! y i I I i IL. 1 5 I'^^H i i I IB am J «!•; HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF THE Museum of Comparative Zoology PUBLICATIONS OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Containing a great store of information on the Natural History (in its widest sense) of the County of Essex. TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS. Edited by W. Cole. Five volumes, unbound, £7. i6s. (Only eiglit complete sets in hand). THE ESSEX NATURALIST. Edited by William Cole, F.L.S., F.E.S. Published quarterly. 1 he nth volume is now in progress._ Various prices, averaging los. per volume. Subscription, 6s. per annum, post free. SPECIAL MEMOIRS SERIES:— REPORT ON THE EAST ANGLIAN EARTHQUAKE OF APRIL 22ND, 1884. By Prof. Raphael Meldola, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S., M.A.I., &c. ; and William White F.E.S., Member of Geologists' Association. Price, neatly bound in cloth, 3s. 6d. THE BIRDS OF ESSEX. "A^ CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COUNTY." By Miller Christy, F.L.S. Demy 8vo. Price los. nett. To Members of the E.F.C., 6s. THE MAMMALS, REPTILES & FISHES of ESSEX; "A CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COUNTY." By Henry Layer, F.L.S. , F.S.A., &c., Vice-President. Price los. 6d. nett. To Members of the E.F.C. 6s. THE TWO ESSEX NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. The ESSEX MUSEUM of NATURAL HISTORY. (Established by the Corporation of West Ham and the Essex Field Club in the) PASSMORE EDWARDS MUSEUM, ROMFORD HIGH ROAD, STRATFORD, ESSEX. THE EPPING FOREST MUSEUM. (Established under the sanction of the Corporation of London in) QUEEN ELIZABETH'S LODGE, CHINGFORD, ESSEX. The Essex Museum of Natural History will contain as complete a series as possible of all the forms of animal and vegetable life now or formerly living in the County of Essex and the adjacent sea, together with illustrations of the works of man, and of geological formations. It is also intended to exhibit, when funds and space will allow, an Educational Series, shewing the structure, relationship and development of the several groups. The Epping Forest Museum, which is supplemental to the main institution, will serve to illustrate the Natural History and Archaeology of the grand district which has now been so happily preserved for all taking an interest and delight in our few remaining ancient woodlands. The two Museums are most happily housed : one in a very fine building furnished by the munificence and public spirit of Mr. Passmore Edwards and the Corporation of West Ham, and the other in an ancient Royal Forest Lodge, in itself an object of great antiquarian and historical interest, and now most carefully restored by the Corporation of London to serve as a home for these local collections. The Curator appeals for aid in accumulating a really good collection. Hundreds of authentic Essex examples of Man.mals, Birds, Fishes, Pre-historic Antiquities, &c., must be in private possession, and fresh specimens are daily occurring. Their proper resting-place is in our County Museums. Information and assistance to Collectors will be freely given. The Curator will be very glad to see by appointment anyone willing to aid in this interesting and instructive work. William Cole, Curator. THE ESSEX NATURALIST BEING THE Journal of tbe jBbbc^ Jfiel^ Club, EDITED BY WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S. Honorary Secretary. VOLUME XII. JANUARY, 1901— DECEMBER, 1902. " Men that undertake only one district are much more likely to advance natural knozvledge than those that grasp at more than they can possibly he acquainted with. Every kingdom, every province, should have its own Monographer.'' — Gilbert White, of Selborne. "Call tilings by their right names.'' — Robert Hall. [The authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinicns contained in then respective papers] PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX. 1902. ' The course of Nature is the art of God." '' Hear ye not the hum of mighty workings ?" Young. Keats. " Lovely indeed the mimic works of art, Btit Nature's -works far lovelier.'' COWPER. " Nature hath made nothing so base, but can Read some instruction to the li'isest man." Aleyn. '' If thy heart be right, then will every creature be to thee a mirror of life and a book of Iioly doctrine." Thomas a Kempis. " O Nature I bare thy loving breast And give thy cltild one hour of rest, One little hour to lie unseen Beneath thy scarf of leafy green." Oliver Wendell Holmes. " He liked the well-ivhecVs creaking tongue — He liked the thrush that stopped and sung — He liked the drone of flies among His netted peacJies ; " He liked to watch the sunlight fall Athivart his ivied orchard wall ; Or pause to catch the cuckoo's call Beyond the beeches." Austin Dobson. ADVERTISEMENT. The completion of our 12th Volume affords a convenient opportunity of giving a list of the dates of the publications of the Club, for the information of new Members and Librarians. The Club was founded on January loth, 1880, and its first publication was rhe Inaugufal Address delivered by Mr. R. Meldola, on February 28th, 1880. This was published as a distinct pamphlet, and it also formed pp. 1-26 of Volume I. of The Transaction of the Epping Forest and Comity of Essex Naturalists Field Club, of which Part I. appeared in September, 1880, and the following parts at irregular intervals. With Volume III. the shorter title of The Transactions of the Essex Field Club was adopted, in accordance with the change in the title of the Club. In the first three volumes, the Transactions and Proceedings had but one title-page, although with distinct pagination ; but, in order to facilitate editing, it was resolved to separate them, and Volume IV. of the Transactions and Volume IV. of the Proceedings were so issued. In January, 1887, however, the publications were finally combined in The Essex Naturalist, of whicli the 12th Volume is now concluded. The volumes were annual up to 1894 ! "^^^^ two years are included in each volume. In future the Essex Naturalist will be issued at regular quarterly intervals, on or about the 20th of April, July, October, and January. The Council of the Club has decided to charge 5s. per part to non-members, but the journal will be sent free by post to Members. Therefore those wishing to have the Essex Naturalist should become Members of the Club. The old series, therefore, consists of three volumes of Transactions and Proceedings combined, with single title-page for each volume, and one each of Transactions and Proceedings with separate title-pages, together with appendices. The parts were issued as follows, and the appendices indicated should be bound up with each volume : — ADVERTISEMENT. \r 1 T \\T-4-u D J- /Presidents Inaugural Address Vol. I. With Proceedings {-c . /o 4. u 00 n n^-,, -r- i- *'/• Fart I (beptember, 1880) \ iitle — 1 ransacttons oi \ it\ -u 00 \ the EHins Forest < " 2 (December, 1880) me LLpping roiti>i CFebruarv 18S1) ■\7 4. 7- ^'-c- 7jr-i 1 -\ Title and Index — First List of Members Naturalists Field Club. \ \ j -d 1 ■^ and Rules. /'Part 4 (June, 1881) Vol. II. With Proceed^ngs " 5 (O^/o^er 1881) rSame Title 1 1^." ^ (J^^^^' '^^^^ [Same iine.j T t p onH inH^v Ai Title and Index, Appendix and Revised Rules. Vol. III. V^ith Proceed- p^^^ ^ (j^^^^^^ ^gg^^ tngs. [Title— Trms.] ^^-^^^ ^^^^ Appendices. of the Essex ttcUu 8 (April, 1884) Cluh.] Price 1 6s. ( " ^ ^ ' ^^ Vol. IV. rm.5../.... (Part I. Vol. IV. C Trans.') (June, 1885) 5. >) (i Title and Contents. only. Price 8s. 1 " ^- " " (^ec, 1886) ,. 1 TA. D 7- /Part I. Vol. IV. ('Proc.') (June, 1885) ° • , ^^•.^^'■''^'''^"T .. 2. „ „ (Pub.Mar.,1892) only. [pZ^— P^of^^i-J^ith Appendices III. and IV. tngs of the Essex F^J^ Title, Index &c. Club.] Price los. 6d. (Appendices I. and II. Volume I. and II. can only be supplied with Complete Sets, of which very feiv copies remain. The Club has also published three volumes of Special Memoirs, viz. : Report on the East Anglian Earthquake of April, 22nd, 1884, by Prof. Raphael Meldola, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S., M.A.I., &c., and William White, F.E.S., Member of Geologists' Association ; The Bivds of Essex, by Miller Christy, F.L.S. ; and The Mammals, Reptiles &= Fishes of Essex, by Henry Laver, F.L.S., F.S.A., &c. Vice-President. And in connection with the Museums a series of Handbooks are in course of publication and will be continued from time to time as may be necessary. All the publications are still obtainable, but some are rare, and those desiring complete sets must make early application for them. W.C. December, 1902. INDEX TO VOLUME XIL " Agricultural Geology, Elements of " {rcvinv), 240 Alteration of .Rules, 258 Amitiita citrina, a Fungus new to Britain, in Epping Forest. 129 Anent a Forest Lodge in 1444, 145 Annual Report of Council for 1900, 32 ; for igoi, 244 Aphodii in Epping Forest, 177 Arachnida ; Spiders of Epping Forest, 181 Archaeological Investigation, Local, Address on, 252 Arion ater, variety of, near Bures, 177 Ash-bark Beetle {Hylesinub), Mines of (paper read) , 50 Avery, John, Exhibits Water-colour drawings of Essex Churches, 43 ; reads paper on George Edwards, 255 ; Exhibits some Essex Tokens, Bat, Long-eared, flying by day, 67 Batrachians, a "Happy Family" of, 69 Bearded Tit, specimens from Rick- ling Fen presented, 255 Beaver, Giant {Trogontheriutn) in Thames Valley, 243 Bigods, Lady Warwick's Technical School at, 152, 162 Biological and Pre-historic ArchiEo- logical work in East Anglia, systematic, 159 " Birds, British," Harting's •' Hand- book " of (review), 65 Black-headed Galls, nesting in Essex, 68 ; Notes on, in 1901, 120 Blister-beetle (Lytta vcsicatoria) near Colchester, 177 Boat, ancient, found about 1830 near Temple Mills, 180 Books presented to Club, 255 Boulder-clay, Manganese nodules in, 137 ; the matrix of, 243 BouLGER, G. S., Sea-side Plants, 125 ; Conducts meeting in Canvey Island, 149 Brightlingsea Harbour, Notes on a Small Shark seen in, 166 " British Birds," Harting's " Hand- book ' of (review), 65 British Association, Report of Club's Delegate at Glasgow, 1901, 140 "British Rainfall," continuance of the late Mr. Symons", 72 Brixton, C. E., Orchis maculata, sub- species ericetorittn, in Epping Forest, 123 Bures, variety of Arion ater near. 177 Canvey Island, Visit to and Insects in, 149 Centaurea sohtitialis near Witham, 178 Chelmsford, Neolithic Implements from, 266 Chigwell, Additional '"Objects from Romano-British Settlement at, 238, 251 Christy, Miller, Exhibits curious form of Gerfalcon from Hatfield B'orest, 50; Exhibits "rubbings" of Mines of Ash-bark beetle, 50 ; Bat flying by day, 67 Clacton, Neolithic Implements from, 266 Clarke, F. C, Exhibits lamp (? Roman) from Woodford, 40 Clark, Percy, Notes on the Black- headed Gull in Essex in igoi, 120 Coast Erosion, Notes relating to, 221 ; Walton and Frinton in 1902, 217 Coast of Essex, Variations in numbers and the habitat of Marine Animals of, 17 Coins, Counterfeit Spanish Dollars found in Epping Forest, 259 Colchester, Meteorological Statistics at, 178 Cole, W., Exhibits Old English form of Pheasant fromi Loughton, 40; Exhibits variety of Brown Rat from Buckhurst Hill, 40 ; On deer antlers in Epping Forest, 46 ; Notice of late G. J. Symons, 57 ; Exhibits specimens illustrating Protective Resemblance in Insects, 154 ; Ex- hibits Sphinx convolvuli from Strat- ford, 154 ; Selenite in London Clay VI. INDEX. in Roding Valley and Waltham- stow, 154; Kxhihits Limenitis Sibylla from East Mersea, 154 ; Exhibits specimens illustrative of Mimicry, 156 ; TLxhihits Petricola pholadiforviis, 156 ; Report of Conference of East Anglian Natural History Societies at Dunmow, &c., 157: Scheme for Systematic Biological and Archaeo- logical Research in East Anglia, 159 ; Notes on Dug-out Boats in the marshes of Lea and Thames, 163 ; Notes on Cryptogamic Herbarium of the late E. G. Varenne, 167 ; Petricola pholadi- formls in Essex and Kent, 168 ; Notice of late Edmund Durrant, 171 ; Notice of late Henry Walker, 173 ; Ancient Boat found in Lea Alluvium in 1830. 180 ; Notes relating to Coast Erosion in Essex and Suffolk, 221 ; Remarks on occurrence of rare tungi in Epping Forest, 252 ; Moves alteration of Rules, 258 ; Otters feeding on Mussels, 258 Colouring matters, vegetable, used in the Scotch Highlands, 45 Coming of Age of the Essex Field Club, Presidential Address, 1902, 73 Conference of East Anglian Natural History Societies at Dunmow, June 6th, 1901, 157 Connaught, Duke of. Resolution of condolence on death of Queen Victoria, sent to, 39, 42 Cooke, Dr. M. C, Notes on the larger Fuugi observed at the Foray on October 12th, 1901, 127 ; A Fungoid Cucumber disease in Essex, 130 ; Notes on Fungi, Forestal, and others, 131 ; Acts as Referee at Fungus Foray, October 12th, 1901, Corresponding Societies Committee of British Association, Report of Delegate at Glasgow, 1901, 140 Council Annual Report of, 1900, 32 ; igoi, 244 Crouch, Walter, Observations on Water-colour Drawings of Essex Churches, 43 ; Queen Elizabeth's Lodge and Epping Forest, 179 Cryptogamic Herbarium of late E. G. Varenne, 167 Cucumber Disease in Essex, 130 Cystopus lepigoni in Essex, 71 Cydostoiua clcgans in the living state • near Wormingford, 176 Dalton, W. H., Notice of Dr. Thresh's "Report on the Water- supply of Essex," 62; Walton and Frinton in 1902, 217 ; Presents specimens of Brackish - water Mollusca from Fowlness, 254 ; Conducts at visit to Walton Naze, 266 Deer Antlers seldom found in Epping Forest, 46 Drift of Thames Valley, Palaeolithic Implements from 52 Dug-out Boat in alluvium of Lea Valley, 11 and Plate I., do., 151 Dug-out Boats in Ancient Marshes of the Lea and Thames, 163 Dunmow, Visit to, 157 Durrant, Edmund, Obituary Notice of, 171 Dyeing materials, vegetable, used in the Scotch Highlands, 45 Dymond, T. S., Notes on Manganese Nodules in Boulder Clay in Essex, 139 Earthworks, ancient, damage done to, 253, 254 East Anglian Natural History Societies, Conference of, 157 Easton Church, Little, Visit to, 158 Easton Park, Oak and Hornbeam trees in, 159 Edwards, George, Memoir of, read, 255 Elliott, F. W., Exhibits bone from forest, gnawed by a rodent, 46; Exhibits a Quern, 255 Elliott, Harold, Capture of Livienitis sibylla at Mersea, 154 Eolithic Implements from the Plateau Gravel at Walderslade, Kent, 207; From near Rochester, presented to Museum, 259 Epping Forest, Lathyrus macrorrhizus, var. tenidfolius, from 46; Spiders of, 70 and 181 ; Orchis maculata, sub- species evicetorum, in, 123 ; Fungi notes on, 127 and 131 ; Amanita citrina in, 129 ; Thinning operations in, 148 ; Hydrachnida of (paper read), 156; Aphodii in, 177; Coun- terfeit Spanish Coins found in, 259 ; Oak-galls and Gall-insects of, 267 Epping Forest Museum and Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, 50 Epping Forest and Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, 179 Essex, Destructive Storm in 1S41 in, 286 INDEX. Essex Churches, Water-colour draw- ings of, exhibited, 43 Essex Field Club, Sketch of the work of, for past 21 years, 36 ; Coming of Age of the, a record of 21 years' scientific work, 73 Essex Field CluD, Annual Report of Council for 1900, 32 ; Ordinary Meeting, January 26th, 1901, 39; Ordinary Meeting, February 23rd, 1901, 42; 2ist Annual Meeting, March 30th, 1901, 48 ; Ordinary Meeting, do., 50 ; Field Meeting, April 13th, 1901, 147 ; Forest Ramble and Demonstration Meet- ing, May iSth, 1901, 147; Confer- ence Meeting at Dunmow and Visit to Bigods, June 6th, 1901, 157; Visit to Canvey Island, June 15th, 1901, 149; Visit to East London Company's new Reservoirs at Walthamstow, June 29th, 1901, 150; Visit to Lady Warwick's School at Bigods, July 24th, 152 ; Annual Cryptogamic Meeting, October i2th, 1901,153; Ordinary Meeting, October 26th, 1901, 154 ; Ordinary Meeting, Decem- ber 14th, 1901, 155 ; Annual Report of Council for 1901, 244 ; Ordinary Meeting, January 25th, 1902, 250 ; Ordinary Meeting, February 22nd, 1902, 254 ; Ordinary Meeting, March 8th, 1902, 258 ; Ordinary Meeting, March 22nd, 1902, 260 ; 22nd Annual Meeting, March 22nd, 1902, 260 ; Spring Woodland Ramble, May 3rd, 1902, 261 ; Visit to Walton-Naze, June 7th. 1902, 265 Essex and Suffolk, Notes relating to Coast Erosion in, 221 Farmer, Prof. J. B., Conducts at Field Meeting on May iSth, 1901, 147 Fish in Essex Rivers, New records of, 70 Fish-hooks or Gorges of Wood from France, 28 and 41 Flint Implements, Models of mode of hafting, exhibited, 260 Forest Lodge in 1444, Anent a, 145 Fowlness, Brackish-water Mollusca from, 254 Frinton, Visit to, 266 Frinton and Walton in 1902, 217 Fungi, Reports on species observed in Epping Forest on October 12th, 1901, 127; Notes on Forestal and others, 131 ; Scientific Study of, by Prof. Marshall Ward (title only)', 154 Fungoid Cucumber disease in Essex, 130 Fungus, Microscopic, Cystoptislcpigoni, in Essex, 71 Galls and Gall-insjcts of Epping Forest, 41, 267 " Geology," " Elements of Agricul- tural " (review). 240 Geology, Coast Erosion in Walton and Frinton in 1902, 217; Notes relating to Coast Erosion in Essex and Suffolk, 221 ; Sections shewn at New Reservoirs in Lea Valley near Walthamstow, 224 Geological Notes on New Railway between Ilford and Woodford, 202 Geological Notes on New Reservoirs in the Valley of the Lea, near Walthamstow, i Ger-Falcon, Form of, shot at Hatfield Forest, 50 Goodyear, H., Meteorological Statistics at Colchester, 17S Gould, I. Chalklev, A " Happy Family" of Batrachians, 69; Additional objects from the Romano-British Settlement at Chigwell, 238, 251 ; On damage done to Ancient Earthworks, 254 ; On Counterfeit Spanish Coins found in Epping Forest, 259 ; Recounts legend of St. Edmund at Greensted Church, 263 Grays, Palaeolithic Implements from, 52 Greensted Church, Visit to, 263 Gulls, Black-headed, Nesting in Essex, 68 ; Notes on, in 1901, 120 Hafting Flint Implements, Exhibition of Models showing mode of, 260 " Happy Family " of Batrachians, 69 " Harlequin Fly," Prof. Miall's book on, 40 Harrison, A., Exhibits specimens of Sphinx co?ivolvuli ivom Stratford, 154 Harting, J. E., "Handbook of British Birds," Notice of, 65 ; Presents specimens of Bearded Tit and collection of Mollusca, 255 Harwood, W. H., The Blister-beetle (Lvtta) near Colchester, 177 Hatfield Forest, Form of Gerfalcon from, 50 VIU. INDEX. Hawkins, C. E. W., Black-headed Gulls nesting in Essex, 68 Hesse, E , New records of Fish in Essex Rivers, 70 HiNTON, Martin, A. C, Contribu- tions to the Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley, Pt. II. (paper read), 156; On some Teeth of Rhinoceros from Ilford, 231 Holmes, T. V', Geological Notes in the New Reservoirs in the valley of the Lea, i ; Lake-dwelling in do., 15 ; Channels of the River Lea, 16 ; Obituary Notice of the late T. Hay Wilson, 60 ; Conducts at Meeting at the New Reservoirs, 150 ; Geo- logical Notes on Railway between Ilford and Woodford, 202 ; Additional Notes on Sections at Walthamstow, 224 ; Review of "Agricultural Geology," 240 ; The Giant Beaver in the Thames Valley, 243 ; The matrix of the Suffolk Boulder - clay, 243 ; Exhibits Wooden Water-pipe, 250; On damage done to Ancient Earth- works, 253 ; Conducts at visit to Walton-Naze, 266 ; Notes on Mr. Woodward's paper on " Soils and Sub-soils of Norfolk," 288 Honorary Members, Election of, 261 Hope Museum, Oxford, Collections illustrating Mimicry in, 155 Hornbeam tree in Easton Park, 159 Howard, David, Presidential Address, March 30th, 1901, 24 ; Remarks on Little Ilford Church, 43 ; Vote of thanks to, 49 Howes, Prof. G. B., Address on Recent Work on Mollusca Mor- phology, 46 Hydrachnida (Water-mites) of Epping Forest [paper read), 156 Hylcsinus, Ash-bark beetle. Mines of, 50 Ilford, Remarks on Palasolithic Implements from, 41 ; Palaeolithic Implements from, 52 ; Manganese seam in Thames Valley Drift at, 135 ; On some teeth of Rhinoceros from, 231 Ilford, Little, Church of, 43 Ilford and Woodford, Geological Notes on New Railway between, 202 "Illustrations of British Fungi," Notes mainly corrigenda to, 131 Jennings, F. B., Aphodii in Epping Forest, 177 Johnson, J. P., Presents Palaeolithic Implements from Ilford to Museum, 40 ; Palaeolithic Implements from the low-level Drift of Thames Valley, 52 ; Neolithic Implements from the North Downs, 117 ; Man- ganifercus Seam in Thames Valley Drift at Ilford, 135 ; Eolithic Implements from Plateau Gravel round Walderslade, 207, 259 Kennakd, A. S., Contributions to Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley, Pt. II. (paper read), 156; On local Archaeological Investiga- tion, 254; Presents Eolithic Stones from near Rochester, 259 Lake Dwelling in Lea Marshes, 15 Lamnu cornubica (Porbeagle Shark) near Tollesbury, 176 Lamp of Clay (? Roman) from Wood- ford, 40 Lathyrus macrorrhiza, var. tenuifolius, from Epping Forest, 46 Lea River, Channels of, 16; Ancient Boat found in deposits, about 1830, lao ; Dug-out Boats found in Marshes of, 163 Lea Valley, Geological Notes on the New Reservoirs at, i ; Excava- tions in, visit to, 150 ; Relics from, 152 ; Sections shown in New Reservoirs in, 224 Lewis, E. J., Oak Galls and Gall- insects of Epping Forest, 41, 267 Library Table, The, 62 ; 240 Limcnitis Sibylla from Mersea. 154 Lippmann's Colour Photograph exhibited, 50 Littler, H. W., Exhibits and pre- sents to Museum old Hand-printing blocks, and Notes on, 43 LovETT, Edward, Fish-hooks of Wood from France, 28 and 41 Lytta vesicatoiia near Colchester, 177 McCoNNELL, Primrose, "Agricul- tural Geology," review of, 240; Conducts at Meeting at Ongar Park Woods, 262 Maitlaxd, Rev. J. W., Presents specimen of " Old English " Pheasant to Museum, 40 Manganiferous Seam in the Thames Valley Drift at Ilford, 135 ; Nodules in the Boulder-clay of Essex, 137 INDEX. Marine Animals, Variation in num- bers and habitat on Coast of Essex, Marshes, Ancient of the Lea and Thames, Dug-out boats in, 163 Massee, George, Notes on Micro- Fungi at the " Foray " on Oct. 12th, 1901, 128; Amanitacitrina.aFungns new to Britain, in Epping Forest, 129; Exhibits drawings of Micro- Fungi, 153 ; Presents coloured drawing of Amanita cityiiia, 251 Meldola, Prof. R,, Proposes Reso- lution of Condolence on death of Queen Victoria, 39; On Miall's " Harlequin Fly," 40 ; Remarks on Palasolith Implement from Ilford, 41 ; Observations on survival of Ancient Customs, 41 ; Remarks on Lewis's paper on Oak Galls, 41 ; On Vegetable Colours used in Dye- ing in Highlands, 45 ; Elected President, 49; Exhibits a Lipp- mann's Colour Photograph, 50 ; The Coming of Age of the Essex Field Club, Address, 73; Lecture on Mimetic Insects, 155; Speaks in support of Systematic Biological and Archaeological Work in East Anglia, 159 ; On exhibition of Objects from Romano-British Settlement at Chigwell, 251 ; Exhibits flint flake from Sherring- ham, 251 ; Remarks on local Archaeological Investigation, 252 ; Remarks on Prof. Poulton's lecture on Mimicry, 256; Thanks to, as President, 261 Mersea, East, Liminilis sibylla in, 154 Meteorology, Weather of 1900, 71 ; Statistics of Weather at Colchester, 178 Miall, Prof., Book on the " Harlequin Fly," 40 Micro-Fungi, observed at " Foray " on Oct. i2th, 1901, 128 Mimicry, Lecture on by Medola, 155 ; Lecture on by Poulton, 255 Mollusca, Recent work on Morphology of (address), 46 ; Harting's collec- tion of Land and Fresh-water, presented, 255 MoTHERSOi E, H., Exhibits Neolithic Implement from Chelmsford, 266 Miillerian Theory of Mimicry, Remarks on, 257 MuRiE, Dr. James, Conducts at Meeting in Canvey, June 15th 1901, 149 Mus hiberniciis, 40 Mussels, River, as food of Otter, 258 Museum, Epping Forest, and Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, 50 ; Relics from Lea Valley, presented to, 152 Museum Notes, 167 and 238 Neolithic Implements from the North Downs near Sutton, 117 Norfolk, Soils and Sub-soils of, 288 Notes, Original and Selected, 67, 17G, 243 and 286 Oak Galls and Gall-insects of Epping Forest, 41, 267 Oak tree in Easton Park, 159 Obituary Notices, 57 and 171 Officers and Council for igoi, 48; for 1902, 260 Ongar Park Woods, Visit to, 262 Orchis maculata, sub-species eyicetnrum, in Epping Forest, 123 Otters in Essex Salt-Marshes, 176; feeding on Swan Mussels, 258 Palaeolithic Implements from Ilford, 41 ; from the low-level drift of Thames Valley, 52 Petricola pholadiformis in Essex and Kent, 168 Pheasant, " Old English " form, from Loughton, 40 Photograph, Natural Colour, Lipp- mann's, exhibited, 50 ; Sanger- Shepherd's process demonstrated, 50; specimens exhibited, 155 PiCTON, H., Exhibits Neolithic Implement from Clacton, 266 Plants, Sea-side, 125 Plateau-Gravel around Walderslade, Eolithic Implements from the, 207 Plecotus auritus (Long-eared Bat) fly- ing by day, 67 Pleistocene Geology of Thames Valley, Part II. (paper read), 156 Pomatias elc^ans in a living state near Wormingford, 176 Porbeagle Shark near Tollesbury, 176 PouLTON, Prof. E. B., Lecture on Protective Resemblance and Mimi- cry, 255 Presidential Addresses, March 30th, igoi, 24 ; March 22nd, 1902, 73 and 261 Printing-blocks, Hand, from old silk works at Waltham Abbey, 43 Protective Resemblance and Mimicry, 155. 255 IKDEX. Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, 50 and 179 Queen Victoria, Vote of Condolence on death of, 39 and 42 Quern exhibited, 255 " Rainfall, British," Note on con- tinuance of the late Mr. Symons', 72 Rat, Black variety of Brown, from Buckhurst Hill, 40 Read, C. H., Remarks on Seton- Karr's Implements from Somali- land, 251 ; Address 'on Local Arch^eolo°;ical Investigation, 252 Reader, F. W., Exhibits models showing Modes of Hafting Flint Implements, 260 " Report on Water Supply of County of Essex," Notice of, 62 Rhinoceros, On some teeth of, from Ilford, 231 Rivers, Essex, New records of Fish in, 70 Romano-British Settlement at Chig- well. Objects from, 23S and 251 Rookwood, Lord, Vote ot Condolence to Lady Rookwood, on death of, 250 and 255 Rope, G. H., Pomatias clcgcuis, in a living state near Wormingford, 176; variety of A rion atev near Bures, 177 PuDLER, F. W., Delegate's Report of Corresponding Societies Com- mittee, British Association, 1901, 140. 259 Rules, alterations in, 258 Saint Edmund, Legend of, 263 Salt-marshes, Essex, Otters in, 176 Sanger-Shepherd's system of Colour Photography, Demonstration of, 50 Sea-side Plants, 125 Selenite in London Clay in Roding Valley, 154 Seton-Karr, H. W., Presents Stone Implements from Somaliland and elsewhere, 251 Shark, Small, seen in Brightlingsea Harbour, 166 Sharkock, C. W., Conducts Meeting at New Reservoirs in Lea Valley, 150 Sherringham, Norfolk, Flint Flake from, 251 Smith, F. P., Epping Forest Spiders, Note on, 70 ; the Spiders of Epping Forest, 181 ; Lecture on Spiders, 259 Soar, C. D., The Water Mites (Hydrachnida) of Epping Forest [paper read), 156 Soils and Sub-soils of Norfolk, 288 Somaliland, Stone Implements of Palaeolithic type from, 251 SoRBY, Dr. H. C, Variation in number and habitat of Marine Animals on Essex Coast, 17 ; Note on a small Shark seen in Bright- lingsea Harbour, 166 Southwell, Thomas, On systematic Biological Work in East Anglia,i6o Sphinx cotivolvuli at Stratford, 154 Spiders, Epping Forest, 70 ; Mr, Smith's paper on, 181 DPiLLEK, John, Remarks on the West Ham Abbey Print Works, 44 Stone Implements of Palaeolithic type from Somaliland, 251 Storm in Essex, in 1841, 286 Stratford, Sphinx convolvnli at, 154 Suffolk and Essex, Notes relating to Coast Erosion, 221 Suffolk, Boulder-clay, the matrix of, 243 Sutherland, Duchess of. Vegetable colouring matters used in dyeing in Scotch Highlands, 45 Sutton, Surrey, Eolithic Implements from the North Downs near, 117 Symons, C. J., Obituary notice and portrait of, 57 Tea Fund, 1901-2, 261 Temple Mills, Ancient Boat found in Lea deposits near, in 1830, 180 Thames Valley, Palaeolithic Imple- ments from the Low-level Drift of, 52 ; Manganese Seam at Ilford, 135; Dug-out Boats in Ancient Marshes of the, 163 ; Giant Beaver in, 243 Thresh, Dr. J. C, •' Report on Water Supply of the County of Essex," Notice of, 62 Thresh (Miss) May, Manganese Nodules in the Boulder-clay of Essex, 137 Tokens, Essex, Exhibited, 258 Tollesbury, Porbeagle Shark near, 176 Toot Hill, Derivation of name, 263 Traill, W. Conducts at Meeting at New Reservoirs in Lea Valley, 150 Triglochin palustre near Witham, 178 Trogontherium in Thames Valley, 243 Turner, E. E., Centaurea ^olstitialis, Sec, near Witham, 178 INDEX. Varenne, E. G., Cryptogamic Herbarium of, 167 Variations in number and habitat of Marine Animals on Essex Coast, 17 Victoria, Queen, Vote of Condolence on Death of, 59 and 42 " Viking Ship," Supposed, in Lea Valley, 151 Walderslade, Eolithic Implements from Plateau Gravel, around, 207 Walker, Henry. Obituary Notice and portrait of, 173 Waller, W. C, Anent a Forest Lodge in 1444, 145 Waltham Abbey, Silk Printing Works at, 43 Walthamstow, Geological Notes in Lea Valley, i ; Lake-dwelling near, 15 Walton aud /rinton in igo2, 217 Walton-Naze, Visit to, 265 ; Flint flakes and Scraper from, 266 Ward, Prof. Marshall, Conducts at Field Meeting on May i8th, 1901, 147; Address on Study of Fungi (title), 154 Warwick, Countess of. Reception at Science School, Bigods, 152; Visit of Club to School, 162 Water-pipes, Wooden, Drawing of, 250 Waters of Lea and Thames in last century, 44 " Water Supply of County of Essex," Notice of, 62 Weather of 1900, 71 Webb, W. M., Destructive Storm in Essex in 1841, 286 West Ham, On the old Silk Printing Works at, 44 Whitehead, H., Lathyrus macyovv- hiziis, var. tenuifolius from Epping Forest, 46 ; Cystopus lepigoni in Essex, 71 ; Exhibits Micro-Fungi recently taken in Essex, 153 Wilson, Tom Hay, Obituary notice and portrait of, 60 Witham, uncommon plants at, 178 Wooden Fish-hooks from France, 28 and 41 Woodford Clay lamp (? Roman) from, exhibited, 40 ; and Ilford, Geo- logical Notes on New Railway between, 202 Woodward, H. B., Soils and Sub- soils of Norfolk, 288 Wormingford, Poniatias elegans in a living state, near, 176 Young, Sir Frederick, On Improve- ment in Epping Forest, 148 PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate I. Fvontispiece. Dug-out Boat in situ at excavations at Waltham- stow Plan of New Reservoirs at Waltham- stow, showing course of old River Lea, 2 Section, Higham Hill Gravel, 4 Section of old Channel of Lea, 5 Section of Channel of Lea, 10 Dug-out Boat, II River Lea from its junction with Stort, 16 Wooden Fish Gorges, French, 30 Flint Knife from Crayford, 54 Flint Spear-head from Crayford, 55 Flint Flake from Ilford, 55 Flint Saw from Ilford, 56 Flake showing signs of use, from Grays, 56 Plate II. Portrait of G. J. Symons, F.R.S., to face, 57 Portrait of T. H. Wilson, 61 Nest of Black-headed Gull in old boat, 68 A " Happy Family " of Batrachians, 69 Neolithic Scrapers, &c. [seven figures), 118 Plate III. " Viking Ship " found in "Lea Alluvium, to face, 151 Oak Tree in Easton Park, Essex, 158 Hornbeam Tree in Easton Park, 160 Section showing position of Dug-out Canoe in Thames Marshland, 165 Petricohi pholadifonnis, 169 Plate IV. Portrait, Edmund Durrant, to face, 171 Plate V. Portrait, Henry Walker, to face, 173 [See Note concevnins Plate VI.] Plate VII. Dissections of Typical Spiders, to face, iSi Plate VIII. Dissections of Typica Spiders, to face, 189 xu. INDEX. Plate IX. Suggested Development of the British Spider Families, to face, 191 Sketch-map of Railway between Ilford and Woodford, 203 Section in Hatch Lane, Chigwell, 204 Section in Hatch Lane, 205 Scraper, 208 Scraper with knob of fhnt as handle, 210 Double concave-edged Scraper and Spokeshave, 211 Borer, 212 Massive Pointed Implement, 213 Section from Ash to Swanscombe, 214 Photograph of Section in Lea Valley, 230 Plate X. Teeth of Rhinoceros from Ilford, Essex, to face, 231 Greensted Church, near Ongar, 264 Wings of Chalcid and Ichneuraonid, 272 Wings of Cynips and Synergiis, 273 Ovipositor and Egg of a Gall-insectj Diyophanta, 276 Andricus coUaris, magnified, 280 Effects of Storm in Thorndon Park, October 12th, 1841, 287 ERRATUM. Plate VI. is omitted from this Volume; it will be given with the paper to which it relates in Volume XIII. ^cX ICoSo.lxs'.t Price (to Non-Members) 6s. per annum. Post free. NOS. 1—6., VOL. XII.] Price 3s. [JAN.— JUNE, 1901. TL Essex Naturalist: BEING THE JOURNAL OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. EDITED BY WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., Honorary Secretary and Curator. Contents. PAGE Geological Notes on the New Reservoirs in the Valley of the Lea, near Walthamstow. — By T. V. Holmes, F.G.S. (with Plate and 12 illustrations) . . i On the variations in numbers and habitat of Marine Animals on the Coast of Essex during the last lo or 12 years. By H. C. Sorby, LL.D ,F.R.S , cS:c. 17 Address at the 21st Annual Meeting. By David Howard, F.CS 24 Fish-hooks or Gorges of Wood from France (similar to those from Essex). By Edward Lovett. {unth illustrations) .. .- .. 28 Annual Report of Council for igoo 32 The Essex Field Club. Reports of Meetings from January 26th to March 30tb, igoi ... 39 Short Papers. Notes on Hand-Printing .--ilk Works at Waltham Abbey and West Ham, by H. W. Littler, 43 ; Vegetable Colouring-matters used as Dyeing Materials inScotch Highlands, by the DucHKSb of Sutherland, 45; Recent work on Molluscan Morphology, by Prof. G. B. Howes, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 46 Queen Elizabeth's Lodge and the Epping Forest Museum .. 50 Palaeolithic Implements from Thames Valley, chiefiy Ilford and Grays. By J. P. Johnson {luith 5 illustrations) 52 Obituary Notices. The late G. J. Symons, F.R.y. (with Plate I.) 57. The late Mr. T. H. Wilson (with portrait) 60 The Library Table. Dr. Thresh's Report on Water Supply of Essex. By W. H. Dalton, FG.S., 62; Harting's Handbook of British Birds 65 Notes— Original and Selected 67 The authors alone are responsible for the statements and opinions contained in their respective papers. PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX. Ent. Stationers' Hall.] [Published September, 1901. Communications and Advertisements should be addressed : — The Editor of " THE ESSEX NATURALIST," " Springfield," Buclshurst Hill, Essex THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, list of Council aii6 ©fflccrs for 1901, Patron : H.R.H. THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT AND STBATHEARN, K.G. {Ranger of Epping Forest). President : Prof. R. MELDOLA, F.U'.S.. F.R.A.S., F.C.S.. F.R.M.S. (ex-officio] Vice= Presidents : E. NORTH BUXTON, J. P., Ar,D. CO., D.L. WALTER CROUCH, F.Z S. I. CHALKLEY (iOULD. J C. SHENSTONE. F.L.S. Permanent Vice-Presidents : (Constituted tinder Rule IV.) Professor R. MELDOLA, F.R.S., {President, 1880—82). Professor G. S. BOULGER, F.L.S,., F.G.S. {President, 1883—84). THOMAS VINCENT HOLMES, F.G S., M.A.I. {President, 1885-87). EDWARD A. FITCH, C.C, F.L.S., F.E.S. {President, 1888-91). HENRY LAYER, J.P., M.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. {President, 192). FREDERIC CHANCELLOR, J. P., F.R.I.B.A. {President, 1893—94). D.WID HOWARD, J. P., F.C.S. {President, 1893-1900). JOHN AVERY, G.A. Rev. R. E. BARTLETT, M.A. CHARLES E. BENHAM. MILLER CHRISTY. F.L.S. L. CRANMER-BYNG. P. W. ELLIOTT. JOHN A. FINZI. F.E.S. A. J. FURBANK. J. E. HARTING. F.L.S Rev. W. C. HOWELL, M.A. Otlier Members of Council : A. JOHNSTON, Chairman CO., J.P, REV. W. S. LACH-SZYBMA, M.A HUGH McLACHLAN, F.R.I.B.A. ALFRED LOCK YE R, RiHliT Hon. LORD EAYLEIGH, F.R.S. F. W. READER. JOHN SPILLER, F.I.O., F.C.S. FREDK. H. VARLEY, F.R.A.S. GEORGE E. VAUGHAN. Hon. Treasurer : DAVID HOWARD, F.C.S. Hon. Secretary and Curator : WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., BucUhur.st Hill, Essex. Assistant Hon. Secretary : BENJAMIN G. COLE, Buckhuret Hill, Essex. Hon. Librarians : Hon. Counsel : Hon. Solicitor : W. C. DARE, B.A., Barrister-at'Law. HENRY I. COBURN. Auditors: WALTER CROUCH, F.Z.«., and JOHN D. COOPER. Ban Iters : ' LLOYD'S BANK, 7-->, Lombard Street, EC. Headquarters : Essex Museum of Natural History (Passmore Edwards Museum), Romford Road, Stratford, E. Museums and Library : Queen F'izaheth's Lodge, Chingford. EssE.v Natural History Museum. Stratford, E. ESSEX NAT.. Vol. XII.. PL I. THE ESSEX NATURALIST BEING THE Journal of tbc £06cy jficlt) Club, ^(VOLUME XII.) GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE NEW RESER- VOIRS IN THE VALLEY OF THE LEA, NEAR WALTHAMSTOW, ESSEX. By T. V. HOLMES, F.G.S., F. Anthrop-Inst. ; Vice-President E.F.C. [Received April 25th, 1901.] These reservoirs, the excavations for which have been in progress for more than a year and are still proceeding, are in the Valley of the Lea west of Walthamstow and east of Tottenham, and are being executed for the East London Water Company by Messrs. S. Pearson and Sons. The more northerly, which will be known as the Banbury Reservoir, occupies the marsh between Higham Hill and the outfall of the Ching ; the more southerly is south west of Higham Hill and east of Stonebridge Lock. The words " Mitchley Marsh" appear on the Ordnance Map (6in. to the mile) towards its southern end. Two older reservoirs, known as the Low and High Maynard, lie east or south-east of this new " Lockwood " Reservoir. All are north of the road connecting Tottenham Hale and Blackhorse Road railway stations. (See Plan). Before touching upon the nature of the beds seen in the reservoir excavations, it may be useful to say a few words on the general geological structure of tlie locality. The oldest forma- tion visible is the London Clay, which underlies the marshes in the Lea Valley and appears in the higher ground on each side. Patches of gravel and loam, fragments of old river deposits formed when the existing streams, not having eroded their GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE LEA VALLEY. 3 valleys to their present depth, were flowing at some higher level, often cap the London Clay at various heights. The lowest and most recent of these river-deposits are those forming the marshes bordering the Lea, in which the new reservoirs are being excavated. Other gravel patches, which may be seen here and there a few miles from the reservoirs, usually at greater heights than the highest of the deposits mentioned, being unjonnected with any existing river system do not here concern us. In the immediate neighbourhood of the new reservoirs, a good example of the fragment of an old river deposit may be seen on the northern slope of Higham Hill, about 150 yards south-east of Higham Hill Ferry, and the same distance from the southern edge of the more northerly of the two new reservoirs. West of the Lea, the high road between Tottenham and Edmonton is on old river gravel of less age and elevation than that of Higham Hill. And while no bare London Clay is anywhere visible between the marshes of the Lea and the slightly older and more elevated gravel of Tottenham and Ed- monton, there is a distinct belt of London Clay between the marsh in which Banbury Reservoir is being excavated, and the gravel and loam capping the northern edge of Higham Hill. Another point of distinction between the g;ravel and loam of Higham Hill, and of Walthamstow generally, and that of Edmonton and Tottenham lies in the fact that the}' appear to belong to two different rivers, the first-named to the Thames, the latter to the Lea. At the present day we naturally consider ourselves in the valley of the Lea four or five miles south of Higham Hill. But examination of the Geological Survey Map of the district showing the distribution of the river-deposits makes it evident that the Thames, a,t one time, both above and below London, took its course some miles north of its present channel. And that the gravel of Stamford Hill, Higham Hill, and Walthamstow was formed in all probability by the Thames, when flowing in ancient times in a more northerh- and a more elevated channel than it now does. Before descending from Higham Hill to the Marshes in which the reservoirs are being excavated it may be well to note the nature of the more ancient river-dep;)sits capping the hill. They consist of gravel covered more or less irregularly by loam. G-EOLOGICAtj NOTES. as shown in a gravel pit, from 8 to lo feet deep and from 30 to 40 yards broad, in the beds lying above the London Clay at the top of the hill. The gravel is largely subangular, and resembles in its general character that of the marshes below. And the loamy material by which it is more or less covered is evidently Fig. I. Higham Hill Gravel, &c. Height of Section 6ft; length 20ft. the equivalent of that which forms the surface bed in the reser- voir excavations. (Fig. i). But the Higham Hill deposits are shown only in an ordinary gravel pit. While the gravel, loam, &c., in the area occupied by the reservoirs, have been displayed in sections hundreds of yards in length and ranging in every direction. Consequently the latter gave not only exceptionally good opportunities for noting variations in details, but their length, and the changes in their direction, combined to throw much light on the local changes of conditions to which the varia- tions in the nature and thicknesses of the beds were due. An additional advantage which they possessed, of an exceptional kind, lay in their cutting across a deserted channel of the Lea. Then, while the largest gravel pits or brickyards usually show Fig. la. Hii^ham Hill Gravel, &c. Height of Section, 8ft., length, 30ft. clear sections over but a fraction of their total expanse, the reservoir excavations were almost everywhere fresh and distinct, and they were free from the sloping which is so • geologically pernicious in the case of new railway cuttings. The depth from the surface of the sections in the reservoir excavations varied from about 9 to 11 feet. They always showed loam or clayey loam at the surface and gravel at tlie bottom, though the thicknesses of the two beds varied considerably. In one place, for perhaps 150 to 200 yards or more, gravel, capped by from ift. 6in. to 2ft. of loam and soil, constituted the whole ON THK LEA VALLEY. 5 section. Elsewhere the proportions of the two would vary extremely in the course of 20 yards or less, as in Fig. 2. Some- times the loam towards its base became very dark and peat-like in appearance, and its line of junction with the underlying gravel very irregular, as in Fig. 3. Occasionally, between the gravel and the surface loam, a thin irregular bed of shellmarl appeared, or a definite bed of peat, formed of the remains of water or marsh plants, as in Fig. 4. Again, at about the level of a bed of peat of the kind just mentioned, formed of the remains of plants which had grown and decayed where ihe peat is now seen, tree and plant remains which had been deposited under totally different circumstances were occasionally visible in irregular bands towards the top of the gravel, as in Fig. 5. The shell marl was usually in thin, irregular, lenticular bands, seldom exceeding ift. 6in. anywhere in thickness, and Fig. 2. New Reservoirs, Walthamstow. Height of Section about 9 ft., length about 50 yds. disappearing in the course of 20 or 30 yards, as in Fig. 4. But at one spot near the outfall of the Ching the section consisted of ft. in. Soil .. .. .. .. ..16 Sand and loam with many shells . . . . 46 Gravel The shells were those usually making up the shell marl. At another spot the beiis were — ft. in. Clayey loam, a little shell marl towards the bottom 3 o Gravel At a third place was seen — ft. in. Soil and clay . . . . . • ..40 Shell marl . . . . . . ..13 Peat . . . . . . . • . . 16 Gravel In this case the shell marl retained the above thickness for a horizontal space of about 3ft., the whole band disappearing in less than twenty yards. GEOLOGICAL NOTES At another spot appeared — ft. in Clay, clarkeninf; downwards, with a little shell marl at its base . . . . . . ..30 Gravel Fit;, j New Reservoirs. Section towards S. end of Mitchley Marsh, seen Jul}', Gth, Kjoo Showin},' Clav, darkenins:; towards the bottom, above gravel. Height of Section about loft., length aboui 50ft; In some places there was nothing that could be called peat, and there were no traces of shell marl, though the thickness of the beds al)ove the gravel was above the average, as in the two sections given below : — ft. in. Clay, darkening' downwards . . . . 40 Dark soil . . . . . . . . 10 Gravel and sand And Loani)- clay . . . . . . . . 30 Dark clay . . . . . . ..26 Gravel Fig. 4. New Reservoirs. Section about looyds. N. of No. i. Showing lenticular bed of Shell marl resting on Peat, and covered by the Clay forming the surface. Gravel at the base. London Clay did not appear in the ordinary sections of 10 or II feet from the surface, which all ended in gravel, but it was usually visible at very slightly greater depths in trenches, &c. J ON THE LEA VALLEY. 7 An interesting feature in the marshes has been the presence of a disused channel of the Lea, which is partly included within the boundaries of the southern and partly within those of the northern reservoir. Towards the north-eastern corner of the southern reservoir at the spot marked (s) were found the remains of the old vessel described in the newspapers at the time of its discovery as a " Viking ship." It was seen on excavating from the old channel of the Lea a few feet southward, and had, doubt less, sunk in the then existing channel, which has since, possibly Photograph of Section in New Reservoirs. Taken by Mr. F. Meeson during the visit of the Geologists' Association in April, igoi. in consequence of the presence of the obstruction, been deflected a few feet towards the north. Another excavation made at this spot from the old channel northward showed that the channel had there, in more or less recent times, been deflected south- ward. This was demonstrated by the presence of fine gravel and sand containing irregular deposits of shells and vegetable remains, which were banked against 6 feet or more of ordinary alluvial clay, as shown in Fig. 6. Where this disused channel took a fairly straight course, the gravel in it was often diff"used O GEOLOGICAL NOTES pretty evenly, so that the stream must have been of nearly the same depth everywhere. But where there were many bends the gravel tended to become piled on one side. Thus, a few yards westward of the Viking ship, the gravel was seen to be piled on the more southerly side of the channel to within 3ft. of the top, the opposite bank showing Loam . . . . . . . . 3ft. Peat, earth with mud, and here and there shell layers 5 to 6ft. Gravel Again, fifty or sixty yards further westward the gravel was heaped up against the more northerly side of the channel. South-west of the place where the Viking ship was found, and a few yards eastward of the spot at which the channel made a sharp bend to the south, the " steam navvy " cut away the groimd so as to expose a long section ranging nearly north and south and crossing the old channel nearly at right angles to its course there. In Fig. 5 this section is shown for a distance of Fig. 5. New Reservoirs. 1. Surface Loam ; 2. Peat; 3. Gravel and Sand. The irregular dark patches are fragments of the Stems of trees and plants, with other vegetable matter. about 50 yards ; the spectator is looking eastward, and the dis- used channel appears towards the southern end of the section. Throughout there was gravel towards the base and loam at the surface each retaining the same character throughout the section. But the intermediate beds varied extremely. At the northern end ot the section there was a comparatively thick bed of peat formed of the remains of water and marsh plants which had grown in situ. About 10 yards from the northern end it was found, as shown in Fig. 5, that the peat bed had been eroded away and that in its place were gravel and sand more irregular in stratification than that towards the base of the section. And in this gravel and sand' were irregular deposits of blackened vegetable remains, from tree stems to a debris of twigs, leaves, &c., which had been heaped confusedly together, just as they ON THE LEA VALLEY. 9 appeared at the surface in the bottom of the old channel shown towards the southern end of Fig. 5. A few yards beyond the southern limits of Fii?. 5 the section resembled that seen at its northern end. I do not propose to say anything here about the fossil remains found in these reservoir excavations as a list of mam- malian or molluscan genera and species, or to touch upon them in any way except so far as they may tend to throw light on various questions connected with the deposition of the beds and their relations to each other. Judging from the great variety of views which have been expressed by geologists of more or less eminence as regards river deposits of somewhat greater age, it seems desirable to point out the bearing on those questions of the evidence of these more recent beds. For light may fairly be expected from an appeal from the more obscure and fragmentary remains of the older river deposits to the fuller and more com- Fig. 6. New Reservoirs. Section from the Old Channel of the Lea north- ward, near the spot where the ship was found. October ist, 1900. plate evidence of the newer. It is true that in very recent times rivers like the Thames and Lea have been canalized more or less, and that, consequently, floods and specially high tides no longer deposit mud on the marshes adjacent to the streams as in more ancient days. But in the present case we have, on the other hand, the very unusual advantage of being able to inspect an old disused channel, which would be impossible but for the canalization of the stream for navigation. And, as I have already remarked, the length and varied direction of the sections shown in these reservoirs have given almost unique opportunities of noting the nature and variations of the strata and the way in which changes occur. As we have seen, the constant consti- tuents of any section are tne loam or clayey loam at the surface and the gravel towards the base. Their respective thicknesses may vary, but where they only are present the gravel always makes a larger proportion of the whole section than where peat, lO GEOLOGICAL NOTES or more or less peaty clay or mud, with shell marl, intervene between them. And it seems clear to me that the gravel has always been brought down in the channel of the stream ; and that the surface loam is the mud which has been deposited on the surface during floods and very high tides. Where, between the gravel and the loam, there is a considerable thickness of peat, the plants, the remains of which compose it, having grown in situ, there shallow backwaters must have existed in which the plants grew. On the other hand, the irregular masses of vegetable matter mixed more or less with gravel and sand have evidently been brought down a channel, mainly in time of flood. And the little land and fresh-water molkisca, composing the shell marl, flourished either in backwaters or in shallow parts of a main stream where sand or mud were being deposited close to one bank, while that on the opposite side was suffering from erosion. The steady continuance of a state of things of this kind, at any one spot, for many years, would bring into existence a band of shell marl having a breadth corresponding to the lateral deflection of the channel of the stream. I Fig. 7. New Reser\oirs Section of Minor Channel in Southern Reservoir (1901). I. Gravel; 2. Mud; 3. Peat, with man}- Plant-stems ; 4. Sand with Shells in channel; 5. Surface Loam. Height of Section, 10 to 11 ft. ; length, about 18 yards. The section across the old channel, shown in Fig. 5, illus- trates my remark that the constant constituents of a section are the gravel towards the base and the loam at the surface. Taking the height of the section as loft., then the changes are all in the 5ft., or thereabouts, of beds in the middle part; the gravel towards the base and the loam at the surface remain unaltered throughout. This is especially noteworthy in the case of the loam, and clearly indicates that it is a deposit resulting from a general cause which, like a flood, would affect a whole river valley. It would consequently not be affected by the local character of the beds on which it rested, and would tend to equalise the surface levels, as we know it does. ON THE LEA VALLEY. II Then, the section shown in Fig^. 5 illustrates the way in which sections in river deposits may show fossil remains of very different ages at the same depth below the surface and only a few feet apart from each other. They may be also in the same kind of material. For a human relic or mammalian bone found at the top of the gravel underlying the peat at the northern end of the section might have been deposited many centuries earlier than some similar object, at the same depth from the surface, and also in the gravel, but found midway between the end of the peat and the channel. The object under the peat might have been deposited there in pre- Roman times; that twenty yards or less southward might belong to the eighteenth century or later. For the changes in the position of the old channel, which have caused the destruction of the peat and its replacement by sand and gravel containing irregular seams of vegetable matter, might have occurred at any subsequent time. Fig. 8. Dug-out Boat found in the Walthamstow Reservoir Excaviitions, on trolly for removal. Drawn by Mr. H. A. Cole. For drawing of the boat in situ, see Frontispiece to the present volume. I have already mentioned the discovery of the old vessel, generally supposed to be a Viking ship, near the old channel. But some distance to the south-west, in the excavations for the same reservoir, a boat of much more ancient character was found. This was an ancient British "Dug-out" canoe, of the kind so common in ancient lake dwellings. Mr. W. Traill, one of the engineers superintending the excavations, was fortunately able to get it out almost entire, and it is now carefully preserved. From an account which Mr. Traill has given of the canoe in The Reliquavy and Illiisti'ated Avchaologist for January, 1901, I take the following details : — 12 GEOLOGICAL NOTES " It was resting on a bed (5ins. thick) of fine sandy silt- mixed with fresh water shells. . . . The geological section is as follows : — Soil, ift. : clay, 2ft. 6in. ; clay and gravel, mixed with vegetable matter, ift. 3in. ; gravel, ift. 3in. ; sandy silt, 5in. ; gravel." I had the good fortune to see the canoe and the place at which it was found, in the company of Messrs. W. and H. Cole, and under the guidance of Mr. Traill, a few days after its dis- covery. (See Frontispiece to present volume). Mr. Traill remarks that the canoe seems to have been drawn up on the bank of an old river. Probably it had been lying in the shallow part of the old channel when a sudden flood had carried it down and deposited it where it had become entangled in vegetable debris, had sunk and become silted up. It may be noticed that the section given by Mr. Traill much resembles that near the disused channel in Fig. 5. As these ancient dug- out canoes vary very much in size, it may be worth adding that this one was 14ft. loin, long, 2ft. 4in. broad, and ift. 4in. deep, taking the extreme measurements in each case. (Fig. 8.) Munro, in The Lake Dwellings of Europe, remarks that the intimate association of these dug-out canoes with lake-dwellings has been noted both in the British Isles and on the Continent. He adds that their discovery in lakes and bogs has been con- sidered by Dr. Stuart as an indication of the existence of cran- nogs. Dr. Munro thinks that the period of greatest develop- ment of the Scottish and Irish Lake-dwellings was during the pre-Roman Iron Age, but points out that neither the use of lake-dwellings nor that of dug-out canoes is necessarily pre- historic. In the case of this Lea dug-out, Mr. Traill remarks that " several pieces of Roman pottery and a well-made iron spear-head have been found at points ranging from fifty to a hundred yards from where the dug-out was lying, and in prac- tically the same stratum." But this, though an interesting fact, by no means — as we have seen — involves a similar antiquity for the dug-out. Just as the Glacial Period doubtless came practically to an end in South-Eastern Britain many centuries before the climate had materially changed in Northern Scotland, so dug-out canoes must have been in use in the wilder parts of the British Isles long after they had become extinct on the Thames and Lea. ON THE LEA VALLEY. 13 Besides the exceptional facilities for intercourse with the Con- tinent possessed by the inhabitants of this district generally, waterways like the Thames and Lea gave special facilities, two thousand years ago, for local intercommunication, facilities of enormously greater relative importance than they now afford. And the sites of Tottenham, Edmonton, and of old London are such as must have recommended themselves to the earliest settlers in permanent towns or villages, from the water supply obtainable from the gravels on which their houses stand, as well as from their proximity to the rivers. In short this district must have been one in which dug-out canoes became extinct sooner than in any other part of the British Isles. Nor would they be likely to survive even as the coracle of the Severn has done. For, though primitive, the latter is extremely portable, while the dug-out must have been more ponderous than the least advanced of more modern craft, and have had no counter-balancing advan- tage of any kind. Now the explorer Pytheas, about the year 330 B.C., found that there was then considerable intercourse between South-Eastern Britain and the Continent, though the intercourse was confined to this part of the British Isles, which he found abounding in corn, and affording every evidence of a settled agricultural condition. Among the human relics should be mentioned, in addition to the dug-out and the \'iking ship, a considerable number of tobacco pipes. Those I have found myself were mostly towards the base of the surface loam, but some were in the sand of a disused channel They are not all alike as regards shape, but most of them appear to resemble the pipes of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, rather than those of a later date. In short, the articles used by man found in these recent river deposits date from perhaps B.C. 500 to the present day. For its seems to me that the available evidence makes the dug- out's date here suggested uiore likely to be insufficient than excessive. Then the Roman pottery, &c., mentioned by Mr. Traill will be by some six or seven hundred years more recent. The Viking ship is not unlikely to have been one of the Danish fleet which went up tlie Lea in A.D. 895, were blockaded there by King Alfred and captured or destroyed in the following year, as narrated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.' And the pipes, as already mentioned, vary in age from the 17th century to much more recent times. I Supposing that tuUer examinationlconfirms the view that it is a Viking Ship. 14 GEOLOGICAL NOTES However, my object is not to c^ive a list even of the human reHcs found in the excavations, hut only to allude to them so far as may be necessary to illustrate the formation of these recent river-deposits, and consequently that of those which are older and more obscure. Where a river has cut its way through com- paratively hard rocks, it may leave terraces clear enough to be traceable for a considerable distance marking its former position. But this is not the case where the river's course, as in South Essex, has been through a formation like London Clay. Then, as we know, it may be possible to note a broad flat composed of river-deposits which rises very gently northward, but it is im- possible to trace a distinct terrace except for a few yards here and there. x\s in a river-deposit the MoUusca usually vary but little, it has naturally happened that geologists examinmg sections in the older and more obscure fluviatile beds have often dwelt mainly on the human relics or mammalian remains as the chief guide to their x-elative antiquity, and have disregarded the stratigraphical evidence. For illustrations of the extraordinary differences of opinion as to the older river-deposits of the Thames, and the relative antiquity of various members of the series which have thence resulted, see tlie chapter on the literature of the River Drift in Mr. Whitaker"s memoir on The Geology of London and of Fart of the Thames Valley, Vol. I., pp. 328-387. Now in the case of these reservoir sections there can be no controversy ab;jut their stratigraphical position. No one can assert that the beds at one spot iu either reservoir belong to an older series than those elsewhere simply because a pre- Roman dug-out canoe has been found here, and tobacco pipes only there, at the same level. The excellent sections, long but varying in direction, have illustrated, as no other sections could have done so well, how incessantly a river in its windings tends to change its course, and yet how often a spot a few yards from a recent or existing channel may have remained unmodified for centuries. And consequently it becomes e\'ident that in older river-deposits there can be no legitimate excuse for assimiing stratigraphical changes not only unsupported by, but contrary to, the available stratigraphical evidence, to account for apparent discrepancies in the nature of the fossil evidence analogous to those presented by the human relics found in the marshes of the Lea. In the absence of evidence like that furnished by these reservoir excava- ON THE LEA VALLEY. I5 tions, changes such as have been so amply demonstrated there come to be looked upon as mere abstract possibilities which may safely be disregarded in practice. APPENDIX I. Lake-Dwellings in the Lea Marshes. I have mentioned that a close association between the existence of dug-out canoes and that of primitive lake-dwellings has been observed. Of course there is no necessary connection between them, and in all probability there was never anything that cculd be called a lake in the Lea Valley from Broxbourne southward. But there were probably on the Lea marshes, in primitive times, houses of the kind mentioned b}' Munro in The Lake Dwellings of Europe, p. 553. He says : — " A reference to Lake Dwellings occurs in a passage by Hippocrates {Be Eribiis, &c. XXXVII) : — ' Concerning the people of the Phasis, that region is marshy and hot, and full of water and woody ; . . . . The inhabitants live in the marshes and have houses of timber and of reeds constructed in the midst of the waters ; and they seldom go out to the city or the market, but sail up and down in boats made out of a solid tree trunk, for there are numerous canals in that region ' [This locality is east of the Black Sea.]" The sections displayed in the reservoir excavations show frequent changes in the main channel of the Lea, and suggest the existence of many backwaters, or partly deserted channels, in which water-loving plants grew, leaving beds more or less peaty for our inspection to-day. The Lea Marshes would therefore afford many positions either wholly surrounded by water or easily made insular, a? sites for pile dwellings. As when (for example) we traverse the hilly parts of the Chalk, and seldom, if ever, find a naturally strong site unoccupied by an ancient camp of refuge, so we may fairly conclude that eligible sites on marshes for pile- dwellings would not, in primitive times, remain unused. To come to a later period than that of dug-out canoes, we find the Lea shown, in Norden's Map of Essex (1594) as having two or more channels of apparently equal importance all the way from Broxbourne to Blackwall, the other rivers marked on the map having but one channel, except that the Thames, as at the present day, has many around Canvey Island. It seems therefore highly probable that the pre- Roman users of dug-out canoes on the Lea lived in pile-dwellings on the i6 LEA VALLEY. marshes, which were unusually favourable to such habitations. In mediaeval and later times the marshes were deserted, and the inhabitants of the river valley lived on older river deposits above the reach of floods, and obtained their water supply from the lower beds of the gravel on which their houses stood. And in the case of isolated dwellings, protection from robbers was obtained by the digging of a moat around the premises which was supplied with water from the same source. Moated houses of this kind are not uncommon in southern Essex and elsewhere, though at the present day the moats are often more or less filled up. APPENDIX II. Channels of the River Lea. Though Norden's Map of Essex (1594), shows the Lee with two or three channels from Waltham Abbey to its outfall into the Thames, the map of Beacontree Hun- dred and the adjacent parts of South-west Essex in Morant's History of Essex (1768), reveals but one channel below Waltham Abbey. Of Waltham Morant remarks : — " Waltham is the most considerable place in this Half Hundred, to which it gives its name, and also to part of the Forest of Essex. . . 'Tis situated near the river Ley, where its parting into several streams, forms divers little islands." Both the above-mentioned maps are The Riv-er Lea doubtless trustworthy in their record of the Fig. 9 from its junction with niunber of channels the Stort southward, as locally existing in their respective periods, though without claims to minute accuracy as regards the shaoe of some island enclosed by the streams, or other points of that kind. [Both Mr. Holmes and the Secretary desire to record their gratefnl thanks to Mr. Sharrock, .\Ies_grs. S. Pearson & Son's representative- at the works, to Col. Byan, the Engineer to the East London Water Company, and to Mr. Traill and .Mr. Marsh, Assistant Engineers, for much kind aid and sympathy during the numerous visits made to the works.— Ed.] shown on Norden's Map of Essex (1594). W, Wal- tham ; C, Out.all of the Ching ; T, Tottenham ; S, Stratford. i7 ON THE VARIATIONS IN NUMBERS AND HABITAT OF MARINE ANIMALS ON THE COAST OF ESSEX DURING THE L^ST TEN OR TWELVE YEARS. By H. C. SORBY, L.L.D., F.R.S. F.L.S. &c During the last ten or twelve years I have spent a good deal of time in collecting marine animals along the coast, and in the estuaries, of Essex and the adjoining parts of Suffolk, as they were floating near the surface or by using a dredge or small trawl, or by examining the mud or shores exposed at low water ; but paying little attention to such as are less than ^-inch in length. In doing this, I have been much struck by the great variations that have occurred from year to year, and with the remarkable contrast between what I now find in some localities, and what I found lo or 12 years ago, or even more recently. Some of the changes may be, and probably are, of a temporary character, and the original conditions may be restored in years to come ; but some seem as if likely to be permanent. In the earlier years I did not expect to be in the district so long and so continuously, and never anticipated that I should witness any striking changes, and so unfortunately I omitted to take such detailed notes as would now have been very valuable. It was only by degrees that the great extent of the changes became apparent. In any case it now appears to me desirable to put some of the facts on record, since they may be of much interest in years to come. I have not noticed any material change in the number of some animals. Of these I may mention the Common Shore Crab (Carcinus nmnas), the Hermit Cral) {Pagitriis hcvnhardus), the common Neveis (N. vevsicola), Nepthys hoinbevgii, Arenkola marina, Sahella pavonia, Lanice conchilega, Cirratultis cirratus, Doris pilosa, Echinus miliaris, Solaster papposus, Astenas nibens, Ophinra texturata, Ophiothrix fragilis, and several species of simple and compound Ascidians, such as Ascidiella virginea and aspersa, Ciona infestiualis, done grossularia, Molgula arenosa, Botrylloides ruhrum and leachii and Botryllus schlosseri and polyclyclns. There has, however, been a great change in the case of some other animals. I do not take into account such as are so rare that very few specimens have been seen, since in such cases tog 1^> VARIATIONS IN NUMBERS AND HABITAT OF much depends on accident ; nor would it be fair to take particular notice of what I have seen in places not visited repeatedly, I think that some great changes were due to the very severe winters experienced a few \'ears ago. For example, the number of living individuals of the common Cavdium ediile previously found near the mouth of the Crouch was very great ; after the severe winter of 1894, which killed so many oysters, few could be found alive, but an enormous number of dead shells were seen. Also, previously, very fine specimens of the Gephyrian, Priapulus caudatus, could be obtained from the mud of the Deben near Waldringfield, but afterwards only comparatively small individuals, as though the larger had been killed. It, however, seems doubtful if this explanation will suffice in places where the water is always tolerably deep As an example, I may say that eight or ten years ago, in that part of the Deben, near Ramsholt, called the Recks, 1 was able to collect by dredging fairly numer- ous fine specimens of the beautiful purple Nudibranch, Eolis covonata, but latterly I have not been able to obtain them, though most anxious to do so. They have also become more rare in other localities where I used to find them, as for example in the Orwell at Pin Mill, and ofT Mersea, in what may be looked upon an almost open sea. It seems difficult to understand what can have occurred to influence such a large mass of sea water as in the Stour below and above Harwich, but yet I have remarked considerable changes during the last 10 or 12 years. I then found sundry Nudibranchs, which I have not obtained for years and the curious worm, Aphrodita aculeata, has become much more rare. Good small specimens of Lo/i^o media were fairly common, but latterly they have become more and more scarce. Both there and in every locality in which I have trawled, the number of specimens of Sepiola atlantica has also become less and less, year after year, and, instead of catching dozens, I got only an odd one now and then. What may possibly have been a distinct small species of Sabella was at one time abundant in the Pye-fieet by Mersea, but I have not seen it for some years. On the contrary in 1899 I caught off Mersea some half score of what are probable the young specimens of Sepia officinalis, not one of which I had caught before anywhere along the coast. In some of the MARINE ANIMALS ON THE ESSEX COAST. IQ later years I have found one or two other animals I had never seen before in the district. In considering this question it is, however, inipossilile to be sure that certain of the apparent changes are not due to the remarkably local distribution of some animals, and it is possible that the exact locality where they abound may shift somewhat from year to year, owing to a partial migration. As bearing on this subject, I may say that certain animals are very numerous in one particular place, though I have met with very few or none anywhere else over a wide district. In some cases this may fairly be attributed to the very peculiar conditions under which they are found. For example, I never saw a single individual of a Phascolosoma (not yet identified) until in 1899 ^ ^^'t upon a particular locality near Brightlingsea where several specimens may be found in each spade-full of the sandy gravel. In 1900 and 1901 I examined this place more fully, and it seems to me that this unusual abundance in one part and absence elsewhere, close at hand, is due to the peculiar local conditions ; since the Phascolosoma seem to occur only where this sandy gravel is kept constantly soft by salt water draining out through it, when the tide is low, which occurs only in one part, at a particular level, There is a locality in the Orwell, a short distance below Pin Mill, usually at about the level of half tide, but perhaps varying with the season, where a species Synapta occurs so abundantly that specimens may be collected out of the mud by dozens ; and, yet, I do not remember seeing a single individual elsewhere along the coast. I cannot understand why this should be so, unless it be due to the percolation of a certain small amount of fresh water from the adjoining shore, \vhich in this particular part is fringed with reeds. In 1901 I could not find a single specimen. In the Deben also, near Waldringfield, I have been able to collect in less than an hour more specimens of Pnapulns candatus than I could obtain in weeks in any other place along the coast ; and yet I cannot even suggest a reason for this, since there do not appear to be any conditions not met with in many other localities. So far most of the animals referred to are more or less fixed, or probably do not move far, but there seems to be an equally great variation in those which, like Medusae, float with the tide 20 VARIATIONS IN NUMBERS AND HABITAT OF over great distances. In such cases it is not a question of occasional inspection or of looking for them or dredging, since they are visible at any time in suitable weather from the deck of the yacht, when they are present. There seems to be great variation in the numbers of the very common Medusa, Amelia auvita, in different years, unless it be that in some years they swim near the top and in others low down out of sight. This they certainly do according to the weather, coming towards the top when fine and smooth, but such a difference could scarcely occur throughout an entire season. In July, 1888, I saw in the course of a few days in the Aide below Orford, more deep blue specimens of Cyanea lamarkii than I have seen any where before or since, though year by year I have looked for them most atten- tively and not seen one. This handsome species had not been previously observed within some hundreds of miles of the English coast. Many years ago I saw at Queen borough a great many specimens of the beautiful Medusa, Chrysaova isoceles, but lately I have year after year seen comparatively very few. Last year (1900) I think they were somewhat more common ; but, strange to say, they were all a very pale variety, with none of the dark radiating stripes on the upper surface. In the last few years good fine specimens of Plenrohranchia pileus have been more and more scarce, whereas formerly they were common. Time alone will show whether such changes as these just described are permanent or only temporary. The great variation in the numbers of fish and shrimps is, of course, well known. Of a totally diflferent character is the remarkable occasional appearance of Heteronereis. I have never found specimens in mud, but in dredging I have obtained a few, very imperfectly developed. I have occasionally found them in my aquarium, into which they must have been introduced when young, living in tubes amongst algae, before assuming the adult form. The remarkable fact is the manner in which they are now and then seen swimming at the surface of the sea water. I must have lived at anchor in tlie Orwell and Stour for a total period of between one and two years, and yet I never saw Heteronereis in that locality except ofT Harwich on July i6th, 1898, and perhaps once in the Orwell at Pin Mill. I do not know how early they appeared, but from the time I turned out at 5 a.m. until 7 a.m., they were swimming about on the surface in such numbers that they were only a few yards apart, and, as I judged over an area MARINE ANIMALS ON THE ESSEX COAST. 21 of probably one or two square miles, so that the number may have been something like a million. They were apparently all males probably of the species Nereis dumerilii. Not one was seen the day before or the day after. Some years earlier at Queen- borough, I saw on one evening a similar large number of a some- what different kind of Annelid, larger and coloured much more red by haemoglobin, which were both males and females, and though I most carefully looked for them that year and subse- quently I never saw another. Once before I witnessed a similar display off Sheerness. It thus seems probable that these worms usually live in tubes which they build amongst algae, and just occasionally, for a few hours, swim about on the surface in the Heteronereis condition, probably when scattering the ova or spermatozoa ; the remarkable thing being that apparently all do so at the same time. It is impossible to sa)- what occurs lower down out of sight, and the swimming at the surface probably to some extent depends on the weather being calm. I must now describe a series of changes which seem more easy to understand than those already noticed. Until a few years ago the bottom of the Orwell at Pin Mill was almost entirely free from mud, and was to a large extent covered with Sponges, Alcyoniditim, and compound Ascidians. The number of Caprella linearis, a small Terehella {Nicolea zostericola), and the curious worm, Siphonostoma diplochaiios, was astonishingly great ; and a larger number of different species of animals could easily be obtained by dredging than in any other place along the coast. In 1898 and 1899 I however found the bottom covered with a fine tenacious mud, built into short, stout, soft tubes by enormous numbers of the small Amphipod, Jassa pulchella, which had increased so much as to have smothered and almost exter- minated most of the animals previously living at the bottom. There had been little, if any, change in the mudbanks left dry at low water, nor any niarked change in the animals living there. To my surprise I found the bottom clean in 1900, near Tin Mill, though lower down the bottom was more muddy than it used to be. In 1901 the bottom was clean and there was a most extra- ordinary number of small specimens of simple Ascidians, to the almost complete exclusion of other animals. Probably some of these changes have been due to the extensive dredging operations carried on to improve the navigation to Ipswich, and perhaps in a few years the original conditions may be restored. 22 VARIATIONS IN NUMBERS AND HABITAT OF After living on a yacht for some months, it is, of course, desirable to clean off the various animals and plants that have grown on the bottom. Sometimes I can then obtain specimens not otherwise easy to find. The most remarkable circumstance I have noticed is that in different years the animals attached to the bottom may be most strikingly different, though the yacht may have been at the same places, or very nearly so. One year the entire surface under water was covered with small Balani, growing as close to one another as they could ; I estimate that the total number was something like'two millions. Another year there were few Balani, but the bottom was covered with Ascidians of the genus Ascidiella. On other occasions the most striking form was Tubularia larynx, good specimens of which I have not been able to obtain in the district except from the bottom of the yaclit. In 1899, after lying a long time at Pin Mill, the bottom was covered by soft, tenacious mud, built up by the small Amphipod, Jassa pulchella. On other occasions we have found variable mixtures of the above-named animals. These facts show what great variations there may be from year to year, which is thus so marked, because the bottom of the yacht is alwa3S clean to begin with, and animals attached one year cannot be mixed with those attached another year, as must often happen on rocks, and stones, and other natural objects. It will thus be seen that, even in the short period of 10 or 12 years, many noteworthy changes liave occurred, and, in some cases at all events, it seems doubtful if the original conditions will be restored in years to come. This is certainly indicated by the fact that in so many cases vast numbers of well preserved dead shells are met with in situ in places where the same species are seldom if ever met with alive. Taking all into account, it certainly appears to me that a considerable number of interesting animals have become more and more rare, whilst but few have become more abundant. The first explanation that suggests itself is that the changes may in some way have been due to human agency, like so many changes in animals and plants inland. In some localities an increase in the amount of sewage discharge may have been the cause ; but, though in this respect the worst place I ever stayed at is the water at the back of Walton-on-Naze, yet I never saw a better collecting ground for numerous interesting animals. The use of artificial manures and gas lime may also have had considerable influence in some MARINE ANIMALS ON THE ESSEX COAST. 23 localities. In some places the water is much more muddy than it used to be. Another probable cause of change in the estuaries is the improved draining of the land, which necessarily tends to increase the amount of fresh water at the time of floods. I have been told of a case in which such an event killed thousands of pounds worth of oysters, and this effect would explain why so many full grown shells of clams and other species are often seen farther up the rivers than living ones now occur. It is, however, very difificult to believe that this cause could operate in the case of comparatively open water. It is, of course, easy to under- stand that a permanent diminution of fish may have resulted from over fishing, and we may well believe that the great number of fish, shrimps, and star-fish caught, and the various operations of oyster culture, may materially affect the number of some other animals ; since the inter-relations of those living together are probably sufficiently intimate to produce such an effect. We must also bear in mind possible cyclic changes in the weather, and the effect of a series of hot and cold, dry and wet years. Though thus calling attention to various possible explana- tions of the facts I have described, I feel that they are little better than suggestions, and that possibly the final results may be due to the variable combined effect of many such temporary or permanent causes. It seems to me very desirable that those who have constantly studied other districts should record their experi- ence, since that might throw far more light on the question, and eliminate various sources of error which beset this subject on all sides. Note. — For the identification of the species named in this paper, I am to a great extent indebted to Mr. Walter Garstang, the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S., and Professor Herdman, F.R.S., so that I believe they may be relied upon as correct. 