather without man-
ifesting the usual odor of putrefying bodies.

It does however waste away, and in time, completely disap-
pears. It decays, but does not putrefy, it exhales, not the dis-
eusting gases which reveal the neighborhood of carrion, but the
pungent odor of hartshorn. The gases which escape are the

72

same that would result if the flesh were perfectly burnt up in a
full supply of air, viz.: vapor of water, carbonic acid and am-
moni.

If we attend carefully to the nature of decay thus modified
by charcoal dust, we find that it is complete, rapid but regular,
and unaccompanied by unhealthful or disagreeable exhalations.

Peat has all the effects of charcoal with this advantage, that it
permanently retains the ammonia formed in decay, which con-
trary to the generally received opinion charcoal does not.

From its absorptive power for water, it maintains a lower
temperature under the sun’s heat than dry charcoal or a hght
soil, and this circumstance protracts and regulates the process of
decay in a highly beneficial manner, so that if a muck-dressed
soil receive an application of stable manure, fish, or guano,—in
the first place, the ammonia and other volatile matters cannot be
formed so rapidly as in the undressed soil, because the soil is
moister and decay is thereby hindered,—and in the second place,
when formed they cannot escape from the soil, but are fixed in
it by the peculiar absorptive power of the vegetable acids of
muck.

These properties of peat will be again recurred to, when we
come to discuss its uses In composting.

IV. Peat promotes the disintegration of the sovl.

Every soil is a storehouse of food for crops; but the stores it
contains are only partly available for immediate use. In fact,
by far the larger share is locked up, as it were, in insoluble com-
binations, and by a very slow and gradual change does it become
accessible to the plant. This change is chiefly brought about by
the united action of water and carbonic acid gas, or rather of
water holding this gas in solution. Nearly all the rocks and
minerals out of which fertile soils are formed,—which therefore
contain those inorganic matters that are essential to vegetable
growth,—though very slowly acted on by pure water, are decom-
posed and dissolved to a much greater extent, to an extent,
indeed, commensurate with the wants of vegetation, by water
charged with carbonic acid gas.

The only abundant source of carbonic acid in the soil, is decaying
vegetable matter.

Bh

73

Hungry, leachy soils, from their deficiency of vegetable mat-
ter and of moisture do not adequately yield their own native re-
sources to the support of crops, because the conditions for con-
verting their fixed into floating capital are wanting. Such soils
dressed with peat or green manured, at once acquire the power
of retaining water, and keep that water overcharged with car-
bonic acid, thus not only the extraneous manures which the
farmer applies are fully economized; but the soil’ becomes more
productive from its own stores of fertility which now begin to
be unlocked and available.

It is probable, nay almost certain, that the acids of peat, ex-
ert a powerful decomposing, and ultimately solvent effect on the
minerals of the soil; but on this point we have no precise in-
formation, and must therefore be content merely to allude to the
probability, which is sustained by the fact that the acids crenic,
apocrenic and humic, though often partly uncombined, are never
wholly so, but usually occur united in part to various bases,
viz.: lime, magnesia, ammonia, potash, alumina and oxyd of
iron.

V. The influence of peat on the temperature of light soils dressed
with it may often be of considerable practical importance. A
light dry soil is subject to great variations of temperature, and
rapidly follows the changes of the atmosphere from cold to hot,
and from hot to cold. Inthe summer noon asandy soil becomes
so warm as to be hardly endurable to the feel, and again it is on
such soils that the earliest frosts take effect. If a soil thus sub-
ject to extremes of temperature have a dressing of peat, it will
on the one hand not become so warm in the hot day, and on the
other hand it will not cool so rapidly, nor so much in the night;
its temperature will be rendered more uniform, and on the whole
more conducive to the welfare of vegetation. This regulative
effect on temperature is partly due to the stores of water held by
peat. In a hot day this water is constantly evaporating, and
this, as all knowis a cooling process. At night the peat absorbs
vapor of water from the air, and condenses it within its pores,
this condensation is again accompanied with the evolution of
heat.

74

It appears to be a general, though not invariable fact that

dark colored soils, other things being equal, are constantly the
warmest, or at any rate maintain the temperature most favorable
to vegetation. It has been repeatedly observed that on light-
colored soils plants mature more rapidly if the soil be thinly
covered with a coating of some black substance. Thus Lampa-
dius, Professor in the School of Mines at Friberg a town situat-
ed in a mountainous part of Saxony, found that he could ripen
melons, even in the coolest summers, by strewing a coating of
coal-dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In some of
the vineyards of the Rhine, the powder of a black slate is em-
ployed to hasten the ripening of the grape.
_ Girardin, an eminent French agriculturist in a series of ex-
periments on the cultivation of potatoes found that the time of
their ripening varied eight to fourteen days, according to the
character of the soil. He found, on the 25th of August, in a
very dark soil made so by the presence of much humus or de-
caying vegetable matter, twenty-six varieties ripe; in sandy soil
but twenty, in clay nineteen, and in a white lime soil only
sixteen.

It cannot be doubted then, that the effect of dressing a light
sandy or gravelly soil with peat, or otherwise enriching it in veg-
etable matter, is to render it warmer, in the sense in which that
word is usually applied to soils. The upward range of the ther-
mometer may not be increased, but the uniform warmth so salu-
tary to our most valued crops is thereby secured.

(B.) The ingredients and qualities of peat which make it a
direct fertilizer next come under discussion. We shall notice:

I. The organic matters, including nitrogen or ammonia.

Il. The inorganic or mineral ingredients ; and

III. Jnstitute a comparison between peat and stable manure.

In division I. we have to consider:

1st. The organic matters as direct food to plants.

Twenty years ago, when Chemistry and Vegetable- Physiology
began to be applied to Agriculture, the opinion was firmly held
among scientific men, that the organic parts of humus—by
which we understand decayed vegetable matter, such as is found
to a greater or less extent in all good soils, and abownds im many

75

fertile ones, such as constitutes the leaf-mould of forests, such as is
produced in the fermenting of stable manure, and that forms the
principal part of swamp-muck and peat,—are the true nourish-
ment of vegetation, at any rate of the higher orders of plants,
those which supply food to man and to domestic animals.

In 1840, Liebig, in his celebrated and admirable treatise on
the “ Applications of Chemistry to Agriculture and Physiology,”
gave as his opinion that these organic bodies do not nourish
vegetation except by the products of their decay. He asserted
that they cannot enter the plant directly, but that the water,
carbonic acid and ammonia resulting from their decay, are the
substances actually imbibed by plants, and from these alone is
built up the organic or combustible part of vegetation.

To this day there isa division of opinion among scientific
men on this subject, some adopting the views of Liebig, others
adhering essentially to the old doctrines. Many experiments
and trials have been made with a view to settling this question,
but such are the difficulties of a direct solution that scarcely
definite results either way have been obtained.

On the one hand, Liebig and those who adopt his doctrines,
have demonstrated that these organic matters are not at all es-
sential to the growth of agricultural plants, and have shown
that they can constitute but a small part of the actual food of
vegetation taken in the aggregate.

On the other hand, there is no satisfactory evidence that the
soluble organic matters of the soil and of peat, are not actually
appropriated by, and, so far as they go, are not directly service-
able as food to plants.

Be this as it may, practice has abundantly demonstrated the
value of humus as an ingredient of the soil, and if not directly,
yet indirectly, it furnishes the material out of which plants build
up their parts.

2d. 'The organic matters of peat as indirect food to plants.
Very nearly one-half by weight of our common crops when per-
fectly dry, consists of carbon. The substance which supplies
this element to plants is the gas, carbonic acid. Plants derive
this gas mostly from the atmosphere absorbing it by means of
their leaves. But the free atmosphere, at only a little space

76

above the soil, contains but 1-25,000th of its bulk of this gas,
whereas plants flourish in air containing a larger quantity, and
in fact their other wants being supplied, they grow better as the
quantity is increased to 1-12th the bull of the air. These con-
siderations make sufficiently obvious how important it is that
the soil have in itself a constant and abundant source of carbonic
acid gas. As before said, organic matter in a state of decay, is
the single material which the farmer can incorporate with his
soil in order to make it a supply of this most indispensable
form of plant-food.

The nitrogen of crops, an ingredient that characterizes those
vegetable substances which have the highest value as food for
man, is naturally supplied to plants in the form of ammonia, and
we are sufficiently aware of the great fertilizing value of this
substance and of its commercial worth, in the shape of guano,
&c., &c., for agricultural purposes, a worth depending upon the
fact of its comparative scarcity.

It has long been known that peat contains a considerable
quantity of nitrogen, and the average amount in the 33 speci-
mens I have submitted to analysis, including peats and swamp
mucks of all grades of quality, is equivalent to 1} per cent. of
ammonia on the air-dried substance, or more than twice as much
as exists in the best stable or yard manure. In several peats
the amount is as high as 3 per cent., and in one case 38% per cent.
were found.

There is a difference of opinion among chemists as to the state
in which this nitrogen exists in peat and humus. Some assume
it to be ammonia held in a peculiar state of combination with
the humic and other acids, so that the ordinary means fail to
separate it, and this is the most commonly received view. Cer-
tain it is that we cannot get much actual ammonia from a peat
by a treatment which will displace this body perfectly from a
guano or other ordinary manure. In two trials but about 1 per
cent. was obtained.

In order then to estimate the availability of the nitrogen of
peat, we must fall back on general principles, and practical ex-
perience.

We know from the exact demonstrations of chemical science

(ii

that when organic bodies decay their elements enter into new
and more stable combinations and that their nitrogen appears
in the form of ammonia. If bodies very rich in nitrogen un-
dergo a rapid putrefactive decay, a portion of the nitrogen sepa-
rates as such and escapes combination, it 1s probable however
that highly porous substances containing but a few per cent. of
nitrogen, yield all or nearly all their nitrogen in the shape of
ammonia, or, what has the same agricultural significance, in that
of nitric acid.

The conclusion then is entirely warranted that the nitrogen of
peat becomes almost completely available, as the peat decays in
the soil. This conclusion is supported by the fact attested by
practical men, that certain varieties of swamp-muck are equal
to stable manure in their fertilizing effects, although inferior to
the latter in respect to the quantity of substances usually held
to be active fertilizers which they contain, ammonia (nitrogen)
alone excepted.

3d. The decay of peat itself offers some peculiarities that
are worthy of notice in this connection. It is more gradual and
regular in decay than the vegetable matters of stable dung, or
than that furnished by turning under sod or green crops. It is
thus a more steady and lasting benefit, especially in lght soils,
out of which ordinary vegetable manures disappear too rapidly.
The decay of peat appears to proceed through a regular series
of steps. In the soil, especially in contact with soluble alkaline
bodies as ammonia and lime, there is a progressive conversion
of the insoluble or Jess soluble into soluble compounds. Thus
the inert matters that resist the immediate solvent power of alka-
lies, absorb oxygen from the air and form the humic acid soluble
in alkalies; the humic acids also undergo an analogous change,
and pass into crenic acid, and this body is converted into apo-
crenic acid. The two latter are soluble in water, and, in the
porous soil, they are rapidly brought to the end-result of decay,
viz.: water, carbonic acid and ammonia.

Great differences must be observed, however, in the rapidity
with which these changes take place. Doubtless they go on
most slowly in case of the black compact peats, and perhaps
many of the lighter and more porous samples of swamp-muck I

' 78

have examined would decay nearly as fast as unaltered vegetable
matter.

It might appear from the above statement that the effect of
exposing peat to the air as is done when it is incorporated with
the soil, would be to increase relatively the amount of soluble
organic matters; but the fact is, that they are actually dimin-
ished and so because the oxydation and consequent removal of
these soluble matters (crenic and apocrenie acids) proceed more
rapidly than they can be produced from the less soluble humie
acid of the peat.

II. With regard to the inorganic matters of peat considered
as food to plants, it is obvious that leaving out of the account
for the present, some exceptional cases, they are useful as far as
they go.

In the ashes of peats, we almost always find small quanties
of sulphate of lime, magnesia and phosphoricacid. Potash and
soda too, are often present though never to any considerable
amount. Carbonate and sulphate of lime are large ingredients
of the ashes of about one-half the peats I have examined. The
ashes of the other half are largely mixed with sand and soil,
but in most cases also contain considerable sulphate and often
carbonate of lime and magnesia.

In one swamp-muck, No. 4, from Messrs. Pond and Miles,
Milford, there was found but two per cent. of ash, at least one
half of which was sand, and the remainder sulphate of lime,
gypsum). In other samples 20, 80, 50 and even 60 per cent.
remained after burning off the organic matter. In these cases
the ash is chiefly sand. The amount of ash found in those peats
which were most free from sand ranges from 4 to 9 per cent.
Probably the average per centage of true ash, viz.: that derived
from the organic matters themselves not including sand and acci-
dental ingredients, is not far from 5 per cent.

I regret that time has not allowed me to make more complete
examinations of the ashes of all the peats that have come under
analysis. What I have been able to do is with two exceptions
simply to ascertain the presence, and in a rough way the com-
parative abundance of lime, magnesia, iron, sulphuric and car-
bonie acids. I am not entirely satisfied with the accuracy of

79

the inferences which I have been obliged to draw from the neces-
sarily superficial ash-examinations. But to carry out full quan-
titative analyses of the ashes of 34 peats and mucks, is an im-
mense amount of labor, and could not be hoped to prove prac-
tically remunerative ; because it must be with the analyses of
peats as it is with that of soils, they may be useful to establish a
general fact, but cannot be relied upon implicitly in individual
cases unless they are strongly marked and peculiar.

I give here a statement of the composition of the ash of two
peats, the only ones I have had time to examine fully. They
doubtless give a fair idea of the inorganic ingredients of the
majority of the peats submitted to trial, sand not being taken
into account.

Analysis of Peat ashes,

I EK

Potash, - - . : 69 .80
Soda, - . - - - 08

Lime, - - : - 40.52 35.59
Magnesia, - - - 6.06 4.92
Oxyd of iron and alumina, - - Salhi maeos08
Phosphoric acid, - : - .50 Nile
Sulphuric acid, - : - 5.52 10.41
Chlorine, - - - ay co 48
Soluble siliea, . - - 8.238 1.40
Carbonic acid, - - : LOL6OL 22:98
Sand and charcoal, - - - 12.2 15.04.

99.13 100.74

I. was furnished me by Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock,
and comes from a peat, (No. 12,) which he employs as fuel. For
the elaborate analysis I am indebted to Mr. Geo. F. Barker of
Charleston, Mass., a graduate of the Yale Scientific School.

II. (from peat No. 9,) was sent me by Mr. J. H. Stanwood of
Colebrook. Mr. O. C. Sparrow of Colchester, Ct., a graduate
of the Yale Scientific School, executed the analysis.

_ 80

The fertilizing constituents of both these ashes consist almost
entirely of carbonate and sulphate of lime, and carbonate of
magnesia. Phosphoric acid and potash are present, but in small
quantity. Nevertheless, as will be shown presently, the ingre-
dients of these ashes must be considered as largely contributing
to the fertilizing effect of the peats from which they were
derived.

In a few instances, there is an almost entire want of useful
ash ingredients, for example, in Virgin’s mucks, Nos. 18, 19
and 20; and Hoyt’s muck, No. 22. In these samples, besides
sand and oxyd of iron, there are only very minute quantities of
lime and magnesia to be found.

Ill. Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure.

The fertilizing value of peat is best understood by comparing
it with some standard manure. Stable manure is obviously that
fertilizer whose effects are most universally observed and ap-
_preciated, and by setting analyses of the two side by side, we
may see at a glance, what are the excellencies and what the de-
ficiencies of peat. In order rightly to estimate the worth of
those ingredients which occur in but small per centage in peat,
we must remember that it like stable manure, may be, and —
usually should be applied in large doses, so that in fact the
smallest ingredients come upon an acre in considerable quantity.

In making our comparison we will take the analysis of Peat
No. 12, (Mr. Buck’s,) and one executed by Dr. Voelcker of the
Royal Agricultural College of England, on wellfermented farm
yard manure of best quality, from the mixed dung of horses,
cows and sheep.

The peat is understood to be simply air dried, yet perhaps
dryer than it would become if dug and left heaped over one
summer; while the yard manure is moist from the heap, and of
the usual average dryness.

81

No. I, is the complete analysis of Peat; No. II, of well rotted
stable manure:

1 1

Water expelled at 212 deg. . - - 18.050 75.420
# {( Soluble in dilute solution of carbonate of |
= soda—soluble geine, - - 27.190
S| 16.530
ep | Insoluble in solution of carbonate of
5 soda, - - - - + 48.840
Potash, - - - : - O41 ADL
Soda, . - - - - 085 O80
Lime, : - - - - 2481 1.990
Magnesia, - . - - 364 188
Oxyd of iron and alumina, - - . 310 673
Phosphoric acid, - - : =/5 O80). medal)
Sulphuric acid, - - - - 831 Bb AL
Chlorine, - - - - - .009 018
Soluble silica, : - - - 494 1.678
Carbonie acid, - : - - - 1175 1.401
Sand and charcoal, . - - 400.9 L-OKO

; 100.000 100.000
Potential ammonia, - . - “ee 20 185
Matters soluble in water, - - - 1.800 5.180

In studying the above analyses we observe Ist, that this peat
contains jive times as much organic matter, and four times as much
potential ammonia as the yard-manure. 2d. It contains more
lime, magnesia and sulphuric acid than yard-manure. 8d. It is
deficient in potash and phosphoric acid. We see thus that peat
and yard-manure are excellently adapted to go together; each
supplies the deficiencies of the other.

We see also from this that peat requires the addition of phos-
phates, (in the shape of bone-dust, or phosphatic guano,) and of
potash, (as unleached wood ashes,) in order to make it precisely
equal in composition to stable manure.

But there are some other questions to be discussed, for two
manures may reveal to the chemist the same composition and
yet be very unlike in their fertilizing effects, because their con-
ditions are unlike, because they differ in their degrees of solu-
bility or availability.

Now, as before insisted upon, it is true in general, that peat is

82

much more slow of decomposition than yard-manure, and this
fact which is an advantage in an amendment is a disadvantage
in a fertilizer. Though there may be some peats, or rather
mucks, which are energetic and rapid in their action, it seems
that the most of them need to be applied in larger quantities
than stable manure in order to produce equal fertilizing effects.

Another matter that may be noticed here is the apparent con-
tradiction between Chemistry, which says that peat is not equal
to stable manure as a fertilizer, and practice, which in many cases
affirms that it is equal to our standard manure.

Tn the first place, the chemical conclusion is a general one and
does not apply to individual peats, which in a few instances may
be superior to yard-manure. If I mistake not, the practical
judgment also is, that in general yard-manure is the best. .

To go to the individual cases, 2d, a peat in which ammonia
exists, to 8 or 4 times the amount found in stable or yard
manure, may for a few seasons produce better results than the
latter, merely on account of the presence of this one ingredient,
it may in fact, for the soil and crop to which it is applied, be a
better fertilizer than yard manure, because the substance ammo-
nia is most needed in that soil, and yet for the generality of soils,
‘or in the long run, it may prove to be an inferior fertilizer.

Again, 8d, the melioration of the physical qualities of a soil,
the amendment of its dryness and excessive porosity, by means
of peat may be more effective for agricultural purposes, than the
application of tenfold as much fertilizing, 1, e. plant-feeding ma-
terials; in the same way that the mere draining of an over-
moist soil often makes it more productive than do the heaviest
manurings. |

6. On the characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that may
sometimes need correction before it 1s agriculturally useful.

1st. Bad effects on heavy soils.

We have laid much stress on the amending qualities of peat,
when applied to dry and leachy soils, which by its use are ren-
dered more retentive of moisture and manure. Now these prop-
erties which it would seem are just adapted to renovate very
light land, under certain circumstances may become disadvan-
tageous on heavier soils, On clays no application is needed to

83

retain moisture. They are already too wet asa general thing.
Unless a soil be open, some varieties of muck, (the denser peat-
like kinds) are too slow in decay, and therefore do not yield up
their stores of plant-food with sufficient rapidity.

Put into the soil it lasts much longer than stubble, or green
crops plowed in, or than long manure. If buried too deeply,
or put into a heavy soil, especially if in large quantity, it does
not decay, but remains wet, and tends to make a bog of the field
itself.

In soils that are rather heavy, it is therefore best to compost
the muck with some rapidly fermenting manure. We thus get
a compound which is quicker than muck, and slower than stable
manure, etc., and is therefore better adapted to the wants of the
soil than either of these would be alone.

Here it will be seen that much depends on the character of
the muck itself. If light, spongy, brown or gray in color, and
easily dried, it may be used alone with advantage on loamy soils,
whereas if dense, black, and coherent lke some of the Irish
peats, a block of which when dry, will make a voyage across the
Atlantic in the boiler of a steamship without losing its form—it
would most likely be a poor amendment on a soil which has
much tendency to: become compact, and therefore does not read-
ily free itself from excess of water.

