7 •" ^1\^ HARVARD UNIVERSITY m LIBRARY OF THE Museum of Comparative Zoology 1 ^ THE ESSEX NATURALIST BEING THK Journal of tbe £5scx 3ficl^ Club, EDITED EV WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., Hojiojnry Secrciaiy . VOLUME XIII. JANUARY, i()o-:,-DECEM B ER, 1904 " Me?i that undertake only one district arc viuch more likely to advance naiiiral knowledoe than those that orasp at more than they can possibly be acquainted with. Every kinodojn, every province, should have its own Monographer:'— G\l.?,¥.v.T White, of Selborne. " Things seen are mightier than things //m7v/."— TENNYSON. \Thc autlio>s alone are responsible for the stafemenfs and opinions contained in their respective papers.] PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX. 1904. Ti; MAft 1^ 1926 c- . ,M r» kV ^ Jl'^(^^^/'<-^^^ '• Stand stiic anJ onsuirr the 7V on droits rcorks of God." Job. '- O XiituiY ! Ill ! HHiv do I not name thee God ? 'Art thou Jtot the living garment of God,'' " CarlylE. " The harp at Nature's advent strung, Has 7iever ceased to play ; Tlie song the stars of morning sung, Has never died axi^avy '^Science lives only in quiet places^ and with odd people, mostly poor^ WHITTIER. Rusk IN. " Nature smiles as sweet, I ween, To Shepherds as to Kings." Burns. " In every landscape the point of astonishment is the 7neeting of the sky ana the earth, and that is seen from the first hillock as well as from the top of the Alleghanies." Emerson. " What.' dull, lohen earth, air, and water are alike mysteries to you, and when as you stretch out your hand you do not touch anything the pro- perties of -which you have mastered ; when all the time Nature is inviting you to talk earnestly with her, to understand her, to subdue her^ and to he blessed by her I Go a7uay, man : learn sotnething, do something, understand some- thing, and let me hear no more of your dul/iess.^* Arthur Helps. INDEX. 11 Acera bulla ta at Walton, 360 Ailoxa, variation of, 93 Africa. South, Eoliths from, 258 "Ahen Plants" at Manninj^tree, 132 Alluvium, in Ihames Valley, old accounts of discoveries in, 136 ; of River Lea, notes on seeds of plants in, 115 Amwell, visit to, 248 Ancient Water-pipes, Notes on, 1 1.7 " Anent a Forest Lodge in 1444 (E.N. xii., 145), 136 Annual jNIeetings, 23rd, April 14th, 1903, 86; 24th, April i6th, 1904, 262 Ants, a raid of, 92 Arctic jNIammals, DifiTusion of, 204 virion Liitcnnedius in Epping Forest, Arrow-head, Note on a Neolithic, from Upton Park, Essex, 114 AspleniiLm ruta-niiiraria in Essex, 207 Avery, John, George Edwards, 343 ; exhibits photographs of Colchester Chaiters, etc., 84; exhibits rare Essex books and old print of King's Oak, 2:,9; presents warrants for killing deer in Epping Forest, 360 Azoila (!) in Hainhault Forest, 361 Bacillus, Typhoid, and Oysters, 300 Badgers at Mucking, 203 Barnard, C. M., exhibits photo- graphs of Fungi, 360 Bat, Serotine, at Laindon Hills, 203 Bats catching moths, 42, 131, Beech absence of, in Hainhault, as contrasted with Epping, Forest, 340 Biological Stations, Fresh- water, lec- ture on, 360 Bird-life, Pictures of, lecture (syllabus only), 257 Bird Protection Society, Essex, Report of igo3, 194 Bird Snaring, 48 Birds and Brown-tnil iNloth, 42 Birds, Essex Sh(Me, Notes on, 297 Birds, Piotection of, in Essex, 363 Birds, Protective colouring among, 297 Black Hare in Essex, 38 Blackwater, Porpoises in the, 296 ; a salmon in the, 299 Books, presented to the Club, 37 ; rare Essex, exhibited, 259 Boring Wooden Water-pipes in 17th Century, 135 Botany, Essex, History of, 218 BouLGKR, G. S., Address on Aquatic Plants (title only), 357 ; History of Essex Botany. 218 ; Seed Dispersal, lecture on (syllabus only). 255 Bourne, Caterham, remarks upon, 264 BoM-ers (iifford, curious effect of a lightning stroke at, 304 Braintree, Ancient Urns at, 1 10 ; Bone- implement from, exhibited, 258 ; Lake-dwelling at Skitt's Hill, further Notes on (paper read), 262; Neolithic Stone Hammer-head from, Brambles, South Essex, 191 Brand, ¥. J., exhibits photographs of Essex Churches, 84 Brightlingsea, Water-spout at, 304 Briscok, a. E., Proposals for a- Photographic Survey of Essex, i, 85 British Association, Report.s of Club's Delegates, Belfast, 1902, 120 ; Southport, 1903, 174 ; Cambridge, 1904. r:>1 Brition, C. E. , South Essex Bram- bles, 191 Brown, Dr, Horace T., presents his Geological Collection to Ulub, 35 Brown-tail Moth and Birds, 42 Buckhunst Hill, Sirex gigas zt, 128 BuxTO.v. E.N., conducts meetings in Hainhault Forest, June 6th, 1903, 245 ; June 4th, 1904, 351 ; Vote of thanks to, 354 Calosojua sycophanta, 128 Canning Town, Notes on Sections in the Lea Valley at, 77 Canvey Island, Otter at, 203 Caterham Bourne, photographs ex- hibited, 264 Caves, Chiselhurst, Remarks upon, 263 Cephalopoda, Essex, exhibition of specimens of, 37 Chancellor, F., reads paper on history of Horham Hall (title onlv), Charcoal-Burning in Essex, 240 Chelmsford, Neohthic Imi)lements from exhibited, 83 Cheshunt, Visit to Paul's Rose Garden at, 247 Chiselhurst Chalk Caves, 263, 360 Cnn'TENDEN, F. J., Vicia lutea near Witham, 94 ; " Alien " plants at Manningtree, 132 ; the Uiedinece and Ustilagineas of Essex, 283 ; Lathra'a squamarla in Essex, 301 Chri.stv, Millkr, Aspleniiivi ruta- imiraria in Essex, 207 ; a supposed Pile-dweUing at Woodham Walter, 261, 280 IV. INDEX. Cliuiclics, Ksscx, phulographs of, ex- liibiicd, 84 Ck'ikcnwL'll, Wooden Walcr-Pipcs at, o - -» *• / •■ Coast, ('han^c■^ on tlic Essex, 366 Coast Erosion in liast Anj^lia, 362 Colehester, Tawny Owl Breedmj^ in, 3<) ; jihotoijraphs of Charters exliibi- led. 84 ; Visit to, 243 ; 'J'cstacelhi haliotidca at. 3O4 CoLK, B. Ct,, Viinessn io \a\ . cyanostica at St. Osytli, 365 ; Aberrations of Kpiiicpliclc /am'/ a and Ji. tit/ioiius, Coi.E, H. A., Orifjinal Views of Hain- luiult Forest, Plates I., II., and III. Coi.K, W., Purther additions to Ep- pnig Forest, 2 J ' a new Forest of Waltham. 25 ; exhibits, Essex speeimens of Cephalopoda, 37 ; i^Iespeiia lineoli from the Essex Coast, 37 ; Marine District of Essex, 37 ; Black Hares in Essex, 38 ; Colorado P>eetle at Tilbury, 41 ; Goldsinny in Essex Waters, 41 ; Bats catchin<,' ^Sloths, 42, 131 ; Brown-tail Moth and Biids, 42 ; Einiits of the old Forest of Waltham for faunistic purposes. 75 ; Exhibits Sepia officinalis from North Sea, 83 ; Ancient Urns at Braiutree, no; Calosoma sycophauta, 128 ; Locusla vi/idissitna, 128 ; Si rex gigas at Buckhurst Hill, 128 ; '"^ Painted Lady " Butterfly, 129 ; a Suggestion with respect to Exploration and Registration Work for Local Socie- ties, 183 ; exhibits Stone Imple- ments from Leytonstone and West Ham, 255 ; exhibits cast of Skull of Rhinoceios atitiqiiilalis, ^58; Hipporotatnus tooth from Ilford, 259 ; Occurrence of De Winton's Mouse in Essex, 294 ; Deilephila livornica in Essex, 300 ; Henncia sanguinolenta in Colne River, 301 ; Ostiea angulata introduced into Essex, 360 ; Ciepidiila at St. Osvth, 3^0 ; Petricola pJioladiformis and Ace/a bullata in Essex, 360 ; exhibits specimens recently accjuired for Museum, 351 ; A'^olla from Hainhault Forest, 361 ; Protection of Birds, ibi Colne Kiver, /le/iricia sangtiijiolenta in, 301 Colorado Beetle at Tilbury, 41 Colour in Nature, Address by Lord Raylcigh on, 34 Conference Meeting at Ipswich, Post- ponement of, 35 Co.VNOi.i), P2., r.ccture on British Vesuitia; and their Vespiaries, 86 CooKK, Dr. M. C, Work in the Field amongst the Fungi, with additions to the Plora of Ep]iing Forest, 5 ; exhibits Diagrams of Fungi, 36 ; A Big Mushroom. 44 ; Coloured Diawings of Fungi for Museum, 85 ; Awarded Gold Medal of the Linnean Society, 96 ; New Essex Fungus- pest. 132 ; Edible Fungi, 251 ; conducts at I'ungus Forays, 35 and 357 CooFRR, J. E., ^Marine Mollusca at Walton-on-Naze, 92 ; Petricola phohidiforinis and Acera bullata from Walton, 360. Corner, Dr. Frank, presents a set of Palaeolithic Implements from Leyton, 84 Cornish, C. J., Surviving London Flowers, 302 Corresponding Societies' Committee, Reports of Delegates, at Belfast, 1902, 38, 120 ; at Southport, 1903, 174; and at Cambridge, 1904, 337 Cranmkk-Bvng, L., receives Club at Horham Hall, 351 Crenilahriis melofis in Essex Waters, Crepidida in Essex Waters, 360 Crouch, Wal.'ER, remarks on Essex Cephalopoda, 37 ; on Gilberd Meeting at Colchester. 360 Council, Annual Reports, 1902, 88 ; 1903, 264 Cynihia cardiii. Abundance of, in Autumn of 1903, 129 ; Notes on, 205 Dalton, W. H., Notes on Geology of Hainhault Poorest, 246 ; Absence of Beech inHainhault as contrasted with Epping Forest, 340 ; Post-Glacial Deposits at Walton-Naze, 307 Dam, Proposed, across Lea Valley, 303 Davjes, a. i\L)RLEY, Notes on Ancient Water-pipes, 117, 302 Deer in E})ping Forest, 38 ; Warrants for Killing, Presented, 360 De He phi la livornica near Romford, 300 Dent, Francis, Report of Essex Bird Protection Society, 1903, 194 De Winton's Mouse, Occurrence of, in Essex 294 Dick, E., Notes on present-day use of Wooden Water pipes, 118 Diftusion of Arctic Mammalia, 204 Diseases of Trees, large wall-diagrams of, exhibited, 359 INDEX. V. DoddiuLihurst, Stone Axe from, 193 l>onyland, Hoopoe at, 39 Doiyphoradeccmlineata at Tilbury, 41 Dujj[-out boat and Lakc-d\vcllin, 305 Hainhaiilt Forest, " A New Forest ot Waltham." 25 ; Meeting in. in suppoit of scheme of re-aftl restation, 43 ; Notes on Geology of, 246 ; Absence of Beech from, as contras- ted with Epping Forest, 340 ; Inspection of. June 4th. 1904, 351 Harlow, \arieties of Helix nenioraiis from, 256 Harting J. E., presents specimen of British Marten, 85 Hastings, Somkkvii.lf, exhibits photographs of Fungi, 255 Hawthorn, early lloweiing of, 43 helix Jieuiorcilis, varieties of, from Harlow, 256 Ilenricia sangiiinolcnta in the Colne River, 301 Hertforcl, voyage to, from Enfield Lock, 3:6 Hesperia litieola, from Essex Coast, 37 Hippopotamus, tootli, from Ilford, exhibited, 259 Historv of Essex Botany, 218 Hoi.MKS, T. v., on Tree-trunk Water- pipes, 60 ; old account of discoveries in Alluvium of Thames Valley, 136 ; on Greywethers at Grays, 197 ; Diffusion of Arctic Mammalia, 204 ; Additional Notes on Tree-trunk Water-pipes, 229 ; Sketch of Geology shown in Kelvedon light railway. 249 ; remarks upon Chisel- hurst Caves, 263 ; exhibits photo- graphs of Caterham Bourne, 264 ; on the origin of the term .Sarsen Stones, 275 ; Oysters and the Typhoid Bacillus, 300 ; exliibits plan of Chalk Caves at Chiselhurst, 3fco Hoopoe at Donyland, 39 HoPK, G. P., Deilephila livoniica near Romford, 300 Hornbeams, Fungoid disease in, 4:5 Horham Hall, meeting at, 350 HoRKKLL, E. C, Leiicopha'a surin- amensis in Essex, 365 HurTGX, Rev. A. B., Badgers at Mucking, 300 ; Otter at Canvey Island, 203 ; Serotine Bat at Laindon Hills, 203 ; exhibits .Stoat in Winter Dress, 259 ; Peregrine Falcoii at Pitsea, 296 ; Protective colouring among birds, 297 Hybeniia leiicophearia, protective resemblance of, 260 Ilford, Hippopotamus tooth from, ex- hibited, 25Q Index of Pie-histoi ic rcmams, plea for Onhiance Map of, 123 Influence of the naluie of soil on poul- try, 91 ; of environment, 9(1 Implement of bone from Braintree, exhibited, 258 John. SON, J. P., The Pakneoliihic Period in the Thames Basin, 97 Kelvedon antl Tollesburs Light Kail- way, visit to, 249 ; Paleolithic flake from, 2.)6 Kennard, a. S., presents shells from Lea Alluvium, 83 ; exhibits flint implements from Thames Valley Gravels, 87 ; presents Eoliths from INDEX. Vll. Grays, 88 ; Note on a PalMolith from Giays, 112; Note on Neolithic Anow-head from Upton Park, 114 ; see Reid, ("lenient, 115; Relative Age of Thames Vallev Stone Implements, n3 ; exhibits Ploliths from Johannesburg,', Souih Africa, Kknnard, a. S., and Woodward, B. B , The Non-Marine JNIollusca of tiie River Lea at Walthamstow, 13 ; Notes on Sections in the Lea Valley at Canning Town, 77 ; Fresli-water Mollusca in a Water-main at Poplar, 80 Kent, West, Exidenccs of Prehistoric Man in, 328 Kenworthv, R.ev. J. W , exhibits Bone Implement from Braintree, 258 " King's Oak "' Inn, old print of, pre- sented, 2.,9 Taindon Hills, Serotine Bat at, 203 Lake Dweller, a Modern, 134 Lake Dwelling at Skitts Hill, Brain- tree, Further Notes on [paper read)^ 362 Lake Dwellings and Dug-out Boat, 47 Lambouine Forest, Visit to, June 0th, 1903- 245 Lark BY, J. Russell, Evidences of Prehistoric Man in West Kent, 328 ; Specimens exhibited, 258 Lateriie Dej^osits ot India, Stone Implements irom, ^7. Lathi cca sqitaiiiaria in Essex, 301 Lathy/US apliaca at Coggeshall, 43 Layer, Henry, Hoopoe at Donyhmd, 39 ; Tawny Owl Breeding in Col- chester. 39; Spotted Woodpeckerat Fowlness, with notes on the natural- history of the island, 127; Htnricia sangiiinolenta in Colne River, 301 ; Testacelta halioiiiha at Colchestei, Lea Alluvium, Non-A[aiine ]\Iollusca of, 13 Lea Valley, Notes on Sections in, at Canning Town, 77 ; Proposed Dam across, 303 Lkwis, E. )., The Oak-galls and Gall- insectiv-of Fpping Forest, Part 11., 138 Leueoph(ra si/ri/iainensis in Essex, 365 Leyton, Palaeolithic Implements from, presented, 84 ; Hairless Specimen of Blown Rat at, 204 Life in Winter in New Forest, 126 lightning Stroke, curious effect of, 304 I A max einereo-iiiger in Essex, 299 ; /.. tenellus re-discovery of, in Britain and Essex, 342 Llstk.r, Arthur, Mycetozoa observed at Fungus Foiay, I902, 12 ; Con- ducts at Fungus Foray, 250 ; Mycetozoa found in Epping Forest, Local Societies, a suggestion with respect to registration work for, 183 Locomotion of Microscoj^ic Organisms Lecture upon, 88 Loeiista. viridissinia near Purfleet, 128 Lodge, R. B., Lecture — some Pictures of Bird-life {syllahiis only), 257 London City Walls and Walbrook, Lecture on {title), and specimens exhibited, 261 London Flowers, Surviving, 302 Lumiere Process of Tri-colour Photog- raphy, 83 Mammoth, old record i)f, at \Valton- Naze, 295 Mammalia, Arctic, diffusion of, 204 ALanningtiee, "Alien" Plants at, 132 Marine Animals obtained m Essex Waters in 1902 and 1903, 116 Marine District, Essex, 37 ALarine ]\Iollusca at Walton, 92 ALuten. British, presented, 85 Massee George, Address on Study of Fungi [title) 36 ; Address on Life- history of a Parasitic Fungus [title), 254 ; exhibits large wall-diagrams of diseases of trees, 3^9 Meldola, Prof. ' R.. Protective resemblance in caterpillar of Large Thorn Moth, 35 ; vote of thanks to, 87 ; on the colour of the winter stoat, 259 ; on protective resem- blance in Insects, 260 Microscope, Museum, exhibited, 87 ; figure of, 137 Microscopic Organisms, Locomotion of, 88 Mill, Dr. FL R,, Rainfallof 1903, 367 Mole's Fortress, jSlodel of, exliibited, 257 Mollusca, \'ou-Marine,of Lea Alluvium at Walthamstow, 13; Fresh Water, in a Water Main at Poplar, 80 ; Marine, at Walton, q2 MoTHEKsoLE, Henry, E.xhibits Neolithic Implements from Chelms- ford, ^ Moths and Bats, 42, 131 Mouse, De Winton's, Occurrence of, in Essex, 294 Mucking, Badger at, 203 Vlll. INDEX. J/us syk'aticus-ii'intoni, in Essex, 294 Museum Specimens recently acquired, Mushioom, a Bij;, 44 ; Growth-Force of, 44 ; Gi,i,'antic, 133 Jfuste/a niarles, presented, 85 Mycetozoa of Kppiiig Forest, 12, 358 Narcissus pseiido-narcissiis in Eppin*;; Forest, 44 Natural History of Pyrites and Gypsum, Niiture's Protection of Insect Life, Lecture on, 259 Xeoliiliic Implements from Chclms- fonl, exhibited, '^i ; Stune Hammer- head from iiraintree, 95 ; Note on Arrowhead from Upton Park, 114 •New Forest. Life in \\ inter in, 126 New River, Visit to Up{)er Reaches of, -4/ Newspaper Cuttings relating to EpjMug Forest, Collection of, }Mesented, 254 Non-marine Mollusca of River Lea Alluvium at Walthamstow, 13 North Sea, Sepia ojjicinalis fiom, exhibited, 83 Oak-Galls and Gall-Insects (Cynipidae) of Epping Forest, Part II., Descrip- tive and Faunistic, 138 Osprey in Essex, 205 Ostrea angnlata introduced at Southend, 360, 361 Otter at Canvey, 203 ; food of the 296 Owl, Tawnv, Breeding at Colchester, 39 Oysieis, a Plea for, 47 ; and the Typhoid bacillus, 300 " Painted Ladv Butterflv," Notes on, 129,205 Palaeolithic, Implements from Leyton, presented by Di. Corner, 84 ; period in the Thames Basin, 97 ; from Grays, 112; Irom Leytonsione, 255 ; "flake'' from Ivelvedou, 256 Paui.so.n. Ruhkki, Fungoid Disease in Hornbeams, 45 Peregrine Falcon ai Pitsea, 296 Petch, T., Limax cinereo-niger in Essex, 299 ; Ke-discovery o; Limax tenelliis in Hiitain and Essex, 342 ; peiiod of incubation of Kobiu. 353 ; Anon inteimed ills in Ep]Mng Forest 3^4 ; Ostrea aiiiiulat'i inirotiuced at Soutliend, 364 ; on common plants in Epping forest, 366 Petriciiia plwladifonnis at Walton- Naze, 360 Photographic .Survey of Essex, pro- posals lor a, I ; letter Irom Su" Benjamin Stone, 84 ; discussion on, 85 ; Prospectus of {^Insertion at end of volume). Photographs of Fungi exhibited, 255 ; Photography. Tri-colour, demonstration of, S3 ; value of, in the study of Natural History, 2(0 Pile-Dwelling, a supposed, at Wood- ham Walter, 280 ; specimens ex- hibited, 261 Pin-polishers, exhibited, 2bi Pitsea, Peregrine Falcon at, 296 Plants, Diagrams for Museum, 85 ; Notes on Essex, 131 ; uncommon, in Epping Forest, 366 Pleshy, visit to, 32 Plo WRIGHT, Dr. C. B., tinctorial properties of British Dye-plants, 94 Poplar, occurrence of Fresh-water ilollusca in water-main at, 80 Porpoises in the Blackwater, 296 Post-Glacial Deposits of Walton- Naze, 367 Poultry, influence of the nature of the soil on, Qi Pre-historic Man, Evidences of, in West Kent, 328 Pre-historic Remains, Plea for an Ordnance Map Index of, 123 Presidential Address, ]Mr. Rudler's, April l6th, 1904, 305 Protecion of Birds in Essex, 363 Protective Resemblance in caterpillar of Large-thorn ^loth, 35 ; amongst insects, 260 ; colouring, among birds 297 Pyrites and Gypsum, Natural History of, 305 Rainfall of 1903, 367 Rat, Brown, Hairless Specimen at Leyton, 204 Rayleigh, Lord, Reception of the Club at 'lerling Place, 34 ; Address on Colour in Nature. 34 Read, Charles H., Plea for an Ord- nance ALip Index of Prehistoric Remains, 123 Readek, F. W., on a Polished Stone Axe from Doddinghurst, 193 ; ex- hibits Bone Implement from Brain- tree, 258 ; Lecture on Recent Observations on City Walls and Walbrook (////^ <;///)'), 261 ; Wooden Waier-Pipes at Cleikenwell, 272 ; Reads Paper on further Notes on Lake Dwelling at Skitts Hill, Brain- tree \Jitle only), 362 Reader, Thu.ma.s W., presents Set of Dissections of Shells to Museum, INDEX. IX. Red Hills at Virley, Visit to, 24;? Kkii), 'vJlement, on Seeds of Plants from Alluvium of River Lea, 115 Rhinoceros antiqniLitis, Cast of Skull exhibited, 258 Ribes grossularia in Eppiug Forest, River T.ea, Notes on Seeds tiom Alluvium of, 115 ; voyajre from Hertford to Enfield Lock, 356 Robin, Period of Incubation, 363 Romford, Deilephila livornica near, 300 Rose-garden at Cheshunt, Visit to Paul's, 247 Rudlp:r, F, W., Election as Presi- dent, 86-87 ; Receives the I.S.O , 96; Reports as Delegate at British Association, Southport, 1903, 174 ; ditto Cambridge, 1904, 337 ; re- elected President, 262 ; Presidential Address, Natural History ot Pyrites and Gypsum, 263, 305 ; Changes on the Essex Coast, 36b Russia, " Wooden Age" in, 46 Sacred-fire, 303 Saffron Walden, Meeting at. May 23rd, 1904, 350 Saint Osytb, Vanessa 10 var. cyanostica at, 365 Salmon, a, in Blackwater, 29c) Sarsen Stones, on the Origin of the Term, 275 ScotTRFiEi.D, D. J., Lectures on Locomotion of Microscopic Organ- isms, 88 ; Exhibits Entomostraca from Epping Forest, 261 ; Conducts Meeting at Walthamstow, May 14th, 1Q04, 350 ; lectures on Fresh-water Biological Stations, etc., 360 Sections in the Lea Valley at Can- ning Town, 77 Seed Dispersal, Lecture on [syllabus only), 255 Seeds of Plants in Alluvium of River Lea at Walthamstow, Notes on. Sepia officinalis from North Sea exhibited, 83 Serotine Bat from Laindon Hills, 203 Seion-Karr, W., presents Stone Implements from Laterite deposits of India, 87 Shore-Birds, Essex, 2q7 Shrike Empaling Moth, 42 Sirex gigas at Buckhurst Hill, 128 Smith collection of newspaper-cuttings relating to Epping Forest, 254 Smith, Frank P., Notes on Spiders observed in Epping Forest, July 26th, 1 902, 22 ; the Spiders of Epping Forest, Pt. II., 49, Pt. IH., 20^ Smith, WoRTHiNcrroN G., receives Civil List Pension. 96 Soil, influence of the nature of, on Poultry. 9 1 SoRBY, Dr. H. C, presents Victoria History of Essex. 88 ; Notes on Marine Animals in Essex Waters in iq02-3, 116 .Southend, Ostrea angulata introduced at, 364 South-Essex Brambles, 19 1 Spiders of Epping Forest, 22, 49, 209 Spiller, John, Coast erosion in East Anglia, 362 Stoat in winter dress, exhibited, 259 Stone, Sir Bf.njamin, Letter re Photographic Survey of Essex, 84 Stone Implements, from Laterite Deposits of India, 87 ; Relative Age of the Thames Valley, 133; PoHshed Axe from Doddinghurst, 193 ; from West Ham, 255 Suggestions with respect to Explora- tion work, etc., for Local Societies, 183 Survey of Essex, Photographic, [Insertion at end of Volume) Terling Place, Visit to, 32 Tertiary Geology, East Anglian, 45, 84 Testacella haliotuiea at Colchester, 364 Thames Embankment, Black-headed Gulls on, 39 ; Valley Gravels, Flint Implements from, 87 ; Basin, Palaeo- lithic Period in, q7 ; Valley, Stone Implements, Relative Age of, 133 ; Valley, Alluvium, Old Accounts of Discoveries in, 136 Thaxted, Visit to, 350 Tinctorial Properties of our British Dye Plants, 94 Tower, H. C, Occurrence of Osprey in Essex, 205 Treasurer's Statements of Accounts, 1902 and 1903, 26(1-9. Tree trunk Water- Pipes, Notes on, 60 and 229. Turner. Edwin E,, Lathy t us aphaca at Coggeshall, 43 ; Notes on Essex Plants, 131 Turner, E. R., Demonstration of the Lumiere process of Tri-colour Photo- graphy, 83 Upton Park, Essex, Note on a Neolithic Arrow-head from, 114. Uiedinese and Ustilagineco of Essex, 283 X. INDEX. Uins, Ancicn'., at Biainlree, no Vanessa io, var., cyanostica, at Si. Osyth, 365 Variation of Adoxa, 93 Varieties oi IL/ix /wniora/is from liar- low, 356 Vcspida: and their Vespiaries, T-ecUne on, 80 Vtcea lutca near William, <)4 Victoria History of Essex ^ Presentation of, 88 Virley District Visited, 243 Wai.I-IR, W. C, Anent a Forest Locl«(e in 1444. 136 Wall-rue {A\pUniitm) in Essex. 207 Wakkkn, Rev. K. T., Growth-force of a ^^usln•oom. 44 ^Vallham, a new Forest of, 25 ; Forest Limits of old, for faunistic purposes, AValthamstow, Non-Marine Mollusca of the River Lea alluvium at, 13 ; Alluvium of River Lea, seeds in, 115; Reservoirs, Meeting at May I4lh, 1904. 350 Walton-Naze, Marine-^SIollusca at, q2 ; old record of Mammoth at, 295 ; Pi'tricola pholadifonnis and Acera hullata at, 360 ; Post Glacial Deposits at, 367 Wasp, Eiimcnes coarctata, nests of, presented, 85 Water-pipes. Lree-Trunk, 60 ; ancient, 117; present-day use of, 118; method of borin^j in I7tli century, 135 ; Additional Notes on, 229 ; aT Clerkenwell, 272 ; Note on Ancient, 302 Water-spout at Biii,ditling>ea, 304 Wkmh. W. M., Neolitliic .Stone Ham- mer-head from Braintree, 95 ; exhibits specimens of Pin-polishets, 2f)i ; Demonstration on aquatic moUusca [title only), 357 Whiiakkr. AV., Report as Club's Delegate at Bellast, 38, 120 ; Palaeo- litliic flake at Kelvedon, 25 b White Colour of Winter Stoat, discussion on, 259 Whitkhf.ai), IL. a Raid of Ants, 92; Variation oi Adoxa, 93 Wild Boar's Tooth fiom West Ham, = 55 . , Wilson. Benjamin, Larly Electrical Experiment in Essex, 368 WixKWORiH, J. T., on Varieties of Helix ne mot alls from Harlow, 256; presents Specimens to Museum, 360 Wit ham. Vicia lnteane?i\, 94 Wood, J. M., Conducts and entertains Club at Meeting on New River, -47 '* \\ ooden Age" in Russia, 46 Woodham Walter, supposed Pile- dwelling at, 280 Woodward, B. B., See Kennard, A. S., 13, 77, 80, and Reid, Clement, 115 Work in the Field amongst the Fungi, 5 PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate I., Frontispiece. Over Crab- tree Hill, Hainhault Forest Section in New Resenoirs, Waltham- stow, 13 Planorbis stmniii and Pisidiuni supinmn, Figs. 2 and 3, 20 Plate II. View over Foxborough Farm, Hainhault Forest, to face 25 Plate III. Cabin Plain, Hainhault Forest, to face 28 Plan of Pleshey Earthworks, 32 Growth-force of a Mushroom, 44 Primitive Fishing-hooks. 46 Plate IV. Palpi, etc., of Male Spiders, to face 49 Plate V. Epigynal Armature of Female Spiders, to face 50 •Shape of Wooden Water-pipe, 61 Water-pipe made from an Elm Trunk, Sketch-map of Old Forest of Wal- tham, 76 A Stone Hammer-head {three fgu res) ^ ,95 Plint " Scraper " from Swanscombe, Spear-head from Crayford and " Saw "from Uford, 98 Flint-knife from Crayford, 90 Tongue-shaped Implement from Swanscombe, Kent, lOi ; Do. do. 102 ; Do. do. 103 Sketch-map oi'Thsxnes Basin [insertion) to face 104 Ancient Urns at Braintree, in Plate VI. Paloeolith from Grays, Essex to face, 1 1 2 Longitudinal and Transverse Sections of the Grays Implement, 113 INDEX. XI. Flint Arrow-head from Upton Park, Essex {/li'o figures), 114 Method of Boring Wooden Water- pipes in the 17th Century, 135 Museum Microscope, 137 Tabh'. Oak-galls of K]iping Forest, to face 144 Table. List of Cynips Galls of Epping Forest, to face 168 Plate VI L ' Polished Celt from Dod- dinghurst, Essex, to face 193 Plate VIII. ■ Greywethers at Grays Thurrock, Essex, to face 197 jNIap of Grays District 197 Section at Grays, 200 Greywethers in place, in Chalk-pit at Grays, 201 Plates IX and X. Palpi and other Organs of Spiders, to face 209 Charcoal Burner's Hut, Writtle Woods, 241 Plate XI. Wooden Water-mains in Cold Bath Fields, and at Bagnigge Wells, to face 272 Plate XII. Boys gathering Copperas- stone at Harwich, to face 305 Section at Well Hill. 329 Scraper Types, Eolithic Gravels [three figures), 330 Pointed Eoliths, Well Hill {two {figures), 331 Late Eolitliic Implements, Well Hill [three figures). 334 Late Paiceolithic Implements, Well Hill. 336 Plate XIII. Portrait of George Edwards, to face 343 Page 26 5> 82. )> 88 »> 108 »> m »« 20- J J 25s 5> 236 r> 273 5) 293 5' 301 ) ) 302 »> 324 )5 325 5 1 Jo3 To Bind ERRATA. line 6 from foot, for " reclaimation " read reclamation. The Family heading, Pleuronectid^., should be placed above Ilippoglossus vulgaris. lines i; and 6, the stones from Grays, presented by Mr, Kennard, were Neoliths, not Eoliths, line 10, for " Church " read Clinch. line 4 from foot, for "28" read 82 (an error of errors!) line I from foot, for "flowering" read flourishmg. line 10, from foot, for " 1904 " read 1903. line 18, for "Mildred" read Hildred. line 10, for " right " read left. Ime I, for " ^USTILAGINE " read USTILAGINEiE. line 8 from foot, for '■' squarmaria^^ read squaiuaria. line II i'rom foot, for " Galinisoa'''' read Galinsoga. line 18 from foot, for " goede " read geode. line 16, for " cavites " read cavities, line 18, for " Prestwick " read Prestwich. er.— Substitute reprint of pp. 367-8 inserted in Pt. I. vol. xiv., for original pages. Place Prospectus of Photographic Survey of Essex (inserted in Pt. 7) at end of text in binding of volume. i:^:.^ -/A^., ,.: *%#;;; ^Uit-^ 7^~-C^^-~^ - -^.