24 ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE aist ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, MARCH 30th, 1901. By DAVID HOWARD, J. P., F.C S., President. In completing my term of office as President I must yet again congratulate the Club on the achievement of the long delayed purpose of establishing a Museum, alike to render permanent, and to spread more widely, the work of the Society. I need not go again over the history of that arduous, and at times seemingly hopeless, task, but would venture to remind our members that the real work is but begun ; in museums, as in everything else, growth is the text of life, and without living progress, a Museum sinks into the fossil stage of existence and is best buried out of sight along with other fossils. Unfortu- nately we already find that we need more money to develop the work, and any who are .ivilling to assist, may rest well assured that their money will be fruitfully expended under the care of our indefatigable Curator. We are already beginning to feel that space, and not the wherewithal to fill it, will be our difficulty, and that even the noble generosity of Mr. Passmore Edwards so freely supplemented by that of the Technical Education Com- mittee of the Borough of West Ham. has given us none too much room for our museum work. Perhaps some will say, "there is no satisfying such people." It is quite true, and it is better so; in scientific as in some more important matters, the sense of ful- filment and satisfaction is a very dangerous one. I do not know that there is great need that I should impress this on most of those here ; for which of us, even in those matters in which we have done most, and learned most, is under any delusion that he has exhausted the possihilitie,. But I would urge all to keep this truth in mind, and not to fail to impress it on those especially who having made less progress are less conscious how little progress they have made. And there is special danger in a too keen satisfaction in the work of greater minds who have pre- ceeded us. A great teacher may even dwarf the minds of his pupils, by giving them an unconscious despair of progress, by the admiration they rightly feel for his work. It was not the pro- foundly scientific, if imperfect, teaching of Aristotle, but the fatal " ipse magister dixit " of the schoolmen, that dwarfed scientific ADDRESS DELIVERED AT ANNUAL MEETING. 25 thought in the Middle Ages. They did not imitate their master in the study of nature ; they contented themselves by studying him. The danger is just as present with us as it was with them ; there is so much to impress, delight, and satisfy us in the marvels of modern science, that perhaps all of us, most certainly the beginner, may easily allow the feeling to get the mastery, that there is nothing left to do, nothing even that needs doing. And then in instructing others (and we all, if we know a little more of anything than those around us, cannot help doing that, even though we may never venture to count ourselves as teachers) it is tempting to hiunan nature to dwell on how much we know, and but slightly on how little we know (which may be the more important of the two) and that is a lesson that finds too apt a pupil in a beginner. It is one of the most hopeful elements in the best teaching of science, that such wise efforts are made to encourage the student to work out problems for himself. It is no easy matter ; it is wonderful what pains the average boy will take to avoid think- ing. He will perform the marvellous feat of learning a proposi- tion of Euclid by heart, without understanding it, and he will go through life with two or three adjectives in his vocabulary which he uses with persistent inappropriateness to save himself the terrible trouble of thinking out what he means. But even if we escape from these elementary forms of satis- faction, I am not sure that we have exhausted the dangers. May I try to set before you two habits of mind which are not easy to define, for the words that seem naturally to explain them are themselves of such uncertain meaning (at any rate in common speech) that they need definition before we use them. Idealism and realism, at any rate in their older senses, express the two modes in which one may regard scientific as well as other matters. One may dwell upon the general or on the particular, and I want to urge that the more idealism there is in our thought, the more one seeks for the general, the more progress one can make. It is easy to recognise a proposition of Euclid as true of the particular circles and triangles drawn on the black-board, but it is a distinct sign of progress to prove the pro- position with the figures upside down ; beyond that lies the 26 ADDRESS DELIVERED AT ANNUAL MEETING. larger conception that it is true of all possible triangles, and further still that the truth lies in the very nature of a triangle. Such is the irony of fate that we really never really under- stand llie case of the particular triangle, until we have grasped the idea (in the Platonic sense) of all triangles. Now if this is true in the simplest forms of study, it is yet more true in the recondite. The ordinary definition of the ideal is " that which is not real " — which is true — but what do we mean by the real ; is not the ordinary sense of the word " real " a warning of how easy it is to confine our ideas to the particular example and lose the sense of the wider truth which underlies the particular example. The word " real," that modern outcome of scholastic thought, if it means anything, means that which is " res," a definite concrete thing, and our use of it to connote the true, the " very " to use the good old word, is itself a warning how much our thought is bound down to the particular example that we know, and how apt we are to lose the sense of the wider truth, that we at best but half know and but half comprehend, but which is far truer than the real. Are we not in danger of being caught in the meshes of our own thought. Even the wisest and best theory may be a trap, if we fail to recognise that it iiiiist be an imperfect explanation of the whole of the truth, unknown and unknowable in the fullest sense. We feel that the theory is " real," it is clear, definite and conclusive and exactly suits our power of comprehension ; there- fore let us beware of supposing that it is exhaustive. Nature is greater than our minds, and therefore if a theory is no greater than our minds, it must be smaller than the truth of nature. Just in proportion as a theory satisfies us, it bears upon it the evidence of incompleteness ; and if we do not take care we may become hide-bound by it. Lavoisier's theory of the proportionate combination of elements : Dalton's theory of atoms : were magnificent and have borne fruit in much of the wonderful pro- gress of modern science ; and yet in their very perfection, they left out a something that the older phlogiston theory, erroneous and imperfect as it was, had got a glimpse of. Even their very success threw back the investigation of " thermochemistry " v^hich is not less important to the grasp of the whole problem. Only a few years ago we were tempted to feel satisfaction in our ADDRESS DRI.IVRRRD AT ANNUAL MEF.TING. 27 grasp of the possibilities of the vibrations of the ether, and we had got a long way, no doubt, but Rentjen and his collaborators, who were not hide-bound, have compelled us to open our minds to the possibilities of vibrations of the extent of which we are by no means satisfied yet. We must have theories ; we cannot make progress without them ; even a false theory may be better than none. Take for example, the theories of the alchemists ; they were false, no doubt (though the possibility of transmutation seems now by no means so unthinkable as it did a while ago) ; yet false as they were, they served as an encouragement to the study of natural phenomena and indirectly laid the foundations for modern science. Then again, poi^ular ideas are mostly more or less wrong, but they embody an unconscious and unscientific summing up of experience that it is rarely wise altogether to ignore. Forty years ago the Italian peasant was nearer the mark in calling cholera " aquetta " and attributing it to poisoned wells, than the more educated people who learnedly discoursed of " blue haze " and so forth. Long ago experience had shown that there was some connection between malaria and mosquitos, improbable as it seemed to scientific thought. Let us therefore hold fast to our theories — to our ideas — taking infinite pains to choose the best ; those that are alike most far-reaching and most based on experience ; yet never holding them as absolute truth, never saying that something is impossible because it will not come within their limits. Even though something l)e unknowable, let us be very careful not to say that it cannot be. It may be said that this is all mysticisin and dreams. Possibly, and yet it may be that there is an ignorance worse than dreams. The Germans make a distinction, untranslateable into English, between das mystic — the feeling after a truth too great for comprehension — and das mysticismus — which is, to put it vulgarly, muddle-headed dreaminess. It is the first that I wish to plead for in science, especially to beginners filled with a sense of how much they know. I would urge such ever to hold fast to theories ; without them progress is impossible. Try and grasp the ideal that underlies the real, and is more true than it ; but 2(8 1 ISH-HnoKS OF WOOD FROM FRANCE. never allow yourselves to be satisfied even in your ideal. Never lose sense of the imperfection of human knowledge and especially of your own. Never allow the sense of what has been known, great and wonderful as that is, to dim the higher sense of how little we know as yet, how much there is to know. FISH-HOOKS OR GORGES OF WOOD FROM FRANCE (SIMILAR TO THOSE FROM ESSEX). By EDWARD LOVETT. [Read January 26th, igoi.j In the Essex Naturalist for April, 1898 (vol. x., pages 300-305) 1 described and figured some primitive fish-hooks of wood still in use on a part of the coast of Essex. At that time I had heard that similar hooks were used in some parts of France and Russia (and probably elsewhere). For some time I made every possible enquiry as to these, but without success. At length, however, I was fortunate in hearing that M. Fran9ois Daleau, of Bourg-sur-Gironde, France, could assist me, and I at once wrote to this gentleman. His reply was indeed a surprise, for it was to the effect that on the Gironde fish-hooks of wood Avere used, not only like the Essex form, but actually made of the same wood, the White-thorn. I sent him a line of our Essex thorn hooks, with a copy of the Essex Naturalist containing my paper, and he very kindly gave me a series of similar hooks from his locality, together with a copy of his most interesting pamphlet, extracts from whicli I have reprinted below. It will be seen from his paper that the "survival" of the primaval fishermen is almost exactly alike on the Essex coast, and on the banks of the Gironde, but at the latter place we find the true gorge which again was evidently known in Essex, as will be seen from my correspondence with " Tom " recorded below This true gorge is most interesting as regards its distribu- tion, for I have stone examples of it from Hudson's Bay ; bone specimens from Alaska (for catching sea-birds) ; and turtle-shell forms of the same thing from Santa Cruz, for taking b'lying-fish. FISH-HOOKS OF WOOD FROM FRANCE. 2(j The prehistoric type of fish-hook made of Mammoth ivory, described in M. Daleau's monograph, is represented in chert in North America, and in flint in this country. These latter are, however, hut little understood, for in some museums they are described as "awls," whilst in others they are more discreetly labelled " vise unknown." I now give some extracts from M. Daleau's report on : — "HAMECONS MODERNES EN BOIS. " Quelques vignerons habitant les bords dela Dordogne, dans les communes d'Ambes et de Prignac-et-Cazelles (Gironde), se livrent aux plaisirs de la peche durant leurs moments de loisirs. Les hamecjons en bois qu'ils fabriquent et dont ils se servent encore pour la peche de I'anguille ont depuis longtemps attire mon attention. Ceux queje possede figurent dans ma collection depuis 1876. "Ces eugins sont de deux types dift'ereuts, appeles dans le pays, I'un Haiti ou ///, Vdiuire Clabcou on Clavcan. " L'hain (Fig. i) est un petit hame^on bifide en forme de fuseau, long de deux a trois centimetres, taille dans un mince morceau debrande-a-balais (Erica scoparia), acere aux deux extremit^s, fixe solidement au centre par un fil simple, long d'environ 35 centimetres. " Le clabeou ou claveau (Fig. 2) est fait d'une petite epine de bvet blanc {Cratagus oxyaz-antha), tenant a un morceau de sa tige, \.a.\\\6 en pointe a la base, ^vid^ en gouttiere au coude, pour faciliter le passage d'un fil double qui, maintenu pr^s de la pointe par un noeud coulant, vient ensuite s'attacher a la naissance de I'^pine. "Ces hame^ons en bois, que la plupart de nos pecheurs d'occasion pr(5ferent aux hamegons en acier, sont employes comme je viens de le dire pour le peche de I'anguille. " Le vigneron precede de la fayon suivante : les engins, souvent au nombrede plusieurs douzaines, sont amorces avec des vers de terre que Ton enfile jusqu'a ce que le bois soit completement recouvert, rextr(^mitd opposee du fil est attachee a un batonnet de trente a quarante centimetres de long que la pecheur enfonce entierement dans le sol detrempe du rivage a maree basse ; I'eau monte, couvre I'engin et, un peu avant I'heure du flux, on va voir 51 I'angutlle a mordu (terme local). " Des chasseurs m'ont affirme avoir vu sur les bancs de sable et sur les berges des lies du bas de la Gironde, des hamegons en bois plus longs que les hains, que Ton dissimule sous des morceaux de foie ou de poumons de bceufs avec lesquels les indigenes capturent des canard sauvages et des/aA«5(Courlis)." [Appended is a translation of the above passages from M. Daleau's paper, for which we are indebted to the kindness of Miss Mary H. Cole. Ed. : 30 FISH-HOOKS OF WOOD FROM FRANCE. MODERN FISH-HOOKS OF WOOD. Some vinedressers who live on the banks of the Dordogne, in the parishes of Ambes and Prignac-et-Cazelles (Gironde) indulge in the pleasures of fishing during their leisure moments. The wooden fish-hooks which they make and which they still use for eel-fishing, have for a long time attracted ray atten- tion. Those which I have, have figured in my collection since 1876. These instruments are of two different kinds, called by the natives Haiii or/?:, and Clabcon or Claveau respectively. Fig. I. L'hain (wooden fish-gorge). Fig, 2. Clabeou or Claveau (thorn fish-hook) Gironde. Fig. 3. Pre-historic fish-gorge of ivory, Cave-deposits, Giroude. Fig. 4. Fish gorge from the Essex coast, recent. L'hain (Fig. i) is a small fish-gorge pointed towards both ends, in the shape of a spindle, about two or three centimetres long, cut out of a slender twig of heath {Erica scopaiia) sharpened at both ends, firmly secured at the centre by a mere thread, about 35 centimetres long. FISH-HOOKS OF WOOD FROM FRANCE. 3 1 The Clabeou or Claveau (Fig. 2) is made out of a small White-thorn [Cyatwgus oxyacantha) thorn on a portion of the stem, which is cut into a point at the bottom, and has a groove cut round it to admit of the passage of a double thread which is kept in position near the point by a slip-knot, and is then fastened at the base of the thorn. These wooden fish-hooks, which the majority of our amateur fishermen prefer to steel fish-hooks, are used as I have just said, for eel-fishing. The vinedresser sets to work in the following way ; the hooks, to the number often of several dozen, are baited with earthworms, which are stuck on until the wood is completely covered up ; the end opposite the thread is fastened to a small stick 30 or 40 centimetres long which the fisher plunges entirely in the damp soil at the river's edge at low tide. The water rises and covers the fishing rod, and a little before fiood-tide they go to see whether " the eel has bitten" (local term). Some sportsmen have assured me that they have seen on the sand banks and shores of the islands on the lower Gironde, wooden fish-hooks longer than the "hains," which are hidden by piecesof liver or ox "lights," and with these the natives catch wild ducks and curlews. M. Daleau then goes on to describe some exceedingly inter- esting finds in Cave-deposits of Marcamps (Gironde) of small objects made of Elephant (Mammoth ?) ivory (Fig. 3) which he very logically considers to be the pre-historic ancestors of the ^^ Haiti" used by the peasants of the same district in the present day. When I had read this most interesting paper I wrote at once to our old friend " Tom " in Essex asking him if he had ever used any other kind of wooden hooks than those he had already sent me. His prompt reply very much astonished me, for he enclosed a few specimens of a gorge (Fig. 4) which he stated he formerly used ; but after further enquiries qn my part he could give no reason for doing so, nor did he know where he got the idea from. A more interesting case of unconscious heredity I have never met with. As. regards the other remarkable coincidences in M. Daleau's report, I can only add that he was as much interested to hear of a similar survival in our country as I was to hear of the use of the Essex wooden hooks in the valley of the Gironde. Note. — I shall be glad to be informed of other records of similar hooks from any part of the world, or to receive any observations upon this interesting subject. 32 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31st, 1900. [Rend and Adopted at tlic zist Annual Mcctinti, March loth. igoi.] The year 1900 will be memorable in the annals of the Club. Not only did it complete twenty-one years of work, but it also witnessed the realization of the vision of a permanent County Museum of Natural History, which from the beginning has been an ideal of the Club, and which was first put into the practicable shape of a resolution at a meeting held at Mr. E. N. Buxton's house on December 8th, 1883, seventeen years ago. Within the year were also completed the extensive repairs and restorations of Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, thus affording a most suitable home for the Epping Forest Museum. Finance. — The Statement of Account for the past year reveals the sound policy pursued by the Council of the Club, in steadily reducing the debit balance on the General Account, which, from over £100 in 1896, has sunk to a few shillings at the present time.' The other accounts are also in a healthy condition, that relating to Special Memoirs and Publications alone showing a deficit ; and against this may be set the value of the stock, for which a steady, though not a rapid sale may be predicted. The Forest Museum will demand the best energies of the members of the Club in the immediate future, the balance in hand being entirely out of proportion with the needs created by the necessary re-organisation. Membership. — The list of members issued in the autumn, corrected up to Dec. 31st, shows a total of two hundred and eighty-eight, made up as follows ; — Life Members, 29 ; Annual Members, 241 ; Exempt Members, 4 ; Honorary Members, 14. Of these twenty-two were elected during the year ; the losses, from various causes, totalled twenty-six. By death the Club lost four distinguished Honorary Members ; two Life Members (Mr. Leaf and Mr. Ramsden) ; and six annual members. Thirteen members resigned, and one was amoved. Every effort should be made to fill up the vacancies at an early date. Meetings. — Thirteen meetings were held within the year, including that in connection with the opening of the Central Museum, and a meeting in futherance of the objects of the Epping Forest Museum. As in former years, the Council have pleasure in acknowledging the services of those gentlemen v/ho so kindly aided in the conduct of the meetings. At the meeting at the College ot Surgeons on January 27th, Prof. Charles Stewart, F.R.S., gave one of his charming demonstrations of the contents of that magnificent Museum ; at the meeting on February 14th, Mr. Lovett gave a demonstration lecture on Crustacea ; on March 31st, Mr. S. Salmon conducted a meeting for the observation of the Mosses of Epping Forest ; and on May 19th, Mr. G. Massee, F.L.S., acted in a similar capacity with regard to the minute Fungi. At the meeting on July 9th, Mr. Turner kindly acted as botanical guide in the Witham and Tiptree district ; at this meeting the members were most I In the report of the Council lor iSgg the printers inserted in error the Statement of Account lor igoo instean OMTj rn oio'-' <^ inio ;:; vooo ■^ LO lO ^^ oco o r^o o ^ ^* o ^ M en IX o y^ « O -^ OtOO ro CO » n o 2 o o rt CO : i^ •"O ^ w 'a ■ c o " y. :-> a fj 3 a> C3 ^ O) 3 s K OO <\> TS o &4 cu b l4 S3 3 ' 2 s W : Q 2 3 T '■t 4-* +-< c CO o •o "S .2^ o T c D ■3 9. Ui £i (joo S 0) rj i/i oJ X e 2 fe C CD H c . u : p- w -a, : H Q W si o g 6 : =" : o 0) o Z "tq X 2 D O O O < M 2 O ^ H 2 '5 > fe *J " G < O ajtHH >-. c z. D ^S s (U > - >% ^ J >> - S »^ - £^ X w Q 2 m ' " " ^ - " " " O a ' < cq - " " ' < m - " " " ' CC - 0, -ri lO lO M l-H a, < ,_• o t^ — ■3 Tf a O M r^ lO o lO a. o < a. ^; 00 o> Cl 00 \n IT) n o 00 2 < : 00 00 lO u Ol ^-t! o •>^ 1 'J " <5 •^ <^ ■"■ V ^ 5 -d O lO U3 O 1 o '4-» u ui "^ ^ "g 1 2 D U o a: ■^; f^ a^ ■'d- "H ' w S M " § D ■4— • J H 2 < ■J < w O W X w M 2 W o O « o cu w 4-> «2 w « o 4-* *- m a '^. 4-« ■ S" 2 a • • P. 'S (f) (U s '5 o a! a, o u u "j-* OJ ^ 1 (% w Cy> c <; i-t ^ >, ' --^ «-^ : > • o >! •■a * c o 5) c2| 0) c tj ^ ll .'■? i-t t'^ g° f— ^ = a : /^ M 3 rt fflQ ; Tl-oo o w lO 7 M ,,oo n o m HI MM r^ci ^^ crt\n in M lo r^ o^ fo o> lOCO ^ :< rt o ^ •: o M o "f^ -t-o •h? H u 2 s 3 O o o CJ ^ < [« a! Z o m H w „• lO o O a, M O O ^ •^ S"0 o u w t, ^4? 3 cr .0 s S «] S ^ 3** TS i J. 0) c 3 C 3 H< UJ 0 3 3 0 u u < . Locky d Public ^ c ■a C 4.^ c rt c ~^ i; 3 S to >- < 2 O J rt C fe 3 c r3 o c S 3 ,7; 0 0 8 ^< Srt 1) c 1 3 3 _c 'rt 0 rt 53 0 0 0) c in. Librarian iencies : — neral Accoun ecial Memoir; rest Museum < J3 J3 rt 3 0 0 u 0 oj 0.0 u U Q CO W >. >, >< oa CQ CQ u 2 < ■u MVO t^ m] < ui mo 10 "~^! is JO CO tl. ^? o -C o CO > Ti cr> j; K "~^! ^ oo < mio 3 qj ^'S^ c-S 0 ° g !3o S 3&< " c 3 en oj rt 36 ANNUAL REPORT. collection of fishes and reptiles, Crustacea, and insects, &c. A full report of the opening ceremony has been already printed in the Essex Naturalist (vol. xi., pp. 319-331)- A series of Handbooks to the different collections in the Museum has already been commenced. One on the scope and business details of the Museum was prepared by the Curator, and contains a portrait of Mr. Pass- more Edwards ; Mr. Dalton has written one on the collection of Crag Fossils, and Ml. Reader on the Prehistoric Collections. To these gentlemen the Council tender their warmest thanks. It is intended to continue the series as funds will permit and the handbooks will be sold in the building at a small price. The Epping Forest Museum — The restoration of Queen Elizabeth's Lodge in order to afford more space for the Museum, and to put the building into a thorough state of repair, has now been completed. The matter is thus referred to in the Report of the Epping Forest Committee of the Corporation of London, received and passed by the Court of Common Couucil on February 14th: — " The additions and alterations to Queen Elizabeth's Lodge have been completed at a cost of /'1008. The restoration has given great satisfaction, and the Museum is now in course of re-arrangement, not only in the Banqueting Room, where it has existed for some years, but also in the renovated ' Oak Room ' on the first floor." Of this sum of ;^ioo8 the Council of the Club contributed /'50 out of the Fund subscribed, towards the cost of fitting up a small room on the ground floor as a Curator's room. Several meetings of the Council and Committee have been held to consider and formulate the plans of work for the fitting up of the Museum in an adequate manner. It is the wish of the Corporation Committee that no high cases should be placed in the rooms. This necessi- tated some change of plan, and it has now been decided that no general collection of vertebrates should be exhibited, and that the upright cases and such specimens of vertebrata as were in the Museum (other than loan collections) should be removed to the County Museum at Stratford. It is intended to represent the birds, &c., in the Museum by a few cases of " groups " similar to those in the British Museum; but these will be very costly and must be specially provided. At the meeting held on December 8th last, the plans were settled and agreed upon, Mr. E. N. Buxton being in the chair. See full report in the Essex Naturalist (vol. xi., pp. 300-303). A subscription list (which now amounts to over £100) has been started, and the alteration and construction of cases, &c., will be taken in hand at once. At the wish of the Corporation Committee the building is now open to the public, but the re-arrangement of the Museum must necessarily take a long time, and it is obviously better to reserve a full report until the work is com- pleted. The Curator hopes to get the Museum into a fair state of complete- ness by the spring of 1902. Meanwhile the active sympathy and support of all our members is solicited for our Curator, whose task in organising and arranging two large Museums is one both difficult and onerous. Retrospective. — Inasmuch as the year 1900 completed the 21st year of the existence of the Club, it may be useful to record a few brief notes on the work accomplished during that period. ANNUAL REPORT. 37 The Club was founded in the last months of 1879 by meetings called together by Mr. W. Cole, and the issue of a very lar^^'e number of letters to the leading inhabitants of the County. The original advertisements, prospectuses, and the Rules were drawn up by Mr. Cole, and settled by the late Charles Browne, M.A., who acted as the first Hon. Counsel to the Club. The Inaugural Meeting took place on January loth, 1880, at the rooms of the Epping Forest Art Classes, St. John's Villas, Buckhurst Hill. Mr. Meldola was unanimously chosen as the first President, and it is in the recollection of all the original members of the Club how much the Society owes to his guidance and scientific knowledge. His address delivered at the first Ordinary Meeting of the Club on February 28th, 1880, clearly laid down the lines upon which the policy of the Club was founded, and since that period Prof. Meldola has ever been ready with advice and assistance in the conduct of the affairs of the Society. Mr. Meldola retained office for three years ; then Prof. G. S. Boulger took the post of President for two years, to be succeeded by Mr. T. V. Holmes, who filled the chair from 1885 to 1887. Mr. E. A. Fitch was President for four years (1888 to 1891). Then Dr. Henry Laver served for one year and Mr. Chancellor for two years. Mr. Howard was elected in 1895, ^nd consequently has filled ths office for six years. The Council most gratefully acknowledge the great value of the services of these gentlemen ; under their guidance the Club has maintained a high position among similar societies. It is a matter of great satisfaction to say now that the Club is in a fair way of accomplishing all the objects laid down in the original Kules and in Prof. Meldola's Inaugural Address. Second only in importance to the President is the office of Treasurer, and the Club has been fortunate in securing the services of gentlemen who have given much time and labour to its arduous duties. Mr. H. J. Barnes was the first Treasurer, acting during 1800 and 1881 ; then Mr. Andrew Johnston held the office during five years from 1882 to 1886 ; Mr. Thomas Royle acted during 1887 and 1888. Then Mr. A. Lockyer was Treasurer for seven years from 1889 to 1895, and in 1896 Mr. Waller took the office which he resigns to-night, after acting for six years. Mr. W. Cole was the first Honorary Secretary. It may be noted that he has attended in this capacity every Meeting and Committee Meeting of the Club, with the exception of three Field Meetings, once through illness and the others from business connected with his duties under the County Council. Mr. Cole has also edited the Club's publications from the beginning and has reported every Meeting in full in the publications of the Club and in the Minute Books. Mr. B. G. Cole has served as Assistant Hon. Secretary since his first election in 1882, and on him has mainly fallen the trying and sometimes unpleasant task of conducting the business details of our numerous Field Meetings. The Club owes a debt of gratitude to Mr. A. Lockyer, who was the first Librarian, and who inaugurated the system of exchange of publications with other societies. He served in this capacity until 1886. In 1887 Mr. Wire took the office and 1893 was joined by Mr. E. Durrant. Mr. Lockyer acted in i88q and 1890. Mr. W. C. Waller acted as one of the Librarians during 38 ANNUAL KKPORT. several years, more particularly with regard to the sets of forest literature in the Epping Forest Museum. All these gentlemen gave most valuable services. The Club has also largely benefitted by the services of Mr. Charles Browne and Mr. W. C. Dare as Hon. Counsel and H. J. Coburn as Hon. Solicitor. During the 21 years the Club has held 200 Ordinary Meetings, 158 Field Meetings and 32 other Meetings, making 390 Meetings in all. But it must be remembered that two meetings ha\'e sometimes been held on the same day. The Publications of the Club comprise five volumes of Transactions and Proceedings, eleven volumes of the Essex Naturalist (the last in progress) and three volumes of the Special Memoir series, making 19 volumes in all. Up to the end of 1900 the publications comprised about 5,310 pages of matter, and of this at least y-Sths has direct connection with the natural history, geology, archaeology, history and topography of the County of Essex. The average number of pages published has consequently been 252 per annum. The Council very much regret the death of Mr. E. Durrant, which occurred on August 30th, 1900. Mr. Durrant joined the Club in 1881, and served on the Council. He also acted as Librarian and took part as Secre.tary of the old Chelmsford Museum in the attempt to establish the County Natural History Museum at Chelmsford. He was the founder of the Chelmsford Society of Odde Volumes and was one of the founders and the publisher of the Essex Review. During many years he was a constant attend- ant at such meetings of the Club as were held in the interior of the County. Treasurership. — The Club will suffer a great loss in the retirement of Mr. W. C. Waller from the Treasurership, which he has filled to the manifest advantage to the Society since March, 1896. In addition to his services as Treasurer, Mr. Waller acted as Librarian to the Epping Forest Museum, and most skilfully arranged and catalogued the interesting set of Forest papers known as the Barclay collection, an account of which was published in the Essex Naturalist, vol. ix., pp. 157-160. Mr. Waller also most kindly gave his services as Hon. Secretary to the Special Committee for the adjustment of the questions between the representatives of the old Chelmsford Museum and the Club, and in many other ways has acted for the benefit of the Society. The Council return their most hearty thanks for his past services, with an expression of sincere regret at the loss of them in the future. Mr. Howard has most kindly consented to undertake the office ol Treasurer, at least for a time, and has thus relieved the club of a serious difficulty. Librarians. — The Club is again reminded that no members have yet offered to take the offices of the two Librarians. The absence of these officers is greatly to be regretted, and as the books must now be arranged and the list of corresponding Societies revised, and the exchanges sent out, a great deal of additional work will be thrown upon the Hon. Secretaries. Auditors. — The Council cannot justly omit to thank Mr. Walter Crouch and Mr. ]. D. Cooper for their persevering and skilful services as Auditors during many years past. Both these gentlemen have rendered most essential services to the Club which should be gratefully acknowledged by the members. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 39 Presidency. — Mr. Howard resigns to-niglit the office of President, which he has held for the unprecedented term of six years. The Council most sincerely thank him for his services, which have been in the highest degree beneficial to the Club during a period of very considerable stress. The retiring President is to be heartily congratulated at having seen during his term of office the completion of the establisliment of our two museums, and the settlement of the Club in the permanent head-quarters at Stratford. Both the members and the Council are glad that Mr. Howard's aid and sympathy will be retained by his election as one of the Permanent Vice-Presidents and as Treasurer of the Club. The Council recommend the election of Prof. Meldola as President as an event likely to advance the scientific reputation and usefulness of the Club. And they also think that the members will have pleasure in welcoming back as the head of affairs a gentlemen who took part in the inception of the Club, and who now will, perhaps, have the satisfaction of giving the finishing touches to the edifice which was so well planned out twenty-one years ago. Two very necessary things remain for accomplishment, the increase of our membership to 400, so as to give a sufficient income for the ordinary work of the Club, and the establishment of a reasonably adequate Museum Fund which will enable the Club to collect and preserve in the Museums a really good series of Essex animals, plants, and fossils. So much has been accom- plished during the past three years by a small number of persons, that all members and friends of the Club are now asked to work heartily to bring about the establishment of the museums and the other work of the society on a firm financial and scientific footing. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. TWO HUNDREDTH ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, January 26th, 1901. The 200th Ordinary Meeting was held in the Physical Lecture Theatre of the Municipal Technical Institute, Romford Road, Stratford, at 6.30 p m., Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the chair. The Chairman said that the Council af their meeting that evening had considered the desirability of recording the grief which was universally felt at the lamented death of Her Majesty the Queen, and they had drawn up the following vote of condolence to the Duke of Connaught, who had been Patron of the Club since its foundation in 1880. li the Resolution met with the approval of the members, it was proposed that it should be suitably engrossed, and signed by the President and Hon. Secretary on behalf of the members, and forwarded to His Royal Highness. He begged to move the resolution in the following terms : — " The President and Council of the Essex Field Club, on behalf of the members, by a resolution passed this day, beg to convey to HIS royal highness the duke of connaught, who has been Patron of the Club since its foundation in 1880, their most respectful and heartfelt sympathy on the grievous loss which he has sustained 40 THF ESSRX FIELD CLUB. through the decease of his revered Mother. The members of the Chib desire to make known to His Royal Highness that they, in common with all Her Majesty's subjects, share in the universal grief which the demise of their beloved Sovereign has caused throughout the British Empire." — January 26tlt, igoi. The vote of condolence was seconded by Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S., Vice-President, and passed unanimously by the Meeting in respectful silence. The following were elected members of the Club : Mr. H. W. Lee and Mr. Ernest Linder, B.Sc. Mr. F. C. Clark exhibited a small clay lamp, apparently of Roman make, which had been found in a garden at Woodford. In the discussion that ensued it was affirmed that no evidence of Roman occupation had yet been found at Woodford. Mr. Crouch referred to the Roman remains at Wanstead. which had been described in the Archaologia. Mr. W. Cole exhibited a fine specimen of the true "Old English" Pheasant, shot in the Forest by Mr Maitland, Jun., and kindly presented in the flesh to the Museum by the Rev. J. Whitaker Maitland, Rector of Lough- ton. Mr. Cole alluded to the rarity of this form of a well-known bird The usually occurring pheasant of our coverts was generally considered to be a hybrid between the true pheasant (such as the Loughton specimen) and the Chinese Ring-necked Pheasant {Phasiantis torquatus). Mr. Cole also exhibited specimens of a dark variety of the Common Brown Rat [Mus decnmanus) which had occurred very rarely in one set of out- houses at Buckhurst Hill. It appeared to approach very nearly the form described many years ago by Thompson as the Irish Rat [Mus hibernicus), but which the best authorities now held to be simply a local melanic form of the Brown Rat [M . decumanus). Mr. Cole showed specimens of the Brown Rat, and the true Black Rat {Mus nittus) for comparison, and said that he hoped to obtain more information and additional specimens of all the forms, so as to be enabled to place a good series in the Club's Museum. Prof. Meldola, in presenting on behalf of the authors a copy of Prof. Miall and Mr. Hammond's book on the Harlequin Fly, said that in 1897 at the Toronto meeting of the British Association he had had a most interesting conversation with Prof. Miall on the subject of the study of the life-histories of British insects. As this seemed a subject eminently fitted for individual observers in local Societies, Prof. Miall had, at his request, brought the matter before the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies, and his remarks had been published in the Report of the Conference for that year. The monograph now laid upon the table was an excellent example of the kind of work that was so much needed in this country, and he (Prof. Meldola) hoped that the appearance of the book would have the effect that its authors desired of stimulating research in a much neglected field. Mr. J. P. Johnson read a paper entitled " Notes on Palaeolithic Imple- ments from the Uphall Brickyard, Ilford, Essex." Mr Johnson exhibited and presented to the Club's Museum the specimens referred to in the paper (printed in present part, pp. 52-57). THE ESSKX FIELD CLUB. 4I Prof. Meldola, after commenting upon the implements exhibited hy the author, said that he quite accepted their authenticity as true paIa;oHths, and congratulated Mr. Johnson on having been able to supply the first evidence from that district of the existence of man as a contemporary of the extinct animals whose remains had in former years been so frequently discovered in the Uphall pits. Mr. Edward Lovett gave a demonstration of the employment of fish- hooks of wood in France, similar to the hooks from the Essex coast, described in volume x. of the Essex Naturalist. Mr. Lovett exhibited specimens in illustration of his remarks, and also presented specimens to the Museum (see Mr. Lovett's paper in the present part, ante, pp. 28-31). Prof. Meldola, said that the spirit of conservatism which had led to the retention of such ancient customs was either a blessing or the reverse, accord- ing to the point of view from which it was considered. Although, from an industrial standpoint, the persistence of a custom because our fathers did so before us was a disaster so far as concerns national progress, yet from an anthropological point of view such survivals were often of great value, and the use of wooden fish-hooks at the present day, as made known by Mr. Lovett's ob.iervations, was a most interesting case linking a modern imple- ment with a very remote antiquity. The author seemed to him to have been fortunate enough to have secured the evidence just at the vanishing stage in this country, and in view of the rapid disappearance of all such ancient methods and traditions it was a bounden duty of observers to record similar facts whenever they came across them in the interests of anthropological science. Mr. E. J. Lewis gave a summary of an extensive paper on the " Oak- Galls and Gall Insects of Epping Forest " which he had prepared for the Essex Naturalist. Mr. Lewis exhibited a long series of coloured drawings from his own pencil, in illustration of the subject. [Mr. Lewis's paper will be published in a succeeding part of our journal.] Prof. Meldola said that he was particularly interested in Mr. Lewis's paper, and was much struck by the modest way in which the author had brought forward a very valuable contribution to the county natural history. He thought that the list drawn up would form a natural and fitting sequel to Mr. E. A. Fitch's paper on the "Galls of Essex" published in the early years of the Club (" Transactions of E.F.C.," vol. ii., pp. 98-156). He remem- bered well the sensation caused in this country on the announcement by Dr. Adler that certain Gall Insects which had been placed by systematists in different genera were cyclical forms of the same species, and he fully con- curred with Mr. Lewis that in such cases both forms in the alternating generations should be referred in nomenclature to one genus only. With regard to the origin of the two forms from the point of view of the evolutionist he thought that in the light of the analogy with the Daphnias it was more probable that the bisexual form was the parent form and that the asexual form had been evolved from this. The researches of Weismann on the Daphnias where a somewhat similar alternation was observed had led that author to the conclusion that the sexual form was the parent form. 42 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Prof. Meldola said that he was also most particularly interested in the examples ot protection among galls referred to by the author. He suggested that the term " protective resemblance" would be more appropriate than mimicry in such cases. The instance of a gall protecting itself by a secre- tion which was attractive to ants was one of the most interesting cases he had heard of of late years. The protection was indirect; the ants protecting the gall because of the food which they found on it. This was quite parallel to the case published many years ago by the late Thomas Belt in his well- known Naturalist in Nicaragua. That distinguished observer had dis- covered that certain acacias were provided with hollow-thorns which secreted a juice palatable to ants, these insects finding both food and shelter within the thorns. By means of these standing armies of ants the shrubs were most effectively protected from other insect marauders which were immediately attacked if they alighted on the shrubs. It was a case of symbiotic association in which both insect and plant benefitted by the association and the same was doubtless true in the case of the gall mentioned by Mr. Lewis. Mr. John Spiller, F.C.S., commented in a laudatory way on the beauty of the drawings shown by Mr. Lewis. Votes of thanks were passed to the authors of the papers, and the meet- ing concluded. THE TWO HUNDRED AND FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, February 23RD, 1901. The 20ist Ordinary Meeting of the Club was held in the Physical Lecture Theatre of the Technical Institute, West Ham, at 6.30 p.m., Mr. David Howard, J. P., F.C.S., President, in the chair. The vote of condolence with the Duke of Connaught, Patron of the Club, on the death of the Queen, passed at the last meeting, had been engrossed on vellum and forwarded to His Royal Highness. The President read the following reply which had been received : — " Buckingham Palace, " February nth. "Sir, " I am desired by H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught to convey His Royal Highness' warmest thanks to the members and Council of the Essex Field Club for the sympathy which they have shown with him in his great and deplorable loss, and to assure them of his grateful appreciation of their kind message. " Believe me, " Yours very faithfully, "Alfred Egerton, Col., " Comptroller. «• W. Cole, Esq., " Secretary, Essex Field Club.'" The first business of the meeting was the nomination of officers and new members of Council in anticipation of the Annual Meeting to be held on The ESSEX FIELD CLL'B. 43 Saturday, March 30th. These nominations were duly made and will be recorded in the report of the Annual Meeting. Mr. Avery exhibited six water-colour drawings of Essex Churches with the object of ascertaining the name of the artist. Tliey dated from 179.; to 1797. Fur many years they were in the possession of the late Mr. Thomas Bird, J. P., of Romford, a member of the Club. Mr. Avery also exhibited an old plan of Wanstead House Gardens. Mr. Walter Crouch said that the coloured sketches Mere very interesting They resembled a number of drawings that formerly belonged to Sir Edward Hulse, Lord of the Manor of Barking. The President remarked that the view of Little Ilford Church was an admirable memorial of a church which had sufficed for a parish containing only 250 inhabitants within his recollection. At that time Great Ilford was only a hamlet of Barking, and contained no parish church. The best estimate that could be made of the population of I^ittle Ilford noi^ was 25,000, and these parishioners certainly could not go to church all at one time ! Mr. H. W. Littler exhibited some old hand-printing blocks formerly used at Mr. Edmund Littler's Silk-printing Works at Waltham Abbey. Mr. Littler subsequently kindly presented these blocks to the Museum, and in doing so furnished the Secretary with the following notes on the subject. NOTES ON THE HAND-PRINTING SILK WORKS AT WALTHAM ABBEY AND WEST HAM. By H. W. LITTLER. I have forwarded to you for the Essex Museum the hand-printing blocks I spoke about at the meeting of the Club on February 23rd. They were made and used at Mr. Edmund Littler's Silk and Cotton Printing Works at Waltham Abbey, Essex, and are exactly similar to those used in Mr. Reding Littler's factory at West Ham Abbey. These West Ham Works were afterwards sold to Mr. J. Tucker, of Messrs. Baker, Tucker and Co., and subsequently removed to Teddington. The Waltham Abbey factory was sold to Her late Majesty's Government, for the extension of the Powder Mills, about the middle of the 19th Century. Of the old silk printing factories near London I believe the only one left is that which is (or was a few years back) carried on by a Mr. Littler at Merton Abbey, Surrey. The reason that these factories (all of which were in the first instance used as silk printing works) were located on the sites of or adjacent to old Abbeys was that large quantities of pure water were required for the purpose of bleaching the silk. It was no uncommon thing for great stocks of silks to lay on the meadows adjoining the factories, while an armed guard paraded round his valuable charge. Looking now at the putrid water of the Channelsea at West Ham and Lea one can hardly realise that these two factories were established on the banks of these rivers on account of the purity of their waters. The receipt for making madder green dye for which Mr. Reding Littler, of West Ham, was famous, was kept a profound secret even from his immediate relations interested in the same work. His madder green dyed silk handker- chiefs were the beau-ideal at tiiat time of what a sprightly coster's neck-cloth should be. This recipe I believe died with him, he only revealing an inferior 44 The esshx fifLd club. method to Mr. Tucker when he sold the factory. The original recipe was, I believe, purchased by a Mr. Reding, of Manchester, from a Persian, and descended from him to Mr. Reding Littler, who brought the industry to West Ham. Much of the work turned out by these factories was sold in London as the latest French goods on account of their high merits of design and execution, although they were solely of Essex manufacture. The blocks I have sent are as follows: — {a) Set of three blocks ; pattern a dancing girl ; showing the necessary blocks for over-printing in different colours. (b) Two square blocks, floral pattern. (c) One circular block, pattern nearly all in copper. (d) Border edging block, pattern all in copper ; a very fine specimen. {() Pear-shaped block, very fine work in copper, with solid parts filled up with wood. All the above date back to quite the beginning of the igth Century, if not to the i8th. There are seven zinc blocks, edgings and floral designs, one bent work and one bar work ; these are of more recent date, but do not show such fine design or workmanship as in the earlier ones. In the discussion that ensued, the President said that there was much talk of technical education afforded in these latter days, but in his firm's works at the City Mills, they had several men formerly employed in these old print works, and they certainly were remarkably good workmen, showing that these old factories afforded good manual training, He remembered the Lea water in its bright days, when people used to drink it unfiltered ; indeed they could get no better water. Mr. W. Cole said that the waters of the Thames and the Lea must have been pure enough in the first quarter of the last century, for records of the occurrence of salmon in the Lea, dating as late as 1833, were known. Mr. John Spiller, F.C.S., said the silk printing blocks on the table revived ancient memories, for when a young student at the Royal College of Chemistry, he made the acquaintance of the late James Kayess, and from 1850 to i860 often had the privilege of visiting the West Ham Abbey Print Works, of which his friend was then manager, At that time Messrs. Baker, Tucker and Co. were proprietors with a branch establishment at Manchester ; but from this immediate locality their operations were eventually banished by the gradually increasing impurity of the River Lea, and they removed to the Upper Garrett Works at Tooting. Mr. James Kayess, J. P., died on Good Friday, 1884, and was buried at Norwood Cemetery. Another well-known personage in this district was Mr. John Tucker, member of the firm. Pro- bably the President remembered him as a perfect giant in stature and weight, whose arm-chair was a remarkable piece of furniture and passed into the possession of our former member, Mr. W. C. Barnes, of Oak Hall. This Mr. Tucker was a successful breeder of prize cattle at West Ham Abbey. Amongst other things the speaker very well remembered the early trials of mauve and magenta for printing silk handkerchiefs in or about the year i860, and possessed specimens given to him before the process became an extinct Essex industry. Mr. Littler was thanked for his interesting communication. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 45 Prof. Meldola said that having been informed of the proposed exhibit by Mr. Littler he had taken advantage of an opportunity which had recently presented itself for calling attention to a somewhat kindred subject. The importance of recording the survival or the decline and extinction of ancient industries while the chance still remained had been dwelt upon by him at the last meeting in connection with the use of wooden fish-hooks. He was par- ticularly interested to learn, therefore, from the Duchess of Sutherland that in the highlands of Scotland, in spite of the now general use of coal-tar colouring matters, there was still a large amount of dyeing of home-made materials carried on by means of native plants. The Duchess, who had taken the greatest interest in promoting the home industries of Scotland, had been so good as to forward him a list of the plants so used and the colours furnished by them, and he thought that this list was of sufficient interest to place upon record in connection with the observations made by Mr. Littler : — VEGETABLE COLOURING-MATTERS USED AS DYEING MATERIALS IN THE SCOTCH HIGHLANDS. Black . . Alder tree bark Alnus glutinosa Dock root Ruinex obtiisi/olius Blue . . Bilberry (with alum) Vaccinium myrtillus ,, Elder (with alum) . . Sambucus nigev Brown . . Stone lichen Pai'melia saxatilis ,, . . Dulse Halymenia edulis ,, . . Currant (with alum) Ribes ,, (yellowish). Wall lichen Parmelia parietina Crimson (bright) . Corcar lichen Lccanora tartarea II 11 White lichen Lecanorii palescens (dark) Dark lichen Parmelia ceratophylla Flesh-colour Willow bark Salix viminalis Grey Iris root.. Iris pseudacoriis Green . . Broom . . Genista tinctoria ,, . . Furze bark Ulex europceus II • • Heather (with alum) Erica cinerea Magenta Dandelion Leontodon taraxacum Orange (dark) Bramble Riihits fructicosus Purple . . Sundew.. Drosera Red (dark) Rock lichen Ramalina scopulorum „ (bright) Rue root (bedstraw) Galium verum Scarlet . . Limestone lichen . . Urceolaria calcarea ,, . . Tormentil Tormentilla officinalis Violet .. Water-cress Nasturtium officinalis ,, . . Bitter vetch Orobus tuberosus Yellow . . Ash tree root Fraxinus excelsior ,1 .. Bracken . . Pteris aquilina (bright) . St. John's Wort Hypericum perforatum ,. Sundew (with ammonia) Drosera •< Bog myrtle Myrica gale [Compiled from various local sources of information for her book on Woman's Work; Highhih \d Honti Industries, by Millicent, Duchess of Suther- land.] 45 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Mr, Crouch called attention to the specimen of the Bittern, recently found in the Zoological Gardens, at Regent's Park. Mr. Cole observed that the Bittern still occasionally occurred in Essex. It was formerly found in the valley of the Roding. The Secretary exhibited on behalf of Mr. Whitehead, the Assistant in the Museum, a specimen of Latliyyus m.icroyyhizus var. tenuifolius, from Epping Forest, near Goldings Hill. There was some doubt as to the specific distinct- ness of the form, and it was not at present known whether it was common in Essex or not. Mr. F. W. Elliott exhibited bones found in the Forest at Monks Wood, which had been gnawed by some rodent — he suggested by rabbits. Mr. Cole mentioned the curious fact that although there were so many deer in the forest, antlers were but seldom found. Foresters affirmed that they were eaten by some animals. An address was then delivered by Prof G. B. Howes, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology at the Royal College of Science, illustrated by slides shown by the electric lantern. The following is an abstract of the address : — RECENT WORK ON MOLLUSCAN MORPHOLOGY. By PROF. G. B. HOWES, LLD., F.R.S. (A hstract) . Prof. Howes introduced his subject by briefly recapitulating the distinc- tive characters of the Acephala, with especial reference to the fact that under the burrowing habit and loss of the head respiratory organs had become the accessories to alimentation. He then called attention to the recent work of Drew, of Baltimore, U.S.A., on Yoldia limatula, particularly as concerning the labial palps, siphonal filaments, and piston-like action of the branchiae, which together with the formation of the anchor-like foot, were shown to collectively furnish the acme of the physiological requirements of the acephalous molluscan type. He then passed on to the consideration ot the Trochosphere and Veliger larvae ; the former as exemplified by that of a marine worm ; the latter by that of the o\ster with special reference to the absence of the "head"; and by the late larva of Vcimctics, as bearing upon the origin of the cephalic eyes. Attention was then turned to the recent discovery, by Pelseneer, of eyes in the adult Mytilidae, those oiMytUus being shown to be structurally of the Patella type, but post-oral, and, though innervated by the cerebral ganglia, distinct from the cephalic eyes of other molluscs. They were shown to agree in position with the post-velar eyes of the Chiton larva, and thereby to suggest a close connection between the Lamellibranchiata and Polyplacophora (Chitons). The limits of modification and salient features in the anatomy of the Chiton group were next indicated, leading up to the aplacophorous genus Myzomenia [Dondersia] and special emphasis was laid upon Pruvot's recent discovery that M. hanyulensis during development is the bearer of the eight shelly plates of the true Chitons, and that the development itself is passed through within a cellular "test," from which the young mollusc escapes by a process of rupture. Referring to this "test" and its THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, 47 associated parts, as something at the time of its discovery wholly new, Prof. Howes proceeded to show it to be identical with that shortly afterwards discovered in the developing Yoldia by Drew ; and he then showed the detailed differences between the two to be comparatively insignificant, and probably due to adaptation. Commenting upon the facts, lie regarded them as of supreme importance, when considered together with those of adult anatomy ; and he expressed the belief that they involve the Acephala and the Polyplacophora in a direct genetic relationship — a community of origin from some bilaterally symmetrical ancestor. He argued that the facts altogether outweigh the supposed Rhipidoglossan affinity of the Acephala with the Gastropoda, which as a group are asymmetrical. He next passed to the work of I.acaze-Duthiers, Kowaleyski, and others, on the structure and development of the Scaphopoda (Dentalium), a group of Molluscs of world-wide distribution, whose affinities have always been much in dispute. Concerning their development, he agreed with Drew that their 4 — 5 rowed ciliary girdle, which, at first equatorial, by forward translocation and reduction of parts becomes a complex velum, is probably the homologue of the test of Dondeysia and Yoldia ; and he said that if this be so, Dentalium might hark back with these to a common ancestrial series. Prof. Howes next sought to show it to be a conclusion from these data that the velum is either a concentrated and translocated test, or the test an overgrown velum ; and he also sought to prove that the existence of the test explains such hitherto anomalous features as the duplication of the trochal- ridge in the trochosphere of Patella and the presence of a pre- and post-oral ciliated annulus in the larva of the Ship-worm (Teredo), if not the polytrochal stage generally and its variants. In conclusion Prof. Howes dealt with the habits of Dentalium, and indicated the structural features which that animal presents in common with the Acephalous and Cephalous MoUusca respectively, and considered more especially its shell, which when fully formed is a tapering tube. He showed that, like this, the "shell" of the Acephalous Mollusca (dealing with the " Gaper" and certain boring species) really forms, with its associated parts, a complete tubular investment, and that its specially characteristic feature — the calcification of its opposite halves — is said by the late eminent conchologist, Paul Fischer, to be passed through during development by Dentalium itself. He emphasised the need of confirmation of this remarkable statement, and deduced the final conclusion that the points of morphological community between the three MoUuscan groups which had been considered, simplified our conception of their inter-relationships to a degree as unexpected as it was satisfactory. By these discoveries a really great advance had been made. It strengthened our confidence in the larval form as a guide to affinity, and had come as a welcome sequel to recent work in America upon the Trilobites which had similarly justified our trust in the Nauplius. Prof. Howes wound up by an earnest appeal to the members of the Essex Field Club, to seek, with all possible speed, a further knowledge of the developmental history of their indigenous marine Acephala. 48 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Remarks were made by the President, by Prof. Meldola, and Mr. Walter Crouch, and Prof. Howes was most cordially thanked for his interesting and suggestive lecture. Prof. Howes briefly acknowledged the vote of thanks, and the meeting ended. THE TWENTY -FIRST ANNUAL GENERAL MEET- ING AND THE 202ND ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, March joth, 1901. Theaist .Annual Meeting was held at 5 o'clock p.m. in the Physical Lecture Theatre of the Technical Institute, West Ham, Mr. David Howard, President, in the chair. The minutes of the 2Gth Annual Meeting, held on November 24th, igoo, and printed in the Essex Naturalist, vol. xi., pp. 296-298, were read and confirmed. Mr. Crouch, in the absence of Mr. Waller, read the summary of the Treasurer's Statement of .\ccount which had been duly signed by the Auditors, Messrs. Walter Crouch and J. D. Cooper. This statement was received and adopted by the meeting.' The President said that they could not part with their Treasurer without expressing their great regret at his resignation of office and acknowledging the debt of gratitude they owed Mr. Waller for his care and skill in the manage- ment of the finances of the Club for the long period of five years. Mr. Waller had entered upon his duties at a period of considerable difficulty, and it must be a source of pleasure to him as it was of satisfaction to the Council and members, that many of the difficulties of the Society, financial and otherwise, had passed awaj-. The Treasurer deserved the heartiest thanks of the Club for his work. [Applause.] The Secretary read the .\naual Report of the Council for the year 1900. This was received and adopted. At the ISIeeting on February 23rd last, the following members retired from the Council under the Rules :— Messrs. H. T. Brown, B. Corcoran, Miller Christy, and Rev. W. C. Howell ; the two last submittiug themselves for re-election. The following were duly proposed: — Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., Mr. John A. Finzi, F.E.S., and Rev. W. C. Howell, M..\. ; one seat remaining vacant. As Officers the following were nominated : — President — Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.E.S. ; Treasurer — Mr. David Howard, J. P., F.C.S. ; Hon. Secretaries— Mr. W. Cole, F.L.S., F.E.S. , and Mr. B. G. Cole ; Librarians — vacant ; Auditors — Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S. and Mr. J. D. Cooper. I By an unfortunate oversight this Statement for 1900 was inserted in the last part of the E.N. (vol xi, pp. 306-7), in place of Statement for 1899, which is inserted in the present part (pp. 34-35). THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 49 On retiring from the Presidency (after six years of office), Mr. Howard under Rule IV. becomes one of the Permanent Vice-Presidents of the Ckib. No other Members having been proposed for any office, the above gentle- men stood elected as Members of the Council and Officers for the year 1901, and were so declared by the Chairman. Prof. R. Meldola having taken the chair as President, Mr. Howard in concluding his long term as President congratulated the Club on the position it had attained as the result of its 21 years work and thanked the members heartily for the confidence they had reposed in him during his six years of office. Mr. Howard then continued his remarks in the form of an address which is printed in the present part of the Essex Naturalist. Prof. Meldola first returned thanks on his own behalf for the honour conferred upon him by his re-election as President after an interval of seven- teen years. And he begged to move a very cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Howard for his long services as President. All connected with the Club knew the care and attention Mr. Howard had given to its affairs during years of considerable difficulty. It was very satisfactory to know that they would still have Mr. Howard's services as one of the Permanent Vice-Presidents, and also in the onerous post of Treasurer, the duties of which had been carried on with such good results by Mr. Waller. He was sure they had all listened with pleasure to Mr. Howard's remarks that evening, and hoped to read them in the pages of the Essex Naturalist. Mr. Walter Crouch cordially seconded the vote of thanks, which was carried unanimously amid applause. Mr. Howard briefly returned thanks. He said that he handed the afifairs of the Club to their new President with every confidence, and he viewed the future of the Club as one full of hope. Mr. Hugh McLachlan proposed a very hearty vote of thanks to the officers, including the Hon. Counsel and Solicitor and the Auditors, for their services during the past year. And he particularly wished to record the sense of gratitude of the members to Mr. Waller for his long and successful work as their Honorary Treasurer. The work of the Auditors had also been most valuable, and deserved their warmest thanks. Mr. G. E. Vaughan seconded the vote of thanks to the officers, which was carried unanimously. Mr. H. J. Coburn, as Hon. Solicitor, thanked the meeting on behalf of the officers, collectively. This concluded the ordinary business of the Annual Meeting. Mr. Vaughan brought forward the subject of erecting memorial tablets to eminent Essex Naturalists, &c., in churches in the county. After a long discussion Mr. Vaughan withdrew his proposal for the present, 50 QUREN Elizabeth's lodge. THE TWO HUNDRED AND SECOND ORDINARY MEETING. After an hour's interval for tea, the 202nd Ordinary Meeting was held, Prof. R Meldola, F.R.S., President, in the chair. The President briefly returned thanks for his re-election to the chair. Mr. Thos. R. Brooke and Mr. Thos. Hacking, A.Sc, were elected members of the Club. Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., exhibited a specimen of one of the Falconidae, a form of the Gerfalcon, shot in Hatfield Forest ten years ago by one of the Forest keepers, and which was now the property of his widow. This speci- men had been seen by the members of the Club when visiting Hatfield Forest on July 2ist, 1897 (Essex Naturalist, vol. x., p. 178). Mr. Christy also exhibited a series of rubbings of the " mines " of the larvae of the Ash-bark Beetle (Hyleshius) which were shown as lantern slides. Mr. Christy also read some notes on the nature and characteristics of these borings, which will be published, with figures, in a future part of the journal. Remarks on the exhibit were made by the President, Mr. Knock, Mr. Elliott, Mr. Hugh McLachlan and the author in reply. Prof. Meldola exhibited by means of the reflecting electric lantern, one of I^ippmann's colour photographs, and gave an explanation and demonstra- tion of the scientific principles involved. In the experiments he was assisted by Mr. Briscoe, the Principal of the Institute, whom he thanked warmly for assistance and loan of iustrumeats. Mr. E. Sanger-Shepherd then gave a most interesting lantern demonstra- tion of his process for producing colour photographic transparencies, and fully explained and illustrated the scientific basis of the problem. The pictures of flowers, shells, butterflies, birds, and landscapes, &c., were much admired, and Mr. Shepherd's lecture was received with hearty applause. A discussion ensued, in which the President, Mr. Briscoe and Mr- Shepherd took part, and a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Shepherd. Mr. Briscoe was also thanked for his kind aid in allowing the use of apparatus for the use in the demonstrations. Mr. Cole exhibited some proofs of prints made by the three-colour photo- graphic process, which had been kindly sent to him by Messrs. Andre and Sleigh, of Bushey, Herts. A paper on Neolithic Implements from the North Downs, by Mr. Johnson, was, from want of time, taken as read. QUEEN ELIZABETH'S LODGE AND THE EPPING FOREST MUSEUM. The summary of the Reports of the Architect and the resolutions of the Epping Forest Committee of tlie Corporation of London anent this matter pubHshed under the above title in the Essex Naturalist, vol. xi., pp. 31-34, recorded the details of QUEEN ELIZABETH S LODGE. 5I the repairs of the Lodge up to April, 1899. Since that date the restoration has been accomphshed, and the Epping Forest Committee have issued some statements respecting it, which may appropriately be reprinted, in order to make the story of this excellent piece of work complete. In the Report presented to the Common Council on the 25th January, 1900, the following statement occurs : — " On the 17th April last (1899) we reported to your Honorable Court as to the proposed additions and alierations of Queen Elizabeth's Lodge with the object of strengthening the structural condition and improving the external appearance of this historical and interesting building, and enlarging the Museum established there by the Essex Field Club (which has received much public favour) in accordance with the reports furnished to us by Mr. J. Oldrid Scott, the eminent architect, and we recommended that your Honorable Court should make a special grant of ;^500 towards the cost, which recommendation was agreed to by your Honorable Court. " Mr. Scott's approximate estimate for the work, made in May, 1897, waS;^75o; but after your Honorable Court had agreed to the Report, we communicated further with that gentleman, and he submitted drawings and specifications of works, and stated that, in consequence of the increase in the cost of labour and materials, his estimate must be increased from /'850 to ;^g5o. We accordingly invited Tenders for the work, and accepted the lowest, being that of Mr. Arthur Porter, at the sum of £yg7, and a contract was entered into with him for the work. " When the external plastering was removed, it was found that in several places the timbers had seriously decayed and weakened the building, and Mr. Scott reported that it was desirable, if not essential, that some renewal of the timbers should be undertaken ; which work was not included in the contract. We, therefore, authorised Mr. Scott to do what was necessary with regard to replacing the timbers, and to provide additional sanitary accommodation. " The works included in the contract are nearly completed, but it will be necessary to provide better means of warming the Lodge for the protection of the building itself and of the exhibits in the Museum, possibly by means of hot-water pipes. The annual expense of heating will, we have every reason to believe, be increased but slightly, if at all.'^ In addition to the suggestion that the building should be warmed by hot-water, the Council of the Essex Field Club asked the Committee to favourably consider a request that a small room should be set apart, in which curatorial work could be carried on. It was found that the scullery at the base of the great staircase could be so adapted at a cost of about ^50, and the Club offered to contribute this amount out of the Museum Fund. The whole of the work of restoration was accomplished by the summer of 1900, and in the report of the Epping Forest 52 PAL.^OLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THAMES VALLEY. Committee, dated 31st January, 1901, the conclusion of the matter is thus alluded to : — " The Essex Field Club, who, with the consent of the Corporation, are the custodians of the exhibits in the Museum, asked us to provide a room for the Curator, and agreed to contribute /50 towards the cost. To this we assented. We have now to report the completion of the alterations and additions to the Lodge at a total cost of /ijOoS i6s. 8d., less the /50 provided by the Essex Field Club. The restorations have given great satisfaction, and the Museum is now in course of re-arrangement, not only in the Banqueting Room, where it has existed for some years, but also in the renovated Oak Room on the first floor, to which it corresponds in dimensions. " We have also the pleasure to report that the old Tapestry is being cleaned and renovated with very beneficial result." The modifications in the plan of the Museum necessitated by the desire of the Committee that no tall cases should be placed in the centres of the rooms, are explained in the report of the meeting held on December 8th last (Essex Naturalist, xi., pp. 300-303). The building is now open to the public so that the renovated rooms may be inspected, but a notice has been issued by the Curator pointing out that the museum is in course of re-arrangement. The old cases are being altered and new ones fitted by Mr. Chiswell, of Chingford. The work will be pushed on during the autumn and winter, and it is hoped that the formal re-opening of the museum may take place in the spring of 1902. The most grateful thanks of all well-wishers of the Forest will be given to the Corporation of London for this careful restoration of one of the most precious buildings in the district, and members of the Club as well as naturalists generally will be pleased in the possession of two such excellent rooms for the museum as those now devoted to the purpose. PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THE LOW-LEVEL DRIFT OF THE THAMES VALLEY. CHIEFLY FROM ILFORD AND GRAYS, ESSEX. By J. P. JOHNSON. At a meeting of the Essex Field Club held on January 26th, igoi, I described some flint implements which had been obtained from the recent excavations on the site of the famous Uphall Brickyard, Ilford, Essex. Owing to the comparative rarity of PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THAMES VALLEY. 5-; contemporaneous implements in the low-level drift of the Thames Valley, especially in the Essex portion, I have thought it desir- able, while describing them here, to give in addition an account of some specimens which I obtained from the brickearth at Grays, together with others from Crayford. Moreover, they belong to the generally little known group of flake-tools, and have a further interest in that they well exhibit the dexterity and neatness in the art of flaking which Palaeolithic man had attained at this late epoch of his reign in Britain. The first discovery of implements in the low-level drift of the Thames Valley was made at Crayford,' where, beneath the chalk cliff against which the fossiliferous brickearth abuts, Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell came across a dense layer of flakes : — " The uppermost edge of the area covered by them is about 36 feet from the present surface, the lowest nearly six feet lower. This area was thickly covered with chips for the space of about 10 feet north and south, and, as far as I know at present, 15 feet east and west but I expect that it will be found to extend further . . . The fragments of flint lay touching each other, in parts to a thickness of several inches. . The flakes are in most cases quite new and clean, always so on the lower side, very slightly discoloured on the upper. . I have been able to piece together many of these flakes, and to demonstrate that the object sought was the manufacture of hiches, which has been confirmed by my digging out the broad end of a flint hache in the presence of Prof. Boyd Dawkins, whom I had asked to visit the place ; and later I recovered the rest of the implement. Some of the smaller chips leave no doubt that besides these coarser operations of blocking out, very fine work indeed was attempted. . . A few small pieces of bone were found immediately beneath the layer ; but above could be seen fine specimens, and smaller ones in abundance. . . Numerous splinters of the large bones lay around and suggested their having been broken for food." This locality has also yielded a large number of designedly shaped flakes, a characteristic example of which is shewn in Fig. I. There can be no doubt that this was meant to be used as a knife, the thick end probably being bound round with vegetable fibre or animal sinew, after the style of the Australian knife figured by Sir John Evans, "" and as such one cannot but admire its effectiveness. It well illustrates the clever way in which the later Palaeolithic people manipulated the flint. Even more eloquent of their ability is the testiaiony of the spear-heads, one of which is represented by Fig. 2, for their shape is an indis- putable indication of forethought and skill in execution. 1 F. C. J. Spurrkll, " On the Discovery of the Place where Palaeolithic Implements were made at Crayford." Q. Journ.Geol. Soc, vol. xxxvi. (1880). 2 The Ancient Stone Implements . . . of Great Britain. 2iid edition, London. (1897), 54 PAI./EOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THAMES VALLEY. PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THAMES VALLEY. 55 Despite the thorough investigation of the fossil vertebrate fauna of the Uphall Brickyard undertaken by Sir Antonio Brady and others, it had not yielded any traces of man up to the time of its abandonment ; and it was not until the early part of last year, when I discovered some flint flakes^ in the pits which had then lately been opened on the classical site, that Homo sapiens was known to be a member of that fauna. Fig. 2. Flint Spear-head from the Cray ford Brick-earth. Nat. size. One of these flakes is shewn in Fig. 3, and is another excellent sample of the neat work of the men who inhabited the Thames Valley during the low-level epoch. The best specimen however (Fig. 4), is a flake of slate-black flint which has been carefully serrated along the edge ; the secondary trimming is very Fig. 3. Flint Flake from the Gravel at Ilford, Essex. Actual size. fine and far superior to any I have seen from the high-level drift. I found these flakes all in situ in the upper part of the gravel, with which they were clearly contemporaneous, being little, if at all, worn, and quite free from ochreous stains. This same bed yielded bones of rhinoceros, together with land and freshwater shells, some of which are no longer living in this country. While exploring the Grays district, together with my friends Messrs. Hinton and Kennard, I obtained several flint tools from 3 J. P.Johnson, "Additions to the Palieolithic Fauna of the Uphall Brickyard, Ilford." Essex Naturalist, vol xi. (1900), pp. 209-212. 1 can now also add Vitrea raUiatula (Aid.), some shells of this Gastropod being in the collection of my friend Mr. G. White. 56 PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THAMES VALLEY. the shell-beds of the Orsett Road section.-* They include, besides a neat little scraper, the well-formed flake represented by P'ig. 5, the edges of which have been remarkably notched through use. Fig. 4. Flint Saw. From the Gravel at Ilford. Essex. Actual size. The deposits of gravel, sand and loam, which constitute the low-level drift of the Thames Valley, have yielded the remains of one of the most remarkable fauna ever gathered together in so Fig. Flake showing signs of use. From the shell-beds in the Brick-earth at Grays, Essex. Actual size. 4 See Hinton and Kennard, " Contributions to the Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley." Parti. Essex Naturalist, vol. xi. (1901), pp. 336-370. ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIL, PI. U. G. J. Symons, President R.Met.S., Hon. Member, Essex Field Club. Born August 6, 1838. Died March loth, 1900. OBITUARY NOTICES. 