A clay soil if thorough-drained and deeply plowed, may be won-
derfully improved by even a heavy dressing of muck, as then,
the water being let off, the muck can exert no detrimental action,
but operates as effectually to loosen a too heavy soil as in case of
sand it makes an over-porous soil compact or retentive. A clay”
may be made friable if well drained by incorporating with it any
substance as lime, sand, long manure or muck which interposine
itself between, the clayey particles, prevents their adhering to-
gether.

2d. Noxious ingredients.

(a) Vitriol peat. Occasionally a peat is met with which is
injurious if applied in the fresh state to crops, from its containing
some substance which exerts a poisonous action on vegetation.
So far as I can decide from my inquiries, the only detrimental
ineredient that occurs in peat is sulphate of protoxyd of iron,

84

the same body that is popularly known under the names cop-
peras and green-vitriol. This body is usually formed from sul-
phuret of iron, which is thus indirectly noxious.

I have found this substance ready-formed in large quantity in
but one of the peats that I have examined, viz.: that sent me
by Mr. Perrin Searborough* of Brooklyn, Ct., (No. 17.) This
remarkable peat dissolves in water to the extent of 15 per cent.,
and this soluble portion although containing some organic matter
and sulphate of lime, consists in great part of green-vitriol.

Green-vitriol in minute doses is not hurtful, but rather bene-
ficial to vegetation, but in larger quantity it is fatally destruc-
tive.

In the salt marsh mud sent me by the Rev. Wm. Clift of Ston-
ington, (No. 83,) there is hkewise sulphate of protoxyd of iron
in considerable quantity.

This noxious substance likewise occurs in small amount in
swamp muck (No. 22,) from EK. Hoyt, Esq.,’ New Canaan, and in
hardly appreciable quantity in several others.

In a sample of the peat from the farm of Albert Day, Esq.,
Brooklyn, which is reputed detrimental, I have not been able
to find any traces of this substance.

Besides green-vitriol, it is possible that certain organic salts of
protoxyd of iron, may be deleterious, but there is not much eyi-
dence to support this idea.

“(b) The acidity of Peats. Many writers have asserted that
peat and muck possess a hurtful “acidity” which must be cor-

rected before they can be usefully employed. It is indeed a fact
that peat consists largely of acids, but, except perhaps in the vit-
riol peats, (those containing copperas,) they are so insoluble, or
if soluble, are so quickly modified by the absorption of oxygen,
that they do not exhibit any “acidity” that can be deleterious
to vegetation. It is advised to neutralize this supposed acidity by
lime or some other alkali before using peat as a fertilizer or amend-
ment, and there is great use in such mixtures of peat with alka-

line matters, as we shall presently notice under the head of com-
——_—-—

* Erroneously said to be from Mr. Philip Scarborough, in an article in the Home-
stead, Vol. 3, p. 540.

85

posts, but I know of no single fact, which warrants the idea that
the organic matters of any peat have any acidity that is hurtful
to vegetation.

(c) Resinous matters are mentioned by various writers as in-
jurious ingredients of peat, but I find no evidence that this no-
tion is well-founded. The peat or muck formed from the decay
of resinous wood and leaves does not appear to be injurious, and
the amount of resin in peat is exceedingly small.

dd. Deficient Ingredients. This topic has been alluded to
already, and we need only mention here that potash and phos-
phoric acid are in general the bodies which must be added to
peat to make a durably efficient fertilizer. Sometimes, too, lime
is wanting. ‘T'osupply these ingredients; for potash, unleached
wood ashes or New Jersey Green Sand may be employed; for
phosphoric acid, bone-dust or phosphatic guano; for lime, marl
or leached ashes.

7. The Preparation of Peat for Agricultural Use.

(a) Excavation. As to the time and manner of getting out
peat, the circumstances of each case must determine. I only
venture here to offer a few hints on this subject, which belongs
so exclusively to the farm. ‘The month of August is generally
the appropriate time for throwing up peat, as then the swamps
are usually most free from water, and most accessible to men and
teams; but peat is often dug to best advantage in the winter,
not only on account of the cheapness of labor, and from there
being less hurry with other matters on the farm at that season;
but also because the freezing and thawing of the peat that is
thrown out, must probably aid to disintegrate it and prepare it
for use.

A correspondent of the Homestead, signing himself “ Commen-
tator,” has given directions for getting out peat that are well
worth the attention of farmers. He says:

“The composting of muck and peat, with our stable and barn-
yard manures, 1s surely destined to become one of the most im-
portant items in farm -management throughout all the older
States at least. One of the difficulties which lie in the way, is
the first removal of the muck from its low and generally watery
bed; to facilitate this, in many locations, it is less expensive to

86

dry it before carting, by beginning an excavation at the border
of the marsh in Autumn, sufficiently wide for a cart path, throw-
ing the muck out upon the surface on each side, and on a floor
of boards or planks, to prevent it from absorbing moisture from
the wet ground beneath; this broad ditch to be carried a suffi-
cient length and depth to obtain the requisite quantity of muck.
Thus thrown out, the two piles are now in a convenient form to
be covered with boards, which if properly done and kept cov-
ered till the succeeding Autumn, the muck will be found to be
dry and light, and in some cases may be carted away on the
surface, or it may be best to let it remain a few months longer
until the bottom of the ditch has become sufficiently frozen to
bear a team, it can then be more easily loaded upon a sled or
sleigh, and drawn to the yards and barn. In other localities,
and where large quantities are wanted, and it lies deep, a sort of
wooden railroad and inclined plane can be constructed by means
of a plank track for the wheels of the cart to run upon, the
team walking between these planks, and if the vehicle is in-
clined to ‘run off the track,’ it may usually be prevented by
scantlings, say four inches thick, nailed upon one of: the tracks
on each side of the place where the wheel should run;-two or
more teams and carts may now be employed, returning into the
excavation outside of this track. As the work progresses the
track can be extended at both ends, and by continuing or in-
creasing the inclination at the upper end a large and high. pile
may be made, and if kept dry will answer for years for compost-
ing, and can be easily drawn to the barn at any time.”

(b) Exposure or seasoning of peat. In most cases the chief or

only use of exposing the thrown up peat to the action of the .

air and weather during several months or a whole year, is to nid
it of the great amount of water which adheres to it, and thus
to reduce its bulk and weight previous to cartage.

The general effect of exposure as proved further on by my
analyses, is to reduce the amount of matter soluble in water, and
cause peats to approach .in this respect a fertile soil, so that in-
stead of containing 2.4 or even 6 per cent. of substances soluble
in water, as at first, they are brought to contain but one-half
these amounts or even less. This change, however, goes on so

87

rapidly after peat is mingled with the soil, that previous exposure
is rarely necessary, and most peats may be used perfectly fresh.

When a peat contains sulphate of iron, or, if such a case be
possible, soluble organic salts of iron, to an injurious extent,
these may be converted into other insoluble and innocuous
bodies, by a sufficient exposure to the air. Sulphate of protoxyd
of iron is thus changed into sulphate of peroxyd of iron, which
is said to exert no hurtful effect on vegetation, while the soluble
organic bodies of peat are oxydized and either converted into
carbonic acid gas, carbonate of ammonia and water, or else

made insoluble.
- It is not probable, however, that merely throwing up a vitriol
eat into heaps and exposing it thus imperfectly to the atmos-
phere, is sufficient to correct its bad qualities. Such peats need
the addition of some alkaline body, as ammonia, lime, or pot-
ash to render them salutary fertilizers.

(c) And this brings us to the subject of composting with muck or
peat, which appears to be the best means of taking full advan-
tage of all the good qualities of muck, and of obviating or neu-
tralizing the ill results that might follow the use of some raw
mucks, either from a peculiarity in their composition, (soluble
organic compounds of iron, sulphate of protoxyd of iron,) or
from too great indestructibility.

The chemical changes (oxydation of cron and organic acids,)
which prepare the inert or even hurtful ingredients of peat to
minister to the support of vegetation, take place most rapidly in
presence of an alkaline body.

The alkali may be ammonia coming from the decomposition of
animal matters, or lime, potash or soda.

A great variety of matters may of course be employed for
making or mixing with muck composts, but there are only a
few which allow of extensive and economical use, and our no-
tice will be confined to these.

First of all, the composting of muck with stable manure de-
serves attention. Its advantages may be summed up in two
statements.

Ist. It is an easy and perfect method of composting all ma-
nures, even those kinds most liable to loss by fermentation, as

horse-dung ; and,

88

2d. It develops the inert fertilizing qualities of the muck
itself.

Without attempting any explanation of the changes under-
gone by a muck and manure compost, further than to say that
the fermentation which begins in the manure extends to and in-
volves the muck, reducing the whole to nearly, if not exactly,
the condition of well-rotted dung, and that in this process the
muck effectually prevents the loss of ammonia,—I may appro-
priately give the practical experience of farmers who have proved
in the most conclusive manner how profitable it is to devote a

good deal of time and care to the preparation of this kind of

compost.
Preparation of Composts.

To a given quantity of stable manure, two or three times as
much weathered or seasoned muck by bulk may be used. The
manure may either be removed from the stables, and daily mixed
with the appropriate amount of muck, by shoveling the two
together, at the heap, out of doors; or as some excellent farmers
prefer, a trench, water tight, four inches deep and twenty inches
wide, is constructed in the stable floor, immediately behind the
cattle, and every morning a bushel-basketful of muck is put be-
hind each animal. In this way the urine is perfectly absorbed
by the muck, while the warmth of the freshly voided exere-
ments so facilitates the fermentative process, that, according to
Mr. F. Holbrook, of Brattleboro, Vt., who I believe first employed
and described this method, much more muck can thus be well
prepared for use in the Spring, than by any of the ordinary
modes of composting. When the dung and muck are removed
from the stable, they should be well intermixed, and as fast as
the compost is prepared, it should be put into a compact heap,
and covered with a layer of muck several inches thick. It will
then hardly require any shelter if used in the Spring.

On the farmi of Mr. Pond, of Milford, Conn., I have seen a
large pile of this compost, and have witnessed its effect as ap-
plied by that gentleman to a field of sixteen acres of fine gray-
elly or coarse sandy soil, which, from having a light color and
excessive porosity, had become dark, unctuous, and retentive
of moisture, so that during the drouth of 1856, the crops on

:Y

89

this field were good and continued to flourish, while on the eon-
tiguous land they were dried up and nearly ruined.

By reference to the Transactions of the Connectient State wi
cultural Society for 1857, it will beseen in the very interesting
report of the committee on farms and’ reclaimed lands, that on
the farms which received the high premiums, and the most hon-
orable mention, composts of muck and stable manure are largely
employed.

Messrs. Stephen Hoyt & Sons of New Canaan, Mr. Samuel

Prentice of Greenville, Mr. Philip Scarborough of Brooklyn,

and Mr. Elisha Dickerman of Orange, near New Haven, have
used this compost with the most decided advantage, and doubt-
less all these gentlemen would concur in the opinion of many
other excellent farmers, viz.: That a well made compost of two
loads of muck and one of stable manure ts equal to three loads of
the manure uself.

This opinion is so well substantiated that we need not hesitate
to pronounce it a fact, and if a fact, it is one which deserves to
be painted in bold letters on every barn-door in Connecticut.

In the vicinity of cities, muck is often composted fo great ad-
vantage with night soil. The Liebig Manufacturing Company’s
Poudrette, manufactured at East Hartford, (for analysis of which
see my lst Annual Report, pp. 41 and 48,) is a carefully made
preparation, of which these two matters are the chief ingredients.
In the neighborhood of New Haven large quantities of this kind
of compost are annually made, and the manufacture might be
vastly extended with the utmost advantage to all parties con-
cerned. Kvery farmer who can, would find it profitable, and
not only so but pleasant and healthful, to compost the privy and
sink waste of his premises with muck. The outlay of a few
dollars would provide such conveniences as are needful to ac-
complish this with ease, and instead of being afflicted with a
nuisance, yielding an intolerable quantity of miasmatic smell and
a few shovelfuls of effete waste, he might convert his necessary
into an odorless convenience, and make enough poudrette to fer-
tilize a large garden to the highest degree. (See Mr. Edwin
Hoyt’s account of its use for this purpose.)

Guano, so serviceable in its first applications to light soils,

90

. ee ¢
may be composted with muck to the greatest advantege. Guano

is an excellent material for bringing muck into good condition, »

and on the other hand the muck most effectually prevents any
waste of the costly guano, and at the same time, by furnishing
the soil with its own ingredients, to a greater or less degree, pre-
vents the exhaustion that often follows the use of guano alone.
‘The quantity of muck should be pretty large compared to that
of the guano,—a bushel of guano will compost six, eight, or
probably ten of muck. Both should be quite fine, and should
be well mixed, the mixture should be moistened and kept cov-
ered with a layer of muck of several inches of thickness. This
sort of compost would probably be sufficiently fermented in a
week or two of warm weather, and should be made and kept
under cover.

If no more than five or six parts of muck to one of euano
are employed, the compost, according to the experience of Simon
Brown, Hsq., of the Boston Cultivator, (Patent Office Report for
1856,) will prove injurious if placed in the hill in contact with
seed, but may be applied broadcast without danger.

The White fish or Menhaden, so abundantly caught along our
Sound coast during the summer months, or any variety of fish
may be composted with muck, soas to make a powerful manure,
with complete avoidance of the excessively disagreeable stench
which is produced when these fish are put directly on the land.
Messrs. Stephen Hoyt & Sons of New Canaan, Conn., make this
compost on a large scale. They have employed 220,000 fish in
one season, and use ten or twelve loads of muck to one of fish.
A layer of muck one foot or more in thickness is spread upon
the ground, and covered with a layer of fish, on this is put an-
other layer of muck and another of fish, and so on till the pile
is several feet high, finishing with a good layer of muck.

In the Summer when this work is usually attended to, the
fermentation begins at once, so that no delay must be allowed
after the fish are taken, in mixing the compost, and in a short
time the operation is complete; the fish disappear, bones excep-
ted, and by shoveling over, a uniform mass is obtained, almost
free from odor, and retaining perfectly all the manurial value of
the fish. Lands well manured with this compost will keep in

Pe Wat Ys if
ae ‘hs

91

heart and improve, while, as is well known to our cvast farmers,
‘the use of fish alone is ruinous, in the end, on light soil.

For further particulars of the composts made by the Messrs.
Hoyt, see analysis further on.

It is obvious that any other easily decomposing animal mat-
ters, as slaughter-house offal, soap-boiler’s scraps, glue waste,
ete., etc., may be composted in a similar manner, and that all
these substances may be made together into one compost.

In case of the composts with guano, yard manure and other
animal matters, ammonia is the alkali whigh promotes these
changes, and it would appear that this substance, on some ac-
counts, excels all others in its efficacy, but the other alkaline
bodies, potash and lime, are scarcely less active in this respect,
and being at the same time, of themselves useful fertilizers, they
may be employed with double advantage in preparmg muck
composts,

Potash-lye and soda-ash have been recommended for compost-
ing with muck; but, although they are no doubt highly effica-
cious, they are quite too costly for extended use.

The other alkaline materials that ‘may be cheaply employed,
and are recommended, are wood-aslies leached and ovlesehedt
ashes of peat, marl, (consisting of carbonate of lime,) quick lime,
gas lime, and what is called “salt and lime mixture.”

With regard to the proportions to be used, no definite rules
can be laid down; but we may safely follow those who have
had experience in the matter. Thus, to a cord of muck, which
is about 100 bushels, may be added of unleached wood ashes
twelve bushels, or of leached wood ashes twenty bushels, or of
peat ashes twenty bushels, pr of marl or gas lime twenty bush-
els. ‘T’en bushels of quick lime, slaked with water or salt-brine
previous to use, is enough for a cord of muck.

Instead of using the above mentioned substances singly, any
or all of them may be employed together.

The muck should be as fine and free from lumps as possible,
and must be intimately mixed with the other ingredients by
shoveling over. The mass is then thrown up into a compact
heap which may be four feet high. When the heap is formed,
it is good to pour on as much water asthe mass will absorb, (this

92

may be omitted if the muck is already quite moist,) and finally

the whole is covered over with a few inches of pure muck, so as -

to retain moisture and heat. If the heap is put up in the Spring,
it may stand undisturbed for one or two months, when it is well
to shovel it over and add water if ithas become dry. It should
then be built up again, covered with fresh muck, and allowed
to stand as before until thoroughly decomposed. The time re-
quired for this purpose varies with the kind of muck, and the
quality of the other material used. The weather and thorough-
ness of intermixture of the ingredients also materially affect the
rapidity of decomposition. In all cases five or six months of
summer weather is a sufficient time to fit these composts for ap-
plication to the soil.

The use of “salt and lime mixture” is strongly recommended
by so many writers, that a few more words may be devoted to
its consideration.

In Dr. Dana’s Muck Manual, and in Johnston’s Agricultural
Chemistry, it is stated that common salt is decomposed by quick
lime, with the production of carbonate of soda. Now although
this change may occur in the soil or in presence of the organic
matters of peat, yet there is no proof that it does take place, and
all the probabilities are opposed to such a change, so that from theo-
retical grounds, there is no advantage to be anticipated from a
mixture of salt and lime over the unmixed lime, as far as the
action on peat or muck is concerned.

But the extraordinary usefulness of the salt and lime mixture
for composting has been so extensively and vigorously main-
tained, that many will be inclined to despise the chemistry that
doubts its benefits.

Therefore without entering into 4 chemical discussion of its
merits, we will be content here, to assert, that, 1f useful, its use-
fulness is not as yet explained, or the explanations given are en-
tirely unsatisfactory.

That it is useful is testified to by good farmers’ as follows.
Says Mr. F. Holbrook of Vermont, (quoted from Patent Office
Report for 1856, page 193.) ‘I had a heap of seventy-five half
cords of muck mixed with lime in the proportion of a half cord
of muck to a bushel of lime. The muck was drawn to the field

SS

——

93

when wanted in August. A bushel of salt to six bushels of
lime was dissolved in water enough to slake the lime down to a
fine dry powder, the lime being slaked no faster than wanted, and
spread immediately while warm, over the layers of muck, which
were about six inches thick; then a coating of lime and so on,
until the heap reached the height of five feet, a convenient
width, and length enough to embrace the whole quantity of the
muck. In about three weeks a powerful decomposition was
apparent, and the heap was nicely overhauled, nothing more
being done to it till it was loaded the next Spring for spreading.
The compost was spread on the plowed surface of a dry sandy
loam at the rate of about fifteen cords to the acre and harrowed
in. The land was planted with corn, and the crop was more
than sixty bushels to the acre.”

Other writers assert that they “have decomposed with this
mixture spent tan, saw dust, corn stalks, swamp muck, leaves
from the woods, indeed every variety of inert substance, and in
much shorter time than tt could be done by any other means.”*

It deserves to be ascertained by direct comparative experiment,
whether the lime slaked with a solution of salt, does really act
with more power and rapidity than if slaked with water alone.
If the “salt and lime mixture” possesses peculiar virtues, it is
important to be known, and of not less consequence is it to de-
termine that its reputation is fictitious.

There appears to be no doubt that the soluble and more active
(caustic) forms of alkaline bodies exert powerful decomposing
and solvent action on muck. It is asserted too that the insolu-
ble and less active matters of this kind, also have an effect though
a less complete and rapid one. Thus, carbonate of lime in the
various forms of marl, leached ashes and peat ashes, (for in all
these it is the chief and most ‘“‘alkaline” ingredient,) are recom-
mended to compost with muck. But we are not informed what
is the character of the changes they produce in muck or peat.
From our chemical knowledge we should almost decide that in
general they can have no material effect, and yet it is very unsafe
to judge in these things without actual and precise practical
knowledge.

* Working Farmer, Vol. III. page 280.

94

The admixture of any earthy matter with peat will facilitate
its decomposition in so far as it promotes the separation of the
particles of the peat from each other, and the consequent

“access of air. This benefit may well amount to something when
weadd to peat one-fifth of its bull of marl or leached ashes, but
the question comes up: Do these insoluble mild alkalies exert
any direct action? Would not as much soil of any kind be
equally efficacious by promoting to an equal degree the contact
of oxygen from the atmosphere?

It is possible that the carbonate of lime in presence of water
and carbonic acid, whereby it becomes soluble to a slight extent,
may act to liberate some ammonia from the soluble portions of
the peat, and this ammonia may react on the remainder of the
peat to produce the same effects as it does in the case of a com-
post made with animal matters. But speculations on this point
though easily made, are of no value, except to suggest practical
trials.

It often happens that opinions entertained by practical men,
not only by farmers, but by mechanics and artisans as well, are
founded on so unreliable a basis, are supported by trials so
destitute of precision, that their accuracy may well be doubted,
and from all the accounts I have met with it does not seem to
be well established that composts made with carbonate of lime,
are better than the muck aud carbonate used separately. This,
it is plain, 1s another question worthy of investigation.