— '* JX--^__^n^-"^^~~^^ :r>=— ''^:^ _- THE GREA'J'K STAX I )I XCIC OX DANNETTS HILL, EPPING FOREST. PUBLISHED QUARTERLY. Price to Non-Menibeys, 5s. per part, post free. Part I., Vol. XIII] [APRIL, 1903. T/ie Esseit Naturalist: wX^ BEING THE JOURNAL OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, EDITED BY WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., Honorary Secretary and Curator. Proposals for a Photographic and Pictorial Survey of Essex. — By A. E. Briscoe, B.Sc. . . Work in the Field amongst the Fungi, with Additions to the Flora of Epping Forest.— By M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., &c. Mycetozoa observed at the Fungus Foray, 1902. -By Arthur Lister, P.R.S., F.L.S. The Non-Marine Mollusca of the River Lea Alluvium at Walthamstow. — By A. .S. Kexnard and B. B. Wood- ward, F.L.S. [7vii/i i/lustrafiojis) Notes on the Spiders of Epping Forest. — By Frank P. Smith Further Additions to Epping Forest. .. A New Forest of V^a\X.h3,m.—{lVith three plates, by H. A Coi.F.) The Essex Field Club— Reports of Meetings .. Notes — Original and Selected [^Title-page a fid Index to Volume XII. is inserted loosely?^ PAGE 13 22 23 The Authors alone aj-e 7-esponsibh- for the statements and opinions contained in their respective papers. PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX. Entered Stationers' Hall.] -,^ [Published April, 1903. Editorial communications to W. C0J.E, " Springfield," Buckhmst Hill, Essex, and Advertisements to Messrs. Benham and Co., Printers, Colchestei. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. £t6f of Councif ftnb €)fficcr6 for 1903-4. Patron : H.R.H. THE DUKE OF CONN.A.UGHT .\ND STRATHE.'^RN, K.G. ijianger of Epping Foiest). President : F. W. RUDLER, F.G.S., F.Anth.Inst. Vice=Presidents : E. NORTH BUXTON. J. P., Alix C.C, D.L. WALTER CROUCH, F Z.S. I. CHALKLEY GOULD. J. C. SHENSTONE. F.L.S. Permanent Vice=Presidents : {Constituted under Rule IV.) Professor R. MELDOLA, F.R.S. (President 1880-82 and igoi-02). Professor G. S. BOULGER, F.L.S., F.G.S. (President 1S83-84). THOMAS VINCENT HOLMES, F.G.S. , F.A I. (President 1885-87). EDWARD A. FITCH, C.C, F.L.S. . F.E.S. (Piesideni, 1888-91). HENRY LAYER, J. P.. M.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. (President. 1892) FREDERIC CHANCELLOR, J. P., F.R.I.B.A. (President, 1893-94). DAVID HOWARD, J.P., F.I.C., F.C.S. {President, 1S95-1900). Other Members of Council : JOHN AVERY. C.A. PRIMROSE McCONNELL, B.Sc. F.G.S. CHARLES E. BENHAM. j HUGH McLACHLAN, F.R.I.B.A. MILLER CHRISTY. F.L.S. H UGH H. MASON. F.R.C.S., L.S.A., C C. PERCY CLARK. B A. ROBERT PAULSON. F. W. ELLIOIT. JOHN A. FINZI, F.E.S. Right Hon. LORD RAYLEIGH, F.R.S. F. W. READER. J. E. HARTING. F.L.S., F.Z.S. C. B. RUSSELL. M.A., J. P., C.C. Rev. W. C. HOWELL, M.A. JOHN SPILLER, F.I.C.. F C.S. A. JOHNSTON, Chairman C.C, J. P. FREDK. H. VARLEY, F.R.A.S. Rev. W. S. LACH-SZYRMA, M.A. GEORGE E. VAUGHAN. ALFRED LOCKYER. i Hon. Treasurer : DAVID HOWARD, D.L., F.I.C, F.CS. Hon. Secretary and Curator : WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Assistant Hon. Secretary : BENJAMIN G. COLE, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Hon. Librarians : Hon. Counsel : Hon. Solicitor : W. C. DARE, B.A., Harrister-at-Law. HENRY I. COBURN. Auditors : WALTER CROUCH, F.Z.S., and JOHN D. COOPER. BanKers : LLOYD'S BANK, 72, Lombard Street, E.G. Headquarters : Essex Mt'sEUM of Natural History (Passmoke Edwards Museum), Romford Road, Stratforh, E. Museums and Library : Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, Chingford. Essex Natural History Museum, Stratford, E. 00 to CO THE ESSEX NATURALIST: BEING TH|-. Sourndf of f^e Bbbcx fiefb €fu8 FOR 1903-1904. (VOLUME XIII.) PROPOSALS FOR A PHOTOGRAPHIC AND PICTORIAL SURVEY OF ESSEX. By ALBERT E. BRISCOE, B.Sc, A.R.C.Sc, i^c, Principal of the Municipal Technical Institute, ]\'cst Hani. [Read January Si-sV, 1903.] THERE is but little need in these times to point out the value to historical students of contemporary pictorial records : every one is familiar with the interest that attaches to old prints and drawings. A splendid example of the way they may be used to illuminate history and to give valuable information regarding the social life of the people is the well- known illustrated edition of John Richard Green's Short History of the English People. No books give us such a vivid understanding of the social life of the Eighteenth Century as is given by the prints of Hogarth ; to our descendants, pictures like Frith's " Derby Day " and " Railway Station," will be equally valuable. We live in a time of great changes ; probably the changes in the appearance of the country during the next fifty years will be even more marked than those of the last fifty. Old customs are fast dying out ; old houses are disappearing, and no record of either is being left behind. Those of us who have lived in Metropolitan Essex during the last decade know this only too well. However, even yet there are bits of the old villages buried away in out of the way corners of the new towns that are springing up like mushrooms in " London over the border." Within the last five years, old Rokeby House has disappeared 2 PROPOSALS FOR A PHOTOGRAPHIC AND from Stratford, and not five minutes' walk of the Technical Institute there are relics of the once rural hamlet of Stratford that will probably vanish before another ten years are out. Opposite the Institute is a f^ateway which is one of the best examples of wrought iron work in the London district. Others like it have disappeared. Essex is peculiarly rich in such objects of interest, and it behoves a body like the Field Club to see tliat everything is done to secure records before these things vanish completely. Fortunately, in Photography, we have a ready and rapid method of securing such records, that was not available to our ancestors, and by combined action much can be done. The oldest Photographic Survey in this country is not yet twenty years old. To Warwickshire and to the photographers of its chief city, Birmingham, belong the honour of beginning this work. The prints are stored in safe keeping in the Birming- ham Free Libraries, under the care of the City Council. Since Warwickshire started, several other surveys ha\e been arranged for, including a very successful one in the neighbouring Home County of Surrey ; in our own district the enthusiastic photo- graphers at Woodford have, I believe, begun work on their own account. In all cases the method of work is to enlist as many helpers as possible. Negatives are taken ; then prints by some permanent process are made and sent to a central body, and by that central body catalogued and stored in such a manner as to be readily available for examination. What body is more fitted to take up this matter than the Essex Field Club, with its members scattered all over the whole County ? The cost of making such a collection will be mainly the expense of cataloguing and storage. Storage accommodation can be found at the Passmore Edwards Museum, West Ham, the Club's head-quarters, and I think there will be little difficulty in inducing the Museum Committee of the West Ham County Borough Council to defray out of the funds already set apart for the upkeep of the Museum, the comparatively small expense of cataloguing, mounting, storing, and exhibiting the prints. The scheme of work that seems most likely to give the best PICTORIAL SURVEY OF ESSEX. 3 results is to map out the country into districts and enlist as many local helpers as possible. Negatives would be taken by the local helpers and their friends, and prints by some permanent process, such as the platinum or carbon processes, would be made by them and forwarded to headquarters unmounted. Such prints shoidd be accompanied by descriptive labels, giving information as to the object photographed, the date on which the negative was taken (this may be of the greatest importance), the process used for printing, and the name and address of the photographer. Whole plate and half plate should be the standard sizes for prints, but of course quarter plates would have to be accepted for hand camera work. These prints would then be carefully mounted, labelled and stored in such a fashion that ready reference would be secured. The Warwickshire prints are all mounted on card v/ith sunk mounts, and are then bound into book form for storage. If the main object of the survey be, as it should be, the preservation of such records for future reference by serious students, this method seems to me to be not the best that could be adopted. Often reference to a particular district means referring to a large number of bulky volumes. Further, it is next to impossible to secure that card mounts shall be made of materials sufficiently pure to prevent the mount damaging the print ; neither does the material of which . such mounts are made possess the necessary lasting qualities. Suitable mounts can be made only out of the purest paper. The method of mounting and storage that I would suggest is illustrated by the sample shown by me at the meeting of the Essex Field Club in January last. The prints are mounted on paper of good quality, about the thickness of stout cartridge paper. All mounts are of foolscap size, and will take a whole plate, a half plate, or two quarter plate prints. Descriptive matter can be written on the back of the mount. The prints are attached to the mount by puvc starch paste. The mounts are then bound together in a foolscap size " Stolzenberg " File, each photograph being protected by a sheet of tissue paper, bound in by the file between each mount. These files will hold about 50 to 100 of such mounts. They allow the prints to be examined as easily as though they w^ere bound up like a book, and yet permit of the removal of any one 4 PROPOSALS FOR A PHOTOGRAPHIC AND print or the re-arrangement of the whole set without damaging them in any way. The files themselves are very inexpensive, costing about 5d. each; it will probably be found advisable to replace the steel binder by one made of a non-rusting metal like aluminum. To' protect the file and its contents from dust it could be placed in a large envelope. Prints should be bound together according to locality, and by filing the cases away in an alphabetically indexed cabinet the arrangement would be self indexing. Cross-indexes of subjects, etc., could easily be made with little trouble, if started when the collection w^as begun and kept carefully up to date. Every year it would be well to arrange for a public exhibition of the prints contributed during that period, and from time to time series of prints referring to special subjects or districts could be exhibited either in the museum or elsewhere. With this exception only those who desire to make use of the collection for serious purposes should have access to it, the main object of the collection being not to provide a series of interesting pictures for the general public, but to supply historical material for future generations. As regards subjects for illustration, they begin to multiply the more one thinks about them ; certainly they should include the following : — (a.) Archaeological subjects (old houses and churches,. and old buildings of every description). {b.) Prehistoric remains. (c.) Passing events of importance. id.) Portraits of public men connected with the County. (e.) Illustrations of old customs. (/.) Natural history subjects, such as Geological sections, Photographs of growing plants, and of animals with their natural surroundings. (g.) Photographs illustrating the social life of the people. This latter class (g) of subject is perhaps the one that wall be of most value a hundred years hence, and yet it is the one most likely to be over-looked. Photographs illustrating daily life in the docks, factories, and streets, and on the river ; interiors and exteriors ot typical dwelling-houses ; street markets ; street salesmen; out-door meetings such as those held in the Grove, PICTORIAL SURVEY OF ESSEX. 5 Stratford, and at Beckton Road corner, Canning Town ; sports and games ; holiday-making crowds in Epping Forest, and the like will all be of immense interest to those who come after us. Photographs of some of our slums will show our descendants under what conditions many of us were forced to live, and photographs of some of our local governing bodies at work may not be without their interest. If the Survey is to be a success, willing helpers will be needed all over the County, working under the guidance and advice of a central organisation, which might well be a small special •Committee of the Essex Field Club, Before many years have passed, a collection of photographic records will be built up which may be of untold value to future students of history. Nor need we confine ourselves to photographic records only. Records of things that have passed away already remain in the shape of prints and drawings ; such might well find a permanent home where they are easy of access in the Museum of the Club. WORK IN THE FIELD AMONGST THE FUNGI. ^A^ITH ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF EPPING FOREST MADE AT THE FUNGUS FORAY, 1902. By M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S, &c. IF I were to follow the practice of an eminent, and now deceased, politician, I should name three courses, or class my few observations under three heads, as (I.) The wovk of to-day; (II.) The ■work of tlie yeav \ and (III.) The ivovk of the ftituve. All I may have to say would fall under one of these. ^he wovk of to-day summarizes what has been accomplished yesterday and to-day, with a sort of prologue, setting forth what was done in Epping Forest by the South London Field Club on the first Saturday in October, when the specimens submitted to me for identification numbered 47, including one species which I never before have seen collected in the County of Essex, and b WORK IN TH1-: FIELD AMONGST THi: FUNGI. that was GompJiidius gracilis. B. Common nowhere, but chiefly found in the West of England. A somewhat uncommon species in the Forest district was Inocybe pyriodova with the odour ot pears, but it has been recorded pre\iously in our lists. I was glad also to see Boletus vcrsipellis, which the velvety pileus, and rather peculiar scaliness of the stem, distinguishes from the red form of Boletus scihcv, with which it has often been confounded. Nothwithstanding the unfavourable dry winds of late, and the scant appearance of Fungi in the Forest, the Foray of 1902 has been the most successful for many years, if we measure success by the number of species found which are new to the Forest dis- trict. There was one peculiarity which may be noted, as such facts may ultimately prove to be of service, that some of the usually common species were almost, or entirely absent, whilst others were extremely common. It was remarkable to observe the proiwsionoi Amanita phalloides, CoUyhiahiityi-acea, CoUyhia maculata^ Lactavins tiirpis, and Marasmius peronaius, and equally strange that only one specimen oi Canthavellus cihaviiis was seen, and not one of CanthaveUns anyantiacus, only one Amanita rnhcscens, hardly any species of Tricholoma, only two or three specimens of the Rhodosporcc, very few Boleti, including one Boletus edu.lis, and two of Boletus scaber, which are usually so common. One solitary specimen oi CoUybia djyophila, one Psilocybe seniilanceata, and very few Cortinarii or Hygrophorii. Mycologists who have been accus- tomed to rambles in the Forest will realize at once the singularity of the fungus flora of the year. The additions to the Forest Flora were as follows : — Tricholoma stans, Fr. Cooke Illus. pi. 198. Clitocybe tuba, Fr. Apparently not before recorded. Cooke Illus. pi. 112. Collybia stridula, Fr., not figured. Collybia tenacella, Fr. Cooke Illus. pi. 152b, 640. Mycena flavo-alba, Fr. Cooke Illus. pi. 159b. Mycena cetites, Fr. Cooke Illus. pi. i88a. Pholiota aurivella, Batsch, Cooke Illus. pi. 351. Hebeloma petiginosa, Fr. Cooke Illus. pi. 508b. Psalliota comptulus, P>. Cooke Illus. pi. 553. Russula ochracea, A. and S. Cooke Illus. pi. 1050. Russula nitida, Pers. Cooke Illus. pi. 1062 1063. Marasmius vaillantii, Fr. Cooke Illus. pi. 1126a. WORK IN THE FIELD AMONGST THE FUNGI. 7 Marasmius sclerotipes, Bond, identified with the CoUyhia iirrhata of Cooke's Illnstvations pi. 144b, which is not the CoUyhia cirrhata of Fries. Marasmius candidus, Bolton. Determined by Massee and myself from specimens brought away froni the foray. Polyporus (Fomes) connatus, Fr. Helotium fructigenum, Bull. Daldinia concentrica, De'Not. In addition to Gomphidius gracilis Berk, which was collected in the Forest by the South London Field Club, a fortnight previously. Thus making an addition to the Forest Flora of 18 species. The total number of species determined, by myself and Mr. Massee on the 17th and i8th was 134, which is in excess of the usual number found at a forest foray, and with far fewer collectors than on most occasions, and under rather unfavourable weather. None of the species recorded are positively new to Britain, although CoUyhia stvidula has probably been recognized only once before in this country. Tricholoma stans, however, must be regarded as a rare species in Britain, and Riissiila ochvacea is by no means common. Gompliidius gracilis has apparently been confined hitherto to the north and west of these islands, and is only found occasionally, so that it may be regarded as a rare species. II.— THE WORK OF THE YEAR. This may consist of local work, and of general work which would affect local work, as in the case of literature. Of local work little can be said, except that there appears to me to be a diminution of workers in these latter days, when we have to regret the loss of old hands which were active a quarter of a century ago, and have never been replaced. It seems to me that the condition of British Mycology, as far as earnest workers are concerned, is in much vhe same condition now as it was forty years ago, and there are scant hopes of revival. I observe, too, that the direction is somewhat different, for then it was centred in the larger fungi of the mushroom and toad-stool type, but now the strongest interest is in the parasites which 8 WOKK IN Tin: l-IbiLD AMONGST THE FUNGI. infest and destroy our crops, and thus compel attention to the invaders, not from clioice. hut from self interest. The solvini; of puzzles in this branch of mycology has been proceeding gradually, but I think surely, in the past year. Professor Perceval's researches on "silver leaf" of truit trees appears to be promising a successful issue. The causes affecting *'club root" are engaging attention. The life history of many parasites are better elucidated, and faith in the use of fungi- cides gains strength day by day. I should call your attention, as a practical matter, to the recent publication by my friend and pupil, Mr. George Massee, of a useful volume, entitled European Fungus Flora, Agaricacew, which replaces, as far as it goes, the Clavis, published some years ago, by myself, in conjunction with Dr. Quelet. The present volume includes only the Agaricaceoe, but it contains all the species hitherto known as occurring in Europe, with a special indication of those found in Britain. The Clavis included 1,943 species, of which 939 were given as British. The present work includes 2,750 species, of which 1,553 ^^^ British. The letterpress is in English, whereas that of the Clavis was in Latin. The descriptions, although compact, are longer and more com- plete than those of the Clavis, adding, in most cases, the dimen- sions of the spores. The classification is, for the most part, founded on that of Saccardo's Sylloge, and the construction of the work is evidently based upon the desire to make it a handy field book for the determination of species, as well as a com- pendium for home use. I can congratulate the author upon a successful achievement of his desire, and all mycologists who may be fortunate enough to possess it, of a valuable addition to the mycological literature of the year. I also may be permitted, with some reserve, to refer to another publication, in which I am myself interested. Notwith- standing the valuable contributions to the subject of Plant Diseases by Mr. Massee and Professor ^Marshall Ward, it has long been felt that what is wanted in this country is a full enumeration of plant diseases of fungus origin, illustrated as much as possible by coloured figures, so as to assist the cultivator and the amateur. All efforts to secure a publisher for such a work having failed, the Royal Horticultural Society was appealed to, and ultimately arrangements have been made for issuing this WORK IN THE FIELD AMONGST THE I-'UNGI. g work consecutively in partsof the journal, the first part, witli three coloured plates, including about eighty pests, appearing in the current part, just published. It is proposed to issue them in sections, as " Pests of the Flower Garden " ; " Pests of the Vegetable Garden " ; " Pests of the Orchard and Fruit Garden " ; *' Pests of the Vinery and Stove." Perhaps to be followed by " Pests of the Shrubbery " ; " Pests of the Forest Trees " ; and " Pests of Field Crops." Whether the attempt proves satisfac- tory or not, it will be some consolation to know that the effort is being made, and that it is contemplated to re-issue the entire series in book form, when the publication in the journal is com- pleted ; and that the second instalment of plates and letterpress are in the printer's hands. III.— THE WORK OF THE FUTURE. I may be asked what is, or what should be, the work of the future. And this I think should not be— as far as regards tlie Hymenomycetal Fungi — so much in the increase as in the diminution of the number of species. There are some people who measure success by the number of neiiJ species which are added to the lists during the year. But I am inclined to ask whether this is not rather a false success, somewhat of a decep- tion, since we have not hitherto troubled ourselves enough to enquire what are the influences which are at work in the production of variation, in the Agarics for instance, and how far variation from a given type may proceed, under local influences, which would not justify specific distinction. I fancy when care- ful attention is given to this subject, we shall find our list of British species diminish considerably and justifiably, not at haphazard, but as the result of close and painstaking investiga- tion. It is the young and inexperienced who are ever on the alert for new species, and the veterans who have wintered and summered half a century of field work that look with suspicion on the minute differences which are often considered sufficient to constitute a new species, without regard to the circumstances under which the type divergence occurred. If I were to give an illustration of this, I should perhaps select two or three species which are not fair types of my meaning, but v/hich would not be objected to on the ground that 10 WORK IN THE FIELD AMONGST THE FUNGI. they are good species, although at one time they were accepted as such. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley once described a fungus under the name of -Agariciis sadleri which he considered to be a species of the subgenus Clitocyhe, and was figured in the Illustrations as Clitosybe sadleri on plate 127. From the very first, I contended that this was only an abnormal form of Hyt)holoma fascicularis, and remonstrated with the venerable mycologist on that account, but he was so positive that I bowed to his judgment, as an older hand, and did not presume publicly to dispute his determination. In the type the gills are greenish gre}^, and the spores brownish, but in sadleri the gills are yellow and the spores, if spores are present, were colourless. Now this anoiualy was found only once, under peculiar conditions, and is now universally acknowledged as a peculiar form of Hypholoma fascecularis. The second illustration is an Agaric, which for many years I considered to be the true Hypholoma lacryinahnndiis, and it was figured under that name in Illustrations on plate 566. Berkeley always considered and taught that it was that species, and so it was regarded in this country for more than a quarter of a century, but at length Dr. Plowright was the first to call it in question, and demonstrate that it was only a. vanety oi Hypholoma velutina with the hairs of the pileus tufted like scales. Although I remained stubborn as long as I could, the time came when I could resist no longer, but had to accept it as Hypholoma velutina,. and admit my ignorance of the true Hypholoma lacrymabunda. These two demonstrated errors will exhibit m\' meaning, and from this I might diverge, and point out twenty couples wduch I am disposed to regard as duplicates of the one species, but will forbear, until the evidence is stronger than mere suspicion. It will be work for the future to prove variation, subject to surrounding influences, in a number of so-called species. Mean- while I may be permitted to make a suggestion or two. There is a Russula called Russnla rubra, which is acrid to the taste, and reputed poisonous (fig. 1025), and there is another species which it would be (juite impossible to distinguish from it by external features, called Russula atropurpurea (fig. 1087), ^"^ ^^^is is perfectly sweet and mild, and may be eaten with impunity. If these are not distinct species, what is the cause of the diflerence above indicated ? Although I believe them to be one and the WORK IN THE FIKLD AMON'GST THE FUNGI. 11 same species, I want the evidence as to the cause of the difference. Then again tliere are species (so-called) of Lactaviu.