57 small an area. Bones of animals which are now only met with in different and widely separated parts of the world are mingled with those of extinct species of elephant and rhinoceros and with the primitive flint implements of the men who were their contemporaries. What the makers of these implements were like, however, is quite unknown, as no human remains have ever been dis- covered, but in point of culture they could not have differed much from the more primitive of existing savages. [I have drawn all the above figures to actual size, and have given the Essex specimens represented to the Essex Field Club's Museum at Stratford.] OBITUARY NOTICES. THE LATE GEORGE JAMES SYMONS, F.R.S. [With Portrait, Plate II. ] It was with sincere regret that all students of science heard of the death on March loth, 1900, of one of the greatest meteorologists that England has ever produced. By the death of Mr. Symons the Essex Field Club lost a highly esteemed Honorary Member, one always willing to give advice and assistance in the work of the Club, while his genial personahty and stores of information were thoroughly appreciated on those occasions when his numerous employments permitted him to attend our meetings. His co-adjutor and fellow-worker for nearly 30 years, Mr. H. Sowerby Wallis, has most kindly furnished us with the published memoirs of Mr. Symons from which to select materials for this notice. We have chosen that in The Times for March 13th, 1900, as the basis of the following, supplemented by information given in the Quarterly Jour : Roy. Meteorological Society (April, 1900) and in Symons's Monthly Meteorological Magazine, which was founded by its editor and proprietor in 1866. "We have to thank the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society and the Secretary, Mr. W. Marriott, for the cliche of the excellent portrait accompanying this notice. George James Symons was born in London on August 6th, 1838, the only child of Joseph and Georgina Symons, of Pimlico. He was educated at St. Peter's Collegiate School, Eaton Square, and by a private tutor in Leicester- shire. From his boyhood he exhibited a love of natural science, and it is said that he offered his services as an assistant at the age of 16 to Mr James Glaisher, who, however, attempted to dissuade him from pursuing scientific investigation on the ground that it did not pay. Symons, nevertheless, persisted in his aim. At the age of 18 he joined the Meteorological Society, which Mr. Glaisher had founded, and in the course of another 12 months found employment as one of the Registrar General's meteorological reporters, an office which he continued to hold to the time of his death. For a few 58 OBITUARY NOTICES. years he was an assistant in the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade under the late Admiral FitzRoy, who was then organizing his system of storm-warnings. In addition to his official duties, and possibly in collision witli them, Mr. Symons was already collecting records of the fall of rain, a pursuit the value of which Admiral FitzRoy failed to appreciate very highly, and being com- pelled to make choice between the one branch of work and the other, Mr. Symons adhered to his own course. He foresaw the importance of a study of the rainfall in view of the increasing demand upon the water resources of the kingdom, necessitated by the growth of population, improved and more systematic sanitation, and the additional demands of growing industries. In i860 he published his first annual volume of the Bi'itish Rainfall, which con- tained records from 168 stations — namely, 163 in England and five in Wales, there being none for Scotland or Ireland. With persistent energy he con- tinued for 40 years to develop this unique organization of voluntary observers. His last published British Rainfall for 1898, contained records from 2,545 stations in England, 237 in Wales, 436 in Scotland and 186 in Ireland — a total of 3,404 stations. It is claimed for him that at the time of his death he was the head of one of the largest purely volunteer organizations in existence, having over 3,000 observers in all parts of the kingdom. His annual digest of their records is a standard work in which not only meteorologists but civil engineers, sanitary experts, and others, place unquestioning confidence. A determining factor which encouraged Mr. Symons to persevere with studies which were then imperfectly understood and little appreciated was the recurrence of the terrible outbreaks of cholera which afflicted England and Europe throughout the middle part of the century. He was among the first to perceive in this connection the necessity of determining the amount and distribution of the water supply. His first step was to ascertain what records of rainfall were already in existence. These he found to be very much scattered. While some parts of the country were more or less covered, other very large districts were entirely without them, and such records as there were related to varying periods of time, and could not be correlated. This was the cause of his setting to work to organize a band of observers who would undertake to observe the amount of the rainfall each day, using tested gauges satisfactorily exposed and capable of giving accurate results. The need of precautions to ensure these conditions was apparent to all as soon as they were put into practice, for the data already in existence were proved to be frequently valueless. One gauge was discovered which had been orna- mented with a small roof to protect it from the rain, which it was its purpose to measure. Others were placed where water could drip into them from over-hanging trees, and so forth. Mr. Symons visited personally and tested every gauge. The proper distribution of the gauges over the kingdom was also a part of his task. Private individuals were induced to take up the work, procure gauges at their own cost, and make the observations methodi- cally from no motive but the public good. The result of these labours has been the accumulatiom of a mass of data such as exists in no other country, and which is now available for use in connexion with a variety of questions relating to the sanitary and hygienic needs of the country. Mr. S3 mons told of one case in which a municipality was put to the expense of many thousands OBITUARY NOTICES. 5g of pounds in rectifying a blunder in the calculation of the water available from a selected area, the mistake being due to the fact that a rod had been left projecting over the single gauge which formed the basis of the calculations, and that the rain dripping from the rod into the gauge was responsible for the district being credited with an absurdly exaggerated capacity for supplying water. The rainfall was not, however, the only branch of meteorology in which Mr. Symons interested himself. To the kindred subjects of evaporation and percolation he also devoted his attention so far as they affected the under- ground stores of water. The use of lightning conductors was another matter in which he took interest, and, as a member of the Lightning-Rod Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society, he had much to do with the valuable report of the Committee which was the product of four years' labours. The existence of the " thunderbolt" was another subject of Mr. Symon's charac- teristically persistent attention. Whenever and wherever such a phenomenon was said to have been seen, Mr. Symons, if it was at all possible, himself visited the spot and investigated the evidence, with the invariable result that he could get no proof of an electric meteor having existed. Throughout the 40 years of his work, Mr. Symons, whenever possible, adhered to his custom of giving in The Times a summary of his data respecting the year's rainfall. These observations became especially valuable during a cycle of dry years, such as 1890-99. He allowed few atmospheric phenomena of anj^ interest to pass without some useful comment. A remark- able sunset, an abnormal barometric pressure, or a prolonged drought, were a few among many such subjects. He was for some years a member of the Council of the Royal Botanic Society. He also served on the Council of the Sanitary Institute. Mr. Symons was a great authority on bibliography. He collected the titles of all books and pamphlets bearing on meteorology of which he could gain intelligence, and at the time of his death these titles amounted to about 60,000. In 1882 he furnished about 20,000 to the Chief Signal Office, Washington, U.S., with a view to their being printed, but this was not fully carried out. It is to be hoped that this bibliography may come into the possession of the Meteorological Society. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1878, and was chosen as Chairman of the Committee appointed by the Society to report upon the eruption of Krakatoa. In 1899 he was appointed a member of the Committee in connexion with the scheme for the establishment of a national physical laboratory at Kew. He was President of the Royal Meteorological Society in 1880, and he filled the office of secretary for many years up to the close of 1899. In view of the approaching commemoration by the Society early in April next of its 50th year, it sought to honour him by re-electing him Presi- dent. The attack of paralysis, which intervened between his election and the subsequent meeting of the Society, prevented him from retaining the position. For the last 30 years he has been assisted in the compilation of rainfall values by Mr. H. Sowerby Wallis, who, it is understood, will carry on the work according to the wish e.xpressed by Mr. Symons. The Council of the 6o OBITUARY NOTICES. Society of Arts in 1897 awarded him the Albert Medal " for services he rendered to the United Kingdom by affording to engineers engaged in the water supply and the sewage of towns a trustworthy basis for their work by establishing and carrying on during nearly 40 years systematic observations (now at over 3,000 stations) of the rainfall of the British Isles, and by record- ing, tabulating, and graphically indicating the results of these observations in the annual volumes published by himself." In 1891 he was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. His energy in the pursuit of physical truths and his capacity for organizing and retaining the services of his helpers, as well as of stimulating the interest of beginners in his favourite studies, were combined with great kindliness of disposition and unaffected reticence. By none will he be more regretted than by the rank and file of his small army of 3,000 observers. Mr. Symons married in 1866 Miss Elizabeth Luke, who helped him very considerably in his clerical work. The only child of the marriage died in infancy, and Mrs. Symons died in 1884. His death took place on Saturday afternoon, March loth, 1900, at his house in Camden Square, after an illness of little over three weeks. Although suffering somewhat from overwork he appeared to be in a fair state of health until February 14th, when he was seized with paralysis, from which he never rallied. He was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery on March i6th, after a Memorial Service had taken place at Holy Trinity Church, Marylebone, at which a large number of friends, and many eminent representatives of science were present, including Lord Lister, the President of the Koyal Society. A Committee was formed in June, 1900, to establish a memorial to Mr, Symons, in the form of a Gold Medal to be awarded from time to time by the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society for distinguished work in con- nection with meteorological science. We understand that this object has been attained and a sum of about /750 collected. THE LATE MR TOM HAY WILSON. Readers of the Essex Naturalist will regret to hear of the death of Mr. T. Hay Wilson, in his 6oth year, on May loth, 1900, at Bushey Herts. A native of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and long a resident there, he settled in the London district more than twenty years ago. He was for many years connected with, and latterly a member of, the firm of Crossley Bros., the manufacturers of the Otto gas engine. He became a member of the Geologists' Association in 1881, and contributed to Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol, xi., p. 194 (1889), a short paper entitled " Notes on the artificial unmaking of Flints." In this paper he gives his experience of " the behaviour of Flint Shingle when exposed to the action ot hot gases, and the following destructive agents: percussion, attrition, heat, with pressure, moisture, and acid." The gases are those discharged from the cylinder of a gas engine. They are driven through a chamber filled with shingle ; the gases entering at the bottom of the chamber and escaping quietly through a ventilating pipe at the OBITUARY NOTICES. 6i top. This greatly reduces the noise which would otherwise be made by the engine wh-3n at work. Flint he found to be the only shingle which could withstand the influences to which it was exposed for any length of time, lime- stone being destroyed with remarkable rapidity. In one case at Oxford, where the shingle largely consisted of limestone, he states that, after the chamber had been in use only three days, " I found over two tons had almost disappeared, as a fine powder, and had been deposited over the adjacent roofs. The chamber was refilled with good flint shingle, and has not been touched for about three years." He adds that flint ultimately becomes reduced to mud, not sand. The geological bearing and interest of experiences of this kind scarcely need pointing out. The late Mr. T. H. Wilson. Mr. Wilson began to reside at Chingford shortly before he joined the Essex Field Club in 1886, and continued to live there till between two and three years ago. He always took a keen interest in the work of the Club, and, when he died, had been for some years a member of its Council. Though his business engagements occupied most of his time, he was a diligent student of the geology and archaeology of Essex, more especially of that portion of the county within or on the borders of Epping Forest, to which he was strongly attached. He contributed many useful geological and other notes on this district to the pages to the Essex Naturalist, and the present writer has been greatly indebted to him from time to time for informa- tion as to the opening of new geological sections there or the re-development 62 THE LIBRARY TABLE. of old ones. He was also one of the most active members of the Epping Forest Museum Committee, and contributed to the Chingford Museum a small collection of rock specimens from the gravels of the Forest and of fossils from the Boulder Clay towards its northern border. He will be much missed by all who knew him, not merely on account of his scientific ability and energy, but as one of the most kindly, considerate, modest and sincere of men. T.V.H. THE LIBRARY TABLE. Report on the Water Supply of the County of Essex. By Dr. J. C. Thresh, County Medical Officer of Health, &c. Pp. xv, i68 ; 12 plates. 8vo., Chelmsford, n.d. [1901.] It is many years since Dr. Thresh, who had already made his mark in scientific literature, brought his trained abilities to Essex, and several most valuable reports and other works have since appeared from his indefatigable pen. That before us is a compendium of information, indispensable to all who would study the question of the supply of that prime necessity of life, potable water, to the inhabitants of our county. The work opens with a brief geological summary of the several water- yielding formations and associated impervious strata occurring in Essex, followed by a classification of their products as (i) Surface-waters, (2) River- waters, (3) Subsoil-waters, and (4) Deep-well-waters. The first are promptly condemned as all more or less contaminated with manurial or other organic substances, and occasionally with mineral ingredients such as sulphate of magnesia, derived from the surface-soil. River-waters have this objectionable feature modified by partial oxidation of the organic matter, but require further purification by filtering, at least for domestic purposes. Subsoil-waters, extensively used for isolated houses, hamlets and xillages, are notoriously liable to similar or worse contamination. Unfortunately, such are utilized for the partial or entire supply of Witham, Clacton, and even Chelmsford. It may be remarked in passing that the hydrogen sulphide present in the water of newly-made wells in the Boulder Clay originates in the alteration of the iron-pyrites abundant in that clay. It is of but temporary formation, and harmless, though offensive whilst its production continue. Belief in the medical efficiency of such waters is not yet wholly extinct. Deep-well waters, as the only satisfactory source of large supply, neces- sarily occupy the bulk of the report. The inter-communication of the waters of the Tertiary sands and of the underlying Chalk has been fully established, and probably the progressive deterioration by sea-water of the supply from the Chalk-wells of the Essex and Suffolk coasts is due, not to actual outcrop of the Chalk in the sea-bed (though it crosses the estuary at Grays), but to connection of the Lower Tertiary sands with those of the North Sea, where the London Clay has been removed. The many wells now drawing upon the Chalk, to an extent exceeding the supply from Kent and Cambridgeshire, induce a flow of sea-water to make up the deficiency. Nevertheless, until the development of the Essex coalfields makes it worth while to convey water from other counties more richly endowed therewith, the Chalk constitutes the only available source for large supplies, and the THE LIBRARY TABLK. 63 depth at which this formation Hes from district to district is therefore a matter of primary importance. We do not, in saying this, ignore the speculative element involved. That a boring may pass very near to a water-charged fissure in the Chalk, and yet obtain no yield from it, is demonstrated by the few cases in which enlightened engineers have used explosives (preferably roburite) to shatter the rock around the lower part of a boring, with the result of effecting communication with such fissures, and securing their yield. This very usual practice for petroleum-wells, is, however, but little in vogue in England, though the Chalk is a rock pre-eminently suitable for such pro- cedure. The proportion of fruitless borings in the Chalk is, moreover, very small, in comparison with the successful operations, even if we include in the failures those in which the water has in course of time become too salt for use, as mentioned above. On pp. 20, 21 is given a table of the level of the Chalk-surface, referred to Ordnance Datum, at over 100 localities. Unfortunately this contains many clerical errors, perceptible only by reference to the records published in various works, since there are given here merely the differences between depth to chalk and elevation of site above datum. Though the author solicits correction it is impossible to deal here with more than two or three salient instances. Any traveller by the Tilbury line can see that the Chalk-surface at Purfleet is not 30 to 40 feet below sea-level, but some 50 feet above it. At Mistley, on the other hand, it is 75 feet below datum, but is given as 25 feet above it. At Bishops Stortford it is given as 328, the surface-level at the Waterworks, instead of 213, 115 feet down the well. These and many similar instances largely detract from the value of the table, a corrected re-issue of which is emphatically desirable, as is the recording in the Essex Naturalist of details of all wells not yet published. Our pages will constitute the recognised storehouse and source of information for future labourers in the same field. and there are many wells mentioned in the work before us of later date than Mr. Whitaker's last series (No. iv), published in 1896 in the E.N. In dealing with the gradual lowering of the hydrostatic level in various parts of the county, Dr. Thresh regards the bulk of water in the chalk as stationary ("stagnant " suggests unpleasant ideas), and as having little or no free communication or definite flow. The area of each " hydrological unit," represented by a single water-charged fissure, or connected group of fissures, is a matter for speculation. It does not follow that because the Southend wells are such-and-such distances apart, therefore intervening wells would be either futile or detrimental to those existing. Everything depends on the general trend of the Chalk-fissures. If, for instance, this is north-westerly, the Southend and Oakwood wells might been one fissure of three miles length, and the Prittlewell, Eastwood, and Noble's Green wells on another and wholly independent fissure, of about the same length and half a mile distant from the first. With a difterent general trend each well might be a separate fissure and in no case can it be asserted positively that wells at intervening points would affect them. Nor, in so fortuitous a matter as fissures in chalk, can it be laid down as established that headings driven from a shaft will of necessity exhaust a larger area than the shaft itself or even than a boring on the site. If the Chalk there is sufficiently fissured, the yield is a mere question of pumping power, and the 64 THE LIBRARY TABLE. shaft and headings are wasted labour ; whilst if the rock is compact the fissures may be too far apart to be reached by headings. On the open chalk- downs, when the whole rainfall is absorbed to fill the fissures, and where the trend of the main joints is visible, the conditions render the system of shafts and headings far less speculative than would be the case in South Essex at least, where several hundred feet of Tertiary deposits overlie the Chalk. But the system would answer well enough in North Essex, and may be decreed in the Book of Fate as the ultimate general means of supplying the whole county with water, all taken above sea-level, and of incontestable purity. For the saline ingredients of the Chalk-water, as already suggested, the Tertiary sands are probably responsible. These are of insignificant thickness on the northern outcrop, from Roydon to Sudbury, but reach 150 to 180 feet in the Southend district, and necessarily crop out in the estuary above Thames Haven. The faults traversing the southern part of the county are of insufficient magnitude to cut off the connection, with the exception of the two that, meeting near Romford, form an angular projection of what may be termed unsalted chalk, into the area susceptible of marine influence. A comparison of Dr. Thresh's map of calcareous and saline waters (p. 34) with that of the sub-Tertiary contour of the Chalk (p. 16, taken from the Essex Naturalist, vol. v, pi. iii , 1891) will shew that the boundary, except at the projection referred to, is approximately along the line at which the Chalk - surface rose above sea-level before the latest movement of depression. In other words, the limit of marine influence is on or near the line —70 of the contour of the Chalk-surface, with the exception indicated. This projection is bounded by a triangle of faults of considerable ^nagnitude, the enclosed mass having been compressed into anticlinal arch and synclinal trough, discordant in strike with the surrounding less-disturbed areas, from which it is separated hydrologically by clay crushed into impervious walls along the faults. Dr. Thresh has thus, on purely chemical evidence, confirmed deductions from geological premises. But we must point out that the boundary is not a fault, except at that part of its course, but an old subterranean shore-line, and that faults, though not rigidly straight lines, are more angular than the gracefully- sinuous dotted line on Dr. Thresh's map, more or less diagrammatic in its character. In the useful table of analyses (p. 37) from over forty different wells, the initials " T.S." stand for Tertiary sands, in many cases bedsin, or immediately at the base of, the London Clay ; in only a few instances is the supply from Thanet Sands, which the initials might equally represent. After these generalisations. Dr. Thresh takes in succession the several Water Companies and District Councils, describing their works and the nature of private supplies utilised within their respective areas. For the clay districts generally the supply may be said to be deficient in quantity and quality, repeated mention being made, with skilful avoidance of tautology, of rainwater, ponds, ditches, shallow wells little better than cesspits, cartage for a mile or two from source, sale by the pailful, Ac. But the charges of the Companies, occupying pp. 145-167, though perhaps justified by the heavy cost of providing proper supplies, largely explain the reluctance of local authorities to close even badly-contaminated sources, and THE LIBRARY TABLE. 65 compel resort to the costly, and not always absolutely unexceptionable, alternative. In the strait between highly probable danger to life in the natural, and certain injury to the purse in the artificial, purveyance of water to the home of the peasant, there is a tendency to evade the difficulty by a policy of "masterly inactivity," not refusing to move, but — not moving. In a subsequent number we shall hope to summarise some of the valuable particulars which crowd this very excellent and interesting Report. W. H. Dalton. A Handbook of British Birds; showing the Distribution of the Resident and Migratory Species in the British Islands ; with an Index to the Records of the Rarer Visitants. By J. E. Harting, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Member of the British Ornithologists' Union. New and Revised Edition ; with 35 coloured Plates, carefully reproduced from original drawings by the late Professor Schlegel. London : J. C. Nimmo, 1901 31 + 520 pp. demy-octavo. (Price two guineas nett.) Mr. Harting's Handbook of British Birds has been, for more than a quarter of a century, a standard work of reference with working British ornithologists. To say this is to say, in effect, that it has been long out of date ; for our knowledge of the natural history of British Birds has advanced enormously with- in the last quarter of a century. Now, however, comes a new edition which is almost incomparably superior to the old. The scope and general arrange- ment of the work remain the same, but illustrations have been added, and, in respect of matter also, the new edition is so much larger than the old as to constitute almost a new work. Certainly it is by far the most important work on British Birds which has appeared for some years. There is, unquestionably, an opening for a volume of this kind, written by an acknowledged authority and furnished with coloured illustrations. The splendidly-illustrated works of the late Lord Lilford, Messrs. Sharpe and Dresser, and others have been published, necessarily, at a price which places them above the reach of the average ornithologist. Of those works of real scientific value which have been within his reach, none have had coloured plates —for instance, Newton and Saunders' Yarrell, Seebohm 's British Birds, and Saunders' Manual. Almost the only work on British Birds which is at once fairly complete, moderate in price, and provided with coloured plates is " Morris " — a pretentious treatise which never had any great scientific value and has long been hopelessly out of date. There has been, therefore, a long felt want for a really authoritative book on British Birds, in one volume, with good coloured illustrations, and at a moderate price. This want the present work meets admirably. Mr. Harting's book must not be mistaken for an ordinary " History " of British Birds. It scarcely notices habits, nidification, changes of plumage, and such matters. The author's chief aim has been (as he explains) to show " the "precise status of every so-called British bird, distinguishing the rare and " accidental visitors from the residents and annual migrants." He errs, however, in claiming that this kind of information is " not to be found in any " other work on British Birds." He meant, doubtless, to claim that it was 66 THE LIBRARY TABLE. not to be found in anything like so clear and ample a form in any other work ; and he would have been fully justified in making such a claim. In this respect, indeed, his book is practically exhaustive. The volume consists of an " Introduction," two " Parts," and a " Summary." In the introduction we have an explanation of the scheme of the book ; a general survey of the subject, including an examination of the claims of certain casually-occurring species to a place on the British list ; a catalogue of the more important County or other local Avifaunas which have appeared since 1866, when Mr. Harting's well-known Binis 0/ Middlesex appeared ; some sensible remarks upon the much-debated subjects of classification and nomenclature, in the course of which Mr. Harting opposes (we are glad to see) the blind application of the generally-useful " priority " law; a brief " consideration of " the terms employed to designate the various groups of birds which are "placed in Parts I. and II."; and, finally, an acknowledgment of help received, from which it appears that Prof. A. Newton, Mr. Howard Saunders, and Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown have been good enough to read through the proofs. No author could desire more competent help. It is interesting to note that our author groups British birds as follows : — (i) Residents .. .. .. 130 (2) Periodical Migrants . . . . 100 (3) Annual Visitants .. .. 32 (4) Rare and Accidental Visitors . . 167 Total . . . . . . 429 Part I. of Mr. Harting's Handbook treats of "British Birds properly so- called" — those, that is, included in the first three of the four "groups" mentioned above. Under each species, four dimensions or measurements are given — the total length, the length of bill, the length of wing, and the length of tarsus. Then follows information as to the status of the bird in Britain — its abundance, distribution, the time or times of its appearance, if not resident, and so forth. Frequently, information is added on other points — some of them, one cannot help thinking, somewhat unnecessary in a "Handbook" of the kind, though always interesting. To the working ornithologist, a very valuable feature of Part I. is found in the large number of references Mr. Harting gives to discussions of, or articles on, interesting ornithological points which have appeared in scientific journals. In these references, one sees Mr. Harting's almost-unrivalled knowledge of the literature of British ornithology. Part n. deals with the '■ Rare and Accidental Visitants." Here, again, we have, under each species, the same four dimensions or measurements, for purposes of identification; together with a brief reference to the region each species inhabits, and a few critical remarks on its occurrences in Britain. The chief feature, however, of Part II. is its lists of occurrences, given under e ich species, with references to published authorities for each occurrence. These li-.ts are, in style, the same as those which appeared in the well-known lirst edition ; but they are, of course, amplified and brought up to date. They NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 67 are as complete as might be expected, in view of the fact that Mr. Harting has now spent some thirty years in perfecting them. The Summary consists merely of a useful classified List of British Birds, in which the residents and migrants are distinguished from the rare visitants. The illustrations, from drawings by the late Prof. Schlegel, are among the best of their kind that have yet appeared. They show, it is true, no more than the head and foot of each species ; but these portions are sufficient for identification in, practically, all cases ; and it will be obvious that, had the whole of each bird been shown, the book could not have been issued in one volume or at the price. In general respects, there is little to criticise. Mr. Harting's " Intro- duction " shows, however, considerable (though by no means uncommon) confusion of idea as to the respective natures of a "Preface" and an "Introduction," being, in truth, both rolled into one. In the text, too we occasionally meet (especially in Part I.) with remarks which, though admirable in themselves, seem slightly foreign to the author's general plan ; whilst here and there, points might have been, we think, somewhat more concisely expressed. These matters are, however, comparatively-unimportant trifles which the critic would not think worthy of notice in any but a book of the highest standing. The format and "get-up " of the volume may be commended as highly as its subject-matter. The printing is excellent ; the binding is plain, but in admirable taste ; and there is a good index. The new edition is indispensable to every British bird-student. Within its limits, it approaches perfection. It would be hard, indeed, to imagine any very serious blemish in a work by so competent a writer, the proofs of which had been criticised by the three gentlemen named above. We may add, in conclusion, that the Essex Field Club is indebted to Mr. Harting (one of its Honorary Members) for a copy of his work, which he has generously presented to the Library. NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. ZOOLOGY. MAMMALIA. The Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus) flying by Day. --On May i6th, iQOi, going into my garden just before one o'clock, I noticed what I took at first for some kind of bird fluttering about in a sheltered spot between some trees close to the house. Going nearer, I saw at once that it was a Long- eared Bat, hawking for flies. While I watched it, it had a short chase after a small white Butterfly, which escaped ; but it was engaged chiefly in hawking for the insects gathered round the flowers of a horse-chestnut tree. Once I saw it snap at a Humble Bee that was visiting the flowers. Its flight seemed feeble and it kept lov.' down among the trees at one spot, but it did not seem particularly incommoded by the light, though it was so, probably, in reality; for it settled several times on the trunk of an adjacent fir-tree, clinging with its hind claws, head downward, with its ears fully extended. Once, whilst so settled it allowed me nearly to catch it. Once, too, I saw it fly into a large sequoia. 68 NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. where it clung to a twig by its wing-hooks, but flew away after half-a-minute or so. On the i8th May, about one o'clock, I saw the Bat again flying about over the lawn. It seemed to fly more feebly than before, with a fluttering moth-like flight. I went out to watch it, but soon lost sight of it. It had a most strange out-of-place look as it flew about with its ears fully extended. Both days were fairly bright, but with a cold wind blowing. The only suggestion I can make to account for this persistent flying in the day time is that the bat was prevented from flying at night, as usual, by the fact that several preceeding nights had been very cold, with frosts; but I saw both Noctules and Pippistrelles on the wing, notwithstanding the cold. — Miller Christy, Pryors, Broomfield, Chelmsford. [I have on several occasions, in Essex and Hertfordshire, seen Bats flying by day, but could not be certain of the species; they were not the Long-eared Bat. -W. Cole.] AVES. Nest of a Black-headed Gull in an old boat. Nesting of Black-headed Gulls in Essex. — Our member, Mr. Charles E. W. Hawkins, of Old Hous, Great Horkesley, has for two years kindly sent us photographs of Blackheaded Gulls nests made in an old boat in the marshes. In sending the pictures this year, Mr. Hawkins remarks: — ■" The enclosed photographs are of a Black-headed Gull's nest, which I took on May 1 2th on one of our Essex Marshes, may be of interest. I am glad to say that there are more nests than I have known for the last twelve years." In NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. Dg response to further inquiries Mr. Hawkins adds; — "The nests were photo- graphed in situ, and were in the same boat as those last year. I have no doubt that the same birds chose the boat each year, as the eggs were of the same variety. On the marsh where the photographs were taken I am glad to say that there is a very marked increase in the number of nests. In one place on one of the larger " fleets " I could have covered three nests at one time with an ordinary bath towel; in fact, where there were 17 nests last year, I should say that there are more than 70 now. I noticed a rather curious thing, that where eggs had been taken from a nest, a fresh pair of birds will secure it at once." On the 27th of June Mr. Hawkins wrote : — " I was on the same marsh last Sunday and found the young gulls hatched out in the boat. Then I suppose they will have to stay for the present, unless the old birds carry them, moorhen fashion." BATRACHIA. A " Happy Family " of Batrachians.— Having occasion to underpin and spur a gate-post in an old garden, at a foot below the ground, I came across a happy hibernating family which may be worth recording. I have seen large families in various situations but never so mixed a colony — three frogs, two toads, three snails, and six or seven common smooth newt or eft {Molgc vulgaris). The wood of the post had rotted below the surface line and the mixture of soil with decayed wood probably afforded suitable bedding for a long sleep. The frogs were a few inches apart from one another, as were the toads, but ttie efts were curled up in close proximity, pretty much as one may occasionally see snakes hibernating in an old manure heap. One of the frogs was of the brightest yellow, with brown markings, more brilliant in appearance than any specimen I have noticed. The toads and newts showed no activity when unearthed but the frogs appeared rapidly to recover from their torpid condition. The remarks made by the workmen were illustrative of the common misconception as to innocent reptiles. The digger handed out the frogs, whereupon his companion remarked, "I wouldn't do 70 NOTES — ORICxINAL AND SELECTED. that for something." The toads were more gingerl}' touched, but neither man would handle the efts ; they were left for the writer to remove.— I. Chalkley Gould, Loughton, February, igoi. PISCES. New Records of Fish in Essex Rivers.— Mr. Edward Hesse, the well-known Fish Taxidermist, who as an angler is acquainted with our Essex rivers, has furnished some notes (dated March, igoi) which supplement the lists given in Dr. Laver's Mammals, Reptiles, and Fishes of Essex. Of the River Cam Dr. Laver remarked that he had been " unable to get any list or specimens of the fish of the Essex portion of this river. This is more to be regretted, as, in some parts of its course, it holds two species apparently naturally absent from all the rest of our Essex rivers . . . these two species are the Grayling, lately introduced into the Lea, and the Spined Loach." Mr. Hesse records the following as occurring in the Cam at Great Chesterford, Essex ;—" Pike, Perch, Roach, Dace (very large specimens, up to ilb. 40Z.), Chub, Minnow, Loach, Miller's Thumb, and Eel. I have not found Grayling, but the stream is quite suitable for the fish." Of the Fiver Blackwater he remarks :—" The Bronze Bream is very plentiful in the Langford Hall Fishery, near Maldon, but is not found higher up the river. It is also plentiful in the brackish water at Beeleigh Weir, where the Chelmer joins the Blackwater." Adding to Dr. Laver's 26 fishes of the Lea Mr. Hesse records the Bleak for that river. Of the Grayling in the Lea resulting from the introduction of fry in 1863, and concerning which Dr Laver remarks " I have not heard of the capture of any of them, but we must hope they are still doing well," Mr. Hesse says :— " A few Grayhng are to be found in the Mill Pool at Hertford ; fish have been caught, but they do not seem to increase." Inthe RoDiNG (nohst for which is given by Laver) he finds :—" Pike, Perch Chubb, Roach, Dace, Bleak, Rudd, Gudgeon, Minnow, Stickleback, Ten-spined Stickleback, Miller's Thumb, Eel. The river may contain Carp and Tench, but I have never seen or caught any. The Roding would be a greater favourite with anglers if it was not poached so much by the country- man." Of the occurrence of the Barbel in Dagenham Lake, mentioned by Laver (pp 23 and 109) he remarks;—" This, I think, must be a mistake ; probably a carp in poor condition was mistaken for barbel. I have never before heard of Barbel being in the lake." It should be noted that in the list of fish given in Mr. Hilhar's paper " An Angler's Notes on Dagenham Lake," in the Essex Naturalist (vol. vi., p. 146) the Barbel is not mentioned. ARACHNID A. Epping Forest Spiders.— The following additions should be made to the lists of the spiders of the Forest in the Trans. Es^ex Field Club (iv. pp. 41- 49^ and Essex Naturalist (vol. xi., pp. ^i^-iii) ■.-Amaurohius fenestvahs, St'roem, abundant in winter. Stemonyphantes lineatus, L., a few specimens. Anineus Wiguttatus. , uncommon, Loughton. Euryopis inormata, Cb., a rare species; several males on a heathy ridge near Loughton.-FRANK P. Smith. NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SRLRCTEll. 7I BOTANY Cystopus lepigoni, De Bary, in Essex. — This rare species of Micro- fungus was found on the lea\'es of Spcygulayui maiina at Deadman's Point, Canvey Island, on June 23rd, by Mr. Whitehead, the Assistant in the Essex Museum of Natural History. The species was first recorded for Great Britain in September, 1864, by Mr. R. G. Keeley, who found it growing upon Spergulariu rubra in Swanscoinbe Marshes. It was also recorded by Mr. F. J. Warren in 1872, who detected it upon S. marina at Fareham, Hants. Mr. George Massee, F.L.S., was kind enough to confirm the determination of the Essex specimens. METEOROLOGY. The Weather of rgoo. — The following interesting summary of the weather in the United Kingdom during 1900 is re-printed from the Standard of January 4th, igoi : — " The character of the weather was exceptional in many respects during the past year, although there were but few features of striking interest. There was a remarkable freedom from spells of cold, and very little frost ; whilst fog was comparatively rare. Rain was more than usually frequent, although the total measurement was not everywhere above the average, and a greater degree of warmth than usual has prevailed during the winter months. Wind storms were not at all frequent, and, with a very few exceptions, those experienced were not severe, although, towards the close of December, heavy gales occurred over the whole of the British Islands. July was the only summer month with especially high temperatures, and, although thunder- storms were fairly frequent, they were not generally heavy. The aggregate rainfall for the year was in excess of the average over the greater part of the Kingdom, the greatest excess being about Sin. in the west of Scotland and in the south of Ireland. In the western districts of England the excess amounted to 3in., but in the Midland districts the total rainfall was in agreement with the average, while in the east and south of England there was a deticiency of about 2in. The number of days with rain ranged from 255 in the north of Scotland to about 180 in the Midland Counties and in the south of England. The temperature was nearly everywhere in excess of the average. There was rather a larger amount of bright sunshine than usual, the excess on the average being more than 100 hours in the south of England aud in the Channel Islands. " In the neighbourhood of London, as shown by the observations made at Greenwich, the total rainfall for the year was about 2in. less than the average of the previous 60 years. The total measurement was 22'3in., and during the last 18 years there have only been three years with an excess of rain. The wettest month of the year was February, with a total fall of 3'6iin., which is 2i2in. above the average. The only other wet months were January, with an excess of o'4oin. ; June, with an excess of oySin. ; and December, with an excess of about o-6in. The driest month was September, with a total rainfall of oyGin. ; and in both March and April there was less than an inch of rain. The greatest deficiency was i-43in. in September and i'24 in October. In the five months July to November the deficiencj? amounted to 4- lin. Rain fell in 182 days, and with practically the same ^2 NOTES- -ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. rainfall as 1899 there were in 1900 about 40 more days with rain. In January rain fell on as many as 22 days, and in both November and December on 20 days. In July there were only six rainy days, and in September seven, but these was no other month with fewer than 13. " The mean temperature for the year at Greenwich was 5ideg., which is about ideg. above the average of the last 60 years There were seven months with an excess of temperature, and in December the mean was45-3deg., which is nearly 6deg. above the average. In July, which was by far the hottest month of the year, with a mean of eyydeg., there was an excess of 4deg. Of the months with the mean temperature below the average, the greatest deficiency was sdeg. in March, and in no other month did the deficiency amount to i-sdeg. The coldest month of the year was February, with a mean of sS'sdeg., while in March the mean was only 39-4deg; The absolutely highest temperature in the shade was 94deg. on July 16, and there were four da'ys above godeg. in July between the i6th and 25th. In June the shade temperature registered 89-4deg., while in August and September there is no reading as high as Badeg. The absolutely lowest temperature was iSdeg. on Feb. 9, and the greatest number of frosts— eleven— occurred during that month. The greatest range of temperature in any month was 50-4deg. in April, the least 25-6deg. in December. The temperature was above the mean in the Metropolis on 210 days, and below the mean on 155 days. In December there were as many as 29 warm days, and in July and November 24 warm days, while in March there were 23 cold days." Bi'itish Rainfall, 7900.— Referring to the hope expressed in the notice of the late Mr. Symons on page 59 ante, we are glad to announce that the work of registering the rainfall in the United Kingdom will be carried on. The volume for 1900 has now (September, 1901,) been issued, edited by Dr. H. R. Mill and Mr. H. S. Wallis, for many years Mr. Symons' assistant. The work is published by Mr. Stanford. Ed. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Containing a great store of information on the Natural History (in its widest sense) of the County of Essex. TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS. Edited by W. Cole. Five volumes, mibound, £'2. i6s. {Only eight complete sets in hand). THE ESSEX NATURALIST. Edited by William Cole, F.L.S., F.E.S. Published quarterly. The nth volume is now in progress. Various prices, averaging los. per volume. Subscription, 6s. per annum, post free. SPECIAL MEMOIRS SERIES:— REPORT ON THE EAST ANGLIAN EARTHQUAKE OF APRIL 22ND, 1884. By Prof. Raphael Meldola, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S., M.A.I., &c. ; and William White F.E.S., Member of Geologists' Association. Price, neatly bound in cloth, 3s. 6d. THE BIRDS OF ESSEX. -A CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COUNTY."^ By Miller Christy, F.L.S. Demy 8vo. Price los. nett. To Members of the E.F.C., 6s. THE MAMMALS, REPTILES & FISHES of ESSEX; "A CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COUNTY." By Henry Layer, F.L.S., F.S.A., &c., Vice-President. Price los. 6d. nett. To Members of the E.F.C. 6s. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, Itst of Council anO ©Rlcei-s for 1902»3. Patron : H.B.H. THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT AND STRATHEARN, K.G. {Ranger of Epping Forest). President : Pbof. R. MELDOLA, F.H.S., F.R.A.S., F.C S. F.R.M.S. {ex-officio) Vice=Presidents : E. NORTH BUXTON, J.P., Ald. O.C., D.L. WALTER CROUCH, F.Z.S. I. OHALKLEY GOULD. J C. SHENSTONE. F.L.S. Permanent Vice-Presidents : (Constituted under Rule IV.) Professor R. MELDOLA, F.R.S., (President, 1880—82). Professor G. S. BOULQER, F.L.S , F.G.S. {President, 1883—84). THOMAS VINCENT HOLMES, F.G S., M.A.L {President, 1883—87). EDWARD A. FITCH, C.C, F.L.S., F.E.S. {President 1888—91). HENRY LAYER, J.P., M.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. {President, 1892). FREDERIC CHANCELLOR, J.P., F.R.I.B.A. {President, 1893—94). DAVID HOWARD, J. P., P.I C, F.C.S. {President, 1895- 1900). Otlier Members of Council : JOHN AVERY, C.A. CHARLES E. BENHAM. MILLER CHRISTY, F.L.S. PERCY CLARK, B.A. F. W. ELLIOTT. JOHN A. FINZI. F.E.S. J. E. HARTING. F.L.S., F.Z.S. Rev. W. C. HOWELL, M.A. A. JOHNSTON, Chairman C.C, J.P Rev. W. S. LACH-SZYRMA, M.A HUGH McLACHLAN, F.R.I.B.A. ALFRED LOCKYER, HUGH H. MASON. F.R.C.S.. L.S.A.,C.O. PRIMROSE McCONNELL, B.Sc, F.G.S. RiOHT Hon. lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S. F. W. READER. G. B. RUSSELL. M.A. , J.P., C.C. JOHN SPILLER, F.I.C., F.C.S. FREDK. H. VARLEY, F.R.A.S. GEORGE E. VAUGHAN. Hon. Treasurer : DAVID HOWARD, D.L., PLC, F.C.S. Hon. Secretary and Curator : WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S,, BucUhurst Hill, Esaex. Assistant Hon. Secretary : BENJAMIN G. COLE, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Hon. Librarians : Hon. Counsel : Hon. Solicitor : W. C DARE, B.A., Barrister-at.Law. HENRY I. COBURN. Auditors : WALTER CROUCH, F.Z.S., and JOHN D. COOPER. Bani(ers : LLOYD'S BANK, 72, Lombard Street, E.G. Headquarters : EssBX Museum of Natural History (Passmoke Edwards Museum), ROMifOED Bojld, Stratford, E. Museums and Library : Queen Fiizabeth's Lodge, Chingford. EssBX Natural History Museum, Stratford, E. ESSEX \ATCRALIST. I'../. A77., P!. III. -«?-_ ,,j^j -4^:*^ Ancient Boat found in Excavating the Reservoirs in the Marshes OF THE Lea Valley, Walthamstow, Essex. THE COMING OF AGE OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. A RECORD OF LOCAL SCIENTIFIC WORK; 1880— 1901. By RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F.R.S., V.P.C.S., F.R.A.S., F.I.C., V.P.R, PHOTOG SOC, Professor of Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute; Member of the Faculty of Science, University of London. President of the Club, 1880-1882 & 1901-1902. [Being the Presidential x\ddress delivered at the 22nd Annual General Meeting of the Club on March 22nd, 1902.] "Our Society, in- general terms, may be said to have for its scope the study of Nature in the field " In forming a Society such as the present Field Club our primary object is, of course, the furthering of Science — the annual addition of some- thing, however humble, to the general stock of human knowledge. In Epping Forest and the County of Essex we have a fine area to work in. . *' Thus, in addition to the acquisition of new knowledge, field clubs are capa- ble of doing good work in the way of education. The faculty of para- mount importance to the scientist is that of observation, and no study is better calculated to develop this faculty than that of Natural History." [From the Presidential Inaugural Address, Feb. 28th, 1880.] Not often in the annals of a scientific society does it fall to the lot of the same individual to be called upon to occupy the presidential chair after an interval of twenty-one years. I acceded to the wish of your Officers and Council that I should again take office as President in celebration of our coming of age, partly on the unsubstantial ground of sentiment and partly because I may claim to have taken an active interest in the welfare of the Club and to have kept in touch with its proceed- ings from the time of the foundation meeting on January loth, 1880. Twenty-one years measure a serious gap in the lifetime of an individual, and many whose names appeared in our first list of members have passed away during that interval. But it is satisfactory to be able to state that the hand of death has dealt lightly with our officials. With the exception of Mr. E. Durrant, every member of the Society who has ever held office — either as President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, or Librarian, is still with us in full vigour although in some few 74 THE COMING OF AGE OF cases no longer on our list of members. This continuity of association between past and present officers and the existing Club, composed largely of a newer generation, is certainly a remarkable feature in our history and is the best guarantee of future stability. The fact that our list of members is now being recruited by the younger generation that has arisen since the time of our foundation is to me one of the healthiest signs of progress. Those who have only joined our ranks in recent years, and who are not familiar with our early history, may be interested to have from one who has been for so long intimately associated with the work of the Club a summary of the results which we have given to the scientific world in justification of the position which we assumed at the outset of our career. The inaugural address which I had the honour of delivering from this chair on February 28th, 1880, and from which I have taken the liberty of quoting the few extracts above, clearly defined our position as a scientific society. I now claim the privilege as the deliverer of that first presidential address, and by virtue of the office which you have again conferred upon me, of summing up our achievements during the past twenty- one years for the information of our newer members, for the encouragement of our old and tried colleagues and for the benefit of the future prosperity of the Society. It is not my intention on the present occasion to recapitulate the steps in the history of the development of the Club, since a concise summary was given in the Council Report for the year igoo. and published in the Essex Naturalist (vol. XII., p. 37). Neither do I intend to trouble you with the usual statistical statements showing the fluctuations in the numbers of our mem- bers, since these will be found in the various annual reports of the Council. But with regard to the personnel of the Club I should like to take advantage ot the present opportunity of going over the death roll of our members in order to emphasize our scientific strength in the past with a view to handing on to the future that same scientific ideal which we have always endeavoured to maintain. The list of Honorary Members as it now stands, and which we have at this meeting strengthened by the names of Sir Wm. Thiselton Dyer, Profs. E. Ray Lankester, Marshall Ward, G. B. Howes and J, B. Farmer, Messrs. C. H. Read, H. B. Woodward and W. H. Dalton, is THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 75 sufficient guarantee of the interest in our work taken by many of the leading men of science of our time. Reverting to the past, we find that we have had on our hst of members Charles Darwin, whose life-worlc formed the subject of my presidential address in 1883 {Trans. E.F.C., vol. III., 59), Sir Antonio Brady (Ibid., 94), George Stacey Gibson and John Eliot Howard whose life and work were referred to by Prof. Boulger in his presidential address for 1S84 {Trans., vol. IV., i and 8); Prof. John Morris, the geologist, referred to by Mr. T. V. Holmes in his presidential address for 1886 {Proc, vol. IV., clxxxiii.) ; the Rev. Thomas Benson, the botanist, and Lt.-Col. Champion Russell, of whom notices appear in the Essex Naturalist for 1887 (vol. I., 138- 139),' by Mr. E. A. Fitch and Mr. Walter Crouch; E. G. Varenne, of Kelvedon, whose life and work formed the subject of a memoir by Prof. Boulger in 1890 (Essex Naturalist, V., 42) ; Sir Richard Owen ; Sir William Flower, whose biography written by Mr. Crouch was published in 1900 {Ibid. XL, 243) ; General Pitt-Rivers, whose biography was written by Mr. Reader {Ibid. 245) ; George James Symons, the well-known meteorolo- gist, of whom an obituary notice appears in the last part of the Essex Naturalist (.XII., p. 37) and Mr. T. Hay Wilson, of whom a notice from the pen of Mr. T. V. Holmes appears in the same part {Ibid. 60). The actual work accomplished down to the present time will be found in tlie nineteen volumes of our publications ; five volumes of Transactions and Proceedings, and, commencing in 18S7, eleven volumes of the Essex Naturalist together with the three volumes of Special Memoirs. It is not only by the number of printed pages, however, that our work will be judged in the future. A study of the contents of these nineteen vohmies will show that we have on the whole kept faithfully to the programme as set forth in our original Rules : — " The investigation of the natural history, geology and archaeology of t^ie County of Essex (special attention being given to the fauna, flora, geology and antiquities of Epping Forest) ; the publication of the results of such investigations, &c." Under the various headings adopted in this earliest definition of our functions, I now propose to pass in review tiie more important pieces of work which have been placed upon record m I I gave an account of Col. Russell's work a; a photographer in 1888 (Essex Naturalist III., p. 117.) 76 THE COMING OF AGE OF our volumes, the subject of natural history resolving itself most conveniently into zoology and botany. I.— ZOOLOGY. In zoology, as in other branches of science, two kinds of work may be and should be carried on by a local society. There is work of an educational or pioneering character which consists in the exposition by a master specialist of the natural history, in the broadest sense, of some particular group of organisms with a view to the creation of an interest in that group so as to induce working members of the Society to take up its serious study. The other kind of work is the systematic recording of the species with the object of preparing lists of the present native inhabitants of the County — in other words, the compilation of a County Fauna. Such faunistic lists are valuable in proportion as they contain original notes and observations on the species recorded, but even bare lists are of value as showing for the use of future naturalists what species occurred in the district at a certain period. We can lay claim to have carried on both branches of work, although it does not appear that the efforts of those who have endeavoured to arouse enthusiasm with respect to the study of particular groups have met with much practical response. I learn that this experience is, however, pretty general among local societies, and it would be unjustifi- able to draw the conclusion that Essex workers are less receptive than those in other counties. One of the first addresses of the pioneering kind given to our Club was that on the Infusoria, by Mr. Saville Kent, in 1881 {Trans., II., 44). Mr. Kent also gave an address on the water-mites, Hydrachnida, in 1882 {Pror., III., xliv.) and Mr. Brunetti and Mr. Verrall on Diptera in i88g (Essex Naturalist, IV., 85). The Rev. Hilderic Friend also has published a series of no less than seven papers on Annelids which were intended to raise an interest in this group (Essex Naturalist, V., 193, 237 ; VI., 31, 60, 107, i6g, 185) and which likewise comprise lists of Essex species. The first of Mr. Scourfield's series of three papers in 1897 O" ^^^^ Entomostraca of Epping Forest may also be regarded as an excellent represen- tative of this class of pioneering work (Essex Naturalist, X., 193, 260, 313) and Mr. Lovett's address in 1900 on the Stalk- eyeJ Crustacea (Ibid. XL, 252) comes under the same category. The addresses on Arachnida by Messrs. F. P. Smith and F. O. Pickard-Cambridge in 1900, although not published in extenso, THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 77 will no doubt linger in the memories of those who were present at the meeting [Ibid XL, 294.)^ Such papers as those referred to have in many cases also comprised most important contributions to the County Fauna, but most of our purely faunistic work appears in the form of special memoirs, local lists, notes communicated to our Editor or in reports of field-meetings. I have not attempted to collate all the records contained in the stray notes scattered throughout our publications, but I may call attention to the larger systematic works and papers. In the first place two of our Special Memoirs are faunistic in character, the Birds of Essex, by Mr. Miller Christy, published in 1891, and the Mammals, Reptiles and Fishes of Essex, by our former President, Mr. Laver, published in 1898. These two volumes together furnish a complete list of the Vertebrate animals of our County. A preliminary list of the Mammalia was communicated to the Club by Mr, Laver in 1881 {Trans., IL, 157). In addition to these two Special Memoirs many papers and notes relating to the Vertebrate Fauna of Essex will rank as permanent contributions to local natural history. The Epping Forest deer formed the subject of a paper by Mr. Harting in 1884 (Essex Naturalist, I.,. 46) and the so- called " wolf " of the Forest had his true history narrated and stripped of romance by our Hon. Secretary in a supplement to the fourth and last volume of the Proceedings (IV., cciv). Those casual visitors to our shores, the whales, have also been duly recorded, the first Rudolphi's Rorqual by Sir Wm. Flower in 1883 [Trans., IV., iii.), the second by Mr. Walter Crouch in 1887 (Essex Naturalist, II., 41), and the third, also by Mr. Crouch, in 1891 [Ibid, V., 124; VIL, 50). The bats of Epping Forest are recorded from the late Mr. Edward Newman's list in an appendix to the inaugural address {Trans., I., 23) and again in the Essex Naturalist with descriptive notes by Mr. Cole (IX., 134.) The birds of Essex have been kept well under observation since the foundation of the Club. The occurrence of the Great Bustard and the Rough-legged Buzzard, near Chelmsford, was the first ornithological contribution from Mr. Miller Christy in 1880 {Proc, I., v..; Trans. L, 59). Mr. Christy's Special Memoir above referred to is universally regarded as the standard monograph on our avifauna. You will be glad to learn that 2 Mr. Smith's first paper on the Spiders of Epping Forest was read at the meeting of the Club on .March 8th, 1902. 78 THE COMING OF AGE OF Mr. Christy has kept this work well up to date by preserving all the later records, and these will in due course be communicated to the Club. It must always be a matter of satisfaction to us in turning over the records of our past work to know that the Essex Field Club has borne no inconsiderable part in that movement which has led to the protection of wild birds of the County under the Acts of Parliament of 1880 as amended in 1894. The matter was first brought before our Council by Mr. Christy in 1895, ^^^f this kind of work by the members of local societies. It is a subject requiring close and constant application and is thus generally beyond the powers of the amateur botanist who is too busy with his ordinary occupations to attend to such work. The necessary experimental investiga- tions also demand much skill and originality as well as a certain command of appliances which are not always available to the amateur. Expert botanists belonging to local societies who do work in this field generally publish their results through some central learned society, and so the botanical work of field clubs must necessarily be of the nature of species recording to a preponderating extent. I. still think, however, that the sugges- tions made by Prof. Bayley Balfour at the Manchester Confer- ence of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies of the British Association in 1887 concerning the study of life-histories should not be allowed to fall into oblivion in Essex (Essex Naturalist, I., 200, 278). Among the few notes reterable to botanical bionomics is that by Messrs. Rosling and Miller Christy in 1884 on the transmission of " form " in heterostyled plants {Proc. IV., cxxvii.) and Mr. Joseph Clarke's " Hint on the Vitality of Seeds " {Ibid., cxxix.). The remarks made under Zoology with reference to collect- ing apply with equal or even greater force to plants. The subject of plant preservation was specially discussed at our meeting on Oct. 31st, 1885, and a series of resolutions were passed by those present which it is to be hoped will be always considered as expressive of the policy of the Club throughout the future (Proc. IV,, clxxviii. ; Essex Naturalist, II., 47, and report of Easton Lodge meeting, Ibid. X., 179). III.— GEOLOGY, PALEONTOLOGY, PHYSIOGRAPHY AND SEISMOLOGY. In this department we may claim to have carried out our programme witli marked success. I will venture to quote a passage from an advanced proof of the article on the Geology of Essex, written by Mr. Horace B. Woodward for the Victoria History of the County : — THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 87 "Our knowledge of Essex Geology, due chiefly to the labours of Prestwich, Searles V. Wood, jun., Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins and Mr. Whitaker, has been augmented by the workers of the Essex Field Club and of the Geologists' Association, and notably by Mr. T. V. Holmes." We were fortunate at a very early stage in our career to have secured Mr. Holmes as a member and later as President ; Mr. Whitaker was among our first Hon. Members, and the late Mr. Searles V. Wood has been a contributor to our publications. The first original observation in geology published by the Club was by Mr. W. H. Dalton in [88i on the Blackwater Valley {Trans. II., 15) in which he made known as the result of a borino- for an Artesian well at Tiptree Heath the apparent existence of a faulted undulation in the underlying chalk, which subject was further developed in a later paper by Mr. Dalton in 1890, entitled " The Undulations of the Chalk in Essex " and accom- panied by a valuable map. In this paper the author dealt incidentally with the question of the existence of coal under Essex (Essex Naturalist, V., 113). Among the early geoloo-ical publications of the Club reference may be made to Mr. N. F. Robarts' " Notes on the London Clay and Bagshot Beds at Oakhill Quarry, Epping Forest" {Ivans. III., 231) and Mr. Searles V. Wood's paper " On the Sand-pit at High Ono-ar " {Ibid, IV., 76) to which is appended a note by that author relating to Mr. Dalton's paper on the Tiptree Heath boring and suggesting instead of a faulted undulation a simple sinuosity in the fold of the underlying chalk {Ibid., p. 85). The deep geology of our County can of course only be studied by means of borings, and here again we have been fortu- nate in securing the co-operation of that most distinguished of all authorities on the geology of the London Basin, Mr. Whitaker who has kept an ever watchful eye on the well-sections, some 326 of which he has recorded in a series of four papers published by the Club between 1885 and 1895 {Trans. IV., 149; Essex Naturalist, HI., 4^ ; VI., 47; IX., 167). Mr. Whitaker informs me that since his last communication he has records of some six dozen other Essex well-sections ready for publication. The part taken by the Essex P^ield Club in developin^^ the geological knowledge of this part of the country is also well brought out by Mr. Whitaker in his annual 88 THE COMING OF AGE OF presidential address to the Geologists' Association, delivered February 8th, igoi, under the title " Twelve years of London Geology " {Proc. Geol. Assoc, XVIL, 8i). While dealing with Mr. Whitaker's contributions to our publications I may point out that in 1887, in a paper entitled " What is the use of the Essex Field Club?" (Essex Naturalist, L, 180), he emphasized in his forcibly humorous style the necessity for the members of a local society such as this looking out for temporary sections exposed by railway cuttings, &c. In i88g Mr. Whitaker, in conjunction with Mr. Dalton, contributed a most valuable bibliographical paper to the Essex Naturalist (III., 61-86), viz., a '■ List of Works on the Geology, &c., of Essex," this list comprising the Geological Survey PubUcations, and books, papers, &c., chronologically arranged from 1701 down to 1888. In the same volume (p. 140) he sanctioned the publica- tion of an abstract of a paper " On a Deep Channel of Drift in the Valley of the Cam, Essex " read at the Newcastle meeting of the British Association, and since published by the Geologi'ial Society {Quay. Jotirn., i8go, p. 333 ; Essex Naturalist, IV., 117). The Rev. A. W. Rowe, who has since made notable con- tributions to geology, gave us in 1885 a paper on some crystalline rocks from the Drift in the neighbourhood of Felstead (Proc. IV., cxl.) which, after further elaboration, was published in extensc by the Geological Society [Qiiav. Jouvn., Aug., 1887, pp. 351-363). A later contribution on Essex boulders was made by Mr. Rowe in 1887 (Essex Naturalist, I., 117) in extension of a note on this subject by Mr. Worthington Smith [Ibid., p. 8). The contributions to Essex geology with which our publica- tions have been enriched by the work of Mr. T. V. Holmes are so numerous and important that it is only possible to do justice to them by giving a special list : — " On the Subsidence at Lexcien, near Colchester, in 1862." Essex Nat., I., 1-8. " Notes on Drift Maps, with special reference to those of Essex." Ibid. II., 21-32. "The Subterraiiean Geology of South-Eastern England"; Presidential Address for 18S8 ; Ibid. II., 138-158. " Notes on the Geology of Maldon and the Blackwater Estuary " ; Ibid III., 111-115. ■" On some recent Subsidences near Stifford, Essex " / Ibid. 183-1S8. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 89 " Chelmsford Water Supply " ; Ihid. IV., 82-84. " On some Sections between West Thurrock and Stifford on the Grays and Upminster Railway " ; Ibid 143-149. " The Geology and Scenery of the Club's Voyage from Maldon to Chelms- ford, August 8th, 1891 " ; Ibid. V., 197-202. " The Geology of the District around Dagenham Breach, Essex ; " Ibid. VI., 142-146. " The New Railway between Upminster and Romford. Boulder Clay beneath old River Gravel at Hornchurch. Conclusions therefrom"; Ibid. VII., 1-14. "Notes on the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Chelmsford"; Ibid. 65-66. " Coal under South-Eastern England." Reports by T. V. Holmes and W. Whitaker ; Ibid. VIII., 142-150. " The Geology of the Lea Valley " ; Ibid. 198-201. "Notes on the Geological Section at Chelmsford, in which Mammoth and other Remains were discovered in November, 1894" ; Ibid. IX., 10-16. ■ "Notes on a Map including the greater part of South-Eastern England, recently issued by the Geological Survey " ; Ibid. IX., 112-115. "Discovery of Mammalian Remains at Great Yeldham, Essex," by T. V" Holmes and E. T. Newton; Ibid. 115-118. " A Sketch of the Geology of Epping Forest " ; Ibid. 160-165. " Notes on the Ancient Physiography of South Essex" ; Ibid. 193-200. {This paper is accompanied by a map shaded so as to represent elevations). "Coal under South-Eastern England; Reports by T. V. Holmes and W. Whitaker"; Ibid. 213-218, 253-255; X., 9-10, 136-139. (These fapers on the search for Coal under Essex have been compiled by the Editor from the reports of Messrs. Holmes and Whitaker.) "The Geology of Ilford," from Proc. Geol. Assoc. (Essex Nat., XL, 149). " Geological Notes on the New Reservoirs in the Valley of the Lea, near Walthamstow " ; Ibid. XII., 1-16. This list does not include the many short notes with which Mr. Hohnes has supplied our Editor, nor does it adequately express the extent of his services to the Clnb by his numerous attendances at field meetings and his expositions of local geology on the spot. It must be borne in mind also that much of the work above catalogued has often necessitated frequent visits to the places where sections were exposed and constant supervision where excavations were in progress. The vigilance of our local observers has also contributed much towards the success of this branch of our work. The Rev. O. Fisher sent a note in 18S7 relating to the subsidence near Lexden in 1862, dealt with by Mr. Holmes in his paper above go THE COMING OF AGE OF referred to (Essex Naturalist, I., 39). In 1899 Mr. Miller Christy published " Notes on an Alluvial Deposit in the Cann Valley, with a list of the MoUusca," to which notes were added by Mr. Dalton (Ibid. III., i), and Mr. R. W. Christy a paper, " Notes on the Geology of the District around Chelms- ford " which has already been referred to in connection with the hsts of Mollusca (/izV/. III., 171). Mr. Dalton dealt with the Geology of Fowlness at our Southend meeting in 1889 (Ibid. III., 239) and the following year he published his "Notes of Geological Rambles in the Braintree District in connection with the Easter Excursion of the Club" [Ibid. IV., 79). As a contribution to local physiography the silting up of the River Roding, as reported upon by the County Surveyor, has been duly noted in our pages {Ibid. IV., 94). Among recent workers in Essex geology Mr. H. W. Monckton nnist be mentioned as a contributor of valuable papers to the Essex Naturalist. His first communication on the Boulder Clay in Essex was published in 1890 (Essex Natural- ist, IV., 199). At a field meeting on July nth, 1891, he read " Notes on the Glacial Formation near Chelmsford " {Ibid. V., 191) ; in 1893 we published his " Geological Notes in the Neigh- bourhood of Ongar" {Ibid. VII., 87) and the same year his paper read at the Barking Side meeting on July ist "On the Gravels near Barking Side, Wanstead, and Walthamstow " {Ibid., 115). We have also reaped the benefit of the presence of that zealous worker at Felstead, Mr. J. French, who in 1891 called attention to the occurrence of Westleton Beds in North- west Essex {Ibid. V., 210), and in 1892 contributed a paper " On some Plateau Deposits at Felstead and Stebbing" in which he discusses some interesting points in Post-Glacial Geology {Ibid. VI., 132). Our late member, Mr. T. Hay Wilson, also has given us the benefit of his local vigilance. In 1893 he pubhshed his notes on the gravels of Epping Forest, being the result of his observations of sections at Copt Hall, High Beach, Chingford and Buckhurst Hill {Ibid. VII., 74), and four years later he gave us a note on sections in the Lea Valley exposed at South Tottenham during the construction of the new reservoirs {Ibid, X., no). The question of the occurrence of coal under Essex has, on account of its possible economic bearings, naturally engaged considerable attention and given rise to much contro- versial writing. The Rev. A. Irving published a newspaper THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 9I article on this subject in 1894, which was reprinted in the Essex Naturalist (VIII., 130), and Mr. Dalton's paper of i8go and the reports by Messrs. Hohnes and Whitaker have already been referred to. x\s a contribution to economic geology Dr. Thresh's paper on the shallow and deep well-waters of Essex, accompanied as it i'j by tables of analyses of the waters, is one of the highest vahie [Ibid. VII., 28-40). In his recent work. Report on the Water Supply of the County of Essex, of which a notice by Mr. Dalton appears in the Essex Naturalist (XII., 62), Dr. Thresh repeatedly acknowledges his indebtedness to our publica- tions. Mr. T. S. Dymond's interesting note and analysis of the manganiferous conglomerate found at Tendring {Ibid. X., 210) was, until Miss Thresh's recent paper on the same subject, our only original contribution to mineralogical geology. Mr. Percy Clark's paper on the encroaching sea on the east coast is a record of the effects of the high tide of Nov. 29th, 1897 {^bid. X., 297). Mr. Monckton's criticism of the official report by Mr. Hunter Pringle on the land that had gone out of cultivation in Essex {Ibid. IX., 70) may be regarded as a contribution to economic geology Palaeontology and stratigraphy are necessarily- treated of together in many of the communications which we have received and published. Some of the papers on the Mollusca of Essex catalogued under Zoology belong to both divisions. The popular lecture on "A Day's Elephant-hunting in Essex," by the late Henry Walker (Trans. I., 27), was the first paper pubhshed by the Club after the Inaugural Address. Later, in 1882, Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., gave us an admirable lecture on " The Ancient Fauna of Essex" to which he appended a list of the Mammals from Ilford collected by Sir Antonio Brady and now in the British Museum of Natural History {Trans. III., 1-29). The services rendered by our Hon. Member, Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S., in connection with our palseontological work have been acknowledged from time to time in our pages, and it may be generally said that every important find of vertebrate remains in Essex has had the advantage of being submitted to his critical knowledge. Although Mr. Newton's contributions to our work have not often taken the form of separate publica- tions, they are none the less valuable, and any record of our past achievements would be incomplete without some acknowledg- ment of the part he has taken therein. A paper by him on the 92 THE COMING OF AGE OF Pleistocene Mammals from the neighbourhood of Chelmsford was published in 1895 (Essex Naturalist, IX., 16). The eleventh volume of the Essex Naturalist for 1899-1900 is quite remarkable for a number of geological papers comprising palaeontological contributions. Taking these in order we have : " Some New Sections in, and contributions to, the Fauna of the River Drift of the Uphall Estate, Ilford, Essex," by J. P. Jolinson and G. White, Essex Nat., XI. ; 157. " On the Pleistocene Deposits of the Ilford and Wanstead District," by Martin A. C. Hinton ; Ihid., 161, " Additions to the Palaeolithic Fauna of the Uphall Brickyard, Ilford," by J. P. Johnson; Ibid., 209; also XII., 52. (This paper is noteworthy as containing a record of the discovery of flint implements in the Uphall series of deposits associated with extinct species of animals). " The Eocene Flora and Fauna of Walton-Naze, Esse.\," by J. P. Johnson ; Ibid., 284. "Contributions to the Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley, I., The Grays Thurrock Area, Part I," by Martin A. C. Hinton and A. S. Kennard. With a Sub-Section on the Fossil Fishes, by E. T. Newton ; Ibid., 336-370- This last paper is certainly a most important contribution to Essex Geology, being the result of field work and personal observation. It comprises also a very valuable bibliographical list of 75 references, among which it is gratifying to find several references to work published in our pages. The second part of this paper was read at a recent meeting of the Club, and is of equal or even greater interest as a contribution to ancient physio- graphy. It is hoped that this part will shortly appear in the Essex Naturalist. Seismology is a subject which, happily for this country, does not often force itself in its most obtrusive form upon the atten- tion of our local Societies. We had our big earthfjuake, however, on April 22nd, 1884, and on Feb. 28th, 1885, I pre- sented to the Club the detailed report on this occurrence prepared by myself and Mr. William White {Proc, IV., cxxxviij. The volume was published the same year as the first of our Special Memoirs, and in fact inaugurated the system of Special Memoirs. Of course it is not for me to say anything about the value of this work, but it was undertaken in fact by way of example in order to emphasize the duty of local societies in THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 93 scientifically recording such uncommon phenomena when they occurred. From this point of view it was well received by the scientific public and by the Press, and at the time of its publica- tion was the only complete monograph of a British earthquake. The Herefordshire earthquake of Dec. 17th, 1896, was also felt in our County (Essex Naturalist, IX., 258; X., 240) and formed the subject of an excellent monograph by Dr. C. Davison published in 1899 by the aid of a grant from the Royal Society. This memoir is cast on very much the sariie lines as our Report, but is worked out much more exhaustively, the author coming to the same conclusion respecting the origin of the earthquake that we had arrived at concerning the Essex earthquake, viz., that it may have been connected with the process of " faulting " in the geological sense. It is of interest to note also that Dr. Davison estimates that in "concentrated severity the Essex earthquake far exceeded the Hereford earthquake," although the total area disturbed was greater in the case of the latter. ^ / v.