If there is any advantage in composting muck with carbonate
of lime, then nature has in some localities furnished admirable
facilities for making this kind of fertilizer: thus in Salisbury,
Ct., on the farm of John Adam, Esq., occurs a peat swamp, at
the bottom of which, after excavating through four feet of peat,
a layer of shell-marl, containing a large percentage of carbo-
nate of lime, is found, which it is believed may be obtained in
large quantities. (see analysis No. 84, in appendix.)

Such deposits are by no means uncommon, and whoever can -

demonstrate by a series of carefully conducted experiments,
whether this marl is most economically applied to the soil directly
or in compost with muck, will confer no small favor on Agricul-
ture.

5

95

It must not be forgotten that we have already insisted upon
using leached wood ashes and carbonate of lime in conjunction
with peat, in order to supply the deficiencies of the latter; and
in the agricultural papers are numerous accounts of the efficacy
of such mixtures, but whether these bodies exert any good effect
upon the peat itself, so that it is needful in general to take the
trouble to make a compost, is it seems to me, a question not yet
settled. In the case of vitriol peats, however, carbonate of lime
is the cheapest and most appropriate means of destroying the
noxious sulphate of protoxyd of iron, and correcting their dele-
terious quality. When carbonate of lime is brought in contact
with sulphate of protoxyd of iron, the two bodies mutually
decompose, with formation of sulphate of lime (gypsum) and
carbonate of protoxyd of iron. The latter substance absorbs
oxygen from the air with the utmost avidity, and passes into the
peroxyd of iron, which is entirely inert.

8. I now proceed to discuss the plan employed in the analysis
of the Peats which I have examined.

The specimens came to me in all stages of dryness. Some
freshly dug and wet, others after a long exposure so that they
were air-dry ; some that were sent in the moist state, became
dry before being subjected to examination; others were prepared
for analysis while still moist.

A sufficient quantity of each specimen was carefully pulver-
ized, intermixed and put into a stoppered bottle and thus pre-
served for experiment.

The first point in the examination was to make a general an-
alysis, viz.: to ascertain the amount of water, and the propor-
tions of vegetable matter and of ash.

In the special analysis, it was sought to obtain some nearer
insight into the condition of the organic matter. For this pur-
pose I deemed it best to employ the usual method of treating
with an alkali and determining the quantity soluble therein,
which corresponds to the humic (and ulmic) acid, and accordingly
this operation has been carried out with no inconsiderable trouble.
Unfortunately we do not now know whether these humic acids
are possessed of any special fertilizing or other properties, which
can confer interest on the knowledge of their quantity, nor can

*%

96

we ever learn their significance, if indeed they possess any, with-
out numerous experiments directed immediately to this point.
The only value, then, of these determinations, is that they give
us some idea of the degree to which the peaty decomposition is
advanced.

In the earlier analyses 1 to 17 inclusive, the treatment with
carbonate of soda was not carried far enough to dissolve the
whole of the soluble organic acids. It was merely attempted to
make comparative determinations by treating all alike for the
same time, and with the same quantity of alkali. I have little
doubt that in some cases not more than one-half of the portion
really soluble in carbonate of soda is given as such. In the
later analyses, 18 to 83, however, the treatment was continued
until complete separation of the soluble organic acids was ef-
fected.

In no instance was any special examination of these soluble
acids undertaken, since in the present state of our knowledge,
this labor could hardly be expected to yield any new results of
agricultural importance.

By acting on a peat for a long time with a hot solution of car-
bonate of soda, there is taken up not merely a quantity of organic
matter, but inorganic matters likewise enter solution. Silica,
oxyd of iron and alumina are thus dissolved. In this process
too, sulphate of lime is converted into carbonate of lime, but
not dissolved. aid

The total amount of these soluble inorganic matters has been
determined with approximate accuracy in analyses 18 to 33.

It was deemed of the highest importance to study the quan-
tity and character of the bodies which pure water is able to dis-
solve from peats. In the watery extract of a peat we may ex-
pect to find those substances which make it directly useful as a
fertilizer, and also those which, like sulphate of iron, are noxious
to vegetation. The general character of the matters soluble in
water has been indicated already, and the analyses themselves
give the special details.

With regard to the entire ash, and the amount of nitrogen, it
is unnecessary here to remark upon the importance of investi-
gating them, or to add to what has been written in the preceding

>»

O7

pages. The details of the process used in the analysis of peat
are given in the accompanying note * by my friend, Dr. Robert A.
Fisher, to whose skillful assistance I am largely indebted for the
analytical data of this Report, especially for the analyses 18 to
83. I must also express my obligations to Mr. Edward H. Twi-
ning, assistant-in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, for the analy-
ses 1 to 17, executed by him in 1857.

9. On the Use of Peat Analyses, and on the Value of Practical
Information.

When I began this investigation, it was known that some
peats or mucks were highly useful, while others had proved de-
trimental, certain reasons too were known why they were good
or bad in their effects, and in agricultural writings existed a
ereat deal of statement that was partly true but more or less

* Nove ON THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS.—The following is the general method
employed in the analysis of peats and mucks: To prepare a sample for analysis,
half a pound, more or less, of the substance to be examined, is pulverized and
passed through a wire sieve of 24 meshes to the inch. It is then thoroughly
mixed and bottled for use.

I. 2 grams of the above are dried (in a tared porcelain capsule,) at the temper-
ature of 212 degrees, until they no longer decrease in weight. The loss sustained
represents the amount of water, (according to MARSILLY y Annales ee Mines, 1857,
XII, 404, peat loses carbon if dried at a temperature higher than 2 2 degrees.)

ie The capsule containing the residue from I. is slow ly heated e incipient red-
ness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is entirely con-
sumed. The loss gives the total amount of organic, the residue the total amount of
tnorganic matter.

Norre.—In peats containing snlphate of the protoxide of iron, the loss that oc-
curs during ignition is partly due to the escape of sulphuric acid, which is set free
by the decomposition of the above mentioned salt of iron. But the quantity is
usually so small in comparison with the organic matter that it may be disregarded.
The same may be said of the combined water in the clay that is mixed w ith some
mucks, Ww hich is only expelled at a high temperature.

Ill. 8 grams of the sample are digested for half an hour, with 200 cubic cen-
timeters (66. 6 times their weight,) of boiling water, then remove from the sand bath,
and at the end of twenty-four hours, the clear liquid is decanted. This operation
is twice repeated upon the residue; ‘the three solutions are mixed, filtered, concen-
trated, and finally evaporated to dryness (in a tared platinum capsule,) over a water
bath. The residue, which must be dried at 212 degrees, until it ceases to lose
weight, gives the total amount soluble in water. The dried residue is then heated to
low redness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is burned
off. The loss represents the amount of organic matter soluble in water, the ash
gives the quantity of soluble inorganic matter.

IV. 1 gram is digested for two hours, at a temperature just below the boiling
point, ith 100 cubie centimeters of a golution containing 5 per cent. crystallized
carbonate of soda. It is then removed from the sand bath and allowed to settle.
When the supernatant liquid has become perfectly transparent, it is carefully de-
canted. This operation is repeated until all the organic matter soluble in this men-
struum is removed; which is accomplished as soon as the carbonate of soda solution
comes off colorless. The residue, which is to be washed with boiling water until
the washings no longer affect test papers, is thrown upon a tared filter, and dried

98

tinctured with uncertain speculation. Jt was to learn whether other
than the then known causes of the excellence or worthlessness of peats
existed, and to test the correctness of the current opinions, that this
investigation was undertaken. By a comparative study of the
characters of numerous specimens from all parts of Connecticut,
it was hoped to arrive at some definite and reliable general con-
clusions as to their value—to ascertain the range of their excel-
lence, and to establish safe rules for their use. I believe that
this work has been satisfactorily accomplished.. Besides these
general results it was forseen that this investigation would assist
in deciding a question much discussed of late, viz.: the ability
of chemical analysis to pronounce upon the precise value of any
particular specimen.

T had at the outset no great faith that the chemist could tell
by his analyses, if this peat be good or that bad, or how much
better one is than another. Now that 83 peats have been ex-
amined, I believe we are able in most cases to decide by analysis,
with great probability, whether any specimen is useful or hurt-
ful’ and if the former, whether it has a high or low degree of
excellence ; and yet, as will be seen further on, there are great
difficulties in defining the precise limits where the good peats

at 212 degrees. It is the total amount of organic and inorganic matter insoluble in
carbonate of soda. The loss that it suffers upon ignition, indicates the amount of
organic matter, the ash gives the inorganic matter. 5

Norr.—The time required to insure perfect settling after digesting with carbonate
’ of soda solution, varies, with different peats, from 24 hours to several days. With
proper care, the results obtained are very satisfactory. Two analyses of No. 6,
executed at different times, gave total insoluble in carbonate of soda. Ist analysis
23.20 per cent.; 2d*analysis 23.45 per cent.; which residues yielded respectively
14.30 and 14.15 per cent. of ash.

V. The quantity of organic matter insoluble in water but soluble in solution of
carbonate of soda, is ascertained by deducting the joint weight of the amounts sol-
uble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from the total amount of organic
matter present. The inorganic matter insoluble in water, but soluble in carbonate of
soda, is determined by deducting the joint weight of the amounts of inorganic mat-
ter soluble in Water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from the total inorganic
matter. .

VI. The amount of nitrogen is estimated by the combustion of 1 gram with
soda-lime in an iron tube, collection of the ammonia in a standard fifth solution
(12.6 grams to the liter,) of oxalic acid, and determination of the residual free acid
by an equivalent solution of caustic potash.

This method in skilful hands uniformly gives such correct and corresponding
results that it was deemed unnecessary to make duplicate analyses. In one case,
however, Dr. Fisher executed a second analysis which confirmed the numbers ob-
tained by Mr. Twining a year before. Sa Weede

anictes.

99.

Pid

pass into the bad. It is not to be expected that the analysis of
a peat or muck will ever suffice to fix its manurial value, as the
analysis of a guano or superphosphate shows the worth of these
fertilizers. From the nature of the case, the muck analyses ad-
mit only a much looser and more general interpretation. '

Whatever may be the merits of analyses of peat and muck,
it is certain that their value is to be only brought out in all per-
fection by the knowledge derived from actual trial on the farm.
However far we may pursue our researches into the conditions of
vegetable production, there will always remain unsettled points,
and facts will be observed in practice which science can only
imperfectly explain. Hence practice will always be in advance
of science in certain particulars, and must be invariably appealed
to before any doctrine can be really established. If peat were
now for the first time discovered and brought to the chemist, he
could not, after the most minute analysis, positively assert its
usefulness, although he might find such strong probabilities that
its action would be highly fertilizing, as to warrant immediate
and careful trial. It is only when experience on the farm has
proved its benefit, that he acquires satisfactory data for his de-
cisions. ,

The chemist who will serve agriculture in the details of its
operations, must not merely proceed from his science out, towards
practice; but he must often, and not less often, go in the other
direction, for in the field there exist conditions which can only
be studied there, as they are wanting in the laboratory and in
the study.

These considerations induced me to address a Circular to the
parties who had sent in specimens, asking information on those
points which appeared likely to be of general service, and would
subserve the end of this inquiry. The circular was as follows,
one slight amendation excepted :

QUERIES.

1. What is the length and breadth, and the number of acres
in the swamp or marsh? .
2. What is the average, and the greatest depth of the muck

or peat?
7

100

3. Is it drained or not, and if so, to what depth and how
long has it been dry?

4, Is ita salt or fresh water marsh ?

5. Are the upper portions or layers dry during the summer?
Tf so, how long, and to what depth ?

6. Have any crops been produced on the drained or dry por-
tions? If so, what and how large crops? And what manures
have proved useful on them ?

7. What is the soil underlying, and at the edges of the
swamp ?

8. Does the swamp receive much wash from surrounding
hills? If so, of what kinds of soil are they?

9. Has the swamp (if fresh water,) both inlet and outlet?
Is the water hard or soft? How large are the streams? Are
they subject to heavy freshets in Spring and Autumn? Do they
dry up in Summer ?

10. If several samples are sent, are they from one place?

11. At the place where the sample or samples were taken,
is there much variation in the quality or appearance of the
muck at different depths? If so, specify these differences, and

.give the thickness of each layer?

12. What kind of trees or vegetation grows on the muck,
and what kinds of timber or branches are found in it? Observe
particularly if there be indications of much pine or other resin-
ous timber.

13. Has the muck been employed fresh from the swamp,
withont any lengthened exposure to the weather, as a dressing
for grass or other crops, and with what results?

14. Has the long dug and exposed muck been applied to
crops without other manures, and with what results compared to
good stable manure ?

15. Has the muck been composted or used as an absorbent ?
If so, with what materials, and to what advantage ?

16. If composted, describe the manner of composting, giving
the quantities employed.

17. If several mucks are sent, which do you consider best
from actual experience ?

101

18. Has the peat been used for fuel? If so, what is its qual-
ity for such use?

19. Please communicate any other interesting facts with re-
gard to the occurrence or uses of the muck or peat, which you
may know.

10. Results of analyses and answers to the Circular.

Here follow the details of each analysis, accompanied by the
information obligingly furnished by the gentlemen who sent in
the mucks and peats. I have in some cases re-arranged, con-
densed, or otherwise edited the original answers as appeared
necessary.

Brief comments are appended to some of the analyses, but it
would swell the Report to an unwarrantable degree, to extend
these remarks as might be wished, in each individual case.

No. 1.—Peat from Lewis M. Norton, Goshen. Camein form
of dry, tough, heavy cakes, of a dark chocolate color. With
exception of a few grass roots was well decomposed.

Analysis.

Organic matter, “soluble in carbonate of soda, 17.63

MY insoluble in i Pare ss o4.79
Total, 52.42
+Inorganic matter, - - - : 60.21
Water, - : : . - - 12.37
100.00

Soluble in water, 1.54 per cent.

Nitrogen, 1.28=ammonia, 1.63 “
For answer to circular see No. 38.

No, 2.—Peat from Lewis M. Norton, Goshen. Like No. 1,
but heavier.

* The proportions of organic matter in analyses 1-17 are not strictly correct.
+ Ash chiefly sand, contained but little carbonate of lime.

102

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 60.02
i insoluble in e “ 11.65
Total, (L167
*Tnorganic matter, - - - : 8.00
Water, - - - - - 20.33

100.00
Nitrogen, 1.85=2.24 ammonia.
For answer to Circular see No. 38.

No. 8.—Swamp muck from Lewis M. Norton, Goshen. Came
in dry, very light coherent cakes, consisting largely of the flat-
tened stems of swamp plants. Color hght brown.

Analysis,

Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, _ 50.60

si insoluble in cs : 29.75
Total, 80.85
+Inorganic matter, - - - - 4.52
Waiter, - - - - - 15.18
100.00

Soluble in water, 2.51

Nitrogen 1.90=2.31 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR respecting Nos. 1, 2 and 38.

1. The swamp contains about 50 acres, was formerly a pond.
Nearly all around it, at the height of about 6 feet above the pres-
ent surface may be seen the ancient high water mark.

2. The greatest depth excavated is 10-11 feet. The greatest
depth observed is 82 feet.

8. Six years ago it was undrained, but is now drained to the
depth of 3-4 feet.

4, The water is fresh.

5. The upper portions are dry enough for cultivation in sum-
mer and barely hard enough for plowing and taking off crops.

* The ash contains 37 per cent. of carbonate of lime.
+ Ash contains 33 per cent. of carbonate of lime.

103

6. Trials have been made in raising corn, potatoes, buckwheat
and grass. These experiments are comparatively recent, and
the crops not very large, and in regard to corn and potatoes it
seems necessary that some manure be put in the hill. Carrots
have done well; pumpkins have done well. Decomposed ma-
nures only have been «usedk Potato tops grow large—the same
of corn—but the tract being somewhat lower than the surround-
ing country is subject to early frosts.

7. Sand, and in some places clay (pure and good), granite
boulders are found at the edges on digging.

8. There are no high hills in the vicinity, and no wash.

9. The swamp has two or three inlets, and one outlet at the
south-west. Soft water. Streams ordinarily small, but subject
to freshets or high water always with a large fall of rain, The
streams are rarely if ever quite dry.

10-11. The three samples are from nearly the same place
No. 1 isfrom the margin of the swamp; is mixed with sand and
clay, and lies on the bottom—on which there is a bed of sand and
clay, say 3-4 feet from the surface. It forms a stratum of 6-10
inches in depth, is quite distinct from all above it, and is un-
doubtedly of the earliest formation. Some three years ago speci-
mens very similar were taken out at a depth of 10 feet and 5-6
rods from the margin; I suppose that all below is of this kind.

No. 2 is from the surface after removing the upper 8-4 inches.
It evidently has been somewhat decomposed by the action of
the atmosphere—say 8 to 10 inches deep.

No. 3 is found between 1 and 2, though it should be stated
that there is but little so ight and poor as this sample.

12. The roots of large trees, spruce or pine, are found, but not
near the outside. These roots, so far as observed, are about 18
inches below the surface. No trunks of trees but many small alders
are found at about the same depth in a vertical position. These are
all cut easily through with the shovel. I found one piece of
alder, of the thickness of a man’s wrist, lying horizontally at
the depth of 8 feet. The bark in appearance resembled that of
analder just cut. (In a later statement Mr. Norton remarks):
As above described, and as since observed, the roots of many
trees appear. They all seem to be of nearly the same depth

104

below the surface (about 18 inches,) with good peat above and all
around them. Some roots and trunks even of red ash are found
near the outside. But at a remove of some 2 or 8 rods from
the outside none such appear. Those of red ash are much rot-
ten and seldom require the use of an axe. But farther in the
swamp the roots only are found, and these are all of the resinous
kind. We have had occasion to dig out many of these—strong
(solid as new some of them,) and highly resinous. The indica-
tions are that these trees were say 1 to 2 feet in diameter—but
unlike the ash, these trees never fell down. They must have de-
cayed standing, as nothing appears to indicate the remains of a
fallen tree.

18. It has not been considered as of much value when used
fresh from the swamp.

14. There have been no careful experiments in its use after
long exposure.

15. In compost, as an absorbent it has been extensively used, |
and with marked success, thrown into hog pens or put in barn-
yards.

16. Method of composting: 2 parts muck with 1 part stable
manure in a large heap—done in the Spring before the fermen-
tation of the manure and not stirred—carried upon the land
the next Spring.

17. We have mostly used the grassy or surface muck—some-
times other—all good.

18. Ihave used peat for fuel (no wood of any consequence, )
for some 4 or 5 years. No one else here has employed it. It
is cut or dug with an instrument such as is used in Ireland. It
answers for domestic purposes well, but ct must be dry and kept
dry. Ashes many and valuable only as manure—as they seem
to contain no potash. In my kitchen stove [ have a grate, and
the ashes descend to aclose brick vault below. Carry out a
load at once—very convenient—peat cheaper than wood.

Lewis M. Norton.

No. 4.—Swamp muck from Messrs. Pond & Miles, Milford.
Coherent but very light and porous in texture, full of roots and
stems. Color chocolate brown—surface peat.

105

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 65.15
Bidet RCo Sasglable! ine «fa. 14 11.95
Total, 77.10
*TInorganic matter, - - : - - 3.23
Water, - - -- - - - - 19.67

100.00
Soluble in water, 1.63

Nitrogen, 1.20=1.46 ammonia.
For answer to circular see No. 5.

No. 5.—Swamp muck from Messrs. Pond & Miles, Milford.
Very light and loose in texture. Color, brownish red. When
dry easily separates into thin layers. Taken from a depth of

3 feet.
Analysts.

Organic matter soluble in water, - - 2.62

soluble in carbonate of soda, 65.18

iy insoluble in =“ lesb 16.65

Total, 84.40
Inorganic matter soluble in water, - - 80
Insoluble in water, - - - 1.20

+Total, 2.00
Water, - €¢- - : - : 13.60

100.00
' Nitrogen, 0.95=1.15 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

The swamp contains 8-4 of an acre.
The depth is 10 feet.
It is not drained.
The water is fresh.
. It is dry for three or four months in summer, to the depth
of 34 feet.

6. No crops have been raised on it.

oon

* Mostly sand and oxyd of iron with small quantities of carbonate and sulphate
of lime.
+ The ash is white, and besides sand, contains little else than sulphate of lime.

106

7. The neighboring and underlying soil is sand and coarse
gravel.

8. It receives much wash from sandy hills and the highways
which pass near it.

9. The swamp has neither inlet nor outlet. The water has
a dark mahogany color.

10 and 11. Two samples were sent, taken from one to three
feet from the surface. The surface peat (No. 4) is of a darkish
brown for a depth of two feet. Below it is of a lighter color,
(No. 5.)

12. Small maples, black alders and bilberry bushes; pine
and white birch trees grow in the swamp. The last named
predominates. Trunks of trees 8 feet in diameter have been
found at a depth of several feet in the muck.

13. The fresh muck has never been applied to crops, but
where it has been thrown out, vegetation in the shape of weeds
has been rank on the top of the piles.