-<, respec- tivelv caniphoratus, ciiiiicariiis, and suhiimhonatns, wliich I will not discuss, but I should like to see them compared and their differences put to the test, so that we may be certain that they only vary in submission to external circumstances. There is another anomaly I want cleared up. There is a tawny Riissula called Riissula fcrtens, usually with a strong foetid odour, which justifies the name. But I have found the same species, to all external appearances, but without the foetid odour,, and on the contrary pleasant, and rather fragrant. No doubt can rest upon the determination, because the size, colour, and peculiar striation of the margin of the pileus are characteristic. Who will solve the enigma. I could go on for nearly an hour, with similar puzzles, but I have said enough to show that there is work for the future, in other directions beside the multiplication of species, even amongst the larger fungi. But there is another field for work in the future which I would urge upon your notice. If you were to read the reports which have come over to this country during the past few years from America and the antipodes, as well as the complaints from our own fields and orchards, you would realize the enor- mous losses, not only in thousands, but in millions of pounds sterling every year by the destruction of crops by the incursions of insects and parasitic fungi. The determination of what Agarics are good to eat, and what to avoid, may appeal to the stomach, but this devastation by microscopic fungi appeals to the pocket, and that is a very strong appeal. The man who will thoroughly investigate the life history of one of these pests, and show how it may be success- fully encountered and beaten, will be a benefactor to his race, and an ornament to his country. It may mean work, and plenty of it, but it will bring its own reward. I do not think that there ever has been a time when the fruit grower, the gardener,^ the practical horticulturist, and all concerned in the growth of flowers, fruits, vegetables, cereals, and even forest trees, were more anxious to secure the assistance and co-operation of the practical microscopist and vegetable pathologist than at the 12 MYCETOZOA OBSERVED AT THE FUNGUS FORAY, I902. present time. The}' are looking for help from science to assist them in their practical work. Whilst doctors are at work over microbes in their laboratories, in order to unveil the mysteries of human disease and alleviate liuman suffering, the vegetable pathologist should also be equally earnest in searching out the mysteries of plant diseases, so as to ease the mind and replenish the pockets of the cultivator. MYCETOZOA OBSERVED AT THE FUNGUS FORAY, 1902. By ARTHUR LISTER, F.R.S., F.L.S. THE Field Club's ramble on October i8th did not yield so rich a harvest of Mycetozoa as on some previous occasion'. The season has not been favourable for them, and only 12 species were obtained, viz. : — Badhamia utricularis, Berk. Physarum nutans, Pers. ,, virnum, Somm. Fuligo septica, Gmelin. Leocarpus vernicosus, Link. . Didymium nigripes, Fr. Comatricha obtusata, Preuss. ,, persoonii, Rost. Trichia varia, Pers. ,, scabra, Kost. Arcyria punicea, Pers. Lycogala miniatum, Pers. Steveum liivsutnm has spread in large patches on many of the felled hornbeams, and almost always where this was the case the Plasmodium oi Badhamia utyiculavis was advancing in orano-e- ooloured veins, devouring the fungus ^ ; the ripe fruit was only found in two or three instances. The other Mycetozoa met with were common species, and need no comment. 1 Consult ^rl•. Lister's paper " Practical Hints on the Study of the Mvcetozoa. with notes on the Lppnii^ horest species," in Esskx Nat., vol. x., pp. 23— 27.— Ed. ' 2 See note on plasmodia stage of Badhamia in Journal of Proccedins:s E F C, vol iv d clxxni. " . , . . ^. 13 THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSCA OF THE RIVER LEA ALLUVIUM AT WALTHAMSTOW, ESSEX. By A. S. KENNARD, M. Malac. Soc, and B. B. WOODWARD, F.L.S., F.G.S. [Read December 6th, 1902.] THE extensive excavations for new reservoirs for the East London Water Company that have lately been made in the Lea Valley, near Walthamstow, furnished a magnificent opportunity for collecting from tlie Holocene deposits, which are only exposed in chance excavations. Application was made to the contractors, Messrs. S. Pearson and Sons, for permission to visit the works, and this was at once granted. We would take this opportunity of tlic nking them and the following gentlemen »>. . — Mmmwii^^ - ^ ■ • i^: "Xit^^^^-^i::^^■ > ■ .:'^-^^^^^^ '^^^r^v^^SiiSlL^'^"!^ 1<'IG. 1. — SECTION IN NEAV RESERVOIRS, WALTHAMSTOW, ABOUT lOO YARDS Showing lenticular bed of Shell-marl resting on Peat, and covered by the Clay forming the surface. Gravel at the base. (T. V. Holmes.) for facilities in visiting the sections, and for other assistance : — Mr. W. Cole, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., Mr. C. W'. Sharrock, Colonel Bryan, Mr. J. P. Johnson, and especially Mr. W. Traill. Repeated visits have been made, and an immense amount of material has passed through our hands. The sections have already been described by Mr. T. V. Holmes,^ and as may be seen by reference to this paper, a twofold division of the beds is always present, an upper peaty or loamy bed sometimes con- taining Shell-marl and a lower bed of Gravel. The gravel contained no fossils except where it was obviously re-deposited. There can be no doubt that the peaty beds,. which varied from 3 to 10 feet in thickness, represent the whole of the Holocene deposits, and are the equivalent of the 60 feet of alluvium met with in the Thames valley at Tilbury, whilst the bottom gravel may be correlated with the third terrace of the I Consult " Geological Notes on the New Reservoirs in the Valley of the Lea, near VValthamstow." A". A". Vol. XII., pp. 1-16, and "Additional Notes" on the same in E.N.. \o\. XII., pp., 224-231. 14 THE \OX-MARINi: MOLLl'SCA OF THE RIVER LEA Tliames, which is generally considered to represent a late stage of the Pleistocene. The section here given (Fig. i) may be taken as a typical one. Here the division of the upper bed into loamy-clay and peat is well shewn. In our opinion the peat represents the deposit accumulated in the valley before any reclamation had taken place, whilst the loamy clay has been deposited by flood- water since man had altered the original condition by embankments and other works. Knowing only too well by past experience the difficulties arising from the shifting of the course of a stream, our work was principally confined to the parts away from the influence of the main stream. It should, however, be borne in mind that the modern deposits of the River Lea, caused by erosion and subsequent deposition, difl'ered lithologically from the older beds, for the former in all cases consisted of sand or sandy gravel with but little vegetable remains, so that tliere was never any difficulty in dealing with such cases. It must also be noted that when a stream washes aw^ay an old deposit, many of the shells, though apparently fragile, will be drifted down and safely deposited elsewhere, so that the new bed would contain the shells living at the time of deposition mixed with those derived from older beds. That the age of some patches of the shell marl dates back to Neolithic times is evident from the discovery of Neolithic flakes in situ under such conditions that they can only have been dropped where now found from the hand of man. In 1897^, ^^'^ gave to the Essex Field Club an account of the Mollusca from these beds, yet the new facts accumulated are of so much importance as to justify the production of this -additional paper. MOLLUSCA OF THE MODERN DEPOSITS. The following species were obtained from the loamy-clay : — Vitvea iiitidula (Drap.) LiuuKva pevegev (Miill.) Hygromia hispida (Linn.) ,, tynncatula (Miill.) Vallonia piilchella (Mull.) Planovhis mafginatus, Drap. Helicigona avbustorum CLinn.) ,, vortex (I^inn.) Helix nemoralis, Linn. ,, spirorbis, Miill. Cochlicopa lithvica (Miill.) Bithynia tentacidata, Linn. Pupa mnscorum (Linn.) „ leachii (SJiepp.) Sncccinea elegans, Risso. 2 Kknnari) a. S., and Woodwak-p, B. B. The Post-Pliocene N'on-marine Mollusca o Ebsex. Ivssr.x Xat., vol. x., i)p. S7 — loy. ALLUVIUM AT WALTHAMSTOVV, l-SSKX. 15 5 4 I I )> example. The hand formulae of the examples of Helix nemovalis are :■ ^ 2 3 (4 5), 6 examples (I 2 3) (4 5), 123 45, (I 2) 3 (4 5), 000 00, In the Lockwood reservoir at one spot close to the main stream was a sandy deposit, obviously quite modern, containing a large number of non-marine shells, as well as examples of Ostvea editlis and Biiccinuui nndatum. We were informed by Mr. Traill that a mill formerly stood near this spot. The species found are thirty-six in number, viz : — Pyvainidiila votundata (Mull.) Helicella cantiana (Miill.) Hygromia hispida (Linn.) Vallonia pnlchella (Miill.) Helicigona avhiistovuni{lL,\\-\ n .) Helix neinoi'iilis, Linn. Siicciiiea put vis (Linn.) ,, elegaiis, Risso. A ncyliis fluviatilis (Mull.) Limnoca pevegev (Miill.) auyicidavia (Linn.) tvuncatula (Miill.) palustvis (M\\\\.) stagtialis (Linn.) Planovhis covneus (Linn.) albus, Miill. styoeiniij West. caviuatns (Miill.) J) 5? 55 »J 5) >5 5J 3J 5) J) Planovhis mavginatus, Drap. nautileus (Linn.) TO vie X (Linn.) contovtus (Linn.) PJu/sa fontinalis (Linn.) Bithyuia tentaculata (Linn.) „ leachii (Shepp.) Vivipava vivipara (Linn.) Valvat.i piscinalis (Miill.) Nevitina fluviatilis (Linn.) Unio tumidics, Ketz. ,, pictoruui (Linn.) Anodonta cygnaa (Linn.) Sphaviuni vivicola (Leach.) ,, coy Ileum (Linn.) „ lacustye (Miill.) Pisidiuui amnicuvi (Miill.) supinum (A. Schm.) >» The band formulas of the examples of Helix uemoyalis are :— I 2 3 (4 5), I e.xample. (I (I (2 2) 2) 2 3) (4 3 4 3 (4 3 4 5), 5), 5, I I I j» )» 5J 5 examples. Many other samples of modern deposits from other spots were examined, but they yielded no fresh species. As we have already stated, far more attention was paid to the Shell-marl than to the other deposits. The patches varied in i6 THK NON-MARINE MOLLUSCA OF THE RIVER LEA size and in their composition. Occasionally all traces of molhisca had vanished, whilst in others only a few still remained ; but as a rule they were very abundant and well preserved. Many were coated with calcareous matter, com- pletely covering the shell. This condition is also met vvith in some of the Irish lakes where the dead shells are drifted ashore. It is also found in the Holocene deposits of the Thames, and in the Pleistocence High Terrace Gravel at Swanscomb, Kent. It has been suggested that the primar}- cause of this incrustation may be the coating of algoid growth that invested the test during the life of the animal. As a rule, more aquatic forms were present in these marls than terrestial, although occasionally the reverse condition prevailed. We obtained 66 species, of which 1 8 have not hitherto been recorded from these beds, whilst four, before observed, were not found by us : — LIST OF SHELLS FROM SHELL-MARL. ?j j> ») j> »5 Agriolimax agresfis (Linn.) Vitvea crystaUina (Miill.) alliavia (Miller) cellar} a (MiilL) nitidnla (Drap.) radiatida (Alder) iiitida (Midi.) fiilva (Midi.) Avion ater (Linn.) Punctum pygmceuni (Drap.) Pyrainidula rotundata (Mull.) Hygvomia graniilata (Alder) „ hispida (Linn.) VaUonia pnlchella (Miill.) Helicigona lapicida (Linn.) ,, avbustovum (Linn.) Helix aspersa, Miill. ,, nemoralisj Linn. ,, Jiorfensis, Miill. Cochlicopa Inhrica (Miill.) Pupa muscorum (Linn.) Vertigo antivertigo (Drap.) >j 5) Vertigo pygmo'a (Drap.) Balea perversa (Linn.) Clatisilia laniinata (Mont) hidentata (Strom) piitris (Linn.) Snccinea elegans, Risso. Carychium iniiiiniuin, Mvill. A ncylus fliiviatilis ( M till .) Velletia lacnstris (Miill.) LimncFa auric nl aria (Linn.) pereger (Miill.) palustris (Miill.) trnncatula (IMiill.) stagnalis (Linn.) Planorhis corneus (Linn.) albns, IMiill. strcemii. West. 11 a utile us (Linn.) carinatus, Miill. inarginatus, Drap. vortex (Linn.) spirorbis, Miill. 5> )» 5) >5 >> J> }> J) 55 55 ALLUVIUM AT WALTHAMSTOW, ESSEX. 1 7 Planovhis contortus (Linn.) Anodonta cygnaa (Linn.) ,, fontanus (Lightft.) Sphcevinni corneum (Linn.) Physa fontinalis (Linn.) Pisidinm amnicum (Linn.) „ hypnovum (Linn.) „ supimim, A. Schm. Bithynia tentaculata (Linn.) „ leachii (Shepp.) Vivipava vivipava (Linn.) Valvatii piscinalis ( M ii 1 1 . ) ,, cvistata, Miill. Nevitina flttviatilis (Linn.) Unio tumidiis, Retz. hensloiviamtm (Shepp.) SKbtruncatum, Malm. pulchelhtni, Jenyns. pusilliim (Gmel.) nitiduin, Jenyns. ohtusale, Pfr. milium, Held. The following species, previously recorded from these beds, we did not find : — Acanthinula lamellata (Jeff.) Vivipava contecta (Millet) Helicella capevata (Mont.) Unio pictovum (Linn.) NOTES ON THE SPECIES. Arion ater (Linn). Several calcareous granules representing the internal shell of this species were found. It has not hitherto been detected in these, or in any other Holocene deposit in Essex, though it is known from the Pleistocene of Ilford. Of the ten species of Vitrea living in this country, all but three were met with, the exceptions being V. piiva and " glabra " and V. excavata. V. alliaria is represented by a single example, and is of considerable interest, since it has hitherto been only known fossil in these islands from the Pleistocene of Ightham and Happaway Cavern. V. nitidula was very common and is separable into two forms, a larger one attaining a maximum diameter of ii mm., and a smaller one of only 6.5 mm. The latter is known on the Continent under the name of V. nitens (Mich). Agriolimax agrestis (Linn) was represented by eight examples. Only a single specimen has hitherto been obtained from these beds. Punctum pygmaeum (Drap) has not previously been recorded from the Lea alluvium and now but a solitary example establishes its presence. Hygromia granulata (Alder) is another new record for these beds ; but, although several specimens were found, all are immature. l8 THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSCA OF THE RIVER LEA Hygromia hispida (Linn) was by far the commonest Helicoid present, but the examples are by no means large, the finest being but 9 mm. in diameter, the average height being 5.5 mm. Helicigona lapicida (Linn) was not common, and all the examples found were obtained from one patch of shell-marl near the south side of the Lockvvood Reservoir. It is a new discovery for this neighbourhood, though it has been known from the alluvium of the Lea at Canning Town. Helicigona arbustorum (Linn) was an extremely common form, and varied much in shape and size, the largest example being 18 mm. in height, and 20 mm. in diameter, whilst the smallest was 13 mm. in height and 16 mm. in diameter. Helix aspersa, Miill, was answered for by two examples, both very small, being 25 mm. and 24 mm. in height and 26 mm. and 27 mm. in diameter. Helix nemoralis, Linn, was very common, the shells being often well preserved, and still retaining their coloration. The band formulas noted were : — 252 examples 12345, 252 I 2 5 (4 5), 54 (i 2 3)(4 5), 31 (1234 5), 37 I (2 3)(4 5)' 8 10345, 3 00000, 34 J) I 2) 3 (4 5), 2 examples 0030 0, 14 I (2 3 4 5), 5 0034 5> 2 0234 5. I example I (2 3) 4 5» I I 2 (3 4 5), I It will be noticed that the banded examples are greatly in excess of the unicolorous examples, and that there is a marked tendency for the bands to coalesce, a condition probably arising from some condition in the environment. Helix hortensis, Miill, was a new record for these beds. The band formulae observed were : — I 2 3 4 5, 12 examples. 0 o o o o, 3 „ 1 (2 3) 4 5, I example. 1(2 3 4 5). I Balea perversa (Linn). One single example constituted an interesting addition to the fauna of the alluvium of the Lea. The species is extremely rare in the fossil state, being only known ALLUVIUM AT WALTHAMSTOW, ESSEX. I9 from the Pleistocene of Barnwell and the Holocene of Exedown (near Wrotham), Crossness and the Plampshire tufaceous deposits. Clausilia bidentata, Strom. This widely distributed form has hitherto been undetected in these beds. It was represented by six examples. Succinea elegans, Risso, proved a more abundant form than S. putris, Linn. One example of ths former, the largest we have seen, measured no less than 21 mm. in length. The largest individual oi S. pittvis was i8'5 mm. in length, the average size being 12-5 mm., whilst the average of 5. elegans is rather less. Carychium minimum, Miill., was not common, but it is a new record. Limnaea auricularia, Linn, on the other hand was very abundant, many of the examples attaining a large size, but the finest of all were obtained from the modern deposits. Limnsea pereger, Miill., was equally common with the last-named in the older beds, but was decidedly scarce in the more recent deposits. Limnaea stagnalis, Linn., attained a large size, and was not uncommon. The largest individual measured 52 mm. in height, with a maximum breadth of 22 mm. Limnsea truncatula, Miill., was another common form, and was decidedly above the average in size. With the exception of Planovhis glabev, Jeff., and P. lineatns, Walker, all the British species of Planorbis were present. It was the material from these beds that first enabled us to differentiate the form P. stroemii. West, which had not hitherto been noted in these islands, either living or fossil.^ The species is near to P. alhiis Miill, but is distinguished from it by its larger size, the constant presence of a keel, and the absence of spiral striae : it also resembles an almost keelless variety of P. cavinatus. At Walthamstow P. stroemii was a far more abundant form than P. alhus in the older beds, but in the modern deposits the former is very scarce, whilst the latter is abundant. In our opinion the examples in the recent beds have been derived from older deposits. Mr. A. C. Johansen, of the Zoological Museum, 2 Proc Malacological Soc. Lond. Vol. IV. (1901), p. 236. 20 THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSCA OF THE RIVER LEA Copenhagen, who kindly identified the species for us, informs us that it is now living in Siberia, Finland, and Northern Scandi- navia, ^vhile it occurred in Denmark solely in deposits of the Oak-period ( = Bronze-age). Up to the present we have noted it from the dried "Thames mud" of the Embankment on the site of the New Scotland Yard (in which it is probably a derived fossil), from the Holocene gravels at the same spot and at the Houses of Parliament ; from Betteridge Road, Fulham ; Kew,. Staines, and Clifton Hampden, Oxfordshire. It will be noted that these are all connected with the Thames river system. Why a form, which was abundant within comparatively modern times, should have become totally extinct, is indeed an interest- ing problem, for which we can offer no solution. (Fig. 2.) Planorbis fontanus, Lightft., forms another new record for these beds. 2- 3- FIG. 2. PIANORBIS STRCEMIT, WEST. FIG. 3. PISIDIUM SUPINUM, A, SCHM. Both ffiagnijied four diameters. No less than 9 species of Pisidium were obtained, of which the most noteworthy is P. supinum, A. Schmidt, a form w^hich has hitherto been undetected in these islands. For its identifi- cation we are again indebted to Mr. A. C. Johansen. The examples are large, but are by no means so fine as those which occur in the Pleistocene of Grays. We are of opinion that this form will eventually be found to have been widely distributed in England during Pleistocene and Holocene times, though as yet it has not been detected living. (Fig. 3.) CONCL USIONS. We have now a list of 73 species of Mollusca from the Alluvium of the River Lea, 70 coming from the older ALLUVIUM AT WALTHAMSTOW, ESSEX. 21 beds, and 3 from the modern deposits. These last are : — Helicella cantiana (Mont.) Sphserium rivicola, Leach. lacustre (Miill.) The first-named must be considered a recent introduction, because though widely distributed over Essex at the present time, it has not hitherto been found fossil in any deposit in the country, however modern, and the available evidence seems to show that it was introduced at a later period. Sphocvmm rivicola, on the other hand, is known from both the Pleistocene and Holocene. Its absence from the Shell-marl is probably acci- dental, and the same may be said of Sphcevium lacustre. The four species which were not identified by us in these recent excavations are : — Acanthimda lamellata (Jefi".) Vivipara contecta (Millet.) Helicella caperata (Mont.) Unio pictonim (Linn.) The last-named was to be seen in the modern beds, but not in the older deposits. We have already noted two species, Planovhis stroemii, West, and Pisidium supinum, A. Schm, as being quite extinct in this county, though common in these deposits, but the remaining 64 species are all living in the area drained by the River Lea. One thing is noteworthy, and that is the almost total absence of abnormal or monstrous forms, with the exception of Planovhis stroemii. This form is very often slightly distorted. There were a few " mended " examples of Helix nemovalis and Helicigona avhiistovum ; two slightly scalariform specimens of Bithynia tentaculata and one of Limnaa palustvis ; two distorted examples of Planovhis spivovhis and three of P. vovtex. These are all observed, although we have had many thousands of shells through our hands, A great advance has been made in our knowledge of these beds in the last few years. In 1890 only 40 species were known as occurring in them. In 1897 we were able to list 52, and now the record stands at 70, or if we include the forms from the modern deposits, at 73. Fresh excavations will no doubt add to the list, since there are many forms living in the Lea Valley which are unknown from these beds. We would urge all mem- bers of the Essex Field Club to lose no opportunity of collecting from any future exposure in the Lea alluvium. 22 NOTES ON THE SPIDERS OBSERVED AT THE MEETING IN EPPING FOREST, JULY 26th, 1902. Bv FRANK P. SMITH. ON this ramble the following species were listed, the localities being Epping Thicks, Ambresbury Banks, and Honey Lane Quarters : — Harpactes hombergii. Clubiona terrestris. Clubiona diversa 5 . First record for the Forest. Tegenaria atrica. This species is not uncommon in the Forest, spinning an extensive sheet of web behind which is a tubular opening leading to a usually very secure retreat. Agelena labyrinthica. Common in the ditches by the side of the Epping Road. I have never seen specimens in positions so exposed to the fingers of the araneologist. The sheet-like snares are usually placed amongst rank herbages, often amongst brambles or furze, and the occupants are thus well protected. In the present instance the webs were greatly exposed and the tubular retreat very short, leadmg simply to slight holes in the muddy sides of the ditch. Pisaura mirabilis. Females were found w^ith egg-sacs and also with newly-hatched families. The egg sac, which is globular, is carried about by means of the falces and palpi ; and after a time it is deposited upon the top of some slender plant (often a fern) where it is shrouded in a kind of silken cage of considerable dimensions (often 3 inches in diameter). Here the young are hatched, the female being usually found in the immediate vicinity carefully watching her charge. Lycosa lugubris. Females also of this species were found,, some with egg-sacs and others with families. The egg- sacs, lenticular in shape, are attached to the spinners ; and the young when hatched cling to the body of the mother, scattering if disturbed, but re-congregating as soon as the danger has passed away. NOTES ON EPPING FOREST SPID1:RS. . 23 Hasarius falcatus, ^ and Q. A pretty " jiimping-spider," not uncommon on heather. Ballus depressus. A rather rare species, of which several specimens have been found in the Forest, and a couple of females upon the walls of the Fast London Water Works, Lea Bridge. Theridion formosum. One of the most beautiful and striking of our indigenous spiders. It varies greatly in point of colour, but may be easily recognised by the excessive elevation of its abdomen,which might be almost termed subconical. The snare is very extensive and is usually stretched between the trunk of a tree and a thick bough, almost invariably below the latter. The pale brown egg-sacs, several in number, are hidden in a few fragments of dead leaves, or a single rolled leaf, placed in the centre of the snare. The spider falls at once when disturbed and " feigns death "^ with great tenacity. Phyllonethis lineata. A delicate yellowish or greenish white little spider, often ornamented with scarlet abdominal hands. Microneta viaria, $ . A rare species. I had previously taken only the female in the Forest. Erigone dentipalpis. A common species on grasslands. Aranea cucurbitina. A beautiful spider with reddish thorax and green abdomen. Numerous immature specimens of Philodi'omus, Linijphia, Tetragnafha, Aranea, dc, were also found. FURTHER ADDITIONS TO EPPING FOREST. SINCE our last paper on this subject (E.N., Vol. xi., pp. 268-70) several important increments to the open lands have been reported by the Epping Forest Committee. The arrangement with Mr. Melles, whereby in exchange for certain way leaves, 13 acres adjoining the Yardley Hill estate, Sewardstone, were conveyed to the Conservators without payment {I.e. p. 268), has now been carried out, and all will admit I See note on this habit in the last volume (Vol. XII. p. 281). 24 FURTHl.R ADDITIONS TO EPPING FOREST. that this is a \aluable addition to the forest. It '• rounds off" Mr. Buxton's gift of Yardley Hill in a most satisfactory manner, and brings that land into full sweep with the north-western corner of Bury Wood. Mr. Peter Gallatly, one of the Verderers of the forest, has made a voluntary conveyance of a piece of freehold with a cottage upon it, situate in the Fairmead, Loughton, and entirely surrounded by forest land. This sinks one of the "islands" referred to by Sir Fowell Buxton as being motes on the fair face of the forest. In the report presented on the 15th January, 1903, the Committee said : — - " On the 13th ]March last j^our Honourable Court referred to us to take such steps as miij^ht be necessary with regard to the offer by Gerald Buxton, Esq., the Lord of the Manor of Theydon Bois, to present to the Corporation the greater part of Bell Common, near Epping, and the waste land along Ivy Chimneys Road. So much of the Common as is situated in Epping was acquired by the Corporation in 1876, but the remainder, singularly enough, was outside the ancient boundary of the Forest, although unenclosed, and after the Forest was vested in the Conservators several abortive attempts were made to jiurchase from the then Lord of the Manor the portion in Theydon Bois, containing 7 acres o roods 11 perches. Mr. Gerald Buxton, however, generously offered to convey the land, together witli some roadside wastes in Ivy Chimneys Road, containing o acres 3 roods 34 j^erches to the Consei'v^ators. We instructed Mr. Solicitor to complete the matter, and the land has been conveyed accordingly, and fonns a valuable addition to the Forest. " The Belle Vue Estate, Walthamstow, adjoining Walthamstow Forest, has recently been developed as a building estate, and as the Eastern boundary abutting (m the Forest was very iiTegular, the owner of the estate proposed a give-and-take line. After we had viewed the property, negotiations took place, and an arrange- ment was made by Avhich the owners of the estate convex ed to the Consen-ators a piece of woodland, containing i acre I rood 33 perches, in exchange for the forest land thrown into the public way, containing 3 roods." Several other matters are refered to in the last three years' reports, such as the enlargement of the Hollow Pond, Leyton- stone, at an estimated cost of ^fi.Soo, towards which Mr. E. N. Buxton contributed ^300, the Urban District Council of Wal- thamstow ;f 300, out of the Epping Forest Fund ;^6oo, and the remainder from the Corporation Funds. The pond at Chingford, near Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, has been cleansed and deepened, and the same operation has been performed at the Higham Park Lake. A new entrance to W^anstead Park from the Ilford Recreation Ground by a road and a rustic bridge over the Roding / N g < ^il^ L ?? O t*^ diy '^m0 — o <1 £ .1. %i A NEW FOREST OF WALTHAM. 