— A NTHROPOL OGY. At the beginning of the Club's existence we decided to restrict our actual work in the domain of archaeology to the study of that period which, although perhaps not definable within any rigid limits, is known generally as the pre-historic or non-historic (Inaugural Address, Trans. I., 18). The later archaeology had been and still is well looked after by the Essex Archaeological Society, and although we have generally made a point of vi.siting places of archaeological interest in the course of our field-meetings we have not laid ourselves out for the publica- tion of detailed archaeological papers. Some small amount of unavoidable overlap may have occurred, but I do not think that we have encroached very seriously upon our neighbour's domain. It has been and will I hope always continue to be the policy of the Club to treat archaeology rather in its scientific aspect as a branch of the modern science of anthropology. With respect to pre-historic archaeology we may take credit for having made substantial contributions during the past twenty-one years. The chapters on the archaeology of Essex for the Victoria History of the County which have been written 3 The Hereford Earthquake of December 17th, 1896. By Charles Davison, Sc.D., F.G S., Biruiingham, (Jornish Bros., 1899, P- 224- 94 THE COMING OF AGE OF by OLir members, Messrs. G. F. Beaumont and I. C. Gould, and of which I have been favoured with an advanced copy, bear ample testimony to our activity. We were very fortunate at the outset in having secured the active interest of that great pioneer in modern archaeological research, our late Hon. Member, Gen. Pitt- Rivers. It was at his instigation that systematic excava- tions into the Epping Forest earthworks were first undertaken, the suggestion having been brought before the Club at a meeting held on July 3rd, 1880 (Proc. I., xxiv.) and at another memorable meeting held at llford on July 24th, 1880 (Ibid., xxxii. ; see also pp. 1. and liv.). The report on the excavations at Ambres- bury Banks was drawn up by Gen. Pitt-Rivers and read in r88i [Trans., II., 55 ; see also Proc. II., xxviii., for official report and bibliographical history by the Secretary, Mr. W. Cole). The exploration of the Loughton Camp was taken in liand the follow- ing year, the British Association having recognized our work by appointing a Committee and making a grant in aid of the expense of excavation. The full report, drawn up by our Secretary, was presented by me on our behalf at the Southport meeting of the Association, and was also read before the Club on Sept. 2gth, 1883 {B. A. Rep., 1883. pp., 243-252 ; Trans. III., 212 ; Proc. III., li., and Appendix No. 2, p. vi.). The conclusions to which this, our iirst piece of archaeological exploration, has led, are too well-known to need recapitulation. It may be desirable to point out, however, that although we have replaced antiquarian lore by more substantial information, there still remains much to be done, even in connection with these " camps." More especi- ally may 1 emphasize the necessity for cutting further sections through and across Ambresbury Banks, since the evidence as to the age of this earthwork, although conclusive as far as it went, was derived from one section only. One other piece of archaeological research which we liave made essentially our own is the exploration of the " Dene-holes " in Hangman's Wood near Grays. These interesting excavations were first brought prominently under the notice ot the Club by Mr. Worthington Smith at a joint meeting held with the Geologists' Association at Grays, on May 14th, 1881 (Proc. II., xviii.) Both the conductors of that remarkable meeting, Prof. John Morris and Mr. Henry Walker, were Hon. Members of the Club, and Mr. Worthington Smith, whose name still graces — and luiiy it lung continue to grace — our list, has since helped THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 95 to make the publications of the Club famous in the annals of pre-historic archaeology. The curiosity aroused by our first visit to the dene-holes led to further visits by the Club on June 17th and Sept. gth, 1882 {Pyoc. III., xxviii., Iviii.), the outcome of these meetings being a paper by Mr. T. V. Holmes (Trans. III., 48) and a very full bibliographical history of the subject by our Hon. Secretary, Mr. W. Cole {Proc. III., xxviii— xxxiv). The raising of a fund for the systematic exploration of these remains was suggested at our meeting on Oct. 28th, 1882 [Ibid. LXXXIV.) ; there were further visits to Hangman's Wood by the Club and the Geologists' Association on June 15th and i6th, 1883 (Pyoc. IV., XX.) and Mr. T. V. Holmes as the result of this further inspection published his " Miscellaneous Notes on Dene- holes " in our Transactions lor that year (IV., 87). A committee of exploration was appointed by our Council on March 31st, 1883, and a sufficient fund raised to enable Mr. Holmes and Mr. W. Cole, to whom had been entrusted the practical work of superintending the excavation, to commence operations in October of that year [Proc. IV.,cxxiii.) The work was discontinued on Nov. loth, and the results withheld till further evidence had been obtained, for which purpose work was resumed by Mr. Holmes and Mr. W. Cole and his brothers on Sept. 26th, 1887, and continued till October loth of that year (Essex Natural- ist I., 202). The full report was drawn up by Mr. Holmes, read on Nov. 12th, 1887, 'i"^ published shortly afterwards (Essex Naturalist I., 225). This report may fairly claim to embody all that is authentically known concerning these mysterious remains down to the present time, and if, owing to the absence of positive evidence, the problem of their age and purpose has not been finally solved, we have the satisfaction of knowing that we have at least advanced the knowledge of the subject by a very marked step, and that such conclusions as have been arrived at by Mr. Holmes and his colleagues are based upon the solid ground of scientific evidence. One valu- able feature of the report is the series of papers contributed in the form of appendices by Messrs. E. T. Newton, F. W. Rudler, F. J. Bennett, H. B. Woodward and F. C. J. Spurrell. It is probably within the recollection of most of those present that the dene-holes have been visited by the Club several times since the issue of the report, but no fresh discoveries of note have been made and the matter rests where it was left by our reporters o6 THE COMING OF AGE OF fifteen years ago. Possibly the renewal of this investigation may be undertaken at some future period by the Club. In the annual presidential address which I had the honour of delivering on Jan. 27th, 1S83 (Trans. III., 62), I ventured to put forward the suggestion that we should undertake to prepare a complete catalogue of the pre-historic remains of our County. This suggestion was further elaborated and read at the South- port meeting of the British Association the same year {Trans. IV., 116), and our Hon. Secretary, Mr. Cole, commenced to collect materials for sucli a catalogue. Owing to pressure of other work but little progress has been made by the Club in this matter, and in the meantime the Society of Antiquaries has set the scheme practically going by inaugurating a system of regis- tration of ancient remains on the existing Ordnance Maps (Essex Naturalist, III., 91). The necessity for carrying out systematic archaeological surveys of the Counties was quite recently brought before us b\' Mr. C. H. Read, and that is why I have ventured to refer to it again. The modern publication of the Victoria County Histories has also been the means of emphasiz- mg the necessity for archaeological surveys, and our own Coimty has been undertaken for this work by our Members, Messrs. G. F. Beaumont and I. C. Gould, who have prepared two maps registering respectively by means of symbols the remains of the stone, bronze and iron ages, and the ancient earthworks, camps, mounds, tumuli, &c. The Roman and later remains will also be dealt with, but these do not come within ovu" province. Large numbers of the records entered by the authors above mentioned are taken from our pages and these will serve as vouchers for our utility in connection with pre-historic archaeology. I have already referred to our indebtedness to Mr. Worthing- ton Smith. We have had the benefit of his co-operation as mycologist and archaeologist as well as in his capacity of artist and engraver. The first of his series of papers on " Primaeval Man in the Valley of the Lea" was read in 1882 and revised for publication in 1883 (Trans. III., 102) and followed by three com- munications on the same subject in i887 (Essex Naturalist, I., 36, 83, 125). All these papers are profusely illustrated by the author's own engravings of implements, &c. Other papers from his pen, and also illustrated by his pencil, "On Neolithic and Palaeolithic Scrapers, replaced and reworked " and on " Palaeo- THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. gy lithic iiiiplenients — large and heavy examples " were published in 1888 [Ibid. II., 67, 97). In the same volume (p. 4) appear his figure and description of tlie stone " pestle " from Epping Forest. In 1898 he described and figured an implement made from a stag's nntler found at Wormingford {Ibid. X., 310), this paper having called forth a communicatio.i on the same subject by Mr. Edward Lovett [Ibid. 351). Those who wish to form an appreciation of Mr. VVorthington Smith from his humorous side will do well to peruse his " Lepores Palaeolithici," read in 1884 and published in 1888 (Essex Naturalist II., 7). Among other relics of early human workmanship referred to in our publications attention may be called to Mr. H. Corder's paper on " Stone Implements from the Neighbourhood of Chelmsford" {Trans. II., 29), the paper on two pre-historic weapons from near Epping (Essex Naturalist VIII., 162), Mr. Mothersole's " Notes on some Relics of early Man in the Neighbourhood of Chelmsford" {Ibid. X., 305) and Mr. J. P. Johnson's paper on " Palaeolithic Implements from tho low-level Drift of the Thames Valley, chiefly from Ilford and Grays" {^Ibid XII., 52), this last paper having been already referred to under our palaeontological contributions. Mr. Laver's note on the discovery of Celtic urns at Colchester (Essex Naturalist III., 116) brings us down to a later period. The human skeleton found during the excavations at the Tilbury Docks, formed the subject of a paper read before the Royal Society by Sir Richard Owen in 1883, and afterwards published as a separate work (Van Voorst, August, 1884). The distinguished author, who was one of our Hon. Members, had come to the conclusion that this skeleton was of Palaeolithic age, but at a meeting of the Club held on February 23rd, 1884, Mr. T. V. Holmes and others expressed their belief that the evidence of extreme antiquity was unsatisfactory {Proc. IV., Ixxviii.) and a meeting of the Club, in conjunction with the Geologists' Asso- ciation, was held at Tilbury on May 17th of the same year (^Ibid 'xcviii.) In a paper by Mr. Holmes, published by us in 1884 [Trans. IV., 135), the " antiquissimist " view (to use Mr. Spurrell's expression) of the skeleton was disposed of. The value of geological judgment in connection with archaeological reasoning is well brought out in other papers communicated to Club, such as Mr. Goodchild's " Notes upon some Mounds near the Estuary of the Thames " (Essex Naturalist I., 210; and g8 THE COMING OF AGE OF Mr. Holmes' " Geological Notes on a supposed Earthwork near the Railway Station at Harlow" {Ihid. IX., 59) which led to a friendly controversy with Mr. I. C. Gould {Jhid., 65 and reply p. 68). Man}' other contributions to the records of the e.xistence of early man in Essex appear in our pages. In iSgi Mr. J. French called attention to the existence of ancient lake remains at Felstead and in the neighbourhood (Essex Naturalist VI., 34), and the Rev. J. W. Ken worthy gave us in 1899 his most interest- ing paper on " A Supposed Neolithic Settlement at Skitt's Hill, Braintree," the value of which is enhanced by Mr. Reader's remarks on the archaeological remains, Mr. Holmes' notes on the geology of the district and Mr. Newton's remarks on the osteo- logical specimens {Ihid. XL, 94 — 126). The notes by Mr. Holmes on the ancient cemetery at Saffron Walden (Proc. IV., cc.) bring us down again to a later period in human history. The mysterious " Red Hills" or " Salting Mounds "so numerous about the estuaries of the Essex rivers were referred to at a meeting held at Colchester and Mersea m 1884 [Proc. IV., cxiii.) and a paper on these remains was published by Mr. Stopes in 1887 (read in 1884; Essex Naturalist I., 96). Our Hon. Secretary, Mr. W. Cole, is among those who have given latest attention to the subject, having explored several of these mounds, and has come to the conclusion that they may have been the sites of ancient potteries. This view is most probable, but the final answer to the questions as to their age and object can only be solved by further systematic excavation, and, as Mr. C. H. Read urged in his recent address, it is to be hoped that this work will be undertaken by the Club. A glance at the map indicating the distribution of ancient earthworks throughout Essex will show that we have visited many, published good accounts of some, and explored none with the exception of the two Epping Forest camps above referred to. Four " camps " are described in great detail in the Essex Naturalist, viz., Withambury by Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell (I., 19), Danbury by the same author (IV., 138), Haesten's Camp at Shoebury by the same author (IV., 150) and the Uphall Camp, Barking, by Mr. Walter Crouch (VII., 131). In 1897 M^. T. V. Holmes communicated his " Notes on Ancient Defensive Earth- works in connection with those of Rayleigh 'Castle,' Essex" THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. gg {Ibid. X., 145). These papers, all useful in their way, may be considered as dealing with the external morphology of earth- works ; Mr. Holmes taka us a step further and deals with their comparative morphology. But there still remains before us for future work the systematic excavation of these relics of past ages, and by this method alone can we ever hope to unravel the mystery of their origin. The necessity for this work is as pressing now as when I brought it before the Club in 1883 {Trans. IV., 116) as there is always the danger of their removal by agricultural and building operations. That this is a real danger from tlie anthropological point of view may be gathered from the account given by Mr. Holmes in his presidential address of 1887 (Essex Naturalist I., 79) in which he describes the destruction of the " Pictsbury Ramparts " wit- nessed by himself and Mr. Cole. A large mound at Worming- ford was destroyed about 1836 (Jenkins, as quoted in Essex Naturalist L, 82) ; Stukeley's so-called " Alate Temple of the Druids " on Navestock Common, the site of which was identified by the Rev. Coode Hore and myself in 1894 (Essex Naturalist VHI , 213) has practically been obliterated; the " Red Hills" have in nearly every case been ploughed down or otherwise tampered with, and the Uphall Camp at Barking described oy Mr. Crouch is but a fragment of a large camp. I am glad to learn that there is a prospect of this remnant being systematically investigated in the course of this present year. The field covered by anthropology is so wide that large numbers of apparently disconnected subjects dealt with by our Society can be fairly classified under this heading. Thus the presidential address by Mr. T. V. Holmes entitled " Notes on the evidence bearing upon British Ethnology " {Trans. IV., 189) and Mr. F. Chancellor's presidential address in 1894, " -^ Sketch of the Development of Architecture in Essex " (Essex Naturalist VIII., 165), which deals with the subject from an evolutional point of view, are both contributions to anthropology. In the same volume (p. 71) is published Mr. George Day's " Notes on Essex Dialect and Folklore, with some account of the Divining-Rod," the only contribution to Essex Folk-lore that we have hitherto received. Mr. Laver's presidential address of 1888, " Fifty Years Ago in Essex" (Ibid. HI., 27) contains records of old customs and beliefs that may be regarded as anthropological contributions. In fact all notices of ancient lOO THE COMING OF AGE OF sports, customs, beliefs and industries are worthy of record from the anthropological point of view and many such contributions have appeared in our pages. I give a selection of the more prominent communications : — Mr. Joseph Clarke's paper in 1887 on the Saffron Plant in connection with the name of Saffron Walden (Essex Natural- ist I., 5) relates to an extinct industry. Mr. Harting's paper on " Wild-fowl Decoys in Essex" relates to a sport and an industry which is in its last stage in this country. An ancient sport is dealt with in Mr. Harting's paper on " Hawks and Hounds in Essex in the Olden Time" [Ihid. HI., 189) while the " Maze " at Saffron Walden described by Mr. G. N. Maynard in 1889 {Ibid. 244), is of unknown origin and purpose. In ancient histories of Essex many of the towns are described as being celebrated for " Bays and Says." References to this extinct manufacture are given by Major Bale for Colchester [Ibid. VI., 141) and the old " Bay and Say" mill at Dedham visited by the Club in 1893 is figured in the account of that meeting {Ibid. VII., III.) Accounts of extinct industries are contained also in Mr. Laver's paper on " Potash-making in Essex " {Ibid. IX., ng), in Mr. Lovett's papers on wooden fish-hooks {Ibid. X., 300 ; XII., 28) which relate to the survival of an ancient industry, in Mr. Miller Christy's paper on " Essex as a Wine-producing County" {Ibid. XL, 34) and in Mr. Littler's "Notes on the Hand-printing Silk Works at Waltham Abbey and West Ham " brought under our notice last year [Ibid. XII., 43). v.— METEOROLOGY. Although weather reports have from time to time been recorded in our pages the Club has never attempted systematic observations. In view of the activity and efficiency of such central organizations as those established by the late Mr. G. J. Symons and by the Meteorological Office it may fairly be doubted whether local societies should be called upon to burden the pages of their journals and to incur the expense of printing long tables of readings of meteorological instruments. The most use- ful work that such societies can do in connection with this subject would rather appear to be the stimulation of local observers and the establishment of local stations where required for the purpose of supplying records to the central organization. An excellent address having this object in view was delivered at THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, lOI a meeting of the Club in May, i88S, by Mr. Symons (Essex Naturalist II., 88) who, on that occasion, dwelt more especially upon rainfall observation. A paper on " The use of the Hygro-Spectroscope " was read before the Club in 1883 by Mr. F. W. Cory {Trans. IV., 123). On the other hand exceptional meteorological phenomena — and more particularly those whicli may be considered as having any direct influence upon physio- graphical conditions — should always be fully recorded, and in this respect it will be found that we have not failed whenever our County has been subjected to such visitations. Thus the great flood of August, 1888, was fully recorded by Mr. Radford Sharpe (Ibid. II., igg) ; the prolonged frost of 1890-91 formed the subject of papers by Dr. Thresh {Ibid. V., 64), Mr. French (Ibid., 66) and Mr. Harding {Ibid., 117). Mr. French also has written on the seasons of 1893 {Ibid. VII., 188). An account of the great storm of June 24th, 1897, was compiled by our Editor from materials supplied by Mr. Symons and others {Ibid. X., 112). The high tide of Nov. 29th of the same year also formed the subject of an editorial compilation and of the paper by Mr. Percy Clark already referred to under geology {Ibid. X., 277, 355). The results of the investigations of the effects of this tide upon the soil of the inundated lands by Messrs. Dymond and Hughes were duly noted in our pages {Ibid. XL, 83). Records of brilliant meteors were also noted in 1890 {Ibid. IV., 231) and 1894 {Ibid. VIII., 158). The evidence that the supposed earth- quake shock of November 20th, iSSy {Ibid. I., 277) was due to the explosion of a meteorite was summarised from Mr. Ford- ham's observations and published in i8gi {Ibid. V., 44, from Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc. IV., 33-62). VI.— EDUCATIONAL WORK. In a broad sense the whole work of a local society may be regarded as educational inasmuch as any organization for bring- ing scientific activity to a focus must be regarded as a power making for general intellectual enlightenment. In many ways during the twenty-one years of our existence have we made the influence of the Club felt as an educational body. Many lectures, addresses and demonstrations in the field or in museums have been given whicli could not fairly be described as direct contri- butions to local scientific investigation, but which might be considered as pioneering efforts having for their object the I02 THE COMING OF AGE OF Stimulation of original local work in various branches of natural science. Such lectures and addresses, although in many cases delivered by acknowledged masters of the various subjects, could not ver)' well be published in extenso by the Club, and so the records of tliis branch of our work do not figure very prominently in our printed pages. Nevertheless this work is in its way both useful and important, provided it is kept in abeyance as a secondary branch and not allowed, as is the case with many local societies, to become the main object of the Club's existence. A long course of experience in connection Avith the working of local s:>cieties throughout the United Kingdom, derived from my association with the Corresponding Societies' Committee of the British Association, has served to convince me that the work of a local society is weak in proportion as it has to depend upon popular lectures for keeping it alive. Quite early in the history of the Club educational work of this kind was undertaken and the system of popular lecturing inaugurated by a lecture by Mr. Hariing on Nov. loth, 1880, on Forest Animals [Trans. I., 74). The second lecture in this series on January 4th, 1881, was a memorable one, as Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace, our distinguished Hon. Member, gave an abstract of the main conclusions at which he had arrived con- cerning insular faunas and floras (Pwc I., Ixvi.), the subject of the great work, afterwards published under the title Island Life. Again, on October 2nd, 1886 {Proc. IV., cxcii.) my friend, Mr. vVallace, favoured the Club with an advanced chapter of his work on Darwinism-, then in course of prepara- tion. But time will not admit of a detailed list of lectures, addresses and demonstrations given before the Club at head- quarters or elsewhere. I need only justify this branch of our work by reminding you that we have had the privilege of hearing in this capacity Sir Richard Owen, Gen. Pitt- Rivers, Sir Wm. Flower, Dr. Henry Woodward, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Prof. E. B. Poulton (whose recent appearance on February 22nd, 1902, was his third lecture to the Club), Mr. Arthur Lister, Dr. M. C. Cooke, Mr. G. Massee, Mr. D.J. Cunningham ("Transformations of Marine Animals," Essex Naturalist VII., 182), Prof. Charles Stewart, Mr. Frederick Enock and others. Perhaps also the address on "The Mechanical Questions involved in the Flight of Birds," delivered by Lord Rayleigh on the occasion of the Club's visit to Terling Place in 1885 (Pioc. IV., clxxiii.) may be THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. ,tO$ looked upon as belonging to this category. I find also that I have myself contributed on some occasions to this kind of work. In yet another direction has the Club been enabled to assist in the work of education. The Technical Instruction movement set going under the Acts of 1889 and iSgo led the Council of the Club to come forward in 1890 with a scheme which was submitted to the Essex County Council (Essex Nati'ralist IV., 259) and supported by a deputation invited to wait upon the Technical Instruction Committee on Feb. 2nd, i8gi {Ibid. V., 34). The deputation comprised, among others, our Hon. Members, Sir Henry Roscoe, one of the chief promo- ters in Parliament of the, Acts in question, and Sir William Flower. The final outcome of our application was the co-opting of six representatives of the Club as Members of the Technical Instruction Committee, the gentlemen proposed and accepted being Sir Henry Roscoe, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. F. ChanceUor, Mr. J. C. Shenstone, Mr. John Spiller and myself. The later history of our connection with technical education in Essex was related by Mr. Chancellor in his presidential address for 1895 [Ibid. IX., 30), and to this I must refer you for details. It would not be fitting for me to attempt to weigh our utility or to form any estimate of our services to our colleagues of the Technical Instruction Committee. It was extremely difficult for us in the first stages of the movement to find men with the necessary educa- tional qualifications and willing to give their time to the very exacting duties associated with the launch of a scheme so totally new to the people of this country. Changes in the Club's repre- sentation have been made from time to time, but of the original list Mr. Chancellor, Mr. Shenstone, Mr. Spiller and myself still remain as members of the Committee. If I may for once venture upon a personal statement I should like to place upon record my own sense of obligation to the Technical Instruction Committee for having given me the opportunity of studying the practical working of the Acts in Essex during the last decade. VII.— MUSEUM WORK. The idea of having a museum associated with the Club has, as you are aware, been present from the beginning of our exist- ence. "The formation of a Museum" was contemplated in the original Rules and its general scope defined in my " Inaugural Address" {Trans. I., 12 — 13). The nature of the contents of I04 THE COMING OF AGE OF local museums was again brought before the Club by Mr. Harting in 1881 {Trans. II., 36 ; also Pi'oc. II., xxii.) and we have since had many contributions from other authorities on this subject. I may refer you to the " Introductory Remarks to the Papers on the Museum and Technical Instruction Schemes " prepared when the establishment of our Museum at Chelmsford was contemplated in i8go (Essex Naturalist IV., 234) and to the reprints of valuable papers on local museums by Mr. Rudler and Prof. Traill (Ibid. 242, 252). We may I think flatter our- selves that the original programme so far as concerns the nature of our collections has been faithfully adhered to. That such museums, when properly stocked and arranged, are of great educational value has long been recognized by all who have given attention to the subject, and Sir Wm. Flower addressed the Club on this point at a meeting held at Chelmsford in iSgi [Ibid, v., 71). We have certainly — thanks to the wise policy adopted by our Curator— kept the contents of our museums well within the prescribed limits and have avoided the temptation of converting them into old curiosity shops, a danger foreseen at the outset and evidently familiar to all who have had opportuni- ties of seeing many provincial museums. It may be of interest to quote in this connection a letter from the late Prof. Huxley referring to a scheme for a museum in Manchester which he had been requested to draw up : — "I have no hesitation whatever in expressing the opinion that, except in the case of large and wealthy towns (and even in their case primarily) a Local Museum should be exactly what its name implies, viz., 'local'- illustrating local Geology, local Botany, local Zoology and local Archaeology. " Such a Museum, if residents who are interested in these sciences take proper pains, may be brought to a great degree of perfection and be unique of its kind. It will tell both natives and strangers exactly what they want to know, and possess great scientific interest and importance. Whereas the ordinary lumber-room of clubs from New Zealand, Hindoo idols, sharks teeth, mangy monkeys, scorpions and conch shells — who shall describe the weary inutility of it ? It is really worse than nothing, because it leads the unwary to look for the objects of science elsewhere than under their noses." - Life and Letters, vol. I., p. 136. The history of our own museums requires but very brief recapitulation. The first attempt to establish a Forest Museum dates from 1883, when, at the suggestion uf Mr. Cole, a meeting was held at Knighton in ordar to confer with Mr. Edward North Buxton, with the object of ascertaining whether Queen Elizabeth's THF F.SSEX FIELD CLUB. I05 Lodge, at Chingford, would be available for this purpose [Pvoc. IV., Ixvi.) Eleven years elapsed before another effort was made and the meeting held at Chingford, on Feb. 24th, 1894 (Essex Naturalist VIII,, 44), may be said to have inaugurated the present state of affairs as regards the Chingford Museum which was formally opened on Nov. 2nd, 1895, by Mr. Deputy Halse, Chairman of the Epping Forest Committee of the Corporation of London (Ibid. IX., loi). The later restoration of the Lodge and the re-arrangement of the museum bring us down to recent history, and I need only add that the Club is greatly indebted to Mr. Cole on the one hand for all the labour and trouble which he has taken, and on the other hand to the Epping Forest Com- mittee, and especially to Mr. E. N. Buxton for the sympathetic response with which our efforts to establish this museum have been met by the Corporation of London. The vicissitudes of the central (County) museum are also too well known to require more than a passing reference. The first announcement of Mr. Passmore Edwards' munificent offer to build the museum, which now houses our. collections and library was made by the Secretary at the meeting on Nov. 27th, 1897 (Essex Naturalist X., 231), and the foundation-stone was laid by Mr. Passmore Edwards on Oct. 6tn, 1898 (Ibid., 340). The Siibsequent history is traced and the agreement with the West Ham Corporation given in the same volume (p. 337) and further details concerning tlie history of the Museum and its collections are printed in our series of Mnseiim Handbooks (JSIo. 3 ; Oct., 1900). After a nomadic existence of nearly twenty years the Club has at length found its present home, and the future stability of the museum is assured by its association with the Municipal Technical Institute in which we are now assembled. The advantages arising from that association and the part played by the Museum in the work of the Cinb were forcibl}- dwelt upon by the Countess of Warwick in her adtlress delivered at the opening ceremony on Oct. i8th, 1900 (Essex Naturalist XL, 3^3). One result of the establishments of our two mi'seums has been the issue of another set of publications, the series of Musemn Handbooks, one of which has been referred to above. It will be admitted that these pamphlets are most useful as popular guides to the various groups of objects contained in our collections, and I06 THE COMING OF AGE OF the Club is much indebted to those who have contributed to the series : — 1. Genenil Account of the Epping Forest Museum, with a Description of Queen Elizabeth's Lodge. By W. Cole (in preparation). 2. Notes on the Romano-British Settlement at Chigivell, Essex, ivith a Descrip- tion of the Articles exhibited in the Epping Forest Museum. By I. Chalkley Gould- 3. The Ess?x Museum of Natural History. A Short Statement of the Consti- tution, Aims and Methods of the Museum. By W. Cole. 4. A Brief Sketch of the Cr,ig Formation of East Anglia. An outline of the nature, position, S'C,, of the beds ivhich have furnished the collection of Crag Fossils in the Essex Museum of Natural History. By W. H. Dalton. 5. A Handbook to the Collection of Pre-historic Objects in the Essex Museum of Natural History. By F. W. Reader. Although I have undertaken in this address to give an account of work actually accomplished rather than attempt to point out the future needs of the Club, I cannot refrain from drawing attention briefly to the requirements of our museums. Although the collections brought together by the unflagging zeal of our Curator and the generous contributions of our members and friends may be fairly described as both rich in material and most thoroughly appropriate, there still remains very mucli to be done to bring the museums up to that standard of excellence which the past record of the Club leads us to look for. There is still scope for that organised and co-operative system of collect- ing which I advocated in 1880 {Trans. I., 20) in order to help fill the gaps yet existing in our series. Still more may we plead for the means to enable us to classify and arrange the collections with the greatest effect, for which purpose more cabinets and fittings are required for both and especially for the Epping Forest Museum, the re-equipment of which lias been made mcumbent upon us by the recent restoration of the building. VIII.— THE CLUB IN ITS RELATIONS TO EPPING FOREST. Established as we were in the year 1880 in the Forest District, and about the period when that splendid tract of country had been rescued from the hands of its depredators by the public spirit of the Corporation of London, it is but natural that we should have taken, as in fact it was our duty as a body of naturalists to take, the greatest interest in its wel- fare. Looking back to the history of our connection with THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. IO7 the Forest in our collective capacity as a scientific organiza- tion we may, I think, feel satisfied that our influence has made itself felt on many occasions for the benefit of the Forest and its frequenters. Sometimes we may have found it our duty to take side against the Conservators ; at other times to support their policy with equal vigour. Whatever action we may have taken has been solely in the best interests of the Forest as far as knowledge and judgment could lead us. On the whole I venture to think that such action as we have from time to time felt called upon to take has resulted in nothing but good from the naturalists' point of view. I may remind you that very early in our career we felt bound to organize an opposi- tion to a projected railway extension across the Forest by the Great Eastern Railway Co., and a resolution of the Council of Jan. 8th, 1881, was brought before the Club on Jan. 22nd {Proc. I., Ixvii.). On Feb. 4th deputations from the Club and other Societies waited upon the Metropolitan Board of Works and the Epping Forest Clauses of the Bill were ultimately withdrawn [Ihid. II., V.) Again, in 1881, the proposed extension of the tram-line along the " Ranger's Road " was opposed by the Club [Ihid. Ixxxiv.) and that Bill was also withdrawn [Ibid. Ixxxvii.j. On May 6th, 1882, the Forest was formally dedicated to the public by our late revered Sovereign, Queen Victoria, and shortly after this ceremony the Club had again to take action in opposing another and more serious attempt at railway encroachment {Ibid. III., xcviii.) The agitation in this case assumed more than local significance, and our action was watched, approved of and supported by large numl)ers of natural history societies and by individual men of science throughout the country. Deputations convened by the Club were received at the House of Commons on Feb. 20th, 1883, by Sir John Lubbock, and on March gth, by Sir Selwin-Ibbetson and Lord Eustace Cecil, and three days later, on the motion of Mr. James Bryce, the Bill was thrown out on its second reading by a majority of 148 [Ibid. IV., viii.) The story of these polemics is buried in our archives and may be regarded as ancient history. It does not often devolve upon a scientific society to assume the functions of a body militant, but it must be remembered that we looked upon the Forest as a natural-history preserve which it was our duty to guard most jealously from unnecessary molesta- tion. It is to be hoped that this policy will be maintained by lOO THE COMING OF AGE OF the Club and that our fighting forces will be always found ready to take the field should any similar dangers threaten the Forest in the future. More in harmony with the work of a Society such as ours is legitimate criticism, discussion and advising in connection with the management of the Forest in so far as forest management is a question of applied science. Very early in the history of the Club we had occasion to take alarm at certain indications of policy with respect to the management, and a discussion was held at a meeting in February, 1882, when the general question of the management of the Forest and the necessary measures for the protection of its animals and plants were considered by many experts, the Verderers being represented on that occasion by Mr. Andrew Johnston [Proc. III., Appendix No. I., pp. ix. et seq.). A conterence with Mr. E. N. Buxton and his brother Verderers was subsequently held in June, 1882, at Knighton (Thid. III., xxviii.) The full report of the discussion and the papers com- municated at the meeting in February, together with the opinions of experts and the statement prepared in connection with our opposition to the railway scheme of 1883 were all brought together as a contribution to the general subject of the Forest management in an Appendix {No. I.) to the third volume of our Proceedings. That Appendix contains an Editorial introduction giving an excellent historical summary of the state of affairs down to that period and papers by Dr. M. C. Cooke, Prof. Boulger, Mr. Harting, Mr. Burrows and myself. A few years later, in i88g, the management of the Forest formed the subject of a series of virulent attacks in certain newspapers. Without committing the Club collectively to any action in connection witli this anonymous and irresponsible agitation, a meeting was held in April of that year in order to inspect the portions which had undergone thinning, and a dis- cussion took place, in the course of which Prof. Pioulger made some valuable criticisms and suggestions concerning certain details of the operations of which the results had been inspected. No formal action of the Clul) was considered necessary on that occasion, and the general policy of gradually removing the old pollards and allowing them to be replaced by young trees was in no way opposed (Essex Naturalist III., 164). In 1894 the thinnmg operations again drew forth newspaper THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. IO9 criticisms, at first from writers whose opinions were worthy of serious consideration, but who were apparently unin- structed as to the true condition of the Forest, and ultimately from the Press at large, fomented into rancorous activity by irresponsible scribblers and condemning the action of the Verderers with that vehemence and assurance which are so generally found in association with a profound ignorance of the subject under criticism. It appeared that the time had arrived for formal intervention by the Club on behalf of the Verderers, whose case had been so grossly misrepresented in the course of the newspaper controversy, and the great meeting of April 28th, 1894, ^^^11 always remain memorable in our annals as having been the occasion for the free discussion of the action of the Verderers after having given our members and the public the opportunity of seeing for themselves the places where thinning had been going on, and of hearing from Mr. Buxton on tlie spot the reasons for carrying out these operations (Essex Naturalist VIII., 52 — 71). That meeting as you all know resulted in what was practically a vote of confidence in the Conservators, and marked the beginning of the turn of the tide of popular opinion. In this we may, I think, take credit for having done a good piece of work for the benefit of the Forest, for if the ignorant clamour that had been raised had been allowed to take practical form by paralysing the hands of the Conservators, the Forest would have lost the valuable supervision of the best informed and most skil- ful of its Verderers to its everlasting detriment. The first report of the experts appointed by the Corporation of London to examine into the operations in progress was made on June 4th, 1894 (Essex Naturalist VI II., 117) and in substance shows that the vote of confidence passed at our meeting in April was justified (see Nature, July 5th, 1894). '^^^ agitation was renewed the following year, and resolutions passed at a public meeting of the complainants held at Wanstead were presented to the Epping Forest Committee of the Corporation of London by a deputation on May 13th, 1895. ■'■^ ^'^^ ^o^ thought necessary on this occasion to bring further organised resistance from the Club to bear upon the controversy as no new arguments or facts had been adduced by the agitators, but I ventured to collect on my own responsibility a large body of expert evidence ar^d of opinions from representative men, all of whom had personally inspected the Forest, and also from many leading inhabitants of IIO THE COMING OF AGE OF the Forest district, all expressing approval of the action of the Conservators. The two memorials were presented by me at a meeting of the Epping Forest Committee on May loth, 1895, the deputation having been introduced by Mr. Andrew Johnston, and having consisted of several representatives of the Club in addition to Mr. Joslin, the High Sheriff of Essex, and Sir Robert Hunter. The outcome of this second agitation was the appoint- ment by the Corporation of a second Commission of inquiry by the same experts, and their report was presented in November, 1895. This second report practically endorses their first, and has convinced the public that no danger need be apprehended from the action of the Conservators. The memorials and the final report of the experts will be found in the Essex Natural- ist (IX., 74 -80) and in the same volume Mr. Edward North Buxton published his views concerning the principles governing the management of the woodland in the Forest (pp. 233-— 236). On many occasions since the decisive meeting of 1894 have we given our members opportunities of seeing for themselves the actual results of the judicious attempts of the Conservators to naturalise that tract of most unnaturally pollarded woodland which was committed to their care by the Epping Forest Act of 1878. That their policy was sound and that their efforts have been and are being crowned with all the success that can be reasonably expected is amply justified by the present condition of the Forest. There remains much to be done to insure its perpetuation as a forest for the generations to come, since there are still very serious dangers threatening the growth of the new vegetation from which is to be developed the forest of the future. But this address deals rather with the past than with the future, and any expression of opinion concerning methods that may yet have to be adopted would be out of place on the present occasion. In one other respect since the dedication of the Forest in 1882 have we reason to rejoice in the association of the Buxtons with that district. In that year some twelve acres of land known as the Oakhill Enclosure on the Theydon Road were threatened by the builder, and attention was called to this danger by our Secretary {Pvoc. III., xi.) In May, i88g the Lord Mayor of London, at a diiniLn- of the Epping Forest Committee, read a letter from Sir T. Fowell Buxton which practically amounted to an anouncemeut tiiat he and his brother, Mr. E. N. Buxton, has THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Ill purchased the plot of land in question and had presented it to be kept as part of the Forest for ever. This generous addition was acknowledged by a resolution passed by the Club at the meeting held at Writtle Park in that same month (Essex Naturalist III., 57). Again, in 1890, Mr. Andrew Johnston announced at a meeting held in Epping Forest on May 17th, that Sir Fowell and Mr. E. N. Buxton and a relative had made an offer of contributing towards a fund of ^6,000 which was required for the acquisition of a portion (over 30 acres) of Highams Park at Woodford {Ibid. IV., 127). Of the total amount required the sum of ^3,000 was provided by the Corporation of London, and of the ^3,000 which it was required to raise locally the Buxtons offered ^1,800, the remainder having been subsequently raised as set forth in the history of this addition to the Forest printed in full in the Essex Naturalist (V., 137). It was again the pleasant duty of the Club in Dec, i8go, to pass a resolution thanking the Buxtons for their munificent action in connection with this matter {Ibid. IV., 230) and a meeting was held in March, 1891, to enable our members to see this latest addition to the Forest {Ibid. V., 129). Once again, in October, 1S98; Mr. E. N. Buxton presented as a further contribution to the Forest the picturesque elevation known as Yardley Hill, an addition of some 28 acres in extent {Ibid. XI., 78 ; see also p. 268). A meeting held in June, 1899, enabled our members to realize the extent of public indebted- ness to Mr. Buxton, to whom a vote of thanks was again accorded on behalf of the Club {Ibid. XL, 129)/ A few papers concerning the history and topography of the Forest district have been contributed to the Club, such, for example, as Mr. \V. C. Waller's notes on the old track from London to Epping (Essex Naturalist VL, 206), on old Loughton Hall {Ibid. VII., 14), on the Epping Hunt {Ibid. VIII., 31), and on the Barclay-Johnston MSS. and Papers relating to Epping Forest {Ibid. IX., 157), and Mr. I. C. 4 With reference to the history of the rescue of the Forest for the public, Mr. E. N. Buxton writes to me under the date of February 27th : — " My services are as nothing to my brother Powell's. By backing up Willingale against the Lords of Manors long before the City came in, and when the cause was unpopular, he not only did a thing which required the highest moral courage, but without it there would have been no Forest to preserve. Single- handed he arrested the wave of enclosures of the little bits I have been able to add the Highams Park was the most difficult transaction and the most interesting." While this Address was passing through the press it was announced at the Court ot Common Council that Mr. Gerald Buxton had purchased and presented as another addition to the Forest, the greater part of Bell Common, Epping, and the waste land along the Ivy Chimnies Road. 112 THE COMING OF AGE OF Gould's note on a Forest Document of the Eighteenth Century {Ibid. IX., 72). We have liad also special com- munications on the Forest Lodges by Mr. Waller (Ibid. VII., 82) and on Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, the head- quarters of our Epping Forest Museum, by Mr. James Cubitt (Ibid. IX., 166) and Mr. W. W. Love {Ibid. XL, 153). I will venture also to remind you that in 1894-95 I succeeded in re-dis- covering most of the old boundary stones on the eastern side of that wide expanse of country which constituted the Great Waltham Forest of early times, the area which we now propose to accept as the Forest district in connection with the Chingford Museum. The stones in the Navestock district were visited by the Club on July 28th, 1894 (Essex Naturalist VIII., 213) and the complete story of the boundary stones published the following year {Ibid. IX., i). The account of the perambulation of 1 64 1 when these stones were set up was reprinted in a paper " On the Area of Epping Forest for Faunistic purposes," published by our Secretary in 1892 {Ibid. VI., 10). The work of the Club is recognized also in Mr. E. N. Buxton's excellent little book Eppimr Forest, which contains many references to our publications as well as several contributions from our members. IX.—MISCELL A NEOUS WORK. Much of the work done by our Club, as in the case of other local societies, does not admit of being exactly pigeon-holed. Field meetings naturally call forth communications concerning me history of the places visited and of their more interesting buildings and antiquities, as well as biographical sketches of any past inhabitants who may iiave made the place famous. Thus much topographical and biographical information has found its way into the reports of our iield meetings, adding very much to their interest, although such information does not strictly speak- ing come within the province of a scientific society. The biographies of famous Essex people who have made tiieir mark as workers in science must, however, always be regarded as legitimate matter for publication in our pages, and I am glad to be able to refer to many such communications. The purely antiquarian and topographical interests centreing in our County are already well catered for by the Essex Archaeological Society and the Essex Review, and their is no occasion for any unnecessary duplication of work in this direction. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. II3 Biographies. Among the biographical notices of Essex scientific worthies I may refer to Professor Boulger's presi- dential address in 1885, dealing with the life and work of our most illustrious naturalist, John Ray {Trans. IV., 171), supplemented by another paper on the domes'ic life of John Ray at Black Notley, also by Prof. Boulger [Proc. IV., clix.), and by another on John Ray as an entomologist, by Mr. Fitch (Ibid, clxv.) A notice of Benjamin Allen, of Braintree, the contemporary of Ray was published by Mr. Fitch in iSgo (Essex Naturalist IV,, 192). Prof. Boulger also gave us in 1888 a paper on the life and works of the celebrated Dr. Derham of Upminster [Ibid. II., 133), but this does not appear to have been published. A meeting in conjunction with the Gilbert Club at Colchester, in i8go [Ibid. IV., 174), gave .in opportunity for the communication to the Club by my colleague, Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, of a life of Dr. William Gilberc, the author of the great work on The Magnet and founder of the science of electricity (Ibid. V., 50). Prof. Thompson, I may add, had previously in 1887 lectured to the Club on Gilbert's magnetic work (Ibid. I., 94). Christopher Saxton, the draughts- man of the oldest known map of Essex, formed the subject of a notice by Mr. Avery, in 1898 (Ibid. XI., 240). Izaak Walton's association with the River Lea formed the subject of a paper read by Mr. Harting in 1894 (■^^'«<^- VIII., 186). Among Essex scientiric worthies of later times I may refer to Christopher Parsons, noticed by Mr. Fitch (Ibid. III., 55), and John Brown, of Stanway, whose life was published by Mr. A. P. Wire in 1890 (Ibid. IV., 158) and supplemented in 1898 by a note by Messrs. Kennard and Woodward on a manuscript note-book left by that famous old naturalist and now in the library of the British Museum of Natural History (Ibid. X., 288). A visit of the Club to Constable's country, the vale of Dedham, in 1893, enabled us to receive from Mr. Charles Benham a paper on "John Constable as a Naturalist" (Ibid. VII.; 112). Topography. The conductors of our field meetings have in many cases been at great pains to draw up interesting accounts of the places visited, and we have thus published some few papers and many notes which may be classed as topographical contributions. A meeting at Chigwell in July, 1881, produced a most interesting history of that place from the pen of Mr. T. I 14 THE COMING OF AGE OF Fisher Unwin [Proc. II., xxxiv.) In like manner we have received and pubhshed " An Angler's Notes on Dagenham Lake," by Mr. John Hillier (Essex Naturalist VI., 146), and a paper on Dagenham Breach by Mr. Walter Croach [Ibid., 155). The voyages down the River Lea on the Conservancy barge under the conductorship of the late Major Lamorock Flower, have also led to the publication of much information about that river. Thus, in July, 1894, Major Flower gave an address {Ibid. VIII., 206) ; subsequent meetings on the Lea in June, 1895, ^^^ June, 1896, gave rise, among other contributions, to Mr. Crouch's " Notes on the River Lea ; Bromley, Bow, Old Ford " {Ibid. IX., 89; see also report of second voyage from Hertford to Wal- tham x^bbey. Ibid., 208) and to Mr. W. C. Waller's " Episode in the History of the River Lea " {Ibid., 190). An excursion from Maldon to Chelmsford in 1891 gave us Mr. Fitch's " Notes on the History of the Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation " {Ibid. v., 248) ; a meeting at St. Osyth and Brightlingsea the same year gave us Messrs. Shenstone and Laver's " Notes on the Colne Oyster Fishery" {Ibid., 257). A famous visit to Maldon and the Blackwater Estuary, under the conductorship of Mr. Fitch in September, 1888, resulted in a report replete with the topography, archaeology, geology and natural history of that district {Ibid. II., 229-250) to say nothing of an illustrated versi- fied account of the excursion by Mr. F. Carruthers Gould, whose New Song of Maldon cannot, however, be claimed as one of the Club's publications. As contributions to antiquarian topography we may consider Mr. I. C. Gould's paper on " A Naturalist in Essex a Century and a half ago" {Ibid. VI., 112) and Mr. Crouch's " Astronomy in W^anstead " {Ibid. Vll., 151), while the Rev. S. Coode Hore's paper on " Navestock in Olden Days ; stray notes, Pre-historic, Saxon and Norman " is a masterpiece of local history {Ibid. VIII., 220). Sanitation. In a few directions our work has come into contact with sanitary science. In 1890 Mr. William Rome sounded a noie of alarm concerning the proposed discharge of the London sewage into the sea at Fowlness and Soutlnninster and the effect upon the Essex oyster culture (Essex Naturalist IV., 41), a proposal which was fortunately afterwards withdrawn {Ibid., 125). Dr. J. C. Thresh gave us a paper on " The Sanitary Condition of Essex," in 1890 {Ibid. 97), and another in 1891 on " Vital Statistics for the County of Essex " {Ibid. V., 47), and in THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. II5 his presidential address for 1896 Mr. David Howard gave us a chapter on the water supply of the River Lea viewed in the light of recent researches {Ihid. IX., 150). CONCLUSION. The record of work now summarised is the sequel to the " Inaugural Address " of 1880. We may claim to have carried out our programme, and, considering the slender means at our disposal, I venture to think that our achievements are such as to reflect credit upon our contributors and upon the Society as a working body. The Victoria History of the County when com- pleted will bear testimony to the value of our labours ; the annual catalogue of papers published by the Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association bears witness to our having taken a leading position among the local societies of this country. Not only is the Club indebted to those members who by their work have enabled us to realise the objects which we had in view at the outset, but our obligations to those of the executive officials who have undertaken the arduous labours of administration during the past twenty-one years are too great to be allowed to pass unnoticed on the present occasion. Many have taken part qt various times in this administrative work, but it will not, I am sure, be considered invidious if I refer to the fact — well known to you all — that the whole labour of editing the publications referred to in this Address has been carried out by Mr. William Cole, who has also acted as Hon. Secretary during the entire period of our existence. In addition to these duties, Mr. Cole has been Curator of both our museums, and his brother, Mr. B. G. Cole, has also given his services as Assistant Hon. Secretary, while the artistic skill of Mr. Henry A. Cole has been freely placed at the disposal of the Club for the illustration of the pages of our publications. Without this valuable assistance it would have been impossible for us to have given our members so many illustrations as we have been enabled to through Mr. Henry Cole's gratuitous contributions. The record of twenty-one years as herein set forth should encourage us' to look forward with every confidence to a period of equal or even greater activity in the future. It might, perhaps be urged that we should Iiave done more. Possibly this may be the case, but I do not think that we have Il6 THK ESSEX FIELD CLUB. reason to be dissatisfied on the whole with our output. It must be remembered that the chief source of expenditure in a society such as this is pubHcation. By this is our utility made manifest to our members and to the public at large. But publication is liniited by income, and the latter is dependent upon our member- ship. We have, like most other societies, seen periods of elevation and depression - we liave passed through our crises and we may now flatter ourselves that the Club has found a home where its labours can be carried on pea,cefully and uninterrupt- edly. In view of our past achievements we are at any rate justified now in pleading for further support. A list of Members of under 300 means an income of about £150 to /200 per annum, out of which we have to meet the cost of publication and to furnish our contribution to the curatorial expenses of the museum. If our members would like to have a larger volume of the Essex Naturalist every year — and this is a consummation devoutly to be wished — we must increase the numbers of our subscribing members. Our subscription is not ruinous ; I know of no society of a like nature from which its members get so much in return for their subscription in the way of meetings and publications. I certainly think that our journal might be issued more frequently and more regularly, and now that the chief burden of organizing the museums is off our Editor's shoulders we may look for improvement in this respect. But the total amount of printed matter— apart from the frequency of issue — cannot very well exceed our present volumes with the income at present available. It is an encouraging indication that we have discharged our functions towards the scientific world that the supply of original contributions has practically never failed durmg the twenty-one years of our existence. That seems to me one of the very healthiest signs of our vitality, and I confess that it is an experience which, in view of the history of many local societies, has caused me no little surprise. Our position has generally been that we have had more material in hand than we have been able to afford to publish. That is the state of affairs at the present time Much as we have accomplished during the twenty-one years passed under review there yet remain vast fields for future workers. To encourage this work by joining our ranks, if only out of public spirit for the credit of the County, is assuredly the duty of all who have the intellectual and scientific welfare of that County at heart. 117 NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THE NORTH DOWNS NEAR SUTTON, SURREY. By J. P. JOHNSON. Judging from the vast quantity of flakes and chips with which they are strewn, the North Downs, in the neighbourhood of Sutton, must once have been the site of a great flint imple- ment industry, which no doubt owed its position to the amount of raw material at hand. The majority of these flakes are as sharp and translucent as any freshly produced specimens, from which they differ, how- ever, in being, without exception, highly lustrous. Those that have lain long on the surface, exposed to the direct action of atmospheric agencies have become opaque, and many are dis- coloured with rust due to the oxidation of the streaks of iron gained by contact with the plough, while a small proportion are patinated, that is, the surface of the flint has undergone some change which has given it a glazed appearance. They are mostly small, few reaching the size of the average Palaeolithic flake. In colour they range, in glassy specimens, from amber to black, and in porcellaneous examples, from white, through mottled blue and white to blue, with every intermediate tint imaginable. While the greater number of flakes are merely chips that have been struck off in the manufacture of implements, many, on the other hand, are designedly shaped, and are such as require great skill in their production. Such are the minute thin narrow flakes, one of which is shewn in the set of figures on page 1 18 with three or more faces and a well-developed bulb of percussion. Miscellaneous flakes were largely employed by pre-historic man for various purposes. Nearly all have their edges notched through use. These flakes are not all of the same age. Sometimes one comes across s}iecimens that have been re-trimmed at a later period. In cases where the original flake is externally mottled and opaque, the newer chipping is black, having penetrated the semi-transparent interior. The cores from which the flakes have been struck are frequently met with. I have one very beautiful example, con- ii8 NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM THE NORTH DOWNS. II9 sisting of the half of a small nodule of jet-black flint, from which numerous long narrow flakes have been driven. Calcined flints are extremely abundant. Together with the chips of flint one occasionally finds well- fashioned implements. I have made outline drawings, which are reproduced in the annexed plate, of my choicest specimens. The three implements at the top are very neatly finished scrapers. Similar implements, mounted in handles, are used by the Eskimos for scraping skins, hence the name. They are the only three of the kind that I have found. Eough, concave and irregularly shaped scrapers are common. The central figure is either another form of scraper, or else it is a fabricator, i.e., an instrument employed in producing the very fine flaking on arrow-heads, etc. The drawing in the lower left-hand corner represents the two sides of a chipped arrow-head — the onlv one I have obtained, I have also a very beautiful flake arrow-head. Small triangular flakes that were probably used as arrow-heads are abundant. The adjacent figure shews one of the pigmy flakes referred to above. The instrument of which two \iews are given in the lower right-hand corner, is a remarkably fine borer. It does not appear to be quite finished, one edge of the boring portion being only partly chipped. The above-described implements are all in the same fresh condition and seem to be of the same minor age. With the exception of the arrow-head, they are all fashioned out of flakes, the reverse side consisting in each case of a smooth surface, with a prominent bulb of percussion at the untrimmed end. I think one is justified in assuming that these highly finished implements were made for the purposes of barter to other people who were neither so skilled in their manufacture, nor so fa\oured with a supply of siliceous material. Con- sidering the amount of flint debvis scattered over the Downs, an enormous number of implements must have been produced. If they had been used by the makers only, one would expect to find them on the site of manufacture, where, however, they are really rare. I20 NOTES ON THE BLACK-HEADED GULL IN ESSEX IN igoi. By PERCY CLARK, B.A. To the casual visitor up the muddy Essex estuaries, perhaps little annual change in their state and condition is apparent, and yet constant forces are at work in those regions, which some- times more or sometimes less must make their inevitable mark. A tidal wave comes up from the North Sea, such as in November, 1897, and swamps an island or a marsh, leaving deposit behind which tells a tale for years after ; perhaps a por- tion of the coast is abandoned to the ever-encroaching wave, which has happened here and there, and the waters of the sea in places permanently enlarged their sphere. But even in its ordinary and normal rotation the regular ebb and flow of the tide, carrying its volume of mud in solution, as it overswells the tangled foreshore will by imperceptil^le degrees gradually raise its level, so that the flats even recently reclaimed and enclosed by sea walls, are already distinctly sunk below the higher portions of the saltings that remain outside them. This will be noticed all along the Essex coasts, and as the sea is still gaining on those shores, and when unhindered by artificial means, working a relentless devastation and ruin ; it proves that on the whole the land has a tendency to sink, not- withstanding the amount of deposit that is left after every flood. The working of this law is perhaps seen clearest in the Broad district of Norfolk and Suffolk, where the path of the tidal rivers has become in this way so raised above the surround- ing marshes that sailing along them, is like travelling on an elevated canal. But be this as it may, the Black-Headed Gulls for the last few years seem more and more inclined to build their nests and breed on the stretch of saltings that border our tidal channels. Possibly the}' may have found that in some places the relative height of the saltings is increasing, and that for the present, only abnormal spring tides submerge the higher parts. This habit of the birds is nothing really new, for a century ago (roughly speaking) many of the salting islands in the Essex Rivers were even then famous as their breeding haunts. NOTES ON THE BLACK-HEADED GULL. 121 But whether owing to a subsequent and more rapid sub- mergence of the land, or owing to the persecutions of egg collectors and others, this custom was abandoned by the gulls, it is certain that just now they are reverting to their former instincts. Such is the case, for instance, in Hamford Water, where, as I have previously noted,' of late years a large and flourishing colony of Black- Headed Gulls seems to have permanently estab- lished itself. In the summer of 1901 I found that the gulls had settled their nursery on much the same stretch of saltings as they had done the year before, but this time to the west of the creek leading to the hard on Horsey Island, instead of to the East of it, and paying a visit there on June 6th last I soon discovered about 30 nests, most of them containing three eggs. The little islets in the muddy creeks were especially patronised, and were beyond my reach, but the nests I came across elsewhere v/ere all, as usual, among the thick weeds and grass at the highest point of the saltings, and were of the low and scanty construction which I have previously described. I calculated that there were about 100 birds flying around, much the same numbers as in 1900. At the hard on the island close by I met a farmer's boy who asked me if there were any birds breeding on the saltings, and informed me he had never yet seen a gull's egg ; a remark which I considered very satisfactory, though I rejoined that if ever he did happen to do so, it was penal to remove it. From Hamford Waters I sailed the next day, June 7th, to the Colne, and on the St. Osyth Marshes by " Bricclesea " I found the Black-headed Gulls as busy and numerous as ever. Here also there were about 100 birds wheeling overhead and I soon discovered without any difficulty about 30 to 40 nests ; indeed the birds make no attempt at concealment, as the saltings here are very open, entirely lacking even the slight protection afforded by the denser growth of grass and herbage which characterises Gullery No. 1. Though early in the summer (I was a month sooner than usual in my visit), there were several young birds just hatched in EssKX Naturalist, Vol. xi., p. 312, Mr. Clark's previous papers on the Essex Black- Headed Gulls will be found in Vol. x., p. 388 and Vol. xi., p. 184. — Ed. 122 NOTES ON TH !• BLACK-HEADED GULL. the nests, and others were cracking the shells and hatching, and there were many eggs in pairs and single ones. I had landed from a boat at the far side of the creek, but was not to pass unnoticed, for before long I was espied by Mr. Cross of the adjoining farm, who came riding down across the flats to see what I was doing, proving that any pillagers with bad intent would with difficulty escape his keen watchful eye. We two, however, had met before, and he readily forgave me my intrusion on his property. On May 20th, he informed me, he had counted 60 nests of Black-Headed Gulls upon the saltings, and he thought the birds had certainly increased during the last year or two, although the spring tides still wash and carry away many of the eggs. The gulls, he said, had now almost deserted the fresh water fleets farther inland, amid the thick flags and weeds of which they were formerly wont to make their nests, and nearly all of them had migrated to the neighbouring saltings. I was much pleased with the account he gave, and left Gullery No. 2 feeling well satisfied with the condition of affairs ; sailing the next day to \\'est Mersea where I hoped to encounter on ToUesbury Marshes a similar pleasant experience. But I am sorry to say there were no gulls there this year (igoi). In 1898 there were only a very few, in 1899 there was a good-sized colony, on one of the large fresh water fleets, but the spring of 1901 was a remarkably dry one, and already early in June the water was extremely low in the ponds and ditches. This might account for the desertion of the birds, but my own impression is, as I have said before, that the gulls are reverting to an old habit, and prefer nesting on the saltings, and doubtless the colony from ToUesbury had followed suit. There was not a Black-fieaded Gull to be seen on those drearv level flats, and I spent the best part of an afternoon in a fruitless search ; so Gullery No. 3 must be erased this year out of my list, and very probably will not appear again. The result then of these investigations for 1901 consists in my being able to report, that two strong Gulleries, instead of three, are still flourishing in the count}-, with eyery promise that they will thrive and further increase in the future ; my only regret being that Gullery No. i in Hamford Water can boast of 9RCHIS MACULATA. I 23 no kindly guardian like Mr. Cross, who presides with such efficient care over the destinies of the one near Brightlingsea. POSTSCRIPT— Since writing the above, I have been in correspondence with Mr. Charles Dawkins, who has kindly given me informa- tion of a large colony of Black-Headed Gulls on the Wick Marshes near Tollesbury. These are rot far from the Hall Marshes which I drew blank this summer, but Mr. Dawkins informs me, he has known the Wick Gulleries for 13 years, and though the birds and nests have annually fluctuated considerably in numbers, they have at no time been completely absent. It appears that in this locality the gulls still build their large clumsy nests among the reeds of the bigger fleets, and Mr. Hawkins writes that he might have put the numbers of them this year considerably above the figure he quotes in the last number of the Essex Naturalist (ante p. 69). He says the marshmen take very good care of the nests, and his account generally is most satisfactory, so I must now add another pros- perous gull colony in Essex to my list. Perhaps bye-and-bye we may even hear of more among the islands at the mouth of the Crouch. ORCHIS MACULATA, SUB-SPECIES ERICE- TORUM, LINTON, IN EPPING FOREST. By C. E. BRtTTON. Three or four years ago my friend, Mr. James Holloway, expressed to me his opinion, that the Spotted Orchis of Epping Forest was somewhat different from .the usual form of Orchis maculata found growing elsewhere. Last year (1900) the Epping Forest form of Orchis maculata was again mentioned by Mr. Holloway, and it then occurred to me, that, in all probability, this plant was the recently described sub-species. Orchis ericetornm, Linton. During the present season, we have both paid a certain amount of attention to the Spotted Orchis in Epping Forest, with the result that the occurrence of 0. evicetovum as a Forest plant is firmly established. Indeed, we have seen no Spotted Orchises that seem referable to O. maculata in a restricted sense. A number of our plants were sent to the Rev. E. F. Linton for 124 ORCHIS MACULATA. verification, who wrote in reply, " All the specimens you sent two days ago were my Orchis encetoriim." The plants forwarded were gathered at High Beach and over St. Thomas's Quarters. Perhaps it may be useful to give the original description of O. evicetovum, Linton, from The Flora of Bournemouth (igoo), pp. 208-9 • — " More slender than the type ; stem usually somewhat purplish above ; leaves narrower, more or less recurved, eveu the lower cauline more or less acuminate, carinate and folded ; spike i to 2 inches, broadly pyramidal, at length oblong ; bracts purplish ; flowers pale, scentless, with rose-purple markings, ground commonly white or tinged with pink, but sometimes of deeper colour ; outer line of markings nearly or quite complete ; nectary slender, slightly enlarged or not at all upwards, throat narrow ; lower lip sub- orbicular, rounded in outline, rather spreading ; mid-lobe much smaller than the broad obliquely truncate or crenate lateral lobes, not exceeding them in length and usually shorter or somewhat recurved. " Compared with this sub-species, or rather species, if a sufficient number of these distinctions are found on further examination to hold good, the type is rather a stouter and commonly bigger plant, with broader, straight er leaves, less carinate and folded, frequently flat ; spike i^ to 2 J inches, ovate-oblong in flowering, oblong at length bracts more usually (? always), green ; flowers with dark rose-purple markings (the outer line//, m. disjointed) on a pale rose-purple ground ; faintly aromatic (? always) ; nectary stouter, enlarged upwards, throat gaping obviously, lip deeply 3-cleft, vertically pendent ; lobes sub-equal, lateral obliquely oblong crenulate ; mid-lobe deltoid-oblong or deltoid-acuminate, distinctly exceeding and not much if at all narrower than the lateral, usually straight. "These two plants have a wide distribution in Britain: sub-species ericetonim has been noted from Caithness and Sutherland to the South Coast and Guernsey, and also from Co. Wicklow. A supposed hybrid between the two occurred in Glen Lockay, Perthshire, but they seldom are found in the same locality." " Moist places and bogs on heaths " are the habitats given. There can be no doubt that of the characters ascribed to 0. ericetonim, some are of questionable value. Thus, some of the Epping Forest plants possess a pleasant odour ; the bracts and stems are more frequently green than purplish, and though some plants show the lip with the outer line of purple markings com- plete, these are in the minority. The characters which to me seem most helpful in determining O. ericetovum, are the narrow leaves, small spike of pale flowers, mid-lobe of lip smaller than the lateral, general slender habit and its heathland habitat. Typical O. maculata, whilst it may be present in the Forest, I have not encountered, and, on the open heathy parts, 0. ericetovum seems to be the only form present. i25 SEA-SIDE PLANTS. BEING THE SUBSTANCE OF AN ADDRESS DELIVERED AT CANVEY ISLAND, JUNE 15th, 1901. By PROF. G. S BOULGER, F.L.S., F.G.S., V.P.E.F.C. Although not myself a total abstainer, I can feel for the inhabitants of this island, animal and vegetable alike, who may be said, in the words of the poet, to be surrounded by " water, water everywhere, Nor any drop to drink." As we have walked along the sea-wall and beach we have noticed a variety of flowering plants, members of several widely differing Natural Orders, which agree in the common property of succu- lence, succulence both in stem and leaf, accompanied for the most part by a smooth surface, and in some cases by a blue- green waxy " bloom." The Marsh Samphire or Glass-wort {Salicovnia herbacea), the Sea.-h\ite (Sua da viaritiiiia), a.nd the Crab- weed (A triplex povtulacoides), which grow on the " saltings," where they are overflowed at high tide, are, it is true, members of one Order, the Chenopodiacece ; but the Yellow Horned Poppy [Glaucium flavum) , the Stone-crop (Sedum acre), which we found so luxuriant, the Sea Sandwort [Alsine marina) and the variety of the Carrot [Daiicns carota, var. gummijcr), which occur a little farther inland, belong to very diverse groups ; yet all agree in these outward characteristics, as do many other sea-side plants, such as the Sea- Kale (Craiiibe niavitima), which we have not come across to-day. If we examine the structure of these plants microscopically we shall find that this succulence is largely pro- duced by a thick, almost leathery outer wall to the epidermal cells and the presence of a large amount of water (salt-water) in the internal cellular tissue, while it is accompanied by a very small number of stomata or transpiration-pores. This thijk impermeable cuticle and this internal store of water are precisel}' similar to the structures that we find in desert plants We have, in fact, in these plants growing close to the water's edge special adaptations to check transpiration, to economise water. Why is this ? A familiar laboratory experiment throws light upon the question. If we place a thin section of fresh beetroot — a plant of sea-side origin, by the way — under the microscope and bathe it with a 5 per cent, solution of salt, we find that the red proto- 126 SEASIDE PLANTS. plasmic contents of the unbroken cells contract and withdraw from the cell-walls, the space between the walls and the con- tracted cell-contents being occupied by the solution of salt. In fact the living protoplasm is unable to absorb the salt and has actually to give up some of the water with which it is saturated to the hygroscopic salt-solution around it. If, on the other hand, we kill the protoplasm, by boiling or by the application of acid, before applying the salt solution we find that the latter diffuses readily into the dead cell-contents and there is no such contrac- tion as in the first case. This indicates that plants whose roots are supplied with salt-water are able to assimilate for purpose of nutrition but a very little of the water which reaches them : they are to a great extent subjected to a water famine ; and they have developed — in many different Natural Orders — water-saving structures. Chemical analysis shows us that the plants have no choice in this matter. As the sea water is rich in salts of soda, so tlie ash of these sea-side plants is rich in soda ; but it can readily be demonstrated that most, if not all, of this soda is physiologically useless to the plant, which cannot, however, refuse to absorb it. Not only do experinients in growing plants in prepared solutions demonstrate that they can maintain their full health and vitality while dispensing with soda ; but when a sea-side plant, such as Asparagus, which occurs on another part of our Essex coast, is transferred into ordinary inland garden mould, which is rich in potash but poor in soda, the soda in the plant-ash rapidly becomes replaced by potash. It is, however, important to bear in mind that the converse of this experiment, the replacement of potash by soda, cannot be performed, some potash being appar- ently essential to the life of every flowering plant. Succulence is not, however, the only adaptation to the economising water of which we have seen examples to-day. In several species of grass, such as the Marram [Psamma arenaria) and the Ljine Grass {Elymus arenarius), which grow near the sea, we find the leaves are rolled up and their surface, not only " glaucous," or covered with grey bloom, but marked by deep longitiidinal grooves. To these grooves the few stomata are confined, and, in some cases, hairs lining the grooves would seem to be a special contrivance to re-absorb the moisture directly it has been transpired by the protected stomata. EPPING FOREST FUNGI. I27 We have then in this assemblage of sea-side plants, or " halophj'tes," as the physiolof^ist terms then, of widely differing kinship, a response to the nature of their environment, producing structural modification in more than one direction, though for the same physiological purpose. [At the delivery of the above address in response to remarks by Prof. Meldola, Mr. Boulger added that :— He quite recognised the important bearing that the subject to which he had directed attention had upon the nmch debated questions of the direct action of tlie environment and the inheritance of acquired characters. He was afraid that botanists could not feel themselves in a position to decide these questions at present. Experiment — long continued experiment — was necessar}' ; but, though, perhaps, all the facts to which he had alluded that day might be explicable by special adaptation of each individual and the elimination of the unadapted by natural selection, he thought it possible, if not probable, that, after many generations of such influence, adaptational characters might become fixed, so as to be inherited without liability to loss by reversion. EPPING FOREST FUNGI : REPORTS ON THE SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE FUNGUS FORAY ON OCTOBER, 12th, igoi. [As on previous occasions. Dr. Cooke and Mr. Massee kindly undertook to determine the more interesting species gathered, and their reports follow. Attention should also be called to Mr. Massee's note on the new Amanita in the present part of the Essex Naturalist.] NOTES ON THE LARGER FUNGI OBSERVED. By M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., &c. I found an Agaric at High Beach eleven years ago (i88o) and could not satisfy myself at the time of its name and situation. Looking over my drawings, which have not been published, I find this species, and now I am able to place it as follows : — Collybia pulla, Schcefif t., 250. Bolton t., 15. Pileus fleshy, thin, campanulate then expanded, obtuse, even, smooth, hygrophanous ; stem usually hollow, twisted, I2§ EPPING FOREST FUNGI. rather striate, soft, naked, gills adnexed, rather broad, trans- versely pellucid striate, whitish. Sacc. SylL, No. 767. On Beech trunks, stem abruptly rooting, cuticle soft and polished. Pileus purplish bay, almost black, dusky when dry, about an inch across, before expansion, stem two or three inches long. Amongst the specimens found and exhibited on the 12th Oct., were : — Amanitopsis fulva, SchcefF, which resembles the ordinary Amanitopsis vaginata, but, instead of being grey, the pileus is bright brown, and instead of being edible, the fungus is sus- pected of being deleterious. Pleurotus pantoleucus, Fr. Cooke, Illustrations t. 275a, described in Cooke's Handbook, 2nd Ed., No. 368. Growing on trunks. Russula azurea, Bres, Cooke Illiis. t. 1088, on the ground. Boletus aurantiporus, Howse. A fine species with large bright yellow pores. Calocera stricta, Fries. On dead wood and branches. First time, Epping. Entoloma porphyrophoea, Fr., on the ground, possibly recorded before under the name oi Entoloma jnhata, Fr. Mr. W. G. Smith has also reported Lactarius obliquus for the Forest District.' Amongst rare species, which have been recorded in previous years, were Russula cutefracta, Cooke, and Russula avmeniaca, Cooke, found again in 1901. Add also for the first time at Epping Tricholoma circum- tecta, Cooke. Ulus. t., 1182. I fancy this to be the best record of new and rare Forest Fungi for at the least ten years. LIST OF THE MICRO-FUNGI OBSERVED. By GEORGE M.^SSEE, F.L.S. The following minute species of Fungi were found, princi- pally on dung. Those marked with an asterisk are new to the Forest Flora. Concerning those unmarked, 1 am uncertain as to their having been recorded before or not. I See page 134 of present part. A FUNGUS NEW TO EPPING FOREST. I2g BASIDIOMYCETES. '''Grandinia crustosa, Fr. On old rotting cast-off clothing. ASCOMYCETES. Ascobolus immersus, Pers. "A. brunneus, Cke. A. furfuraceus, Pers. A. glaber, Pers. ''^Saccobolus kerverni, Boud. *S. neglectus, Boud. "S. depauperatus, Phil. "Ascophanus microsporus, Phil. "Ryparobius pelletieri, Sacc. -'■R. parvisporus, Phil. *R. sexdecemsporus, Sacc. *R. argenteus, B. and Br. '■■Bisporella monilifera, Fckl. Both ascigorus and conidial condition. On cut surface of the stump of a tree. HYPHOMYCETES. *Stachybotris atra, Corda. On damp paper. AMANITA CITRINA, GON. AND RAB., A FUNGUS NEW TO BRITAIN, IN EPPING FOREST. By GEORGE MASSEE, F.L.S. {Royal Herbarium, Kew). This rare species was established and beautifully figured by Gonnermann and Rabenhorst in the Mycoiogia Europcva, p. 2, tab. 4 (1869), from German specimens'. From that time up to the present, the fungus has not been observed either in Germany or elsewhere. A . citrina is the same size, and has the same general habit as the " Fly Agaric " — Amanita muscaria, L. — but the pileus instead of being crimson is a clear deep lemon-yellow, with white patches. The species is very poisonous. I had occasion to visit the Forest during the week following the last "Fungus Foray" (October 12th, 1901), for the purpose of securing some specimens found immature during the Foray, and was fortunate enough to discover two specimens of Amanita 130 A FUNGOID CUCUMBER DISEASE IN ESSEX. citvina on the bank of the little stream behind the " Robin Hood " Inn. I have made a drawing of this very interesting species, which I understand will be placed along with the illustrations of other Poorest fungi in the Epping Forest Museum. A FUNGOID CUCUMBER DISEASE IN ESSEX. By M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D., .