15. The weathered muck has not been used alone on crops.

15. The muck has been composted to good advantage with
horse, hog and cow manure.

16. In composting the materials have been put together in
layers, one part manure to about three of muck.

17. I consider the surface peat to be the best.

18. It has not been used for fuel.

19. I find it a great benefit to my land.

Wm. J. Ponp.

No. 6.—Peat from Samuel Camp, Plainville. Dry hard lumps,
very black and uniform in appearance.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 43.20
insoluble “ . aS 8.90
Total, 52.10
*Tnorganic matter, - - - - 29.20
Water, - - - : - 18.70

100.00

* The ash besides a large amount of sand, contains much carbonate and sulphate
of lime and some oxyd of iron.

. 107

Soluble in water, 2.50.
Nitrogen, 2.10=2.55 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. Length of marsh 14 miles, width from 25 to 50 rods.

2. Depth from 2 to 4 feet.

3. A small part has been drained 7 years to the depth of 4
feet.

4. It isa fresh water marsh.

5. The marsh is dry to the depth of one foot for 3 or 4
months; the portion drained is dry to the bottom at all times.

6. The drained portion was sown with herdsgrass and has
Jain in grass, the herdsgrass has run out and swamp grass has
come in, except where a kind of clay or earth, a sample of which
I sent you, was thrown upon the surface and there is found a
good quality of English grass, no other dressing has been given.
The average yield is 14 tons per acre.

7. The underlying soil is generally gravel and clay; around
the marsh are occasional beds of the before-mentioned clay.

8. It receives the wash of the mountain that extends through
Farmington.

9. It has both inlet and outlet, a living stream of soft water
sufficient to drive small mills, and subject to heavy freshets.

12. Oak prevails in the deposit; elm and maple were grow-
ing on the marsh when cleared.

13. When used fresh from the marsh but little advantage is
derived from it, when long exposed and dried considerable ad-
vantage; but much the greatest by composting with some kind
of manure, and the clay before mentioned, which is found in and
about the marsh, does well used in that way.

14. This muck is worth for manure half as much as yard
manure; when composted it is equal to yard manure. It makes
a very good soil when used alone on sand.

15. I find it an excellent absorbent, and sometimes pump
from a cistern in my yard the liquid it contains, and pour it upon
piles of muck, which makes it a good fertilizer. I have used it
with either yard manure, lime, ashes, guano or clay, with about
equal success.

108 .

16. To1load of muck, 1 of clay, or + yard manure, or 2
bushels of lime, or 4 bushels of ashes. The clay, lime and ashes
may be mixed, but the yard manure must be placed in layers so
as to cause fermentation.

18. It burns freely, making a very hot fire.

19. The above described deposit is principally on one main
stream, but there are spurs running toward. the mountain where
little streams come in that yield the best quality of muck by
about one-third; from these I generally dig my supplies.

This muck deposit is on the east side of the great plain lying
parallel with the Farmington mountain. On the northwest there
is a deposit brought down by the Pequabuc, covering perhaps
a thousand acres, very little of it is drained but that which is
is very productive. :

SAMUEL CAMP.

No. 7.—Peat from Russell U. Peck, Berlin. Color chocolate
brown.

Analysis.

Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 38.49

“e insoluble in =“ aa 30.51
Total, 69.00
*TInorganic matter, - - . - 15.59
Water, - - - - - - 17.41
| F 100.00

Soluble in water, 2.61

Nitrogen, 1.62=ammonia, 1.97

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp is about 60 rods long and 40 broad. It con-
tains about 5 acres.

2. The muck is 10 feet deep one rod from the edge; at two
rods from the edge it is over 15 feetdeep. The greatest or aver-
age depth is unknown.

8. Two years ago it was partially drained to the depth of
two feet.

* Ash besides much gand, contains a large amount of carbonate and sulphate of
lime and oxyd of iron.

109

The water is fresh.

The surface is dry to the depth of one foot.

No crop has been grown on it except coarse grass.

The underlying and adjoining soil is clay and full of rock.
A large amount of water from the adjacent high wood-
land runs into the swamp. The soil of the hills is a reddish
loam.

9. It has both inlet and outlet, and is also fed at the edges
by springs of cold soft water. It is flooded by heavy rains and
dries up in summer.

10. The sample sent, was taken two feet below the surface.

11. Ata depth of 4 feet, the muck has more the appearance
of leaves and wood; but after long exposure to the weather it
turns black and resembles the upper layer. ~

12. No trees now grow in the swamp. The vegetation con-
sists of coarse grasses and brakes. The logs and branches found
deep in the muck mostly appear to be red ash—none of them
are pines.

13. The muck has been used fresh on corn and meadow with
good effect.

14. The long exposed muck has been used and is equal to
one-half as much barn-yard manure.

15. It has been composted with stable manure, with night-
soil, and hen-dung. The compost of the two latter has had
wonderful effect upon tobacco.

16. The composts with night-soil and hen-dung have been
made under cover, using one part of manure to ten of muck.
Other manures have been mixed with their own bulk of muck
in the field.

18. It has not been used as fuel.

0 SAS EES

Rea SEEKS

110
No. 8.—Swamp muck from Rev. B. F. Northrop, Griswold.

The dried masses were light, coherent but easily crushed, were
of a grayish brown color, and much fine white sand was per-
ceptible in them.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 42.30
= insoluble in 4 g 10.15
Total, 52.45
*TInorganic matter, - - - - 34.70
Water, - - - - =. L285

Soluble in water, 1.64.
Nitrogen 1.81=1.60 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp is nearly a triangle with irregular sides,
containing about 1 acre, 8+ rods.

2. As to depth, the estimated average is 44 feet. Greatest
depth dug, 6 feet, from the dip of the sides, greatest estimated
depth 16 feet. A similar muck bed in an adjoining lot has been
penetrated to that depth.

3. It has been drained for 4 years to a depth of two feet.

4, The water is fresh.

5. Perfectly dry at the depth of two feet all summer.

6. It has grown no crop but grass, which has been improving
in quality since I drained it. No manures have been tried.

7. As the ditch approached the shallow part of the bed, at
the depth of 6 feet, a substratum resembling very fine clay, and
of a very light color, was thrown out. The edges area gravelly
loam.

8. The muck bed receives no wash from hills.

9. A stream of soft water runs through the deposit, it comes
from a large spring, and runs about a quarter of a mile before it

* The ash is almost entirely white quartz sand, with some sulphate of lime.

it

enters my lot. In ordinary seasons it will fill a 4 inch pipe.
Heavy rains make a little torrent of it. But the surrounding
hills are covered with grass and granitic rocks, so there is little
wash. The stream never dries. It is turned on to the upland
in summer.

10. Only one sample was sent.

11. For two feet in depth there is no deviation in quality or
appearance of the muck. Below that depth, and consequently
below the water line—the muck assumes a brownish tinge, and
appears as if the decomposition was not perfected, though on ex-
posure to frost, I can discover but little difference.

12. The only vegetation is grass. Oak logs several inches
through have been dug up, at depths varying from two to four
feet. Hickory nuts with the shucks on have been found at the
depth of three feet. No indications of resinous substances have
been found. Maples and elms grow thriftily at one angle of the
bog, where no effort has been made to eradicate them.

13 and 14. The muck has not been used as a manure.

15. It has been composted with horse-dung, and in some
instances, ashes, in small quantities. J have raised excellent
crops of corn and oats, much to the wonder of my neighbors,
who knew I had the manure of only one horse. I purchased a
few loads of poor manure last Spring, which together with what
my horse made, was composted with muck and a few bushels of
ashes, making about 8 or 10 cords. This was spread on 120
rods of ground, and ploughed in. The lot was planted with
corn, (Rhode Island Premium.) The product was 99 measured
bushels of ears, which is considered a large yield for this section.

16. In composting, the muck and manure have been spread
in alternate layers, three of the muck to one of manure.

19. But little if any use was made of the muck by former
owners. ‘The impression seemed to be that it would injure the
land. When I first began to use it, I found many who were
utterly skeptical as to its value as a manure.

B. F. Norturop.

112

No. 9.—Peat from J. H. Stanwood, Colebrook. Came in hard
lumps of a chocolate color. Well decomposed.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 49.65
s insoluble in “ Bove 7.40
Total, 57.05
*Tnorganic matter, : - - - 4.57
Water, - - - - . 38.388

100.00
Soluble in water, 1.88.
Nitrogen, 1.28=1.50 ammonia.
ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp is about 14 miles in length, and may be
likened in form to a pair of spectacles. The widest portions are
about eighty rods in width, and it contains in all about one hun-
dred and fifty acres.

2. The depth in the southern portion is probably not more
than four or five feet on the average; while in the northern
portion, from which the sample was taken, the depth is so
great that it cannot be ascertained by any means which I have
at hand. <A pole has been pushed down sixteen feet without
touching bottom, at the distance of Hon or five rods from the
margin.

8. The swamp has been for the most part drained.

4, The water is fresh.

5. The depth of drainage is from one to three feet, and the
portion from which the sample was taken has been but partially
drained until within the past four years.

6. The upper portions are usually dry during the summer to
the depth of two or three feet.

7. Excellent crops of potatoes, carrots, turnips, oats and
grass have been produced on some of the drained portions. The
only manures used have been ashes and stable manure. Could,

* The ash prepared by me contains besides sand, much sulphate of lime, but no
carbonate of lime. The ash sent by Mr. Stanw ood, the full analysis of which is

given on another page was obviously obtained from a peat found in another part of
the swamp.

113

discover no effect from the ashes. Prefer horse manure to any
other.

8. The soil underlying and at the edges of the swamp is
white sand mixed with stones of various sizes.

9. The meadow is surrounded with hills, and must undoubt-
edly receive considerable wash from them. Their soil is a sandy
loam, rough and rocky in its natural state.

10. Theswamp has both inlet and outlet. The water is soft.
Shahaugan Brook, which flows through it, is from two to three
rods in width, and is subject to heavy freshets Spring and
Autumn, but these are of short duration.

11. Only one sample sent.

12. The quality of the muck at the place where the sample
was taken is quite uniform to the depth of four or five feet.
Below that is peat to depth unknown.

13. The original growth of timber was ash, maple and pine,
with some hemlock. Many of the roots and stumps of pine
still remain in a good state of preservation. Black alder and
sweet elder, together with the red raspberry, are found among
the undergrowth.

14. The muck has been used to some extent as a top-dress-
ing for grass and other crops with satisfactory results, although
no particular benefit was noticeable during the first year. After
that the effects might be seen for a number of years.

15. I know of no experiments having been made with a
view of testing its value after having been long dug, as com-
pared with stable manure.

16. Composting has not, I believe, been practiced to much
extent. Whenever it has been done, stable manure and ashes’
have been the materials used. Experiments made by myself
have confirmed me in the opinion that a compost of equal parts
muck and stable manure is equal to the same quality of stable
manure. I found a compost made of two bushels of unleached
ashes to twenty-five of muck superior to stable manure as a top-
dressing for grass on a warm, dry soil. We however use it mostly
as an absorbent, the acidity is corrected by the exposure it re-
ceives, and much fertilizing matter is saved that would other-
wise be lost.

114

17. My method of composting is as follows: I draw my
muck to the barn-yard placing the loads as near together as I
can tip them from the cart. Upon this I spread whatever ma-
nure or ashes I have at hand, and mix with the cattle’s feet and
heap up witha scraper. I have also my stables arranged under
one of my barns, so that the muck is mixed with the manure in
a trench behind the cattle.

19. The peat has been used merely to test its value as fuel,
and has proved a superior article, but so long as plenty of wood
can be had for little more than the labor of getting it, few will
be willing to substitute peat in its stead.

JoHn H. STANWOOD.
Colebrook, Nov. 18th, 1858.

No. 10. Peat from N. Hart, Jr., West Cornwall. Hard dry
lumps of a dark brown, almost black color.

Analysis.
Organic matter, soluble in carbonate of soda, 59.11
ie ‘‘ Insoluble in carbonate of soda, 10.29
Total 65.40
*Tnorganic matter, - - - 14.89
Water, - - - - LOT

100.00
+Soluble in water, 6.20.

Nitrogen, 2.10=2.55 ammonia.
ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The'swamp is 100 rods long by 20 wide, contains 124
acres.”

2. Average depth 10 feet. Greatest depth 15 to 20 feet.

3. Itis drained with a ditch four feet deep around the out-
side, and one 80 rods long through the middle north and south,
and one east and west at the upper end of the middle. .

4, Itisa fresh water swamp. It has been dry 18 years.

5. Itis dry enough the year through to go all over it with
a team and loaded cart.

6. We have raised medium crops of corn, potatoes and

* The ash besides sand contains very much carbonate and sulphate of lime.
+ In the soluble portion are no salts of iron.

115

pumpkins. Five acres of it is in upland grasses, and has cut
three tons per acre.

Have manured by spreading the ashes produced in burning
the bogs, in the fall, and with stable manure the next spring,
and with upland soil from old headlands.

7. Clay and sand form the adjacent underlying soil.

8. The swamp receives no wash from hills.

9. A small stream of soft water runs through the swamp,
which is sometimes dry in summer, and is never high enough to
flood the swamp.

11. The surface deposit to a depth of 18 inches is made up
of fine decomposed vegetable matter. Below this it is more like
peat and coarse vegetable matter.

12. The trees in the swamp are black ash, white maple, and
recently, willow. We often find the trunks of hemlock trees of
various sizes, some, 18 inches in diameter, several feet below the
surface.

13 and 14. The muck has never been used as a manure.

15. We formerly composted it with stable manure, and with
ashes, but have remodeled our stables, and now use it as an ab-
sorbent and to increase the bulk of manure to double its original
quantity, and consider it more valuable than the same quantity
of stable manure.

16. Have composted in the yard by putting a layer of muck
on the ground a foot thick, and then a layer of manure (by
wheeling the cleanings of the stables every morning) of about
% the quantity of the muck, and so on until the pile is comple-
ted. This should be turned some days before using.

IT have mixed 25 bushels of ashes with the same number of
loads of muck, and applied it to 2 of an acre. “The result was
far beyond that obtained by applying 300 lbs. best guano to the
same piece.

18. Have not given it a fair trial as to its burning qualities,

19.. In the use of muck we proceed as follows: Soon after
haying we throw up enough for a year’s use, or several hundred
loads. In the fall the summer’s accumulation in hog pens and
barn cellars is spread upon the mowing grounds, and a liberal
supply of muck oe in and spread in the bottoms of the cel-

116

lars ready for the season for stabling cattle. When this is well
saturated with the drippings of the stables a new supply is
added. The accumulation of the winter is usually apphed to
the land for the corn crop, except the finer portion which is used
to top-dress meadow land. A new supply is then drawn in for
the swine to work up. This is added to from time to time, and
as the swine are fed on whey, they will convert a large quantity
into valuable manure for top-dressing mowing land.

So successful has been the use of it, that we could hardly
carry on our farming operations without it.

N. Hart, Jr.

No. 11. Swamp-muck from A. L. Loveland, North Granby.
This muck is black, and dried to very hard lumps, in which
grains of quartz and mica sand are seen.

Analysts.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 38.27
‘ insoluble in ef 2.89
Total, 41.16
* Tnorganic matter, - - . - 47.24
Water, - - - . - 11.60

100.00
Soluble in water, 0.75 per cent.

Nitrogen 1.00=1.22 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The place from which the specimen sent was taken, is a
swale extending over a somewhat broken surface of more than
half a mile in length, though the width, on an average, is not
more than 15 rods.

2. The greatest depth will not exceed six feet. Wherever
the swale is broken, the separation is covered with timber, the
land is quite stony, and the descent is such that the brook which
passes through it runs quite rapidly.

* The ash is chiefly sand, with a little sulphate of lime.

LEG

3. None of these lands (nor scarcely any in the town,) are
drained, though nothing could return a better profit.

4. Itisa fresh water marsh.

5. It is constantly wet from springs, and difficult to cross at
any season. A yearling steer once sunk and perished in the
muck. On some portions the surface is tough with grass roots,
and will roll beneath one’s step like the waves upon a lake.
Springs of water are underneath, and the mud is very soft.

6. No crops have ever been taken from these lands, except
perhaps some coarse grass on limited portions. Alders and ma-
ples are cut off once in twelve years or so. No manures are
ever put on, and the vast riches of such lands have been hid-
den until recent agitation of the subject has brought them to
hight.

7. The base of this muck is mostly a hard-pan mixed with
stone. ‘The borders have a deep, loamy soil on which apple-
orchards flourish. The white birch takes root in it whenever it
is plowed for grain, until vast fields are covered with them.
They grow rapidly, and when matured are cut and the ground
cleared for potatoes and grain.

8. There is not much wash from the hills, but where there
is any, the soil is a hght loam, overlying gravel and sand mixed
with much stone.

9. The swale has no inlet but abundant outlet. Springs of
clear cold water well up mostly from the borders in never-fail-
ing quantity. These disappear sluggishly over a large surface
till they reach a rapid descent, when they take the form of a
brook and circle round opposing elevations of land till they
reach the larger mill streams in the valleys below. They are
never dry, and are but slightly affected by storms.

10-11. The sample sent was from one place, which will fairly
represent most deposits in this township, as there is little varia-
tion in quality.

12. ‘The vegetation consists of alders, maples, willows, grape
vines, flags and a tall, coarse grass. It is pretty free from fallen
trees. No pines grow on these lands.

13, 14 and 15. The muck has never been used for any pur-
pose. It will be used next season for the first time.

118

19. In the adjoining town of Granville, Mass., similar swales,
stretching along the base of hard-timbered hills, have been
ditched and converted into mowings worth one hundred dollars
per acre. Sand from the hills has been spread on them, and the
best grasses flourish. The material dug from the ditches has
been carted into barn-yards, and makes excellent manure. ‘These
lands are the very cream of the farms where they have been
cleared up. There is no tough compact peat on such lands to
work; the material is a rich fine muck or mould. As I have
said, there is a great extent of such lands, but the farmers have
never dreamed of their worth. They will now begin to clear
and ditch them, as most of them can be easily drained.

; A. L. LOVELAND.

No. 12. Peat from Daniel Buck, Jr., Poquonock, came as
dry, quite coherent, brick-shaped cakes, well decomposed. Color
a rich chocolate brown.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 27.19
insoluble in ie fe 48.84
Total, 76.08
* Tnorganic matter, - - - : 5.92
Water, - - - - - 18.05

Soluble in water, 2.94 per cent.
Nitrogen, 2.40=2.92 ammonia.
For answer to Circular see No. 18.

No. 18. Swamp muck from Daniel Buck, Jr., Poquonock.
This muck forms the light loose surface layers of the peat No.
12, which it resembles in color.

* Ash is chiefly carbonate and sulphate of lime, and magnesia.

119
Analysis.
Organic matter, soluble in carbonate of soda, 33.66
: insoluble in i Bl 40.51
Total, - TAAT
*Tnorganic matter, - - - 8.63
Water, - - : - : : 17.20

Soluble in water, 1.80 per cent.
Nitrogen, 2.40=2.92 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp contains about 15 acres.

2. Its depth at the upper end is about 3 feet; in the center
30 feet.

3. It was drained in 1851 to an average depth of 5 feet.

4, Itis afresh water marsh.

5. It is dry during the summer, say two feet in depth.

6. It has grown potatoes, carrots, corn and cabbages. Can-
not state amount per acre. Stable manure and ashes from burn-
ing bogs have been applied to it, but no special manures.

7. Sand is the underlying and adjacent soil.

8. The swamp receives no wash from hills.

9. It has no inlet; an outlet has been made by draining. It
is fed by springs of soft water which suffer no freshets, and are
never dry.

10. ‘The sample is from one place, and is of average quality.

11. It does not occur in layers, but in masses, though there
is found occasionally a layer of what is called “‘Stone Peat.”

12. The trees were cut off in ’49 and ’50—oak, hackmatack,
white pines.

13. The muck has been applied fresh with good results; the
grass is not as tall but thicker and finer and of a darker green
in the Spring, than when barn-yard manure is spread on in the
Spring.

* Ash is like that of No. 12, carbonate and sulphate of lime. By comparing
this with the preceding, it is seen that exposure to the air increases the amount
of matters soluble in allsalies, but diminishes the portion soluble in water.

120

14. Experiments with the weathered muck have not been
made in such a way as to give comparison.

15 and 16. The muck is composted with stable manure in
proportion of 8 loads of muck and 4 of manure; but it is prin-
cipally carted into the barn-yard and pig-styes. The 8 loads of
muck and 4 of manure when properly forked over, are equal to
12 loads barn-yard manure on sandy soil.

17. Muck is the upper crust of swamps, that is, the peat that
has been exposed to action of frost and rain, of say 15 inches
depth, under that is the peat.

19. As fuel it is equal to soft wood—makes as pleasant a
fire to sit by as Cannel coal or hickory wood.

DANIEL Buck, JR.

No. 14. Swamp muck from Philip Scarborough, Brooklyn.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 51.45
x insoluble “ + aes 25.00
Total, 76.45
*Tnorganic matter, - : - - 7.67
Water, . . . : : 15.88

100.00
Soluble in water, 1.43.

Nitrogen, 1.20=1.46 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp contains about one hundred acres.