25 has been made by the Urban Council by permission of the Con- servators. Sir Edwin Durning-Lawrence, Bart.,M.P., has erected a handsome granite drinking-fountain near tlie Lodge at Ching- ford. Finally, the old Tapestry in Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, has been restored by the expert, M. Brignolas, at a cost of ^132 3s., and the renovated pieces have been placed in prominent positions in the Museum. The Forest is evidently making rapid progress, and a new official map will soon be necessary to register the valuable accretions and improvements of recent years. A NE^A^ FOREST OF WALTHAM. PRELIMINARY NOTICE. (With Plates I., II., mid III.) POLITICAL Economy has been called the " dismal science," and the pseudo-" scientific " views which prevailed on social subjects in the dark ages of the middle of the last century well justified the phrase. To sacrifice the nation's most precious heritage of shady woods and breezy commons for the sake of a few thousand pounds added to the Queen's Exchequer, or to satisfy the restless craving for unallotted acres of avaricious neighbouring landowners, were proceedings lauded by professors of economics as gains worthy of long years of Enclosure Acts and landlord-created Commissions. To these erroneous views of a people's true wealth and happiness, we owe the most regretful of all the 19th Century enclosures, that of the beautiful division of Waltham Forest known as Hainhault. The disafforestation of Hainhault was accomplished by an Act of Parliament passed in 1851. The legal " forest" then consisted of 17,450 acres, of which about 4,000 acres were unenclosed and subjects to rights of common ; 2,900 acres of the said 4,000 were called King's Woods, in which the Crown had the right of the soil and timber. Under a subsequent Act (1858) the Assistant Commissioner allotted 1,877 acres ^^ form commons for the parishes of Barking, Dagenham, Stapleford ^Abbots, Lambourne, Chigwell, Woodford, and Navestock. It will be thus seen that although the action of the ill- advisers of the Crown was bad enough, they had some saving 26 A NEW FOREST OF WALTHAM. grace and a desire to benefit the poor cottagers by a not illiberal allotment of commons. The manorial landlords had no such scruples ; they aimed to *' convey " (to use Ancient Pistol's word) the whole remaining open lands. The division of the " Forest ". into parish commons having been made, the supineness of the people and a compliant Parliament made the rest easy, and six of the seven commons carved out of the old woodlands, were " acquired " within a very few years. As Sir Robert Hunter says, "in order to abolish the common thus left, and to reduce the whole parish to the much desired condition of private land, but one more step was necessary — an enclosure carried out under ordinary conditions. By the aid of the Enclosure Com- missioners, every parish common save one was cut up and allotted among the lord of the manor and the landowners, and the destruction of the ancient forest was at last complete. Happily there was one exception. The Lord of the Manor of Lambourne, father we believe of the present Colonel Mark Lockwood, member for the Epping Division of Essex, does not appear to have suffered from the prevalent rage for converting woods, commons and pastures into arable land. He did not apply for an enclosure of the Lambourne parish allotment ; and it remains, a bit of old Hainhault Forest, to the present day." The King's Wood lands allotted to the Crown comprised 1,873 acres. The w^hole of the timber was cleared off, the stumps dragged out, and most of the land put under the plough ; in place of a beautiful woodland there appeared a barren looking, meagre, and somewhat unprofitable farm — and so the ancient glories of Hainhault remained eclipsed for 50 years. It is not proposed in the present short article to recount the ancient history of this portion of Waltham Forest, or to give any description of its scenery and former natural productions ; this is reserved for future papers, in which also we hope to review the botany and general natural histor}^ of those portions still retaining a forestal character. We have simply to recount the present stages of a noble scheme of reclaimation tor public uses and enjoyment of the existing woodlands, and of gradual re-afforestation (in the non -legal sense, of course) of portions of the " King's Wood " lands. The tliought that so much of the land remained in the possession of the Crown has often tempted lovers of open spaces A NEW FOREST OF WALTHAM. 2/ to dream of a recreated Hainhault, possibly in connection witb a Government School of Forestry. The enthusiasm and determined purpose of Mr. E. N. Buxton were needed to " materialise " the dream and to bring the problem of the re-affbrestation of Hainhault within the sphere of practical social politics. The remnants of Hainhault, still in a more or less forestal condition, included in Mr. Buxton's scheme, are five in number, and are of very varying extent. The most important is called " Lambourne Forest," which, as above mentioned, was not enclosed, the manorial privileges remaining with Colonel Lockwood, and the forest is still subject to common rights^ This block is about i88 acres in extent, and is a charming piece of woodland, similar to parts of Epping Forest. It is most valuable and interesting, inasmuch as it affords a picture of what old Hainhault must have been in the days of its beauty {Plates I. and III.). Adjoining this are three portions of the old forest, comprising 14 acres of common, and two plots of enclosed land, 52 acres and 22 acres respectively, much of which is still well timbered. All these lands are contiguous, but the fifth forestal section is far away towards Woodford Bridge, and is known as Grange Hill Forest, about 80 acres. It is very pretty woodland, part of the untouched old forest, and is therefore a most desirable acquisition. But it constitutes a distinct feature in the scheme, and will probably be under separate control, as hinted below. The cleared land includes 52 acres of the old forest, which was set out under the Allotment Award as a Common for the parish of Lambourne, but which has been for many years under culti- vation. It lies on the slope of a hill, commanding extensive views over the adjoinmg country. And lastly comes what is, perhaps, the most remarkable item in Mr. Buxton's scheme. It is a block of land known as Fox Burrows Farm, comprising no less than 475 acres of arable land [Plate II.). This forms part of the Crown assignments under the original Act of Enclosure, and the Commissioners of His Majesty's Woods and Forests are willing to sell the land at agricultural value, provided it is dedi- cated to the public as an open space. It is high rolling ground, rising in parts to 300 above O.D., and its hill-sides fall in gentle overlapping lines. " From its higher ground the eye ranges 28 A NEW FOREST OF WALTHAM. westwards to the wooded ridges of Epping Forest, eastwards over the hedge-row ehiis of Essex, and southwards across the Valley of the Thames." From the above sketch it will be gathered that the recreated Hainhault would comprise : — Acres. Lambourne Forest ^ i88 Chigwell Manor Land, 14 + 52 + 22 88 Lambourne Common , , 52 Fox Burrow Farm , 475 803 Grange Hill Forest ' 80 883 To secure the option of purchase of these lands and manorial claims Mr. Buxton has had to conduct ^/^z;^ separate negotiations. The estimated cost of the main blocks, Lambourne and Hain- hault, is about ^22,000, and of Grange Hill, ;^g,ooo. In considering ways and means of purchase, Mr. Buxton has separated the Lambourne and Hamhault blocks from the Grange Hill portion. Towards the main scheme about ^2,500 has been privately subscribed, while the Essex County Council, the Corporation of West Ham, and the district Councils of Leyton, Wanstead, and Ilford, have passed resolutions agreeing to contribute. To the surprise and regret of their own Epping Forest Committee as well as of the general public, the Corpora- tion of London declined to contribute or to take part in the scheme. Application was then made to the London County Council, and that body has agreed to contribute ^10,000, and to accept and manage the land as an open space tor the benefit of the public. Several details yet remain to be settled, and to avoid certain legal difficulties with regard to the contributions from local authorities, Mr. Buxton has promoted a Bill in Parlia- ment to authorise the acquisition of the lands. The conduct of this Bill will be taken over by the London County Council. Considerable progress has been made towards the acquisition of the Grange Hill portion of the scheme, but until the various difficult negotiations in connection with it are finally settled, it will be best to defer details. If the London County Council decline to take the land over, it is hoped that some plan of local control may be arranged. This bit of forest appears always to have lain apart from the main Hainhault Woods ; under the Acts 00 00 to o CTi H-t • H - X t;:; ^ -1- =^ P4 K»^ H J ^ D ^ -< o a: U ?; K <: K 2j '-^ 5 5 A NEW FOREST OF WALTHAM. 29 it came into the possession of the Lord of Chigvvell Manor, and was of course enclosed. Its trees and undergrowth, however, remain, and it is a beautiful example of the old natural woodland. The price, ;^g,ooo, although much higher proportionately than the rest of Mr. Buxton's proposed purchases, is very small for land so much nearer the railway, and its acquisition as a permanent open space is a matter of great importance and urgency. Should Mr. Buxton's efforts prove successful, and of this there is now no reasonable doubt, the re-afforestation of Hain- hault will rank as the greatest scheme of "open-spacing " (with the exception of Epping Forest) ever carried out near London ; it is a matter of truly national magnitude and interest. The growth of London within the last 30 years is one of the most serious social questions of the age —the parishes lying only a few miles from the " New Waltham Forest " have increased in population by 600,000 inhabitants. When the land is safely secured, doubtless Mr. Buxton's idea that, as far as possible, nature should be allowed full sway, will be intelligently followed. The various problems of sowing and planting are even now exciting discussion among foresters and arboriculturalists ; the possibilities from the naturalist's point of view are almost infinite, and the gradual upgrowth of a "reserve" within 12 miles of London will present a fascinating field for study. But all these considerations must form subjects for future papers. In a few months time we may hope that all legal and financial difficulties will have been surmounted. It will then be possible to give a map and the precise area of this noble addition to our open spaces. The examination of the present natural condition of the various lands, the fauna and flora of the districts, will afford much work for observers for many years to come, while the changes brought about by the re-afforestation must be carefully noted from year to year. The three plates drawn by Mr. H. A. Cole for this first notice will give some idea of the nature of the ground, and in the future we shall hope to present a series of sketches which will have permanent value a generation hence, when the district re-asserts its claim to be considered a part of the still noble remnant of the great Forest of Waltham. 30 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB : REPORTS OF MEETINGS. IN SUPPORT OF THE SCHEME FOR THE RE-AFFORES- TATION OF PART OF OLD HAINHAULT FOREST. Saturday, June i4rH, 1902. THE details of Mr. Buxton's grand movement and h> ])rc.sent i^osition are dealt wirli in a se])arate article. On this day a meeting, organised by the Club at Mr. Buxton's request, was held for a public inspection of the woods and lands j)roposed to be re-afForested in Lambourne and Hainhault forests. A very large number of invitations had been sent to members of the Essex County Council, the West Ham Town Council, and the Councils of Barking, Ilford, Woodfoid, Buckhurst Hill, Wanstead, Leytonstone. Leyton, Walthamstow, Chingford, and to members of the Commons Preservation Society ; to the Press ; to gentlemen known to be favourable to open spaces ; and to the body of members of the Club. C(mveyances were in attendance at Stratford, Ilford, Woodford, &c., and the first rendezvous was at Grange Hill, Chigwell, to inspect the piece of well-wooded land of about 70 acres, which is included in the scheme. Unfortunately the weather for days previous, and on the day of the meeting for ])art of the time, was exceedingly bad, and although at least 200 visitors were ex- ])ected, only about 80 attended the meeting. The Conductor was Mr. E. X. Buxton, who exerted himself to the utmost to explain his plans and ideas. Leaving Grange Hill, the ride was continued through Chigwell Row, past the well-known '* Beehive " Inn, and the Lambourne Forest was entered at Crab- tree Hill. The Times of June I7tli gave an excellent report of the meeting, "from our Sjiecial Conespondent," and we cannot do better than quote from it, omitting those ])aragraphs descriptive of the scheme itself, \vhich are unnecessary in view of the ]:)aper in another j^art of the present number : " The fine idea of re-creating Hainhault Porest and adding it to Epping for an East London play-ground, bids fair to be realised in no long time. It has excited much interest, which was })ut to a severe practical test on Saturday, when a party of over 80, including three or four courageous ladies, faced the weather at the invitation of the Essex Field Club and tramped (n'er the ground under the guidance of Mr. E. X. Buxton, the Verderer of Epping Forest. They will not forget it. The day may have struck }:)eople as rather wet elsewhere — at Lord's cricket ground, for instance — but the wetness of the forest in a rainy season is a thing apart, not to be measured by ordinary standards or encountered in ordinary clothes. The turf was a si:)onge, every tree and bush a shower-bath, every hollow a pond, and all the little grassy water-courses, that have been dry season after season tor years, were swift running streams. But ^Ir. Buxton spared the visitors nothing and they shirked nothing. f\)r the best part of three hours they tramjjed the turf, jumjied the water-courses, jilodged through the ponds, squelched through the mud, and scrambled through the bushes, not without damage, but with unflagging interest and good humour. It does not sounti enjoyable, but it was. Nobody grumbled, THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 3I and nobody gave in. More convincing testimony to the genuine attraction of the place and the project could not be imagined. At Cabin Plain a large tent had lieen pitched, and tea was jmivided, after which the details of the scheme were ex- plained bv jNIr. Buxton, and comjilimentary speeches Mere made by Professor Meldola, President of the Essex Field Club, Mr. Shaw Lefevre, President of the {Commons Preservation Society. Sir Robert Hunter, Mr. David Howard, Mr. F. C. (lould, and other gentlemen. A curious and slightly sinister background was formed by a ring of gii)sies, who have a very particular interest in the matter, and who drew near to listen to their fate. They did not betray the slightest emotion, perhaps because several constables were present in their honour, or dishonour." A vote of thanks to Mr. Buxton for his persevering and most successful work in connection with the scheme, was passed with acclaim, and Mr. Buxton, in reply, wished to emphasise his indebtedness to his colleagues on the Commons Preservation Society for loyal and effective suj^port during the difficult negociations. After giving a short sketch of the historv of the Hainault enclosures, the Times Correspondent continued : — " The present scheme is to reverse the former process and reclaim a substantial portion of this lost forest. The author of it and the conductor of the negotiations — with the moral support of the Commons Preservation Society — is Mr. Buxton, who has long been a vigilant and generous champion of the jireservation of nature for the benefit of the people. The extent of his success and the amount of land leclaimed will depend on the public response, which has so far been very- encouraging. Topographical details without a map woukl be merely confusing, but some idea of the plan can be given. The negotiations already entered into cover two separate areas, one of about 800 acres and the other ot 70 acres. The nucleus of the first is Lambourne Common, which consists of 188 acres of virgin forest land. It is here that the gipsies camp. Their number varies, but, as a rule, runs into several hundreds. On Saturday they had between 60 and 70 vans on the green, besides tents. They help themselves to the trees for firewood, and their depredations, which are painfully visible, have long exercised the mind of the Commons Preservation Society. In fact the necessity of getting rid of the gipsies lias considerably stimulated the scheme. It is proposed to acquire the timber and the manorial rights of the common, and to add to it three adjoining ]:)lots of enclosed land. One of these is still in a forestal state, the others are cultivated. The most important is an area of 475 acres belonging to the Crown. The ground is high and hilly, and commands a view right across the Thames. The remaining and separate portion is known as Grange Hill Forest. It lies near Woodford Bridge and is a beautiful piece of pure forest. In all there will be 346 acres of forestal and 527 acres of cultivated land. Mr. Buxton's idea is not to plant the latter with the trees, but to lay it down in grass and sow trees, or let them sow themselves, which they do in a very interesting manner. Thorns and briars soon spring up and afford protection to the young saplings. In nearly every patch may be found a young oak or hornbeam. The trees, it is to be noted, run considerably larger, where they still exist, on the Hainhault side than in the greater part of Epj:)ing Forest. There is no doubt that the Avhole area will become extremely beautiful when reaf^brested. It lies high and will afford good golf links. It will also be very accessible from the great eastward extensions of London by the new Great Eastern loopline, now under construction, which turns north soon after leaving Ilford and curves round by Barkingside and Chigwell Row to Woodford Bridge." 32 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. This interesting and important meeting concluded, Mr. Buxton continued his demonstrations, and ultimately the carriages were resumed at the Chigwell Roav " Recreation Ground," which abuts on the new Hainhault. The rain commenced, and continued the whole way home. [It should be mentioned that a large informal meeting was held on the previous day, and much of the ground traversed by members of the County Council and others whose engagements j^revented their attendance on the Saturday. Mr. Buxton then also acted as leader and demonstrator. The rain was persistent during the whole afternoon, and the site of the marquee on Cabin Plain and the ground around was literally flooded.] VISIT TO PLESHEY AND TERLING PLACE. Tuesday, June 17TH, 1902. This meeting was intended to afford an opportunity of seeing the ver\- interesting village of Pleshey and to take advantage of the kind invitation from J^oid and Lady Rayleigh to visit them at Terling Place. PLAN OF THE PLESHEY EARTHWORKS. From the Ordnance Survey Map (scale 6 inches=i mile). The assembly was called at 10 o'clock at Chelmsford Railway Station, where brakes were waiting. The j:)arty was comparatively small, owing to^the rainy weather of the past week or ten days. The cond'ictors were Mr. Chalkle}^ Gould and Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S. ; Dr. Laver, who was to have given his valuable services, was unfortunately detained at Colchester by professional work. The rain held off during the very pleasant ride through the villages of Broom- field, Great Waltham, and so along a by-road to Pleshey. The country looked very bright and fresh, and there was an abundance of early summer] way-side flowers. The luxuriant foliage of the trees and hedges, especially characteristic of the present summer, was everywhere recognised with delight. Pleshey has evidently been a settlement from the very earliest times. Accord- ing to Mr. Horace Round, the name comes from old French Plaisseis, meaning an enclosure with pales closely interlaced. The great entrenchment which surrounds the village is probably British (T. V. Holmes, Essex Xat. x., 151), but the period THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 33 of the mound upon whicli once stood the keep of the Castle, built soon after the concjuest by Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex, and Hi^di Constable of En<,dand. is more doubtful. Conjecture on these matters is useless in the absence of systematic exploration. Mr. Chalkley Gould demonstrated the most interesting features of the earthworks, and distributed the plan of them pre]:)aved for his cha})ter on Ancient Eanh\vorinotia salicis, which he has proved experimentally to be unpalatable to insectivorous animals. — W. Cole, Biickhurst Hill. Bats (?) and Birds Catching Moths.— At the meet- ing of the Club, on November 8th, I exhibited a number of wings of crepuscular and night-flying moths, which had been found on the floor of the verandah facing the garden, at NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 43 my house at Buckhurst Hill. The wings were found in the early morning scattered over the floor. Bats are very numerous in the garden, and have been seen " hawking " in and out of the verandah, and I feel tolerably certain that they were the culprits^ The moths determined belonged to i6 species, viz.: — Svterinthtis populi. A\ xniithographa. Pygivra hucephaln. Plusia garnma. Notodonta cainelina. JMania typica. Xylophasia polyodon. M. niaiirn. Luperina tcstawa. A/iiphipyra pyramidea. TripJicDia protiuba. Selcnia litnaria. T. orhona. Geometra papilioiaria. Noctua augur. Botys vertical is. The exhibit was intended to show the constant and keen warfare carried on against moths by those animals preying upon them. My brother found wings of Geometra papilionavia in Birch Wood, Kent, in July, 1867. On June 30th, 1889, in company with Prof. Meldola, in the Epping Forest district, we picked up the wings of Smevinthus tilio', Stilpnotia salicis, and Halias quenana^ which had evidently fallen victims to bats or insectivorous birds. B. G. Cole on two occasions actually saw birds snap the wings off moths — one a Pepper Moth (Amphidasis hetuiaria) in New Forest (July, 1874), and the other a Leopard Moth {Zenzeva ccsculi), at Buckhurst Hill. In the evening, in both cases ; the birds were not identified.— W. Cole, Buckhuvst Hill, November,. 1902. BOTANY. " The Existing Trees and Shrubs of Epping Forest." — Rihes grossidavia, L. There is a small plant of this species in a thicket near the Fairmead Road. It is too young for the variety to be determined. — F. W. Elliott, April 7th, 1903. Early Flowering of the Hawthorn. — Flowers are fully open on a hawthorn in Buckhurst Hill to-day, April 7th. The particular bush is an early blossoming one every year, but this is easily a record, in my experience. — F. W. Elliott. Mr. C. B. Sworder, of Epping, writes to the Standard under date April loth. " Some May in bloom was picked to day near here, my earliest record being May 17th, 1898, but I find February i6th, 1834, quoted in the Penny Magazine.'' Lathyrus Aphaca. This plant was found on a bank by the side of a field near the Gatehouse Farm, Coggeshall. The 44 NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. only place I had previously seen it in my radius was as a casual in a wheat-field at Witham, and then it only survived the one year. — Edwin E. Turner, Coggeshall, August 6th, 1902. Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus in Epping Forest. — I cannot find any record of the Daffodil in the Forest, but there is a certain district where it grows very scantily for a distance of about 90 yards. I have not had the luck to see any flowers, but I came upon tAvo little bo3^s from Loughton one day in March, 1 901, digging up the bulbs. They knew perfectly well what they were, and told me that they had seen the spot yellow with the flowers the previous year. — F. W. Elliott, April 7th, 1903. Growth-force of a Mushroom. — I send a rough sectional ■drawing of a curious mushroom growth. On August 4th, 1892, It _) INCHES I noticed that the pavement (aspbalte or tar) on the east side of Norwich Road, close to the enclosure wall of Upton Congrega- tional Chapel, was lifted conically, presenting the appearance of a miniature volcanic mountain. Upon investigation, I found that it was caused by the growth of a mushroom. The particular incident worthy of observation is the force exerted by the fungus to lift, not only the dead weight, but the impacted conglomerate of tar, sand and stones. — (Rev.) Rowland T. Warren, Chriat Church Vicarage, Forest Gate, Essex. A Big Mushroom. — I have just been informed by Mr. Collis Willmott that he gathered a remarkable mushroom at Woodham Ferris, Essex, on the 28th of August, 1902, which deserves a record. It was a specimen of the Horse Mushroom (Agaricus arvensis), which most persons consider equal, and some NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SKLECTED. 45 superior, for its edible qualities, to the common mushroom. The individual in question measured fifty-one inches in circum- ference, which would be equivalent to a diameter of seventeen inches, and its weight was over three pounds. It is not un- common during a wet season to meet with specimens twelve inches in diameter, and even more, but I sliould consider the above to be abnormally large. Rather a full dish or a bachelor's breakfast. — M. C. Cooke, LL.D., A.L.S., Sept. ist, 1902. Fungoid Disease in Hornbeams. — In continuation of my paper " An enquiry into the cause of the Death of Birch trees in Epping Forest and elsewhere " (Essex Nat., vol. xi., pp. 273-284), I may mention that on several occasions this autumn, while making further notes on the progress of the disease that has destroyed so many birch trees, I have noticed several Horn- beams either partly dead, or quite so, in many parts of the Forest ; notably in Lord's Bushes, Rushy Plain, Gilbert's Slade, and Bury Wood. At first it seemed probable that death might be due simply to old age, but on closer observations, young trees were found to have suffered as well as the old ones. In some cases, death has occurred since the formation of the fruit this summer. All the dead branches that have been examined, exhibit the hyphal threads of a fungus under the bark. The fungus most common on many of trees was Covticium comedens. — Robert Paulson, October, 1902. GEOLOGY. East Anglian Tertiary Geology. — Our readers should have their attention called to " A Sketch of the Later Tertiary History of East Anglia," by W. F. Harmer, F.G.S., Proceedings Geologists' Association, Vol. xvii.., Aug. and Nov., 1902 (Stanford, IS. 6d.). Mr. Harmer's " Sketch " (pp. 416-479) is well illustrated by maps and sections ; one map showing the distribution of the Crag around Walton-on-Naze and Harwich. The paper is so full of detail that it hardly admits of an abstract, but it will be found a very valuable one to Essex geologists. Mr. Harmer has. been working at the geology of the Eastern Counties for 30 or 40 years. An account of the Excursion of the Association to Suffolk and Norfolk (July 26th to August 5th, 1902) follows in the same part, pp. 480-488. Walton was visited on July 28th. The reports will well repay perusal. 