\.L.S., &:c. It is now five years since I received from Totteridge leaves of Melon which were affected with a new form of Fungus disease, and this was described in the Gavdenevs' Chronicle for the 5th September, 1896, under the name of Cevcospova nielonis. During the past month (September, igoi) I have had leaves of Cucumber sent to me from Chelmsford, affected with the same disease, and although my query to the sender has never been answered, I presume that the locality is Essex, if it is not really Chelmsford, and therefore comes within the limits of the Essex Field Club. The leaves are spotted with distinct circular bleached spots, of a pale ochre colour, and about half an inch in diameter. Such spots are brittle and soon break out and fall away, the tissues being quite dead. The dead tissue is traversed by a plentiful mycelium, from which arise darkish olive threads or hyphce, which are unbranched and septate, al)out 150 mm. long. These hyphae bear long conidia, which are almost cylindrical, slightly attenuated upwards, obtuse at the extremities, a little curved, and at first multi-nucleate, ultimately five to seven-septate, faintly coloured, from 80 to 120 mm. long and about 7 mm. thick. This fungus belongs to the Black Moulds, and most of the species are parasitic upon, and destructive to living plants. As the disease is truly endophytic and is established within the tissues before the spots appear, there are grave doubts whether there is any hope of cure. x\ll that can be done is to prevent its spreading by destroying the infected plants. 131 NOTES ON FUNGI, FORESTAL AND OTHERS. MAINLY CORRIGENDA TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH FUNGI.-' By M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., &c. [Read at the ''Fungus Foray," October 12th, lOOW] I take advantage of this opportunity to address a few words to my mycological friends, not only those who may hear my voice, but those absent ones who will rest content to hear the echoes through the press. Now that, for the past fifteen years, the fungus forays of the celebrated Woolhope Club have practi- cally ceased, opportunities are few for intercommunication with those most interested in the study of Fungi. Notwithstanding all the laudable efforts to infuse life and vigour into the British Mycological Society, I am much afraid that the labour is greatly in vain, and that gradually, since the cessation of the Woolhope Forays, and the decease of the great moving spirit, there has been a gradual, but certain, decadence in interest, in the subject, and the number of students, has been slowly becoming less and less. To me it has been the source of great regret, not only that so many have been removed to a higher sphere, but that of those which were left, so many have become lukewarm and indifferent, and so few young students have come forward to fill the vacant places. I am forced to the conclusion that the study and interest in the larger fungi has subsided into much the same con- dition in which it was nearly half a century ago. This I attribute largely to the falling away of the old school of mycologists, by death or otherwise, supplemented by the collapse of the Hereford Forays. It proves, if proof were needed, how much the prosperity of our local societies depend upon the enthusiasm and self sacrifice of one or two active and energetic men. By your permission I will devote a few minutes to what may at first appear to be a personal subject, although I shall endeavour to avoid treating it in a personal manner. You are all aware that I had the good fortune to print and publish a book of figures of fungi, containing portraits, or what were meant to be portraits, of upwards of a thousand species of Gill-bearing Fungi. With whatever success or failure, this was associated, I 1 These notes, although somewhat foreign to our plan, are printed in our Journal inas- much as they will be useful to students consulting Dr. Cooke's great work, and they also con- tain several corrections and additions to our Epping Forest " Fungus Flora." — Ed.. I32 NOTES ON FUNGI, FORESTAL AND OTHERS. flatter myself that I still hold the record. I often look back with something of surprise as well as gratification, that I was able to accomplish so much. However, it was done with great difficulty, from which 1 should shrink in these latter days. Nevertheless all human work is to a certain extent imperfect, and I have never laid claim to absolute perfection in anything that I have ever done, least of all in a work of so much difficulty as that which I have alluded to. Now and then I am kindly reminded by some one or other of my friends of a few of my failures, and I suppose that they are rather surprised that I do not accept their strictures with a more grateful heart. Moreover I can say with confidence that I am better pleased at the vindica- tion of truth than the gratification of my own vanity. I think that my days of vanity are all spent, and I am ready to confess my errors, as soon as I become convinced that they are errors. Already I have admitted some in the past, and still one of the most persistent of my critics has lately called on me to make further confession, which I will proceed to do —as far as I can consistent with what I believe to be the truth. Of the species oi Amanitce I have nothing to say, except that I think A. struhilifoymis was present when the original of PI. 8 was drawn, and that the execution was faulty and the colour more so, hence the result was a caricature. As to AymiUariu the plate called A. focalis, minor (pi. 245) can scarcely be any form oi focalis, but rather of A. causettu, from the scaly stem. In Lepiota I think pi. 1180 fairly represents L. hispicla but pi. 27 does not, and may be referred to L. clypeolaria. Concerning Tricholoma I have but few confessions to make, and of these Ag. portentosus Fr. comes first, of which Fig. 54 is not a type, indeed I am dis- posed io\et i\. go diS Collybia platyphyllu, a.ndi not very good at that. It was not a drawing of my own, and I never saw the specimens. I think that T aygvraceus, and its varieties, is entitled to rank as a species, distinct from T. terreus. The gills in pi. 49, Ag. murimiccus should certainly be grey, which is omitted in the plate. PI. 167. Agaricus virgatus is a failure inasmuch as the strioe of the pileus should have been of the faintest kind. This plate was spoiled in the printing, and could not be remedied. As to Agaricus sadleri, pi. 127, I have little to say, except that it had the sanction of the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, and at the time I protested strongly that it was only a peculiar condition of Hypholoma fasciculare, which view is now accepted. NOTES ON FUNGI, FORESTAL AND OTHERS. 133 I fancy that pi. no cannot properly be referred to Clitocyhe senilis, although the Rev. M. J. Berkeley considered it to be so. Certainly it is far from the type. Co//y6;Vi /«//(T, Schft., was found at High Beach, Epping Forest in 1880, but has never yet been recorded as British. I made drawings ]of it, at the time, which may be published some day.' The little Agarics attached to a yellow sclerotium, published as Collybia cirrhata, are doubtless also Collybia tuberosa, as no sclerotium is attached to C. cirrhata, therefore the whole of plate 144 is tuberosa. A curious Agaric was figured at the bottom of pi. 422 under the name of Agaricus {Pliiteus) phlebophurus, variety reticiilatus, which is not a Pluteus at all but a species of Entoloma, which has been named Entoloma cookei by a French- man and doubtless he is nearer the truth. The fungu.-; figured on plate 317 and called Entoloma jiibata is not that species, although it somewhat resembles it, but should be called Entoloma porphyrophcea. I don't know what to say about Ag. (Entoloma) bloxami figured on plate 327, but I strongly suspect that it does not differ from Agaricus madidus, Fries. When I first found the species which is figured on pi. 354, I sent a draw- ing and fresh specimens to Fries, asking him if it was not a slender form of Ag. terrigenus but in reply, he informed me that it was not his species, but a new one which he should call Ag. (Pholiota) cookei, and it was figured under that name. Afterwards I found the specimens figured on pi. 349 at Ching- ford, and these I called Ag. tcrrigenus. Anyone comparing the two plates will I think come to the conclusion that both are really the same species, notwith- standing the slight differences. As far as I can make out, my original suspicion has been confirmed and endorsed, that Pholiota comosa and P. heteroclita at least, as far as we know them, are but two names for the same species. Compare plates 366 and 600. Somehow the names of Ag. fimiputris and A . pJialasnarum got exchanged on the plates, so that they need correcting. Although I am jumping from one end of the book to the other in these remarks, I must not forget to call attention to what is now called .imanitopsis vagiiiata, which is very common in the Epping Forest. There are three very well marked forms, the most common being of a greyish colour, and has been named livida. I have eaten this and found it to be very delicate and diges- tible. The same can be said of the more scarce white variety, the nivalis of Greville. The last of the three forms is bright brown, and has been known both as spadicea and fusca. This is, I consider, entitled to rank as a distinct species I tried to eat it once, and I do not intend to try it again, and I am bound io caution all persons concerned that it is not good to eat. For this, as well as other reasons I suggest that we should mark the difference in future, by calling the brown form Amanitopsis fusca. There are two species of Hygrophorus figured, one of them called //. latus (pi. 938) and the other H. honghtoni (pi. 936), but I cannot find any difference between them. It has not been uncommon in Epping Forest, whichever name has been given, but I think that H. honghtoni must be dropped. I See description of this species by Dr. Cooke, ante., page 127.— Er, lOA NOTES ON FUNGI, FORESTAL AND OTHERS. I have been informed recently, that the curious Lactarins ohliquus has been found, and is to be recorded for Epping Forest. I am very glad of this, because no one but myself ever found it previously in this country, and I am confident its determination was looked upon with suspicion, in some quarters. It is the only species of Lactarins we have with a lateral stem. Now we come to the great sphinx which has been the major conundrum for years, and I do not intend, or pretend, to solve it. Of course it is repre- sented by Hypholoma lacrymabundus and the supposed Agaricus storea. Let anyone who pleases hunt up all the pages that have been written, but I shall not quote them here. I am convinced that M. J. B. led me into error in assuring me that what I figured as H. lacrymabundus, was that species accord- ing to Fries. I am now satisfied, for several reasons, that it was not, and was doubtless only a form of H. velutinus, with a scaly, instead of a silky pileus The next point is this — what is the fungus which has been called here Agaricus storea ? and figured as such in the Illustrations. It is very certain that it is not the Agaricus storea of Fries., whatever else it may be. .Vt present 1 do not feel quite satisfied that it is the veritable Hypholoma lacrymabundus of Fries. I cannot swallow the whole pig at once. PI. 703 which was sent to Fries, also with fresh specimens, was declared by him to be Cortinarius saginus, and was published under that name. Doubt- less it was a lapse of memory on the part of the author, since the figure is only Cortinarius triumphans, yet perhaps not quite typical, as the stem in the figure does not '• imitate a triumphal column " neither is it encircled by tawny scales, disposed in numerous circles or rings. This is depicted better in plate 692, than in pi. 703, which latter has been characterised as " one of the best figures in Cooke's Illustrations." However critics are sometimes permitted to make mistakes, to prove themselves human. Cortinarius tonus has long been a bogie to most of the Continental mycologists, who certainly have fallen into error in regarding Cortinarius berkeleyi as the genuine Cortinarius torvus of Fries. The figure in Fries' hones is quite enough to show that there is no affinity between them I ought to feel extremely grateful for your kindness this evening in listening to me sj patiently, more so than ever, because I have done so little to deserve it, except to bore you and tantalize you with the most uninteresting and unattractive paper I ever had the effrontery to read before you. My only excuse is that it had to be done. Some victims had to be found, and I hoped you would be good naturecl ones, and in this I h?ve not been disappointed. [Dr. Cooke continued his address in the form of one of his humorous analyses of the persons attending " Fungtis Forays," especially urging the \alue of the social element of such gather- ings.— Ed.] 135 NOTES ON A MANGANIFEROUS SEAM IN THE THAMES VALLEY DRIFT AT ILFORD, ESSEX. By J. P. JOHNSON. The continued erection of houses on the site of the old Uphall Brickyard has necessitated the opening of several new pits for the supply of building material, since those described in an earlier paper' were filled in. As a rule the sections thus exposed shew no additional features of interest and further back attraction in that they have not yielded any fossils.^ However, there are exceptions to every rule and the follow- ing section which is situated between the " Hunter," " Uphall " and " Harvey Eoads," is well worth noting : — Fine Ochreous Gravel . . 4 ft. Ochreous Sand . . . . 3 ft. White Sand . . . . i ft For between the gravel and sand, which pass into one another, there is a lenticular seam coloured black with hydrated oxide of manganese, which occurs in the amorphous form of psilomelane, coating the grains and pebbles I took three samples from different parts of the seam with the object of determining the percentage of manganese present. Sample i. was estimated by my friend, Mr. \V. G. Rumbold, to contain 27 per cent. Sample ii., which was kindly analysed by my friend Prof. Geo. Patchin, A.R.S.M., and by Mr. F. A. Zurcher, yielded -975 per cent., while sample iii., which was assayed by myself, contained only -68 per cent. All three samples were assayed gravimetrically by the "basic acetate" process, and very carefully checked by duplicate assays. It will be seen that the results vary somewhat, but their difference is not greater than might have been expected from the nature of the deposit, because, since the psilomelane occurred only as a film on the exterior of the pebbles and grains, the sandy portions of the seam would naturally contain more manganese than the pebbly portion. 1 J. P.Johnson, ' Additions to tlu Palasolithic Fauna of the Uphall Brickyard, Dford." Essex Naturalist, vol. xi. figoo), pp. 209-215. 2 I have, however, obtained the greater part of a large hache which I have handed over to the lissex Field Club's Museum at Stratford. It is very much abraded and is probably derived from the high-level drift of this valley. 136 NOTES ON A MANGANIFEROUS SEAM. Like the rest of the gravel, the manganiferous seam con- tains a quantity of oxide of iron. The amount present in sample ii. was determined by Mr. Zurcher to be 2-7 per cent., while that in sample iii. was estimated by myself as 2*5 per cent. One would expect the amount of iron in the different samples to be more uniform than the manganese, as, while the latter is on the outside of the pebbles only, the former occurs inside as well, which also explains why the psilomelane, though really present in smaller quantity than the oxide of iron, should nevertheless give the colouration to the seam. The psilomelane was clearly deposited contemporaneously with, and must have been brought down by the river (Thames) which deposited, the drift in which it occurs. But there are no ores of manganese in the rocks over which the Thames and its tributaries flowed. Nearly all iron ores, however, contain a minute proportion of manganese, and it is from these iron ores, of which there are plenty in the Thames Basin, that the manganese has been derived. It is quite easy to understand how the manganese was taken into solution together with the iron and precipitated separately at places where the conditions were favourable. During the recent excursion of the Essex Field Club to the excavations in Tottenham Marshes, in the Lea Valley, I noticed an extensive manganiferous seam, in the sections in the Palaeolithic gravel over-looking the new reservoirs, A good test for the presence of manganese in any material is to fuse it with sodium bicarbonate, to which it imparts a green colour. P.S. — Since writing the above Mr. Cole has drawn my attention to an interesting paper by Mr. T. S. Dymond, F.I.C., on the occurrence of manganiferous conglomerate in gravel at Tendring ^Essex Naturalist, vol. x. (1897), PP- 210-12), in which another explanation is given of the derivation of the manganese. The conditions under which the deposit occurs at the two places would, however, appear to be very different. 137 MANGANIFEROUS NODUl^ES IN THE BOULDER-CLAY OF ESSEX. By [MISS] MAY THRESH. \_Read December Uth, 190 J.] Some time ago it was remarked that in certain soils in Essex there occurred small nodules which in appearance bore so close a resemblance to seeds that they were almost indistinguishable in situ. It was observed that these nodules were only found in soil overlying the Essex boulder clay. They are brown in colour, often almost a perfect sphere in shape, and very hard. In size they vary considerably, the largest being about five millimeters in diameter and the smallest exceedingly minute. A sample of the soil containing these nodules was taken ; they were carefully sorted out and weighed, and it was found that they formed about 'i per cent, of the total weight of soil examined. The nodules were then submitted to a qualitative analysis and were found to contain iron in considerable quanti- ties. It was noticed on the addition of hydrochloric acid that chlorine was given off, proving the unexpected presence of the peroxide of manganese. On separating the insoluble part from the soluble filtrate it was seen that the former consisted of a sandy whitish residue of silica. The presence of manganese dioxide rendering the nodules of greater interest, a quantitative analysis was made. The sub- stance was first powdered and a weighed portion was heated to 200° C. in order to drive off any water present and determine the percentage of moisture. The dried substance was then digested with strong hydrochloric acid and the metallic compounds were tlms separated from the insoluble silica, which was dried and weighed. The soluble portion containing the chlorides of the metals was next neutralised with ammonium carbonate and the iron was precipitated by means of ammonium acetate, washed, dried, and weighed as ferric oxide. The manganese left in the filtrate was precipitated by means of anmionia and a saturated solution of bromine water, dried, and weighed as manganese tetroxide. The calciimi left in the filtrate was precipitated b}' ammonium oxalate, dried and weighed as lime. I 2 7-00 5-60 47'90 51-86 29-91 2389 5-12 935 3"44 2-07 2-45 3-54 418 369 138 MANGANIFEROUS NODULES IN BOULDER-CLAY. The manganese peroxide was estimated in the usual manner. The weighed substance was placed in a small flask with some hydrochloric acid and heated. The chlorine given off was led through some bulb tubes containing potassium iodide solution and the amount of iodine liberated was estimated by deci-normal thiosulphate solution. Later, a second sample was taken and subjected to a similar analysis. The following are the percentage results of the exam- ination of the two samples : — Moisture . . . . Silica . . . . Oxide of iron Manganese peroxide Manganese protoxide Calcium oxide Phosphates, carbonate, &c. From the above figures it will be seen that the nodules differ in corrposition, some being richer in manganese, and the manganese being in some in a more highly oxidised condition than in others. The nodules appear to be formed of a silicious material cemented together by the oxides of iron and manganese with some phosphate and carbonate of calcium and a quantity of moisture varying in proportion to the iron present, since 5'6 bears the same ratio to 23-9 as 7 does to 2g*g. It is remarkable that the manganese protoxide and lime in the first sample are exactly equivalent to the protoxide and lime in the second sample, in fact, the two oxides have evidently been able to replace each other in the nodules. This somewhat remarkable material has a great similarity to that already described to the Essex Field Club in a paper read by Mr. T. S. Dymond at the meeting held Dec. nth, 1897 (Essex Naturalist, Vol. X., pages 210-12).' This paper referred to the hard masses of cemented gravel found in some parts of Essex, chiefly round Tendring, and which were used for building purposes. The cement proved to be "ferric oxide mixed with the peroxide and protoxide of manganese, together I Reference should also be made to the paper by Mr. Johnson on a Manganiferous Seam in the Drift at Ilford, print^id in the present part of EssKX Naturalist, which was received by the Editor previous to the reading of Miss Tliresh's paper. — En. MANGANIFRROUS NODULES IN BOULDER-CLAY. I39 with a large quantity of sand." It is possible that the two materials have a similar source; both are found only in soils overlying clay and which contain chalk. Probably an abun- dance of chalk is necessary for the formation of the nodules, as it is well known that whereas in the presence of acids manganese exists in its stable compounds in the manga.nous state, in the presence of alkali it becomes oxidised and forms the ma.nga.nic compounds. Therefore in an alkali or chalky soil alone could nodules or cement, in which manganese exists as the peroxide, be formed. Manganese peroxide is usually found, as in these cases, associated with ferric oxide and the lower oxide of manganese. The following may be the explanation of the occurrence of these nodules : — Surface soil contains the silicates of iron and manganese, but these are decomposed by the soil acids, and salts of iron and manganese are formed in solution. In the presence of an alkali these salts decompose and precipitate the oxides of the metals. At the same time the manganese being in the condition of a free oxide would become more fully oxidised by the action of the air in the soil. To prove the truth of this supposition a solution of manganese sulphate was taken and on the addition of ammonia or other alkali, oxidation at once took place in the presence of air, the white precipitate first formed becoming brown, and in the course of 24 hours almost black. This precipitate on examination was found to consist partially of the higher oxide of manganese liberating chlorine from hydro- chloric acid. The slightest acidity, even that caused by excess 0/ carbonic acid in the solution, was sufficient to prevent this oxidation even when so powerful an oxidiser as hydrogen per- oxide was employed. This precipitation may resemble crystal- lization, in taking place from a particular point, and the sand adhering to the growing particle would become cemented up into the nodule. [At the reading of the paper, iMr. T. S. Dymond, F.I.C., F.C.S., made some remarks, which are printed as follows in the form of a Note : — Manganiferous nodules are not infrequently met with on the bed of the deep sea. They have been found near the Canaries, to the south west of Australia, in the Northern Pacific Ocean and elsewhere. These nodules are said to have the appearance of urinary calculi, are brown in colour and have a structure shewing superposed layers of clay. Analysis shews that they consist chiefly of the oxides of iron and manganese, the latter peroxidized, 140 CORRESPOiVDING SOCIETIES. together with silicate of ahimina and combined water, and minute quantities of other materials. The best account of these marine nodules with drawings occurs in M. J. Thoulet's Oceunognipliie, 1890. Both in appearance and composition it is clear that the nodules described by Miss Thresh have the closest resemblance to these marine nodules. This suggests a common origin and that the former were not formed in situ, but that during the ice age they were picked up by floating icebergs from the sea bottom along with other material and transported to and deposited in their present position. This being so, their occurrence in the Boulder-clay and not in the London-clay soils is owing, not to the necessity of chalk for their produc- tion as suggested by Miss Thresh, but to the fact that the Boulder-clay is a glacial deposit and the London-clay is not. The explanation given by Miss Thresh of the formation of the nodules is that which has been advanced by Dieulafait (Comptes Reudiis, 1883, p. 718) for those of marine origin, who states that solution of manganese carbonate exists in sea water and that this is attacked by the dissolved oxj^gen with liberation of carbonic acid gas and deposition of manganese peroxide. The importance of the matter lies in the fact that if the nodules are of marine origin, valuable light is thus thrown upon the source of the Boulder- clay in which they occur. T. S. DYMOND. [Count)' Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford, December, 1901.] THE CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES COM- MITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, GLASGOW, 1901. REPORT OF THE CLUB'S DELEGATE, F. W. RUDLER, F.G.S., Chairman of the Conference. The Lecture Theatre of Medical Jurisprudence, in the University Buildings, was placed at the disposal of the Delegates throughout the Association week. Two meetings of the Delegates were held here -one on Thursday, Sept. 12th, and the other on Tuesday, Sept. 17th. The Chairman at these Con- ferences was the delegate of the Essex Field Club, Mr. F. W. Rudler ; the Vice-Chairman was Mr. W. VVhitaker, F.R.S., and the Secretaries were Dr. J. G. Garson and Mr. A. Somerville. The meetings were well supported, no fewer than 42 societies having sent delegates. The Chairman opened the proceedings with an informal address, in which he suggested the local societies should regard it as part of their duty to seek, register, and record in a systematic CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. I4I manner all types and figured specimens of natural history objects within their respective spheres of influence ; and he urged the propriety of extending such work to pre-historic antiquities. [Some of Mr. Rudler's suggestions were so pertinent to the case of our own Club, that we cannot refrain from quoting in full two or three passages from the address which his modesty has led him to summarise in a few lines. Referring to the important question of the registration of type-specimens, he remarked : — " So far as concerns the types which are preserved in provincial museums it may be said, probably, that the work should be done either by the museum itself or by that excellent institution, the Museums Association, an associa- tion which has recently increased its usefulness by the issue of a monthly journal, which I may commend to the attention of local societies. It is true that some of the larger museums have already published, or are now engaged in publishing, lists of their type-specimens, or at least certain classes of types. But most museums fail to possess the means of carrying out such work and properly publishing the results, and therefore could hardly resent the inter- ference of a local Society. Moreover a museum could not be expected to take cognisance of specimens in private hands, whereas a committee of the local scientific society could make it its business to seek out all the type-specimens within its sphere of influence, whether in the local museum or in private collections, and could give permanence and publicity to the information thus acquired by printing the schedules of types in its proceedings." Mr. Rudler proceeded in this connection to make a valuable suggestion for local work, and one thai is quite within the powers, as well financial as scientific, of most societies : — " The same kind of research might, in my opinion, be extended with advantage to local antiquities, at least to those of pre-historic age. Each society might fitly publish lists of the antiquities which have been discovered within its own district, and which have been described and figured. Where the specimens remain in private hands, it is often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to trace them, but no one is likely to be more successful in the search than the members of the local society. The advantage of knowing, when working at any particular subject, where the original specimens are located is so obvious that I venture to hope that the Delegates may see their way to urge the societies which they respectively represent to move in the direction which I have indicated." Many of those connected with local societies have been almost appalled by the multitudinous schemes of work which have from time to time been put forward by the Committee. Mr. Rudler made some observations anent this matter which are well worthy to be kept in mind : — " It seems to me doubtful whether it is desirable to suggest at this Con- 142 Corresponding societies. ference many new lines of work to be taken up by our local societies. In most cases they already possess programmes which are pretty heavily weighted, some societies perhaps undertaking even more than they can satisfactorily accomplish; and I believe it would probably be better in most cases to systematise and improve the existing work than to attempt the introduction of new departments of study. The governing body in each society might well be charged with the duty of seeing that the work is worthy of the present position of science. The steady growth of scientific education in this country during recent years ought to tell most favourably upon the character of our local societies. New members come prepared with a groundwork of scientific training unknown to most of the older members at the time they entered, and as a consequence the work of the society should be lifted to a higher level than that on which we were formerly content to let it rest. It is satisfactoiy to note that in many cases this has been thoroughly realised, and indeed a review of the proceedings of the various local societies at the present day shows that a high standard of excellence is often attained." — Ed.] The Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A., read a paper in support of the following resolution : — "That the Committees of the Corresponding Societies be invited to lay before their members the necessity of carrying on a systematic survey of their counties in respect to ethnology, ethnography, botany, meteorology, ornithology, archaeology, folklore. &c." In the course of his communication he spoke as follows : — " It is hereby suggested that the Conference of Delegates should select one or more subjects of pressing interest, and undertake to bring before the respective societies the advisability of undertaking systematic work (each in its own district) in these directions. The affiliated societies, through their Delegates, would be expected to make a return of the results — partial or com- plete— at the ensuing meeting of the British Association In the choice of subjects three considerations (at least) present them- selves : — (a.) They should be of a general kind, capable of being worked up by the local societies in their respective districts. (b.J Preliminary arrangement should be arrived at whereby may be determined the lines and limits of investigation, the mode of tabulation of results, the scale of chart or map, the scheme of symbolical representation, coloration, nomenclature, conventional arrangement of detail, the method, form, size of publication, and the like. (c.) A special society or expert should be indicated as ready to advise in regard to each of the particular subjects. " The ends to be gained are these : The taking stock of all facts by a con- nected series of methodical surveys ; their registration before the corroding effect of time, the amalgamation of race, or any other cause, puts it beyond the reach of effort ; the full completion of surveys already begun ; the setting forth of results in a manner directly susceptible of useful comparison. A collateral advantage would be the discovery of a considerable amount of work CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. I43 already elaborated, and (with necessary revision and reduction to the common scale) its inclusion in the General Survey. " A beginning or an extension of past work might be made in respect of:— Meteorological and seismological phenomena. Life zones. Registration of type specimens. Photographs of sections ; records of well-borings, &c. Phenomena of glaciation ; erratic blocks. Origin of lakes ; changes of area and depth. Coast and river erosion. Pond, cavern, and underground life. Ethnographical, ethnological, and archsological surveys. Botanical survey, to include fungi and algae. Phenological observations. "It will be understood that this list is provisional, but it is selected by reason of the fact that the field has been already entered upon, and that little further organisation is needed. " The Conference will make it clear that there is no intention to dictate to the various Societies involved. The suggestions are tentatively put forth in the interests of scientific research, and in response to the demand frequently made by Delegates. Each Society will consider the matter, and, in its wisdom, deal with the subject which seems the more nearly to come within its purview." Mr. Bevan's communication gave rise to prolonged discus- sion and resulted in the appointment of a small committee of Delegates for the purpose of formulating a sclieme for systema- tising and co-ordinating the work of local societies. This Com- mittee was appointed at the instance of Prof. W. W. Watts, and at the second Conference the Report was submitted to the Delegates and adopted. The recommendation of the Committee was as follows : — " The following provisional list of subjects, together with the names of some of the Societies which have already done work in connection therewith, and the names of persons who would be willing to receive communications thereon, is recommended by the Conference of Delegates for adoption by the Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association, and to be issued by them to the Corresponding Societies in the hope that those socie- ties not already engaged in similar work may take part in so much of it as comes within their scope, in order that the work may be extended over a wide area, and be done as far as possible upon a uniform system .— ' Registration of Type Specimens,' Dr. A. Smith Woodward. ' Coast Erosion,' Mr. W. Whitaker. ' Record of Bore Holes, Wells, and Sections,' North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, and Prof. J. H. Merivale. ' Tracing the Course of Underground Water,' Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society, and Mr. A. R. Dwerryhoufe. 144 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. ' Erratic Blocks,' Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, and Professor P. F. Kendall. ' Geological Photographs,' Belfast Naturalists' Field Club, and Professor W. W. Watts. ' Underground Fauna,' Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing. 'Variations in the Course of Rivers and Shape of Lakes,' Dr H. R. Mill. ' Archaeological Survey by Counties,' Woolhope Field Club, and Rev. J. O. Be van. ' Ethnographical Survey,' Anthropological Institute. ' Botanical Survey by Counties,' Mr. W. G. Smith. ' Photographic Record of Plants,' Mr. A. K. Coomara-Swamy." In the course of discussion at the first Conference, Dr. Vaughan Cornish suggested that a Report should be presented each year, explaining what had been done by local societies in carrying out suggestions made at the precec'ing Conference. This appeared to be the general desire of the Delegates ; and at the second Conference Captain Dubois Phillips, R.N., moved the following resolution, which was carried unanimously : — "That the Corresponding Societies Committee be requested in future to bring before the Conference of Delegates some account of the outcome of the Conference of the preceding year." Representatives of most of the Sections of the Association attended the second Conference and explained the kind of work in which their respective Committees might be assisted by local societies. Prof. Watts called attention to the valuable work carried on year after year by the Committee on Geological Photographs ; Prof. Percy Kendall explained the work of the Committee on Erratic Blocks. Dr. Vaughan Cornish pointed out the kind of investigations on Limnology which might be carried on by societies located in the neighbourhood of lakes ; Mr. Henry Balfour advocated the collection of photographs of anthropological and archaeological interest, and enlarged on the value of observing and recording the survival of primitive customs, &c. ; Mr. Harold Wager suggested that assistance might be g'iven to the Committee for investigating the structure of blue-green algae, as also to that appointed to collect, preserve and systematically register photographs of botanical interest ; Prof. Dalby referred to Committees of the Mechanical Section on Screw-threads and on Road Traction, which might possibly receive local assistance ; and Prof. McLeod explained that a Committee of the Chemical Section would be glad to hear of the ANENT A FOREST LODGE IN I444. I45 names of scientific chemists who are at work at different manu- factories, with tlie view of ascertaining the extent to which trained chemists are employed in British industries. It will be seen from the foregoing sketch that the meeting of the Delegates at Glasgow led to certain definite results, which it is hoped may tend to improve the work of some of our local scientific societies. ANENT A FOREST LODGE IN 1444. By W. C. WALLER, M.A., F.S.A. On several occasions short articles on the Forest Lodges have appeared in the Essex Naturalist, and when, a short time ago, an ancient docuiuent referring to one of them chanced to pass through my hands, it occurred to me that it might most conveniently make a public appearance in the pages of the same serial.' It so happened that Mr. St. Clair Baddeley, a prominent member of the Bath and Cheltenham Archaeological Society, in examining some ancient MSS. belonging to a Gloucestershire neighbour, Mr. Hyett, came upon a small, stout volume, in a 15th century hand, which seemed, on a cursory examination, likely to prove serviceable for Essex history : and with that in view lie courteously and most kindly opened communications with an official of the county society. When the book ultimately came to me for examination I found that, so far as Essex was concerned, its contents, as a whole, failed to bear out the rich promise of its earlier pages. The first of these — it had no title page — proved 10 be the beginning of a copy of the Perambulation of the Forest of Essex made in 1301, of which a translation is given in Mr. W. R. Fisher's Forest of Essex. One or two other documents of like nature, relating to parts of the same Forest, followed, and then the volume gradually revealed itself as a handbook of legal practice, precedents, and formulae, some manorial and some forestal. Of these latter a few were interesting, as furnishing details of procedure, and that of which I am about to give an English version, relates to Essex. Whether or no the original document provided the initial stage ia the erection of wliat is to- I Essex Naturalist, vi., znd ; vii , 82; ix., 16O ; xi. 153. 146 ANENT A FOREST T.ODGE IN 1444. day known as 'Queen Elizabeth's' Lodge— a building already, from internal evidence, assigned to the century previous to that in which she lived — or to one at Stratford, Hainhault, or else- where, there is unfortunately no means of determining. But, however that may be, it is still interesting to know definitely how, and when, and why, one of these lodges came into being, and the means adopted to raise money for its construction. The warrant for the proceedings issued under the hand of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. His ' quality,' more or less pompously set out between his name and his titles, sums up his relationship to the three Henrys who ascended the English throne in succession. His name does not occur in the list of Wardens furnished by Mr. Fisher, whose enumeration leaves blank the years between 1379 and 1489 ; and the name of one Steward of the Forest of Essex is separated by a like gap from that of the next mentioned by him.= Thus much having been said by way of introduction, the document shall be left to speak for itself. Humphrey, the son, brother, and uncle of kings, Duke of Gloucester, Earl of Pembroke, &c.,and Chief Warden of the Forests of my Lord the King on this side Trent, to the Steward of the Forest of Essex, or his Lieutenant in the same, greeting. Since lately, at the last Session of the said Forest, held before us, it was found and presented that there is not in the said forest any lodge [login] for the convenience of the ministers [ministiorum] of my Lord the King of the same forest, which was very necessary and convenient for them ; nor any pound [pimjold] for impouuding and keeping cattle, swine, and sheep, trespassing within the said forest, or strays coming into the same ; which cattle, swine, sheep, and strays, and other forfeits, albeit they were seized for the lord King, have, owing to the lack of this custody, for a very long time continually got away, and do daily get away, to the no small damage of the same my lord the King, for which we desire, as we are bound, to pro- vide a remedy. Wherefore, on the part of the said my lord, we charge you that, by view of the Verderers and of two or three of the Regarders of the said Forest, you cause to be newly constructed and suitably raised without delay a lodge and a pimfold, within the said Forest, on the soil of the same my lord the King, and that you take so much of the wood, underwood, and brush vvood from the wood of my said lord the King as may be necessary for the timber of the said Lodge and Pimfold, and the construction of the same ; and also of one pair of stocks for the punishment of evildoers in the Forest ; and also that you, by view of the aforesaid Ministers within the same Forest, take oaks to be exposed for sale wherever you see that they may be best taken for the advantage of the same my lord the King, so as the said wood of my lord the King may be able to bear without waste ; [and] that you cause to be felled and sold so much as is necessary, sufficient, and opportune, for the new 2 The Forest of Essex, pp. no, et seq. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. I47 construction thereof, making indentures between yourself and the aforesaid Ministers concerning the sale aforesaid. And you shall an account render of the sale and repair aforesaid before ns or our Lieutenant at our next coming to the Forest aforesaid, or in the interval elsewhere, whensoever you shall be called upon. Given at London, on the 4th day of December, in the 23rd year of the reign of my said lord the King, Henry, the Sixth after the Conquest. [1444.] THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Saturday, April 13TH, 1901. A circular had been issued by the Secretary calling a " Field Demonstra- tion meeting" this afternoon ; subject, the observation of mosses in their forest stations. Mr. E. M. Holmes, F.L.S., was the "conductor." But the day turned out a depressingly wet one, and only Mr. Holmes, Mr. E. S. Salmon, F.L.S., Miss Read, the Hon. Secretary, and Mr. H. A. Cole faced the steady downpour of rain experienced in the walk from Chingford to High Beach, the appointed rendezvous. Mr. Holmes and Mr. Salmon collected and determined several mosses and lichens under the imperfect shelter of umbrellas. But even the enthusiasm of the brave little party faded somewhat before Monk Wood was reached; they sought refuge in the "Wake Arms" and took possession of the tea ordered for the Club. The Ordinary Meeting appointed, and indeed all formal business, was necessarily postponed. FOREST RAMBLE AND DEMONSTRATION MEETING. Saturday, May i8th, igoi. The weather at this spring ramble compensated in its brightness and warmth for the dismal meteorological conditions of the preceding one. It was intended to allow of an inspection of some parts of the Forest which have been thinned by the Conservators in recent years, so as to afford a demonstra- tion of the effects of this treatment. The "Conductors and Referees" were Prof. J. B. Farmer, M.A., F.R.S. (Professor of Botixny, Royal College of Science), Froi. H. Marshall Ward, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge), the President (Prof. Meldola), and the Hon. Secretary. Mr. E. N. Buxton, Verderer, and Sir Fowell Buxton, Verderer, had intended to be present to point out and explain the work which had been done, but most unfortunately as they were awaiang the party at the foot of Oak Hill, Theydon, Sir Fowell Buxton was knocked down by a bicyclist and though happily it was found that he was not seriously injured, both he and Mr% E. N. Buxton were necessarily absent from the meeting. The main party met at Theydon Bois Station at 2.25, and the route led through the Theydon High Woods, Epping Thicks, AmbresDury Banks (where Mr. W. Cole gave a short a Mress on the construction of these earth- 148 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. works and on the facts as to their probable date ascertained during the Club's explorations in 1881) and so on to Monks Wood. There, by the kind permission of Mr. McKenzie, the Superintendent, a tent had been erected under the shade of the beeches, in which tea was served. Full opportunity was taken during the ramble to demonstrate to those interested the effect of the thinning opei-ations, and, by way of contrast, the condition of a few acres of woodland which had been left very much in their early forlorn condition, as an object lesson for those who ask for an " un- improved " forest. Many of those present were much struck with the abun- dance of young seedling oaks, beeches, hornbeams and hawthorns which were to be seen in many places. But it was pointed out that almost all these were doomed to destruction by the cattle (aud perhaps the deer, which are certainly now too numerous) and that the prospect of the forest renewing itself, unless some very drastic measures were taken to preserve and encourage the growth of these seedlings, was extremely doubtful. The old pollards are dying off — and a constant uprearing of vigorous young wood is the thing above all others to be desired. After tta, a short Ordinary Meeting (the 203rd) was held in the tent, the President in the chair. The following were elected members of the Club : — Mr. Harold L. Barnard, Mr. John Boardman, Mrs. Boardman, Mr. P. Anderson Graham, and Mr. J. Thompson. Prof. Meldola expressed the regret of all present at the lamentable accident which had befallen Sir Powell Buxton, which had deprived them of the pleasure and benefit of his presence and that of Mr. E. N. Buxton. At the request of the President, both Prof. Farmer and Prof. Marshall Ward gave short addresses on the state of the Forest as it had come under their observation that afternoon -and both emphatically insisted on the necessity of some steps being taken to insure the growth of young trees, so that the forest might be renewed in the years to come. The President also made some remarks on this subject, and proposed that a cordial vote of thanks should be passed to Prof. Farmer and Prof. Marshall Ward for their attendance and the addresses they had made. Sir Frederick Young, as an old friend of the Forest, aud as one who had known it in the days long before it had come into the hands of the Corpora- tion, expressed his pleasure at the improvement manifested. He warmly con- gratulated all present, and indeed all residents of the London district, upon the magnificent heritage upon which they had entered. He seconded the votes of thanks, which were carried by acclamation. The walk back was over the Furze Ground, by Broadstrood Lodge, and through what was formerly "Oak Hill Enclosure," and over Theydon Green to the station. Thursday, June 6th, 1901. The Conference Meeting and visit to Dunmow and Bigod's, held this day, is reported under a separate heading in the present part (p. 157). THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. I^g VISIT TO CANVEY ISLAND, ESSEX. Saturday, June 15TH, 1901. This meeting was planned to continue the survey of Canvey Island, following up that held on June 30th last year (see report in Essex Naturalist, Vol. xi pp. 261-264, where a sketch of the geology of the district by T. V. Holmes, F.G.S., will be found). On the former occasion the island was approached from the sea front, but on this, the assembling-place was the old village of Benfieet, and the time, noon. The conductors were Dr. James Murie, LL.D., F.L.S.. Prof. G. S. Boulger, F.L.S., the President, and the Hon. Secretary. The tide was up at Benfleet, and the party was ferried across by the old boatman. Some of the party walked through the island ; others were carried in a very primitive cart which had been hastily fitted up for their accommodation. During the ramble the botanists and entomologists were busy determining the plants and insects met with. Caterpillars were plentiful and Clisincantpa lanestyis and C. neusti'ia were again met with commonly. The fine large larvae of Gastfopacha quercifjUa were found on the blackthorns, and the pretty cater- pillars of Tyichiura cratcegi were seen. On the grai.s, the handsome larvae of Bombyx qiiercus were often observed. Members of the party had brought luncheons with them, so that no time was lost in getting on to the sea wall. It was a very regrettable sight to find Canvey in the hands of the speculative land-jobber — most of the island bordering the estuary is being parcelled out in small plots, for the er'jction of bungalows, and the prospective creation of a " Canvey-on-Sea." We fear that Canvey, as a locality for many good insects and uncommon seaside plants, is doomed to be " improved away." On the coast the botanists found ample employment. The characteristic and deeply interesting maritime plants afforded Prof. Boulger texts for short demonstrations The beautiful Yellow-horned Poppy {Glaucium luteum) was in abundance, but will probably soon be a joy of the past in view of the tribes of children invading its sandy haunts. Dr. Murie pointed out the salient features of the geology of the coast line, particulars of which were amplified in his address delivered later in the afternoon. Many members came down by a later train, and quite a large party gathered for tea in one of the more spacious bungalows, the caterers being the " Hoy" Inn. Benfleet. Afterwards a meeting was held. Prof. Meldola, President, in the chair. Prof. Boulger gave a short address on " Estuarine Flowering Plants, with special reference to the coast of Essex " the main substance of which is embodied in the paper on " Saa-side Plants" printed in the present part {ante pp. 125-27). Dr. Murie delivered, viva voce, an address on " Canvey in its relation to the Thames Estuary and marine life around." [Dr. Murie has promised to prepare the substance of this most interesting address as a paper for the Essex Naturalist, but pressure of other work has delayed this up to the time of going to press.] The President made some remarks on the subjects taken by both I^O THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, speakers, and Prof. Boulger and Dr. Murie were warmly thanked for their addresses and for the trouble they had taken during the day to render the meeting pleasant and profitable. The archaic cart was a,s;aiu requisitioned by some of the party back to Benfleet, while others (more wisely) walked, and collected insects and plants by the way. VISIT TO THE EXCAVATIONS AT THE EAST LONDON WATER COMPANY'S NEW RESERVOIRS, TOTTENHAM AND WALT HAM STOW. Saturday, June agxH, igoi. At the kind invitation of Mr. Charles W. Sharrock, the Superintendent of Messrs S. Pearson and Son's works at the new Storage Reservoirs, a very interesting meeting was held on this afternoon, and its announcement attracted a large assembly of members and friends The party was met at the gates of the works in " Ferryboat Lane" by Mr. Sharrock and Mr. Traill, his assist- ant, and by Mr Marsh, the Assistant Engineer of the Water Company. Col, Bryan, the Chief Engineer, was unavoidably, and at the last moment, pre- vented from being present. A locomotive, with three trucks fitted with seats, took the party over the bed of the new reservoirs, and at various points Mr. Sharrock explained the engineering aspect of the works, the diversion of the old river Lea from its channel and the formation of the new water-way. He mentioned incidentally that there was plenty of water in the river, and if the new reservoirs did not prove adequate, it was proposed to construct others higher up the Lea valley. Owin^ to Mr. Sharrock's excellent arrangements the sections exposed through- out the extensive works were inspected without fatigue. Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S., demonstrated the points of geological interest —the sections of the Lea alluvium, the shell-marl and peat, and re- marked, in the first place, on the unique interest of the sections exposed in making the new reservoirs. Probably to the geologist the most interest- ing sections were those of new railways. Railway cuttings, however, in soft strata, were liable to be speedily spoiled as geological evidence, both by the ordinary action of the weather, and by the practice of sloping them. Still they were there, though latent, and liable to be re-dis- closed whenever a widening of the line became necessary. But sections such as those before them were such as railways never revealed ; for railways never made cuttings through marshes, though they often crossed them by means of embankments or viaducts. Then the sections made during the formation of those reservoirs would not be simply sloped, but would be swept out of existence, the completion of the reservoir implying their annihilation. As to the nature of the beds displayed there and their mode of formation ; they were simply the work of the river Lea, Rivers had a way of perpetually tending to erode their banks on one side and to deposit material on the other, the bank on which erosion was taking place at any given spot, being the bank THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. I5I which was gaining through the deposition of material a few yards, or a few hundred yards, higher up or lower down the stream. In this way a river flowed, at one time or another, over every square foot of ground occupied by the marshes adjacent to it. As to the nature of the strata found in these alluvial or marsh sections, gravel was always seen towards their base and loam at their surface, and sometimes they were the only beds visible. But in other places, between the gravel and the loam were mud, peat and irregular deposits of shell-marl. Sections there showed how very frequent had been the changes of channel in certain spots, as compared with others. Thus human relics or other remains found, which had evidently been deposited in an old channel at one spot, might easily be hundreds or even thousands of years older or newer than others similarly deposited but a few yards away. The dug-out canoe, for example, seemed to him to be more likely of greater rather than of less antiquity than the year B.C. 500. The supposed Viking ship — if not of much later date — was perhaps a vessel of the Danish fleet blockaded up the Lea by King Alfred in the year A.D. 896. Sections of this kind also threw much light on the way in which the older river deposits, now existing as comparatively obscure fragments, had been formed, a matter on which more light certainly seemed desirable in view of the very discordant opinions expressed by various geologists about them and their fossil contents. [Reference should be made to Mr. Holmes' paper in the last part of the Essex Naturalist, ante., pp. 1-16]. The remains of the so-called " Viking Ship," which had been uncovered in what at one time had been a backwater in the old river channel, were inspected with much interest. Some archaeologists of the party were, however, unwilling to allow for this relic the antiquity suggested by Mr. Holmes in his remarks above quoted, and in his paper (ante., p. 13), viz., that it might have been a member of the Danish fleet which went up the Lea in A.D. 895 and was destroyed by King Alfred. The "ship " was found with the bottom upwards, and was in a very decayed state. It was probably about 40 feet long, and what is called "clinker-built," with metal nails, and in some places the remains of hair (? cow) were found, probably used in caulking the boat. The information concerning the ship was very meagre, and it was most unfortunate that nothing but fragments could be kept ; several pieces are in the Epping Forest Museum. To preserve the boat properly would have been a difficult and costly work, and its great size would not have permitted its retention in any ordinary museum. We are greatly indebted to Mr. Sharrock for some photographs of the " ship " in situ, from which tne two illustrations in the accompanying Plate were taken. It appears that this is not the first instance of such an occurrence in the alluvial deposits of the Lea. About 1830 a large boat was unearthed in excavating for the East London Water Company's Reservoirs near Temple Mills, and another is mentioned by Camden as having been found near the same place. See extracts from Robinson's History of Hackney in the " Notes" in the prese::t part. Mr. Traill pointed out the site of the discovery of the " Dug-out Canoe " at the depth of about 6 feet from the surface. The details will be found in Mr. Holmes' paper above referred to, and some particulars of a " Dug-out," 1^2 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. found in the old bed of the Thames, will be printed in the present part. The Dug-out itself was inspected in the shed in which it had been placed previous to its removal to the British Museum. Mr. Sharrock showed a large photograph of the canoe, in its original position, from which the plate in the last number of the Essex Naturalist was copied. An enlarged and framed copy of this photograph has been presented by Mr. Sharrock to accompany the objects from the excavations to be placed in the Epping Forest Museum. At the close of the inspection the large party was most hospitably enter- tained at tea by Mr. and Mrs. Sharrock Afterwards a short meeting was held (being the 204th Ordinary Meet- ing), Prof R. Meldola, President, in the chair. The following were elected members of the Club : — Mr Harry H. Brothers, Mr. Phillip W. P. Carlyon-Brittou, J. P., D.L., F.S.A., &c., Mr. W. S. Page, Mr. G. H. Menhenick, and Her Grace the Duchess of Suther- land. The President proposed that they should pass a very hearty vote of thanks to Mr. and Mrs. Sharrock for their kindness and hospitality, and for the e.xcellent arrangements made for the comfort of the party that afternoon. This was passed by acclamation. Mr. Sharrock replied, and then, at the request of the President, gave some interesting details of the engineering features of the works, illustrating his remarks by maps and plans, The company was photographed and were shown the various relics, bones of animals, pottery, and Saxon and other implements, which had been found during the excavations, and carefully preserved by Mr. Sharrock, Mr. Traill and Mr. Marsh. Most of these are now (March, 1902) in the Epping Forest Museum, and descriptions will be published later. At the close the party was taken back by the extemporised railroad to the point of entrance near Tottenham, and so ended a very pleasant and instructive visit. Wednesday, July 24TH, 1901. The Countess of Warwick very kindly invited the members of the Club to the Annual Prize Distribution at her " Secondary and Technical Science School " at Bigods, near Dunmow, which took place on this day, and a large number of members availed themselves of the opportunity of inspecting this very interesting experiment in practical elementary teaching where science is made an integral part of each child's education. Bigods is well known to many of us, Lady Warwick's hospitality having more than once been extended to the Club. A very large party of friends of education from Essex and the Metro- polis assembled at luncheon in the large marquee in the grounds at Bigods, and afterwards at the meeting held. Lady Warwick presiding. Following the presentation of the report by Mr E. E. Hennesey, B.Sc. and the presentation of the prizes by Lady Kosslyn, Sir Philip Magnus delivered a very interesting address. Other speakers were the Earl of Warwick, Mr. E.N. Buxton, Mr. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. I53 Elliott (Board of Agriculture), Prof. James Long, Dr. Wormall, and Sir Edward Verney. At the close of the meeting the guests had an opportunity of inspecting the School buildings and appliances, and tea in the gardens concluded a very pleasant and instructive visit. Lady Warwick's experiment has proved to be most successful, and is one that should be attentively studied by all interested in the pressing problem of rural and secondary education. THE ANNUAL CRYPTOGAMIC MEETING AND 205TH ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, October i2TH, 1901. This meeting was held at High Beach and surrounding parts of the Forest. The arrangements were precisely those of last year; the "Head- quarters " being at the " King's Oak " Hotel, where the large exhibition and meeting-room had been engaged. The Referees were: — Dr. M. C. Cooke, E. M. Holmes, Esq., F.L.S., George Massee, Esq., F.L S. [Kcw Herbarium), and Prof. H. Marshall Ward, D.Sc, F.R.S. {Professor of Botany, Univasity of Cambridge, and President of the Mycolooical Society) . The botanists reached the assembling place at various times throughout the day, and parties explored the woods at Woodford, Buckhurst Hill, Loughton, High Beach, and the Theydon Woods. A very large and varied collection of specimens was made, which were exhibited in the room and determined by the experts present. Dr. Cooke's and Mr. Massee's reports will be found in another part of this issue (pp. 127-30). Amongst the other interesting things shown were a series of beautiful coloured drawings of some species of Micro-Fungi occurring in the Forest, drawn and exhibited by Mr. Massee. Mr. Cole exhibited a selection from the Cryptogamic Herbarium formed by the late George Varenne, of Kelvedon, recently acquired by the Club. Mr. H. Whitehead exhibited some specimens of Micro-Fungi (leaf- fungi) recently collected in Essex. Tea was taken about 5.30 o'clock, and afterwards an Ordinary Meeting (the 205th) was held, the President, Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., in the chair The following were elected members of the Club: — Miss A. E. Baxter, Miss Camilla Jebb, Mr. F. T. Norris (Saga-Master, Viking Club), Mr. W. B. Parsons, M.R.C.S., and the Right Hon. the Earl of Warwick, Lord- Lieutenant of Essex. Dr. Cooke and Mr. Massee reported on the results of the day's work. These reports will be found in the present part of the Essex Naturalist {ante pp. 127-130). Dr. Cooke was of opinion that the "bag" was the best for the last 10 years Dr. Cooke also delivered an address ; the first part of it, consisting of corrigenda to his Illustrations, with indications of new species to the Forest, or corrections in the nomenclature of old ones, is printed in the present part {ante pp. 131-34). The second part of his speech consisted of humorous descriptions of the utility and social aspect of these annual forays. 1-54 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., then gave an address on the Scientific Study of Fungi. The Professor urged the importance of studying the "life- histories" of these plants, and said that he would be pleased to see any member desiring to take up the study at Cambridge, and to show the methods of investigation there adopted. The Curator had prepared a report on the Varenne Cryptogamic Herbariuin, which was taken as read, and which will be found in the " Museum Notes" in the present part. Cordial votes of thanks were passed to Prof. Ward, to Dr. Cooke, and to Mr. Massee, and also to the other botanists who had assisted in various ways in aid of the meeting. The meeting was a very large one ; about loo members and friends attending it. THE 206TH ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, October 26th, igor. The first meeting of the Winter Session, being the 206th Ordinary- Meeting, was held in the Physical Lecture Theatre of the Municipal Technical Institute, West Ham, at 6.30 p.m., the President, Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., in the chair. Mr. Edmond J. Boake, B.A , and Mrs. W. D. Cansdale, were elected members. Mr. Cole exhibited some sets of specimens which he had arranged for the Museum in illustration of the subject of " Protective Resemblance" amongst insects. He also exhibited specimens of Sphinx cnnvolvnli, which had been taken at the electric lamps in the Romford Road, near the Museum. Several others had been brought into the Museum in a mutilated condition, and he had heard of the capture of many specimens in Essex Indeed the insect had occurred in numbers in many parts of England, and 1901 would merit remembrance by entomologists as one of the great " coiivolvuli years " Mr. A. Harrison sent for exhibition six fine specimens of Sphinx convolvu'i taken on September 24th and 25th, also in the Romford Road, Stratford. Mr. Cole also exhibited a specimen of Linienitis sibylla, the " White Admiral Butterfly," which had been caught in August in Mr. Cole's garden at East Mersea, by Master Harold Elliott, who reported that he had seen another also. Mr. Cole said that the butterfly still occurred in the woods near Colchester, and there waj a series in Dr. Laver's collection, but as far as he knew Master Elliott's specimen was the first recorded for Mersea. Master Elliott had kindly presented the butterfly to the cabinet of the Club. Mr. John Spiller exhibited a fine crystal of Selenite from Aylesbury. Mr. Cole said that small crystals of Selenite were to be seen very abun- dantly in the London Clay exposed during the excavations now being carried on in constructing the new railroad across the Roding Valley from Woodford to Chigwell, but he had not seen any equal in size to Mr. Spillers specimen. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 155 He remembered that when the sewers were being dug at Chingford and Walthamstow some years back, many fine crystals were obtained by the work- men. They used to call them " frozen " or " congealed " water. Mr. Scourfield, Mr. Elliott, and Dr. Audeu confirmed these statements. Mr. F. H. Varley, F.R.A.S., having, as a member of the Council, taken the chair. Prof. Meldola delivered a most interesting lecture upon "Mimetic Insects." The subjects treated were, the production of colour in the living organism— Adaptation in colour and pattern to the environment — Protective and aggressive resemblance — Wallace's theory of "warning colours" — The parallelism between protective resemblance and mimetic resemblance —The Batesian theory of mimicry and its limitations— Extension of the theory by Fritz Miiller— Later researches on the subject of "Common warning colours." The lecture was beautifully illustrated by natural-colour photographs taken by the Sanger-Shepherd process, the specimens being chiefly from the collections in the Hope Museum, and arranged for the present lecture by Professor E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., Hope Professor of Invertebrate Zoology, University of Oxford. These unique photographs were shown by means of the electric lantern. The lecture was listened to with marked attention by the large audience, and was frequently applauded. The Chairman in moving a cordial vote of thanks to the lecturer, con- gratulated him on having delivered an admirable exposition of one of the most striking theories of modern biology, and also on his re-appearance in the Presidential Chair after an interval of i8 years. Mr. Varley also alluded to the excellent examples of the new art of producing natural-colour photo- graphs which had been made by Mr. Sanger-Shepherd, v/hich proved the value of the process as a means of illustrating lectures such as that to which they had all listened with so much profit and pleasure. The vote of thanks was seconded by Mr. T. Spiller, F.C.S., and carried amid applause. Prof. Meldola, in responding, expressed his indebtedness to Prof. Poulton for the beautiful examples selected from the Hope Museum. That Museum under Prof. Poulton's enthusiastic curatorship, had gradually acquired what was probably the finest collection illustrating " mimicry " and " protective resemblance " in Europe. He was also much obliged to Mr. Sanger-Shepherd for the care and skill shown in making the lantern slides. THE 207TH ORDINARY MEETING. Saturd.^v, December 14TH, 1901. The 207th Ordinary Meeting was held in the Physical Lecture Theatre of the West Ham Technical Institute, at 6 30 p.m., the President, Prof. R Meldola, F.R.S., in the chair. Mr. Frank P. Smith was elected a member of the Club. 156 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Mr. W. Cole exhibited some examples of a series of species of butterflies which were intended to be placed in the Museum to illustrate the theory of Mimicry amongst insects. He also exhibited some specimens of the curious mollusc, Petricola pholadiformiSy which had been presented by Mr. J. E. Cooper and Mr. A. S. Kennard. Mr. Cole and Mr. Kennard made some remarks upon the species, which are embodied in a " Museum Note" in the present part of the Essex Naturalist. Dr. Thresh read a paper by Miss May Thresh on " Manganiferous Nodules in the Boulder-clay of Essex." This paper is printed in the present part, aiite p. 137. Mr. T. S. Dymond, F.I.C., made some extended remarks upon this paper which are printed ante p. 139, and a short discussion upon it was carried on by Mr. Dalton, F.G.S., Mr. D. Howard, F.C.S , and Mr. J. W. Sajter. The Secretary said that he had received some little time back a paper by Mr. J. P. Johnson on a Manganiferous Deposit in the Thames Valley Drift at Ilford, which was already in print, and which would appear at the same time as Miss Thresh's paper {ante pp. 135-6). On the proposal of the President, who remarked that the paper was a most interesting piece of work, a cordial vote of thanks was passed to Miss Thresh. Mr. Martin Hinton read a paper prepared by himself and Mr. A. S . Kennard entitled " Contributions to the Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley. L The Grays Thurrock area, Part H.," being the continuation of the paper already published in the Essex Naturalist, Vol xi., pp. 336-370. A discussion on the paper took place, carried on by Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S., Mr. Dalton, F.G.S., Mr. Rudler, F.G.S., Mr. J. W. Salter, F.G.S., and the President. Mr Hinton replied, and the authors were unanimously thanked for their communication. In the absence of the author, Mr. C. D. Soar, F.R.M.S., Mr. Scourfield read a paper on " The Water-Mites (Hydyachnida) of Epping Forest." The paper was illustrated by many beautiful coloured drawings, done from nature by Mr. Soar, and Mr. Scourfield exhibited some specimens of Water-Mites under the microscope. Both Mr. Soar and Mr. Scourfield were thanked for the paper, and the meeting ended. 157 CONFERENCE OF THE EAST ANGLIAN NAT- URALISTS' SOCIETIES, VISIT TO DUNMOW AND TO LADY WARWICK'S SECONDARY AND SCIENCE SCHOOL AT BIGODS. Thursday, June 6th, igoi. This meeting was designed to admit of a visit to a very pleasant district ; to hold a second preliminary Conference with the representatives of the East Anglian Natural History Societies, with a view to combined action in the future ; and to visit " Bigods" at the kind invitation of the Right Hon. the Countess of Warwick. The London-side party travelled by the g.io express from Liverpool Street, slip carriages being detached at Bishop's Stortford, where the assembly of all attending the meeting (a large party) was called at the Chequers Hotel at about half-past ten. Here carriages were awaiting the party, and no time was lost in getting on the road to Easton Park and Dunmow. An excellent report of the meeting was given in the London Standard on June 7th, and we cannot do better than quote a few para- graphs, making some corrections and additions where the reporter fell into error or was unacquainted with the facts : — " For some time there has been a feehng that it would be well if some- thing could be done to bring about combined action on the part of the Natural History Societies in the three counties which constitute East Anglia in the widest sense of the term. In 1898 a Conference between the members of these Societies was held at Witham, and since then a good deal has been written on the subject. Yesterday, a second Conference took place at Dunmow, which was arranged by Mr. W. Cole, F.L.S., the Secretary of the Essex Field Club [also by Prof. Meldola, the" President], and it was preceded by an excursion through one of the prettiest parts of the district under con- sideration. Essex and Norfolk have well-established Societies, each publish- ing a record of work, with distinctive features. The Suffolk Natural History Society in Bury has no publication, and this is also the case with the Ipswich Scientific Society. The two first-named bodies have a pretty large member- ship, and for their benefit a very pleasant excursion was arranged. An early start was made from Liverpool Street Station, whence the ride through the Stort Valley is distinctly pretty. It has no pretensions to grandeur, but for beauty of a calm, pastoral kind, it is hard to beat. If it has not the massed timber of the Midlands, there is a sufficiency of trees to give charm to the landscape, and the small clumps and lines show up the foliage against a summer sky with an effect as good as, if not better than, that produced by thicker planting. One might travel miles before one could see such masses 158 CONFERENCE OF THE EAST ANGLIAN of colour — pink chestnuts and hawthorns, the laburnum with its golden tassels, white lilac, and the dark metallic foliage of the copper-beech ; and over all there is an air of peacefulness, so that one of the party was probably not far wrong when he compared the valley of the Stort of to-day to the valley of the Lea in the days of Izaak Walton." " From Stortford the members drove along the old I^oman stone street, with a stop at the church of Little Easton, notable for its half-effaced wall- paintings in the nave — the Crucifixion, the Burial, and some others on the South side, and a St. Christopher on the North. There is a peculiarity about ancient wall paintings — they grow upon one, and become more distinct the longer one gazes, till the half-effaced figures seem so familiar that one wonders Oak Tree in Easton Park, Essex. Fiviii a Photograph by Prof. Meldola. there was ever any hesitation as to deciding what they represent. This church contains one of the few brasses which remain of a Knight wearing the Garter badge, and in the Maynard Chapel are some fairly good monuments — one of them occupying the site of the old altar, as is evidenced by the piscina on the South side. Opposite the church are the old stocks, witli an upright post fitted with iron holdfasts to confine the hands also." At the church the party was received by the Rector, the Rev. A. L. Whitfield. Our member, Mr. G. E. Pritchett, F.S.A., very kindly gave a demonstra- tion of the numerous monuments, very many being those of members of the NATURALISTS SOCIETIFS. 159 Maynard family, the ancestors of Lady Warwick. A full description, with plates of the more notable monuments, will be found in Mr. Chancellor's great work The Ancient Sepulchral Monuments of Essex. At Easton the party was met by Mr. John F. Rogers, Agent to the Easton Estate, and the drive through this beautiful park was much enjoyed. Herds of fallow deer were seen, and some remarkable trees were pointed out. Two in particular, an oak and a hornbeam, were measured by Mr. Rogers, and the dimensions are worth recording : — Oak Tree in Easton Park. Height from ground to the crown of the butt . . 24 feet. Girth at bottom of tree .. .. .. 42 ,, ,, 3 ft. from ground ... . . 33 ,, ,, 8 ft. ,, .. .. 30 ,, Hornbeam Tree in Easton Park, Height from ground to crown of butt . . 10 feet. Girth at bottom of tree .. .. .. 34 ,, ,, 5 ft. from bottom . .. 27 ,, ,, 10 ft. ,, .. .. 34 ,, Prof. Meldola had been staying at Easton Park Cottage and had photo- graphed both these trees, and we are thus enabled to give illustrations of them. It is much to be desired that members photographically inclined would follow the President's example, and thus insure the preservation of pictures of interesting trees which may be noticed in various parts of the County. The drive was continued to the ancient village, of Dunmow, where luncheon awaited the party at the " Saracen's Head " hotel. The Conference was quite arcadian, taking place in the pretty little garden of the hotel. Prof. Meldola took the chair. Unfortunately, but few- members of " East Anglian" Societies other than the Essex Field Club were present. Mr. Southwell, F.Z.S., and Mr, H. Scherren, F.Z.S., well repre- sented the Norfolk and Norwich Society, but no official member of the Ipswich Scientific Society attended. Mr. W, Cole re-called what had passed at the first Conference held at Witham on July 23rd, 1898,' and advocated the initiation of some scheme of " Systematic Biological and Pre-historic Archaeological work in East Anglia," He alluded to the close connection of the three counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex, from the point of view of their Natural History and Geology, and the similarity of the coast-line. The Essex and the Norfolk Societies had done a great deal of faunistic work, of value to the student of geographical distribution, but there was still ample opportunity for further investigations, pursued year by year. This was especially the case with respect to the marine zoology of those regions of the North Sea bordering the counties, where of late years there had been considerable changes in the fauna. These should be carefully recorded, as also should be the variations in the coast-line. He was not alluding to the higher and more difficult work of biological investigation into the life-histories of the marine organisms of the North Sea. I A full report was printed in the Essex Naturalist, vol. x., pp. 360 — 368. i6o CONFERENCE OF THE EAST ANGLIAN Hornbeam Tree in Easton Park. From a Photograph by Prof. Meldola. naturalists' societies. i6i This would necessitate a marine station, and much more elaborate provision both of skilled workers and appliances. A little might be accomplished on this higher plane, but the work immediately in front of them was faunistic, and this was certainly well within the powers of the East Anglian Societies. There was sometimes a great waste of energy in working independently, and without reference to what other societies had done or might do. He should like to see some arrangements by which each society should work in conjunc- tion with the others, so that any subject taken up might be thoroughly investigated, without the disadvantage of members going over ground that had been already explored, or taking up questions that had been threshed out. Each of the counties concerned had now excellent museums —but to insure that the collections should worthily illustrate the rich East Anglian district, long-continued systematic collecting was necessary. This work, especially the marine dredging, &c., might often be costly and difficult. Combined effort by the three counties might furnish funds and expert assistance which would be beyond the means of any one of the societies working separately. Mr. Cole also advocated the establishment of a quarterly journal of natural history, geology and pre-historic archaeology for East Anglia, to be published by the societies of the three counties. At present they had the Essex Natiivalist and the Transactions of the Norfolli and Norwich Natural History Society, but he had not heard of any publication efforts in Suffolk. The quarterly " East Anglian Naturalist " might be edited by three gentlemen nominated by the societies. The main difficulty in the way of such a project was the varying rates of subscriptions of the three societies, but this might be surmounted. He was aware that in advocating the issue of one journal for the district he was not in accord with the views of ."