2. No bottom has been found at a depth of 12 feet. It is
probably much deeper.

3. It is drained to about the depth of 2 feet, and has been so
beyond my memory.

4, The water is fresh.

5. It is dry throughout the season to the depth of 1 foot.

6. It has once grown potatoes with all appearance of a good
crop till they were destroyed by a flood.

* Ash is mostly sulphate of lime, with a little carbonate and some sand.

121

7. The soil at the edges of the swamp is a yellow mould.

8. It receives much wash (yellow loam) from the adjacent
hill.

9. A small brook runs through the swamp which is never
quite dry, and is subject to heavy freshets.

10. The one sample sent is from the upper end of the swamp.

11. The muck is of uniform quality—very open and porous,
so far as has been observed.

12. The only trees in the swamp are maples.

13 and 14. The muck has been dry, and carted in the fall,
spread and plowed in in the spring to great advantage for corn
crops. I estimate its value at about one-third that of stable-ma-
nure.

15 and 16. One load of muck to one of stable-cellar manure
makes a compost equal to two loads of clear manure. In prepar-
ing the compost I begin with a layer of muck of 10 inches
depth. Upon this the manure is spread, and the whole is cov-
ered with muck to the depth of one foot. In this way there is
no loss either by volatilization or leaching.

18. It burns well when dry, with smell of sulphur.

(Signed) PHILIP SCARBOROUGH.

In a communication in the Homestead, Mr. Scarborough says:
‘When of the age of twelve years, my father and self, in the
fall of the year, carted out of a pond hole upwards of 100 loads of
muck, which lay during the winter in load heaps, and was spread
in the spring, plowed in and planted with corn, and I have never
seen so great a growth of corn since,—at that time, which was
about fifty-eight years ago, it was a very common practice to
hoe corn in August, and being the plow boy, I remember that
when on the horse, the tassels were as high as my head, but
the grain was lacking at harvesting, the yield being probably
not over forty bushels to the acre; it ought to have gone to one
hundred in proportion to the stalks.

I have never used the peat in any form when it was decom-
posed, but ample returns have been made; on corn, oats, rye,
and grass, it has added one-third to the yield.”

122

No. 15.—Swamp muck from Adams White, Brooklyn. When
dry formed hard chocolate, brown lumps.

Analysis,
Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 54.38
y insoluble in ‘ i 23.14
Total, 17.52
*Tnorganic matter, - - - - 9.08
Water, : : - - - 18.45

+Soluble in water, 5.90.
Nitrogen 2.89=3.54 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1, The deposit extends over one acre of surface.

2. 'The depth is from one to 5 feet—average 24 feet.

3. It is undrained.

4, The water is fresh.

5. The surface is dry for two or three months in summer to

the depth of 1 to 14 feet.

6. No crops have been grown on it.

7. The soil adjoining and beneath is very hard

8. ‘The swamp receives little wash.

9. There is now no inlet or outlet except an old ditch nearly
filled up, which takes off a small portion of the surface water.
In winter there is some overflow from rains and snows.

11. There is little variation in the quality of the muck, ex-
cept that it is rather firmer in texture at or near the bottom.

12. The only vegetation on it is coarse grasses and briers.

15 and 14. No use has been made of the unmixed muck.

15. The muck has been composted with stable manure from
cattle, horses and hogs, and also with horn-shayings and bone-
turnings.

16. In composting, 20 loads are drawn on to upland in Sep-
tember and thrown up in a long pile. “Early in the Spring 20
loads of stable manure are laid along side, and covered with the

partly clay.

* Contains some sand and much sulphate, with a little carbonate of lime.
+ This water solution contains no salts of iron.

123

muck. Assoon as it has heated moderately, the whole is forked
over and well mixed. This compost has been used for corn
(with plaster in the hill,) on dry sandy soil to great advantage.
I consider the compost worth more per cord than the barn-yard
manure. A compost of 500 lbs. of horn-shavings to 10 loads
of muck and 10 bushels of unleached ashes, made the best ma-
nure I ever used; stable or yard manure used beside it did not
produce more than half as much. I have used the compost
principally for a corn crop—always with success—also for pota-
toes. It is not so good for that crop. For small grain it makes
too much straw, and the grain seed is not so heavy.
18. It is a poor fuel.
ADAMS WHITE.

REMARKS.—This muck, containing 8$ per cent. of potential
ammonia, besides much salts of lime, is of excellent quality as
a fertilizer. It is largely soluble in water, (6 per cent.) but no
injurious iron compounds are found in the solution. It is to be
regretted, that, as Mr. White informs me, he cannot any more
excavate it economically, on account of the obstructed drainage.

No. 16.—Swamp muck from Paris Dyer, Brooklyn. Grayish
black lumps much admixed with soil and easily crushed.

Anal ysis.
‘Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 18.86
Ub insoluble in =“ he a 5.02
Total, 23.88
*Tnorganic matter, ‘. - : - Oneht

Water, - - - - 8.85

Soluble in water, 2.63.
Nitrogen, 1.083=1.26 ammonia.

No answer to the circular was received from Mr. Dyer.
Though so largely mixed with soil, the muck yields a good per-
centage of nitrogen and would make a very good absorbent.

* The ash is mostly sand and soil, and contains but traces of sulphate of lime.

124

No. 17.—Swamp muck from Perrin Scarborough, Brooklyn.
Color chocolate brown.

Analysis.

Organic matter *soluble in water, 9.17
ol Insol. in water, but sol. in carb. soda, 35.10 -

s Insoluble in water and carb. soda, 16.83

Total, 60.10

t Inorganic matter, soluble in water, 5.96
i Insoluble in water, but sol. in carb. soda, 4.22
Insoluble in water and carbonate soda, 15.60

(79

+ Total, 25.78
Water, 14.12
100.00

Nitrogen, 0.86=1.05 ammonia.

ANSWER TO CIRCULAR.

1. The meadow (bog) is about 40 rods long by 12 rods wide.

2. The muck is 24 to 8 feet deep.

3. It is partly drained by a small stream running along one
side of the marsh, and also by a ditch dug ten years ago, to the
depth of 8 feet, and extending one-half the length of the marsh..

4. It isa fresh water marsh.

5. The parts adjoining the ditch are rather dry for two or
three months in summer.

6. The only yield from the marsh has been one-half ton of
poor bog hay per acre.

7. The adjoining and underlying soil is hard, and ig made
up of gravel stone and some clay.

8. There is no wash from the adjacent lands.

* This determination is not accurate, but includes some sulphuric acid expelled
from sulphate of iron by the heat used in burning off the organic matter.

+ Consists mostly of sulphate of protoxyd of iron, (green vitriol) with much sul-
phate of lime, and a little sulphate of alumina and common galt.

¢ The ash, chiefly oxyd of iron, contains also much sand, as well as the ingredi-
ents under f. «

125

9. The stream (of soft water) is not subject to any consider-

able freshets.
11. At the place where I took the sample, the surface muck

to the depth of about 12 inches has a dark color, and then for
about two feet, is of a reddish appearance and more compact,
being made up of decayed vegetable matter and some decayed
limbs of trees. When thrown up to the weather and dried, it is
as light as acork. Some portions of it when thrown out to the
weather for a short time, will be covered with a thin white crust
that has the taste of alum or saltpetre.

12. No trees are now growing in the marsh. The branches
found in the lower muck I should think were pine.

18, 14 and 15. About the only trial I have made was as fol-
lows: Seventy-five loads were dug, and left exposed to the
weather for one year. I then mixed it with stable manure in
the proportion of five loads of muck to one of manure, and
applied in the hill to corn, at the rate of about twenty-five loads
to the acre. The result was not what I expected, although I
had a fair crop. After two years but little effect could be seen.

18. It has not been used as fuel.

PERRIN SCARBOROUGH.

REMARKS.—As already mentioned, this is the best charac-
terized vitriol-muck of any that I have examined. Mr. Scar-
borough says above of this muck, that “some portions of it
when thrown out to the weather became covered with a thin
white crust that has the taste of alum or saltpetre.” Doubtless
the sample sent for analysis is one of this kind, and therefore
represents the worst quality. The “thin white crust” is the
sulphates of iron and alumina, and the presence of these matters
in the lower muck accounts for the poor growth of grass, and
for the indifferent results of the trial on corn.

The use of the fresh muck, if it contained nearly so much sol-
uble iron compounds as given in the above analysis, would prob-
ably be destructive to all crops. The use of lime and ashes, or
long weathering, would correct these bad qualities; and so
would composting with stable manure,if the latter were used in
sufficient quantity; but the analysis makes it fully evident that
this is a material to be used with caution.

126

No. 18.—Swamp muck from Geo. K. Virgin, Collinsville.
Very dry and light, full of fine (grass) roots, which make it re-
tain when dry the form in which it was cut out. Color light
brownish gray. ‘‘ Exposed since last winter.” From the grass
roots this is evidently the surface muck.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, —- : 2.21

us insoluble in water but soluble in
carbonate of soda, (treated four

times,) - - 2.0.57
. insoluble in water and carbonate
of soda, - - 8.25
Total, 31.03
Inorganic matter *soluble in water, - 0.82

ty Insoluble in water but soluble in

carb. soda, (treated four times), 9.41

ta insol. in water and carb. soda, 8.05

+Total, 57.78
Water, : 7 : : cL dale

100.00
Nitrogen, 0.64=0.78 ammonia.

No. 19.—Swamp muck from Geo. K. Virgin, Collinsville.
Quite moist, crumbly; contains much micaceous sand. Color
chocolate brown. ‘Taken four feet below the surface.”

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, - - ito
os insoluble in water, but soluble
in carbonate of soda, (treated

three times,) - - 949
‘i insoluble in water and carbon-
ate of soda, - - 5.10

* Portion soluble in water consists chiefly of sulphate of lime and salts of iron;
the’latter in the larger proportion.

+ The ash consists mostly of sand, yields to acids much iron, a minute quantity

of sulphate of lime, some magnesia, and a trace of phosphoric acid. It contains no
carbonate of lime. [See No. 20.]

127
Total, : : : : 15.41

* Inorganic matter, soluble in water, - 0.28
es insoluble in water, but sol-
uble in carbonate of soda,

(treated three times,) 1.08
“ insoluble in water and carbon-
ate of soda, - - 48.65
+Motaly,, » - . - - 50.01
Water, - - - - - 84.58

100.00
Nitrogen, 0.34=0.41 ammonia,

No. 20.—Swamp muck from Geo. K. Virgin, Collinsville.
Very moist, well decomposed—not lumpy or coherent. Color
black. The label was defaced by decay, but the specimen was
probably taken at a depth intermediate between Nos. 18 and 19.

Analysis.

Organic matter, soluble in water, - . 0.72
te insoluble in water but soluble
in carbonate of soda, (treated

four times,) - - 9.31
- insoluble in water and carbon-

ate of soda, - . 3.65

otal an = - : : - 18.68

+ Inorganic matter, soluble in water, - 0.25
be insoluble in water but sol-
uble in carbonate of soda,

(treated four times,) 0.76
ce insoluble in water and car-

bonate of soda, - 28.20

Se Se SSS ea a a LL Tr a
* Portion soluble in water consists principally of sulphate of lime and salts of iron.

+ Ash is mostly sand, with a little sulphate of lime and considerable oxyd of
iron, soluble in acids. Phosphoric acid and magnesia in traces. [See No. 20.

{ Portion soluble in water consists of sulphate of lime with small quantity of
salts of iron.

> Potal, - - . - AS neal
Water, - - - - - 57 AL

100.00
Nitrogen, 0.28=0.34 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

The swamp contains 5 acres.
The greatest depth is 10 feet. The average depth 4 feet.
It is undrained.
The water is fresh.
Parts of the swamp are surface-dry in summer.
No crops have been raised on it.
On one side of the swamp the soil is a sandy loam, and
the other side gravel.

8. It does not receive much wash from the surrounding lands.

9. A small stream fed by springs flows from the swamp.

10. The three samples were taken from one place.

11. Little difference in the quality of the muck at various
depths is observed.

12. The swamp is occupied by maple, oak and hemlock, with
some pine and cedar trees.

18, 14, 15 and 16. .The only trial of this muck was made
with a few loads that had been exposed to the frost one winter.
It was applied to a piece of sandy, poor land, and the effects of

.

me Se aS

it were astonishing.

Tt has not been used as fuel.
Gro. K. VIRGIN.

REMARKS.—On reference to the table it will be seen
that when these three mucks of Mr. Virgin are reduced to the
same state of dryness, they agree quite closely in composition.
As their content of ammonia when dry is only about 8-10 per
cent, and the amount of soluble matters is likewise small, it is
obvious that the “astonishing” results observed from its use
must be chiefly ascribed to its physical characters—to its effect
in correcting the texture and dryness of the ‘‘sandy poor soil.”

* Ash almost entirely sand and oxyd of iron, with traces of sulphate of lime and
phosphoric acid.

129

No. 21. Salt-marsh muck, Solomon Mead, New Haven.
Light and porous, coherent from grass roots. Color, greyish
brown. Had been long dug and exposed to air.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, 3.30
‘insoluble in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated 6 times,) 40.52
ih “© insoluble in water and carb. soda, 8.20
Total, 52.02
Inorganic matter, *soluble in water, 2.60

insoluble in water, but sol. in
carb. soda, (treated 6 times,) 10.02
insol. in water and carb. soda, 23.90

+ Total, 86.52
Water, - . - - - - - 11.46

100.00
Nitrogen, 1.51=1.84 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The marsh is 3 miles long and 80 rods wide. Its contents
are estimated at 480 acres.

2. The average depth is 10 feet; greatest depth 15 to 20 feet.

8. The marsh is partially drained, but cannot be made dry
on account of the setting back of tide-water.

4. It is one-half salt, and one-half fresh water marsh. The
sample was taken from the fresh water part.

5. The surface of the muck is usually dry in summer to the
depth of one to two feet.

6. A few crops of potatoes have been grown on it with good
results; but grass is the chief product. Guanoand yard manure
have been applied.

7 and 8. The marsh receives wash from a considerable ex-
tent of territory, the soil being a sand or sandy loam.

* Portion soluble in water contains lime and soda in moderate quantity, still
more sulphuric acid and chlorine. No iron.

+ Ash mostly sand, with much oxyd of iron, some salt and sulphate of lime,
traces of magnesia and phosphoric acid. Exposure has obviously rendered oxyq
of iron insoluble.

150

9.° It has both inlet and outlet in a stream of soft water two
rods wide that runs through it, and is subject to freshets, but
does not dry up in summer.

11. But little variation in the quality of the muck is observed
in digging down. .

12. Beside bog-meadow grass, there flourish willow, elm,
and soft maple trees. But few branches are found in the muck,
of what kind it is difficult to determine.

13. The muck has been employed fresh dug for potatoes, &c.,
with very favorable results.

14. The long dug muck has been applied to crops with less
favorable results, as far as the present crop is concerned, than
those furnished by good stable manure.

15. It has been extensively composted with ashes, bones,
lime, white fish, yard manures, sty and slaughter-yard materials,
plaster, guano, night soil, &., &., with great advantage.

16. In preparing composts, the pile is commenced by a layer
of muck say one foot deep, then a layer of yard manure say 8
inches deep is laid on, and so alternately to the top. For com-
posts with night soil, I use three or four timesits bulk of muck;
with guano or ashes the proportion of muck is still increased.

18. It has not been used to any extent as fuel.
S. Mean.

No. 22. Swamp muck from Hdwin Hoyt, New Canaan, light

and loose in texture, not coherent, much intermixed with soil.
Color, hght brownish grey.

Analysis.
Organic matter, soluble in-water, — - - 2.84
ae insoluble in water but soluble in
carbonate of soda, (treated
three times,) - 18.42
et insoluble in water and carbonate
of soda, - - - 7.55

Total, - - - - 23.81

131

Inorganic matter *soluble in water, - - 2.02
i insoluble in water but soluble
in carbonate of soda, (treat-
ed three times, - 19.88
insol.in water and carb. soda, 46.30

t Total, - - - - 68.90
Water, - - - - 7.29

_——__——.

100.00
Nitrogen, 0.45=0.54 ammonia.

For answer to Circular see No. 24.

No. 28. Swamp muck (No. 22,) saturated with horse urine,
having been put under the stalls. Edwin Hoyt, New Canaan.

Color darker than No. 22.
Analysis.

Organic matter, soluble in water, - - 2.84
: insoluble in water but soluble
in carbonate of soda, (treated

three times,) - - 13.49
oh insol. in water and carb. soda, 8.05
Total, - - . - 23.88
{¢ Inorganic matter, soluble in water, - 1.54

“ insol. in water but sol. in carb.

soda, (treated three times,) 12.42

a insol. in water and carb. soda, 56.20

§ Total, : - - : 70.16
Water, - - - - 5.96
100.00

Nitrogen 0.90=1.09 ammonia.
For answer to circular see No. 24.

nt
* Portion soluble in water consists almost entirely of sulphate of iron, and per-
haps organic salts of the same base. No lime.

+ Mostly sand and soil. In the acid solution were found much iron, a little sul-
phuric acid lime and magnesia, and traces of phosphoric acid.

+ Portion soluble in water contains large quantities of lime, sulphuric acid, chlo-
rine and carbonic acid, but only a slight trace of iron. It thus appears that
the iron existing in the peat (No. 22) in the soluble form, is rendered insoluble by

composting.

§ Ash, as No. 22, but containing larger quantities of sulphuric and phosphoric
acids, of lime and magnesia.

182

No. 24. Swamp muck No. 22 composted with white fish.
Edwin Hoyt, New Canaan. Color darker than No. 28. No
evidence of the fish except a few bones.

Analysis.
Organic matter, soluble in water, - 1.15
ss Insoluble in water but soluble
in carbonate of soda, (treated

three times,) - - 17.29
Insoluble in water and carbon-
ate of soda, - - 8.00
Total, - - - ‘ 26.44
* Tnorganic matter, soluble in water, - 16%,

hs insol. in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated three times,) 14.13
e insol. in water and carb. soda, 51.10

ti otaliviie. - - - 66.90
Water, - - - - 6.66
100.00

Nitrogen, 1.01=1.22 ammonia.
ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp is nearly square, and contains about 10 acres.

2. The average depth of muck is about 5 feet. The greatest
depth is 12 feet or more, although we do not take it out below
8 feet.

3. It was drained four years ago to the depth of 5 feet.

4. Itisa fresh water marsh.

5. The upper portions are always dry to the level of the
outlet, except as wetted by rains.

6. Four acres were thoroughly underdrained four years ago,
and planted with corn and potatoes. The yield of potatoes was
exceedingly fine. The crop of corn was good—more than an
average yield. The tillage not being as complete as we desired

* Portion soluble in water consists principally of sulphate of lime, with only traces
of iron. In this case, as in No. 23, the solfiible salts of iron contained in the peat
are, by composting rendered insoluble.

+ Ash as Nos. 22 and 23, but sulphuric and phosphoric acids, lime and magnesia,
present in still larger quantities.

138

for seeding, it was planted with corn the second season. The
yield was good—full sixty bushels per acre. The third season
it was seeded with oats, which grew very rapidly and promised
a large crop, but just as they began to fill, about one-third of
them lodged. That portion which stood up filled well, and
yielded at the rate of fifty bushels per acre. This, the fourth
season, the piece was in grass, the crop was more than average,
yet would have been larger had not the young grass all been
Jalled under that portion of the field where the oats fell. No
manure has been used on the swamp.

7. The surrounding soil is gravel, with a mixture of clay.
The bed of the swamp after the muck is removed, presents a
very stony surface like that of the neighboring uplands.

8. The swamp receives but little wash from the adjoining
hills. .

9. A small stream flows through it that is lable to freshets,
but never dries up.

11. There are some variations in its appearance at different
depths. The first two feet it is very black and crumbly, and is
made up of very fine particles, I suppose on account of its being
plowed and exposed to frost and weather. For the next three
or four feet it has a reddish cast and considerable odor. This
layer appears to contain more vegetable matter. At this depth
we sometimes find logs as large as a man’s body, and have traced
out whole trees, which at first are as easily cut through with the
spade as any part of the muck, but after exposure, they become
quite hard. his layer we consider the most valuable, and is
such as I sent you. See No. 22. Below a depth of 6 feet it has
a lighter color, and contains less vegetable matter. Ata depth
of 8 feet clay predominates, and it is not worth carting out upon
our soils.

12. The swamp was once covered with maple, elm, and red-
ash trees. But for a number of years one-half has been in
meadow and the other half is covered with bogs. Near the main
ditch the bogs are rapidly dying out and may be easily kicked
to pieces, which I attribute to the draining.

13. It has not been used fresh from the swamp, as we con-

134

sider this manner of application very wasteful. We have al-
ways composted it except in one instance, which is given below.