46 NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. ANTHROPOLOGY. A "Wooden Age" in Russia. — It is stated, in connection with the estabhshment by ^I. Witte, the Minister of Finance, of a Committee at St. Petersburg to famiUarise the muzhik with the use of iron, and to bring iron implements within his reach, that the peasant in many parts of the country does not possess, all told, a shilling's-worth of iron in any form. His plough is w^ood, with a \vooden share sometimes shod with any bit of metal handy ; his harrow is entirely wood ; his cart is pegged together with wooden dowels, and has often not a scrap of the nobler metal in its entire composition ; his harness is rope and straps ; the latter never have buckles, the straps being wound round and round until they grip, while his horse has very often not so much as its bit of iron. To turn to other articles, the muzhik uses wooden spoons, spades, eating bowls ; cooking pots of clay lifted out of the fire by two forms of iron hook of the value, perhaps, of twopence ; his hatchet is metal, of course, but his skill in its use has taught him to use dovetails and coarser joints everywhere in place of a nail. His dress is innocent of any use of metal ; he does not wear boots the greater part of the year, and they have no metal in them for the most part when he does wear them, on great holidays ; his girdle is a sash without buckle, and his buttons are wood, or knots and loops. Altogether, the inhabitant of another planet dropped into some districts of Russia would never, perhaps, realise that the metal ages had yet arrived upon this earth, and in characteristic Russian fashion the Minister of Finance is setting to work to remedy the evil, and provide in this w^ay a home market which will suffice to keep alive the iron industry of the Empire when the Government ceases to build raihvays. — Standard, jNIarch ist, 1903. Primitive Fishing-Hooks. — In the Amateuv Photogvaphcy for February 5th, 1903, there is a note on wooden fish-hooks, which is confirmatory of Mr. E. Levitt's observations in the Essex Nat- uralist (vol. X. p. 300, and vol. xii. p. 28), on the use of such hooks on the Essex Coast and in France. The writer, " Menevia," says : — "I was very surprised recently at Laugharne, a small Welsh fishing village which possesses a most picturesque old castle, to come on some fishennen using V Ir r t NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 47 as a regular thing in their daily work, not the commercial fishing-hooks as Ave know them, but the primitive common white tliorns, cut from the hedgerows, whicli were, when bound in horsehair to the hne, in their turn baited in the ordinary way. It is their usual mode of fishing for flat-fish, and they seem to see nothing strange or quaint about it. Their mode of operation is to get two upright sticks, and thrust them in the ground some eighteen or nineteen yards apart. A line is stretched from stick to stick, from which line on horsehair hang twenty hooks two feet six inches apart, duly baited with the worms. Each horsehair line is composed of eleven twisted hairs. The whole affair may be understood from the roujrh sketch." *f^" Lake Dwellings and " Dug-Out " Boat. — Extensive remains of prehistoric Lake-dwellings exist in the (? alluvial) bed of the River Save, near Dolina, in Northern Bosnia, which in interest tall in no way behind the better-known remains of such settlements in Switzerland, and the record mav serve to illustrate like settlements in the Lea Valley and at Braintree. The Standard of December 31st, 1901, reported on these Bosnian dwellings as follows : — "The excavations made during the year now ending have surpassed all expectations in regard to the wealth of material obtained for the Bosnian Museum at Saravejo. Four dwelling-houses built on piles— three of which are well preserved, while one has been buried — have been laid bare, as well as the burvinir place belonging to the settlement, containing a number of fine bronzes and urns. Numerous jiroducts of the potter's art, utensils of staghorn, weapons of bronze and iron, ornaments of bronze, silver, gold, and amber, seeds, and bones, compose the chief discoveries made so far. The results of these researches have a special value, in that they have determined the architectural construction of the pile dwellings with an accuracy which has seldom been attainable. One of the most valuable discoveries is a bo:it five metres long, hollowed out of the trunk of an oak. This was found lying nine metres below the platform of a pile dwelling, and must have lain there nearly three thousand years. The work of digging out this unique object, Mhich can be matched in no Museum of Europe, took six days, and was so successfully carried out that the boat was brought uninjured to the Saravejo Museum. The pile dwellings of Dolina belong to two different periods, and were in existence during the bronze and iron ages." MISCELLANEA. A Plea for the Oysters. — In the Times of December 31st, 1902, there is a letter signed " Susan Eliza Helena Martin, L.S.A., L.L.A.," with the above heading. The writer remarks that " Few people know how to prepare oysters for the table properly ; if they did the fear of typhoid would be very remote indeed." The directions are as follows : — "First immerse the shells in a large tub of pure, cold water, and allow some to run over them for a few minutes, perfectly cleansing them. Then drain the water 48 NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. off, give them a fresh supply, phicing in the tub a large lump of salt, and leave them for 24 hours. Tlie oysters will then disgorge any unpleasant fluid they may have imbibed. They have practically liad an emetic ! Again pour away the fluid and place the shells in fresh water, with a small quantitv of salt and a handful of oatmeal, and now the fattening-up process has begun ; leave as before for one day. Throw away the water when this is completed, again immerse in pure, cold water, and the oysters, in a perfectly hygienic condition, are ready for consumption." [Speaking as one who has never swallowed a lining mollusc, I should be disposed to add, in the words of a celebrated wit, " and then throw them out of the window !" — W.C.] Bird Snaring. — In the lUustrated London News, of Jan. 10, 1903, are two pages illustrating " The violation of the Wild Birds Protection Act : Snarers at work." One picture exhibits " Snaring and Poaching in Epping Forest during close time. Reassuring the police." The artist is Mr. P. Freuzeny. Below the bird-snaring picture are the remarks : — " Few wild birds long survive ca]itivity ; but neither that fact, nor the fact that certain birds accustomed to feed on the smallest insects cannot possibly obtain the food essential to them, prevents their capture and sale to young or ignorant buyers. In a recent London County Court case, the defendant stated that he generally bought a hundred dozen linnets, sicylarks, and other British song-birds a week. For linnets he paid two pounds for ten dozen," The Effects of Fogs. — In the Spectatov of December 6th there is an interesting article on " Fog," beginning with the remark : — '' London clay and the Essex marshes are two factors which help to keep the soil and air of East London cold, and so to condense the vapour in the air till it turns to fog." After giving some personal experiences of fogs in London and elsewhere, the writer mentions the bewildering effects of fog on animals, remarking that " no bird sings or utters a call in such weather, perhaps because it fears to betray its whereabouts to an enemy." He gives the case of a blind man, wdio was in the habit of coming up every day from a little town two miles off, carrying notes and parcels, who became lost in a fog, and was seen wandering about in a field next to the road, feeling his way with a stick. He had scarcely ever lost his way before. Asked why he had gone astray (as fog might be supposed to make no difference to a blind man), he said that " in a fog the ground sounded quite different." LOCAL PUBLICATIONS BENHHM HNO e©., 24, HIGH STREET, eoLCHESTER, THE RED PAPER BOOK OF COLCHESTER. Transcribed and Translated by \V. Gurney Bknham. Crown 4to. Fully Indexed. A volume crowded with local information hitherto unpublished. 25s. nett. COLCHESTER OYSTER FEAST. Its History and Toast Lists. Profusely illustrated. An amusing and unique volume. Demy 4to. 5s. nett. By jiost 5s. 4d. ESSEX BALLADS, and other Poems. By Chaklks E. Benhaai. Third Iidition. Prefatory note by the Right Hon. the Countess of Warwick, is. 6d. ; by post, is. 8d. WILLIAM GILBERT, of COLCHESTER. A sketch of his Magnetic Philosophy. 15y Chas. E. Bknha]M. 2s. nett. Post free 2s. 2d. ANCIENT TOKENS of COLCHESTER. By Ernest N. Mason. Fully illustrated descriptive, and historical account of the tokens issued in Colchester in the 17th and i8th centuries. 5s. nett. By post 5s. 2d. GUIDE TO COLCHESTER AND ITS ENVIRONS. By W. GuKNEY Benham. Over ioo illustrations. 125 pages. 6d. By post, 8d. THE HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES OF COLCHESTER CASTLE, with Chapter on Ancient Colchester. Demy 8vo. 147 pages. Illustrated. 3s.; by post, 3s. 3^1. GUIDE TO COLCHESTER CASTLE. By Charles E. Benham, 8 illustrations. Demy 8vo., 6d. ; by post, 7d. COLCHESTER NEW TOWN HALL. By Wilson Marriage and W. GuRNEY Benham. Fully Illustrated. Demy 4to. Second edition. 1900. 2s.; by post, 2s. y\. COLCHESTER TOWN HALL. Illustrated. Fcap, 8vo., 32 pages. 3d. ; by post, 3 Id. OLD COLCHESTER. A few chapters for young Colchester. By Charlks E. Benham. Illustrated, is. ; by post, is. 3d. AMONG THE TOMBS OF COLCHESTER. Full account of local monuments, tablets, epitaphs, » »> Plate V. — Epigynal Armature of Female Spiders. Clubiona terrestris Clubiona neglecta Clubiona pallidula Clubiona holosericea Clubiona coiiipfa Clubiona feclusa Chiracanthiuin carnifex a. Drassus lapidosus J- b. Drassus blackwaliii k. c. Drassus troglodytes L c1. Drassus minusculus m. e. Prosthesima subterranea n. /. Clubiona subtilis 0. g- Clubiona trivialis P- h. Clubiona diversa ORDER ARANEAE. SUB-ORDER OPISTHOTHELAE (Pocock). SECTION MYGALOMORPHAE (see vol. xii., page 192.) Family ATYPIDAE. Cephalo-thotax usually with a longitudinal impression, but this is almost obsolete in Atypus. Eyes 8, arranged in three groups of 3. 2. 3. Ocular area small, broader than long, Clypeus narrow. Falces highly developed, articulated so as to permit of motion in a vertical plane : basal joint naiTower beneath : fang groove absent, a single row of denticulations is present, and lies on the inner side of the fang when the latter is at rest. Maxillae usually absent, but well developed in Atypus. Palpus : Female : pediform. Male : palpal tibia without apophysis, palpal organs usually very simple, rather more complex in Atypus. Legs robust : tarsal claws 3. Abdomen rather short : a distinct anal tubercle is present above the superior spinners. Latninal tracheae four in number, the posterior pair being well separated from the anterior pair. Spinners normally 6, the superiors often long and upturned : cribellum absent. Genital aperture of female without special armature. The Atypidae are spiders of rather large'size and sombre colours, and are found chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical regions. The sexual differences are very con- siderable. Only one genus of this family is represented in Britain. Genus A TYPUS Latreille, Spiders of moderate size which spin partially subterranean tubes. They seize their prey through the substance of the exposed portion of the tube, the rent thus caused being after- wards repaired from the inside. One species of Atypus^ A. affinis, Eichw., is not rare in the south of England, and another species, A. beckii, Cambr. has been taken on two occasions. Up to the present the genus has not been found in Epping Forest, although it is quite possible that it may exist in some of the sandy parts. ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIII. PI. V. ^X^^"^ J ( a. r. ■^ , v^ M!f Epigynal Armature of Female Spiders, For explanation, see text. THE SPIDERS OF EPPING FOREST. 5I SECTION ARANEOMORPHAE (see Vol. xii., p. 192). Family DYSDKRIDAE. [Dysderidae, Cambr. List, ad. partei)i.'\ Cephalo-thorax varies in different i^enera : median stria very minute or iibsent. Eyes b, homo 3 2. Fourth pair of legs longest. Tarsus of male palpus normal. Small spiders of dark colours, ornamented with brilliant metallic scales . . . . . . Micaria First pair of legs longest. Tarsus of male palpus rather long and pointed, with a long curved projection which is directed backwards. Spiders of moderate size and of pale colours (usually greenish yellow with reddish and yellowish markings), devoid of scales . . Chiracanthium 3 Posterior row of eyes procurved . . . . . . 4 Posterior row of eyes recurved or straight . . . . 6 4. Legs I, and II with, on the under side, a double row of closely-set, long, strong, spines . . . . Micaviosoma Legs I. and II. normal . . . . . . 5 5. Tarsi with scopulae. Labium mucli^ longer than wide. Posterior row of eyes very slightly procurved . . Cluhioua Tarsi without scopulae. Labium as wide as long. Posterior row of eyes moderately procurved . . A I wrote to Mr. H. Laver, F.S.A., etc., asking him if he could give me any information on this point. He very kindly endeav- oured to ascertain the date of the change from wood to iron, but witliout success. When the Corporation at Colchester took over the management of the Waterworks, they do not appear to have preserved the various documents of the Water Company preceding them to the degree necessary for the settlement ot this question. Thus, in the case of Colchester, we learn by accident of the use there of tree-trunk pipes in 1620, but, on the other hand, accident has prevented us from ascertaining whether they were still employed in the earlier years of the reign of Queen ^ ictoria. However, it is the impossibility of knowing where any evidence of the late survival of these pipes may exist, that makes the collection of what is available desirable. \\ e have seen that a chief detect of tree-trunk pipes was their liability to decay at the joints. A result of this, says the writer in Rees' Cyclopcedia, is that " the pavement of the streets is constantly broken up, the way impeded, and the supply of water suspended." The streets of London, as most of us know, have been more blocked than usual since the beginning of the present century, by excavations for various purposes. It is somewhat amusing to find that Londoners a century ago must have had little, if any, advantage over us in this respect. If the total amount of the traffic then was much less than at present, it was much more concentrated in a limited number of streets. And the streets then, as now, most subject to excavations, must have been the chief business streets, which would need repairs much oftener than the others. As a dug-out canoe, carried down by a flood and buried in silt, may be preserved for centuries if allowed to remain undisturbed under the same conditions, yet rot speedily if they are much varied ; so with tree-trunk water- pipes beneath a street. Those beneath the busy thoroughfares,, which were frequently needing repairs, might rot from ten to fifty times as fast as those under quiet streets but a few yards away. OLD FOREST OF WALTHAM. JS Appendix. Mr. B. G. Cole has been good enough to send me the following extracts bearing upon the question of water-pipes, from Baker's Chronicle of the Kings of England. London, MDCLXV. : — "In his .[Kin<; Henry VIII. 's] thirtieth year (1538-0) tlic manner of casting Pipes of Lead for conveyance of water under ground, without using of Soder, M'as first invented by Robert Brocke, Clerk, one of the King's Chaplains, a profitable Invention ; for by this, two men and a boy will do more in one day than could have been done before by many men in many daj-s : Robert Cooper, Goldsmith, was the first that made the Instruments, and put this invention in practice." 1612-14. "About this time a memorable Act was performed by Mr. Hi/gh Middleton, Citizen and Goldsmith, of London, and born in Denbighshire, who having an Act of Parliament for his Warrant, with infinite cost and indefatigable labour, brought Water to the City of London, from two great Springs of Chad- well and AunaeU, in Hertfordshire, having cut a Channel from thence to a place near LsUngton, whither he conveyed it to a large Pond, and from thence in Pipes of young Elms to all places of the City." In the Illustvated London Neivs volume for the second half of the year 1856 there is an article on the New River Water Works (pp. 521-3). It is there stated that the Service Reservoir in Claremont Square was originally called the High Pond, and that *' in excavating for the new reservoir, some curious remains of the old system of wooden piping and plugs were found embedded in the mud, and were the contrivances by which the water was let out of the pond many years since." THE LIMITS OF THE OLD FOREST OF WALTHAM FOR FAUNISTIC PURPOSES. By V/. COLE. {With Sketch-Map.) IN my paper on '* Area of Epping Forest for Faunistic Purposes" (Essex Nat., vi. 10) I considered only that portion of Waltham Forest which is commonly called " Epping Forest," and the accompanying map was so delimited. But when engaged in settling the extent of the collections for the Forest Museum, I decided to include the whole of the Forest of Waltham asset out in the last Perambulation (that of the 17th year of Charles I., 1641) as an excellent basis for collecting operations. This district includes the site of Hainhault, and SKETCH-MAP OF THE OLD FOREST OF WALTHAM, As defined by the perambulation of 1641. The Forest Boundaries are outhned with short dashes. '.F)V7n Fisher's "Forest 0/ Essex," with additions). NOTES ON THE LEA VALLEY. 77 comprises some 60,000 acres. The limits of the whole Forest were laid down in the perambulation, which was reprinted in tiie article referred to (E. N. vi. 12-16), and were roughly indicated on a sketch-map prepared for Professor Meldola's paper on the Forest Stones and the little Museum Leaflet, published in 1895. Now that a considerable portion of old Hainhault Forest has been secured as a reserve open space, which it is hoped will rapidly reassume a forestal character, it will be convenient to take the ancient Forest of Waltham as the area tor faunistic papers and records. I therefore reproduce here, for the benefit of new members and contributors, the sketch-map alluded to above. The bounds of Hainhault as distinct from Epping are on the western side of the River Roding to Park Corner Stone, then by the margin of the Bourne Brook to the stone " sculptered and named Richard's Stone, and from thence by the hedge of the land of Robert Makin leading direct to the gate called Over- mead Gate," and thence westward (forming the northern boundary) " unto the bridge of Aybridge, otherwise Assbridge," where the boundaries of Epping Forest are met (see perambu- lation at pages 13-14, loc. cit.). The eastern boundary stones of Waltham Forest were described in Professor Meldola's interesting paper in E. N. ix., i-io, with drawings of six of them by Mr. H. A. Cole. Now that special attention is being directed to Hainhault we may hope to have many records and lists from the ancient forest lands. NOTES ON SECTIONS IN THE LEA VALLEY AT CANNING TOWN. By A. S. KENNARD and B. B. WOODWARD, F.L.S., F.G,S, [Read April \th, 1903.] a. SINCE there are no permanent sections in the Lea Alluvium and the growth of London threatens soon to cover it with buildings, it is of the greatest importance to observe such chance excavations as are made from tmie to time during building operations. In igoi additions were made to the Paragon Printing Works, Ford Park, Canning Town, and some interesting sections were exposed. In these modern alluvial deposits there are always minor 78 NOTES ON THE LEA VALLEY. differences in the details, the beds varying in thickness in a distance of a few yards. The general section was as follows : — 1. Surface soil and clay, 3 feet 2. Carbonaceous silt, 5 to 1 1 feet. 3. Pleistocene gravel. Thickness unknown. This section, it will be noted, is almost identical with many of those exposed in the excavations in the new reservoirs at Walthamstow, the three divisions being constant.^ The top layer contained no fossils, and in our opinion represents the result of the repeated floods of the river since it was confined within banks and the marshes drained. The carbonaceous silt was a stiff black clay, full of vegetable matter, and extremely difficult to wash. The vegetable remains were so decayed that it was almost impossible to determine any forms, but remains of the elm were common. Lenticular patches of moss, often in the condition of peat, occurred throughout, the patches being sometimes three feet in diameter, with a maximum thickness of eight inches. Leaves of the flag {Iris pseudacovus) were very common and well preserved. Molluscan remains were scarce, and occurred in patches at from 7 to II feet from the surface. The only vertebrate fossil was a portion of of the horn core of a sheep, Ovis aries (Linn). We have determined the following species of mollusca : — Hygromia hispida (Linn). Vallonia pulchella (Miill). Helix nemoralis (Linn). Limnsea pereger (Miill). ,, palustris (Mull). ,, truncatula (Mull). Planorbis umbilicatus, Miill. carinatus. Mull. vortex (Linn). ,, fontanus (Lightf). Bithynia tentaculata (Linn). ,, leachii (Shepp). Valvata cristata, Miill. Vivipara vivipara (Linn). iT. V, Holmes, " Geological Notes on the new Reservoirs in the Valley of^tha Lea]near Walthamstow." — Essex Naturalist, Vol. xii., pp. 1-16. 3> NOTES ON THE LEA VALLEY. 79 Although a small list, three species, Planovhis carinattis, P. fontaniLs and Bithynia leachii, are unrecorded for this part of the Lea Alluvium though it should be noted that only one other series has been obtained.'^ All these forms are known from the Lea Alluvium at Walthamstow, and are all univalves, a fact which, taken in conjunction with their method of occurrence, lends great support to the view that they did not live where they were found, but are drifted shells. The gravel beneath the silt is undoubtedly of Pleistocene age, and, in our opinion, represents a late stage of that period when the land stood at a slightly higher altitude relatively to the sea. This third terrace, as it has been called, is as a rule unfossiliferous, though three species of mammalia were found in it at Walthamstow in i86q, viz.: Elephas pvimigenius, Blum. Bos pvimigenms Boj. and Cerviis stvongylocevos Owen^. The last named is allied to the Red-deer, though much larger. In the adjoining Thames Valley a fairly large fauna has been found in the " Third Terrace." Flint implements have been found occasionally in the Lea gravel, but all are much abraded and rolled, and are undoubtedly derived from higher levels, probably the High Terrace. In all likelihood it is the higher level gravels that have furnished the materials of which it is composed. The water level in the excavations was constant at 8 feet 6 inches from the surface, and great difficulty was experienced in keeping the excavations dry. The enormous quantity of water present may be gauged by the fact that from the hole sunk for the engine bed lo feet by 14 feet and 14 feet deep, no less than 6,000 gallons per hour were pumped. We have to tender our best thanks to Mr. A. Kennard for a knowledge of the sections, and it is entirely owing to the interest and trouble that he took whilst the excavations were in progress that this paper owes its existence. 2A. S, Kinnard and B. B. Woodward " The| Post-Pliocene Non-Marine Mollusca of Essex."— Essex Nat., Vol. x. (1897) p. 91 and Table. sWoodward, Henry "The ancient Fauna of Essex," Trans. Essex Field Club, ^ol. iii., p. 7 8o NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FRESH- WATER MOLLUSCA IN A WATER-MAIN AT POPLAR. By A. S. KENNARD and B. B. WOODWARD, F.L.S., F.G.S. [Read April d^th, 1903.] IT has long been known that fresh water mollusca are able to accommodate themselves to the artificial conditions of underground water-pipes, but hitherto only three species, Dreissensia polymovpha (Pall.), Nevitina fluviatilis (Linn.), and a Limnoca have been recorded.^ Of these the first-named has been found in London, Manchester, and Birmingham, while the two latter occurred in London. Recently Dr. Frank Corner, F.G.S., forwarded to us some material which had been obtained from a disused iron water-main in Poplar. On examining it we were able to identify no less than eleven species of mollusca: — Ancylns fluviatilis, Miill. Velletia lacustvis (Linn.) LimncBa pevegev (Miill.) Planorhis crista (Linn.) „ alhus, Miill. Neritina fluviatilis (Linn.) Bithynia tentacnlata (Linn.) „ leachii (Shepp). Dreissensia polymorpha (Pall.) Sphceviuni corneum (Linn.) Pisidium subtnmcatum, Malm. From the numbers there can be no doubt that these species had thoroughly established themselves in such apparently uncongenial surroundings. The most abundant form was Dreissensia polymorpha, but none of the examples attained to a large size, 27 mm. being the length of the largest valve, but this is apparently owing to the crowded manner in v/hich they lived. The next most abundant form was Planorhis crista {= nautileus), which occurred of all ages, and was well-developed, some examples measuring 3 mm. in diameter. P. alhus also was by no means dwarfed, the largest specimen attaining a diameter of 5 mm. I Jeifreys (J. G.) British Conchology (1862). Vol. i, p. 48). Standen (R.), Naturalist, 1887, pp. 159-160. Macgillivray (J.), Zoologist, 1852. Vol. x., p. 3.420. NEW ESSEX MARINE FISHES. 