-ome local naturalists, and it must be admitted that the "county" as a unit for local work was yearly becoming more important, in consequence of recent political and social changes. Possibly some of them had read recently in leading newspapers letters advocating greater attention being paid to what had happily been termed " the buried history of Britain." In his opinion this most interesting and instructive work of archaeological investigation could best be carried on by the local societies. They had the machinery, but the funds were wanting. Mr. Cole suggested that it might be possible. for the British Association to bring the matter before the Government, who could put it in the power of the County Councils to allocate a very moderate annual sum towards the expenses of such systematic exploration work in biology, geology and archaeology, the prosecution and accomplishments of which would in any case afford object lessons of very considerable patriotic and educational value, and sometimes even confer direct practical benefits upon the districts concerned. Prof. Meldola spoke of the advantages to be derived from co-operation and combining forces, but admitted the difficulties that stood in the way. The British Association had not be^n successful in its attempts to promote federation among local societies, for the members of some maintained that better work was done independently than could be done when a number of societies were working together. There were two schools of thought — one in favour of independence, the other in favour of co-operation ; and on the whole I 62 CONFERENCE OF NATU UALISTs' SOCIETIES. he was disposed to believe that the balance of evidence was in favour of the latter. Mr. Southwell, F.Z.S., said that he, and, he believed he might add, all the members of the Norfolk and Norwich NaturaHsts' Society would welcome any scheme by which co-operation between the scientific workers of East Anglia could be brought about, and mentioned at least one line of work which seemed to have been neglected in the Norfolk district. He was strongly in favour of adding Ethnology to the subjects to be covered by the Norfolk Society or by the united Societies, and mentioned that near Cromer there were people possessing racial peculiarities which would well repay special study. The establishment of a fresh-water biological station had been advocated by one of their members, who thought that a floating station could be equipped for a small sum, and made self-supporting, and he agreed with Mr. Cole that everything possible should be done in the way of investigating the continually changing fauna of the coast, especially in he estuaries. Mr. Scherren, F.Z.S., also spoke in favour of the proposal for combined work in the directions indicated. Mr. Adair Roberts thought that perhaps they might nominate members of the different societies to prepare some scheme of -work, but Prof. Meldola said that that had already been done. It was eventually agreed that it should be an instruction to the Council of the Essex Field Club to take such steps as may appear necessary to bring about some kind of co-operation between the Natural History Societies of East Anglia, with a view to promo- ting systematic action in biological work and in all matters concerning pre- historic archaeology. At the invitation of the Chairman, Mr. E. E. Hennesey, B.Sc, then gave some particulars of the scheme of education carried on at the Countess ot Warwick's School at Bigods, which the party were to visit that afternoon. Prof. Meldola proposed that votes of thanks should be passed to all who had assisted in the conduct of the meeting, specially mentioning Mr. Rogers, the Rev. A. L. Whitfield, and Mr. Pritchett. He said that Lady Warwick had hoped to be present and to have personally welcomed them at Bigods, but an engagement that could not be put off prevented her having the pleasure of meeting the members, whom, in her name, he invited to visit the school. The carriages were then again put into requisition for a pleasant drive through the lanes to Bigods, where the company was received, in Lady Warwick's absence, by Mr. and Mrs. Hennesey. This was the second visit of the Club to the School, which was started at the time when the County Council had not taken into serious considerition the question of education in rural districts, and the course of work has been so planned as to be of special service to pupils who intend to adopt farming or kindred pursuits as their occupation in after life. Mr. Hennesey conducted the visitors round the workshops, laboratories, class-rooms, and poultry runs. All are of the most modern design, and Mr. Hennesey explained the working of the scheme. The apiary and garden plots were also visited, Mr. Thomas Hacking explain- ing the agricultural portion of the curriculum. N'OTES ON nUG-OUT BOATS. 163 Much interest was taken in the demonstration, and there was a general expression of opinion that Lady Warwick's experiment went a long way to solve the difficulty of technical instruction in rural districts. The visitors were afterwards entertained to tea, the appreciation of it being inhanced by the rumour that the excellent light refreshments had been made by the cookery students in the school itself. NOTES ON "DUG-OUT" BOATS IN THE ANCIENT MARSHES OF THE LEA AND THE THAMES. Referring to Mr. T. V. Holmes' paper, " Geological Notes on the New Reservoirs in the Valley of the Lea, near Waltham- stow," in the last part of the Essex Naturalist, it seems desir- able to add to the account of the " dug-out " canoe therein given (ante pp. ii, 12), some details extracted from Mr. W. Traill's paper in The Reliquary and Illustvated Archaologist for January, igoi, and to supplement this by an account of a similar boat found in the mud of the old Thames a few years ago. The Lea boat was found on October 30th, igoo, atadepthof about six feet from tlje surface, lying almost due north and south, with the bow towards the south, and seems to have been drawn up on the bank of an old river. It was resting on a bed (5 ins. thick) of fine, sandy silt mixed with fresh-water shells, at a level uf 21 fc. above ordnance datum. The geological position in which the canoe lay has already be stated, and its appearance both in situ and when placed on the trolley for removal, is well shown in the illustrations accompanying Mr. Holmes' paper. It had evidently been hollowed out of the trunk of an oak tree. Mr. Traill took the principal dimensions as follows : — Extreme length, 14ft. loin. ; extreme breadth, 2ft. 4in. ; extreme depth, ift. 4ins. ; extreme depth inside, itt. i^ins. ; thickness of timber at gunwale, fin. " Both ends are rounded, but the sides are almost at right angles to the flat bcttom. Eight feet from the stern a strengthening rib has been left in, 6ins. wide and yins. deep, and 3ft. Sins, nearer the bow a small rib has also been left in. On the right side of the stern a hole ^ of an inch in diameter has been drilled vertically through the gunwale. An oak peg has been fitted into this, and cut off to the slope of the outside and 164 NOTES ON DUG-OUT BOATS. either cut or broken off flush with the gunwale, which at this point is shghtly hollowed, as though worn. There is an identi- cally similar hole on the same side of the bow. Unfortunately, the corresponding parts of the left side of the boat are gone." The only object found that could be identified as an imple- ment was a piece of oak, sharpened to a point, which can be seen lying inside the boat in the plate given in the last part. " This was got below the boat, in a similar position to the one it occupies in the plate, and may possibly have been part of a punting pole. Unfortunately, the rest of it, along with the bow and part of the side, had been broken off by the workmen before they had realised the nature of their find." The boat has now (March, 1902) been removed to the British Museum at Bloomsbury. Mr. Traill adds, " it may be interesting to note that several pieces of Roman pottery and a well-made iron spear-head have been found at points ranging from fifty to a hundred yards from where the dug-out was lying, and in practically the same stratum." These last mentioned specimens, together with others found in the excavations, are now deposited in the Epping Forest Museum of the Club, by the kindness of Mr. Sharrock, Mr. Traill and Mr. Marsh, the engineers superintending the works. In 1878, when the marshland on the northern side of the Thames was being excavated across the Plaistow and East Ham level for the construction of the Royal Albert Docks (Victoria Docks extension), the workmen uncovered a "dug-out" canoe, which from the description appears to be similar to that found in the Lea deposits. Fortunately the geological sections in these excavations were examined and described by Mr. Whitaker, F.R.S. {Geology of London, &'C., I., pp. 461-2), and Mr. Flaxman C. J. Spurrell, F.G.S., F.S.A. had an opportunity of seeing the boat in situ. His observations were published in the Archaological Journal for i8yo (vol. xlvii., p. 170), and from that paper we compile the following account. Mr. Spurrell made a drawing of the section in his note-book at the time, and as this has not hitherto been published we are glad, by his kindness, to engrave it now. The " dug-out " was in a fairly good state of preservation and made out of a single trunk of oak and carefully fashioned into a regular form, and planned to measure. The length from NOTES ON DUG-OUT BOATS. 165 bow to bow (for both ends were exactly alike) was 17 feet ; the width outside abeam between 24 and 25 inches, and so continued with the exception of the last 12 inches of both ends; these sloped inward 8 inches, the ends being straight (not rounded) and about 8 inches wide. The sides and bottom were flat and rectangular. At the thinnest part above the sides were little more than half-an-inch thick, but about 3 inches below at the junction with the bottom. And the bottom thinned to less than 2 inches in the middle. There was a peculiar arrangement at each end, perhaps a kind of raised seat. There was no keel, no ribs or stretchers at bottom, and no rowlocks. Nothing was found with the boat. V- •E. K fieale of fe.e.t ?* Section showing the position of the Dug-out Canoe in the Thames Marshland. Drawn by F. C. J. Spurrell, 1878. Mr. Spurrell speaks of the old peat surface at the spot where the boat was found as that on which Romans lived and died. " Roman black pottery (I saw some Samian) and food refuse, with tiles, were found between 8 and 9 feet below the surface (which was 5ft 6in. O.D.) on and in the top of a layer of peat ; this was covered by tidal mud."' The section reproduced here, he describes as " showing that in the peat layer a stream 1 " Early Sites and Embankments on the Margins of the Thames Estuary," Archceol. JournaU vol. xlii. (1885). l66 NOTE ON A SMALL SHARK. (fresh-water) had excavated a small channel ; that this stream was accustomed to carry boats was evident, because in its own mud and not in the peat itself, the boat was found. The surface of the peat was the shore of that day, and the existence of the stream must have been prolonged to the later part of that period which was occupied in the accumulation of the tree's growth and their debris. Therefore, the stream was apparently in full run about 1700 years ago, and the boat apparently belongs to that age. Since the boat was lost, the deposit of tidal mud had almost obliterated any sign of the channel " Mr. Spurrell records in his paper on " Early Sites and Embankments on the Margins of the Thames Estuary" [Archceological Journal, vol. xlii., p. 302, note) that near a spot in the Erith Marshes by Belvedere Station where moor-logs of the old foreL;t might then (1S85) ^^^ ^^^n projecting into the ditch, a "dug-out" boat was found. It was low down in the peat, which rises to zero O.D. and was cut through in making a ditch, the ends of the boat being left in either bank. " From out of this boat a polished flint axe and a very beautiful flint scraper were obtained. Another polished axe of large size was dredged out of the same peat bed in the river off Prices' works close by." The Albert Docks boat was secured for the British Museum (by Mr. Whitaker's intervention) where, Mr. C. H. Read informs us, it is still preserved. As the Museum now has the two "dug-outs" (one from the Lea and the other from the Thames) it is much to be desired that careful descriptions and a comparison of them should be published. Meanwhile our readers will doubtless welcome the above records of " dug-out " boats found in the district. NOTE ON A SMALL SHARK ( ? Gakiis vulgaris) SEEN IN BRIGHTLINGSEA HARBOUR. Hy H. C. SORBV, LL.D., F R.S., F.LS., .S:r. When walking on the deck of my yacht, lying in Bright- lingsea Harbour on August 23rd, 1901, at about 4.15 p.m., I heard a loud splashing, and, on looking to see what was the cause, I saw a small shark, about ten yards off, with its tail curled round and flapping it on the surface of the water. It then straightened itself out and swam towards the yacht, but, at MUSEUM NOTES. 167 the same time, sank down out of sight. I clearly saw that it had a heterocercal tail, the upper part being rounded and not very long, and that its body was of grey colour, and apparently about five feet long. Taking all into account, it seems most probable that it was GaUiis vulgaris or the " Toper " ; but, under such circumstances, it was impossible to see and examine detailed characters, so as to be quite sure of the species According to Dr. Laver's book on the Vertebrata of Essex (p. 119), this small shark has previously been met with on two occasions on the coast of Essex, but yet is sufficiently lare to make it desirable to record the occurrence for another individual seen in the estuary of the Colne. MUSEUM NOTES. No. III. VI.— THE CRYPrOGAMIC HERBARIUM OF THE LATE MR. E. G. VARENNE. In 1891 we published in the Essex Naturalist a valuable paper on the " Cryptogamic Flora of Kelvedon and its neigh- bourhood," which had been compiled by Mr. E. D. Marquand from the herbarium and notes made by our late member, Mr. E. G. Varenne, M.R.C.S., of Kelvedon. At Mr. Varenne's death in 1887 these materials had, at his request, been handed over to Mr. Marquand by Mrs. Varenne. In March of the present year (1901) we had great pleasure in acquiring the Cryptogamic Herbarium and some of Mr. Varenne's botanical books for the Essex Field Club, by purchase from Mr. Marquand, who thought they would fittingly find a resting- place in the County Museum. Very many of the specimens had been collected in Essex, and these supplied the data for the paper above referred to. Unfortunately Varenne's Phanerogamic Herbarium perished in the way thus stated by Mr. Marquand : — " The whole of my Natural History collections had to be warehoused when I went abroad (that was after my paper in the Essex Naturalist was written) and on my taking them out again some four years afterwards, I discovered to my great sorrow that very nearly the whole of my phanerogamic herbarium was ruined by the attacks of insects ! so that it had to be burnt. The great bulk both of my own large herbarium and of Varenne's collection was thus destroyed. What could be saved out of the wreck I packed up and gave away to a botanical friend who is now in Australia. Varenne's crypto- gamic collections were uninjured (with the exception of some of the Lichens) and so you have them. l68 MUSEUM NOTES. " Varenne did not keep his Essex plants distinct ; they were inserted in their proper places amongst others in his herbarium, nor did he trouble to preserve an Essex specimen if he had a sufficiently characteristic one from elsewhere. The great value of his collection of flowering plants consisted — not in its completeness as a county collection, nor even in the number of his own personal gatherings — but in the authentically named critical species which he had received from British specialists. Although an excellent ' all-round' botanist, Varenne had a special liking for the cryptogams rather than phanerogams, and nearly all the specimens in his collection of the former were gathered by him." Tlie Varenne Cryptogamic Herbarium, thus rescued from further destruction, consists of the following, in round numbers : — 350 Mosses 450 Lichens 150 Hepaticae 100 Sea- weeds 200 Fungi (Leaf- parasites) 250 Fresh-water Algae 1,500 And two quarto volimies of Essex Mosses, neatly mounted and in good preservation. The books are, Gibson's Flora of Essex ; Hassell's Bi'itish Frcsh-watci' Alger (2 vols); Mudd's Manual of British Lichens; Wilson's Bryologia Brilaiiiricn, an 1 l^eh^htons British Lichen Flora. All these books were Varenne's working copies, and they contain many marginal notes of Essex and other localities in his hand- writing. Essex botanists will regret to hear of the destruction of the Varenne flowering-plants. It is an instance of what so commonly happens in such cases. The proper home of local collections is the nearest local Museum. How many specimens and collections are there, now mouldering away in country houses in Essex ? The owners are tired of them, but they cannot summon up courage to place the specimens where they would be cared for and valued, and where they would be of use to those studying the natural history of the County. VIL—PETRICOLA PHOLADIFOBMIS IN ESSEX AND KENT. For some years past conchologists have been aware of the existence in England of a shell whose true home is on the east- central coast of North America. It was first noticed, probably, MUSEUM NOTES. 169 by Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S., about i8go, when he obtained a dead shell from the Crouch river near Burnham, and living specimens have since been found there. We have in the Museum two valves sent, with other things, by a dredgerman from the same locality. And Mr. J. E. Cooper and Mr. A. S. Kennard have since presented to the Museum a set of Kentish specimens, together with some notes, from which a portion of the following account is compiled. The original record of the mollusc in England was by Mr. Cooper in the Pvoc. Malacological Society, June 14th, 1895 : — • " In April, 1895, I found at Burnham-on-Crouch, Essex, a shell which Mr. E. A. Smith identified as Petricola pholadifonnis, Lam. It was picked out of a large heap of oyster and whelk shells which had been dredged in the river. One valve was considerably broken, but this was probably owing to Petricola pholadiformts. Lam. From the Report of the Inverlebvata of Massachusetts, by Dr. A. A. Gould. rough usage ; the fresh condition of the specimen points to its having lived in the river, where it was probably introduced with oysters. Mr. W. Crouch has also found an example of this species at Burnham." And in trie same journal, under date the 8th of May, it is recorded that : — " Mr. W. Crouch e.xhibited specimens of Petricola pholadiformis from the River Crouch, Essex, and remarked that two living specimens had to his knowledge been taken in that river, both at Cricksea, a mile west of Burnham, in association with Pholas crispata."' And at the same meeting Mr. J. E. Cooper and Mr. A. S. Kennard, exhibited the first Kentish specimens, obtained in the spring at Heme Bay and near .Sandwich. Mr. Cooper published 170 MUSEUM NOTES. a short note (with a figure) in Science Gossip for i8g6 (Vol. III., N.S. p. 147). Mr. Kennard says that at Heme Bay it is by far the most abundant mollusc, " living in burrows, about six inches deep, in the London Clay. Associated with it is the well-known form, Pholas Candida which it (superficially) closely resembles, but the Pholas is by far the rarer. It is probable that the Petvicola will be the cause of the greater denudation of the foreshore, since its burrows break up the London Clay, and thus enable the waves to act in a more destructive manner than hitherto. There can be no doubt that the mollusc has been established at Heme Bay for many years, and that it has been overlooked through its outward resemblance to Pholas Candida. It may readily be distinguished by the fact that the latter form possesses only one siphon, whilst Petvicola pholadifovmis has two, and it was this which first drew my attention to it. I believe that the species will eventually become a common denizen of those parts of our coast where there is a suitable habitat."' The accompanying figures of Petvicola are copied from the Report of the Invevtehvata of Massachusetts, by Dr. A. A. Gould, edited by W. G. Binney (Boston, 1870). Although at first glance the resemblance to Pholas Candida is striking, it really belongs to the Veneridse, a family most members of which are very unlike Petvicola superficially. The animals differ; in Pholas the respira- tory siphons are united nearly to their ends ; in Petvicola they are united only at the base. Pholas Candida has a small plate (or additional valve) over the hinge line and the ligament is not visible externally. In Petvicola the valves fit close at the hinge, and there is a strong external ligament. The habits of Petvicola in America are similar to those described above by Mr. Kennard. Dr. Gould says "On various parts of our coast ; at Chelsea and Nahaut beaches it is found abundantly, imbedded in jutting fragments of a marsh which once existed there, but which ha: '^een washed away by inroads of the sea, and now only an occasional remnant lifts its head above the surrounding sand. Also found in great quantities boring into hard blue clay, at low-water mark on Phillip's Beach." It is an interesting biological question, how came it about 1 A. S. Kennard in lift. ESSEX NAT, Vol XIL, PI. 71 The late EDMUND DURRANT, Hon. Librarian to the Essex Field Club. Born February 19th, 1S43 Died August 30lh, 1900. OBITUARY NOTICES. I7I that Petvicola has departed so much in external form from the other members of the family (Veneridae) to which it belongs ? Must we adopt Lamarckism for the nonce, and hold that it is community of habits and environment which has produced the close resemblance in these soft -rock burrowing genera, Petvicola and Pholas ? OBITUARY NOTICES. THE LATE EDMUND DURE A NT. Honorary Lihravian to Essex Field Club. [With Portrait, Plate IV. 1 It was with very great regret that many old members of the Club heard of the death of Edmund Durrant, a man highly respected from his prominence in many intellectual movements in the County, and, perhaps, the last in Essex of the grand old race of " literary booksellers," who knew something more of the books they dealt in than their bindings and prices. He died on August 30th, 1900, after a painful illness of several months' duration. The materials existing for a memoir of Mr. Durrant are but scanty, and they have been utilised in the biographical notices in the local papers and in an article in the Essex Revieiv ; from these articles the following notes are mainly compiled. Edmund Durrant came of a family which had settled in Chelmsford for many generations. His father was George Hill Durrant, actuary to the old Savings Bank ; his mother before her marriage was a Miss Francis, daughter of an Essex farmer. After a school-boy life at the Grammar School, he went to Brighton as an apprentice, and then came to complete his business training at Hatchetts and elsewhere, and for some time was in business for himself at Walworth. About 1875 he came back to Chelmsford to settle for life at 90, High Street, in the bookselling aud publishing house which had been established there for more than a century. Durrant quickly gave a literary tone to the business by the publication of works of local interest, and his shop was a delightful meeting-place, as all new books were placed on counters for folk to look at and talk about, quite in the style of the i8th century booksellers of the days of Johnson and Goldsmith. Mr. Durrant founded, in January 1S88, " Ye Chelmsford Sette of Odde Volumes," a literary and social club which met fortnightly at his house for lectures and discussion. It consisted of forty-nine members and a few "large-paper" copies. As '-Volume One" Durrant was virtually President of the society, and he took great delight in the " Sette," obtaining for it the aid of many clever lecturers and speakers from town and country to meet on the " accustomed shelf" under his genial and hospitable guidance. The Essex Beekeepers' Association was also another organisation of which he was the chief promoter. For many years he was its secretary, and 172 OBITUARY NOTICES. he often lectured on Bees and Beekeeping. He was also engaged by the Technical Instruction Committees of Essex, Suffolk and Yorkshire for the same work. He took an active part in the management of the Chelmsford Museum as secretary, and established there a series of lectures in connection with the University Extension movement. When the Essex Field Club made the attempt to re-establish the Museum on a scientiBc basis he acted as Librarian, and did all in his power to promote the welfare of the institution. Ikit the deadly apathy of the town in such matters doomed the scheme to failure from the very beginning, and the Field Club was compelled to move its head-quarters to a more promising sphere of work. Mr. Durrant always took greit interest in the Club and in the Essex Archaeological Society, and he was a frequent attendant at their meetings when held in his part of the county. In 1892 he established the Hssex Revietc, which has been so ably edited from its commencement by our Vice President, Mr. E. A. Fitch, but which owed much of its early success to the energy and enthusiasm which Durrant threw into the work. He frequently coi^lributed to it, and was always active in securing local matter for the enrichment of its pages. The whole pecuniary liability of this venture also rested with him. It is pleasant to know that both his pet hobbies will be continued on the lines he laid down. The " Odde Volumes " still flourish, and the ii?d";'/V?i' will be continued under its present directors as a limited liability company. Mr. Durrant was a consistent churchman, a synodsman of the parish church, an active member of the Kuridecanal Conference, and for the last few years one of the lay representatives of the Chelmsford Deanery at the Diocesan Conference. He was one of the managers of the Victoria Schools, and helped to found the present Chuxxh of England Institute at Chejmsford. In short, all good movements found in him a fervent partisan, but curiously enough he took no active part in municipal matters — it was the intellectual and educational phase of life which attracted him. Durrant was a voracious reader, and in his little study, which liis friends knew so well, he surrounded himself with many choice books and a very fine set of works relating to the history and productions of the County. It is rumoured that these have been left in trust for the benefit of his native town, when one of his aspirations, a public library, shall have been realised. His personal appearance was curiously clerical, with the slight stoop of the student, and utter absence of ostentation, and with every indication of a quiet, reserved, but withal amiable and courteous disposition. He lived in Chelmsford in philistine times, but it is to be hoped that one day some of his ideals may be reached ; meanwhile the town has lost a familiar figure, a kindly friei d, antl a worker whose energies it will be difficult to replace. For the loan c-f the characteristic portrait, from which our plate is taken, we are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. J. H. Nicholas. ESSEX NATURALIST: Vol. XIL, PL V. Henry Walker, f.g.s Hon. Member, Essex Field Club. OBITUARY NOTICES. 1 73 THE LATE HENRY WALKER, F.G.S. Honorary Member of the Essex Field Club. [With Portrait, Plate V.] In the honourable roll of those who have by their writings and example popularised the study of geology and natural history in the field, the name of Henry "Walker will always be prominently inscribed. We of the Essex Field Club have special reasons for cherishing his memory — he aided our earliest efforts by the delivery of several excellent addresses, and his genial presence as a " Conductor" and Demonstrator at Field Meetings greatly enhanced the popularity and interest of these gatherings in the first few years of the Club's work. Perhaps one of his happiest efforts was almost the first publication of the Club — " A Day's Elephant Hunting in Essex " served admirably to direct the attention of amateurs to the fascinating history of the Thames Valley as revealed by the discoveries of Sir Antonio Brady of Mammoths at Ilford, and several graphic reports from his pen in his own newspaper (the Bayswater Chioiiiclc), iheLcisureHouy and the City Press, made our Club widely known and appreciated. At the close of the first year's work, Mr. Walker was unanimously elected an Honorary Member in grateful recognition of the services he had rendered to the infant society. In late years the pressing claims upon his time as a journalist allowed him fewer opportunities of attending the Saturday afternoon meetings, but he was always to the fore with his pen and purse in any investigations or plans interesting to the Club, and his death on February 13th, igoo, came as a great shock and grief to his numerous friends both within and without our ranks. As a summary of Mr. Walker's public career we cannot do better than reprint the appreciative notice from one who knew him well, which appeared in the Bayswater Chronicle at the time of his death : — " It is above all things as a citizen and a believer in ' the religion of humanity ' that Mr. Walker would wish to be remembered among his neigh- bours and friends. Citizenship was to him apart of personal religion, and he counted among his friends the ministers of the Jewish Church, members of the Roman Catholic communion, Anglican clergy and missioners, and Noncon- formists of every kind. He was the friend of all sincere enthusiasms which made for social freedom and order and for a broad and many-sided life. He was keenly interested in modern Biblical criticism, and was a pioneer of liberal thought in the realm of science ; espousing the principle of evolution at a time when its acceptance was regarded as heterodoxy of the most danger- ous kind. The present writer well recalls public lectures and meetings at which antagonism between modern science and evangelical doctrine was still sharp and sore ; and it was on such occasions that Mr Walker would throw himself into the breach and defend the former both from the Christain and the human standpoint, with an earnestness which showed that he held the new truth as passionately as he had once held the old. Sharing with his brother (Mr. Thomas Walker, of the Daily News), the heritage of a Puritan 174 OBITUARV NOTICES. temperament and ancestry, he knew deeply and intimately the struggle between the new and old forms of faith, and was full of wise sympathy for those passing through phases of intellectual and spiritual doubt. " He was born on March 14th, 1833, and his boyhood was spent at Northampton, at a time when the regular appearance of the green-covered numbers of Dickens' earlier novels began to loom as large as those of Scott's on the mental horizon of the schoolboy. In early youth he came to London, and laid up vivid memories of the acting of Phelps in Shakespearean tragedy at Sadler's Wells. But social and educational movements soon made an imperative claim upon his heart, and for forty-five years he devoted the best of his leisure and energy to the promotion of scientific knowledge and culture, especially among the young and those deprived of collegiate advantages. He threw himself heartily into the work of the Early Closing Association, of which he was for some years secretary, and at the same time pioneered the Saturday Half-Holiday movement in the direction of natural history and archaeological research. His little volume, Saturday Afternoon Rambles Round London, is a delightful memorial of some of the first excursions of this kind. He mastered the geology, botany, and entomology of London and the home counties, kept pace with every step of modern astronomy, the exploration of Egypt, and many other departments of antiquarian lore. He was one of the most popular conductors of natural history excursions, or, indeed of visitors to any shrine sanctified by the beauty of nature, or the history of the past. In 1874 he came to this neighbourhood to take up the editorship of the Baystvater Chronicle, which he only relinquished within a few months of his death. He founded the West Loudon Scientific Association and Field Club, lectured frequently at clubs and institutes of all denominations, and took an unflagging interest in every development of municipal life. He rejoiced in the progress of the education of women, and their entrance into the higher scholarship and science. Himself a staunch Gladstonian in politics, feeling, too, strong sympathies with collectivist ideals, he never failed in justice or courtesy to the representatives of other political creeds, and was always ready to find common ground with them in any scheme for the benefit of the helpless and oppressed. He was a Fellow of the Geological Society and a member of the Essex Field Club, and was for many years on the Council of Westbourne Park Institute. In 1880 his vigorous crusade in the colunms of this paper against a well-known gambling saloon in Monmouth Road, which had entrapped many inexperienced young men in business in the district, landed him in a criminal prosecution for libel, which formed a memorable and interesting episode in his career. It resulted in the complete triumph and vindication of the journalist and the abolition of the nuisance in question. A presentation was afterwards made to Mr. Walker by residents in the neigh- bourhood in recognition of his public-spirited action. For the past two years he had gradually failed iu health, and he passed away at an early hour on Tuesday morning, in the presence of his wife and daughter." To a later issue of the same journal, the Rev. Dr. Clifford communicated some interesting reminiscences with which we may conclude this notice of our deeply regretted member: — 175 OBITUARY NOTICES. " It was in these pages I first made the acquaintance of my dear friend Henry Walker, now nearly a quarter of a century ago. He had visited Praed Street Chapel and given a sketch of the sermon he heard. When Westbourne Park Chapel was opened 1 came into closer acquaintance with him, and soon learned to appreciate very highly the fine qualities of his strong , balanced and noble character. " First of all, I was at:;racted by his wide and accurate knowledge. He had an open mind, and was an eager and strenuous student. To the study of Nature he was devoted with the ardour and insight of a lover. If geology stood first amongst the sciences in his esteem, his lectures on that subject showed that it was first because of its manifold relations to other branches of inquiry. His library forms, to some extent, a history of his mind. It is distinctively choice. Its range is wide ; but its treasures are the best on its specially selected themes. Still, his keenest interest was in questions of Biblical criticism and interpretation. I have known few men who were mere ' up to date' in the knowledge of all matters pertaining to the history of the growth of the Bible, and the scientific exposition of its contents. He was fully conversant with the best work in this department, and had no misgivings as to the results of that work in the end of the day. Most likely he had known and felt the severity of the conflict between the older and the newer forms of faith ; but it was manifest that he had reached the perfect calm of an unhesitating reliance on the infinite love. ■' All his studies were dominated by a keen sympathy with human pro- gress His book on the condition of the people in the East End of London, and his papers on Liverpool, show the absorbing interest he had in everything human. For his was an intrinsically religious spirit : and his motives sprang from divine ideals for himself, for the individual man, for the city and for the race. "The readers of the BavsWiitei- Chronicle need not be told that what he knew and felt he could express with lucidity and strength. He was a master of style. His tastes were literary ; and his speeches at the Westbourne Park In-titute, and in connection with our Rambling Club will be remembered not only for their fulness of information and rich allusiveness, but also for purity and grace of expression. Nor shall we ever forget his unfailing courtesy and gracious consideration for others. He made me think of Emerson's saying, ' Good manners are made up of petty sacrifices. Temperance, courage, love, are made up of the same jewels' Such jewels he wore with a naturalness that added to their charm and an unconstraint that became their commenda- tion. "In the removal of Henry Walker, Bayswater has lost one of its best citizens, a man of blameless character, serene spirit, solid work, and high ideals." We are indebted to Mrs. Walker for the loan of the excellent photograph from which the plate was taken. 176 NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. ZOOLOGY. Otters in the Essex Salt-marshes. — In the local journals of Oct. ist, igoi, a paragraph concerning the capture of an otter was headed with the sensational line " SeaOtter in the Blackwater." "In the river Blackvvater on Friday, not far from where the shark was recently captured, a Mersea fisher- man named Reuben Mussett shot a sea otter, a creature never known to have been brought ashore before in the neighbourhood. It is a capital specimen, turning the scale at 27lbs." We allude to this mainly as an excuse for insert- ing an extract from a letter of Dr. Layer's written at the time : — " The ' sea otter ' was a very fine specimen, 4fi. lin. long, a male, and was shot on the ooze or saltings at Tollesbury. The skin has been preserved by Pettitt for Mr. Stuart- Wortley, of Orleans Cottage, West Mersea. It had been no doubt living on Tollesbury Marshes and in the habit of making excursions into the tide-way. I dare say you are aware that tliere are now otters on nearly all the marshes round the coast. This is as it was in the early years of 1800, when the otter was a very common beast. I am glad to say that there is a prospect of this interesting animal again being much more abundant than it was some years ago." Capture of a Porbeagle Shark (Lamna cornubica) near Tollesbury. In the ii55(',v Herald for October ist, 1901, the capture of a shark was reported as follows: — 'On Tuesday afternoon, when the Tollesbury fishermen were returning home, a shark was seen swimming near the Naas End. Several attempts were made to capture it, and William Lewis, jun., accompanied by William Lewis, sen., and Garrod, succeeded in getting a noose over his head and fixing it in his gills. He was towed for some distance to the landing stage at the ' Leavings,' frequently turning on his back ready for battle. When dragged upon the mud the shark went through many frantic evolutions, but was at length killed. There is an abundant supply of fish in the Black- water just now, and the shark is supposed to have followed them. The fish was 6ft. loin. in length, and was on exhibition at Tollesbury on Tuesday evening. On Wednesday his captors tried their fortune as showmen by taking the shark to Maldon for exhibition." Dr. Laver wrote to us respecting this fish: — " The shark you mentioned is now at Ambroses, the Bird-Stuffer's. I have seen it to-day ; it is 7ft. 3iu. long, and it is an example of the Porbeagle Shark [Lamna corimbica) as you suggested." Pomatias elegans in a living state near Wormingford.— Dr. H. Laver has kindly forwarded to us a letter recently received from Mr. George T. Rope in which the writer says : — " I have not your list of the Mollusca of the Colchester district by me just now, bat as far as I can recollect Cyclostoma [Pomatias) elegans is not included. Having met with this species last autumn at or near Wormingford, I thought it might possibly interest you to know of it. On the 8th of last September (1901) I came upon several ' dead shells ' at a spot which I have no doubt you know, about two miles or so from Bures. A.nd with them was a single specimen of Helix (Helicella) ericetormn and NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. I77 Hdicigoiia lapic'uhi I had no opportunity of searching the spot again until ■October 2nd, after a heavy rain, and then found three or four living examples of P. elegans, as well as several more dead shells." [The first record of P. elegans in a living state in Essex, was by Mr. J. French in the Essex Naturalist for 1890 (vol. iv., pp. 92-93) who found the mollusc at Felstead in a very limited area of about 100 yards in diameter. Recently dead shells have been recorded by Christy at Saffron Walden, and specimens are in the Saffron Walden Museum from Wicken Bonhunt. Semi-fossil shells are common in many localities in the Post-Pliocene deposits. By Mr. Rope's kindness the Essex Museum now possesses specimens of the Wormingford Pomatias — Ed.] Variety of Arion ater near Bures. — On September 21st, 1901, I saw a curious variety of Arion ater, on the Suffolk side of the Stour. near Bures. The fore-parts, including the shield, were of a delicate cream or ivory tint ; the rest of the upper surface pale silvery grey, almost white. The foot was of the colour of an ordinary red cheese. The slug was about full grown and was a beautiful object. I am not at all "well up" in the slugs, but have noticed many striking varieties of this species, differing widely from one another.— G. H. Roph, Blaxhall, Tunstall, Suffolk. Aphodii in Epping Forest. — The coleopterous genus Aphodius, the members of which live in dung, is well represented in Epping Forest, nineteen species (or exactly half the total number found in the British Islands) having occurred to me during the four years I have been collecting beetles in the Forest district. Many of these are common everywhere, but others are decidedly local It is unnecessary to give a complete list of the Forest Aphodii here, but I may mention the following species as being the most interesting of my captures : — A, ccnstans, Duft., common from March to May in horse-dung in various parts of the Forest. I have also taken a few specimens in October. Its near ally, A. ater, De G., which is generally supposed to be a much commoner species, is, as a matter of fact, comparatively scarce in the Forest. A . mfescens, F., not uncommon in some of the outlying fields. A. conspurcatns, L., in numbers jn a field near Chingford in the late autumn of 1898, and a few have occurred at High Beach ; it is also recorded from Loughton in Canon Fowler's Coleoplera of the British Islands. A. sticticus, Payk, several in horse dung in a space of a few feet only bet\veen Chingford and High Beach, May, 1900. A. zenkeri. Germ., seven specimens in deer dung not far from the Wake Arms, and one in horse dung at High Beach, July, 1899. A. luridus, F., this handsome species is apparently by no means common in the London district, and has hitherto been very scarce in the Forest ; I took a male in a field between High Beach and Sewardstone in May, 1898, and two females at Chingford in April, 1300. A. depressus, F., a few in a ride between Chingford and Fairmead, July, 1899. — F. B. Jennings, F.E.S., Upper Edmonton, October, 1901. The Blister-Beetle (Lytta vesicatoria) near Colchester.— In the Times for September 3rd, 1901, Mr. W. H. Harwood, of Colchester, had the following note, dated August 31st: — " Among the many notable insects which liAve occurred in unusual numbers this year the blister beetle, or Spanish fly 178 NOTES-— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. {Lyttavesicatoria), seems \worthy of special mention. This splendid species is usually extremely rare in Britain, but in 1837 was found in considerable numbers in Essex, Suffolk and Hampshire. About 1875 it was again taken near Colchester by Mr. J. G. Grapes, and more recently it has been found sparingly in Cambridgeshire by the Hon. N. Charles Rothschild and others. Mr. Donisthorpe also obtained 11 specimens in the same county this year, after spending a considerable time in searching for them. Near Colchester, a working man who was out with his butterfly-net one summer morning chanced to notice several ash trees which had been almost entirely denuded of their leaves, and while he was examining into the cause he saw one of the beetles flying towards him, its glittering armour resplendent in the sunshine. This he netted, and presently came to another tree, upon which were a large number of specimens within easy reach, and proceeded to bottle some eighty of them. Unfortunately, he did not know what an important capture he had made, and left most of the specimens in the bottle till they were spoiled, but pinned a few and recently brought them to me to determine. Having been told by the late Dr. Churchill where he had principally noticed the species in 1837, I visited the district, and found that scores of trees over a wide area showed unmistakable signs of its ravages. To account for the amount of feeding the beetles must have been present in enormous numbers, as many of the trees are of considerable size, and nearly all had been extensively eaten. I have frequently looked for them in the same locality myself in previous years, but never had the good fortune to find them, and felt more than a little disappointed when I saw that I had this year missed such an opportunity as I shall probably never have again." BOTANY. Centaurea solstitialis and Triglochin palustre near Witham. — Possibly the two following records may be of interest to the readers of the Essex Naturalist : — Centaiirea{Ccilcitrapa) solstitialis. — Star-Thistle. This occurs as a casual in fields of lucerne, but although I have searched such localities for many years, it did not come under my notice until the August of 1901, when it was found in plenty at Witham. Triglochin palustre was also found about the same time in the above parish. Edwin E. Turner, Coggeshall, Essex. METEOROLOGY. Meteorological Statistics at Colchester. — Mr. H. Goodyear, the Borough Surveyor at Colchester, states that meteorological readings have been taken in his office for the last 15 years, and he gives some interesting statistics. The rainfall for the year igoi was only 14- 11 inches, the smallest annual rainfall ever recorded in Colchester, and for that matter in any town in England, and excluding towns of less than 30,000 inhabitants, Colchester is the dryest town in England. The weather has been exceptionally bright also, as there were only 105 days on which rain fell ; and this is also unprecedented. NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED 179 The following is a table of statistics for the last 15 years, the record readings being distinguished by an asterisk :— • v 13 Q •50 i: 4) c U c . Ill 0" 5= 0 « " ar 1/1 ermanent lDice=iprc6iDents : Professor G. S. Boulger, i T. V. Holmes, F.G.S., M.A.L F.L.S., F.G.S. I Henry Layer, M.R.C.S., F.L.S., Frederic Chancellor, J. P., F.R.LB.A. Edward A. Fitch, F.L.S., F.E.S. F.S.A. Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S, F.R.A.S. iTieasucer : David Howard, J. P., F.C.S., Devon House, Buckhurst Hill. 1bon. Secretaries: W. Cole and B. G. Cole, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. ILibrarians : Vacant {!) /Iftuseums, 1bea£)=(Siuarter6, an5 Xibrarg: Oueen Elizabeth's Lodge, Chingford, ) ^ /• Essex. Essex Natural History Muskum, Stratford, ) Curator : W. Cole, F.L.S., F.E.S. The Essex Field Club is intended to band together those taking an interest in Natural Science residing within or near the borders of Essex, as well as those in London, with the aim of creating and fostering a taste for the study of Nature in the field as well as in the study. The Publications of the Club have gained general estimation, because of the care which has been taken to confine them to their original purpose, the record of investigations and elucidations of the Natural History (in its widest sense), the Topography and Pre- historic Arch.eology, of the County of Essex and the lands and sea bordering thereon. Since the foundation of the Club in 1880, many thousand pages of such material have been published, and a large proportion of the articles are of value to students residing outside the Club's limits. ESSEX SAT, \cl XII . PL VII. Dissections of Typical Spiders (For explanations see text.) THE SPIDERS OF EPPING FOREST. By FRANK P. SMITH. Part /, Influenced by the memories of many pleasant days spent within the leafy glades and upon the sunny heaths of Epping Forest, it is with something like a sense of duty that I enter upon the task of compiling a descriptive list of the spiders indigenous to this lovely district. I need in no wise eulogise upon the natural beauties of the Forest, for they must be familiar to every resident in the' northern portion of the Metropolis, and, for the benefit of the stranger, we have more than one good guide- book dealing with the attractions of the neighbourhood. We constantly hear it remarked that for certain groups of insects the Forest is not so remunerative a locality as it used to be ; but we must admit that it would be an absolute impossibility for a well- studied order, such, for example, as the Lepidoptera, to hold its own in a collecting ground within so short a distance of the Metropolis. In many parts of the Forest, too, the London-clay, with its somewhat limited flora, comes to the surface, thus tend- ing to decrease the variety of insect life in those localities. To-day, however, in spite of the attentions of energetic collectors and the depredations of thoughtless excursionists, this district may be relied upon to furnish treasures innumerable for the earnest student of nature who is willing to enter upon the task of investigating those orders of the animal kingdom which have been for one reason or another more or less neglected. Foremost amongst these must be placed the Araneae, or Spiders, with which I wish to deal in the present series of papers. The list of species as it now stands, although in many respects a good one, will no doubt be materially augmented by further search, and it is hoped that these notes may not be regarded as " something attempted, something done," but rather as an incentive to the enterprising collector to avail himself of every opportunity of gathering specimens of spiders in this interesting localitv." I am confident that one of the greatest obstacles to the advancement of British Araneology is the lack of up-to-date literature in the I The previous papers on Spiders in our publications are orly two in number, viz. : " A contribution towards a l- P .^ D C "^ (U « •^ > s S p, ri •" What the makers of these implements were like is quite unknown as no human bones nor indeed any contemporaneous organic remains have ever been found in the plateau gravel. Nothing of that sort could be preserved from such antiquity in so porous a deposit. Our knowledge of the animals with which these people were associated and hence of the approximate conditions under which they lived is little better, though a slight clue is afforded by the occurrence in a drift at Dewlish of Eolithic implements together with the bones of an extinct species of elephant — the Ekphas meridionalis of Nesti — which did not survive into the succeeding Palaeolithic period. The relation of the plateau gravel to the other implement - bearing deposits of the Thames Basin is well shewn by the accom- panying section (fig. 7), and may be briefly tabulated thus : — Pliocene Pleistocene Holocene . , Plateau Gravel Eolithic. i High-level Valley Drft | palaeolithic i Low-level Valley Drift j ^aiaeoiitnic. Alluvial Flats Neolithic — Historic. Implements of Eolithic type have been found at several localities in Britain outside the Thaines Basin' the most noteworthy being Dewlish and Alderbury. They also occur on the adjacent mainland of Europe - and in South Africa. For the use of those who would like to go more deeply into the interesting problems connected with Eolithic man, I have appended a list of the more important papers that I ha\e been able to consult in the pre- paration of this account. In this connection 1. As new records I may mention that I have obtained Eolithic Implements trom among Plateau Gravel dibris overlooking the railway-station in the Chipstead Valley and from the heights above Dover, both localities being on the North Downs. 2. The implements from the Plateau Gravel roughly correspond to the '• Reutelian " and GRAVEL AROUND WALDERSLADE. 215 I have received much help from my friend KennarcJ, who has kindly lent to me his extensive collection of pamphlets dealing v/ith this subject, and I take this opportunity to express my thanks to him. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Sir Joseph Prestwich, " On the Occurrence of PalseoUthic Flint Implements in the neighbourhood of Ightham." Quart. Journ. Geol. Sue. xlv.(i88g). 2. Sir Joseph Prestwich, " On the Drift Stages of the Valley of the Darent" Quart. Jouiii. Geol. Soc. xlvii (i8gi). 3. Sir Joseph Prestwich, " Primitive Characters of Flint Implements from the Chalk Plateau." Journ. Anthrop. Institute, .1,17(1894) 4. W. J. Lewis-Abbott, " Plateau Man in Kent." Natural Science, iv. (1894). 5. T. Rupert Jones, " On the Geology of the Plateau Implements.'' Natural Science, v. (1894). 6. A. M. Bell, " Remarks on Flint Implements from the Chalk Plateau." Journ. Anthrop. Institute xxiii. (1894) 7. Sir Joseph Prestwich, Controverted Questions of Geology : London (1895). 8. W. Cunnington, " Authenticity of Plateau Man." Natural Science, xi. (1897). 9. A. S. Kennard, " Authenticity of Plateau Man." Natural Science, xii. (1898). 10. R. Ashington Bullen, "Authenticity of Plateau Implements." Natural Science, xii. (1898). 11. W. J. Lewis-Abbott, "Authenticity of Plateau Implements." Natural Science, xii. (i8g8). 12. W. Cunnington, " Palaeolithic Implements from the Plateau Gravel." Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. (1898). 13. A. M. Bell, " The Tale of the Flint." Longman's Magazine (1898). 14. Benjamin Harrison, " Eolithic Implements." Trans. S.E. Union Scientific Societies (1899). 15. G. Leith, " On Caves, Shell-mounds and Stone Implements of South Africa." Journr Anthrop. Institute, xxuiit. (1899). 16. R. Ashington Bullen, " Eolithic Implements." Trans. Victoria Institute (1900). " Mesvinian " of Rutot, who however considers that the latter stage only is represented. Nevertheless o ving to the fact that the iinplements from the Plateau Gravel are not all of the same age but range over a long period of time, quite as primitive forms as the Reutelian are met side by side with the better finished types (Mesvinian) such as are figured in this paper. Rutot is certainly under a misapprehension when he thinks he finds contemporaneous Reutelian implements at the base of the brickearth (low-level valley driftj at Erith, although he offers a very ingenious explanation. He however overlooks the occurrence in the immediate neighbourhood of an indisputably older deposit (the high-level valley drift) which contains Palaeolithic Implements and which of course is itselt newer ihan the Plateav} Gravel. 2l6 EOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM WALDERSLADR. 17. A. Rutot. " Note sur la Decouverte d' importants Gisements de Silex tallies dans les collines de la Flandre Occidentale. " Bull. Soc. d' Anthropologic de BriixeHes, xviii. (1900). 18. R. D. Darbishire, " Implements from the Chalk Plateau." Proc. Manchester Literary and Philosophical Soc. xlvi. (igoi). ig. Annual Report of Wellington College Natural Science Society (1901). 20. A. Rutot, " Sur une Preuve de I'existence de THomme sur la Crete de I'Artois avant la Fin du Pliocene." Bull. Soc. Beige de Geologic (1901). 21. F. J. Bennett, "Antiquity of Man.' Chatham and Rochester Observer (1901). 22. A. Rutot, " Sur la distribution des Industries PalaEolithiques dans les Couches Quarternaires de la Belgique " Comptes-Rendus du Congrl-s International d' Anthropologic et d' Archeologie prehistoriqnes X lie Session. Paris (1900). 23. E. R. Harrison, " Eolithic Flint Implements." South Eastern Naturalist (1902). 24. A. Rutot, " Defense des Eolithes.'' Bull. Soc. d' Anthropologic de Bruxelles. xx. (1902). NOTE. At the reading of the above paper at the meeting on March 8th, 1902, Mr. A. S. Kennard made some remarks which are embodied in the following note, to which the author has replied. These observations will most con- veniently be given here : — " It is of the utmost importance that the attention of Essex geologists should be called to these Eolithic implements since without a doubt they will be found in the county if proper search is made. Examples which may be of this age have been found in the Thames gravels at Grays and Ilford but what is wanted is to find these implements in the higher and older gravels. Whether it is right to assign such names as 'borers,' ' spokeshaves,' 'scrapers,' &c., to these implements may well be questioned. We know nothing of the customs of these primitive folk and our only knowledge of the existence of these primitive folk is derived from these fhnts. It is unsafe even to compare them with existing savages since all or nearly all of these have reached a higher scale in development than that which the Eolithic folk had attained. Even with the later Palaeolithic implements we know next to nothing of their probable uses and this remark applies to many Neolithic tools also. The only ground on which the use of such names can be defended is the necessity of using terms which will be understood by all students of anthropology, hence their employment should refer to shape only and not to probable use. " These primitive implements are known from Belgium, France, Egypt and South Africa, but it does not follow that they are all of the same age. Each district must be worked in detail before we can speak definitely. A. S. Kennard." EXCURSION TO WALTON AND FRINTON. 11'J " I heartily endorse my friend Kennard's remarks as to the necessity of employing caution in interpreting the uses of these primitive implements. I do not however believe that the possibility of discovering their purpose is quite so hopeless as he seems to think. If we can trace the evolution of any of these implem.ents from the earliest to the latest periods of the Stone Age we may yet do so, and such an evolution is, in my opinion, clearly observable in the spokeshave — scraper group, the latter implement even having been observed in use among modern savages. Now if we could connect the scraper of the Eskimo and that of the Eolithic folk with an intermediate series of intermediate age, would we not be justified in assuming that the use was the same ? It is certainly unlikely that any radical change would take place in the use of a particular type of implement. " However it has not been my intention to dogmatise in my explan- ation of the uses of these implements, but rather to suggest. It is necessary in a general and introductory paper of this description to give an idea of the most probable way in which they would have been used, and that is all that I have done. J. P. Johnson." WALTON AND FRINTON, ESSEX, IN 1902. REPORT OF THE EXCURSION OF THE CLUB, 7th JUNE, 1902. By W. H. DALTON, F.G.S., Hon. Memb., E.F.C. The cliff-section of Walton-l\aze has been often described, the richly-fossihferous sands of the Red Crag having constituted it one of the " happy hunting grounds" of the collector for more than half a century. Though but a few feet thick, it has been so assiduously searched that a very large proportion of the fauna of the Crag period has been found represented here. This is partly due to the way in which the shells are protected from the solvent action of percolating water by a thick bed of clay, capped in its turn with several feet of gravel, and partly to its slight coherence in comparison with that of the subjacent London-clay. This may sound paradoxical, in view of the direct object of the excursion, the study of the progressive degradation of the London-clay itself. But it is merely a question of relative coher- ence—loose sand above stiff clay — and the result is the forma- tion of a sort ot shelf of the clay, from which rises a second and steeper cliff, 15 or 20 yards inland of that which descends to the beach. The shelf is much modified by slipping, and by the erosion of channels for the escape of springs from the interior, 2l8 EXCURSION TO WALTON AND FRINTON. and is at some points a fairly steep slope. It is often masked by a mass of Crag sand, forming a talus of gentle gradient, on which the collector can lie prone, and fill his boxes at leisure, regard- less of comment from Philistines occupying the cliff-top or the beach. The several beds extend inland, and outcrop succes- sively on the western slope of the Naze peninsula, as shown on the Geological Surve}' map. The effect of denudation on the various beds are characteris- tic for each. The porous and fairly coherent gravel on the top offers a vertical face. Never being saturated by the most pro- longed rainfall, it remains in place till dislodged pebble by pebble, as the supporting grains of sand are removed by direct lateral lashing of rain or spray. The water it receives on its level surface sinks in, and escapes westward over the edge of the underlying clay into the Crag below. This clay, originally assigned to the Chillesford clay, which in Suffolk is interbedded with the Crag, is probably representative of the Post-Glacial freshwater bed of Clacton cliff, a correlation now published for the first time, and based partly on its lithological character and that of the superincumbent gravel, and partly on the presence, about midway in its thickness, ot a seam of peaty matter and fossil wood, as at Clacton. This seam was of limited extent, and has now disappeared with the recession of the cliff, but fortu- nately some of the wood is preserved in the Club's collection at Stratford. This Post-Glacial clay or loam offers a nearly vertical face, being sufficiently sandy to absorb and discharge rainfall without becoming pasty or slipping. The Crag below it has a steep face for a foot or two, merging into the talus. Its basement bed of water-worn bones, teeth and pebbles, derived from the denudation in the Crag period of the London clay and of some deposits of intermediate age, is seldom visible, but a shark's tooth badly damaged, and a large piece of bone, were among the finds of the day. The London clay, rising to some 30 feet from the beach, has generally a steep face, but here and there springs oozing from the Crag have caused heavy slips, breaching the bank, and furnishing the waves with broken and semifluid material, incapable of resisting their transporting power. Notwithstanding the evident recession of the brow of the upper cliff, there is no perceptible difference between the high- water line of the old and the new Ordnance maps. This may EXCURSION TO WALTON AND fRlNTON. ^ig be partly due to inaccuracy in the survey of 1838, or the opera- tions for protection of the coast, although somewhat inadequate, may have retarded the waste, as far as is perceptible on the small-scale map, one inch to the mile. The difference indeed are chiefly in the opposite direction, that of increase of the land. Considerable areas are shown in the new map as enclosed from tidal access in the interesting area of Hamford or Hanford Water, west and northwest of the Naze. Some of these have since been regained by the sea, either through accident or neglect. But outside, and apart from human action, deposition has been proceeding, and the new map shows a projecting spit of sand (the Pye Sand), nearly a mile in length beyond the low- water line of 1838. This, coupled with the fact, informally mentioned by Mr. Mothersole at the excursion meeting, of the presence of quantities of Crag shells on the beach in that direction, far beyond the outcrop on the Naze, points to a northerly shore-current thereabouts, as a backward eddy from the general southward tendency, so fully evidenced at the groins and breakwaters along the Naze and towards Frinton. These are banked up to the top with sand on the north side, whilst to the south of each the bare London-clay forms a black slippery surface, full of water-holes. Seawater, apart from its motive force, tends to preserve the London-clay, by excluding atmospheric air, and maintaining a state of saturation. It is the alternation of drought and wet that breaks up the fairly-solid clay, converting its abundant iron- pyrites into oxide of iron and free sulphuric acid, the latter in its turn attacking the carbonate of lime generally present. Both the ferric oxide and tlie sulphate of lime occupy greater bulk than m their previous combinations, apart from that of the carbonic acid gas set free by the later re-action. Some change possibly takes place also in the elements of the clay itself, for it passes from a rather tough mass, but one which will break into fragments, to a plastic dough, which can only be torn or squeezed apart. Perhaps in the absence of sufficient carbonate of lime, the sulphuric acid attacks the alumina of the clay, or the change may be purely molecular. At any rate, the modifi- cation proceeds inwards from every crevice, and each expansion produces further Assuring, until the mass, even at an early stage of the process, is traversed in every direction by cracks with slimy surfaces. A little excess of rain, and these surfaces are 220 EXCURSION TO WALTON AND FRINTON. forced apart by water making its way in by capillary attraction. Under such conditions, the whole becomes practically a viscous fluid, and cliffs or railway-cuttings are subject to perpetual slip- ping in greater or less degree. Every hillside of similar material is perennially on the down-grade from the same cause, and even gentle slopes have a like movement in minor measure. Expan- sion by moisture will be vertical only in absolutely level ground, where no cause exists for divergence to any side. If ever so slight a deviation from the vertical is possible, the expansion will be fractionally towards that side. Subsequent contraction will be truly vertical, unless a lower position is possible by a further lateral movement. On a cliff the action is more percepti- ble, because more rapid, and the prompt removal by the sea of whatever reaches the beach has induced the popular belief that the sea is the primary agent of destruction. Neptune has been blamed for what is mainly the action of Jupiter Pluvius. That Neptune assists in the spoliation cannot be denied, but he is accessory after the fact, the receiver of the proceeds. In the later section of the day's operations, the modus operandi of these confederate powers was clearly demonstrated. The cliff-top between Walton and Frinton is practically a plateau, from which a covering sheet of gravel, probably of Post-Glacial date as at Clacton, has been but lately denuded, small patches of pebbles and sand being of frequent occurrence. The margin is indented mto much the same form as that to which a child reduces a slice of bread-and-butter, a series of irregular, more or less circular scallops, with projecting points. At these salient angles, often very acute, the fall is nearly vertical ; in the inter- vening recesses, a steep slope of a few yards generally reaches a ledge still covered with the original turf of the summit, and often fairly horizontal, but breaking into columns by intersecting cracks, as it passes by infinitesimal slips down the treacherous slope. Lower down a chaos of angular lumps of all sizes leads to the beach, interspersed with flows of viscid mud where surface waters seek exit through the obstructing masses. In every case the determining cause of the recess is seen lo be one of the patches of residuary gravel already mentioned, its presence implying a slight hollow on the surface of the clay, and a collect- ing ground for the rainfall of the immediate vicinity. Near the edge, in every recess, new cracks show the initiation of a further loss. Where a continuous esplanade has been constructed, it NOTES RELATING TO COAST 221 will require to be cleared from time to time, until the cliff reaches the angle of the slope compatible with permanent stability. But at the end of such artificial protection, Nature resumes her sway, eats into the undefended face, gets behind the masonry or concrete, and destroys it length by length. The only effectual system under the conditions is that of closely-set groins rising above springtide level, to accumulate sand and check the removal of slipped or solid clay. How far this may be regarded as a matter of imperial rather than of local interest and duty is a' political question unsuited for discussion in these pages. NOTES RELATING TO COAST EROSION IN ESSEX AND SUFFOLK. EXTRACTED FROM THE REPORTS OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION The Committee on Coast Erosion was appointed in 1881 at York. A preliminary Report was issued in 1884 and detailed reports appeared in 1885, 1886 and 1888. The final Report with summary of the evidence was issued in 1895. As these reports are somewhat scattered it may be well to summarise those relating to our coast, as an addendum to Mr. Dalton's remarks above. 1 he somewhat crude diction arises from the notes being concise answers to a set of very definite questions. In the second Report (Brii. Ass. Rep. 1886) Mr. John Bateman, of Brightlingsea, gave some evidence concerning the Estuary of the Colne, in which he stated the nature of the coast to be a fringe of flat salt-marshes overflowed at high tides. They form small cliffs of about 5 feet, and then . soft mud reaches to low-water mark. There is no shingle. The coast-line is N.E. to S.W. and the prevailing wind is S.W. The E. wind is most important in raising high waves. The set of the tidal currents is the same as the mouth of the Thames. The coast is being worn back by the sea almost without exception from the mouth of the Thames northwards, and eastwards certainly at Mersea, Brightlingsea, St. Osyth, and Clacton. The cliffs only commence at Clacton. Questioned as to the rate of erosion he stated that the area of one salt-marsh of about 10 acres had diminished by nearly one-third in 20 years. The Tithe Commutation Map of Brightlingsea (1822 ?) shows " West Marsh Point " to have been something like 100 yards seawards of its present position. Land is being gained from the sea, and something like 700 acres of Brightlingsea were enclosed from the salt-marshes, 1700-1800. No record has been preserved of exact dates, but a map of 1780 shows much now 222 NOTES RELATING TO COAST enclosed to have been then subject to occasional overflow. There are also curious isolated 'hills' of shingle and clay on some of the enclosed marshes, evidently washed together by sea action. ' Dunes ' of blown sand fringe the coast of St. Osyth for 2^ miles, infringing perhaps 50 to 150 yards on the marshes; their height is 12 to 15 feet. He did not think that they wert^ increasing and they are prevented from spreading landways by a long salt' water 'crick,' locally so-called, which runs close behind them inland. In the same Report, Mr. Peter S. Bruff, M. Inst. C.E., gave evidence relating to the Suffolk and Essex coasts, from the river Deben to near the river Colne. He described the nature of the coast as varying — cliff, flat 'denes' and embanked marshes. The Cliffs are London Clay, sometimes capped with crag, gravel or sand; their greatest height above H.W.M. being 68 feet, and least 6 feet; an average of 37 feet. The coast-line lies N.E. to S.W. and the prevailing wind is S.E. to S.W. In raising high waves the most important wind is the N.E. to S.W. ; in piling up shingle the most important wind varies locally from E. to W. (N. to W. at Walton), and in travelling of shingle the N.E. to E. is most efficient. The set of the tidal currents is N.E. to S.W. The range of tide in vertical feet at springs is II ft. 6 in., and at neaps, 8 feet. The width of spring tide between high and low water is from the Deben to the Orwell 25 yards, at Walton-on-Naze 230 yards, and at Clacton 150 yards. From the Deben to the Orwell the area covered by the tide consists of sand and shingle with occasional layers of cement stone at the foot of the beach. From the Orwell to the Colne there is a clay flat at foot of the beach uncovered at low water. The shingle is about 30 to 40 vards broad at Felixstowe and Clacton. With respect to the tide mark it is sometimes evenly distributed, and sometimes in patches with sand between, and it travels from N.E. to S.W. A small proportion of the pebbles are as large as hens' eggs, the majority much less. A ridge of shingle is formed by the spring and neap tides, the height above the respective tide marks varying according to the state of the wind. The average height would be about 2 feet above the tide marks Where not protected by groynes the shingle is diminishing, by natural causes. The groynes of timber-piles and planks are 30 or 40 yards long, generally at right angles to the shore line, at varying distances apart, and of very diverse heights ; there are some stone ones at Walton-on-Naze. Between the Deben and the Orwell, they arrest the shingle very effectually, and prevent the loss of foreshore and land. At Walton the same is true in a less degree A considerable quantity of shingle has been taken from the beach at Clacton at about high-water mark, for road- making and for concrete for building. It is said that some 40 or 50 years ago cement stone was dredged and otherwise removed in front of Felixstowe, which removal had an injurious effect upon the coast, but the practice has long been discontinued. The coast is being worn back by the sea at Felixstowe, between the 'Lodge Point' and Martello Tower P., and also at Walton and Frinton. At Felixstowe the greatest loss was where there was 'flat ( 'Benthill') at the foot of cliffs. At Walton and Frinton there are London Clay cliffs 40 to 68 feet above high water. At places as much as 100 feet is lost by erosion in 10 years, but a fair average would be about half that amount. The loss at Felixstowe is practically stopped by the groynes on the beach For data, the Tithe-maps of the parishes in question may be compared EROSION IN ESSEX AND SUFFOLK. 223 with the yj^fo Ordnance Survey Maps of 1874. ^^ Walton and Frinton the loss is practically confined to areas bare of shingle. The existence in the cliffs of potholes of sand and gravel containing water is also a cause of subsidence ; the water breaking out on the base, carrying the sand with it, loosens large masses of the upper part of the cliff. The loss of land at Walton and Frinton has gone on from time immemorial :' but it has been noticed that since the construction of the Harwich Harbour Conservative Board's Works at Landguard Point there has been a greater scarcity of oiiingle on the beach at Walton and Frinton. Part of Landguard Common and the land at the mouth of the Deben is formed of ' blown sand ' (locally called ' Benthills ') covering the top of a shingle beach, their height being from 3 to 10 feet above high water-mark. The Benthill at Landguard Point is increasmg in consequence of the Conservancy Board's jetty. The sand is not blown ovea the land, this being prevented by the 'bent grass' or 'marram.' With his report Mr. Bruff presented tracings showing the Harwich Harbour Con- servancy Board's Works at the entrance to the harbour, and the scouring away to Landguard Point to the S.W., and accumulation of beach to the N.E. of the same. And he referred to the various reports presented to and published by the authority of Parliament. In the same report Mr. W. Teasdell, C.E,, stated that at Gorleston Suffolk, the cliff had gone back from 200 to 300 feet within the last 40 years within the last 6 years, 60 feet ; the cliff's are sand 80 to 90 feet high. At the British Association meeting for 1895 {B.A . Bep. p 678) our member, Mr. John Spiller, F.C.S., furnished some details on " Recent Coast Erosion at Southwold and Covehithe," Suffolk. The report was pubhshed in full in the Supplement to the East Anglian Daily Times, Sept. 13th, 1895, '■'"^t the following abstract will be sufficient for the present purpose : — " Owing to the prevalence of northerly winds, culminating in a moderate gale on May i6th (1895) the tide rose to an unusual height all along the East Coast, and attacked the soft sandy cliffs between Dunwich and Covehithe, creating a new cove at the northern extremity of Southwold, and sweeping away the roadway at the back of the beach to the extent of half an acre at this particular spot. The Cliffs at Eastern Bavents and Covehithe likewise suftered considerably, and this loss being reported to Mr. W. Whitaker induced that gentleman to lend his maps with certain measurements noted thereon for the purpose of exact comparison. Thus provided, the author walked o\er the ground and took fresh measurements at the several points along the route, which resulted in the determination of the amount of cliff- waste since 1882 and i88g, and this, stated briefly, was as follows; — I At a Local Government Board enquiry with regard to the Frinton Council's application for leave to borrow £1,760 for sea defences and cliff preservation, held on October 31st, 1902, it was stated that the encroachment of the sea at Frinton during the last 50 years had been very severe. Sixty yards of clifi had been lost since 1S74. This was at the rate of about 10 feet per annum. Near the eastern extremity of the parish there was an old stone groyne where a large bed of sand had accunmlated, and damage done to the cliffs there had been checked to a large extent. 224 ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL NOTES feet. Easton Bavents, loss in 6 years .. .. .. ..20 Easton High Clift, ,,13 ,, .. .. .- ..22 Covehithe Cliff, ., 6 84 The accuracy of these observations was checked b}' Mr. Horace B Woodward, and other indications observed conjointly proved that the general loss at Covehithe amounted to about 50 yards since the present Ordnance map was constructed. The lines of high and low water mark had manifestly altered, so that a fresh survey was necessary A discussion on Coast Erosion took place at the Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies during the Bristol meeting of the British Association in i8g8. The labours of the Coast Erosion Committee were then at an end. A chief result of this discussion was an application to the Admiralty, which has since secured the co-operation of the Coast Guard in noting the changes on our coast. One speaker, Mr. W. H. Wheeler, who had paid much attention to the subject, then remarked that the retention of a considerable mass of shingle in front of a place would furnish a better protection than a sea-wall. As to the cause of the travelling of shingle along the shore in a definite direction, Mr. Wheeler, in a paper read to Section C. at the same meeting, said "that the travel of shingle is not coincident either with the prevailing or predominant winds, but on a tidal coast the predominant drift is invariably in the same direction as that of the flood tide." {Beport 1898 p. 884.) North of the estuary of the Thames the shingle travels from the north southward ; south of the estuary it travels from the south northward. It should be added that the Reports above alluded to contain a Bibliography of the subject up to the year 1895. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE SECTIONS SHO\VN AT THE NE^A/^ RESERVOIRS IN THE VALLEY OF THE LEA, NEAR ^VAL- THAMSTOW. EVIDENCE OF THE PUDDLE-TRENCHES. ByT. V. HOLMES, F.G.S., F. Anthrop. Inst., Vice-President, E.F.C While the sections afforded by the excavations for the new reservoirs have been of the highest interest in their display of the various changes in the details of the river deposits, they have EROSION IN ESSEX AND SI FFOLK. 225 given very little information as to the varying depths at which the London-clay was reached beneath the river deposits.' It is true that here and there at the bottom of the excavations the top of the Loadon-clay was either visible, or the presence of frag- ments of septaria nodules in the gravel suggested the nearness of the clay. But, as we shall see, the general impression derived from visits to the reservoir excavations, as to the depth of the London- clay, needs correction from the additional evidence obtained during the construction of the puddle-trenches in the centre of the boundary banks. I am greatly indebted to Messrs. Sharrock and Spencer, the engineers representing Messrs. Pearson, the contractors, for information as to the strata met with in the puddle-trenches, of which they have preserved a most careful account. But I do not propose here to touch upon the details of the river-deposits, or even to note minutely the varying depths at which the London-clay, was found in the puddle-trenches, my object being simply to give the distribution of the depths which are within normal limits and of those which are beyond them. In the first place, it seems desirable for the sake of com- parison, to note at what depths the London-clay has been touched beneath the river deposits of the Lea Valley outside the new reservoirs but within a short distance of them. On con- sulting Mr. Whitaker's Geological Survey Memoir on The Geology of London and of Part of tlie Thames Valley (vol.2) we learn that at Waltham Abbey the East London Water Company in their well close to Waltham Lock, found 18 ft. of river deposits above the London-clay, at Walthamstow Marsh 17^ ft., at Chingford Mill 10 ft., and at Longwater Pumping Station, Tottenham, 20 ft. at one spot and 16 ft. 100 yards away. And the records of borings and sinkings through the somewhat older river deposits of Tottenham and Edmonton nowhere show them to be more than 21 ft. thick. But as they are few and scattered over a large area, they do not necessarily preclude the existence of spots between them which might give a different result. Dr. Henry Woodward, P\R.S., in his paper on " The Ancient Fauna of Essex " (Trans. Ess'X Field Club, vol. Hi., pp. i-2g, 1882-3) gives an account of the sections exposed during the construction of the reservoirs of the East London Water I T. v. Holmes " Geological Notes on the New Reservoirs in the valley of the Lea, near Walthamstow," an^e pp. 1-16. 