14. The long dug and exposed muck has been once experi-
mented on as follows: Four years ago, this Autumn, (1858,)
we drew a large quantity of it upon a field designed for corn
the following season. A portion of this muck was composted
with horse-dung, (about 5 of muck to 1 of dung,) the pile heat-
ed and fermented well and was turned once before using. The
remainder of the muck was left untouched until about the mid-
dle of May. At this time the muck and compost were each
spread and plowed in on separate portions of the field at the
rate of 40 loads per acre. The result was very marked, and
was distinguishable as far as the field could be seen. The corn
where the stable compost was applied showed a decided gain
over the other parts of the field after it was two weeks old, and
kept ahead throughout the season. The yield by the compost
was nearly double that of the clear muck. I do not think the
yield was much increased by the application of muck alone.
The oat crop following the corn, was also much the best where
the stable compost was applied to the other; so. also the grass.

15. The muck has been much employed by us as an absorb-
ent. Our horse stables are constructed with a movable floor and
pit beneath which holds 20 loads of muck of 25 bushels per
load. Spring and fall this pit is filled with fresh muck which
receives all the urine of the horses, and being occasionally
worked over and mixed furnishes us annually with 40 loads of
the most valuable manure. See No. 28.

Our stables are sprinkled with muck every morning at the
rate of one bushel per stall, and the smell of ammonia, &c., so of-
fensive in most stables, is never perceived in ours. Not only are
the stables kept sweet, but the ammonia is saved by this pro-
cedure. Our privies are also deodorized by the use of muck,
which is sprinkled over the surface of the pit once a week, and
from them alone we thus prepare annually enough ‘“ poudrette”
to manure our corn in the hill. The wagons we use in drawing
fish in the summer shortly become very offensive from the blood,
oil, &c., which adheres to them ; but a slight sprinkling of muck
renders them perfectly inodorous in a short space of time.

»

1385

16. Very much of our muck is composted with yard manure.
Our proportions are one load of manure to three of muck. I
think as much muck should be used as can be made to heat
properly. The quantity varies of course with the kind of ma-
nure employed.

We use muck largely in our barn-yards, and after it becomes
thoroughly saturated and intermixed with the droppings of the
stock, it is piled up to ferment, and the yard is covered again
with fresh muck. We are convinced that the oftener a compost
pile of yard manure and. muck is worked over after fermenting,
the better. We work it over and add to it a little more muck
and other material, and the air being thus allowed to penetrate
it, a new fermentation or heating takes place, rendering it more
decomposable and valuable.

During the present season, (1858,) we have composted about
200,000 white fish with about 700 loads (17,500 bushels,) of
muck. We vary the proportions somewhat according to the
crop the compost is intended for. Jor rye we apply 20 to 256.
loads per acre of a compost made with 4,500 fish, (one load) and
with this manuring, no matter how poor the soil, the rye will
be as large as a man can cradle. Much of ours we have to reap.
For oats we use less fish, as this crop is apt to lodge. For corn,
one part fish to ten or twelve muck is about right, while for
grass or any top-dressing, the proportion of fish may be in-
creased.

We find it is best to mix the fish in the summer and not use
the compost until the next spring and summer. Yet we are

obliged to use in Sept. for our winter rye a great deal of the
compost made in July. We usually compost Sine first arrivals
of fish in June for our winter grain; after this pile has stood
three or four weeks it is worked over thoroughly. In this space
of time the fish become pretty well decomposed, though they
still preserve their form and smell outrageously. As the pile
is worked over, a sprinkling of muck or plaster is given to re-
tain any escaping ammonia. At the time of use in September
the fish have completely disappeared, bones and fins excepted.

The effect on the muck is to blacken it and make it more loose
and crumbly. As to the results of the use of this compost, we

136

find them in the highest degree satisfactory. We have raised
80 to 85 bushels of rye per acre on land that without it could
have yielded 6 or 8 bushels at the utmost. This year we have
corn that will give 60 to 70 bushels per acre, that otherwise
would yield but 20 to 25 bushels. It makes large potatoes,
excellent turnips and carrots.

18. It is not suitable for fuel.

19. I will add one other fact relative to its absorbent power.
We collect the (human) urine in barrels conveniently disposed
about our premises. One of these haying become full and very
offensive, I proposed to filter it through muck. Another barrel
was accordingly filled with the latter and the putrid urine
poured upon it. Although the stench of the urme was so in-
tense that it was hardly possible to proceed with the operation,
it was all filtered through the muck, and came out perfectly clear,
odorless, and with no more taste than pure water would acquire by
running through the muck.

Epwin Hoyt.

REMARKS.—When we compare the quality of the muck em-
ployed by the Messrs. Hoyt, as shown by the analysis, with the
great results they have made it yield in their favor, we have a
fine illustration of the merits of muck as an absorbent and
amendment.

The muck is of poor quality, containing in the dry state but
twenty-six per cent of organic matter and one-half of one per
cent of potential ammonia, and being in the fresh state consider-
ably charged with salts of iron, But the composts with horse-
urine and with fish are admirable fertilizers, as proved by anal-
ysis, and especially by the crops grown with their aid. In the
composts we find all the iron znsoluble, and as stated p. 131, the
percentages of ammonia doubled. The Messrs. Hoyt would
have found it impossible to economize their manure in any other
way to nearly the extent they are enabled to do by the use of
muck, which, though it must be hauled up a long steep hill, at
great expense, 1s of incalculable advantage to their farm. It
must not be forgotton, however, that the success of the Messrs.
Hoyt is due not only to the use of muck, but also to the enter-
prise which they expend in laying hold of every form of fertil-

137

izing material within their reach, and to their systematic employ-
ment of thorough drainage, deep tillage and all other scientific
improvements.

No. 25. Swamp muck from A. M. Haling, Rockville, fresh
dug. Color snuff-brown, with a little white fiber.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, - - - 38.48
“ insol. in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated eight times,) - 52.15
iS insol. in water and carb. soda, 8.65
Total, - - - - - - 64.28
Inorganic matter *soluble in water, = - . 0.35
. insol. in water but sol. in carb.

soda, (treated eight times,) 0.16
insol. in water and carb. soda, 4.90

+ Total, - : - - - - 5.41
Water, - . - - . : - 30.36

Nitrogen 1.62=1.97 ammonia.
For answer to circular see No. 26.

No. 26. Swamp muck, A. M. Haling, Rockville, like No.
25, but exposed two years.

* Portion soluble in water consists chiefly of sulphate of lime; contains a trace
of salts of iron.

+ Contains much sand, no carbonate of lime, much oxyd of iron, some sulphate of

lime and magnesia, and more phosphoric acid than most of the peats that I have ex-
amined.

138

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, - - 38.87
i insol. in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated eight times,) T1.57
re insol. in water and carb. soda, 8.44
Total, - - . : - 83.88
* Tnorganic matter soluble in water, - 0.23

te insol. in water but sol. in

carb. soda, (treated eight

times,) - - - 0.00
ef insol. in water and carb.
Soda: or lO time = SE
t Total, - - - : 2.21
Water, - ee eee - - 13.91

Nitrogen, 132=1.60 ammenia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp from which Nos. 25 and 26 were dug is oval
in shape and contains about five acres.

2. The greatest depth of muck or peat is ten feet, averaging
about two feet.

8. Itis not drained.

4. Itis fresh water.

5. It is dug in very dry summers to the depth of four to five
feet.

6. No crops have been raised on the swamp.

* Portion soluble in water consists chiefly of sulphate of lime and salts of iron.

+ This peat yields upon ignition 2.21 per cent of ash, (average of two determina-
tigns—2.18 per cent and 2.23 per cent). Deducting the amount of inorganic mat-
ter soluble in water, (0.23 per cent) there should remain 1.98 per cent as the amount
of inorganic matter insoluble in water and carbonate of soda. But the residue, in-
soluble in carbonate of soda yields 3.70 per cent of ash. As all traces of carbon-
ate of soda were thoroughly removed by repeated treatments with boiling water,
may not this discrepancy in the result be due to the fact that a portion of the soda
has formed an insoluble combination with the organic matter that it was not capa-
ble of dissolving (?)

¢ Ash as No. 25,

139

7. The soil at the edges of the swamp is quite gravelly and
open, underlaid with fine sand. At the depth of five to six feet
underlying the swamp, is the hardest kind of gravel that I ever
saw.

8. The swamp does not receive wash from any source, the
land surrounding it being nearly level.

9. The swamp has neither inlet or outlet.

10. Thetwo samples 25 and 26 are from one place.

11. There is not any perceptible variation in the quality of
the muck at different depths.

12. The swamp is covered with a small bush resembling the
low laurel, with an occasional stunted maple.

13, 14, 15, 16,17 and 18. Has not been used either as a
manure absorbent or fuel.

A. M. HALING.

Remarks.—If Mr. Haling succeeds in drying this swamp
which he is engaged in trying to effect by digging a well near
it, he will doubtless find this muck an excellent absorbent, and
adjunct to mineral manures. The inorganic matters are small
in quantity, but, after exposure, of good quality. Salts of lime
and phosphoric acid are present in larger relative quantity than

usual.

No. 27.—Swamp muck from A. M. Haling, Rockville. Fresh
dug; color, snuff brown. ‘A good substitute for Varn-yard
manure.”

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, - - - 8.87
s insol. in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated seven times,) 44.04
re insol. in water and carb. soda, 4.25
Total, - - - ° . - 52.16
Inorganic matter *soluble in water, : 0.51

- insol. in water but sol. in carb.

soda, (treated seven times,) 4.07

insol. in water and carb. soda, 5.05

* Portion soluble in water contains iron and sulphuric acid in considerable quan-
tities, lime and cerbonic acid small.

eR otale'\;- - - - - 9.63
Water, : : - - - 38.21

100.00
Nitrogen 1.88=2.28 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The sample No. 27 is from a swamp of about 10 rods in
width and 80 rods in length.

2. The average depth is about 18 inches, while in holes of
20 to 50 feet in diameter it is 8 to 10 feet’ deep.

3 and 5. It is drained and is dry to the depth of 2 feet below
the surface.

4, Itis afresh water swamp.

6. During the four years since it was drained it has produced
grass at the rate of 14 tons of hay per acre.

7. The adjoining and underlying soil is a black loam with
clay subsoil, except at the lower end of the swamp where it is a
coarse gravel.

8. It does not receive much wash, as there is no stream run-
ning through it,

12. Oak trees of 12 to 15 inches diameter have been found
in some of the holes spoken of, at a depth of 2 to 4 feet below
the surface.

18. The muck has only been used as a top-dresssing on grass.
and with excellent results.

A. M. HALine.

REMARKS.—Ammonia and phosphoric acid are both present
in this muck in considerable quantity, the soluble salts of iron
are not abundant enough to be detrimental; sulphates and car-
bonates of lime and magnesia are also contained in it. The
swamp is small, is surrounded with a rich surface soil, rests on a
retentive clay bottom, had no outlet, and for years has been a
repository for the leaves and debris of a hard-wood vegetation,
latterly of grasses, so that taking into the account its amending
qualities, we cannot wonder that it should be a “ good substitute
for barn-yard manure on light gravelly soils.”

* Ash contains much sand and oxyd of iron, but also considerable quantities of
magnesia, carbonate, sulphate and some phosphate of lime.

j
.

141
No. 28. Peat from Albert Day, Brooklyn. . Color very dark

brown, almost black, quite coherent and hard, even when not
dry. Thought to be injurious to crops.

Organic matter soluble in water, — . - 2.45
FE insol. in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated nine times,) 46.25
insol. in water and carb. soda, 6.85
Total, - - - - - 55.05
Inorganic matter *soluble in water, - 0.32
ss insol. in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated nine times,) 0.65
3S insol, in water and carb. soda, 5.40
+ Total, - - . . - 6.37
Water, . - - : - - 38.58

Nitrogen, 0.84=1.02 ammonia.
ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp is nearly circular, and covers about one-fourth
of an acre.

2. It liesinasort of basin; about twelve feet deep in the
center, and but a few inches at the edge.

8. Itis not drained.

4. It isa fresh water marsh.

5. The upper portion is dry eight or ten inches in very dry
seasons only.

7. Thesoil underlying and at the edges of the swamp is sand
and clay.

8. It does not receive any wash from hills.

9. The swamp has an outlet where a small quantity of water,
is discharged in wet weather only. I think the water is soft.

* Portion soluble in water consists mostly of sulphate of lime and a trace of iron.
No carbonic acid.

+ Ash nearly free from sand, contains much iron, considerable sulphate of lime,
a little carbonate of lime, and traces of magnesia and phosphoric acid.

142

10. Two samples sent in one box from different places in the
swamp.*

11. The muck at the surface to the depth of sixteen or eigh-
teen inches is quite black, with less appearance of undecayed
vegetable matter than it has below that depth, where it begins to
have a reddish color, and at the depth of 2% or 8 feet is quite
red, or brown, to the bottom of the deposit.

12. A few stinted maples, coarse grass and moss grow on it.
At the depth of four or six feet, logs and limbs are found, which
resemble cedar or hemlock more nearly than anything else.

18. It has not been used fresh.

14. This muck was applied 20 years ago by my father, and
he thought it very useful, though no such definite trials were
made as to test its value satisfactorily. I have used it in large
quantities in my hog and cattle yards, (before completing my
barn-cellar) but have seen no more benefit from it thus employed
than from loam (from the roadside or head-lands on my fields)
used in the same manner. This led me to attempt testing it
more carefully.

In 1852 I carted out 250 to 300 loads of the peat and piled it
on a lot adjoining the swamp. After six months had expired I
drew most of it into my yards, leaving 8 or 10 loads in the field.
Here it remained two winters, covering a space of about a square
rod to the depth of six inches. It was then plowed in and the
field planted to corn. The soil was light and friable, resting on
a loose sandy or gravelly sub-soil. The whole field was other-
wise manured alike. The only difference I could perceive in
the corn upon the two portions, was not in favor of the peat; it
diminished rather than increased the growth, and during several
following years the succeeding crops of oats and grass were less
where the peat had been applied. One load of muck was used
as a top-dressing for grass which looked fresh for a few days,
but no material effect was produced upon the quantity of hay.
T'wo loads were taken to my orchard and a bushel put around
each tree and worked into the soil, and the growth was less than
during any previous year.

* When the box was opened the different samples could not be distinguished by
appearance, and one analysis was made on a mixture of several fragments.

143

15 and 16. Having heard of the advantages of composting
muck with soda ash and guano, I purchased a quantity of each
for trial. Ten loads (thirty bushels each) of muck were com-
posted with 175 Ibs. soda ash, and ten loads of muck with 175
Ibs. of guano,* and these composts were used separately on my
corn land at the rate of 50 loads per acre, sown broadcast and
thoroughly harrowed in. The corn on the plots thus treated,
gave about the same yield as on. the remainder of the field that
was dressed with 12 loads of hog-manure per acre. An adjoin-
ing field had been manured with long manure and planted with
potatoes. I selected twelve rows and put into each bill, on six
of them, a full shovel full of the soda-ash compost, and on the
remainder as much of the guano compost, and I am decidedly
of the opinion that the corn was poorer where the muck com-
posts were applied, than elsewhere.

18. The peat has not been used as fuel.

ALBERT Day.

.

Remarks.—I could but feel much interest in the result of the
analysis of Mr. Day’s muck after hearing from his own lips the
account of its failure to do any good, or rather of its positively
deleterious action, I was therefore surprised to find nothing
in the sample he sent that would account for its ill effects. Still
I am able to gather from the letters of Mr. Day, what is dowbt-
less the true state of the case.

Mr. Day wrote me in one of his interesting letters as follows:
“T have noticed when plowing the field adjoining the muck
swamp, that near the latter a deep furrow of eight or ten inches
would bring up a reddish, rather hard substance, resembling iron
rust, and the peat at the depth of four feet has nearly the same
reddish color.”

Further, the muck of Mr. Day’s sending, though containing but
very little soluble salts of iron, does contain much oxyd of iron,
and as Mr. Day excuses his delay in sending it (June 1858,) on
account of water in the swamp, it is probable that the samples
he did send were surface specimens perhaps from the margin of
the swamp that had been, accordingly, exposed to air and washed

* IT have always doubted the genuineness of this guano.

144

so that they do not represent the mass of the muck, which is
probably more or less impregnated with soluble iron compound.

The swamp is an undrained basin that only discharges water
in wet weather, consequently the mass of muck retains any in-
jurious matters that may find their way into it.

But why should these ill results follow when “the muck in
each instance of experiment has been exposed to the atmosphere
a year or more and not used in a raw state?” The muck itself
is quite coherent and hard even when not dry, and we can read-
ily understand that if thrown up in a high heap, a year’s expo-
sure might not suffice to oxydize or wash out the iron, and from
the trials with it after use as an absorbent in the yards, it would
seem that the quantity of injurious iron compounds in it is quite
large at first.

No. 29.—Peat from Chauncey Goodyear, Beaver Pond, New
Haven. Very hard, tough, black cakes, that had to be cut with
a hatchet in order to be reduced to powder. “ As.good as fresh
cow-dung.”

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, —- - 1.80
ce insoluble in water but soluble in
carbonate of soda, (treated eight
times, ) - - 45.42
a insoluble in water and carbonate
of soda, - - 10.85
Total, SY Ea
Inorganic matter *soluble in water, - 0.385
ue Insoluble in water but soluble in
carb. soda, (treated eight times), 7.98
iH insol. in water and carb. soda, 18.80
+Total, 27.13
Water, - - : - - - 15.30

100.00

Nitrogen, 1.68=2.04 ammonia.

* Portion soluble in water consists principally of sulphate and carbonate of lime
and salts of iron; contains traces of chlorine.

+ Much fine sand, with oxyd of iron, and some carbonate and sulphate of lime,
and traces of phosphoric acid and magnesia.

145

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The Beaver Pond swamp is about one mile long by one-
fourth of a mile wide.

2. The muck has been excayated to the depth of eight feet,
and is probably much deeper.

3. The swamp has been more or less ditched, but not drained.

4 and 5. The water is fresh and soft, and stands at nearly the
same level throughout the year, except at

6. The upper end which is higher and where several acres
have been cultivated, and always give good crops even in the
dryest seasons.

7. The soil adjoining is sand and gravel.

8. There is some wash from the adjacent lands.

11. Where the sample was taken, the muck is of nearly uni-
form quality at all depths, though somewhat lighter at the depth
of four feet.

12. The vegetation in the swamp consists of coarse grass and
other aquatic herbage together with willow and cedar trees.

13. The muck has been largely used in the fresh state, and
in this condition is as good as cow-dung.

15. The muck has been variously composted, especially with
fish and with excellent results.

18. It makes good fuel.

CHAUNCEY GOODYEAR.

RemMArKS.—This muck lying near the city of New Haven,
is in great request in the city gardens, and the ownership of the
swamp itself is divided among many persons, who find it ex-
tremely useful to give body and retentiveness to the hungry city
soil. The analysis shows that its direct fertilizing qualities are
also by no means inconsiderable, and it deserves to come into
still more extensive use.

No. 80.—Salt marsh muck from Rey. Wm. Clift, Stonington.
Color rich snuff-brown.

146

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, 8.83
se Insol. in water, but sol. in carb. soda, 51.68
es Insoluble in water and carb. soda, 9.80
Total, 64.81
* Tnorganic matter, soluble in water, 2.82

u Insol. in water, but sol. in carb. soda, 7. 0.00

is +Insol. in water and carbonate soda, (7.45?) 5.16

————

t Total, 8.68
Water, 26.51
100.00

Nitrogen, 0.95=1.16 ammonia.

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The marsh embraces about nine acres, lying immediately
north of the track of the Providence & Stonington railroad.
It is about three times as long as broad.

2. Average depth 5 feet; greatest 8 feet.

8. Drained 18 inches deep.

4. Originally a fresh-water swamp, until a hundred years
ago or more, when the tide broke in. A foot or more on top is
made up of marine deposite. A tide gate was put in in the fall
of 1850.

5. The water stands about 18 inches below the surface during
the summer.

6. Fine crops have grown upon it this season; two tons or
more to the acre of herds-grass and clover, good corn, potatoes,
beans and turnips on a small portion. The manures used were
pig-dung, superphosphate of lime and horse flesh composted
with muck for the hoed crops.

* Portion soluble in water contains sulphuric acid, soda and chlorine in considera-
ble quantities, as also traces of lime and iron. No carbonic acid.

+ See note under No. 26.

+ Ash contains large quantities of sulphuric acid, lime and magnesia, considerable
common salt, traces of phosphoric acid.

—————EeE——Eeeee

147

7. The soil underlying and near is a clayey gravel and yellow-
ish loam.

8. Very little wash is received by the marsh.

9. A small brook runs through the marsh, say four months in
winter and spring, coming down from drained swamps above.
The brook is sometimes swollen full, but is dry in summer.

10. The sample was taken from various parts of the marsh.

11. Not much difference is observable in the character of the.
muck at various depths after passing through the salt marsh
turf—decayed stumps and logs are common, mostly maple.