8l The examples of Nevitina fluviatilis were small, but the coloration, though not brilliant, was well developed. Lintnaa pereger, though common, was dwarfed, 12 mm. being the height of the largest example. Bithynia tentacidata and B. leachii were scarce and dwarfed. Ancylus fiuviatilis was very common and of average size, whilst its ally, Velletia lacustvis, was dwarfed. The differences between the development of the various species no doubt arises from the relative abundance of food, and it is evident that these mollusca can exist without light. If, as is probably the case, other water-mains which are still in use contain a like abundance of molluscan life, it must consti- tute a standing danger to the population using the water drawn from such sources. Mons. A. Locard'-^ has published a long list of species (so- called) of mollusca from the water-mains of Paris, and all the species that we have recorded are in his lists. NEW ESSEX MARINE FISHES. IN Dr. Laver's catalogue of the Fishes of Essex in the first volume of the Victoria History^ several species are included which were not known locally when the Maminals, Reptiles and Fishes of Essex was published in i8g8. It seems desirable to record these here for convenience of reference. We therefore make the following extracts from the History : Famzlv DISCOBOLI. Lepadogaster bimaculatus, Penn. Double-Spotted Sucker. — Has been rarely recognised, but there is [? was] one specimen in the Brightlingsea Marine Station, caught in the mouth of the Colne. Family BLENNID^. Blennius gattorigine, Bloch. Gattorugine. — Mr. E. A. Fitch records the capture of one specimen in the Blackwater, off Stangate, in August, 1898. (See Essex Nat. xi., p. 143). Family GADID^. Gadus minutus, Linn. Power or Poor Cod. — Mr. E. A. Fitch says that this is not rare at times in the Thames Estuary. 2 A. Locard " Malacologie des Conduites d'eau de la ville de Paris." Mem. Acad. Sci. Lyon. Scr. III., Tom. II. (1893), pp. 341-416. ■82 NEW ESSEX MARINE FISHES. Molva vulgaris, Flem. Ling. — Mr. Fitch writes that his informant, G. Gibson, has seen several Thames examples 9 to 12 inches long, during the winter and spring months, and one was obtained in the trawl below Southend Pier on April ist, 1897. It measured one foot in length, and contained in its stomach a rockling half as big as itself. Hippoglossus vulgaris, Flem. Holibut. — This was recorded from Fowlness by Mr. H. L. INIatthams in Essex Nat, X., 292. Dr. Laver adds that another about five feet long was reported to have been captured about 30 years ago. Family PLEURONECTID^. Hippoglossus limandoides, Bloch. Long Rough Dab. — Mr. Fitch says that specimens of this fish have been taken in the Blackwater in the spring. Zeugopterus unimaculatus, Risso. Eckstrcim's Topknot. — Occasionally taken, but very rare. Z. punctatus, Bloch. Miiller's or Common Topknot. — As an Essex fish, is very rare. Mr. Fitch says that one was caught in the Blackwater, September 6th, 1900. Another in the Crouch, November 6th, 1900. And as both these were considered by the fishermen to be young brill, it is probable that the species may be not uncommon, although seldom recognised. Arnoglossus laterna, Walb. Scaldfish or Megrim. — Dr. Laver was informed by ]\Ir. Fitch that one of these fish was caught in a trawl, near the Chapman Light, on April 21st, 1900. It measured five inches long. Pleuronectes cynoglossus, Linn. Pole, Craig Fluke, or Long Flounder. — Very rare. Mr. Fitch writes that he has a specimen from the Blackwater. The List of Essex Fishes will now stand as follows : — Records in Dr. Laver's book ^Marine Fishes 85, less the large-headed cod, a variety of the common cod . . . . . . 84 Add the species recorded above . . . . . . . . 10 Fresh-water fishes, 28, less the sheat-fish and gold-fish, both introductions, and the azurine, a variety of the rudd . . 25 119 But as the Lampreys, three in number in Essex, are now generally removed from the Pisces to form the Class THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 83 Cyclostomata, we have ii6 as the revised total, up to the present date, of true fishes occurring in the Essex streams and ponds, and the restricted marine area recognised by Dr. Laver. Doubtless many more will be added from the Thames Estuary and elsewhere when the much desired systematic explorations aie undertaken, especially if a somewhat more elastic definition of the " Essex Marine Shallow-Water District " is adopted, following the custom of other county recorders. (See E. N. ii. 40 and xiii., 37 ; also Laver's Fishes, p. 13). THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB : REPORTS OF MEETINGS. THE 2i8th ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, December 6th, 1902. The meeting was held in the Technical Institute, Stratford, at 6.30 as usual, Prof. R. Meldola, President, in the chair. New Member. — Mr. George Miles was elected. Cuttle-Fish Exhibited. — Mr. W. Cole showed a fine specimen of Sepia officinalis kom the North Sea, presented by Mr. Goodchild. This specimen was very much larger than the one exhibited at the last meeting. The animal was seldom obtained immediately off the Essex Coast, and then generally in the young state. Neolithic Implements from Chelmsford. — Mr. Henry Mothersole sent for exhibition two flint implements found by himself near Chelmsford. One was a hammer-stone, showing evident marks of use, with a curved ridge, very like the •one figured in Evans' Sto7ie Implements, p. 246. These specimens will be figured and described in a future part of the E.N. Paper Read.— Mr. A. S. Kennard read extracts from a paper by himself and Mr. B. B.Woodward, F.L.S., F.G.S., on "The Non- Marine Mollusca of the River Lea Alluvium at Walthamstow." The paper included the molluscan results of the recent excavations in making the East London Company's new reservoirs. One of the most noteworthy results of the investigation was the chscovery of Planorbis stroemii, a shell not hitherto reported from these islands either living or extinct. The paper was published in the last part of E.N., a7ite, pp. 13-21. At the same time, Mr. Kennard very kindly presented a full set of the shells to the Club's Museum. A vote of thanks was cordially passed to the authors on the motion of the President, who congratulated them upon a remarkably good piece of work. The numerous papers which would probably be the result of the study of the excavations in the Lea Valley would be most interesting and valuable as contributions to local geology, archaeology, and palaeontology. Demonstration of Tri-colour Photography. — Mr. Edward R. Turner then gave a practical Demonstration of the Lumiere Company's process ot 84 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. Tri-coloiiv Photography and its application to natural historj- work, the making of lantern slides of insects, flowers, and micro-photographs, 6cc. jNIr. Turner's exposition was illustrated b\- many beautiful examples of the process, shown by the lantern. A very considerable discussion on methods and results ensued, caiTied on by the President, :Mr. John Spiller, F.C.S., Mr. F. H. Varley, F.R.A.S., Mr. Briscoe, B.Sc, Mr. Crouch, the Lecturer, and others. But as these remarks pertained mainly to points of photographic practice, they are unsuitable for reporting here. The object of ^Mr. Turner's exposition was to show what a beautiful and practical method had been placed in the hands of the naturalist.. We have also the Sangei-Shepherd }Mocess, the methods and results of wliich weve so well shown at late meetings of the Club by the inventor and by the slides illustratmg the lectures of Professors Poulton and Meldola. ;Mr. Turner was most heartily thanked for his interesting and well presented demonstrations. THE 219th ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, January 31ST, 1903. This meeting was held as usual at the Technical Institute, vStratford, at 6.30 p.m., the President in the chair. Photographs of Colchester Charters and Essex Churches. — Mr. J. Avery showed a set of the photographs (32 in number) made by Mr. J. C. Shenstone, F.L.S. (one of the Vice- P res idsnts of the Club) of the Charters of the Borough of Colchester, from Richard II. downwards, together with many other Charters and records of historical interest. The photographs were made for and presented to the Xew Town Hall, and were printed by the carbon process, but a very few copies (12) \vere struck off and acquired by residents of the town. Mr. Avery's copy is believed to be the onh^ one outside the borough. Mr. F. J. Brand exhibited an interesting album of photographs of Essex Churches. Palaeolithic Implements from Leyton. — The Secretary exhibited on behalf of Dr. Frank Comer, F.G.S., a set of over 30 Palaeolithic Implements found in making excavations in the vallev of the Fillibrook at Levton, Essex. Some ot them, from the gravel about 6 feet down, were much rolled and water worn ; but at the 9 feet level sharper specimens occurred, and this level appeared to have been the "living floor" of the makers of these implements. Dr. Corner had presented the whole series to the Club's Museum. Mr. W. AVhitaker, F.R S., made some remarks on the implements, which he considered to be very interesting, coming as they did from one locality. It was most desirable for tinds of this kind to be kept together. The President, in suggesting that Dr. Corner should be thanked for his donation, alluded to the excellent scientific work of Mr. Worthington Smith in collecting and studying the implements unearthed in particular spots. Caje in this respect had enabled ^Ir. -Smith to prove the existence of working-places or " Palaeolithic Floors " on the margins of the old Thames and Lea. The vote of thanks was cordially given. Later Tertiary History of East Anglia. — The President said that Mr. \V. F. Harmer, F.G.S., had sent for the library a reprint of his paper on " A Sketch of the Later Tertiary History [of East Anglia," published in the THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 85 Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. The President and Air. Whitaker pointed out the value of this paper (alluded in a note in the present part) as a summary of the present state of knowledge on the subject. Any student wishing to gain an insight into the geology and palaeontology of the Crags of Essex and Suflblk could not do better than make this paper his guide. Thanks were voted to Air. Harmer for his interesting communication. Photographic Survey of Essex. — Air. A. E. Briscoe, B. Sc, Principal 0^ the Technical Institute, then read a paper entitled " Proposals for a Photographic and Pictorial Survey of Essex, in connection with the Essex Aluseum of Natural History." This paper was published in full in the last part of the EssEX Naturalist, ante, pp. 1-5. A letter was read from Sir Benjamin Stone, Presideitt of the National Photographic Record Association, in which the writer gave some useful hints on the subject, and cordially approved of the scheme for Essex. An interesting discussion was carried on by the President, Air. G. Scamell {the Secretary of the National Association'), Air. W. Whitaker {Chairman of the Surrey Survey), Air. Avery, Air. W. Cole, Air. F. J. Brand, and Air. Briscoe. The Secretary suggested that Air. Briscoe's paper should be printed in the Essex Naturalist, and that after a committee had carefully considered practical plans, a meeting should be called in the summer in some central place in Essex, when the proposal could be formally placed before the county. A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Air. Briscoe, the President remarking that they were much obliged to him for affording the Club an opportunity of making a practical movement towards realizing a very fascinating idea. The Club's set of photographs showing the effects of the Essex Earthquake of April 22nd, 1884, was exhibited. THE 220th ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, February 28th, 1903. This meeting Avas held at 6.30 p.m., in the Technical Institute, West Ham, Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The Chairman said that the members would much regret that serious illness prevented the President, Professor Aleldola, from being present that evening. New Members.— The Kev. E. C. Carter and Air. Z. Aloon, Chief Librarian, Public Libraries, Ley ton. Exhibitions. — Air. F. W. Elliott exhibited and presented to the Aluseum some nests of the solitary wasp, Eninenes coarctata, from Bournemouth, toge^'her with hymenopterous parasites bred therefrom. He and Air. W. Cole also exhibited portions of nests of species of Vespa^ in illustration of Air. Connold's lecture. British Marten Presented. — The Curator exhibited a fine specimen of the British Alarten [Mustela niartes^ L.) presented to the Aluseum by Air. T. E. Harting, F.L..S. The animal was killed in Westdale, Cumberland, in OctoDer, 1887. It had been engraved by Air. G. E. Lodge for a plate in the Zoologist, 1 89 1. A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Air. Harting for this valuable donation. Diagrams of Cryptogamia. — The Curator called attention to 14 large coloured diagrams (framed), which formed part of a series of botanical subjects now being made to go round the gallery of the Aluseum, over the botanical cases 86 THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. which would be fitted eventually. The diagrams were original coloured drawings, made by Dr. ^I. C. CooUe specially for the Museum, and consequently they were of interest and educational value. Nomination of Officers and Council. — In view of the Annual Meeting Nominations of Officers and New Members of Council were made. (See report of the Annual Meeting.) Lecture on British Vespidse and their Vespiaries. — A lecture on this subject was delivered by Mr. Edward Connold, F.E.S., illustrated with over fifty lantern slides, j^hotographed by Mr. Connold from actual specimens in his possession, illustrative of the British Social Wasps and their Architecture. The six species of British Vespidse were depicted as seen under natural conditions. The mechanism by which the sting is moved, and the wings linked together was explained. The construction of a Vespiary, from its earliest stage until disintegration takes place, was fully shown. And a unique set of charming views portrayed the actual digging out of a nest of Vespa germanica^ which had contained about 45,000 inhabitants. At the close of the lecture an interesting discussion on the habits of wasps was carried on by the Chairman, Mr. F. Enock, ]Mr. Elliott, Mr. F. H. Varley, Mr. W. Cole, and the Lecturer, and at the end ]\Ir. Connold was cordially thanked for liis very interesting and well illustrated lecture. THE 23rd ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. Saturday, April 4TH, 1903. The 23rd Annual Meeting of the Club was held as usual at Stratford,. Professor G. S. Boulger, F.L.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. ^^ The minutes of the Annual Meeting, held on March 22nd, 1902, and printed in the Essex Naturalist, Vol. xii., pp. 261-2, were read and confirmed. The Chaiiman said that the members were sorry that Professor jSIeldola's continued illness prevented his presence amongst them, and the same regrettable cause would deprive them of a Presidential address that evening. It was also announced that the Treasurer was unavoidably detained on tlie Continent. The usual financial statements from him and the passing of the balance-sheet was postponed until a later meeting. The Secretary read the Annual Report of the Council for the year 1902. This was received and adopted, and it is printed in the present part of the E,N. pp. 88-91. At the meeting on February 28th last, the following members retired fiom the Council by the Rules : — Rev. \V. S. Lach-Szyrma, Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R. S., Mr. E. N. Buxton, J.P., and Mr. J. E. Harting, F.L.S. And there was one vacancy. At the same meeting the following were duly proposed : — Rev. W. S. Lach- Szyrma, Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, Mr. E. N. Buxton, Mr. J. E. Harting, and ISIr. Robert Paulson. As Officers for 1903 the following were nominated : — President — iSIr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., Vice-President Anlh. Inst, (late Curator of Museum of Practical Geology) ; Treasurer — Mr. David Howard, J.P., F.C. S. ; Hon. Secretaries — I It had been necessary to postpone this meeting' from the date originally £xed (viz., March 2Sth) in consequence of the Students' Conversazione at the Institute taking place on that evening. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. 87 Mr. W. Cole, F.L.S., F.E.S., and Mr. B. G. Cole ; Librarians — vacant ; Auditors — Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S., and Mr. J. D. Cooper. No other members having been proposed for any office, the above gentlemen stood elected as Members of the Council and Officers for the year 1903, and were so declared by the Chairman. Mr. John Spiller proposed that a cordial vote of thanks should be given to their retiring President, Professor Meldola. They all most deeply sympathised with him in his illness, and most sincerely hoped that it would soon pass away. Mr. Meldola's services to the Club were fully known to most of those present ; in his last annual address he had admirably summed up its history, and they all regi'etted that no like inspiriting discourse had been possible from him that evening. Mr. T. V. Holmes most cordially seconded the vote of thanks and message of sympathy to the late President. With a few appreciative words from the President, the motion was agreed to by acclammation. On the motion of Mr. Hugh McLachlan, a vote of thanks was passed to the Officers and to the Auditors. Mr. Walter Crouch briefly responded, and the meeting ended. THE 22ist ORDINARY MEETING. Saturday, April 4TH, 1903. After the business of the Annual Meeting, an Ordinary Meeting (the 221st) was held, Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., President, in the Chair. New Members. — At the Annual Meeting Mr. Walter Bevins, and Mr. F. W. Rudler Cone of the Honorary Members of the Club) had been elected Ordinary Members, and the fact is entered here for confirmation. President. — Mr. Rudler thanked the members for placing him in the honourable position of President of the Club. He alluded to the high reputation in which the Club was held, inasmuch as it was carrying on excellent local work ; it might be looked upon as a model local natural history society. Mr. Rudler also referred to the valuable work of the retiring President, Professor Meldola, in relation to the Club, and hoped to receive the aid and encouragement of the Council and Officers in carrying on the work during his term of office. Series of Flint Implements from the Thames Valley Gravels. — Mr. A. S. Kennard exhibited a fine series of Flint Implements found in the Thames Valley, and said that his object was to bring together examples of the work of man from the age of the " Rock Shelters " back to the age of the Eoliths. Air. Kennard' s remarks will be embodied in a short note, on " The relative age of the Thames Valley Stone Implements." He also exhibited a flint arrow- head from Forest Gate, which will be figured and described in the next part of the Essex Naturalist. Museum Microscope. — Mr. Cole exhibited one of the Museum Microscopes made by Messrs. W. Watson and Sons, which were intended for the exhibition of minute organisms and biological and petrological specimens in the Museum. (See •' Note " in a future part.) Stone Implements from the Laterite Deposits of India. — K set of specimens from these deposits, presented to the Museum by Mr. \V. Seton-KaiT, was exhibited. 88 ANNUAL REPORT. Victoria History of Essex. — It was announced that Dr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., had kindly subscribed on behalf of the Club for a set of this important work for the Library. The first volume, recently ])ublished, was on the table. Eoliths from Grays. — Mr. A. S. Kennard presented a set of specimens of supposed Eolithic " worked " stones from near Grays, Essex, for the Museum. Cordial votes of thanks were passed to Mr, Seton-Kair, to Dr. Sorby, and to ;Mr. Kennard for these donations. Papers Read. — Mr. A. S. Kennard read two short papers by himself and Mr. B. B. Woodward, F.G.S., F.L.S., one being entitled *' Notes on Sections in the Lea Valley at Canning Town," and the other " Note on the occurrence of Fresh-water Mollusca in a Water-Main at Poplar." (These papers are printed in the present part of the E.N.) Thanks were voted to the authors of these papers on the proposal of the President, who alluded to the value of such notes, which were typical of the kind of work which a local scientific society should encourage. Lecture. — Mr. D. J. Scourfield, F.R.M.S., gave a lecture on the " Locomotion of Microscopic Aquatic Organisms," which was illustrated by about 40 photographic lantern slides, many of them being taken from original drawings. The Lecturer commenced with the ama^ba and its allies, the lowest known forms, in which the locomotive organs were not permanent, but mere out- pushings of the protoplasm, which were again absorbed into the body mass. From these he passed to the Infusoria, which moved by means of whip-like threads {Hagella) or re ws of shorter threads {cilia), dealing afterwards with the rotifers, with discs fringed with cilia, and the higher forms beaiing spines simulating limbs, and so on to the minute crustaceans, in many of which the feelers are modified to serve as organs of locomotion, while the chief function of the legs is to bear the gills, and thus carry on the process of respiration. A short discussion was carried on by Professor Boulger and the Lecturer, who wascordiallv thanked on the proposal of the President. It is probable that the substance of ^Slr. Scourfield's lecture will be given in the form of a paper in the Essex Naturalist. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31st, 1902. [Read and adopted at the 2srd Annual Meeting on Apiil 4th, 1903.] Financial. — [Owing to Mr. Howard's absence from England the statement of account was not read at the meeting. It wiU be published later.] ]Meetings. — Twelve were held in the year, one (the " Fungus Foray ") being a two-day meeting. The papers, "notes" and exhibits have fully equalled in interest those of former years. All the papers read have been or will be published in the Essex Naturalist. The most important meeting ot the year was that held on June 14th in Haiuhault Forest, in support of ;^[r. Buxton's scheme of re-aflforestation. This was marred by the wet weather, but was nevertheless a remarkable assembly, and we may hope did something in aid of the realisation of a grand idea. On June 17th Lord and Lady Rayleigh very kindly received the Club at Terling Place, and Lord Rayleigh delivered an ANNUAL REPORT. 8g interesting address on " Colour in Nature." The Council was also much indebted to Mr. Charles H. Read, F.S.A., Keeper of the Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities at the British Museum, for the address on " Local Archaeological Investigation," which he gave at the meeting in January. At the following meeting, on February 22nd, Professor E, B. Poulton, F.R.S., the Hope Professor of Zoology, University of Oxford, delighted the audience with a lecture (most beautifully illustrated by photographs in colour) on " Protective Resemblance, Warning Colours, and ]Mimicry," and on this occasion the Club had the benefit of some remarks on " Mimicry " from Professor Meldola. At the jSIarch meeting ^Slr. Frank P. Smith spoke of" Spiders and their Ways," preparatory to a series of papers he is writing for our journal on the " Spiders of Epping Forest." The " Fungus Foray " on October 17th and i8th, was like so many outdoor meetings in 1902, somewhat shorn of the usual goodly company by more than doubtful weather, but scientifically it was not a whit behind its fore- runners, inasmuch as no less than 134 species were gathered and determined by Dr. Cooke and Mr. Massee, of which 18 were new to the Forest Flora. On this occasion also the Club had the assistance of Mr. Arthur Lister, F.R.S. At the meeting on December 6th ^Ir. Edward R. Turner gave an excellent demonstration of the Lumiere process of Tri-Colour Photography and its applica- tion to Natural History work. At some of the meetings the kind assistance of the following gentlemen, acting as " Conductors," was highly appreciated : Mr. J. Chalkley Gould, Mr. Primrose McConnell, Mr. E. N. Buxton, Mr. W. H. Dalton, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. E. Greenhill, Mr. Miller Christy, Rev. C. Boutflower, and Mr. Frank Smith. The Council have pleasure in again recording the best thanks of the Club to the Technical Instruction Committee of the West Ham Corporation, and to the Principal, Mr. Briscoe, for the use of the meeting-room and for other facilities. The Essex Naturalist. — With the view of securing more regularity in the publication of our journal the Council have accepted the estimate of Messrs. Benham and Co., of Colchester, for the printing. It is confidently anticipated that Math the new year, the parts will appear quarterly, viz., on or about the 20th of April, July, October, and January, in each year. The price of the parts to non-members will in future be uniformly 5s., so that the best way to obtain the Essex Naturalist will be to join the Club. Two parts comprising 216 pages with several plates, and Title and Index to Vol. XL, were published in the year. The Council asks for the aid of the members and friends of the Club to the Editor so that he may be enabled to produce the journal as a regular quarterly publication. It is manifest that he is entirely in the hands of contributors so far as regards original papers ; a supply of Notes and Short Papers likely to interest zoologists, botanists, geologists, and students of pre-historic archceology, etc., in the Eastern Counties, and the East and North of l^ondon, would be of the greatest value in connection with the journal and would markedly tend to increase the interest of members in the work of the Club. Essex Museum of Natural History. — The central museum has benefited by several donations within the year, the most remarkable having been the gift by our member, Mr. T. Horace Brown, F.R.S. , of the whole of his extensive and valuable collection of fossils and rock specimens, together with a small type collection of mollusca. This donation was made by Mr. Brown and gratefully accepted by the Council to aid in the building up of the educational 90 ANNUAL REPORT. collections which we hope to have in the museum in addition to the local series. The Council have pleasure in acknowledging specimens of small collections from Mr. J. E. HartincT, Mr. H. Seton-Karr, ]\ir. Johnson, Mr. Kennard, Mr. Goodchild, Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell, Dr. A. Wilson, Messrs. W. and