226 ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL NOTES Company at Walthamstow in i868-6g, south of those now being made. The sections in the river deposits of Walthamstow Marshes, closely resembled, as might be expected, those within the newer and more northerly reservoirs. And Dr. Woodward adds, that while the depth of the general floor within the reservoirs nowhere exceeded lo feet, " the trenches made for the ' puddled walls ' in the centre of the artificial embankments went down to a depth of 20 to 24 ft." The details preserved by Messrs. Sharrock and Spencer show a very much greater amount of variation as to the depth of the London-clay beneath the river deposits in the new reservoirs, than has been met with elsewhere in the district. At the neighbouring spots already mentioned the depth varied from 10 to 24 ft. In the more northerly of the new reservoirs, the " Banbury Reservoir," the London-clay was generally reached in the puddle-trench on its eastern border (near the edge of the marsh) at depths of from eight to nine feet. At other parts of the reservoir boundary the depth was greater, the variations being, however, very gradual, and the greatest depth reached being 26 ft. at the most westerly point of the reservoir, a few yards due east of the rifle butts. In the boundary bank of the southern, or Lockwood, reservoir the variations were much greater and more sudden. Starting from its southern end, I was informed that a few yards west of the old channel of the Lea,'' London-clay was found at a depth of 13 ft., and at 25 ft. at a similar distance east of it. Proceeding in a northerly direction, along the western side, as far as Stonebridge Lock, the greatest depth was 23 ft. and was met with close to the Lock. Along the eastern side London-clay was deepest at a point about due west of the northern end of "Low Maynard Reservoir," being there 36 ft. below the surface. The average on the eastern side was from 20 to 25 ft., or very nearly the same as that of the western side from Stonebridge Lock southward. But on the western side, from Stonebridge Lock to the north- western end of the reservoir, the London-clay gradually becomes deeper, and was found to be, at the north-western corner, 57 ft. below the surface of the marsh. Then, 60 or 70 yards east of that point, in the northern boundary, the clay was only 15 ft. below. 3 See Map, Essex Naturalist, vol, .di.. p. 2 (igoi). On the lea valley. 227 Thus it appears that the average depth from the surface of the London-clay, in the puddle-trenches of the new reservoirs, is about 18 ft., and that its normal variations are from g to 10 ft. on the one hand to about 25 ft. on the other. And this result -.oin- cides with that obtainable either from Dr. Woodward's remarks on the puddle-trenches of the more southern reservoirs, or from the sinkings and borings given in Mr. W'hitaker's Memoir. Thus, while in the boundary of the Banbury reser^-oir the London-clay cannot be considered to be at an abnormal depth anywhere, in the " Lockwood Reservoir " it appears to be abnormally deep at its north-western corner, where it is 57 ft., and on its eastern side, close to the northern end of the " Low Maynard Reservoir," where it is 36 ft. below the surface. And a line drawn across the reservoir through these two spots would doubtless mark the position of the narrow subterranean hollow in the London-clay which may, or may not, attain its greatest depth at the north-western corner. A continuation of this line northward would bring it to a point a little westward of the most westerly point in the northern reservoir where, as we have seen, the London-clay was deeper than at any other spot in its boun- dary bank. I am informed that where the thickness of the beds above the London-clay was greatest, in this depression, the material composing them consisted of gravel, sand and silt, much resem- bling that of the river deposits elsewhere. And the direction of the narrow line of depression seems to be nearly due north and south, or very slightly west of south and east of north. But whether the somewhat unusual depth of 26 feet, at which the London-clay was found at the western end of the Banbury reservoir, indicates the nearness of a more noteworthy depression beneath the Rifle Butts, we have no evidence to determine. The paper " On a Deep Channel of Drift in the Valley of the Cam, Esse.\," by Mr. W. Whitaker,' appears to me to describe some drift-filled hollows which are all akin to that beneath Lockwood reservoir, while one example has a specially strong resemblance to it. Mr. Whitaker gives details of wells at Quendon and Rickling, Newport and Wendon, which all show a very great and wholly unexpected thickness of the Glacial-gravel and sand, which underlies the Boulder-clay, 3 y. /. Geol, Soc, vol. Ixvi., p. 333 (1890), EbSEX Naturalist, vol. iii., p. 140 (1889). 228 ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL NOTES resting in hollows on the Chalk. In one case at Newport, a boring for a well for the Grammar School was begun in the Glacial-gravel and sand. Instead, however, of the slight thick- ness expected, "the boring tool, after passing to a depth of 340 feet, chiefly through loamy beds, did not succeed in reaching the chalk, and the work was abandoned. The drift, therefore, must here go down to a depth of about 140 feet below the level of the sea, how much deeper we know not." But the drift-filled channel which most perfectly resembled that at " Lockwood Reservoir " is the one described by Mr. Whitaker at Littlebury, a little more than a mile north-west of Saffron Walden. There the valley of the Cam is cut in the Chalk, and the Glacial Drift is to all appearance confined to the high ground east and west of the river valley, which ranges north and south. At the bottom of the valley are some River Gravel and Alluvium, the village of Littlebury standing mainly on the gravel, which is west of the stream. In five wells the depth to the Chalk varied from 3 to 6 feet only. In two other wells it was 15 feet from the surface ; while a third well ended in sand at a depth of 22 feet. These wells are scattered through the village. But near the centre of the village, and only a few yards more easterly than the wells mentioned, a boring 218 feet deep did not touch the Chalk, the whole of the material pierced through being Drift. The length of this channel is doubtful, but its direction is evidently that of the river valley, where the surface is occupied by river-deposits, just as in the case of the channel beneath the Lockwood reservoir. As regards the nature of this deep channel in the Chalk, Mr. Whitaker reviews the various explanations that suggest themselves. These are, he says, " disturbance, sinking in of the Chalk, and erosion." He dismisses, as extremely unlikely, the idea of a fault, or that the gravel has filled in a hollow caused by the local dissolution of the Chalk by chemical action, though he admits that it may have deepened a hollow formed in some other way, and decides that erosion of some kind must have been the agent. And that the channel must have been cut before the deposition ot the Boulder clay on the higher ground on each side of the river valley, in either Pre-Glacial or early Glacial times. It appears to me that in the channel under the " Lockwood Reservoir" we have, in all probability, one of the same kind) ON THE LEA VALLEY. 22g and one also the result of erosion in either Pre-Glacial or early Glacial times. In this case in the valley of the Lea there is quite as strong a probability against the agency of a fault as in that at Littlebury ; while local chemica! dissolution, which formed a possible cause on the Cam, either of making or deepening the channel, is out of the question with the London-clay of the Lea. I have already remarked that at Littlebury glacial deposits are seen only on the high ground east and west of the rivei valley, Boulder-clay alone having been noted there. But at Newport, also on the Cam, and about three miles southward, the Glacial sand and gravel is found in the sides of the valley between the river-deposit at the bottom and the Boulder-clay above. In the valley of the Stort this is the case everywhere from its source to its junction with the Lea at Hoddesdon. From Hoddesdon southward the Glacial Drift, whether gravel or Boulder-clay, or both, is seen only on the high ground at some distance from the river. But both on the eastern and western sides of the Lea it has been noted as far south as Hendon, Finchley and Muswell Hill in Middlesex, and Wood- ford and Romford in Essex/ So that there can scarcely be any doubt as to the Post-Glacial age of the valleys of the Cam about Littlebury and the Lea at Tottenham and Walthamstow. Of course I use the word Post-Glacial in its only legitimate sense as meaning of later date than the Chalky Boulder-clay of Essex and Middlesex. In the north of England, as Topley remarked in the dis- cussion on Mr. Whitaker's paper, many examples are known of the Pre-Glacial and Post-Glacial valleys of rivers and the relations between them. In illustration he stated that in Northumberland the Blyth was in Pre-Glacial times a tributary of the Wansbeck, and a deep Pre-Glacial valley, which was filled with Glacial Drift, occurred between the present valleys. Many other cases might be mentioned in which the Pre-Glacial drainage system, having been in its general features like that of Post-Glacial times, the river valleys in the two periods have here and there coincided. In this part of the south-east of England the Glacial deposits have covered the Pre-Glacial 4 Q-J- Geo/. Soc.. vol. Ixviii., p. 365(1892); Q J. G. S , vol. 1., p. 443 (iSg4), Also Essex Naturalist, vol vii. (1893). 230 ON THE LEA VALLEY. plateaux and at the same time filled up more or less completely the Pre-Glacial valleys. In the Boulder-clay at Hornchurch near Romford, about loo feet below its usual level, thereabouts, yet covered by some of the oldest gravel of the present Thames there is a certain approximation to coincidence, in the valleys of the two periods. Where Post-Glacial drainage has taken a new course, the position of an old Pre-Glacial valley may remain un- suspected but for a well boring, as at Newport Grammar School. Where there is a local coincidence between the Pre-Glacial and Post-Glacial valleys, there we may find a fragment of a Pre- Glacial channel filled with material of Glacial age beneath river- deposits of later date, as at Littlebury and the Lockwood Reservoir. But of course both channels alike suggest that during their formation the whole country stood at a much higher level above the sea than it now does. For in each case the bottom of the channel is below the present level of the sea. The photograph is one taken by Mr. F. Meeson during the visit of the Geologists' Association m April, igoi. The spectator is looking southward, and the view gives the section across two ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XII., PI. X. Teeth of Rhinoceros, from Ilford, Essex, TEETH OF RHINOCEROS FROM ILFORD. 23 1 old channels in the " Lockwood Reservoir," the more northerly of which is shown in Fig. 5, p. 8, Essex Naturalist, vol. xii. In spite of its small scale, the photograph illustrates the disappearance of the peat bed close to the old channels and its replacement there by sand and gravel. The section has now disappeared. ON SOME TEETH OF RHINOCEROS FROM ILFORD, EbSEX. WITH REMARKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF RHINOC- EROS IN THE THAMES VALLEY DEPOSITS. By MARTIN A. C. HINTON. [Wiih Plate X.] During the course of the last six years I have had occasion to examine many of the vertebrate remains which have been obtained froin the Pleistocene deposits of Ilford, Essex. These specimens include among them a large series of the molar teeth of Rhinoceros, referable for the most part to the species named R. hemitoechus, Falconer [-—R. leptorhinus, Owen). Some of these' teeth appear to me to be of such interest and importance as to merit being described and placed on record, and they form the subject of this communication. The first specimens to be described are three upper molars in my own collection which were obtained from the Cauliflower Brickyard in 1897. One of these is a penultimate premolar of the left side ; it is somewhat damaged, the external lamina of the outer wall being lost. The posterior valley is just isolated into a reniformly triangular fossette. The transverse valley is just on the verge of isolation, but whether this had been actually accomplished or not cannot be ascertained as the inner wall of the tooth is somewhat mutilated. The crochet is strongly bifid, projecting a little more than halfway across the valley. The outer wall gives off three combing plates all more or less parallel with the crochet and one only of which has been touched by wear. Remains of a thick coat of cement are seen on this specimen. The next specimen (fig. i, plate x.) is a finely preserved second true molar of the left upper jaw. In this the posterior valley is still intact. The crochet is emitted at a right nngle 232 TEETH OF RHINOCEROS FROM ILFORD. from the anterior wall of the hind barrel and is closely approxi- mated to the hind wall of the front colline, which it does not quite touch. From the middle of the outer wall no fewer than foiir comliinc^ plates project, the penultimate of which, counting from the crochet, is large and massive. The form of the crochet is more or less rectangular and the combing plates are disposed in the same general direction with it. There is a very thick coat of cement on the lower portion of the crown. The dimensions of this tooth are : — Greatest antero-posterior length of external wall . . 238 inches Antero-transverse width (at base of crown) . . 2-5 Postero-transverse width (at base of crown) .. 2-14 The third specimen is a last true molar of the left upper jaw and is, unfortunately, badly damaged. Notwithstanding this mutilation, however, it is of considerable interest. The crochet is given off at a com parately open angle and bends flexuously as it juts into the transverse valley ending off very near the anterior barrel in a sharp edge. The outer wall gives off three combing plates which all trend more or less in the same general direction as the crochet though they converge somewhat towards it. The valley is still further complicated above the crochet by a process which projects into it from the anterior barrel evidently resembling in this respect the tooth from Grays Thurrock described by Dr. Falconer (Palcrontological Memoirs, vol. ii., p. 336). On various portions of the crown remains of a thick coat of cement may be seen. From the great complication of the transverse valley in each of these three teeth, from their relative states of wear and from the similarity of their appearance, I consider them as belonging to one individual. From the form of the crochet in the premolar and the second true molar, the direction of the combing plates, and from the circumstance of the thick coat of cement which is seen on all of them I have referred these teeth to the R. hemttoechus. Falconer. They are cited here because of the extreme compli- cation of the transverse valley of which they afford a fine illustra- tion and which is characteristic of many of the teeth of this species from Ilford. The specimen described next was submitted to me for identification by Mr. G. White who obtained it with others from one of the pits on the Uphall Estate, the sections and fossil contents of which have lately been described in the admirable TEETH OF RHINOCEROS FROM ILFORD. 233 papers by himself and Mr. J. P. Johnson which have appeared in the Essex Naturalist. It is a detached fourth premolar of the left upper jaw. The transverse valley is completely isolated through wear and into it, from the posterior barrel, is projected a strongly developed bifid crochet. The outer wall gives off two very small combing plates, one of which is parallel to and just above the bifid crochet. The other is given off in a line with the anterior external angle of the tooth, converging towards the first and the crochet at a right angle. The posterior valley is not yet isolated, and the cap of enamel which arises from its inner wall, and which passes over the hind barrel and so into the inner wall of the tooth is still in great measure intact (fig. 2). There is a well marked basal bourrelet passing right round the anterior barrel. This starts from near the grinding surface a little inwards from the anterior angle ; from this point it gradually sinks until the inner extremity of the anterior barrel is reached, from whence it rapidly rises up again ending off at the inner and forward rim of the enamel cap before spoken of. The dimensions of this tooth are : — Antero-posterior length measured along outer surface at base . . 17 inches ,, inner ,, .. 125 ,, Antero-transverse width at base .. .. .. 247 ,, Postero- ,, ,, ., •• .. ..22 ',, Height of crown at junction of anterior and posterior barrels .. 1-4 ,, ,, anterior outer angle .. .. .. i'88 ,, I have referred this specimen to R. leptorhinus, Cuvier, pro parte i=R. megarhinus, De Christol). The point to which I wish to direct special attention is the remarkable state of wear and the figure will give a much better idea of the characters described here than any mere verbal description.- In all known species of Rhinoceros, either fossil or recent, the small posterior valley is the first to be isolated into a fossette by the detrition of the tooth. This arises from the fact that while the entrance to the posterior valley is comparatively shallow, not cutting deeply into the body of the tooth, being from this cause soon obliterated, the entrance to the transverse valley forms a much deeper cleft separating the barrels and consequently remaining for a propor- tionally longer period intact. But in this specimen it is the transverse valley which has been isolated first, the posterior valley having its entrance still intact thougli cutting into the tooth no deeper than usual. This malformation appears to me 234 TEETH OF RHINOCEROS FROM ILFORD. to be of great interest, the only other instance of which I am aware occurring in a fourth premolar of the upper jaw which Dr. Falconer referred to R. etvuscus and which is figured in the Palaontological Memoirs, vol. ii., PI. xxv., fig. 6. This latter specmien is from one of the Italian Pliocene deposits and is now preserved in the museum at Pisa. I'he next specimen to be noticed was also obtained by Mr. G. White from one of the Uphall sections. This is a slightly worn penultimate molar of the left upper jaw. The crochet is thin and wedge shaped and is projected well across the trans- verse valley. The external wall gives oflf a large combing plate converging at a right angle towards the crochet, while just above the latter from the anterior barrel projects another little combing process. The large combing plate is placed nearly diagonally to the anterior outer angle of the tooth. The barrels have their apices compressed and somewhat twisted, making the entrance to the transverse valley appear very wide. There is a small prominent tubercle in the entrance of the latter between the barrels. The dimensions of this tooth are : — Antero-posterior length external) of crown .. 30 inches Antero-transverse width, at base .. .. 25 Postero-transverse width, at base .. .. ig ,, This specimen is very characteristic of the R. leptovhinus Cuvier, pro parte, to which species I have referred it. In the collection of Dr. Frank Corner, F.G.S., there is a fine first upper true molar of the left side obtained by him from the Cauliflower Brickyard. This has the crochet thin and wedge shaped, and given off at a somewhat acute angle. A small combing plate is projecie. i from the external lamina in a line with the antero-external angle. The posterior valley of the tooth is still intact. The anterior colline is large and shows the apical contortion characteristic of the species to which I have referred it. There is a well marked emarginate bourrelet passing round the base of the front colline. The posterior barrel or colline is broken, but shows apical contortion in section. The enamel is smooth, with a rather thick coat of cement upon the lower part of the sides of the crown. The dimensions of this tooth taken at the base of the crown are : — Antero-posterior length (externally) . . 2-49 inches Antero-transverse width .. .. 2'66 Postero-transvere width .. .. 2-05 „ TEETH OF RHINOCEROS FROM ILFORD. 235 This tooth I have referred to R. leptorhimis, Cuvier, pro parte, of which it is very typical. It is the only example of this species that I am acquainted with from the Cauliflower Brick- yard. The last specimen I have to notice is in the collection of Mr. J. P. Johnson who obtained it with others from the Uphall section (Figs. 3 and 3a). This is a fine and slightly worn ante- penultimate premolar of the left upper jaw. Its large size would seem to indicate the p.m. 3 rather than the p.m. 2, but that it is the latter is perfectly clear from the sub-triangular form of tlie crown, the form of the anterior colline, and the absence of a pressure scar in front. The latter character proves that there was no first premolar in this individual. The anterior colline is seen to form a completely isolated conical cusp exactly as in the specimen figured by De Christol in his memoir in the Ann. des Sciences Nat. ZooL, ser. a"'*", vol. iv., pi. 3, fig. 12. The apex of this cusp is worn off, a small elliptical disk of wear being the result. Figures 3 and 3a will give a much better idea of this specimen than any description. It is referred to the R. leptorhinus, Cuvier, pro parte, of which species it is very characteristic. Sub- joined are the dimensions of this specimen together with some corresponding ones given by Falconer of this species and by Dawkins of the homologous tooth in R. heniitoechns. Falconer. P.m. 2 R. leptorhinus, Cmvi^x pro parte. {.=R. megarhimis, De Christol). Ilford. Falconer op. cit. Antero-posterior length .. 16 in. i 55 in., 145 in., 1-95 in., 155 in. Greatest-transverse width. . 176,, 170 in., i-6o in., 1-70 in., iGo in. P.m .2 R. heinitoechus, Falconer (=R. leptorhinus, Owen), Dawkins, (Q.f.G.S., vol. xxiii., p. 213). Antero-posterior length .. 1-15 inches .. i 15 inches. Greatest-transverse width .. 140 ,, .. i-28 The distribution of the species of Rhinoceros in the Middle- Terrace deposits of the Thames Valley below London is of considerable interest. At Ilford R. hemioetchus is by far the commonest form ; remains of R. leptorhinus occur in fewer numbers but still fairly abundantly, while R. antiquitatis is of very rare occurrence. At Grays Thurrock R. leptorhinus ranks first in abundance, R. hemitoechus being the rarer ; and R. antiqui- tatis not known from this locality. At Crayford and Erith on the other hand the commonest remains are those oi R. antiquitatis. 236 THE TWO FORMS OF THE SEA-ASTER. the other two species occurring but very rarely. In this con- nection it is of interest to note that in the case of Ilford the remains of the prevalent species of Rhinoceros exhibit a tendency to vary towards the prevalent species occurring at Grays Thurrock in the greater complication of the transverse valley of the molars by combing plates — a character much more common in B. leptovhinits (the Grays form) than in R. hemitoechns. A precisely analogous instance is presented in the relationship between the Elephant remains found in the deposits of the two localities. At Ilford Elephas primigenins is the common form, while at Grays Thurrock this position is held by E. aniiqnns. But many of the molars from Ilford of the Mammoth depart from the typical form of that species and by having plates of thicker enamel, more or less complicated by crimping, they approach in appearance what is seen in E. antiqmis. In the present state of our knowledge, no conclusions can be with safety drawn from these facts of distribution. They, in common with many other ascertained facts of Pleistocene Geology and Palaeontology, indicate important portions of the history of the Thames Valley, but these portions we cannot read until we have been able to appreciate many factors which as yet are but little understood. In conclusion I have to express my best thanks to the gentlemen mentioned in this paper for the loan of their speci- mens and my warmest gratitude to Mr. F, W. Reader for his kindness in preparing the admirable figures in the accompanying plate. THE TWO FORMS OF THE SEA-ASTER (ASTER TRIPOLIUMj. By PERCY CLARK, B.A. As I now write (September 6th, 1901) the Essex Salt- marshes, bordering the sea, which are overflowed by the water at springtides, present a beautiful appearance. The tall up- standing masses of the Sea-Aster growing there in wild and unchecked profusion, are all in flower, and their small golden heads massed together in thousands shed a glow of soft yellow colour over the Saltings. But a few paces inland v/here the THE two FORMS OF THF. SEA-ASTER. 237 same plant grows on the side of dried up ditches or on low banks, they possess a ray (absent in the fornier) of delicate lavender florets surrounding a yellow centre, wliich clothes theni in an entirely different aspect. Has any one remarked on this peculiarity before ? I do not find it noted in my hand-book. 1 closely examined the marine plants and found in many cases a few poorly developed lavender ray-florets growing unevenly here and there, but the majority had none at all, and the few that produced them looked as if they were half ashamed of owning such shabby productions. Yet just over the sea wall, where the tide could not penetrate, the lavender or purple rays were in full bloom, and conspicuous by their strong and healthy condition. Is it a case of degeneration ? Can it be that the sea-aster thriving on the soft luscious mud of the saltings, has found such a luxuriant habitat that it troubles no longer to produce the beautifully tinted ray-florets which erst were probably intended to attract the helpful bee or other winged insect ? In the present crowded state of the plants, would the wind be a sufficient carrier of pollen ? They certainly show a very marked variation in accordance with habitat. It has at first sight the look of a clear case of either evolution or devolution, and I should be glad of an opinion, if I can elicit such, in the pages of the Essex Naturalist. [The two forms of the Sea-Aster are, of course, well-known, the rayles or generally nearly rayless, one being separated as var. discoideits, but I have been unable to find that anyone has before connected the forms with a difference in habitat. When 1 received Mr. Clark's interesting notes last year, it vvas too late to test the suspicion that possibly there was a young and an older form of the flower, and that the latter had shed the ray- florets. I therefore, with Mr. Clark's approval, kept the note back. Whilst on the Essex Coast this August and September I paid attention to the asters, and I can certainly confirm Mr. Clark's observations. I observed very many thousand plants growing on the mud bordering the estuaries and creeks, and in the vast majority the purple "rays" were absent in all stages — the imperfectly rayed plants noticed were only a very small percentage of the wholly rayless form. At the same times, the asters growing on the higher tideless lands in St. Osyth parish and elsewhere, were conspicuously attired with beautiful purple, or whitish purple, rays. Diptera and Hymenoptera frequent both forms — but in my experience are in far greater profusion on the " rayed " asters. — W. Cole.] 238 MUSEUM NOTES No. IV. VIII.— ADDITIONAL OBJECTS FROM THE ROMANO- BRITISH SETTLEMENT AT CHIGWELL, ESSEX. Very many of our readers are acquainted with the interest- ing series of objects so admirably arranged and exhibited by Mr. I. Chalkley Gould in the Epping Forest Museum, and with the little " Handbook " which he prepared in explanation there- of.' At the Meeting of the Club on January 25th, 1902, Mr. Gould showed some specimens which had recently been dis- covered at the site, and made some remarks on the same, which are embodied in the following notes. Most of the objects have been added to the series in the Museum : — " I exhibit a few coins and some fragments of ' Samian ' and other pottery from the Chigwell Settlement. Though mostly in poor condition the coins are of value to us, being approximately indicative of the period of occupation of the site ; at the same time it must not be forgotten that Roman coins circulated for ages after the death of the rulers whose superscription they bore. " Most of the coins hitherto found at Chigwell have suffered so much decay as to render identification impossible, but those shown exhibit sufficiently distinguishing impressions, while a few are in very good condition. " They consist of the following specimens : — • NERVA (Silver). Bust facing to right. < (^.D. 96-98) Inscription, imp. nerva caes aug pm tr p cos ii cos iii pp Reverse. Two hands joined. Concordia exercituum HADRIAN (Brass). Bust facing to right (.■l.D. 1 17-138) Inscription. Gone. Reverse. Two figures and an altar. Almost un- decipherable. 1 Notes on the Romano-British Settlement at Chigtuell, Essex, &c. Essex Field Club Museum Handbooks, No z, 1895. Price sjd. post free. 2 In his book Le Tombeau de Childeric I. L'abbe Cochet relates that Roman coins circu- lated in some country districts of France (even down to 1853) where such pieces were known as sous a La Vierge. They appear frequently to have found their way into the church offertories, enaliling clerg) and sacristans to make respectable collections of such coins ! 3 This coin is kindly lent by Mr. W. Daniels of Chigwell, the others belong to the writer, -I. C. G. MUSEUM NOTES. 239 ANTONINUS (Brass). Bust facing to right. (A .D. 1^8-161) Inscription. Gone. Reverse. Figure holding a sceptre in one hand, a cap in the other, s.c. cos iiii. This coin was issued in A.D. 154. ANTONINUS (Brass). Bust facing to right. Head is in good condi- tion. Inscription. Gone. Should read imp. caes. t. ael HADR ANTONINUS AUG PIUS PP. Reverse. Figure of Concord looking to left holding two military ensigns tr. pot x.xii. cos iiii sc ANTONINUS (Silver). Bust of Antonine facing to right, antoninus & AUG Plus pp tr p cos iii. AURELIUS Reverse. Bust of M. Aurelius facing to right. A.D. 161-180) AURELIUS CAESAR AUG p ii F COS (Antoniue made Aurelius his consort in ruling the Empire). LUCILLA (Brass). Bust facing to right, lucilla augusta. (m A.D. 164) Reverse. Female figure seated, a young boy on her knees, young girl before her and another boy behind, fecunditas s.c. (Lucilla was married to Lucius Verus A.D. 164). CARACALLA (Brass). Bust facing to right. [A.D. 211-217) Inscription. Gone, and reverse totally destroyed. CONSTANTINE (Brass). Armoured head facing to left. [A.D. 306-337) Inscription. Gone. Reverse. Wolf suckling the twins. This coin was issued A.D. 327 to 330. A broken, mutilated specimen. " Tlie pottery is selected from a bushel or two of potsherds recently excavated in digging brickearth — the pieces are of little importance in themselves but are of interest to us from the position of the discovery, being a little further N. and N.W. than the site of former finds, showing the still greater extent of the village. Those who are familiar with the plan in the handbook, descrip- tive of my collection on view in the Forest Museum, will remem- ber that a considerable area is shaded to indicate the pottery- yielding ground ; the recent discoveries would somewhat extend that shading, in the directions mentioned. "Another point of interest must be noted. Most of the more or less perfect vases and urns in the Forest Museum came from the more southern portion of the area (formerly excavated for gravel). Those were usually associated with undoubted evidence of cremation ; we were then upon the cemetery or 240 THE LIBRARY TABLE. burial ground of the settlement, but the more recent finds, resuking from excavations further north, are not so associated hut are found in pockets (or small pot-holes) or scattered broad- cast without surroundings of black earth or burnt material. " We have in fact passed from the habitations of the dead to the land of the living who occupied this unknown, unnamed settlement in the Roding Valley." I. Chaf.kley Gould. THE LIBRARY TABLE. The Elements of Agricultural Geology : A Scientific aid to Practical Farming. By Primrose McCunndl, B.Sc, F.G.S., Tenant Farmer, Ongar Park, Essex. — (Crosby, Lockivood and Co. 21s. nett] 1902. This valuable work is divided into fourteen chapters. One to iv. are mainly occupied with the origin and formation of soils, their mineralogy and physiography. Chapter v. deals with drainage and water-supply; vi., vii.^ viii., ix. and x are concerned with formations and farming, and the evolution of live stock occupies chapters xi., xii., xiii. and xiv Many who casually turn over the pages of this book and note the vast area from which Mr. McConnell's examples and illustrations are derived, may be inclined to suppose it too deficient in local interest to be noticed in the Essex Naturalist. But a glance at the preface will reveal the fact that the author for the last twenty years has been farming on the London Clay in Essex, and that he dates from " Ongar Park Hall," Ongar. It is therefore obvious, that no persons are so likely to find his researches specially interesting as residents in that county. And in the remarks to follow it seems best to keep in the main, to matters of local interest, referring those interested in the broader aspects of the subject to Mr. McConnell's book. Our author (p. 31) complains of the apathy of the Government as to the interests of agriculture shown in the case of the Geological Survey and its neglect for so many years of the superficial deposits. But the public opinion of the country sixty or seventy years ago was felt to be very unlikely to consent to grants of money for scientific purposes unless they could be justified by the strongest economical reasons, Accordingly the most weighty argument put forward for the establishment of a Geological Survey, and, in its earlier years, for its continuance, was the statement that a knowledge of the geological structure of the country would at once check the making of useless borings and sinkings and show where they might be made with success. In this way immense sums of money would be saved to the country, while the cost of the Survey would be comparatively trifling. Hence the Survey work began in the mining districts of the north and west, and was carried on with the utmost possible speed, so that its use purely as a business matter, might be obvious to the most unscientific of politicians. This necessarily involved the THE LIBRARY TABLE. 24I neglect of superficial beds of every kind. For, on a coal field, for example, the outcrops of the rocks of Carboniferous age, with the lines of fault crossing them, are the fundamentally important things to be noted on the geological map. To show, in addition, the superficial beds, would often be but to obscure the most valuable information, as well as to retard the progress of the Survey. And similar reasoning would apply more or less to formations directly under- lying or overlying the Carboniferous series. The special needs of the miner may be shown by the following illustration. In pre-geological days there was a popular view in the Northumberland and Durham, and in the Yorkshire and Derbyshire coalfields that there was " no coal under the limestone." This was true of the Carboniferous Limestone on the west, but utterly untrue of the Magnesian Limestone eastward. Other examples might be given, but the supreme importance, in mining, of a knowledge of the geological structure of a district hardly needs further illustration. On the other hand, a knowledge of the geological structure of a country has not the same importance to the farmer. Let us, for example, again take two limestones, each of which occupies a considerable proportion of the surface of England, the Carboniferous Limestone and the Chalk. We learn from Mr. McConnell that the grass growing on the bare Carboniferous (or Mountain) Limestone is exceptionally sweet and nutritious, fattening sheep in ■ a few months. The grass growing on the bare Chalk is also excellent for sheep, as we all know from the reputation of the South Down breed. But it would be obvious to any farmer that in each case the sheep fed on grass growing on bare limestone, and he would need no knowledge of the geological structure of the respective districts or the comparative ages of the limestones. But though, regarding England as a whole, the claims of the miners for geological information are manifestly greater and more fundamental than those of the agriculturists, the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex have unquestionably been under a special disadvantage in the postponement of drift maps till the claims of the miners were satisfied. This becomes obvious when drift maps and non-drift maps are compared with each other. A drift map of Kent, when compared with a non-drift map, seems but to possess some additional details. Drift maps of Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex, compared with non-drift maps of those counties, look like maps of districts of utterly different geological composition. As regards the formations of Essex and their farming qualities, nothing is said by Mr. McConnell of Chalk in connection with that county, though its capabilities as seen elsewhere are noted. Chalk, however, occupies but a very small proportion of the surface of Essex, being found only in the north- west corner and between Purfleet and East Tilbury. And the lowest Tertiary beds, the Thanet Sand and the Woolwich Series, occupy but very narrow strips of country adjacent to those where the Chalk is seen. The next, in ascending order, the Oldhaven Beds, cover but an insignificant area in Essex ; but we learn that at Hassenbrook Farm, near Stanford-le-Hope, a small, thin patch of this formation occurs, largely composed of rolled flint pebbles in sand ; and that it is the best strawberry land in the district. The London Clay, which comes next, forms a very large proportion of the surface in southern and eastern Essex.- .As regards its character as a soil, it is described as being 242 THE LIBRARY TABLE. specially suitable for grass, and as once (when wheat was dear) having been valuable for growing wheat, clover and beans. Mr. McConnell, however, thus gives his own experience of it : — " The greater part of the author's farm is situated on this clay, so that he has learned from sorrowful experience what the nature of the soil is. Tiptree Hall — farmed by the late Mr. Mechi — is also on this soil and is now a fruit farm." We are also informed that "the general contour of the land is alow uneven, gentle undulating surface, the highest land not much over 400 ft over sea level, though some few hills in Essex reach 600 ft.'' The present writer has never been able, aided by the new ordnance maps, to detect any hills in Essex having a height of 500 ft. The highest ground appears to De on the Chalk of the north-west corner Of the Lower Bagshot sands and gravels we learn that, though sometimes loo sandy or gravelly for fertility, yet while they have not the " body " of the London Clay, they are more easily and satisfactorily worked. They cover but a small area in Essex compared with the London Clay, on which they lie as isolated patches at Brentwood, Rayleigh, Laindon Hills and elsewhere. The Pliocene "Crag" of Eastern Essex is still more insignificant as a maker of soil. It is the highest bed shown on a non-drift map except the alluvium of the river marshes. By far the most important of the drift beds is the Chalky Boulder Clay, which probably occupies at least as much of the surface of Essex as all the other beds combiued, and a still larger proportion of that of Suffolk. Mr. McConnell states that it covers about 3,000 square miles in the Eastern Counties. He has about 50 acres of it on his own farm, capping the undulations of the London Clay, and finds that " it is the only arable land he has that is fit for cultivation, the rest being London Clay." The Chalky- Boulder Clay appears to make good wheat land. He adds that " in the course of ages a large part of the lime has been dissolved out of the surface layer." This point makes the detection of Boulder Clay so doubtful when only shallow sections are exposed. But it is satisfactory to learn that " there is still sufficient left to supply the soil for plant needs ; while the existence of marl pits shows that much of this marly clay was dug and spread on the surface in the olden times ; in fact, if the subsoil is dug into almost anywhere, beds and streaks of bluish-white marl are found in abundance." It is interesting to learn that the sand and gravel of the Glacial Period, which underlies the Chalky Boulder Clay, has generally a large admixture of earthy matter in it, and forms a good loamy soil which compares favourably with that of either the London Clay or the Boulder Clay, both in the neighbourhood of Ongar and that of Chelmsford. On the other hand, the patches of gravel coloured red on the drift maps, which appear at High Beach, Laindon Hill, Rayleigh, and elsewhere in southern Essex, and are considered to be of pre-Glacial age, are barren gravels, " given over to gravel-pits and the growth of birch or copsewood.'' Similarly barren are the Post-Glacial gravel patches, coloured orange. As regards old river deposits, our author speaks highly of the loam or brickearth in the neighbourhood of Southend and Rochford. THE LIBRARY TABLE. 243 In the chapters on "The Evolution of Live-stock" some curious facts about sheep are mentioned. At a place in Derbyshire a "fault" separated a limestone area from one in which silicious grit formed the surface, The sheep were all of one breed. But while those which fed on the lime-stone were healthier and made better mutton, those which fed on the sandstone had superior wool. Bakewell, it appears, classed wool soils thus : — Clay, the best ; sand next ; lastly lime But we are also reminded of " the effect of clay formations — as the Oxford Clay — in developing such diseases as liver-fluke and foot-rot." It seems to me, however, worth suggesting that possibly much of the ill- health of sheep on clay may be due to bad water supply. But it is impossible, in the space available in the Essex Naturalist, to discuss adequately a book which covers so large a field as this, and is the result of so many years' hard work, both in the library and on the farm. It is a pleasure to be able to congratulate the author on the success of his labours, and to recommend his book to all who are interested in Agricultural Geology. T. V. H. The Giant Beaver (Trogontherium) in the Thames Valley. — In the Geological Magazine for September (1902) there is a short paper by Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S., F.G.S., on " The Giant Beaver (Tyogontheyium) from the Thames Valley." Mr. Newton remarks that English specimens of Tyogontheyium have been chiefly obtained from the ' Cromer Forest Bed,' " that rich and remarkable series of beds occupying a position in time, between the Crags and the Glacial deposits of East Anglia." A few specimens have, however, been found in the Norwich and Weybourn Crags, Now a lower incisor tooth of Tyogontheyium cuvieyi has been met with in a bed of gravel (at 78 feet O.D.) an old Thames Valley deposit, near Greenhithe, Kent, together with remains of Elephas antiqmts. E, pyimigenius, Rhinoceyos^ kptoyhintis. Bos primiqenius, etc., and many Palaeolithic implements. The implements have been figured and described by Mr W. M. Newton in Man for June, 1901.— T. V. H. The Matrix of the Suffolk Chalky Boulder-clay.- A paper on this subject, by the Rev. Edwin Hill, M.A., F.G.S., appears in the Quayteyly Jouynal, Geological Sac. (vol. Ixviii., pp. 179-182. It need hardly be remarked that the Suffolk Boulder Clay is also that of Norfolk and Essex, though it covers a larger proportion of Suffolk than of the counties due north and south. Indeed, some of the specimens examined were from the neighbourhood of Bishop Stortford, and one from Finchley in Middlesex, others came from Boston, Lincolnshire, though most were from Suffolk. Mr. Hill remarks that the materials of the matrix do not appear to have come from the east, but from the west or north-west, and that they were drawn from a limited belt lying on one side of the basin which the Boulder Clay occupies. — T. V. H. 244 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31st, 1901. [Read and adopted at the 22nd Annual Meeting on March 22nd, i9>J2.] But a few paragraphs will suffice for a record of the Club's year. The work, both in connection, with the Society itself and the Museums, has been mainly of a routine nature, although the Council venture to submit that the scientific credit of the Club has suffered no diminution. Financial. — The following is Mr. Howard's report:-" The financial position of the Club is on the whole sound, and, as will be seen from the Statement of Account, the adverse balance is diminished to £5 5s. 6d., but this result has only been obtained by the most strenuous economy. There is an urgent need for an increased roll of members to provide the funds so desirable for the Club's work. There is also still a great need of funds to enable the Curator to bring the museums up to the right standard of completeness. The case of the Forest Museum is specially urgent, and at the Essex Museum there are nr> funds available to purchase the specimens required to complete the collections and do other most important work." Membership Roll. — The Club has, unfortunately, lost several members by death and removal from the County, and this has tended to reduce the roll, in spite of election of many new Members. As far as can be estimated at present, ther"; are 264 Ordinary Members, Exempt Members 4 and Honorary Members 16, making a total of 284, four less than at the date of the last Annual Report. Meetings.- -Eleven meetings were held within the year, the November meeting having been transferred to 1902 in consequence of the usual date being that of an important scientific fixture in London. In addition to the papers read we have had the benefit of several important lectures and addresses by scientific men, and the Council wish to record the cordial thanks of the Club to the following gentlemen : -to Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S., who gave an address at the meeting on Feb. 23rd on " Recent Work on Molluscan Morphology" ; to Mr. E. Sanger Shepherd who on March 30th gave a most interesting and well-illustrated lecture on his process for producing photo- graphs in natural colours, to Mr. E. M. Holmes, F.L.S., to Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S., and Prof. H. Marshall Ward for assistance at the meeting for inspection of the Forest on May i8th. On this occasion we had antici- pated the benefit of the two verderers, Sir T. Fowell Buxton and Mr. E. N. Buxton, but the alarming accident to the former just before the meeting prevented this. It was with great relief that all present heard that no serious consequences ensued. We have again to thank the Countess of Warwick for kind hospitality at Bigods on the occasion of the visit of the Club on June 6th, and also Mr. and Mrs. Henessy for their courtesy at this meeting. At the meeting on Canvey Island on June 15th we had the great benefit of the leaderships of Dr. Murie and Prof. Boulger On June 29th the Club was the recipient of much kind- ness and hospitality at the hands of Mr. and Mrs. Sharrock at the Reservoir ANNUAL RETORT. 245 works at Tottenham and Walthamstow — the arrangements made by Mr. Sharrock for the comfort of the Members were most thorough and welcome. At the Annual Cryptogamic Meeting on October 12th we again secured the ever welcome assistance of Dr. M. C. Cooke and Mr. G. Massee and Prof. Marshall Ward gave an inspiring address on the " Scientific Study of Fungi." At the Ordinary Meeting in October, Prof. Meldola gave a lecture on " Mimetic Insects," which was admirably illustrated by a very fine series of lantern slides, many of them produced by the Sanger- Shepherd process of photography in colour, the specimens from which they were taken having been arranged by Prof. E. B. Poulton, of the Hope Museum, Oxford. The papers read at the meetings have been, or will be, published in our journal. Although a matter hardly officially connected with our Field Meetings, the Council cannot refrain from recording the very kind invitation for the meeting at Bigods on July 24th given to the members of the Club by the Countess of Warwick, which was highly appreciated by those who accepted the invitation. The Council also wish again to record their high appreciation of the valuable facilities for holding meetings in the Institute granted by the Technical Instruction .Committee of the Borough of West Ham, And the kindness of the Principal, Mr. Briscoe, has been most marked during the year, enabling our meetings to be carried with a facility and success not to be equalled in the history of the Club. Essex Naturalist. — Three parts of the journal were published during the year, comprising 234 pages, with six full-page plates and numerous other illustrations. The Council has to thank Mr. F. W. Reader for several valuable blocks, for much care taken in copying drawings for re-production and generally in assisting the editor in preparing matter for the press ; also Mr. H. A. Cole for drawing of the Dug-out Boat discovered in the Alluvium of the Lea Valley. The somewhat irregular appearance of the Essex Naturalist is still a source of great regret to the editor, but he hopes to remedy this soon, as the pressure of other work in connection with the two museums is lessened. But the amount of matter issued is evidently almost the maximum which the present financial resources of the Club will permit. There appears to be no falling off in the number of papers of real scientific and local interest sent in, and if it were in our power to print them many others would doubtless be sub- mitted. The editor would also like to have a few illustrations in colour occasionally and to make the records of local scientific events occurring within our districts more systematic and complete. But this is impossible, from the cause hinted at above. We can only have faith and await the " Good time coming." At present the hope seems bound up with an increase of membership. One hundred more members would enable us to nearly double the present issue of the Naturalist and to mould it more into the form of a quarterly journal of Natural History in a wide sense of these words. Essex Museum of Natural History. — The history of affairs at the Museum was brought up to the end of 1900 in the last report, and a full account of the opening of the Museum to the public on October i8th, 1901, ■^ ^kO vo o u^ o o o cn •H i^ r^co M r-, •<- Q o c 2 _■ O O O O ^ f^ o : _ lO o o M • iJ^ w o o >- o so " ^. M OlD ^^ W M M « OO O 00 •^j n r^ m T^ OOO I o 5 m CO : it: . : :r, ■ : M <-* ■ § ■ b :-> ^ p i3 « dj 3 2 S3 J >s ^ ^ ij : ij 3 c "*-• s < o '- m •n'^-O en ' t ^^ .2 JJ o w ft: D H Q ting and Illi ting (Circula age of Essex ;ral and Inc ary Hxpenie urers' Fees unt transff Maintenance ,ife Coniposi on Field M ^ Z 15 Q iO a, X w Q 2 33 Cucxa,0^-J<« (^J W c5 1— t ~ O O IC o o o ^o s^ < y VO -0- c 0^ lO n ID X 'J Cu - CO r^ r CO CO ^ 5 W o < u 2 o 3->: = o = •p; Ji^ rvc ^ ca Q Q 2 X 2 : : : M Q D ■c c 2 fc, OS ^ 5 ■-k! D U -^i 5 ~ d. o 5^ S : o — • 5 o rt H 2 < "2 22 ^ c '3 6 2 2 s Slip Han 1 of £ uranc fflO o a, W ■q rt = 2 2 n c > C 0) a 5 < Curati Printi Kemo Fire I Sundr Curat Balan - „ >, _ § § oa - - ' ' ' " < < X X „• " o O « o H H '/ °° ° O CO N to w W *-> ■^ ss O CI r^ I ^ _; M o > H z "5 Z < o D z O Z : 3 : ^ •a o < < f-^ :^|- 3 C 2 o Mm h 0) H-l Q 2 < c m5j - < !3 »J - ^ M < D H cu < M OU5 CTl O M M r^ ^ Q 2 < 2 o M M D H? U m S-r i' > en cj 3T3 < fflh^g|fc 2 <• Cash a Invest Deficit Genera <4?' 1) Xk c UM ;^a. oo DSO a uu fl fti,-; ■H* w -o c ■■a ^5 >o C O M « - o — --c is 5C O o . , H ■ - 248 ANNUAL REPORT. has since been printed in the Essex Naturalist. The work during the year 1900 was necessarily mainly confined to improving the arrangement and increasing or renewing the specimens in several departments 'i'he removal of the three centre cases from Chingford to the main Museum has enabled the curator to improve the collection of mammals and at the same time allow of more space being given to the birds. The Corpora- tion Committee largely aided in the reconstruction of these cases, and they also kindly gave orders for the making in the workshops of the Institute of 13 square wall-cases for the reception of some of the smaller animals and for botanical collections. Ten of these cases are at present temporarly filled with selections from the Essex collection of Seaweeds. The authorities of the Institute also allowed the curator to place four large cases containing the general collection of fossils in the gallery. Mr. H. E. Smedley, F.L.S., lent his series of wax models of British Fungi, made by himself, and the collection was for some time a very beautiful and attractive exhibit in fhe gallery. On the removal of Mr. Smedley's collection our member, Mr. J. Avery, kindly lent a large selection from his collection of engraved views of Essex, and this has been arranged round the gallery, the Institute constructing the frames to contain the pictures. The principal additions to the Museum during the year were the acquisi- tion by purchase of the Cryptogamic collection of the late Mr. E. G. Varenne, of Kelvedon ; a considerable number of specimens of plants from our late member, Mr. Sewell ; a large number of Lepidoptesa Irom our late member, Mr. F.^ Coles ; archaeological specimens from Mr. F. W. Reader and his brother, Mr T. W. Reader ; Palaeolithic implements from Somaliland from Mr. Seton-Karr, together with other specimens of stone implements; and of a beautifully set-up specimen of the Kite, formerly belonging to the late Mr. Henry Doubleday, by Mr. J. E. Harting. The arrangement of the specimens in hand will necessarily take a long time. The curator has had the benefit of the assistance of Mr. H. White- head who had been appointed by the Technical Instruction Committee, but Mr. Whitehead's time being largely occupied in other ways, the progress has been slow. The work of the curator is also hampered by want of space, and still more seriously by want of sufficient funds to obtain the necessary cabinets, cases and appliances, and the special specimens and preparations urgently required. Meanwhile he can only once more appeal to the members of the Club, and to those interested in the museum "idea'' for assistance both financial and scientific. There are thousands of species still required, and we are in need of systematic collecting in most groups. Essex is a very rich counts , but specimens must be gathered with skill and care to be available for museum purposes. Eppixg Forest Museum.- As reported at the last Annual Meeting, the re-arrangement of the collections, and additions thereto, has now been taken in hand. .\ Committee has been appointed, under the chairmanship of the Rev. A. F. Russell, and a public subscription started to obtain the funds necessary to carry out the scheme proposed by the curator. A considerable sum has been subscribed, but more money is still needed. The work of reconstruction has been carried on slowly through the year, and the major ANNUAL REPORT. 249 portion of the cases are now nearly ready. The curator had hoped to com- plete the work by May or June next, but this is hardly possible now, unless the Museum Fund is considerably increased. The museum is vastly improved by the additional space and new fittings, and the Council venture to think that when completed it will be a most useful and popular addition to the attraction of the Forest, and a valuable supplement to our main museum. A full report will be submitted by the Museum Committee when the work is more nearly completed. The only considerable addition is the series of specimens from the Lea Valley Excavations at the new Reservoir Works at Tottenham and Wal- thamstow. The Council has to thank in this connection Col. Bryan, Mr. Sharrock, Mr. Marsh and Mr Traill, for their kindness and assistance atibrded during the visits to the works, and the care with which the various relics were preserved and forwarded to the Museum. The Council have also to thank Mr. Chalkley Gould for his continued assistance in arranging the series of specimens from the Romano-British Settlement at J^higwell. Conference of "East Anglican" Natural History Societies. — The Second Conference was by invitation of the Club held at Dunmow on June 6th, but only two representatives of the Norfolk and Norwich Society attended and none from Ipswich. Members of the Essex Field Club attended in numbers. A very pleasant conversation took place, introduced by Mr. W. Cole in some remarks on the advisability of initiating a sche ne for systematic collecting, more especially of marine forms. But under the circumstances no action could be taken. It is now suggested that the Third Conference should be held during the ensuing summer at Ipswich, and that town being central for the " East Anglian " district it is hoped that a goodly company will attend the meeting, and some practical work may be begun. In connection with conferences the Council have to thank Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., for acting as the Club's representative at the British Associa- tion Meeting at Glasgow. Mr. Rudler, as Chairman of the Conference, put forward some valuable advice, which will be found summarised in the report which he has sent in for publication in our journal. Presidency. — The Council has great pleasure in recommending the re- election of Prof. Meldola as President of the Club for the ensuing Club year. Honorary Members. — The Club has recently lost by death three very eminent Hon. Members. In view of this and with the desire of strengthening the scientific position of the Club, the Council recommend that the following gentlemen be elected at the Annual Meeting as Honorary Members of the Club. All these gentlemen have expressed themselves very favourable to the work the Club is trying to do, and several of them have already done yeoman's service in our interests : — List of Eminent Scientific Men suggested for election at the Annual Meeting, 1902, as Honorary Members of the Club. W. H. Dalton, Esq., F.G.S. (late of the Geological Siiivey,) Prof. J, B. Farmer, M..^., F.R.S., Professor of Botany, Royal Coll of Science. 250 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Prof. G. B. Howes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology, Royal College of Science. Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Director of the British Museum of Natural History. C. H. Read, Esq., F.S. A., Keeper of the British and Mediaval Antiquities British Museum. Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c , Director of the Roydl Gardens, Kew. Prof. H. Marshall Ward, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany. University of Cambridge. H. B. Woodward, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., Geological Museum, Jermyn Street. [N.B. — All the above gentlemen were elected at the Annual Meeting on March 22nd, 1902.] THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. THE 208th ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, January 25TH, 1902. The 2o8th Ordinary Meeting was held at half-past six o'clock in the Physical Lecture Theatre of the Municipal Technical Institute, Stratford, the President, Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., in the chair. Mr. Frank Woolnough, Curator of the Museum, Ipsivich, was elected a member of the Club. At the commencement of the proceedings, Mr. Cole said that the members would lament the death of Lord Rookwood, one of the Life Members of the Club, and a gentleman who had earned the esteem and gratitude of all interested in the county of Essex. Before he became a peer, as Sir Henry Selwin-Ibbetson he was largely concerned in the rescue of Epping Forest, and he piloted the Epping Forest Act through Parliament. Later, he aided the Club in defeating encroachments on the Forest by railway and tramway companies. In many movements made for the benefit of the county, Lord Rookwood took a leading part, and his loss would be long regretted. He died in London January 15th, 1902 in the 77th year of his age. Mr. Cole concluded by moving that he should be empowered to send a letter of condolence in the name of the Club to Lady Rookwood on the death of her distinguished husband. This was seconded by the President, who cordially supported the tribute of esteem put forward, and the resolution was carried unanimously. Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S. exhibited a drawing of an old wooden water- pipe, found in making excavations in Wigmore Street, London, and made some remarks on these disused methods of conveying water. He thought that ancient contrivances of the kind were worth recording, inasmuch as they were so soon wholly forgotten. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 251 Mr. Holmes afterwards embodied his observations on ancient wooden water-pipes in a paper which will be printed in the Essex Naturalist. Mr. J. Chalkley Gould exhibited some pottery and coins from the Romano-British Settlement at Chigwell, Essex, which he had obtained in continuation of the series of relics from that spot already exhibited in the Epping Forest Museum. Mr. Gould made some remarks on these specimens which are given in the "Museum Note" in the present part {ante pp. 238-40.) The President said that they were all much indebted to Mr. Gould for the persistence and success with which he was watching the excavations at Chigwell. He also expressed his satisfaction at finding Mr. Gould inclined to deposit all the specimens in the Club's Museum at Chingford. It so commonly happened that relics of the kind got dispersed in private hands, and the evidence which they might afford was practically lost. All such objects should be carefully preserved, registered, and brought, as it were, to a focus in some local Museum. The President exhibited and presented two or three fashioned flakes from Sherringham, Norfolk. He had found and kept these, not for any intrinsic value, but he was unaware whether worked flints had hitherto been found at Sherringham, and therefore it would be well to preserve these. The Secretary said that Mr. Seton-Karr had recently sent to him a set of Stone Implements of Palaeolithic type, found by himself in Somali- land, Eastern Africa, with a request that the Club should select six specimens for the Museum and distribute the remainder among various English and Continental Museums named by Mr. Karr. The Secretary exhibited the whole set of 38 implements. Mr. Seton-Karr had described his specimens in Journ. Aitth. Inst., vol. xxv. (1896) p. 172, pi. xix.-xxi. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1895, p. 824. And Sir John Evans had more recently (Proc. Royal Society, vol. Ix. (1896) p. 19) called attention to this subject (see also Evans' Ancient Stone Implements, 2nd Ed (1897) p. 653.) Sir John remarked on the identity of form of the implements with those found in the Pleistocene deposits of North-western Europe and elsewhere. Mr. Cole also exhibited a collection of various stone implements previously presented to the Museum by Mr. Seton-Karr. Mr. F. W. Reader made some extended remarks on these specimens which will be embodied in a " Museum Note " in a future part of the E. N., and moved that a vote of thanks be sent to Mr. Seton Karr for those welcome contributions, which had so greatly enriched the Club's collections. Mr. Charles H. Read, F.S.A., remarked that these implements certainly very closely resembled the Palaeolithic types found in Britain and on the Continent, but he urged caution in assuming that they were actually of Palaeolithic age. So far as he knew, there was absolutely no geological evidence at present forthcoming upon which to base accurate conclusions as to the age of these implements. The vote of thanks to Mr. Seton-Karr was carried unanimously. Mr. George Massee, F.L.S., communicated a note on the occurrence in Epping Forest of Amanita citrina, a species new to Britain. And he also sent for the Museum an original coloured drawing of the species (Mr. Massee's note appeared in the last part, ante p. 129.) 252 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Mr. W. Cole said that the remarkable point about Mr. Massee's discovery was, that this conspicuous fungus should have escaped the notice of all the acute botanists who had for 21 years attended the Annual Fungus Forays of the Club. It was possible that the recent extensive thinnings in the Forest had somewhat altered the character of the soil, and that the resulting conditions had proved more favourable for the Amanita than those previously obtaining. The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Massee, alluded to the hypothesis of the deferred germination of the buried seeds of plants, as being possibly analogous to the case of the Hymenomycete. The vote of thanks was carried unanimously. Mr. Charles H. Read, F.S.A. (Keeper of the Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities, British Museum) then gave a most interesting and instructive Address on the subject of Local Archaeological Investigation He urged the importance of such a society as the Essex Field Club making a careful examination of the numerous prehistoric sites in the county. But in conducting such explorations great caution was necessary. An earthwork should be explored only by persons acquainted with the right methods of working and the varied knowledge of the geologist, antiquary and ethnologist was often necessary to conduct the enquiry on right lines and to correctly interpret the results obtained. He advised the making of an archaeological survey of the county, plotted down on a large scale map, as being one piece of work well within the power of a local society. On it all barrows, mounds and other indications of prehistoric occupation should be carefully marked down. Then should these sites be threatened by the interference of the owners of land or other persons, the opportunity should be taken by the Club, to make explorations carefully and scientifically, so as to prevent the misfortune which they had so often to lament of the destruction of prehistoric monuments with no record of evidence from which their nature or period could be inferred. The lecturer alluded to the very interesting "Red Hills" of the Essex Estuary lands, from which the series of specimens in the Museum had been obtained by Mr. Cole. He thought that these remains should be investigated, and suggested that the Society of Antiquaries might possibly make a grant to the Club towards the expenses of exploration. Mr. Read referred to the great want of exact knowledge of the sequence of the " Bronze Age " and the importance of gathering all the evidence possible before it was too late to do so. Although he recognised the great value of local Museums, he deprecated the establishment of a large number, because he feared the interest in them would thereby be lessened by the diffusion of objects which were best studied and appreciated when gathered together in large collections. He also pointed out that it was not conducive to the promotion of archaeological knowledge to keep in local Museums objects of extreme rarity which had no relation whatever to other exhibits, it was much better to send these to the National Museums, where perhaps such an object would find a place among the larger series of antiquties, and even fill a gap in a world-wide collection. The President, in proposing that the thanks of the Club should be given to Mr. Read for his valuable and suggestive address, pointed out that historical records, of the nature of local tradil ions, very often clung with great persistence THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 253 to ancient remains and, however erroneous, were never dispelled till the shovel and pick had been brought to bear upon them. He referred to the Club's explorations of the Epping Forest earthworks as examples of exploration by scientific method which had been instigated by the late Genl. Pitt Rivers. Prof. Meldola further expressed satisfaction that the Society of Antiquaries was carrying on the work of the Archaeological Survey, although he feared that Essex had not much to show so far in this direction. With reference to the occurrence of palaeolithic remains in their county he reminded the meeting that they had been fortunate at the outset of their career in having had among them such a keen observer as their hon. member Mr. Worthington Smith, some of whose earliest contributions to the subject had been published by the Essex Field Club. The President also expressed his great interest in Mr. Read's suggestions with reference to the registration and preservation of the prehistoric remains of the county and he referred to the similar proposals brought by him in 1883 before the Club and the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies at the Southport meeting of the British Association (see Trans. Essex Field Club, vol. iv., p. 116) Coming as these suggestions now did from an archaeologist of such distinction as Mr. Read, he hoped they would bear practical fruit and that the Club would continue the work of scientific exploration of the ancient remains of the county which thev had already commenced under such favourable auspices. There yet remained an immense amount of work to be done in this field, and he expressed the hope that the systematic investigation of the mysterious " Red Hills " to which Mr. Read had alluded would be taken in hand before long. Mr. T. V. Holmes thought that they might well be congratulated on Mr Read's valuable address. In illustration of the damage done in former years to ancient earthworks by persons ignorant of the interest attached to them he might mention that Mr. W. Cole and he visited Pictsbury Ramparts, near Colchester, a few days after the occurrence of the Essex Earthquake. The camp appeared on the map of the Geological Survey (48, S.W.) as a complete oval But they found about three quarters completely removed, and only about one fourth (which was within the boundaries of a wood) preserved. The destruction had been done simply as an agricultural improvement, though on meeting the farmer occupying the land, and talking with him about it, they learned that the removal had been a costly piece of work, and scarcely a profitable one. It was described as a pretty spot, the ramparts having once stood about 30 feet high, where, at the time of our visit there was a perfect level. In Greenwich Park, there still remained many low tumuli on the top of the hill between the Observatory buildings and the gate at the top of Crooms Hill. In the year 1844, we learn from Hasted's History of Kent (Part I. Hundred of Blackheath ivitJi additions by Streatfield and Larking, edited by H H. Drake, London, 1886), that the reservoir a few yards south of these barrows was made. Many barrows were destroyed to obtain material for the banks bounding the reservoir before orders were given to stop the destruction, and oblige the constructors of the reservoir to obtain their grave] a few yards farther away. We also learn that these barrows were opened in {he year 1784 by permission of the Surveyor of the Royal Domains and some glass beads, braids of human hair, and patches of woollen cloth found in them. But it also appears that about 70 years before the date of this exploration. 254 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. " one Hearne, a park-keeper, had opened these barrows, and no doubt removed many vahiable relics." Tlie appearance of some of the more prominent barrows still remaining shows that " exploration " implied simply digging into them from the top. Mr. J. Chalkley Gould said however much we may deplore the destruction of Pictsbury Ramparts, to which Mr. T. V. Holmes has just referred, we must remember that vandalism was perpetrated by some (probably needy farmer anxious to make the utmost of his land, but what shall be said of the British Government which a few years ago destroyed the greater part of the interesting earthwork at Shoeburyness — a work which is of so great interest not because of its size, but tor its definite mention in the Saxon Chronicle ? We hope that the present War Office authorities are careful of the fragment which remains. With regard to the settlement of the Saxons in our county, which appears to have been accomplished so much later than similar settlements elsewhere, Kent and Suffolk for instance, it would be work worthy of the Essex Field Club by investigation of any sort to throw light on this subject and the reason for the later occupation. Mr. Read's address was so full of matter that one could talk long of the points it suggests, but he would only refer to the remarks upon the multi- plication of museums. There is no doubt that their undue increase would weaken the character of all and to establish too many will be a serious mistake Mr. A. S. Kennard pointed out the difificulties under which the archaeological student laboured, arising from the indifference of the general public. He noted that two most important discoveries in connection with the " Bronze Age" had been made in Essex, one being the largest bronze sword yet found in this country, and the other a magnificent hoard of bronze spear heads of an extremely raw type He urged the importance of describing all objects of interest as soon as it was possible. He pointed out how utterly untrustworthy with the statements often made by the labourers and warned the members against a well-known forger of flint implements at present living in Essex The discussion was continued by Mr. Reader, Mr. Briscoe, who advocated the establishment of a photographic survey of Essex by the Club in connection with the Museum, and by Mr. W. Cole and others. A very cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Read, who replied on some points alluded to by the speakers. Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., exhibited and presented to the Museum some specimens of brackish water MoUusca from Fowlness, Essex, which had been collected during the past summer by Mr. Llewellyn Owen. THE 209th ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, Febkuarv 22ND, 1902. The 209th Ordinary Meeting was held in the Technical Institute, Stratford, at 6.30 p.m., the President, Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. in the chair. Mr. F. W. Green was elected a member. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 255 The Secretary read a letter from Lady Rookwood, thanking the Club for the vote and letter of condolence upon the death of her husband, Lord Rookwood, passed at the last meeting. The first business was the announcement of retirements from the Council, and the nomination of new members of Council and Officers for election at the Annual Meeting on March 22nd. The nominations were duly made, and the list of Councillors and Officers is given in the report of the Annual Meeting, post p. 260. The Secretary announced that the Council were desirous of recommending that the Club should elect several eminent scientific men as Honorary Members at the Annual Meeting. But it had been found that to do this alterations would be necessary in Rule II, and Rule XII. Mr. Cole therefore gave notice that at the next meeting he would move such necessary alterations {see post, Meeting on March 8th). Mr. F. W. Elliott exhibited a portion of a quern, which had been found in a garden at Buckhurst Hill, but there was no direct evidence of its true place of origin. » Mr. Chalkley Gould said that the quern was of the kind frequently found in Essex. The Secretary exhibited two books recently presented to the Club, viz- the new edition of the Handbook of Byitish Birds by the author, Mr. J. E. Harting, F.L.S. and Connold's British Vegetable Galls presented by Miss Read. He also said that he had arranged for the exchange of publications and information with the Fisheries Board for Scotland and the Northumberland Fisheries Station. He also exhibited four beautiful specimens of the Bearded Tit or " Reed Pheasant " as it was called in Essex, where it was once common in the marshes below Barking ("reek, (Panunts biarmicus). These specimens were from Rickling Fen, Norfolk, and were presented by Mr. J. E. Harting. And he announced that Mr. Harting had given to the Club his collection of Land and Fresh-water Shells, the collection being that used in the preparation of Mr. Harting's little book, Rambles in search of Shells ; most of the beautiful original drawing for the illustrations in that work were made from the specimens in the collection. A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Harting for his interesting gift, the President remarking that this was only one of Mr. Harting's many kindnesses to the Museum. Mr. John Avery read a paper on " George Edwards, the Stratford .Naturalist," and exhibited a very fine engraved portrait of Edwards. (Mr. Avery's paper will appear in the Essex Naturalist). The President said that they were much indebted to Mr. Avery for placing on record another Essex worthy, who must have been a man of very considerable talent to have gained the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Mr. Walter Crouch also made some remarks upon the paper. A lecture was then given by Prof. E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S., Hope Professor ot Zoology, University of Oxford, entitled " Protective Resem- blance, Warning Colours and Mimicry : Some new illustrations of well- known Principles." The lecture was illustrated by a very extensive and 256 THE KSSEX FIELD CLUB. beautiful series of lantern-slides, many of them being coloured, and some were striking examples of the new three-colour process of photography. It is impossible to give in a short space, and without illustrative figures, a report which would do justice to Prof. Poulton's admirable exposition of a difficult subject. His remarks and examples extended over almost the whole range of the theories of Mimicry of Bates and MuUer among butterflies. Protective Resemblance among caterpillars and other insects, and Agressive and Protective Resemblance amongst crustaceans, reptiles, &c. Many striking instances of "Warning Colours" were shown, and the speaker especially dwelt on the expansion of the theory of common warning colours of Miiller brought about by the recent observations of Messrs. Marshall and Shelford. Prof. Poulton also described the remarkable discovery of the American artist, Mr. Thayer, which is illustrated in the models of birds in the British Museum and in the Hope Museum, showing that the light colour of the under sides of many birds and animals serves to practically render them invisible when illuminated from above, as in nature. The lecturer suggested that these models should be reproduced«in the Club's Museum. The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to Prof. Poulton for his admirable lecture, said that they were particularly indebted to that gentleman for having taken the trouble to come up from Oxford for the purpose of addressing tlie Club, this being the third occasion on which the Hope Professor had given them the pleasure of hearing from him the results of his continued investigations in that field of biology which he had cultivated with such distinction. The lecturer had referred in the course of his remarks to his own (the president's) contributions to this subject, but he thought that the best contribution he had ever made was the discovery of Prof. Poulton himself. Referring to the different subjects dealt with by the lecturer he emphasized the point so well brought out by the magnificent illustrations shown, viz., that it would appear as though natural* selection had been at work with an eye to artistic effect, picking out every detail of colour, pattern, structure and attitude that could be made use of in adapting the animals to their environment. It was impossible to say whether a species harmonised with its surroundings unless it were seen under natural conditions, and large and apparently conspicuous animals, such as zebras and giraffes, had been shown to be really well adapted for concealment when among their natural surroundings. He (Prof. Meldola) went on to say that he was glad of the present opportunity of being able to make a public recantation of a view which he had many years ago first broached at a meeting of the Essex Field Club. He referred to the light or white colours of the undersides of birds and animals. At the time when this subject was being discussed by the Club (see Proc. E.F.C., vol. I., p. vi., and discussion in Nature, vol. 31, p. 505 and 32, p. 172) he had not realised that such an arrangement of colours could possibly have the enormous effect in affording concealment that had now been shown to be the case by the American artist, whose models of ducks in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington and in the Hope Museum at Oxford, of which Prof. Poulton had shown them photographs, were well worth lookin" at. He thought that their own Museum ought to possess such models, which were not very difficult to make. The ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 257 In ignorance of the optical effect producible by this arrangement of colour he had in 1880 and since, in common with other naturalists, attempted to explain the white colours of the undersides of birds, &c., as being of purely physical origin. That explanation he now unreservedly withdrew in favour of protection by concealment. With reference to the work on colour adaptability in individuals, as shown by the illustrations of caterpillars, he thought that the lecturer had been too modest in concealing his own share in this most important work. Although he (the President) had by observation arrived at the conclusion that such adaptability existed and had claimed natural selection as an efficient cause of the phenomenon, it was only the experimental investigations of Prof. Poulton, carried on with such consummate skill and patience, that had placed these deductions on a solid basis of irrefutable facts. As an example of conceal- ment b}' adventitious means he reminded them that they in Essex had the well-known case of the larva of the Essex Emerald Moth (Geometra smamg- dana; see Essex Naturalist, vol. I., p. 120). The President also expressed concurrence with the strictures which the lecturer had imposed upon the conclusions drawn from the experiments of those who, like Plateau, had actually tasted insects having warning colours and because they could find no unpleasant taste had inferred that the whole theory of distastefulness was erroneous. It was impossible to institute a comparison between the senses of taste and smell of man and of insect-eating birds and animals. Distastefulness might be associated with quite other characters than those of taste or smell as interpreted by our senses. Cantharidin, for example, a product of the blister-beetle, would be an extremely unpleasant thing for a bird or animal to get into its mouth although possessed of no distinctive smell as far as we know. An insect producing this compound as an active defensive principle might derive the full advantage of having warning colours without any nauseous smell or taste at all. The danger would only be realised after the insect had been taken into the mouth by its enemy. Hence the value in such cases of danger signals. The President went on to say that the development of the Miillerian theory of mimicry in the hands of Prof. Poulton was a source of immense gratihcation to him since he (the speaker) as the lecturer had told them, had been very largely responsible for the adoption and promulgation of that theory in its initial form in this country. It was the late Charles Darwin who had first sent him in 1879 the publication, Kosmns, containing Fritz Miiller's modest little paper, accompanied by one of his characteristic post- cards asking him to see if there was anything in it. On looking through the paper he came at once to the conclusion that there was a very great deal in it — how much, they had perhaps been able to realize from the Hope Professor's remarks that evening. Although he was himself a firm believer in the appli- cation of Darwinian principles to the cases comprised under the general term " Miillerian Mimicry," he thought it desirable to point out, by way of answer to those who had from the beginning opposed the new ideas with the charge of being too theoretical, that quite apart from the question of the truth of the theory, its utility under the influence of Prof. Poulton had now been demonstrated beyond cavil. Inspired by the new idea the lecturer had set observers and collectors systematically at work in ^various parts of the 258 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. world and some of the results had jeen submitted to the Club on the present occasion. In the way of results no theory had been more prolific, and the great mass of material accumulated by the zeal of Prof. Poulton and em- bodied in the collections in the Hope Museum was standing evidence that the departure made in 1879 had been most prolific as a source of substantial facts. He concluded by moving a most cordial vote of thanks to the lecturer. Some remarks were made by Mr. Elliott and Mr Cole, and the vote of thanks was passed by acclamation. Prof. Poulton replied on some points mentioned by the speakers. It was announced that a supplemental meeting would be held on March i8th to clear the slate of seme papers in hand, and that at the Annual Meeting on March 22nd the President would deliver an Address dealing with the scientific work of the Club during the 21 years from its foundation. THE 210th ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, March 8th, 1902. The 2ioth Ordinary Meeting was held in the Technical Institute, Stratford, at 6.30 o'clock, the President, Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., in the chair. In accordance with notice given at the last meeting, and in the printed circular calling the present meeting. Mr. W. Cole moved : — " In Rule lithe word 'twenty' he struck out, and the words ' tii^enty-five ' substituted. " In Rule XII the xvords limiting the number of Honorary Members to be elected in any one year, to five, to he held in abeyance so far as regards the present year, 1902." Mr. F. W. Reader seconded the motion. These resolutions were put by the President to the meeting, and carried unanimously. It was announced that to fill one of the vacant seats on the Council the name of Mr. Champion B. Russell had been sent in to the Secretary, and consequently Mr Russell's name went forward for election at the Annual Meeting. Mr. Avery exhibited a series of Essex Copper " Tokens " of dates towards the end of the i8th century. The tokens were in a beautiful state of preservation. Mr. Avery described the tokens and made some remarks upon them. Prof. Meldola laid upon the table a plan of the section of a well at Eastcn Lodge, recently made. The details were in Mr. Whitaker's hands for incorporation in another batch of Essex Well-Sections now being prepared for publication in the Essex Naturalist. Mr. W. Cole exhibited a shell of the Swan Mussel {Anodonta cygnea) from Mr. Harting's collection, taken with many others from an Otter's haunt, showing that the end of the shell had been bitten off by the otter, and the THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 259 molluscan animal abstracted. This went to show that the otter lived tu some extent upon mollusca. Mr Chalkley Gould exhibited on behalf of Mr. B. G. Cole, a counterfeit Spanish dollar found a few years ago in Epping Forest, which had been presented to the Forest Museum by Mr. Percy Gearing. Mr. Gould remarked that during the reign of George III. the excessive scarcity of silver money led the British Government to attempt to remedy the deficiency by buying Spanish dollars, counter-marking them (on the bust of the Spanish ruler) with the Hall-mark of King George, and issuing them as British coin. As a natural consequence counterfeiting on a large scale ensued, and after two attempts so to utilize the dollars, the Government abandoned the plan ; the entire Spanish impression was obliterated under a powerful press, and the silver was used to coin the well-known Bank of England dollar. The exhibited example of the forged dollar, with the counter-mark of 1797, was found with many others in Epping Forest, near the " Wake Arms," at a spot selected, doubtless, by some counterfeiter who was prevented from recovering the hoard. It is heavily plated with silver upon a copper body. The coin is " Carolu^ III. [of Spain] Dei Gratia, 1773." About 40 years ago a considerable number were found at or near the same spot. Mr. Frank P. Smith gave a most interesting viva voce account of the preliminary portion of his projected series of papers on " The Spiders of Epping Forest." The lecture was illustrated by about 50 lantern slides, many of photographs taken in the open from actual specimens, afibrding instances of " Aggressive Resemblance " and other facts in the life-histories of spiders. Mr. Smith also explained his methods of collecting and studying spiders, and the precautions necessary in securing photographs. The President proposed a cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Smith for his admirable lecture, and for the series of papers of which it was the forerunner. He also made some remarks on points in the lecture, more particularly on the instances brought forward of " Aggressive Mimicry " among spiders. The vote of thanks was passed by acclamation and Mr. Smith replied. The r«port of the Club's Delegate at the British Association meeting at Glasgow, Mr F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., was taken as read. Mr. Rudler was cordially thanked for his report and for his services as Delegate. The Report was printed in the last part of the Essex Naturalist, ante pp. 140-145. A paper on Eolithic Implements from the Plateau Gravel around Walderslade, by Mr. J. P. Johnson was " read " in abstract (in Mr. Johnson's absence through illness) by Mr. A. S Kennard The paper was illustrated by specimens and by a few lantern slides. It will appear in the Essex Naturalist. Mr. A. S. Kennard also exhibited and presented to the Club, some Eolithic stones from the country near Rochester. Both Mr. Kennard and the President commented on the value of these implements as affording evidence of the existence of man at the time the Plateau gravels were deposited. Mr. Paulson also joined in the discussion. Votes of thanks to Mr. Johnson and Mr. Kennard were passed. 