12. Once the whole was probably a maple swamp, with other
swamp brush-wood.

13. It has not been used fresh; is too acid; even potatoes
do not yield well in it the first season, without manure.

14 and 15. Nearly all the muck used has been composted
with stable manures—fish, lime, &. It makes excellent bed-
ding kept in the stables, and when applied to crops has always
given good returns.

16. No accurate rules are observed in composting. Three
or four loads of muck to one of stable manure, put together in
the fall or winter in alternate layers, and forked over twice be-
fore spreading and plowing in, may represent the method of
composting.

I consider a compost made of one load of stable manure and
three of muck, equal in value to four loads of yard manure.
Almost all garden plants, particularly grape vines and strawberry
plants, show a strong affinity for the undecomposed bits of salt
marsh turf in the soil. The roots are matted in with it, so that
it is impossible to separate them.

18. It has been used some for fuel, and though not first rate,
burns well.

19. I consider the salt marsh as reclaimed worth three hun-
dred dollars an acre, and think it will pay the interest on that
sum as long asit is properly cared for. ‘These marshes are among
the most valuable grass lands in the state, and ought to receive
the immediate attention of their owners.

W. Cuirt.
10

148

REMARKS.—There is one point in the history of this muck
that deserves further notice. Mr. Clift mentions that it is not
applied in the fresh state—“‘it is too acid” and requires exposure
before it can be used profitably.

By the term ‘too acid” Mr. Clift doubtless intends merely to
designate in the customary manner its hurtful quality when fresh,
without expressing a definite opmion as to the cause. The pres-
ence of so much (8.4 per cent. of the dry muck) soluble matters
is the reason why it must be weathered or composted, and these
soluble bodies are chiefly common salt, sulphate of magnesia,
and perhaps alkaline crenates and humates, which are partly
washed out or destroyed by weathering. It is probably these
saline matters toward which the affinity of the roots of vegeta-
bles and garden plants is especially manifested.

It is not unlikely that in some parts of the marsh, sulphate of
iron may be found, as is the case with the salt marsh mud, No.
33 from the same vicinity.

No. 81—Swamp muck from Henry Keeler, South Salem,
N.Y. Dug April, 1858. Color, light snuff-brown.

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, 2.13
cf “insoluble in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated 8 times,) 45.12
is “insoluble in water and carb. soda, 12.05
Total, 59.30
Inorganic matter, *soluble in water, 0.78

tf if insoluble in water, but sol. in
carb. soda, (treated 8 times,) 3.79
“ a insol. in water and carb. soda, 16.70

+ Total, 2120
Water, - - - - - : : 19.43

100.00

Nitrogen, 1.57—1.90 ammonia.

** Portion soluble in water contains much sulphuric acid and iron, also lime in
considerable quantity.

+ Ash contains much sand, and large quantities of carbonate and sulphate of
lime, with oxyd of iron, magnesia and phosphoric acid.

149

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The swamp contains about one-half acre.

2. The greatest depth of muck is 10 feet, the average 5 feet.

3. It was partially drained a few years ago by ditches 3 or 4
feet deep. |

4. The water is fresh.

5. During summer the muck is dry to the depth of 8 to 4 ft.

6. No crops have been cultivated in the swamp.

7. The swamp is underlaid by rock, the soil about is clay
loam.

8. The swamp receives some wash from ‘a steep granite hill
covered with a rocky soil. E

9. The inlets and outlets are small but permanent springs.

11. The muck is alike at all depths as far as drained.

12. The vegetation consists of a few small ash, white wood,
and soft maple trees and swamp weeds. It is too much shaded
for grasses.

13. Has been used in the fresh state applied to corn and
potatoes, and appears to be equal to good barn manure.

14. It has rarely been weathered more than two months, and
then applied side by side with the best yard manure has given
equally good results.

15 and 16. Has been composted with an equal quantity of
yard manure to advantage.

19. When dry this muck is friable and easily pulverized. I
have used it fresh dug with potatoes, putting about two quarts
in the hill and dropping the potato on it, and the yield was one-
eight more than on the same soil without muck.

HENRY KEELER.

RemMARKS.—This muck hardly differs from leaf-mould, and
since it contains all the mineral matters of leaves as well asa
good percentage of potential ammonia, it is readily understood
how it may equal good yard manure in its effects.

No. 82.—Peat from John Adams, Salisbury, (Falls Village.)
Color, light snuff-brown, overlies a bed of shell-marl.

150

Analysis.

Organic matter, soluble in water, - - pre
a insoluble in water but soluble in
carbonate of soda, (treated

eight times,) Seed 287
i insoluble in water and carbonate

of soda, - - - 10.65

Totally = - - - 55.28
* Inorganic matter, soluble in water, - 1.02

eS insoluble in water, but sol-

uble in carbonate of soda,

(treated eight times,) 1.83
: insoluble in water and carbon-
ate of soda, - “ean da3h
+ Total, - - - - 16.70
Water, : - - - - 28.07

100.00
Nitrogen, 1.76=2.14 ammonia,

ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR.

1. The lot containing the muck and marl (No. 34,) is about
50 rods long, and from 15 to 20 wide, and contains about 5 acres.

2. The average depth of the muck is about 5 feet and in
some places it is 12 feet deep.

8. It is drained 12 inches deep.

4, Itisa fresh water swamp.

5. It is difficult to drive oxen on most of it except in the
very dryest times.

6. Never has been cultivated; produces nothing but coarse
OTASs.

7. The neighboring -soil is sand underlaid by a blue hard
pan.

* Portion soluble in water contains much sulphate of lime, with traces of salts
of iron, chloride of sodium and silica. The ash contains some carbonic acid.

+ Ash consists of sand, with much oxyd of iron, much carbonate and sulphate
of lime, traces of magnesia and phosphoric acid, no potash.

151

8. The swamp receives a good deal of wash from the high
hills west of it.

9. It has large springs for ha and sufficient outlet. The
water is hard. In freshets has a quick flooding of water from
large hills.

11. There appears not to be any perceptible differences in the.
layers of muck.

12. The swamp was formerly covered with alders, should
think pine had grown there generations ago.

13. Some of the muck has been used fresh from the swamp
with very little effect.

14. The exposed muck does not compare as a fertilizer with
any of the ordinary manure.

15. Ihave used the muck as an absorbent in my hog-pen,
and also mixed with stable manure, with good results,

16. Have not composted in any other way than specified
in 15.

18. The muck burns pretty well as fuel.

JOHN ADAMS.

152

ACPD EEN DEL

4

No. 33.—Salt marsh mud from Rey. Wm. Clift, Stonington.
Color when dry dark ash-gray.

Analysis.

Organic matter, soluble in water, - - 5.40
ay insoluble in water but soluble
in carbonate of soda, (treated

five times,) - 24 1602
ih insoluble in water and carbon-
ate of soda, - > 1.25
Total, - - - - - 29.37
* Inorganic matter, soluble in water, - 7.40

uf insoluble in water but sol-

uble in carbonate of soda,

(treated five times,) 6.40
2 insoluble in water and car-
bonate of soda, 5 48.05
+ Total, - - - - 61.85

Water, - - - - - 8.78

100.00

Nitrogen, 1.82=1.59 ammonia.

Remarks.—This mud is “from the bottom of a salt marsh
ditch where the tide flows daily.” After such treatment as is
adapted to remove or decompose the soluble iron salts, (compost-

* Portion soluble in water contains sulphuric acid, chlorine, iron, lime, potash
and soda in large quantities.

+ Ash chiefly sand, yields to acids much oxyd of iron, sulphates of lime, iron and
magnesia, also potash and soda with traces of phosphoric acid. This marsh
mud yields to pure water sulphate of protoxyd of iron (green vitriol,) in small
quantities, and when burned, pungent vapors of sulphuric acid are expelled
from it.

153

ing with lime, fish or stable manure,) this mud must make an
excellent fertilizer, as it contains much more saline matters than
are met with in any muck or peat, and is by no means deficient
in nitrogen. The quantities at the disposal of the farmers along
Long Island Sound are immense.

No. 84.—Shell marl, from John Adams, Salisbury (Falls Vil-

lage P.O.) This material underlies the muck No. 82, forming
abed 8 or 10 feet thick. When air dry it gave the following
results:

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, - =i
mf insoluble in water, . 5.82
Total, 6.52
Inorganic matter, *soluble in water, = - - 1.42
td insoluble “ - - 61.44
+ Total, 62.86

Water, - - - - - 80.62

100.00

ReMmArks.—Mr. Adams writes that he has applied this marl to
grass land without perceiving any benefit. Probably an appli-
cation of it to light poor land would be found useful, and it is
worth extended trial.

No. 85.—Mud from beneath marsh muck No. 21, from Solo-
mon Mead, New Haven. Described as “clay muck.” ‘“ Has

* Portion soluble in water consists chiefly of sulphate of lime, with traces of salts
of iron and potash.

+ An analysis of this marl made by Mr. E. H. Twining, after drying it completely,
is as follows :—

Carbonate of lime, - - - - - - - 83.45
Organic matter, - - - - - - - 8.13
Sand, - - - - - - - - - Qi)
Oxyd of iron and alumina with traces of sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid,

potash and magnesia, - . . - - - 5.71

154

sufficient tenacity to make bricks.” ‘Excellent for improving
the physical characters of sandy soils.”

Analysis.
Organic matter soluble in water, - - 0.88
as insol: in water but sol. in carb.
soda, (treated three times,) 3.70
‘i insol. in water and carb soda, 8.95
Total, - - - . - 8.53
Tnorganic matter *soluble in water, - - 1.90
e insol. in water but sol in carb.
soda, (treated three times,) 18.37
at insol in water and carb soda, 67.85
+ Total, - - - - : 87.62
Water, - - - - - 3.85

100.00

* Portion soluble in water contains much sulphate of lime and some salts of iron.
with a small quantity of chloride of sodium. Contains also some silica, but no car-
bonie acid.

+ Ash mostly a fine sand, with some clay; yields much iron and some sulphate
of lime, and magnesia to acids.

155

Tabulated Analyses.

ine

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156

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157

Percentage of potential ammonia

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158

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*§8-8I—‘SLVad GNY SHOOW AO NOILISOdNOO—AI AIAVE

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.

SCALE* OF PRICES.

The valuation of the chief ingredients of commercial fertilizers remains as in my
First Report, and is as follows:

IMOLEISIE EF Sn on a Re RCn CN GPa rater diac CoCicioco HHS BOC Gn aeae 4 cts. per lb.
Imsoluble phosphoric acids | MMM ch-\<.s c1s, isle pateialefeliecsiele'eic cyevels esi - 44 be
Soluble sf Se ea ssove event BAP ats Ne eitln Sa ee trees 124 a
EAMMRBRID LE Store stes'o.fo, are lavovoye! aisuelfole siahsvssorevanererencisisS iecen oi sfetiets eke soe 14. i

THE QUINNIPIAC COMPANY’S FISH MANURE.

In March, 1858, I was consulted by the Quinnipiac Company
of Wallingford, Conn., with reference to a fish manure which
they manufacture, and obtained their consent to publish the re-
sult of the analyses that were made. Nothing is more obyious
than, that the true interests of the manufacturer and of the farmer
are identical, and equally promoted as well by an exposure of
what is worthless, as by commendation of what is useful. The
Quinnipiac Company employed me to analyze their fish manure
in order to ascertain definitely for themselves, how it compares
with standard fertilizers, and are willing that I should pronounce
public judgment on it according to its merits.

The quality and price of the fish manure is such that it de-
serves to be commended to our farmers; especially since, as I
am credibly informed, the Company bears a high reputation,
which is a guaranty that they will continue to manufacture an
article as good as they have submitted for analysis.

160

_ Analysis.

Water, - - - - - 9.67 | | Sis
Onna (animal) matter, - - : 67.78 65.68
Sand, - - - - - 2.00, “206
Lime, - - - - 3.76
Soluble Snenetiori acid, - - - 8.08 38.41
Imsoluble:’%*; Ree ar - - 81 Rahs)
Ammonia yielded by animal matter - - 8.30) | "Size

Calculated value, : - ~ $32.00 per ton,

Manufacturer's price, : - - $31.40 per ton.

This manure is not so rich either in phosphoric acid or in
ammonia as the best qualities of fish manure; but it is never-
theless entitled to a high rank among Minceeyts fertilizers.
It yields fully one-half as much ammonia as the best Peruvian
guano, and nearly all the phosphoric acid it contains is in a form
soluble in water.

The calculated value is estimated from the prices adopted in
my First Annual Report.

The manure is sold by measure. The Company inform me
that it weighs 85 pounds, and is sold at 55 cents, per struck
bushel. From these figures the price per ton, as given above,
is reckoned,

The mechanical condition is very good. In employing this
manure it must be borne in mind that, hke Peruvian guano, it
is capable of supplying only a part of the wants of vegetation,
so that the use of some phosphatic manure and of leached ashes,
muck or stable manure, with it, will be better economy in fhost
cases than depending on it alone.

The manufacturers recommend to apply it to Indian corn, for
example, either broadcast at the rate of 20 to 40 bushels per
acre or 8 bushels in the hill. It is doubtless generally the best
plan to manure the plant rather than the soil, 7. e., if a crop
grows in hills or drills,to manure in the hill or drill; if the erop
is sown broadeast, manure in the same manner. If I understand
rightly, a much larger application in the hill than three bushels
per acre, is likely to prove detrimental.

It is to be hoped that this successful attempt to manufacture
a substitute for Peruvian guano in our own State, will meet

161

with such encouragement as to make fish manure a staple fertili-
zer. With the stimulus of abundant patronage, this kind of
manure can be prepared of better quality and furnished at a
less price ; while if judiciously used, it cannot fail to improve
our lands permanently, at the same time that it yields better
yearly crops.

THE GREEN SAND MARL OF NEW JERSEY.

In the Spring of 1858 I was informed that the “New Jersey
Fertilizer Company” intended shipping to this State some car-
goes of this material, and although I am not aware that their
intention has been carried out as yet, there is apparently no rea-
son why the Green Sand Marl may not become an article of
commerce between Connecticut and New Jersey, and I therefore
communicate to the public such account of its nature and use as
I have been able to collect.

The Green Sand Marl is a peculiar geological deposit, met
with in various parts of this and other countries, but most largely
developed in the State of New Jersey, where it occupies or un-
derlies an area of 900 square miles. This tract extends from
Sandy Hook south westwardly to Salem, on the Delaware River,
a distance of ninety miles, and is six to fourteen milesin breadth.
It is only in a few localilies, however, that it is found on the sur-
face of the earth; it being overlaid with soil throughout the
great share of this vast district. It has long been known that
this marl, as it is called, is exceedingly useful as a fertilizer when
apphed upon the contiguous lands. The discovery is said to
have been made by accident, and the effects were so striking,
that in those parts of New Jersey, where it is easily accessible,
it is now one of the chief reliances of the farmer.

The deposit of green sand marl has a variable thickness, and
is by no means uniform in appearance. It often has a fine green
color. This color is due to the green sand which is its charac-
teristic ingredient. Often, and indeed generally, the color of the
marl is greenish-gray or brown, from an admixture of clay and
other substances. T'he green sand itself occurs in the form of
grains like gunpowder. These grains are brown externally, if
they have been exposed to the air, owing to the higher oxyda-
tion (or rusting,) of the protoxyd of iron contained in them ;

162

but if washed or broken, their proper green color is always man-
ifested. This color enables us to distinguish the green sand from
all other sands by the eye alone.

The green sand has a nearly uniform composition, and hence
is considered a distinct mineral, and for the sake of distinction
is called Glauconite (which means “sea-green stone,”) by the
mineralogists.

In virtue of its composition and easy decomposability, green
sand is an excellent fertilizer.

Its average composition in 100 parts is:

Siliea, - - - - - 49.5
Alumina, - - - - - 7.3
Protoxyd of Iron, - - - - 22.8
Potash oi - - : - 115
Water, - - - - - fe)
Lime, - - - - - 20
Magnesia, —- - - - - trace.

On account of its finely divided state, when freely exposed to
the air and water of the soil it gradually decomposes, and its
potash, silica and protoxyd of iron become soluble, or at any
rate available to vegetation. The protoxyd of iron which is
useful in small quantity, but detrimental if largely present in the
soil, is prevented from accumulating to excess by the fact that it
rapidly absorbs oxygen from the air, and passes into peroxyd
(iron rust.) The peroxyd of iron and alumina together with the
silica, are important means of increasing the power of the
soil to absorb and retain manures.

Many sandy and light soils are deficient in potash, and hence
the green sand is useful when applied to them. It has indeed
been supposed that this fertilizer owes its efficiency chiefly to its
large content of potash. The other ingredients that we have
mentioned are, however, useful to a greater or less degree.

Not @nly the green sand itself, but lkewise the other matters
which, with it, make up the marl, must be taken account of in
considering its fertilizing value. ‘The admixtures of clay, quartz
sand, etc., are quite variable, ranging in quantity from 10 to 60
per cent. of the whole; thus more or less reducing the amount
of manurial matters, and at the same time either improving or

163

injuring the general composition by their own accidental ingre-
dients.

The clay mixed with or overlying the green sand, in many
localities contains quantities of a shining yellow mineral called
iron pyrites or “‘fool’s gold,” which consists of iron and sulphur,
and by exposure to the atmosphere is converted into sulphate of
iron, (common copperas or green vitriol.) From this source the
marl is sometimes so impregnated with sulphate of iron as to be
destructive to vegetation when applied fresh from the pits. This
difficulty is not, however, general, so far as I can learn, and in
all cases is obviated by exposing the marl for a year or so to the
weather, and by composting it with lime or with stable manure.
By these means the iron is changed from the protoxyd to the
peroxyd, which latter is harmless under all circumstances.

In some localities the marl is mixed with a large proportion
of fragments of shells, and thus contains considerable carbonate
and a small amount of phosphate of lime. Sulphate of lime or
plaster, is also an occasional ingredient.

The following analyses copied from Professor Cook’s Report
on the Geology of New Jersey, clearly show the nature and ex-
tent of the variations in composition, to which the marl as em-
ployed for agricultural purposes is subject.

Analyses.*

sh 2 3 4 5 6
Protoxyd of iron, - So 16.5) 72k 14.9
Alumina, - - Gel GO OU
Lime, - - - pak Wa 10
Magnesia, - - - A 267-20
Potash, - - - By ALG el OL aon
Soluble silica, - - 20.2 81.2 “45.9
Insoluble silica and sand, AGO. Git wae
Sulphuric acid, - - 9 6 A
Phosphoric acid, - LE LS 2 26 a
Carbonie, re - - 2 ae
Water, - - - fale Cre Bose
Soluble in water, - er Pa a 1 ae

* In copying the analyses, the decimals of we percentages have been abridged
from two figures to one. 1S

11

164

Potash it is seen ranges from 24 to 7 per cent. The average
is about 44 per cent. One of the specimens is half sand and in-
soluble matters. No. 2 contains 124 per cent. of lime, and 9 per
cent. of carbonic acid, or 21 per cent. of carbonate of lime. Phos-
phoric acid is almost wanting in No. 4; but in No. 6 exists to
the amount of 7 per cent. The usual quantity of phosphoric
acid however, does not exceed 1 to 2 per cent.

From the composition of the green sand marl we might know
that it is a good manure without any actual trials; but the expe-
rience of the New Jersey farmers during many years has so
fully demonstrated its value, that the question arises—may it not
be procured and transported so cheaply as to admit of profitable
use in this State? The following quotation from Professor
Cook’s Report may serve to assist us in answering this question.

‘The absolute worth of the marl to farmers it is difficult to
estimate. The region of country in which it is found has been
almost made by it. Before its use the soil was exhausted, and
much of the land had so lessened in value that its price was but
little, if any more than that of government lands at the West;
while now, by the use of the marl, these worn out soils have
been brought to more than native fertility, and the value of the
land increased from fifty to a hundred fold. In these districts
as a general fact, the marl has been obtained at little more than
the cost of digging and hauling but a short distance. There are
instances however, in which large districts of worn out land have
been entirely renovated by the use of these substances, though
situated from five to fifteen miles from the marl beds, and when,
if a fair allowance is made for labor, the cost per bushel could
not have been less than from twelve to sixteen cents. Instances
are known when it has been thought remunerative at twenty-
five cents per bushel.”

The New Jersey Fertilizer Company deliver the marl on board
vessels at their wharf at Portland Heights, N.J., for seven cents
per bushel. The bushel when first raised weighs 100 lbs.; when
dry 80 lbs. I doubt not that the average qualities of this marl
are better bushel for bushel, than leached ashes. The best kinds
are much superior, and in the inferior sorts there is much more
weight of valuable fertilizing matters than in an equal bulk of

165 iF

leached ashes; but this advantage has its offset in the superior
fineness, and consequent greater activity of the leached ashes,
If then the expenses of transportation are small, as they are
when large quantities are shipped, there is no reason why our
farmers, who are located near tide water, may not use this fertil-
izer to great advantage, especially if they can have a good arti-
cle guaranteed them.