B. G. Cole, and others. Mrs. Sewell piesented the herbarium of her late husband, our member, \[r. A. S. Sewell, to the Club's museum. Very considerable alterations and additions have been made, but it will be better to defer a description of these until the Curator can report a closer realization of the "idea" of the museum. It is anticipated that most of the public collections will be at least temporaily arranged by the close of 1903. The Curator takes this opportunity of again emphasising the really urgent necessity of systematic collecting, especially of marine and coast forms of life. The assistance he receives from members and others is too sporadic. It is much to be wished that some of our younger members would take up definite groups, and endeavour to collect for the museum good and authentic Essex specimens in such groups. This would confer great benefits both upon themselves and upon the museum, and the assistance they could claim from head-quarters in the determination of and information about specimens in their own collections would compensate them for the slight additional trouble. But above all we need explorations carried out by the Club itself; until we are able to do this our museum will not progress at the rate all well-wishers desire. And at the present time one great need of the museum is extensive cabinet accommodation ; we have at present many thousand specimens awaiting systematic arrangement and cabinet space, and the need will rapidly grow in dxtent and exigence. How to obtain these costly cabinets is a problem that must be faced in the near future. The most notable presents to the library were the Handbook of British Birds from Mr. Harting, Gilberd's De Magnete from Professor Meldola, and the supplemental volume of the same from Professor Silvanus Thompson. From the executors of our late member Mr. Augustus Cunnington, we have received the posthumous privately printed catalogue of his Essex librar}-. Epping Forest Museum. — This institution has been a source of considerable anxiety to the Council and the Curator. The re-fitting with new cases, and the restoration of the old ones, is now completed, but the heavy cost of this work has exhausted the funds in hand. It is imperative, in view of the Club's agreement with the Corporation, that the re-arrangement of the Museum should be proceeded vaXh at once. The Club's Epping Forest Museum Committee have this matter in hand, but it is manifest that further subscriptions are necessary. About £150 would finish the collections in hand, and furnish several cases of mammals and birds, mounted with natural surroundings, a kind of exhibition which appears to be necessary for the popular appreciation of the Museum. This is all that need be said at present ; it is probable that a public meeting Avill be called in the early sumnier, in order to place the facts of the case and the needs of the institution clearly before the members and the inhabitants of the Forest districts. Conference Meeting. — The joint meeting of the three "East Anglian " Societies, proposed at IpsM-ich, fell through mainly by reason of the heavy charge for a steamer. After much correspondence, our Secretary is reluc- tantly compelled to admit that he sees little hope at present of a combined action in the way of publication. Efforts should be concentrated in endeavours to estab- lish an annual or biennial meeting of the Societies for mutual encouragement and discussion. In connection with the Conference of Conesponding Societies at the NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. QI Belfast meeting of the British Association, the Council have to thank our Hon. Member, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., for acting as the Club's Delegate. Re- Afforestation of Hainhault. — The Council can hardly permit the report of the year to pass without recording the warmest thanks of the Club to the Vice-President, Mr. E. N. Buxton, for his persevering efforts to reclaim a large part of Old Haiuhault Forest. It is a matter in which the Club can only cat by way of exhortation and example, but the Council had much pleasure in organising the meeting in the Forest on June 14th, to which reference has already been made. The best wishes of all naturalists and lovers of open spaces will be with Mr. Buxton in his truly noble work. Professor Meldola.— The Council wish to express their warm thanks ta Prof. ^Nleldola, F.R.S., for his work as President during the past two years. During the whole life of the Club our President has had its welfare close to his heart, and a very valuable record qf our work was the subject of his Presidential Address last year. In the Club's interests he can only regret that pressure of Professor Meldola's engagements in the cause of Scientific Education, and particularly of ill-health during the period immediately preceding the Annual Meeting, has precluded the prejxaration of a valedictory address. But we still retain his services as a Permanent Vice-President, and may look forward to his advice in the future as in the past. Presidency.— The Council have great pleasure in recommending that :Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., V.P. Ant. Inst., and late Curator of the Museum of Practical Geologv, be elected President. Mr. Rudler has for many years been an Honorary Member of the Club, and is now qualifying as an Ordinary Member, so as to be eligible for election as President. NOTES— ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. ZOOLOGY. BIRDS. The Influence of the Nature of the Soil on Poultry — In the Live Stock Journal Almanac for 1903 there is an article by Mr. Edward Brown, F.L.S., entitled " Breeds of Poultry for Farmers " in which the writer states : — " Some years ago I Avas consulted by a farmer in Essex, whose idea was to develop table poultry on similar lines to those met with south of the Thames. He lives in a very heavy clay-soil district. I pointed out to him that it was altogether unsuitable for the best qualities of table poultry, and that his wiser plan would be to go in for egg-production. Personally I was not then as fully convinced of the causes for this advice as is now the case, and was unable to give him as clearly as might have been desired the reasons for my objection. How- ever, he went on, and found that what had been stated was absolutely true, so that he was compelled to give up the attempt and turn his attention to the production of eggs. In experience it is found that chickens take much longer tc^ mature upon heavy land, and thus the cost of production is much greater, whilst the best quality is not realised. To summarise the results of inquiries which 92 NOTES —ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. have been made to a considerable extent both at home and abroad, the conclu- sions arrived at are : — First, that upon heavy soil egg production should be the main object ; second, that upon medium soils, whilst better table poultry can undoubtedly be produced, still eggs should be kept largely in view ; third, that it is upon the more porous and kindlier soils that we may fairly expect to secure the finest qualities of table poultry." Mr. Brown adds, with regard to the influence of the soil on the colour of the legs of poultry : — " A friend who lived for several years upon the lowLuids in East Essex, where the soil is very heavy, was a breeder of a yellow legged and fleshed variety, and his birds were remarkable for the brightness of their legs. He removed to another county where the soil was lighter, and the result was that the birds became distinctly paler in colour of leg." Mr. Brown wishes that " a geological map could be prepared for every district, showing the class of poultry which may be reared within that area.'' MOLLUSC A. Marine Mollusca at Walton-on-Naze. — Petricola pholadiforjiiis, Lam., occurs both alive and dead in the London Ciay, between tide-marks, to the South of Walton-on-Naze. Dead shells were collected last summer by Mr. C. W. Vincent. Judging from the size of those I obtained in May this year, the species must have been established at Walton for several years. Pholas Candida, its usual companion, also occurs plentifully in the same localit3^ [For other Essex localities for Petricola see Essex Naturalist xii., i68.] Aceva bullata, Miill. (recorded for Walton in British Conchologv, IV., 431), was abundant in the "back- water" near the Old Mill at Whitsuntide this year.^ — J. E. Cooper, Highgate, iSth June, 1903. [Mr. Cooper has kindly presented specimens of Walton Petricola and Acera to the Club's Museum. Ed.] LN SECTS. A Raid by Ants. — On the 30th June, 1903, whilst walking through a copse about three-quarters of a mile to the V/.N.W. of Newick Station (near Lewes, Sussex), my attention was attracted to a column of ants, about eighteen inches wide, which extended across the path. The ants were crossing in both directions, but many of those going in a westerly direction were draggmg caterpillars, the size of which varied from ^ inch I Aceva bullata was recorded for the Blackwater by Mr. Walter Crouch, E.K. ii., 248, and Dr. Sorby says (Victoria History i., 83), that it must be common " in the upper part of the Stour, and l' think I have collected it in the Colne." NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 93 to I inch in length. Mr. Cole has since identified the cater- pillars as those of the "Winter Morth " {Cheimatohia hvumata) and the ants as Formica vnfa — the Wood-ant. The ants were very pugnacious, and those with burdens absolutely refused to give up their prize, even when their lives were in danger. The " looper " caterpillars were obtained from an oak tree about seven yards east of the path, and the column of ants was clearly defined, and much narrower in the undergrowth. The ants were scahng the tree in thousands, and had evidently a preference for one particular oak, though two others, a few yards distant, were attacked, but not in such great force. On the other side of the path the column stretched out to an ant-hill, and the total distance from the nest to the oak tree was 15 yards. An ant seized a cater- pillar by a loose fold of skin under the body, and putting its legs astride it dragged its burden along in the same manner as a boy "rides" a toy horse. In cases wdiere the caterpillar w^as very large, two ants set to work, one at each end of the " looper's '' body. The scene of the " raid " was visited on the three following days, and the tiny robbers were found hard at work on each occasion. — H. Whitehead, Essex Museum of Natural History. BOTANY. Variation in Adoxa. — The common form of the inflores- cence of the Moscatel [Adoxa moschatellina) consists of five flowers forming a globose head. The peculiarity about the plant is that the flowers have two forms of symmetry, viz., the tetramerous and the pentamerous types, both of which occur on the same plant. In the normal inflorescence the terminal flower is tetramerous and the four lateral flowers are pentamerous. Some material was collected during the Spring of 1902, with a view to studying the variation of this plant. Inflorescences were collected at Chiselhurst, Kent ; Caterham, Surrey ; and at Theydon Garnon, Essex ; and it was found that considerable variation occurs both in the number of flowers and also in the number of the parts of the perianth. Out of 1,071 inflorescences, only 934, or 87*2 per cent, possessed the normal number of flowers, viz., five. The number of flowers per inflorescence ranged from three to ten. The number of divisions of the corolla varied from three to 94 NOTES ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. •eight. In the normal inflorescence the 4-partite and 5-partite are in the ratio of i to 4, or 20 to 80, but the ratio of the observed percentages was as 33-1 to 65*3. The variation from the normal type, therefore, favours the tetramerous more than the pentam- erous forms. During the examination of the material, 51 types of variation were noted. A detailed account of the variation •of the plant was published in Biometvika, Vol. ii., Part i., Nov. 1902, pp. 108-13. — H* Whitehead, Essex Museum of Natural History, June, 1903. Vicia lutea near Witham. — I found on June 6th, 1903, a plant of Vicia lutea growing on the railway embankment near Witham — quite close to the locality from which, some time ago, Mr. Turner recorded EupJwvbia esula, and where that plant is still abundant. I think that V. lutea has only once previously been recorded for the county, and that by Mr. E. A. Fitch, from St. Osyth (in Essex Naturalist vi., 116). It is difficult to see how the plant can have got into such a strange and unnatural habitat. — F. J. Chittenden, County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford. " The Tinctorial Properties of our British Dye Plants." — Under this title Dr. C. B. Plowright has an interest- ing and exhaustive paper in the Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society, Vol. vii., pp. 386 — 394, which should be read in connection with the list of vegetable colouring matters used in the Scotch Highlands communicated by the Duchess of Suther- land (see E.N. Vol. xii., p. 45). Dr. Plowright examined about 70 plants, using as mordants only such simple substances as alum, ammonia, lime, potash, and green vitrei, which are those our ancestors may have employed. The general outcome of the experiments was that all colours which are obtainable from British dye-plants are of a sombre hue. The yellows predominate, and one or two (such as Reseda luteola and Genista tinctoria) were so good that they continued in use until the last half century. No bright permanent red could be obtained. The blue of woad (Isatis tinctoria) is of great beauty, but is a hue exceedingly difficult to extract. (See Corder, Trans. N . and N. Nat. Soc, v., p. 144), Dr. Plowright says " Although a colour of pre-historic origin, yet it is one which to-day can only be obtained by the most care- ful management. In point of fact, the discovery that Isatis was NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. 95 capable of dyeing wool blue, was as great a marvel in its way as the discovery of the art of producing fire." The most useful colours, the browns and blacks (tannin derivatives) are obtainable from various barks and roots, oak, alder, walnut, water-lily, tor- mentil, &c., while some of the lichens yield browns of great beauty. These colours are those still made use of in Scotland. ANTHROPOLOGY. A Neolithic Stone - Hammer from Braintree, Essex. — When the Rev. J. W. Kenworthy read his FIG. I. — A STONE HAMMER-HEAD, Probably of the Bronze Age, two-thirds actual size. Braintree. paper on the Braintree Lake - Dwelling he was under the impression that a flint Arrow - head from the site was in the possession of Mrs. Sydney Courtauld. Upon enquiry however, Mrs. Courtauld very kindly told me 96 NOTES — ORIGINAL AND SELECTED. that the implement belonging to her was a stone Hammer-head, and although it was found in the neitjhbourhood she was not certain that it came from the Skitts Hill pits. As I was so lucky as to be able to borrow the hammer-head in order to photograph it, I am able to give the accompanying illustration (Fig. i-) The length is three inches and the largest diameter two inches^ while the perforation measures three-quarters of an inch across. A transverse section at any point would practically yield a circle. The material is red crystalline quartzite, characteristic of the Thames Basin. — Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S., Hanwell. MISCELLANEA. Personal. — His ^lajesty has honoured ^Ir. F. W. Rudler by conferring upon him tlie decoration of Companion of the Imperial Service Order ''For Faithful Service." The I.S.O. was created at the Coronation to mark the Sovereign's appre- ciation of long and meritorious w*ork on the part of members of the Imperial Civil Service. All members of the Club will rejoice that our President's valuable services to the State and to Science, as Curator oi the Museum of Practical Geology, and in many other ways, should have received recognition by the King. We are also pleased to note that Mr. Wortliington Smith has received a Civil List Pension of /5c for his services to Botany and Archaeology ; and that Dr. M. C. Cooke has been awarded the Gold ]Medal of the Linnean Society. Both these gentlemen have long been highly esteemed Honorary [Members of the Club. Influence of Environment. — The Irish Natiiyalist is responsible for the following, concerning a " Multinucleate Syncytium '" well-known and valued by our members : — •• Professor Poulton, ua opening the discussion on natural selection and miniicn,- in Section D (Brit. Association Meeting, Belfast), gave an excellent practical illustration of the rapidity with which response of the organism to its en\Tronment may take place. The learned speaker had not been a week amid Hibernian surroundings when, in discussing the relative numbers of mmiickers and mimicked in a particular case, he stated that ' only one out of ever)- thousand ants was a spider.' " LOCAL PUBLICATIONS BENHHM RNO e©.. 24, HIGH STREET, COLCHESTER, THE RED PAPER BOOK OF COLCHESTER. Transcribed and Translated by W. Gukney Bknham. Crown 4to. Fully Indexed. A volume crowded with local information hitherto unpublished. 25s. nett. COLCHESTER OYSTER FEAST. Its History and Toast Lists. Profusely illustrated. 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Stopes, F.G.S., and W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., 6d. ; by post, yd. MALDON. By Edward A. Fitch, ex-Mayor of Maldou. Illustrated. 1888. Fcaj). 8vo. Paper cover. Price 3d. : by post, 3|d. THE ESSEX LABOURER, DRAWN FROM LIFE. By \V. G. B. Illustrations, 4to. 6d, ; by post, 6^d. Oe proposed "photographic aad pictorial Survey oj €ssex. \K connection with this subject, Mr. A. E. Briscoe, B Sc, the author of the paper in the last part of the ESSEX NATURALIST, has addressed a letter to the newspapers, appealing to photographers, amateur and professional, who may have taken views of the recent floods in Essex, to furnish prints for the proposed collection in the Essex Museum. Mr. Briscoe says: "As it is of importance that these prints should be permanent, I should prefer made by either the platinotype or carbon processes. If prints by these processes cannot be supplied, well-washed bromide prints will be acceptable as sub- stitutes. On the back of the prints should be written, in pencil, the date on which each negative was taken, the name and address of the photographer, and the exact locality of the scenes photographed. Any details that would be of interest should be sent on a separate sheet of paper. All the prints should be sent Ufinioinited, so that a uniform system may be adopted for their preservation in portfolios." Prints in response to this appeal sh uld be sent to Mr. A. E. BRISCOE, Miuucipal Technical Institute, West Hain^ Essex. We hope that all having the opportunity will respond to Mr. Briscoe's request, and pending the formal inauguration of the Survey, that members and others will commence to collect photographs of interest, in accordance with the plan laid down in the ''Proposals," so that 'a good start may be made this year. We shall be happy to send a copy of Mr. Briscoe's paper to anyone interested and willing to help. The meeting for the establishment of the "Survey" will, it is hoped, be held in the autumn, and due notice will be sent to all furnishing names and addresses for that purpose. — Editor. PUBLISHED^~gtf7tRTERL Y. Price to Non-Members, 5s. per part, post free. Part III., Vol. XIII] [OCTOBER, 1903. The Essex J^atupalist: BEING THE JOURNAL OF THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB, EDITED BY WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., Honorary Secretary and Curator. ©ontents. PAGE The Palaeolithic Period in the Thames Basin —By J. P. Johnson (wilk seven illustrations and folding map) . . . . . . . . 97 Ancient Urns at Braintree. — By W. Cole {7i>ith illiistratioii) .. .. no Notes on a Palaeolith from Grays, Essex. — By A. S. Kennard {^nth Plate VI.) 112 Note on a Neolithic Arrow-head from Upton Park, Essex. — By A. S. Kennard (ec/y/^yfifw/rj-) .. .. .. .. .. .. 114 Notes on the Seeds of Plants found in the Alluvium of the River Lea at Walthamstow, Essex.— By Clement Reid, F.R.S., A. S. Kennard, and B. B. Woodward, F.L.S 115 Notes on Marine Animals obtained in Essex Waters in 1902 and 1903.— By H. C. SOKBY, LL.D., F.R.S 116 Notes on Ancient Water-Pipes.— By A. jMorley Davies, B.Sc.,P\G.S. 117 Notes on the Present-day use of Wooden Water-Pipes. — By E. Dick 118 Meeting of Corresponding Societies' Committee of the British Association at Belfast, igo2 .. .. .. .. .. 120 "A Plea for an Ordnance Map Index of Prehistoric Remains." — By Charles H. Read, F.S. A. . .. .. .. .. .. 123 Notes — Original and Selected .. .. .. .. .. .. 126 The Oak Galls and Gall Insects of Epping Forest. Part II. Des- criptive and Faunistic. — By E. J. Lewis, F.L.S. , F.E.S. .. 138 The Authors alone are responsibU for the statements and opinions contained in their respective papers. PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB, AT THE ESSEX MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, STRATFORD, ESSEX. Entered Stationers' Hall.] [Published October, 1903. Editorial communications to W. Cole, " Springfield," Buckhurst Hill, Essex, and Advertisements to Messrs. Benham and Co., Printers Colchester. THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB. &t6t of Counctf ant Offtcere for 1903-4. Patron : H.R.H. THE DUKE OF COXXAUGHT AXD STRATHEARN, K.G. {Ranger of Epping Foiesi). President : F. W. RUDLER, Esq., I.S.O., F.G.S., Vice-Pres.Anth.Inst. Vice=Presidents : E. XORTH BUXTON, J. P., Ald. C.C, D.L. WALTER CROUCH, F.Z.S. I. CHALKLEY GOULD. J. C. SHEXSTONE, F.L.S. Permanent Vice=Presidents : {Constituted undo' Rule IV.) Professor R. MELDOLA, F.R.S. {President 1880-82 and igoi-02). Professor G, S. BOULGER, F.L.S. , F.G.S. {President 1883-84). THOMAS VINCEXT HOLMES, F.G.S. , F.A.L {President 1885-87). EDWARD A. FITCH, C.C., F.L.S.. F.E.S. (President, 1888-91). HEXRY LAYER, J. P., M.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. {President. 1892). FREDERIC CHAXCELLOR, J. P., F.R.LB.A. {President, 1893-94). DAVID HOWARD, J. P., F.I.C., F.C.S. i President, 1895-1900). Other Members of Council : JOHN AVERY, C.A. i PRIMROSE McCONXELL, B.Sc. F.G.S. CHARLES E. BEXHAM. ! HUGH McLACHLAX, F.R.LB.A. MILLER CHRISTY, F.L.S. HUGH H. MASOX. F.R.C.S., L.S.A., C.C. PERCY CLARK. B.A. ROBERT PAULSOX. F. W. ELLIOTT. Right Hon. LORD RAYLEIGH, F.R.S. JOHN A. FIXZI, F.E.S. i F. W. READER. J. E. HARTIXG, F.L.S., F.Z.S. | C. B. RUSSELL, M.A., J. P., C.C. Rev. W. C. HOWELL, M.A. | JOHN SPILLER, F.I.C., F C.S. A. JOHNSTOX, Chairman C.C, J. P. 1 FREDK. H. VARLEY, F.R.A.S. Rev. W. S. LACH-SZYRMA, M.A. I GEORGE E. VAUGHAN. ALFRED LOCKYER. I Hon. Treasurer : DAVID HOWARD, D.L., F.I.C., F.C.S. Hon. Secretary and Curator : WILLIAM COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., Buckhurst Hill, Esses. Assistant Hon. Secretary : BEXJAMIN G. COLE, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Hon. Librarians : Hon< Counsel : Hon. Solicitor : W. C. DARE, B.A., Barrister-at-Laiv. HEXRY I. COBURN. Auditors : WALTER CROUCH, F.Z.S., and JOHN D. COOPER. Bankers : LLOYD'S BANK. 72, Lombard Street, E.G. Headquarters : Essex Mvseum of Natural History (Passmore Edwards Museum), Romford Road, Stratford, E. Museums and Library : Queen Elizabeth's Lodge, Chingford. Essex Xatural History Museum, Stratford, E. 97 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD IN THE THAMES BASIN. By J. P. JOHNSON. THE earliest evidence of pre-historic man's presence in the Thames Basin is afforded by an ancient deposit of gravel which occurs in patches on the Chalk Plateau known as the North Downs. The Plateau Gravel indeed is the oldest deposit that has yielded relics of the primaeval savage. These consist of pieces of flint, tlie edges of which in most cases have been notched through use, though in many they have been chipped into more or less regular curves suitable for scraping, which is the commonest and no doubt one of the first uses to which a piece of flint was put by primitive man. These rude implements from the Plateau Gravel belong to the earliest, or Eolithic, period of the Stone Age. After the deposition of the Plateau Gravel a great interval of time elapsed during which no fluviatile beds w^ere laid down in the area under consideration, so that when the next series of deposits — the valley-drifts — began to be formed, man had reached a much higher state of culture than that of the Eolithic period. The valley drifts occur on the sides of the valleys where they have been left by the rivers at former epochs in their excavating career. They may be grouped into a high and low-level series, and consist chiefly of gravel, though the latter contain tliick masses of b.rickearth or loam in places, especially in the main valley below London. The implements found in these deposits are termed Palaeolithic and difl"er very materially from those from the Plateau Gravel ; indeed they mark a complete revolution in the art of making flint implements. The scraping and allied tools, which still make up the bulk of the implements, are now all fashioned out of artiflcially produced flakes. Man had no longer any need to search for suitably shaped splinters, as he had now learnt to make them for himself. The method employed was to first obtain a flat surface by breaking off" the end of a nodule and then driving oft slices at right-angles to it by sharp blows with another stone. Some of these flake tools can now be assigned to definite purposes but the uses to which the majority were put are quite inexplicable. Fig. I shows a scraper of average workmanship. 98 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD c o Pi < Pi o (14 O i-i IN THE THAMES BASIN, 99 100 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD During the high-level epoch man does not seem to have been able to control the shape of the flakes, as they are nearly always large and somewhat clumsily produced, but by the time the low- level drifts were deposited he seems to have acquired great dexterity in the manipulation of flint, for .the flakes are now usually small and neat, while others of designed shape, as for instance the long narrow flakes with a triangular section, such as require great skill in their production, are common. A good example of a designedly-shaped flake is that shown in Fig. 2. There can be no doubt that this was meant to be used as a knife, the broad end probably being bound round with vegetable fibre or animal sinew, after the style of the Australian knife figured by Sir John Evans, ^ and as such one cannot but admire its eftectiveness. Even more eloquent of the ability of the later Palaeolithic people is the testimony of the spear-heads, one of which is represented by Fig. 3, for their shape is clearly the- result of the skilful execution of a previously thought-out pattern. A fine example in the Natural History Departaient of the British Museum, in which the point has been artistically finished by small secondary chipping, bears a close resemblance to the obsidian spear-heads used by the natives of the Admiralty Islands. A rare instrument of this period is the saw. Fig 4 shews a specimen from the low level drift at Ilford. It is a flake of slate-black flint, which has been serrated carefully along the edge. I found this, together with other flakes, in situ, in a bed of gravel, which yielded bones of rhinoceros and shells of land and fresh -water molluscs.'