26o THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. THE TWO HUNDRED AND ELEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, March 22nd, igo2. Previous to the Annual Meeting an Ordinary Meeting was held, the President in the chair, for the purpose of proposing some candidates for membership, &c. Mr. Reader exhibited and explained some models of the mode of hafting Flint Implements which he had had prepared for the Museum, and also exhibited two burnishers from Clerkenwell, to show that the use of Stone Implements still obtained in Pome trades. A description of these models will form the subject of a future " Museum Note." He also exhibited photographs of a prehistoric mine in Chili, and a model of the mode of hafting blocks of limestone in that mine so as to be serviceable as hammers Remarks were made by Professor Boulger and Mr. D. Howard on the chemical composition of prehistoric bronze implements. Thanks were voted to Mr. Reader for his interesting exhibitions. The Annual Meeting followed. THE TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. Saturday, March 22ND, igo2. The 22nd Annual Meeting was then held, Prof. Meldola, F.R.S., President, in the chair. The minutes of the Annual Meeting, held on March 30th i9oi,and printed in the Essex Naturalist, vol. xii., pp. 48-49, were read and confirmed. The Treasurer, Mr. David Howard, F.C.S., read the summary of the Treasurer's statement of Account for 1901 which had been duly signed by the Auditors, Messrs. Walter Crouch and J. D. Cooper. This statement was received and adopted by the meeting. The Secretary read the Annual Report of the Council for the year 1901 This was received and adopted. At the Meeting on February 22nd last, the following members retired from the Council by the Rules: — Messrs. J. Avery, L Cranmer-Byng, A. J. Furbank, G. E. Vaughan, and the Rev. R. E. Bartlett ; Messrs. Avery and Vaughan submitting themselves for re-election. There are also two vacancies remaining over from former years. At the same meeting the following were duly proposed ; — Mr. J. Avery, Mr. Percy Clark, B.A., Mr. Primrose McConnell, B.Sc, F.G.S., Mr. Hugh H. Mason, F.R.C.S., L.S.A., C.C, Mr. G. E. Vaughan, and Mr. C. B. Russell, M.A., J. P., C.C, has since been nominated. As Officers the following were nominated : — President— Proi. R. Meldola, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.E.S. ; Tyeasurci-— Mr. David Howard, J. P., F.C.S. ; Hon. Secretaries— Mr. W. Cole, F.L S.. F.E.S., and Mr. B. G. Cole ; Librarians — vacant ; Auditors — Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S. and Mr. J. D. Cooper. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 261 No other Members having been proposed for any office, the above gentlemen stood elected as Members of the Council and Officers for the year 1902, and were so declared by the Chairman. The President said that the Council had resolved to recommend eight gentlemen for election as Honorary Members of the Club. The resolution passed at the last meeting would permit of the se- lection of these gentlemen at the present meeting. All had consented to become Members, and he thought that the list would show that it was representative of the different departments of science coming within the scope of the Club's studies. The President theu read out the list, which is printed in the Annual Report of the Council. The election of these gentlemen as Honorary Members was proposed by Mr. E. A. Fitch, and seconded by Mr. G. E. Vaughan, and carried unanimously. The President nominated as Vice-Presidents during his year of office the following .— E. N. Buxton, J. P., Walter Crouch, F Z.S., I. Chalkley Gould, and J. C. Shenstone. F.L.S. Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S. proposed that votes of thanks should be given to the officers for their services during the past year. This was carried unanimously. Mr. David Howard returned thanks for the officers collectively. The President then delivered his Annual Address which was entitled "The Coming of Age of the Essex Field Club, a record of Local Scientific Work, 1880-1901." This paper was printed in the last part, nufe pp., 79-16. Mr. John Spiller, F.C.S. as an "Original Member" of the Club, had much pleasure in proposing a cordial vote of thanks to the President for his services during the year and for the admirable Address he had delivered, and that the Address be printed in the Essex Naturalist. . Rev. W. C. Howell warmly seconded the vote of thanks. Mr. David Howard in putting the vote to the meeting proposed that 250 separate copies of the President's Address should be printed off and, circulated as extensively as possible, for the purpose of calling attention to the work of the Club, in the hope of thereby recruiting the roll of membership. The vote of thanks was carried by acclamation, and Mr. Howard's proposal regarding the extra copies of the Address was agreed to also The President suitably responded, and expressed his pleasure at seeing so many old members of the Club in the room to support him in his endeavour to place the 21 years' work of the Club clearly before the county. The Hon. Secretary presented an account of the "Tea Fund," showing that the receipts had been £4 13s. 6d. and the expenditure £^ i8s. 5d. SPRING WOODLAND AND MEADOW RAMBLE. Saturday, May 3RD, 1902. One of the usual Spring Rambles was arranged for the above afternoon to visit the very interesting woods in the Ongar Park district. Unfortunately the weather was extremely unsettled, and a severe storm in London prevented many members attending, including three of the 262 THE ESSEX FIF.LD CLUB. "Conductors." But in spite of these adverse conditions more than 50 members and visitors attended, and Mr. Primrose McConuell, B.Sc, F.G.S.. and Mr. I. Chalkley Gould efficiently acted as leaders. The party assembled at North Weald Station about 10 minutes to 3, and Mr. McConnell at once led the way to the Ongar F'ark Woods, where the keeper was in attendance. Ongar Park Woods are portions of the old Forest of Essex, considerably changed by long years of planting and management as game woods. They formed part of the " Purlieus " of the Forest, for the history of which Fisher's Forest of Essex, pp., 159-170 should be consulted. Very considerable information respecting the natural history of these woods will be found in the reports of previous visits, in our Journal of Proceedings, vol. ii., pp. xliii.-xlvi. (" From Epping to Theydon Garnon ") and Ibid, vol. iv., pp. civ.-cviii. In the latter report, some editorial remarks on the Purlieus will be found (p. cvii., foot-note). The late Mr. English there gave many detailsof the entomology of the woodlands, and Prof. Boulger of the botany. On the present occasion, Mr. McConnell called a halt at the " Eight Wents " and remarked that it was almost exactly 18 years since the Club had visited Ongar Park Woods. The place where they were standing at the moment was the meeting point of eight "Wents" or "Wonts," rides which radiate in straight lines outward like the spokes of a wheel. The Ordnance Map showed that these were at mathematically exact distances from one another ; one of the rides, however, had within the last thirty years been allowed to grow up and become obliterated, in the interests of game preservation. The centre point had at one time been occupied by a spruce fir tree— long gone however. The height above sea level of this centre point was 340 ft., so that it was thus the third or fourth highest point in Essex. Ongar Park Wood was a remnant of the ancient Forest of Essex, and was continuous with Epping Forest, though now for many generations it had been private property. The district of Ongar Park was one of the seven "Purlieus" of the Forest of Waltham (which included what is now Epping Forest) and the name was common to several of the present day farms and woods of the neighbourhood— such as the speaker's own farm, Ongar Park Hall, also Ongar Park Eodge, Ongar Park Grove, etc. The prevailing timber tree of the Wood was hornbeam, but many other species were quite common, and some specimens of the Wild Cherry (PriiHiis cerasiis) and of the American locust-tree (Robiiiia /'scudctcacia) were to be found. The late Mr. English had collected some specimens of rare moths— such as the " Camberwell Beauty" and the "Great Emerald," in these rides in bygone years. The geological formation of the ground over which they had come was largely Glacial Drift on the top of the London Clay, with small patches of the Chalky Boulder Clay of East Anglia. The surface soils were thus composed of the corresponding gravelly, marly, and clayey material ; the two first being the basis of most of the arable fields in the neighbourhood, while the clay is mostly in permanent grass land. The heathy portion they had crossed was given on the Geological Survey map as " Pebble Gravel." THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 263 As the party were to have tea at Toot Hill it was interesting to note the origin of the name of this little country hamlet " Toot " or " Taith " was the name of a Norse Goddess, and the word was quite commonly applied to places, as for instance at Tooting, Tooter's Hill, Tottenham, and so on, and it indicated where there had been village settlements in the times of the Vikings. Unfortunately the rain began soon after Mr. McConnell's address and all investigations in the woods was stopped. The party was obliged to press forward over the field-paths to Toot Hill. By the way, Mr. Chalkley Gould pointed out that the trenches were still quite distinct which had enclosed the rectangular piece of ground where are now the cottages and gardens of Toot Hill. The site commands a good view round three sides and across the Roding valley. The party reached the " Green Man " in a sharp shower. But an excellent tea soon comforted everybody. Then an Ordinary Meeting, the 2i2th, was held for the election of new members, Mr. J Chalkley Gould, Vice-President, in the chair. The following were elected members of the Club : — Messrs. Edward Chichester, M.B. (London), Francis Dent (Hon. Sec. Essex Bird Society), James Dietrichsen, (Mrs.) Dietrichsen, (Miss) Blanche Hewett, B.Sc, Ernest C. Horrell, F.L.S. (Staff Instructor in Biology, Essex County Council) John F. Rogers, Frank Sulley,* William White, F.E.S., and Edward Wilshaw. After the meeting, the rain having ceased, the ramble was continued by very pleasant meadow-paths, and through an old disused lane, which was stated to have been an ancient pack-horse road leading to the church. In the lane and meadows the cowslip was extremely abundant, and many other interesting plants were noticed. And then the antique wooden church of St. Andrew's was reached, and carefully examined under the guidance of Mr. Chalkley Gould. The Club visited Greensted Church on the first Field Meeting held (March 29th 1880) when the late Captain Budworth acted as guide (see Journal of Proceedings, vol. i., p. viii.) and in the report details of the construction of the Church will be found. It is one of the oldest Churches in the world, and the nave is probably the only example of a Saxon wooden Church which has come down to us. In the dusk of the evening the company seated themseh'es in the ancient building whilst Mr. Gould gave a eloquent lay sermon on the partly legendary life of Edmund, the saintly king of East Anglia, a story which from its local and quaint interest may be summarised here : — " England in the middle of the gth century was still split up into petty kingdoms, or sub-kingdoms, under the house of Wessex, that known as East Anglia including the present counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and part of Cambridgeshire. Of this kingdom, Edmund, a boy of 14 years, became ruler in 855 and 856 i and the decade which followed shewed him to be pious and studious, though not the less a sportsman and a warrior I It is recorded that the northern portion of East Anglia recognized his kingship in 855, the southern part not until the following year. 264 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. "In the years succeeding the date of his coronation, East AngUa could boast ot peace and prosperity beyond that of the other Saxon kingdoms, but the shadow of the terrible Northmen's raven soon caused gloom through- out the land, and in 865 the shores of England were invaded by 20,000 pagan Danes. I may not occupy your time with the story of the next five or six years but pass to th? sad year A.D. 870, when East Anglia's dauntless Christian king vainly fought the pagan host. Chronicles of the mediaeval monks tell how boldly the king, then 29 years old, bore himself before his conquerors and persecutors. " The final scene was enacted on a gloomy November dav in the Forest of Eglesdune (now represented by Hoxne, near Eye in Suffolk). Here the pagan savages bound the king to an oak tree, scourged his body and made him a target for their iron-tipped arrows, finally cutting off his head. Greensted Church, near Ongar. (From a Piint dated 1S09. Block lent by Mr. A^ Lockycr. " The story goes on to tell that when the Danish host had gone thundering on to further pillage, the body was sought for by Christian Saxons, that they found it in an open clearing, but discovered not the head till in the depths of the forest they heard a voice as of the king cry "here! here! here! " And there they saw a strange sight - - a great grey wolf crouching down with its paws expanded and between them the head of the monarch ! Peacefully giving up possession, the wolf retired and the mourning Saxons gave the remains burial near the forest. " There the body rested for ^^ years, till in A.D. 903 it was translated to Beodricsworth, the place afterwards known as St. Edmund's Burh, now Bury St. Edmund's, where it remained peacefully for over 100 years. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 265 " Many stories of miracles connected with St. Edmund's body are to be read in the chronicles and numerous were the people who flocked to and enriched the shrine and monastery, but in A.D. loio the hordes of Turchil the Dane landed near Ipswich to pillage the fair Saxon country-side, and then dreading lest the priceless relics should fall a prey to the invaders, a monk conveyed them to London (sundry miracles helping him on the way). " Peace came to England, and in 1013 the third translation took place, though Alphum, Bishop of London, hotly fought to retain the holy bones in the city. The body of the king was conveyed in solemn procession to Bury St. Edmund's and here our local interest begins, for the monks travelled by an ancient way (now mostly dwindled into bridle- roads and footpaths) which led from the Roding valley here, and hence to Clare and Bury. Here, where St. Edmund's remains rested for some days, pious hands are said to have erected this rude wooden Church ; but personally I think it probable the building was here already, for Greensted was an old-time village on the king's highway when the road through Ongar did not exist and Ongar was but a little settlement on a cross road. As such it remained till Eustace of Boulogne held it under the Conqueror, and Richard de Luci made it his home in the days of Henry IL " That however, is another story. Our interest is in the timber nave of this little church, associated as it is with the romantic journey of the remains, of Edmund ; and long may its timber walls stand a lasting memorial of East Anglia's king, martyr and saint." The evening was still stormy as the party traversed more pretty meadow- paths to the little station at Blake Hall. VISIT TO WALTON -ON -NAZE AND F KIN TON, ESSEX. Satdrdav, June 7TH, 1902. The stormy and unsettled state of the weather during the previous few weeks had rendered it undesirable to hold any meetings, especially on the coast. But on this day a visit was made to the picturesquely situated towns of Walton and Frinton in order to view the fast diminishing exposures of the celebrated Red Crag formation, and to study the rapid denuding action of the weather and sea on the soft clifts of this part of the coast. As the programme said " it would be a startling object-lesson in geology." The Club has visited Walton on two previous occasions ; first on September 14th, 1889 (Essex Nat. iii., 230-32) when the late Dr. Taylor was the demonstrator, and again on June 7th, i8go (E. N. iv., 129-32) under the guidance of Mr. Whitaker and Mr. Holmes. In the reports of these meetings much information on the topography and geology will be found. The literature on the geology of the neighbourhood up to the end of 1888 is catalogued in the " List of Works on the Geology of Essex," pp. 61-86 of vol. iii. of the Essex Naturalist. The maps are Geol. Sur. Map 48 S.E. with adjoining part of 48 N.E. and 48 S.E. with accompanying memoirs to these 266 THE ESSEX FIHLU CLUH. sheet by Whitaker and Dalton. And in i8go Mr. \V. H. Dalton wrote for the Essex Field Club " A brief sketch of the Crag Formation of East Anglia. An outline of the Nature, Position etc., of the Beds which have furnished the Collection of Crag Fossils in the Essex Museum of Natural History," a valuable little pamphlet, giving the latest aspect of the subject. ^ On the present occasion, Mr. W.H. Dalton F.G.S., and Mr. T.V. Holmes, F.G.S. were the " Conductors," and we had also the benefit of the company of Mr. J. E. Greenhill who had been staying at Walton for some little time. Unfortunately the stormy weather much restricted the party, which assembled at about i o'clock at the " Royal Albion " Hotel for luncheon. Afterwards a walk along the foreshore was taken to inspect the sections of the London Clay and the Crag, but very soon the rain came down and observations had to be taken under the shelter of umbrellas Mr. Dalton, was, however, able to demonstrate most points of interest, and a few fossils were collected, although the wet and "greasy" state of the cliffs rendered climbing somewhat un- pleasant and at times unsafe. The geological and topographical observations made are embodied in Mr. Dalton's special report in the present part of the Essex Naturalist (see pages 217-21). As the afternoon wore on e\en the enthusiasts were compelled to beat a retreat to the inn, and to ward off the damp with a cup of warm tea. Afterwards an Ordixary Meeting (the 213th) was held, the President Prof. R. Meldola, in the chair. The following were elected members of the Club: —Mr \V. H. Ault, Re\-. Henry E Bird, Rev. Father Clements, Mr. H. W. Lewer, Mrs Lewer, Mr. H T Malby (F. Roy, Photo. S.) and Mr. Elliott Sparks. Mr. Picton exhibited a Neolithic Celt found by one of his pupils on the beach at Clacton .-Vlthough Palaeolithic Implements have been found at Clacton, there appear to be no records of Neolith Celts in that neighbourhood. A figure of this implement will be given later in our journal. Mr. Henry Mothersole exhibited a Neolithic Implement from the gravel- pit in " Admiral's Park " Chelmsford, whence Mr. H. Corder obtained the fine spear-head many years ago which was recorded and figured in the "Transactions'' of the Club [Trcins. E.F.C, vol. ii., p 29, pi. ii.) Mr. Mothersole's implement, with other Neoliths from the neighbourhood of Chelmsford, will be figured in a future part. Mr. Mothersole also exhibited and presented to the Museum, a few flint flakes and " scrapers" gathered that morning on the shore at Walton, from the spot near which Dr. Laver and Mr. Spalding had found so many implements (see Essex Naturalist, vol ii., 187). .A short discussion took place on the subject of the erosion of the East Anglian coast, and Mr. Holmes read some notes from the British Association Report on Coast Erosion which he had extracted for the purposes of the meeting These are embodied in the notes on Coast Erosion in another part of the present issue (see pp. 221-24). Towards the evening the ramble was continued along the cliff to the pretty modern village of Frinton. Mr. Dalton had no difficulty in strikingly demon- strating his remarks — Frinton has suffered in an extraordinary degree from coast erosion — the site of the old Frinton Hall lying half-a-mile out at sea, and 2 Essex Field Club Museum Handbooks. No. 4. Price 23d. post free. OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS. 267 it is quite evident that the heroic attempts now being made by the authorities to arrest the decay of the land will be abortive. Time did not allow of an inspection of St. Mary's Church, almost the smallest in England ; the chancel, blown down in the great storm of 1703, was restored in 1879. On the way to the station, the Marconi Company's " wireless" telegraphic stations now erected at Frinton was seen with interest. A few members of the party remained down at Walton for the Sunday. THE OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS (CYNIPID^) OF EPPING FOREST. By E. J. LEWIS, FL.S., F.E.S. [Read January 26th, 7901.] The Study of Galls and Gall-Insects has never attracted the amount of attention that so interesting a subject deserves, although it affords a wide field for inquiry both to the entomolo- gist and the botanist.^ Galls occur on a great number of plants, and are caused by a variety of creatures, not only insects but also by mites and worms. Among the worms we find such species as Tylenchus tvitici (Bastian) which belongs to the family Anguillulidae, or Eel-worms, forming galls known as " Ear- cockles," or Wheat Eel-worm Galls. The family Eriophyidse (Phytoptidae) contains many species of gall-forming mites, those red formations so often seen in great numbers on the leaves of the maple and sycamore being examples. The swollen buds so prevalent on the black currant bushes are due to the presence of a species of mite, Eviophyes ribis (Nalepa), belonging to this family, thousands of individuals being present in each bud, and now doing such an enormous amount of damage that non- infested bushes are becoming the exception. An allied form, E. avellanae, is commonly met with on the hazel, causing the buds to swell in the same way. Other species ( E. taxi (Murray) and E. rudis {typicus) (Cam.) ) affect the buds of the yew and birch, respectively, in a similar manner. Gall-inakers are included in several different orders of the Insecta. For instance, the turnip gall weevil {Ceiitorhynchus sidcicollis), which produces swellings on the turnip and on the I Readers will find much information not only with regard to the galls of our county, but also on the general subject, in Mr. E. A. Fitch's paper on "The Galls of Essex," Transactions Essex Field Club, vol. II., pp. 98-156 In this paper wood-cuts are given of many of the oak-galls formed by the Cynipina, as well ab those on other plants made by Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, &c. Mr. Fitch also gave abundant bibliographical references. Ed. 268 OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS stalks of the cabbaj^e, belongs to the order Coleoptera (beetles). In the order Diptera (true flies) gall-making species are found chiefly, but not entirely, in the family Cecidomyidae, an example being the hairy nail-gall, Hormormyia piligeva, found on the upper sides of the leaves of the beech. In the order Hemiptera we have the family Aphidae including such species as Chevmes abietis, which causes the common but remarkable cone-like gall on the Norway spruce, and Schizoneiira ulmi which forms a gall on the elm. The order Hymenoptera includes the family Tenthredinidae (sawflies) some of which form well known galls on the leaves of various willows. To this order also belong the Cynipidae, which produce galls on the rose and other plants, but chiefly upon the oak. There are many other gall-makers besides those which I have enumerated, but in the following record I am deal- ing only with those Cynipids which form galls upon the oak. Cause of the formation of Oak-Galls. A gall is a peculiar growth of the tissue of a plant due to irritation set up by some internal animal agency. This irritation acts upon the cambium layer of the plant in which the gall- maker lays its egg. The abnormal formation is not due to any poison injected by the insect at the time of oviposition, but the egg must be laid in the cambium ring, or growing meristamatic tissue of the plant, in order to form a gall. Morbid growth results either from irritation caused by the swelling of the egg after oviposition and the subsequent hatching of the larva, or more commonly by the latter alone, in which case the gall does not conmience to form until the larvae have emerged. Growth of a gall only occurs while the juices of the plant are active, no growth taking place in the winter. The gall-makers themselves are usually small and insignifi- cant looking insects, but the galls which they form differ greatly botli in size, shape, colour and texture. The position in which they appear on the tree also varies as they may arise from the buds, leaves, stems, or roots. In the centre of each gall there is a hollow cavity in which the larva feeds and grows, subsisting on the juices of the surrounding tissue; here it pupates, the perfect insect subsequently boring its way out through the side of the gall, the hole thus formed being in many cases exceedingly small compared with the size of the insect. The hole OF EPPING FOREST. 26g forming the means of exit for some small parasite may often be mistaken for that of the gall-maker. Parthenogenesis and Alternation of Generations. Alternation of generations is an exceedingly interesting feature occurring in the life history of those Cynipidae forming galls on the oak. There are two generations a year, the first, consisting of females only, is known as the Agamic generation, the second, which includes both males and females, as the Sexual generation. The two generations give rise to galls which may differ entirely both in shape, size and situation. Those galls which mature in the spring give rise to insects comprising females only, which proceed to lay fertile eggs with- out having any connection with a male. This is known as Parthenogenesis or reproduction without male agency, the generation of flies being Agamic. After these have oviposited in the spring, galls arise which mature in the summer, and the insects emerging from them comprise both males and females (sexual generation) ; the latter, after copulation, lay eggs which in turn eventually cause galls to form which are exactly similar to those from which the agamic generation emerged in the spring. The reason for this alternation of generations is not known, and it would take too long to discuss the various theories on the subject, but it seems to be intimately connected with the extrusion of the polar bodies during the germination of the egg, previous to the formation of the embryo. In the eggs of the sexual generation two polar bodies are extended, while in the eggs laid by the agamic generation only one polar body is extruded. In all lower forms of life we find the occurrence of partheno- genesis m.ore common than in the higher forms. As regards the Cynipidae there are a few species forming galls on the oak which have only one generation a year, this generation being agamic. It is probable that these and other agamic generations at one time possessed males, as we find cases among the Cynipidae forming galls on other plants where a few males are still present. For instance, in the case of Rhodites rosae, which forms the common " Bedeguar " or Pincushion-gall on the rose, the males are almost extinct, though a few are still found ; consequently 270 OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS reproduction has become parthenogenetic, owing to a gradual loss of males, there being only one generation a year. It is probable that the process has been equally slow in other forms, but is so far advanced that only females are known. In Rhodites rosae we may conclude that males will soon be quite as extinct as they at present are in the agamic forms of oak gall-makers. Again, the receptaculum seminis is present both in the agamic and sexual generations, though atrophied in the former. Unless this can be explained by its being inherited in the agamic generation from the sexual, but being functionless has gradually become atrophied from want of use and may eventually dis- appear, it seems to point to the fact that males were present at some remote period. iJetore copulation can take place the ovipositor of the female must be extruded. Copulation takes place soon after the insects leave the galls, and the females sit with the ovipositor extruded awaiting fecundation. But this extrusion is carried out by the females of the agamic generations also, though they have no males to fecundate them and repro- duce parthenogeneticalh'. Does not this apparently prove that these agamic generations at one time had males, or could this act come under the head of inherited instincts ? Some galls, especially bark galls such as Andricus radicis, require two years in which to complete their generation cycle. The rudiment of the gall is formed in the first year and further development is arrested till the following spring, when the gall formation is renewed with a fresh period of vegetative activity. Maturity is reached in the autumn, the flies emerging in the spring of the next year. These lay eggs in the buds, which give rise to the sexual generation [A . tvilineatiis Htg.) which in turn oviposit to form the A. radicis gall. Galls formed by the brood appealing in the spring take a much shorter time to reach maturity than those formed by the sexual generation. Insects of the agamic generation appear in early spring often in very cold weather, some forms, such as Biorhiza terminalis, irequently ovipositing during the winter, when the snow is on the ground and the temperature at freezing point ; consequently it is a good thing for them to be able to lay their eggs at once, without previous connection with a male. The sexual generation on the other hand appears in the summer when the weather is warm, live longer, and so have more time to spare for the process of continuing their species. OF EPPING FOREST- 27I Gall vanation. As before mentioned galls of different generations of the same species often occur on different parts of the oak besides varying in shape and colour, etc. Galls of the agamic genera- tion, Diyophnnta folii, the common Cherry-galls of the oak, occur on the back of the leaf while the corresprmding galls of the sexual generation, D. taschenbergi, usually arise from adventitious buds situated on the trunk of the tree. The former when mature are large, round, yellowish galls, often with a red cheek, the latter are very small velvety galls, purplish in colour, hardly noticeable against the bark. The great difference between the galls as they occur on the oak, and the similarity existing between the insects which form them, is very marked, The larvae are fleshy, legless grubs, usually white or yellowish in colour. The perfect insect is, as a rule, brown or black, and it is almost impossible to find sufficient variation to differentiate between the species in some cases. Those agamic forms having only one generation a year, such as Andvicus qiiadnlineatns and A. seminaticnis, are practically identical, and yet the galls are very different. This may be accounted for by the fact that the larva is surrounded by the gall tissue throughout its whole life, and is never exposed to the light, so cannot be acted upon in any way hy external influences, and consequently varies but little. The perfect insects live only a short time and die as soon as the eggs are laid. The galls on the other hand serve to protect the larvae from parasites, and are, therefore, greatly modified by external conditions. Inquilines and Parasites. The number of parasites and inquilines preying on the gall- makers and living in their galls is enormous. They are of three kinds : — Inquilines or " guest-flies " which live in the thickening of the gall substance, doing no harm to the hosts. Inquilines which do not directly prey upon the host but starve it out and take up the extra room thus obtained for their own benefit (including certain Synergidae in the galls of Cynips kollari.) Direct parasites preying on the larvae, such as Chalcididae, Ichneumonidae, and Braconidae. 272 OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS There are also insects of various orders which feed upon the substance of the larger galls such as Biorhiza terminalis. They are known as "commensals." On account of the number of parasites, inquilines, etc., found in oak galls, it is important to differentiate between them and the true gall-makers : — Fig. Wing of a Chalcid. Characters of the Chalcididac. Wings without a system of cells, having a single nervure proceeding from the base near the costa to which it afterwards passes after giving off a short vein more or less terminally thickened. (Fig. I.) The angles of the pronotum do not extend back to the point of insertion of the tront wings. Antennae elbowed, with seven to thirteen joints. Fig. 2 A . Wing of an Ichneumonid. B. Wing of a Brachonid Characters of the Ichnemiionidac. Wings with a system of cells well developed. The space in the front wing dividing the posterior cell from the cubital cells, is separated into two portions by a transverse veinlet. (Fig. 2 A . Antennae many jointed. Abdomen attached to the lower part of the medium segment, OF EPPING FOREST. 273 CIniracteis of the Bracouidae. Wings with a moderate number of cells. The anal or second posterior cell is separated from the cubital cells by a large space having no cross nervure. (Fig. 2 B.) Antennae not elbowed, nearly always more than fifteen jointed. Abdomen with little mobility between the segments, the suture between second and third usually absent. Characters of the Cyiiipidae. Wings with few cells and having no stigma. Pronotum fixed to the mesonotum, the angles extending back to the points of insertion of the front wings. (Fig. 3 A.) Antennae straight, composed of twelve to fifteen joints. ,0- I' L d. Fig- 3- Nervmes. Cellules. -I. Typical Cynips Wing. B. Typical Syneigus Win^ e. Cubital /. Median g. Transverse basal Sub-costal Radial Humeral Median Kadial 5 Areolet ; 6 I 7 Discoidal 8 Posterior Cubitals Besides the true gall-makers there are other genera of the Cynipina which live as Inquilines in various Cynip galls. Such genera are : — (i.) Synergus : This is represented in nearly all oak galls. (2.) Cevoptres : Occurring chiefly in Andricus tvilineatus galls. (3.) Sapholytus : In galls on Quercns cevris. The Synergidae have the radial cellule of the wings closed, but in the Cynipidae the subcostal vein is not continued along the front margin. In this way they can be easily distinguished, (See Fig. 3.) 274 0^^^ GALLS AND GALL INSFXTS Parasites attackin<{ gall-makinL^ insects belonj2;inpj to the Cynipina are chietiy members of the family Chalcididae. These are small blue or green-metallic coloured Hymenoptera preying upon both larvae and pupae, the same species being often found in different galls. Ichneumonid and Braconid forms, parasitic on the Cynipid oak gall-makers, are not numerous. Parasites often prey upon the larvae of Inquilines. Certain Cynipidae are parasites upon other insects, such as Aphidae, and are sometimes found in the galls of members of their own family. Parasites reproduce themselves sexually. Agamic forms, are, however, found among Inquilines, the genus Cevoptres furnishing examples of both kinds. Protection against Parasites. Various devices for the protection of the larvae against these intruders are consequent!} necessary, and it is on this account to a large extent that galls present such a variety of form and structure. Hairs may be produced in abundance on a gall, as in the case of Andricns vamuli, where it is covered with a dense white matted growth, or a few stiff hairs may be present [Ncurotcviis tricolor). In Andricus fectindatrix, the gall is com- pletely imbedded in an abnormal growth of scale leaves, giving it the appearance of a hop. A covering consisting of the phloem or bast cells of the peripheral layer protects Andricns covticis galls. In the case oi Andricns sieboldii, the gall secretes a sweet sticky substance, of which ants are very fond, and these latter insects often protect the galls with a hood of earth. A hard woody growth near the centre of the gall serves as an extra means of pro- tection to the larva in the case of Cynips kollari . In other cases the larva may be enclosed in a separate cocoon within the gall [Andricns cnrvatov and A. iiiflator). The substance of the gall may be very bitter and obnoxious to birds which peck at it to get at the larva within [Cynips kollari). Other galls are highly coloured as a warning to birds [Biorhiza terniinalis). The most interesting form of protection is that of -'Protective Resemblance" where galls take the likeness of buds so accurately that even when specially searching for the galls one is liable to pass them ov:r without notice [Andricns albopnnctata). Parasites often distort galls either by stunting them or causing them to swell.. I OF EPPING FOREST. 275 have often found Audriciis feciindatvix ga.\\s rendered polythalamous by a number of contained Synergid larvae. Some galls, such as Andricns collaris, which naturally fall to the ground during late autimm, will remain on the tree when attacked by parasites. The common oak Marble-gall {Cynips kollari) may often be seen of smaller size and darker colour than is normally the case. On cutting through one of these galls it will be noticed that instead of there being one cell only in the centre of the gall, there is a ring of cells present. These have been formed by Synergid larvae and they will be found to have filled up and eliminated the cell of the original gall-makei'. Cynips kollari galls often have knobs or excrescences upon their surface which are caused by inquiline larvae living in the gall substance. Biorhiza tevminalis galls (the common " Oak Apple "j are particularly liable to parasitic infestation and are inhabited by a great number of insects. As many as seventy- five species have been collected from these galls, besides Acarina and Araneida. Although some changes in the appearance of a gall, such as those mentioned with regard to Cynips kollari, are due to parasitic infestation, they are for the most part probably caused by some substance secreted in the salivary glands of the larva, which acts upon the surrounding tissue, on the juices of which the larva feeds. This would account for the remarkable variety in form, etc., shown by the spangle-galls of the genus Neiiroterus, since the method and time of o^•ipositing are in each case apparently the same. Oviposition and gvoti'th of the Gall. The piercing apparatus of a gall-fly is, as one would expect to find it, of somewhat exceptional construction, the act of oviposition being of extreme importance with these insects. The ovipositor and its attachments take up practically the whole of the interior of the abdomen when in repose. The plates mentioned below are paired and the whole apparatus is worked by five muscles. It is made up of : — An anterior plate, a posterior plate and a triangular plate. The anterior plate (Fig. 4, d) is attached to the lower end of the triangular plate (r) and the base of the posterior plate (e). 276 OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS Fig. 4 A. Ovipostor of a Gall-insect Diyoplnvita (x 30). B. Egg of a Gall-insect. a. Apical b Basal t ''•''^chment of support c. Triangular plate d. Anterior plate e. Posterior plate. f. Spiculae g. Anal papillae /; . Sheath k. Egg stalk w. Egg body. OF EPPING FOREST. 27 It is narrowed toward the apex at which is situated the papilla ig). The posterior plate (e) is also narrowed towards the apex and broad at the base. The sheath (h) is made up of two pieces which together form a groove in which the two spiculae, or boring apparatus proper, can move. These spiculae (/) are attached to the triangular plate and are usually toothed at the apex. The five muscles which are attached to the plates act on the posterior plate by contraction and expansion, giving the spiculae a backward and forward movement. The egg itself consists ol a round egg body (Fig. 4, at) which eventually contains the embryo, and a long stalk-like process (k) which is useful in two ways. During the process of oviposition the egg body is not sent down inside the ovipositor, but the egg-stalk is clasped and carried down by the two spiculae, the main portion of the egg remaining outside, as the groove inside the sheath is not large enough to admit it. In the case of such galls as Biorhiza terminalis, when the egg is laid in the bud, a passage is first formed by the insect down to the cambium layer. The egg, when it reaches the extremity of the ovipositor, is not detached from the spiculae, but the egg body is placed at the mouth of the groove formed in the bud from which the ovipositor is partially withdrawn and pushed down until it reaches the cambium layer. The ovipositor is furnished with a number of tactile hairs whereby the insect is kept informed, as it were, of tiie progress of the egg to its proper destination. Besides acting as a means of attachment to the spiculae by which the latter can seize the egg, the egg tube is also used as a respiratory organ whereby oxygen can be admitted to the embryo developing in the interior of the embedded egg body, For this purpose it is left lying in the canal formed by the insect previously to the deposition of the egg. One insect may lay from six hundred to seven hundred eggs, and oviposition may extend over a period of three or four days. As before mentioned the egg must be laii in the cambium layer, which envelopes the whole of the plant and represents the growing- zone. Fggs laid in winter buds are particularly liable to failure, 278 OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS as the cambium ring is only represented by a thin layer at the base of the bud ; consequently in many cases no gall is formed because the eggs have not been placed exactly in this growing zone. The cell growth after the emergence of the larva is some- times very rapid, in some cases it commences before the larva is quite free from the egg. In the case of Tvigonaspis remim a period of months elapses after the egg has been laid before gall formation commences. The probable cause of the differences in size and form, etc., existing between various galls has already been referred to, but besides having some property in their saliva which acts on the surrounding tissue, the different ways in which the larvae feed may also have some important bearing on the case. The gcneval chavacteristics of the Family Criiipidae. Antennae twelve to fifteen jointed, never elbowed. Legs have the trochanters biarticulate. Wings without a stigma. One radial cellule. One to three cubital cellules. Submarginal nervure absent. Prothorax reaching at the sides to the insertion of the wings. Abdomen pedunculated and compressed. No cocoon spun by the larvae, which are apodal. Eggs stalked. The Cynipidae are divided into five Sub-Families : — (i.) The Ibalina, containing a single genus Ihalia including one species, which is parasitic on Sirex. (2.) Allotrina, containing two genera, Phaenoglyphis and Allotria, parasitic on Aphides or on the parasites of Aphides. (3.) Encoelina, containing genera which include species parasitic on larvae of various insects, especially Diptera, such as Musca, Evistalis, Tachina, etc. (4.) Figitina. This sub-family is divided into three sections, Anacharides, Onychides and Figitides. The Onychides are chiefly parasitic on Beetle and Syrphns lar\'ae, while the Figitides comprises genera (such as Figites) which contain species parasitic chiefly upon Diptera, mostly dung-flies of the family Sarcophagidae. I have mentioned the above sub-families of the Cynipidae merely to show how very generally parasitic the members of the OF EPPING FOREST. 279 family are, though they are of little or no importance to us in our present paper. The fifth sub-family of the Cynipidae, namely the Cynipina, contains the gall-making insects and the Inquilines living in their galls, and includes all the oak-gall making species. The following are the chief characters of the sub-family, Cynipina : — Wings with the areolet opposite to, or not much beyond, the base of the radial cellule, which is usually elongate. The three cubital cellules are as a rule complete. The cubitus arises from the middle of the transverse basal nervure. Legs with two spurs on the hind tibiae, no processes on the hind tarsi. Scutelluiii punctured, wrinkled or alutaceous. Hypupygium acute or ending in a hairy projecting point. Basal Segments of the abdomen not subequal or subsessile ; the second abdominal segment much longer than the others, not unusually half the length of the abdomen. Ovipositor spiral or semi-spiral. The Egg has already been described and figured. The Larva is apodal. Thirteen jointed, fleshy, and white to yellowish in colour. Larval life varies much in duration in different species, from about a month to as much as three years. The Pupa, like the larva, is yellowish white in colour and is never enclosed in a cocoon. The Perfect Insect. (Chief general characters given above.) (i.) Mouth parts. Labium fleshy, truncated or with a curved top. Mandibles short, broad and toothed. Inner lobe of the maxillae obsolete. Outer lobe broad and fleshy. Labial palp 2-3 jointed. Maxillary palp 4-5 jointed. (2.) Antennae. These differ in the males and 'females, being longer and thinner in the former. (3.) Wiftgs. Not always present. Seldom longer and sometimes shorter than the body. Hairs may be present on the surface and round the margin. When present the wings are four in number and membranous. (4.) Thorax. This is well developed. The pro-thorax laterally reaches the tegulas, the pleural region being specially prominent. In front the pro- thorax is but slightly developed, bearing, however, a keel which is often incised presenting two tubercle-like bodies. The parapsidal furrows are often absent from the meso-thorax, when present they may be complete or incomplete. The scutellum may be shining or opaque and varies much, having either one or two basal foveae. It usually overhangs the meta-thorax and median segment. 28o OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS The meta-thorax is very small, though the pleural and sternal regions and the meta-notal stigma are quite distinct. (5.) The median segment, though in reality the first abdominal segment, form? in the Cynipina and other Hymenoptera, a fourth thoracic segment. It is, as it were, separated from the abdomen by the petiole, and is often con- founded with the meta-thorax. In reality the petiole is the second abdominal segment. The stigma of the median segment may be larger, foveate or reticulate. (6.) Lcfjs. Of moderate size. Trochanters bi-articulate. There are either one or two spurs on the fore tibiae, and on the hind tibiae there are two unequal spurs. The Meta-tarsiis is long and the tarsi are four-jointed. Cluws may be simple or^cleft. Patella seldom conspicuous. I Vk Aiuliieiis collaris (Htg.) Pertect msect, magnified. An example of the Sub-Family Cynipina. (7.) The Abdomen varies much in form. It maybe slender or thick, long or ovate. Sometimes it appears to be nearly sessile, which is due to the shape of the patiole. According to Cameron there are seven abdominal segments, which differ in length, especially the second and third, a point much used in classification. The apical ventral segment may be ploughshare shaped The number of segments in the abdomen differs with different authors according to whether thev consider the medium segments or the petiole to be the first abdominal segment. In reality the median segment is. If this latter view is taken the abdomen consists of eight instead of seven segments, the varying segments being the third and fourth. There are only six visible segments on the ventral region of the female, and five in the male. The Ovipositor, which has been previously described, has its origin close to the base of the abdomen. OF EPPING FOREST. 201 These gall-makers are usually small insignificant looking insects, their colour varying as a rule from black to brown. This, however, is not always the case, as in some species, such as Biurhiza terminalis, the general colour is a light yellowish red, while the abdomens of the Tvigonaspis crustalis gall-flies are a bright red. As a rule the abdomen is glabrous and shining, but in the genus Cynips it is pubescent. The colour in males and females scarcely differs at all. They are very sluggish insects and when disturbed feign death, tucking their legs and wings close to the body and falling to the ground. = Many parasitic species frequent flowers, but gall- makers are only known to take water. It is often difficult to distinguish between the species and sometimes it is impossible except from the galls. Geneva of the Sub-Family Cynipina, which occuv as Inquihncs in Oak Galls : — Genus Syncrgiis. (The chief characteristics and habits have already been given). The third and fourth true abdominal segments are amalgamated, the suture being rarely visible. The antennae of the male are 15 jointed and in the female 14 joints are present : the male also has the third antennal joint curved and sometimes enlarged. The parapsidal furrows are complete. There are two-parallel keels on the medium segment. Claws cleft. One of the chief differences between these insects and the oak gall-makers is the closure of the radial cellule in the former. They may be separated into two divisions (i) Those ovi- positing in autumnal galls, leaving them early in the spring and (2) those depositing eggs in spring galls, leaving them in July. The former include the following species : — Synergus nielanopus, rheinhardi, tscheki, tvistis, vulgaris, incvassatus, neyvosus, pallicornis and thaumacera. The latter division contains Synergus albipes, Jaciates, and, according to Mayr, thaumacera, which latter he says has been bred from the galls of Biorhiza renum. 2 ■' Feigning death " is an expression commonly applied to this habit in insects and other creatures, but surely it is an incorrect one. Does an insect, when it dies, fold up its limbs in this way, and why should a living one feign death at all ?— the fresh morsel whether alive or apparently dead would probably be equally welcomed by a Tit or Creeper in search of breakfast. Is not the habit rather a very effective form of concealment (as we think Prof. Poulton has somewhere hinted) enabling the insect to escape notice by its close resemblance in this attitude to the soil or to some inanimate object ? Anyone who has collected by beating branches of trees over an open umbrella or tray well Knows how difficult it is to see insects when they are in this folded-up attitude, amid the mass of green and dried buds, leaves and twigs, which are shaken down. And who could detect such an insect as the common beetle, Byrrhits piltila lying in this concealment attitude on the rough and rutty soil of a footpath, or many weevils wlien they fall from bushes or low plants on to the surface of a tield or bank. The habit seems to be well worthy of detailed study, and should be taken up by some entomologist in search of a subject of research. — Ed. 282 OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS It is exceeding difficult to differentiate between the species of this genus, as the different individuals vary to such an extent among themselves that it is almost impossible to separate them in many cases, the specific characters rarely remaining constant. For this reason I have not here described the different species, but an excellent account of this genus has been given by Mr. Cameron.^ With regard to the galls to be hereafter described, the in(]uilines inhal)iting them are also given in each case. Two other genera include insects found as inquilines in oak galls, namely, Ceroptres (Hartig) and Scipholytus (Foerster). In the former, one species, Ccroptves avator, is mentioned by Cameron as present in galls of Anchicus nodnli from Clydesdale, and it is also said to have been reared from Cynips kollari galls. The genus Sapholytus contains only one British species, 5. connatus (Htg.) also bred from Andriciis nodnli galls. The characters of these two genera have been given by Mr. Cameron in his work already referred to. It very often happens that after taking great trouble to breed Cynipidae from a number of different galls one only succeeds in rearing a large proportion of inquilines and parasites. This is very naturally the cause of much disappointment, especially when one is just commencing to collect. Synergidae are ver)' easily mistaken for the gall makers, which they greatly resemble, though as a rule one soon finds plenty of opportunity for ascertaining their exact appearance. True parasites are easily distinguished. Collecting Galls. To any one commencing a study of Oak galls who requires to obtain specimens for a collection or for breeding purposes, a great deal of time might be saved, in the case of some species, by first looking through a collection such as that at South Kensington and thus obtaining some of the idea of the exact appearance of the galls before going out to search for them.^ There are many species which are by no means easy to find even when you ave aware of their exact appearance ; such galls as 3 VaXer Cameron's Monograph of British J'hytopluigous Hynienoptera, vo\. iv. London Ray Society, 1882-92. 4 It is anticipated that by tlu- Spring of 1903 a typical collection of galls and gall-insects, with drawings and other illustrations, will be placed in the Club's Epping Forest Museum in Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, Chingford, Essex. — Ed. OF EPPING FOREST. 283 Andvicus albopuuctata, A. malpighii, A. collaris and A. seminationis are easily passed over. On the other hand, some galls, such as Nenroterus haccavum and N . tricolor, being very difficult to preserve, look so different in a collection compared with those growing on the tree that previous examination of specimens in a collection may be quite misleading to the beginner. When searching for galls the casual examination of a branch is not sufficient ; a mimate examination of buds, leaves, or cuttings, may often result in the finding of several galls even when previous search has failed to reveal their presence. So far as my experience goes, galls are usually scarce in damp woods, and I have frequently found that both species and specimens are more numerous in drier and more exposed situations. One is often able to obtain better results in a short time from searching hedges in a country lane than by spending hours in searching trees in a wood. Expevimental Breeding. In order to ascertain the life-history of the various species of gall insects, and to investigate the gall forma- tions in the different generations, it is necessary that very close and accurate observations should be made. The act of oviposition is a very important item in this respect. In all cases it is best, and in many instances essential, that in experimental breeding the natural surroundings should be maintained, in order to obtain satisfactory results. For those insects which lay their eggs in the buds, the latter should be well developed ; while for those which oviposit on the leaves there should always be tender shoots ready for use. In order to effect this a number of young oak saplings (about 4 or 5 years old) should be obtained. They should then be planted in large pots and placed in some sheltered position where they can obtain the necessary amount of air and light and where they may be subjected to the ordinary temperatures. At the same time the insects must not be allowed to escape or get mixed up in any way. P'or this purpose 1 have foimd the most satisfactory method to be one on the same principle as that made use of, I think, by Dr. Adler. A square box frame-work fitted with a glass top and having the sides covered wiih gauze to give ready access to the air is placed over each oak sapling. In some cases, in order to facilitate observation, I had gauze on three sides only, the fourth side being fitted with glass. In this way the insects are not allowed 284 OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS to escape and the necessary investigations can be carried on without difficulty. As the oak does not usually bear fruit until it is about twenty years old (though it depends to a large extent upon soil and climate), this method is obviously useless in the cases of those species which produces galls on the catkins. For these the only way is to experiment upon the full grown tree by covering in certain branches with gauzs. When the act of oviposition is witnessed the bud or leaf should be marked by tying just beneath it round the branch, a piece of cotton or wool. It is necessary with those galls which fall to the ground to mature (such 3.s N euvoterus lenticulavis) that the natural temperature and amount of moisture should be maintained. As before men- tioned, in order to prevent any mistakes, it is desirable that verv careful and accurate observations should be made. It is always best when possible that a series of different experiments with the same species should be carried on at the same time. Where one experiment fails another may be successful, and time, saved. Even then many disappointments are sure to occurs The result of one apparently successful experiment in breeding should not be taken as proof, but to allow for possible error the observation should be repeated the following year. There is a great deal yet to be found out with regard to alternation of generations among these remarkable insects, and in the case of such species as Andi'icus solitavius the life-history has yet to be worked out. Pi'csevvation of Galls. With regard to the preservation of galls for a collection. There are many kinds which are very difficult to preserve as they lose their colour and shrink ; and this especially applies in the case of such galls as Andvicus radicis which contain a great amount of moisture, causing the gall to shrivel and wrinkle after evaporation. I have tried the quick drying method with only partial success, and in many instances by gradual drying and by not exposing the galls to any very high temperature I have caused them to keep their shape and colour fairly well ; but such galls as Nenrotevus li'icolor and N . baccarum soon lose both. If kept in spirit the proper form is retained but the colour as a rule gradually vanishes. I find that the best thing to do is to make coloured drawings of the galls when fresh, so that a fair idea of their natural appearance may be had, after the galls themselves have lost their proper shape and colour. OF EPPING FOREST. 285 Another method of exhibition, which has been made use of at the British Museum, is the preparation of coloured wax models of the galls and of the plants upon which they grow. As regards oak galls, such as Trigonaspis crustalis, both generations are shown in the same case, Trigonaspis renum appearing on the leaves and T. crustalis from the adventitious buds on the trunk. There is often a tendency to depict "good specimens " by exaggerating the size and number of the galls, and this should be guarded against as giving a wrong impression to anyone who is just starting to collect, who is not always quite certain what to look for. [I have found that a solution of formalin (about 5 per cent, of the 40 per cent, commercial formalin) preserves the form of most galls, but any colour dependent upon chlorophyll or its derivatives disappears in the course of time. We are now trying in the museum a method of bleaching with sodium hypochlorite, which discharges all colour and produces a semi-transparency, displaying form and structure excellently well, the specimens being " put up " in 90 per cent- alcohol. Of course, as Mr. Lewis says, such preparations should be placed alongside drawings giving the natural colours of the galls. — W. Cole. J Classification. Since the discovery by Dr. Adler of the alternating agami and sexal generations among the oak gall-makers, the nomencla- ture has undergone, a change. The method adopted by Mr Cameron is the truly scientific one, but these alternating genera- tions present such variations that the generic names used by Dr. Adler, 5 which serve to differentiate more clearly between the agamic and sexual forms, are still adhered to in many cases. I have, therefore, inserted a list showing the differences between the nomenclature of these two authors. In the case of the three forms, Andricus feciindatvix , Andriciis malpighii and Dryophanta divisa, I have found galls of the agamic generation only, and have been unable to find specimens of the corresponding sexual generations, Andricus pilosus, A. niidus and Dryophanta vcrucosiis xes^ectvjeXy, so that in this list these latter have been printed in italics. I have inserted them partly because in giving an account of the generation cycle they must necessarily 5 Alternating Generations. A Biological Study of the Oak Galls and Gall Flics. By Hermann Adler, M.D., Schleswijj. Translated and Edited by Charles R. Straton. F.R.C.S., F.E.S. Oxford 1894. _ 286 NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. be mentioned, and partly on account of the fact that as I hav'e found the agamic generation in Epping Forest it is highly probable that the sexual generation is to be found there also, and a description will, therefore, be of use in distinguishing these galls. In the following account I have kept the generic name of the agamic generation for the sexual generation also. In this respect I have followed Cameron, but in the case of the specific names I have, with a few exceptions, retained those used by Dr. Adler. (To be continued.) NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. Destructive Storm in Essex. — In connection with the detailed and exhaustive report given by Mr. WilHam Cole i'l the Essex Naturalist (vol. X., 112-129) of the great storm of June 24th, 1897, which wrought such havoc in certain but happily restricted districts in Essex, it will be of interest to recall the account given by Mr, Jacob George Strutt, the artist in the Magazine of Natural History for 1833 (pp. 103-107) of a similar storm which occurred in Thorndon Park, near Brentwood, on the 12th of October, 1831. The main part of the narr.-^'.tive there reprinted was taken from a Chelmsford paper, and it was accompanied by a woodcut of a scene from the midst of the havoc drawn upon wood by Mr. Strutt, which is here reproduced. I quote some paragraphs from the narrative ; — " On the evening of Wednesday, the i2th inst. (October, 1831), a destructive hurricane ravaged a considerable portion of the park of Thorndon Hall, the seat of Lord Petre, near Brent- wood. The blast came on about eight o'clock, and in less than four minutes the work of havoc was complete. It appears that the wind came from the south-west, and entered the park near the Lion's Lodge, where it tlirew down a small portion of the paling. It then traversed the park in a varying sweep of about 150 yards' breadth. It is difficult to form any idea of the manner in which it took its course, as it has made many singular selections of spots and single trees. The line of desolation is not an uninterrupted one ; in many places, a large breadth of trees has escaped unhurt, while others, apparently heltered by them, have been shivered or torn up by the roots. In some groups of three or four trees, one of the least exposed has shared in the ruin while its more exposed neighbours have not lost a leaf. On entering the park at the Lion's Lodge, on the west or Warley side, the eye is immediately attracted to the right hand by several oaks, 60 feet Jong, which have been torn up by the roots and to which are adhering masses of earth, 14 feet in length, and from three to four feet in thickness The stems of many trees are off within a few feet of the earth, some at the height of two or three feet, others at a greater height ; and one elm has been severed at about 20 feet from the ground, 15 feet of the stump having half its body torn away NOTES —ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 287 In one place, about 100 yards from this spot, the destruction has been tremendous. In a circle of nearly 40 yards diameter, whole trunks, huge limbs and branches, with immense masses of earth, lie on the ground in wild confusion, mingled in such a manner that it is impossible to count the number of trees destroyed. It appears as if a battery of heavy artillery had been directed against a great mass of timber which had crowded that part of the park.'' The narrator gives numerous details of havoc in various parts of the grounds, which attest the extraordinary force and capricious character of the storm, and remarked that the "blast has not taken a direct and lofty course, sweeping all before it ; and we can form no other idea of it, than that it moved with infinite velocity, undulating like the rushing of a mightv sea; sometimes passing over the spires of the s-iffantir oaks and elms, and then W Effects of Storm in Thorndon Park, October 12th, 1S41. striking the earth, rebounding and insinuating itself beneath some trees, and levelling others by its force operating near the earth." .... "We understand that (the storm) did some little injury at the distance of a mile to the east of the park. It was also severely felt at Upminster, in the west, before it commenced its ravages on Lord Petre's demesne. We have endeavoured to compute the extent of mischief done in the park, but find it impossible, from the confused state in which the shattered and fallen timber at present lies ; but we believe there cannot be less than 300 trees torn up, or so much shattered as to render it necessary that their remains should be felled. As to the partially injured timber, it is too extensive to be enumerated. This park, during the war, furnished some of the finest naval timber that could be procured in the kingdom, and it still presents a large number of equally valuable trees. . . . It is a little singular that the noise occasioned 288 NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. by the destruction was heard in the mansion, but was supposed to be thunder, and the real cause was not ascertained till next morning. The hurricane was immediately succeeded by a tremendous fall of rain." This graphic descrip- tion of the Thorndon Park Storm recalls in many particulars our Essex experi- ence particularly in the isolated character of its destructive effects. — Wilfred Mark Wkbb, F.L.S., Odstock, Hanwell. The Soils and Sub-soils of Norfolk. — A paper with the above title, by Mr H. B. Woodward, F.R.S., F G.S., of the Geological Survey, was read before the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society on March 25th, 1902, and is published in Vol. VII. of their Transactions, pp. 401-414. As the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex have a specially strong resemblance to each other in geological structure, it seems desirable to draw the attention of the Essex Field Club to Mr. Woodward's remarks He gives an account of the various essays and maps on the soils of Norfolk, from the Rural Economy of Norfolk, by William Marshall, published in 1787, to the work of Nathaniel Kent (1796), Arthur Young (1S04), R.N. Bacon (1844), Joshua Trimmer (1847), Searles V. Wood, junior and Mr. F. W. Harmer somewhat later, and lastly that of the Geological Survey. The distribution of the various soils and sub- soils of Norfolk is then noted. Mr. Woodward adds that while there is a general correspondence between the subsoils and soils, " yet there is an infinite variety in the soils such as cannot be fully indicated on a geological map, and can only be inferred from a knowledge of the subsoils." He inclines therefore to think that: — "A detailed sub-soil map on a scale of 6 inches]to a mile, carefully and judiciously surveyed, should serve as a basis for special investigations of soils. On it the general characters of soils should be indicated, and where there is much landslipped material or considerable downwashes of the sub-soils these should be marked. Sometimes down- washes of gravel from the uplands are of sufficient importance to have shallow gravel-pits opened in them, or buildings may be erected on them — and yet in ordinary geologicalrnaps, which profess to show the Drifts, this debris from higher grounds, or ' run of the hill ' has been omitted when it is of sufficient importance to influence the surface features. This is, undoubtedly, a defect." Of course on maps 6 in. to the mile much can be indicated useful to the agriculturist, the builder and others, which could not be shown on maps of smaller scale ; much also which would be felt to add obscurity rather than information to a map one-inch to the mile. Readers of the Essex Naturalist may be interested in learning that the Geological Survey of Essex on the six- inch scale is now begun.— T. V. H. [Several Reports and Notes arc held over until the next volume.] End of Volume XII. An interesting record of the Club's work for 21 years is given by Prof. Meldola in his pamplilet " The Coming of Age of the Essex Field Club " (price is., post free). Ordinary (Scientific) Meetings are held at frequent intervals for the reading of papers and the exhibition of specimens, etc., and Field Meetings are arranged during the summer months, and held in various parts of the County under the guidance of experienced Naturalists, Geologists and Archaeologists. Considerable efforts have been made to catalogue the Fauna and Flora of the County, and it is wished to extend this work as funds and opportunities will permit, particularly in the direction of a systematic Exploration of Marine and Estuarine forms of life by Dredging. etc., and their preparation and preservation in the Essex Museum, for future reference and study. Although bearing a county title, the Club offers exceptional advantages to Metropolitan residents. Many parts of Essex are but little known, although of the greatest interest to the naturalist, geologist and anti- quary, and the Museums and Libraries at Stratford (at which place a large proportion of the " Winter Meetings " are held) and Chingford, bring the Club into close touch with London naturalists. Very considerable material has been accumulated towards a Local and Educational Museum, which is established in a handsome build- ing at Stratford (by the generosity of Mr. Passmore Edwards, and in conjunction with the Corporation of West Ham) to form a home for County collections and specimens, where they may be consulted by all interested in Essex. A Branch Museum to illustrate the Natural History and Archaeology of Epping Forest has been established (under the sanction of the Corporation of London) in Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, Chingford, which has proved very attractive to thousands of visitors to the Forest. Greatly increased space for the Museum is now accorded at the Lodge, the Corporation of London having spent about ;^' 1,200 in the restoration and adaptation of the building. In consequence the Museum is in process of re-arrange- raent, which will be completed, it is hoped, in the summer of 1903. The Club alread}' possesses a good nucleus of a Local and Scientific Library, which has been obtained by donations, exchanges and purchase. The Minimum Subscription is Fifteen Shillings per annum, payable upon election, and afterwards on the ist January in each year. The usual entrance fee is at present in abeyance. The Life Composi- tion is ;f 10 los. in one payment. Members can purchase the publications of the Club at a Discount of 25 per cent, from the published prices. Copies of the Rules, Forms of Proposal for Membership, together with specimen copies of the Essex Naturalist, and other information, will be gladly sent on application to the Hon. Secretaries, Messrs. W. and B. G. Cole, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. N.B. — All communications of a financial nature, Subscriptions, Donations to the Museum and Library Fund, etc., should be sent to the Treasurer, David Howard, Esq., Devon House, Buckhurst Hill, Essex ; communications relating to the Library, and Donations of Books and Pamphlets, and Specimens for the Museum should be sent to the Head-quarters, Essex Museum, Romford Road, Stratford, Essex. TPIE FIELD NATURALISTS' QUARTERLY. A Journal devoted to Zoology in all its Branches, Botany, Archaeology, Folk-lore, and all subjects worked by Field Naturalist and Kindred Societies. Edited by GERALD LEIGHTON, M.D. Published Qiiayterly, Price 2s 6d. nett. Annual Subscription 70s. post free. No. 4. Vol. I. November, 1902, now ready. The Field Naturalists' Quarterly is published in Demy 8vo., with one or more illustrations, each issue consisting of about sixty-four pages. The Articles are written from the point of view of the ordinary Member of a Field Club, not for the specialist or advanced student. All editorial communications should be sent to Dr. Leighton, 17, Hartington Place, Edinburgh. The Field Naturalists' Quarterly may be ordered direct from the Publishers, Messrs. Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh and London,r or through any Bookseller. THE COMING OF AGE OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. A Record of Loc.a.l Scientific Work, 1880 — 1901. By RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F.R.S., V.P.C.S., F.R.A.S., F.LC, V.P.R. Photog. Soc, cS:c., President of the E.F.C. 1880-1882 and 1901-1902. PRfCE Is. POST FREE. This important paper has been reprinted (with separate pagination), from the Essex Naturalist for the purpose of calling attention to the work of the Club. It is hoped that friends of the Club will obtain copies for circulation among those likely to be interested in the Society. Copies will he sent free to Members wishing to obtain recruits, either members or workers, for the Club. / ,., Published by the Club at the Essex Museum of Natural History, Stratford, Essex. 3 2044 106 259 112 This book should be returned to the Library on or before the last date stamijed below. A fine of five cents a day is incurred by retaining it beyond the specified ^ime. / Please return promptly.