The marl is especially useful for potatoes and root crops, but
on poor soils is good for any crop. It is applied at the rate of
one to two hundred bushels per acre.

“ ANIMALIZED PHOSPHATE OF LIME.”

A. specimen of the so-called “ Animalized Phosphate of Lime,”
made by Hartley & Co., of Plymouth, Conn., received from Mr.
Dyer, was analyzed with the following results, per cent. :

Water, . : = - : r 6.18
Sand and silica, —- - 3 : 819
Organic and volatile matter, — - - : 8.61
Hydrated sulphate of lime, (unburned plaster,) = 55.50
Carbonate of ime, -— - . - = eee ea iG 2
Magnesia, - : - . = ae 1.77
Oxyd of iron, alumina and phosphoric acid, - - 1.76
Carbonic acid (combined with alkalies,) — - - 1.03
Alkalies, chlorine and loss, - - ‘ : 4.00

100.00
Ammonia yielded by organic matter, - SOO O83)o- Gia

The analysis is not fully carried out, separate determinations
of the quantity of phosphoric acid and of potash not having
been made. The phosphoric acid cannot amount to more than
14 per cent., the potash not more than 38 per cent. These quan-
tities are of small account in a high-priced fertilizer. To finish
the analysis in these particulars would serve no important use.

I find by a simple calculation that a manure equal, and indeed
superior to the above, in eomposition and value, weiyht for
weight, may be made after the following recipe:

60 pounds of ground plaster.
87 ~ hard wood ashes (unleached.)
3 cp Peruyian guano,

166

Such a mixture can be manufactured at a profit for $10 per
per ton, and if Ido not greatly mistake, most farmers can get
the ingredients for $5 to $7 per ton.

This article claims to be ‘‘made from the bones, blood and
flesh of animals, digested in acid liquors, and dessicated with
various saline fertilizers, in such a manner that all the valuable
gases and salts are retained in a dry powder.” It is seen that
the quantity of “various saline fertilizers,” is so large compared
with the ‘‘bones, blood and flesh of animals,” that the result is
comparatively worthless commercially speaking. When wecon-
sider that 75 to 80 per cent. of a dead animal is water, it is easy
to understand that it requires careful manufacturing to make a
concentrated manure from the carcasses of horses, &c.

It is usual to employ oil-of-vitriol to decompose and deodorize
animal matters in preparing manures. This is very well, but if
a large quantity of cheap materials are afterward mixed up with
the product, the value of the whole becomes so reduced, that
the expense of manufacturing is a dead loss to the farmer who
in the end pays for it, in case the manure finds a market.

If the sample furnished me represents the average quality of
this manure, it may be confidently asserted that those who pay
for it $50 per ton, (the manufacturers price,) will lose the better
share of their money.

PERUVIAN GY ANO.
From the store of Wm. Kellogg, Hartford.

Water, . - - - - 17:22 LAL
Organic matter, - : ie - 49.44 49.60
Total ammonia, - - - =!) MG 82, se heess
Phosphoric acid, soluble in water, - : 2.32 2.32
‘*¢ insoluble in water, - : 11.08 10.81
Sand, - - - - : L0r 07
Calculated value, $61.20.

The above figures show that this fertilizer maintains its uni-
formity and excellence of composition toa remarkable degree.
The soluble phosphoric acid, it should be remembered, is equal
in quantity to the average amount of this ingredient in our com-

Paw

~~

tow

167

mercial superphosphates, and is accompanied with two to three
per cent. of potash, which, though of trifling commercial value
by the side of ammonia, is nevertheless of great manurial worth
on the light soils where guano is most often applied.

ELIDE GUANO.

This is an article that purports to come from the coast of Cal-
ifornia. It is a genuine guano, similar though inferior to Peru-
vian. It is afforded at two-thirds the price of Peruvian, and an
analysis is of much interest as showing its real commercial value.
It appears from the analyses of other chemists that this guano
is quite variable in composition, at least so far as the quantity of
moisture is concerned. I give some of the results of Dr. Stew-
art, chemist to the Maryland Agricultural Society, and of Dr.
Deck, of New York, by way of comparison. I should say with
regard to its texture, that at first sight it is rather unpromising,
containing some genuine stones and a good many hard lumps
that are difficult to crush unless they are dried.

A mechanical analysis gave per cent.:

Fine portion passing a sieve of 20 holes per inch, - 74
Lumps easily reduced after drying, - - 22
Pebbles, - seats, os - - : +

100.00

When dried, however, the whole is as easily crushed as Peru-
vian guano, the pebbles of course excepted.

The analysis of the whole, rejecting the pebbles only, is given
under I. Under II. are figures from Dr. Stewart’s, and under
III. from Dr. Deck’s analysis.

Te Ii. Vil.

Water, - - 27.34 27.60 18.90 22.64
Organic and volatile matter, 39.20 88.75 43.30 43.53

‘(Yielding ammonia.) (10.00) (10.06) (9.89) (11.46)
Phos. acid soluble in water, 5.07 5.31 11.00

Oe. Te a. g SOL, TH AVALCE: 6.46 6.25
Sulphuric acid, : - 4.94
Lime, : - “ BOl ot oo0
Potash and a little soda, 5.52 9.60

Sand and insoluble matters, 2.50 2.52 4.70 3.24
Calculated value, $46.60, or including the potash $50.

168

The high percentage of soluble phosphoric acid depends upon
the presence of potash and soda.

It must be borne in mind that this manure is considerably
variable in composition, and is so moist that it ey easily dete-
riorate by keeping.

The specimen I have analyzed is considerably cheaper than
Peruvian guano, It remains to be seen, however, whether oth-
er cargoes or other lots are equal to this, before the reputation of
the Elide guano can be established.

SUPERPHOSPHATES OF LIME.

But four specimens of this manure have been analyzed this
year. Two of these, I. and II., were from the store of Messrs.
Backus and Barstow, Nommicht the others, HI. and IV., from
Wm. Kellogg, Hartford.

fotos)
If 14% Ill, Iv.

Pike & Go. | Coe & Co. | Greene & Coe's

av. 10 b’gs.| av. 25 hb’ gs. Preston. aria
Water, organic & vol. matters, (38.50 38.5 0/36.55 36.15|32.96—32.28/40.85—41.25
Sand, - - - |28.85 28.80) 2.70 2.80} 2.45— 2.80 6.05— 5.95
Soluble phosphoric acid, 1.98 2.22).2.85 2.92/ 2.28— 2.43) 2.62— 1.70
Insoluble, oe - 2.29 2.08)18.13 17.78|19.12—117.64|15.76—16.30
Ammonia, - - 2.44 2.45) 3.14 3.11! 1.39— 1.39] 2.97— 2:74
Calculated value, .- - $14.00 $32.00 $26.31 |$37.81 # ton

I. Is seen to be a very inferior article; more than one-quarter
of it (28 per cent) is sand/ This fact indicates that it is most
probably some manufacturing refuse. The calculated value will
give the farmer an idea how much he can afford to pay for it;
but manures so largely mixed with sand, cannot be carefully
prepared; and as other samples may contain much more sand,
it is best not to buy this manure at all unless on an analysis.

II. III. and IV. are all fair samples of “ superphosphates,” as
that word is now used, though none of them contain appreciably
more soluble phosphoric acid than Peruvian guano. It seems, as
yet, impossible to find a real superphosphate (yielding 10-15 per
cent. of soluble phosphoric acid) in the Connecticut market.

The above analyses do not accord very closely in some partic-
ulars. This is due to the fact that the samples were too moist

oe ys

Se eed

169

to allow of intimate mixture. The slight differences are, how-
ever, of no importance in estimating the value of these articles.

All these specimens were in good mechanical condition. The
first sample of Coe’s superphosphate is of the same quality which
it has hitherto possessed. The analyses of it read almost pre-
cisely like those made last year; but there is some falling off in
the other sample IV.,in which the percentages of sand and
water are both somewhat larger, and all the active ingredients
are accordingly reduced in proportion.

The difference in value between IT. and IV. amounts to $4.20
per ton.

Green & Preston’s is still inferior to IV. chiefly from contain-
ing less ammonia.

CASTOR PUMMACE.

Messrs. Baker, Latourette & Co., 142 Water St., New York
City, manufacturers of linseed and castor oils, have recently un-
dertaken the new enterprise of importing the castor bean from
India, and expressing the oil from it in New York. The cake
or pummace remaining from this operation, has been found to
possess valuable fertilizing properties, and is already employed
as a manure in England. I have been employed to analyze the
castor pummace, and it has turned out so satisfactorily, that in
my opinion it will be doing the members of the State Society a
service, to communicate the results, and do so herewith, having
obtained permission of the manufacturers.

Analysis.
Water, . - - : - - 9.24
Oil, - - : - - . 18.02
Woody fibre and mucilage, - . - - 38.29
Nitrogenous bodies (albumen, etc.,) - - 28.31
Ash, - - - - . - 6.14

100.00

170

Tn the ash were found— "
Sand, - - - - - - 0.75
Lime, - . - - - - 0.56
Phosphoric acid, - - - - - 2.04
Alkalies with a little magnesia, sulphuric and carb. acids, 2.09

6.14

The amount of nitrogen in the nitrogenous bodies was found
to be 4.82 per cent., corresponding to 5.48 per cent. of potential
ammonia.

On account of the purgative effect of the castor oil, the pum-
mace cannot be employed as food for cattle, and its whole agri-
cultural value must consist in its fertilizing applications.

Its worth commercially considered, lies exclusively* in its
content of phosphoric acid and ammonia. Its calculated value,
using the prices adopted in my first annual report, viz., four and
a half cents per pound for insoluble phosphoric acid, and four-
teen cents per pound for ammonia, is $17.20 per ton (2000 Ibs.)

The manufacturers inform me that hitherto they have sent the
castor pummace to England, where it commands a price of £4
10s. sterling per ton (the English ton of 2240 pounds I suppose.)
They now intend bringing it into the home market, and there
seems no reason why we cannot use it to as good advantage as
English farmers can, if it is afforded at a fair price.t

The pummace is not hard like lnseed-cake, but easily crum-
bles to pieces, and is sufficiently fine to be convenient in appli-
cation.

It belongs to what are usually termed the stimulating manures,
and is rapid in action, usually spending itself in one season.

It may be apphed directly to the soil and harrowed in, or used
in the preparation of composts. I should judge it would be
found exceedingly servicable in composting muck, ete.

Some caution must be exercised in the use of this class of

* The opinion has been entertained that oil is a fertilizer; but numerous careful
trials made in England and elsewhere have proved that pure oil is quite inert, and
only such impure oils as contain nitrogenous animal matters produce any percepti-
ble effects.

+ I see by the advertisements of Messrs. Baker & Co., that they sell castor pum-
mace at from $12 to $16 per ton, according to the quality. It is a cheap manure.

17k

manures, because their action is so powerful that in very heavy
doses they may overforce the crop, or even destroy the seed
when put in contact with it at the time of planting. It has been
asserted that the content of oil of the oil-cakes himders the germ-
ination of seeds, by preventing access of water to them. Iam
inclined to believe however, that their detrimental action is due
to their readiness of decomposition, whereby the seed is caused
to rot. In fact there are only a few instances on record of their
occasioning this sort of injury, and in these they appear to have
been applied in very large quantity. We can estimate the proper
allowance per acre of castor pummace, by comparing its per
cent. of ammonia with that of guano. It contains just about
one-third as much of this ingredient, and accordingly we may
safely use three times as much of it. We know that 600 pounds
of guano per acre is a very large manuring, and 200 or 300
pounds is usually the most profitable in the long run. These
quantities correspond to 1800, 600 and 900 respectively of cas-
tor pummace. I find that the largest doses of rape cake, (a
manure of almost identical composition, rather inferior in amount
of ammonia perhaps) given in English and Saxon husbandry,
are 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre, while 600 to 800 pounds are
the customary applications. More is needed on heavy than on
light soils.

It is frequently urged as an objection to manures of this sort
that they exhaust the soil. It is however always the crops that
are removed, and never the manure applied, which exhausts the
soil. The exclusive and continued use of this or any simi-
lar fertilizer will be followed by exhaustion ; but by judiciously
alternating or combining it with mineral manures, as wood ashes
leached or unleached, New Jersey green-sand, superphosphate
of lime, or phosphatic guano, it may be used with safety and
advantage.

172

BONE DUST AND BONE-MEAL.

These articles from the store of Wm. Kellogg, Hartford, have
been analyzed with results as follows:

Bone Dust. Bone Meal.

‘Water, - - SOO NOLO LOZ GalO
Organic matter, - - 27.25 27.27 26.02 27.55
Sand, - - “= = Ody OU LO .30
Earthy phosphates, - 45.382 45.382 57.89 57.18
Carbonate of lime as loss, Shis3y ob Bleek 6.24 5.92

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Potential ammonia, 2.98 3.00 425 4.28

Of the bone dust a more extended analysis was made, in
which the amount of phosphoric acid was determined with more
accuracy than in the above analyses. It was undertaken on
account of the high percentage of carbonate of lime indicated,
but not satisfactorily proved to be present by the first examina-
tions. It confirms them as the following results show:

Bone Dust.

Water, - - . - - - 8.75
Organic matter, = - - - : - 27.25
Sand, - - . - : - - 5.87
Lime, - - : : - - 29.37
Oxyd of iron, - - - : - 02
Magnesia, - a em - - - 1.16
Phosphoric acid, -— . : - Se Alea)
Carbonic acid (as loss) —- - - - 6.02
100.00

The bone meal is of the kind used for feeding, and is a very
finely-divided white and pure article, consisting apparently of
turnings of bone, and is well adapted for its purpose.

The bone dust is obviously ground from bones that have been
boiled or steamed to extract their fat, and have also parted with

173

a portion of cartilage (animal tissue,) as is evident from the small
percentage of potential ammonia.

In the collection of the bones, no great care has been taken to
remove adhering dirt and sand, for we find more than five per
cent. of this impurity. There is also thirteen and a half per
cent. of carbonate of lime, which is more by five or six per cent.
than is usually found in steamed or boiled bones. When we
compare the composition of the dust with that of the meal, the
latter representing pure bone, we find that there is a difference
of twelve per cent. of phosphates (nearly six per cent. of phos-
phoric acid,) and one and a quarter per cent. of potential ammo-
nia. Doubtless there has been no intentional adulteration prac-
tised on this bone dust; but it-is not quite so pure as it ought
to be. The sample is hardly so fine as to deserve the name of
dust, as it contains a good share of unground fragments. Few
of these, however, would not pass a sieve with eight holes to
the linear inch, and it is therefore in a good form for use.

A. few words with regard to the use of bone meal for feeding.
When employed for this purpose, bone meal is intended to sup-
ply, especially to milch cows, the lack of phosphates in the food.
It appears pretty well established that the soil of many pasture
lands may become so exhausted of phosphoric acid, that the
herbage does not yield to cows, enough of this ingredient for
the proper nutriment of their bony system, and at the same time
supply the large demand for phosphates made by the milk secre-
ting organs. Cows thus poorly fed, turn instinctively to the
proper remedy, and neglect no opportunity to gnaw upon any
old bones they may be able to find. The results of continued
feeding on such poor pastures, are a loss.of health on the part
of the cows, especially manifested in a weakening or softening
of the bones—the bone disease, that is not now uncommon in our
older dairy districts. It is found, if we may rely on the expe-
rience of our best farmers, that this evil “can be partially reme-
died by directly feeding finely ground bone meal to the cows,”
Other phosphates have been found to answer the same purpose,
and doubtless the cheapest materials for this purpose are some of
the “rock guanos” now common in our markets. The true
remedy for bone disease, however, consists not in dosing the an-

174

imal, but in so improving the soil that it shall produce a perfect
food. A liberal application of some phosphatic manure is the
obvious resort in extreme cases where the soil is absolutely de-
ficient in phosphoric acid; but in my opinion there are few soils
in New England (always excepting mere sand barrens) that do
not originally contain enough of all the mineral food of plants,
to yield perfectly nutritious fodder for an indefinitely long period,
without the necessity for outlay in commercial or concentrated
fertilizers, if they are brought into the proper physical condi-
tions and manured with all the dung and urine that can be pro-
duced on them.

eR TEND TX:

SOMBRERO GUANO.

So far as present data afford the means of judging, the Som-
brero guano is the cheapest, and in composition the richest and
most uniform of the phosphatic guanos. It comes from an island
in the Caribbean, where it occurs as a porous rock of a yellow-
ish white, pink or brown color, which, though quite firm in the
mass, may yet be easily reduced to a fine powder.

This rock guano has been formed, doubtless, from the exere-
ments of sea-fowl, which, exposed to alternate rains and sun,
have entirely lost their animal matters, and soluble salts; and
by processes familiar to the geologist, have left finally a cemented
and hardened residue of phosphates of lime, magnesia and iron.
This guano is of the same general character as the Columbian
guano, which was in market some years ago, and much of the
American guano now imported has a similar rock-like character.

The first importation into this State was made in the early
part of this year (1859,) per schr. Telegraph, by Messrs. J. M.
Huntington & Co., of Norwich; and in June the same house re-
ceived another cargo by the schr. “Ik. Marvel.”

I have analyzed eight samples, viz.: of the first importation :

I, From Backus and Barstow, Norwich, ground sample.

IJ. From the importers. Average made by myself from a
large number of rock-specimens.

III. Ground guano from Backus & Barstow, Hartford.

And from the second cargo:

IV. A rock sample of the white variety.

V. Ditto of the duff

VI. Ditto of the pink.

VII. Ground sample obtained by me from the mills at Norwich,

VIII. Furnished by Wm. B. Johnson & Co of New Haven.

The analyses are given in the following table:

176

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This guano is sold at $30 per ton, and as the price of the best
samples nearly reaches this figure when calculated with the val-
uation of phosphoric acid at 4 cents per pound, I was led to
hope that we were warranted in estimating the price of this sub-
stance at 4 instead of 44 cents per pound, as has been previously
done. The analyses, however, show that this guano is liable to
contain a not inconsiderable amount (8 per cent.) of moisture,
and thus the percentage of phosphoric acid is somewhat reduced.

It is seen that the ground saniples are not quite so rich in
phosphoric acid as the unbroken lumps. -This is due to two
causes. Ist. There is unavoidably introduced into the cargo a
certain amount of fine soil and other worthless matters during
the loading of the vessel. 2d. The guano is impregnated with
salt water, and the chlorids of sodium, calcium and magnesium
thus introduced into it, rapidly absorb moisture from the air
when the guano is ground, especially if the weather be damp.
I have found that these ground samples when put into a perfectly
dry atmosphere, at ordinary temperatures, lose six to seven per
cent. of moisture in twenty-four hours, and recover it again in
an equal time if exposed to moist air. The analyses HI., VII.
and VIIT. show that the maximum amount of moisture is seven
to eight per cent.

It is seen then that the Sombrero guano has withstood the
most severe tests, and may be relied upon, especially since the
importers use great care to select a pure material, and to reject the
worthless or inferior rocks which occur with the native deposits,

The old notion that a good manure must have a bad smell is
still entertained, even among very intelligent farmers. I have
had the pleasure of giving my testimony personally against this
prejudice, to some of them in reference to this guano, and it
may not be useless here to repeat that “not all which stinks is
good for manure, and not all which is good for manure stinks!”
Asafcetida is no fertilizer, and plaster or lime, which everybody
knows to be good manures, are almost entirely destitute of odor.
So this guano is a powerful fertilizer when used where there is
need of it; though it has no more smell than sand.

It has been questioned whether these rock phosphates really
possess the fertilizing value which is deduced from their content

178

of phosphoric acid. Experience has proved. that the crystalized,
or the more compact massive varieties of phosphorite (native
phosphate of lime,) are very inefficient, or in some cases quite
inert when used in coarse powder. This fact is due to their
density and want of porosity, in consequence of which they are
very slowly soluble.

The notion that there isa difference in the value of phos-
phates coming from mineral or organic sources, a difference: de-
pending upon the simple fact of origin, and that a phosphate or
other plant food, is made more efficacious as a fertilizer, by hay-
ing been a constituent of an animal or plant, is merely ridiculous,
and is not supported by a single fact.

This doctrine of the ‘ Progression of Primaries,” as it has
been termed, though vigorously advocated by the Working
Farmer, is daily disproved by agricultural experience.

If these phosphates are acted upon by sulphuric acid, they
yield a superphosphate which is as beneficial as any, and the
only question of the activity of this Sombrero guano lies in its
solubility, or what amounts to the same thing, its fineness.

The rock, as I have said, is for the most part extremely
porous, and easily ground to powder when once reduced to small
fragments. It is furthermore somewhat dissolved by pure water,
and, in fact, to a greater extent than bone-ash, this being due to
its containing the intermediate or neutral phosphate of lime.

From these considerations, I should not hesitate to believe that
this guano would prove a sufficiently active phosphatic fertilizer,
when used alone, in soils not altogether too dry or deficient in
vegetable matter. The recommendation of the importers to use
it in conjunction with Peruvian guano is one that will be found
advantageous.

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