^ Still more characteristic of the Palaeolithic period are the peculiar tongue-shaped implements. Eolithic man confined his work to the edges of the pieces of flint, but the tongue-shaped mplements of Palaeolithic man are skilfully chipped all over, sometimes into delicate tapering points, and sometimes into thin flat blades. What these implements were used for is still a mystery, in spite of the attention that has been paid to them. Probably the majority were used as javelin or axe-heads, but our knowledge, meagre though it be, of the uses to which the I Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements . ... of Great Britain. London : 1872 and 1897. 2 J. P. Johnson, " Palaeolithic Implements from th2 low-ltvel drift of the Thames Valley."— Essex Naturalist, vol, xii. (1901). IN THE THAMES BASIN. lOI FIG. 5.— TONGUE-SHAPED IMPLEMENT, from S.wanscombe, Kent. Drawn by J. P. Johnson. Actual size. 102 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD Tasmanian aborigines put their implements^ warns us that such is not necessarily the case. Moreover, some of the highest authorities, notably Worthington Smith* are of opinion that FIG. 6. — TONGUE-SHAPED IMPLEMENT froni Swanscombc. Drawn by J. P. Johnson. Actual size. they were not bafted in any way, but were merely grasped in the hand. A characteristic example is that shewn in Fig. 5. I imagine it to have been bound round, at the upper end, by a withe, and 3 See E B. Taylor " On the Tasmanians as representatives of Palaeolithic Man.' Journ. Anthrop Instihite, vol. xxiii. 1894. 4 Worthington G. Smith, Man the FrimcEval Savage. London, 1894. IN THE THAMES BASIN. 103 used as an axe. This method of hafting is employed among certain existing savages. Fig. 6 represents an exceptionally finely-pointed specimen It may either have been used as a javelin-head, or else as an axe- head, in which case the point would have been wedged into a hole in the piece of wood forming the handle. Fig. 7 shews a beautiful implement of rare workmanship and unusual form. Another characteristic, though comparatively rare, type of axe-head is discoidal in shape, the oval periphery presenting an FIG. 7. — TONGUED-SHAPED IMPLEMENT fiom Swanscombe. Drawn by J. P. Johnson. Natural size. acute edge. Semi-circular forms also occur. Allen Brown describes one from the low-level valley drift as '' a very neatly made axe-head much more advanced in form as well as in work- manship than any instrument of that kind from the older drift of the higher levels which has come under my notice. The blade is skilfully chipped all over and the front is worked into a sharp :utting edge." Even the actual land surfaces on which the Palaeolithic people manufactured their implements have been preserved here and there, buried under varying thickness of drift. So well defined are these old surfaces that in some instances the cracks 5 J. Allen Brown, "Working Sites and Inhabited Land-Surfaces of the Palaeolithic Period." Trans. Middlesex Nat. Hist. Soc. (1S89). 104 "^^E PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD which were produced in them by the sun's ra3's, in PalaeoHthic times, have been preserved, having been filled up and covered with loam. There are sometimes strewn with the flakes result- ing from the manufacture of implements. On tlie accompanying sketch map of the Thames Basin, I have shewn the chief locaUties at which Palaeolithic implements have been found. Those places at v/hich the actual working sites of Palaeolithic man have been discovered are indicated by dots, while those which have yielded the characteristic tongue shaped weapons are indicated by small circles. The most westerly locality with which I am acquainted is Wolvercote,^ near Oxford, where Bell obtained one or two tongue-shaped implements, together with remains of urus and elephant. More recently the same gentleman has made a large discovery in this district of which, however, I have no details to hand. Proceeding along the main valley eastwards, the next locality is Wallingford from which Sir John Evans {op. cit.) has recorded several of the characteristic implements. An excellent summary of the discoveries in the Reading district has been made by Shrubsole.^ On the north bank, in a pit near Caversham, at 114 feet above the present level of the river, he has obtained a large number of the tongue-shaped weapons from a bed of gravel resting on chalk. He concludes that they could not have been made far from the spot upon which they were found. He also mentions the finding of a horse's tooth in the same deposit. At Shiplake, about three miles distant, he found specimens at a sliglitly lower level. Turning to the south side, he mentions obtaining, in Reading itself, numerous specimens of the discoidal axe-heads from gravel overlying the Palaeogene clays. Together with these he found flakes which had been used as scrapers and two fragments of bone " which had been cut as if by a flint implement, which, when put together, are seen to have formed part of the same bone which had evidently been split before it became embedded in the gravel." From the same bed of drift, which varies from 14 to 19 feet in thickness, he obtained remains of elephant, rhinoceros and horse. 6 A. M. Bell, " Palaeolithic Remains at Wolvercote," Antiquary xxx. 7 O. A. Shrubsole " On the Valley Gravels about Reading." Quait. Journ Geol; Soc. xlvi. (1890). — -J THAMES BASIN M ^ ^-\^ ^^tM ■1, ''\"''^-''Hliu. I wm«D&won '"""'IftWI',,?'''"'""'^'"" '""I\1|.H,„)||||„ """„ , ^<„ :"'M«CKUA' f*^(^vi;n»i(HUll'f^^^ ^///nmii.nvW'^*-^ f ^t)^ nvi.e*Fo«o o\ Vl ^y^ "'/''ffr Klu llMulli .SKKTCH-MAP OF THE THAMES BASIN. Sliowinn the localities (indicated by small circles) at which the characteristic Tongue-shaped Implements have been found. Solid dots indicate the actual Working-sites of Pa'seolithic Man. Drawn by J. P. Jolmson. IN THE THAMES BASIN. IO5 In the North London district from west of Acton (see Alien Brown, " Notes on the High-level Valley Drift between Hanwell and Iver," Pvoc. Geologists' Assoc, xiv., 1895)® to Stoke Newington and Ilford, a vast number of implements have been obtained. At Acton itself is the site of the first large discovery of Polaeolithic implements in the Thames Basin. This was by Pitt-Rivers, who described'' his investigations in 1872. They chiefly came from the base of the gravel of the highest terrace. His work has been carried on by Allen Brown, who has dis- covered old surface planes in this terrace. On one of these, exposed in two small pits in the Creffield Road, he found at about six feet from the surface nearly 400 implements and flakes. It was " evident that there had been a manufactory of Palaeolithic implements on this floor, since they were often found together in nests, and they are all as sharp and unabraded as on the day they were made."^*' A complete summary of his dis- coveries, with a list of other neighbouring localities is given in his book, Palaeolithic Man in N.W. Middlesex (London, 1887). From the middle terrace (the low-level valley drift is here split up into two distinct terraces, making three in all) he obtained the semi-circular axe-head already referred, to. This is one of the several localities in the Lower Thames Valley which have yielded remains of the reindeer. Even more interesting are the similar discoveries made at Stoke Newington by Worthington Smith, whose researches date back to 1879. Several fully illustrated papers written by Mr. Smith for the Essex Field Club," and a resume of his labours is igiven in his book entitled Man the Pvimceval Savage. These memoirs are most important contributions to our knowledge, and should be consulted by all interested in Palaeolithic man, not only on account of the interesting facts and investigations ■described in them, but also because of the numerous and very neatly executed drawings of implements and sections scattered tliroughout the papers and book. Many neighbouring localities besides Stoke Newington are mentioned in them. 8 P. Crooke and J. Allen Browne have also obtained a number of tongue-shaped and other implements, together with the skeleton of an elephant at Southall. See Proc. 'Geologists' Assoc, x. 9 " On Discovery of Palaeolithic Implements in Gravels of the Thames Valley at Acton." Q.J.G.S., xxxiii. (1872) 10 Quart Journ. Geological Soc, xlii , also Ptoc. Soc. Antiquaries 2nd Ser. xi. 1887. II Worthington Smith: " Primaeval Man in the Valley of the Lea," Trans. E.F.C. iii. 102, Essex Nat. i., 36, ib. i., 83, ib. i., 125 ; " Neolithic and Palzeolithic Scrapers, Replaced .and Reworked," Essex Nat. ii., 67 ; " Palaeolithic Implements— Large and Heavy Jixamples," E.N. ii., 97. Io6 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD Near by, at Ilford, Palaeolithic implements have been found in both high and low level drift. '"^ The patches of high-level drift which extend along the southern crest of the Thames Valley from Wandsworth Common,. over Wartford Heath to Swanscombe Hill, at an average height of about go feet above the river, have been justly rendered famous on account of the enormous quantity of flint implements which they have from time to time yielded. From the patch of gravel forming Wandsworth Common,. Lawrence ^^ has obtained a large number of implements at a depth of ten feet. They comprise tongue-shaped implements, scrapers, knives and cores, besides about three thousand flakes. In the Swanscombe gravel pits^^ searchers can always find more flakes than they can possibly carry away with them, and there is not a single large flint to be found that has not been artificially chipped. The flakes are mostly rough and heavy, and none show^ any evidence of design in their shape. They would appear to be chiefly the result of the preliminary blocking out of the big flints prior to their conversion into the tongue-shaped imple- ments. Scrapers, spokeshaves, and other flake-tools also occur,, but they are mostly very rude. The better-knowm tongue- shaped implements are found in every stage of manufacture, ranging from the nodule, from which only one or two flakes have been struck, to the finished weapon. These last difl"er very much in size, and exhibit unrivalled diversity of form. Failures and broken implements that have been re-pointed are common. A large number of bones and shells have been obtained from these beds. The Galley Hill patch, now worked away, from which the human skeleton came,^' belonged to this mass of drift. Turning to the low^-level drift of this tract, there is Spurrell's remarkable discovery of an old working place at Crayford,^*^ a locality which is also famous for the abundance of its animal remains, which include lemmings and other interesting small 12 See Martin A. C. Hinton, " Pleistocene Deposits of Ilford and Wanstead District," Proc. Geologists' Assoc, xvi. (iqoo) : and J. P. Johnson, " Palasolithic Implements from Low- Level Drift of Thames Valley," Essex Naturalist xii. (1901). 13 In •' Working Sites and Inhabited Land Surfaces of the Palaeolithic Period," by J. Allen Brown, Trans. Middlesex Nat. Hist. Soc. (1889). 14 Some account of these sections is given by H. Stopes in his note " On the Discovery of Neritina with a Pleistocene Fauna, and worked Flints in High Terrace gravels of Thames Valley," Jourii. Anthiop. Institute, xxix. (1901). 15 See E. T. Newton. " On a Human Skull and Limb-bones found in the Palaeolithic Terrace Gravel at Galley Hill." Quart. Jotirn. Geol. Soc. li. (1895). 16 F. C. J. Spurrell, "On the Discovery of the place where Palaeolithic implements- were made at Crayford." Q.J.S.S. xxxvi. (1S80), and J. P. Johnson, op. cit. IN THE THAMES BASIN. lO/ mammals (see Newton, Geol. Mag., dec. iii., vol. vii., 1890). Beneath the chalk cliff, against which the brick-earth abuts, he came across a dense layer offtakes. " The uppermost edge of the area covered by them is about 36 feet from the present surface, the lowest nearly six feet lower. This area was thickly covered with chips for the space of about 10 feet north and south, and^ as far as I know at present, 15 feet east and west . . . but I expect that it will be found to extend further. . . The flakes are in most cases quite new and clean, always so on the lower side, very slightly discoloured on the upper." He was able to re-construct some of the blocks of flint which 'had been split up into flakes by fitting together the pieces. These can be seen in the Natural History Department of the British Museum. Near Northfleet^'^ (close by Swanscombe) the same dis- tinguished observer " found a kind of beach on which lay several hdclies. They lay according to the slope, from five to twenty-five feet below the surface. . . Elephant remains of great size, also those of rhinoceros, bison, horse, etc., are found on this spot. Here perfect lidches of five distinct kinds and make were obtained and some unfinished and spoilt examples. I have examined many thousands of flakes and discovered numerous flint hammers and knapping tools with which the hdches were made, also some elegant scrapers of peculiar form." On the other side of the river at Grays^® implements have been found both in the high-level gravel and in the fossiliferous low-level brickearth. Leaving the main valley the remaining localities will be more conveniently dealt with in alphabetical order. The first on the list is Aylesford, where a large number of the characteristic weapons have been found. There are numerous specimens in Benjamin Harrison's collection in the Maidstone Museum, and he shewed me additional specimens when I visited Ightham last year (1901). At Caddington, Worthington Smith discovered an old working place similar to that at Stoke-Newington. It is probably the most interesting and most thoroughly investigated of all the Palaeolithic " floors " and is fully described in the 17 "Palaeolithic Implements found in West Kent," Archceologia Cantiana xv. (1883) and "On some Palaeolithic Knapping-tools and modes of using them," J own. Anthrop. Institute xiii. {1884). 18 Hinton and Kennard, "Contributions to the Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley," Essex Naturalist xi. (1900) ; also J. P. Johnson, op.cit. I08 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD work above cited (Man the PvivKBval Savage), In many cases ;he was actually able to replace on the tongue-shaped implements, the chips and flakes produced during their manufacture. The discovery of a very large number of implements has l^een recorded from Farnham but I have not the reference by me at the time of writing. The only tongue-shaped implement from the valley of the Wandle is that found by myself at Mitcham and recorded in Science Gossip^^. Church has recorded implements in his " Notes on Drift Gravels at West Wickham "^'^ and my friend Kennard has a large collection from the same locality. They come from a patch of gravel occurring at a slightly higher level than the majority of the valley-drifts and many of them have decided Eolithic affinities. The deposits of gravel, sand and loam, which constitute the valley drift of the Thames basin, have yielded the remains of one •of the most remarkable fauna ever gathered together in so small an area. Bones of animals which are now only met with in different and widely-separated parts of the world are mingled with those of extinct species of elephant and rhinoceros, and with the flint implements of the men who were their contemporaries. The extinct vertebrates comprise the trogontherium, two species of fellow-deer, three of rhinoceros, two of elephants, and a vole. One of the elephants is the well-known species whose hairy carcases have been found in the frozen tundras on the further side of the Urals, and of which the cave-men of the Dordogne have left such faithfully-executed engravings. Those of the existing species which did not survive the Palaeolithic period in this country include such diversely dis- tributed animals as the hippopotamus, spotted hyaena and lion, which are now practically confined to the continent of Africa, and the musk-ox, whose habitat at the present day is restricted to the Arctic regions of North America. Another group, which includes two voles — Microtus raUiceps and M. gvegalis — the saiga and the souslik, is to-day characteristic of the Steppes. Tvvo species of lemming are also comprised in 19 J. p. Johnson " Palaeolithic Man in Valley of the Wandle," Science Gossip, N. S. -v-ii., pp. 69-71. 177, 221. 20 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Ivi. (1900.) IN THE THAMES BASIN. IO9 this remarkable fauna: the one is now a purely Arctic animal^ and the other survives only in Scandinavia. Two more voles, the bison and bear, complete the list, while the beaver, urus, reindeer, wolf, and another species of bear, which appear to have lived on into the succeeding Neolithic period, must also be mentioned as interesting members of the Palaeolithic fauna. Of the invertebrates there is at least one extinct species of an Ostracod, a Pelecypod, and a Gastropod, while there are several which, though still living on the European mainland, are no longer inhabitants of Britain. A complete review of the previous literature relating to the valley drifts of the lower Thames Basin is given by Whitaker in The Geology of London [Memoir Geol. Survey. 1889). This is brought up to date in his Address to the Geologists' Association in 1901. A tolerably complete list of the invertebrate remains occurring in these beds will be found in the following papers : — W. J. Lewis- Abbott, " The Sections exposed in the foundations of the New Admiralty Offices," Proc. Geologists' Assoc, xii., 1892. J. P. Johnson and G. White, " Some new Sections in, and contributions to the Fauna of, the River Drift of Ilford," and J. P. Johnson, *' Additions to the Palaeolithic Fauna of the Uphall Brickyard, Ilford," Essex Naturalist xi., 1899-1900. Hinton and Kennard, " Contributions to the Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley," Part I., Essex Naturalist, xi., 1900. Kennard and Woodward, " Post-Pliocene Non-Marine MoUusca of the South of England," Proc. Geologists' Assoc, xvii., 190 1 (VVartford, Swanscombe, Crayford, and Erith, Green-Street- Green). Between the laying down of the last of the valley-drifts and the commencement of the deposition of the next series of deposits — the alluvial flats — a great interval of time must have elapsed, an interval sufficient to permit of the extinction or migration elsewhere of the remarkable assemblage of mammals enumerated above, and to allow of the replacement of the characteristic Palaeolithic implements by others of a totally different type. The newest series of fluviatile deposits in the Thames Basin — the beds of clay, mud, and peat which make up the alluvial no ANCIENT URNS AT BRAINTREE. flats bordering the rivers — contain implements and other relics which constitute a record of the third or Neolithic period of the Stone Age These occur in the lowest and oldest layers only, for the upper beds range in age from the prehistoric bronze and iron epochs right up to historic times. Of the implements found in the Neolithic alluvium, flakes and flake-tools still constitute the vast majority. The former are always neat and small, and seldom attain the size of the average Palaeolithic flake, while minute examples with three or more faces and a well developed bulb of percussion are not uncommon, which shews that the art of producing flakes had now reached its highest level. The scraping tools bear a general resemblance to those of the earlier periods, but the average of excellence of workmanship is greater. The other implements, however, are very different. The tongue-shaped and discoidal weapons of Palaeolithic times are replaced by thin, symmetrical and skilfully chipped javelin- heads, which are often neatly and uniformly notched on either side to facilitate the hafting ; by beautifully finished daggers, not tinlike the javelin-heads, but usually with a distinct handle worked at the end of the flat blade ; and by axe-heads with a straight oi slightly curved ground edge like that of a chisel. The last mentioned are usually more or less polished all over. While evidence of the knowledge of the bow appears for the first time in the shaoe of often exquisitely finished arrow-heads. ANCIENT URNS AT BRAINTREE. By W. COLE, A DISCOVERY of considerable interest was made at Braintree on September 4th, in the course of excavating a field for building cottages. A workman's pickaxe came in contact with some pottery, about 2 feet below the surface, whicli proved to be cinerary (?) urns of great antiquity. The site, half-way between Chapel Hill and Rose Hill, is on the immediate north side of the supposed Lake DweUing described ■by the Rev. J. W. Kenworthy and others in the Essex Naturalist (vol. xi., 94-126) and opposite to the north side of Messrs. Courtauld's silk-mill. One urn, which was unfortunately broken by the pick-axe, contained a quantity of fragmentary ANCIENT URNS AT BRAINTREE. Ill bones, presumably human. This urn is of elongate form and unornamented. The second urn is globular in shape, and ornamented with ribbed bands ; it is stated to bear a potter's mark. It was taken out of the earth in excellent condition. Mr. Kenworthy informs me that fragments of the same kind of pottery and bones of tlie horse and ox have been turning up on this site since Mr. Parmenter began excavations in the spring of this year. He states that lie has several pieces of pottery which he took out of the dehvis, and that he thought they were of Roman make. But I understand that tlie British Museum authorities put down the urns as ''Late Celtic" or Neo-Celtic. Mr. Kenworthy states that fragments of a third urn were unearthed, but it is not known at what depth, or whether in proximity to the others. " The diggers were too rough-and- ready to take observations of particulars of tliis kind." He adds *' the Skitts Hill locality seems to go along witli Chapel Hill and to constitute the earliest habitable ground liere — as early, at least, as the Neolithic times. The road leading from Chapel Hill is long anterior to the Roman period and to the leading roads now in use. It seems to be an early British road. You 112 NOTES ON A PAL^OLITH are aware that tlie Romans had a settlement on Chapel Hill^ and that on this site was the village of Braintree until the completing of the Doomsday Book. Braintree as we now have it, only dates from the end of the 12th century.'" I give a photograph of the urns, one of a series taken by Mr. Tilston, of Braintree, and have to thank the Rev. J. \V. Kenworihy and ]\Ir. Parmenter for the information embodied in this note. It is very meagre, and serves as an example of the necessity for some such organisation for systematic explorations as that advocated at the meeting of delegates of Local Scientific Societies at Southport. All discoveries of the kind should be taken in hand at once by an instructed Committee and every fragment found carefully localised, labelled, and preserved, so that a really scientific report could be drawn up. We are losing piecemeal year by year valuable material for the "buried history of Essex." NOTES ON A PAL^OLITH FROM GRAYS, ESSEX. By A. S. KENNARD. {IVith Plate VI.) THIS implement was found by myself in situ in the section of the Middle Terrace gravel exposed in the Globe Pit, Grays. Judging from its condition and the style of workmanship, it does not truly belong to that deposit, but has been derived from the High Terrace, the true Middle Terrace implements being totally different. It is a good example of what is often called the "Moustier" type, from the fact that similar tools were found in the cavern known as " Le Moustier," situate on the right bank of the Vezere, France. The remains from this cavern are considered to show an advance on the period of St. Acheul, but older than any yet discovered in caves. Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., has described them as being "marked by a more or less curved cutting edge at one side (hence often called ' side-scrapers'), and chipped, for the most part, on one face only. The chief locality is High Lodge, Mildenhall, Suffolk, but specimens are found elsewhere, as in north-east London, and the peculiar form suggests some connection between palaeolithic man of these levels and the oldest cave men of southern France."^ In the first place, it must be re- marked that this type is by no means uncommon in the High ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIII. PI. VI. CQ U FROM GRAYS, ESSEX. 113 Terrace gravels, which are without doubt of the same age as the gravels at St. Acheul. It also occurs in the still older palaeoliths, the " Hill Group " of Sir Joseph Prestwich. Hence, in my opinion, this type cannot be considered to be in any sense dis- tinctive of a particular period. That there is a difference between the tools from Le Moustier and the High Terrace implements cannot be doubted, and judging from workmanship the latter are the older. In my opinion the implements from the Middle Terrace of the Thames are of the Mousterian age. To this period I would assign the A 3 FULL SIZE LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS OF THE GRAYS IMPLEMENT, ALONG THE LINES INDICATED IN PLATE VI. Palaeolithic Floors at Grays, Crayford, and Stoke Newington, some of the implements from Ilford (several of the palaeoliths from this locality are undoubtedly derived from the High Terrace), and many other localities outside the Thames area, as at Hoxne, Hitchin, Mildenhall, Caddington, etc. I have pleasure in presenting the implement above described, to the Essex Museum of Natural History, and I must not forget to thank Mr. F. W. Reader for excellent photographs of the stone. I A Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age in the Department of British and Mediceval Antiquities, British Museum, 1902. Page 28. Two specimens fx^m Suffolk are figured (tigs. 20 and 21). H 114 NOTE ON A NEOLITHIC ARROWHEAD FROM UPTON PARK, ESSEX. By A. S. KENNARD. THIS beautiful Arrowhead, which I exhibited at the meeting of the Chib on April 4th last {ante, p. 87), was found by Master Ernest Tees in the garden of 161, Boleyn Road, Forest Gate. It is an exceedingly well made implement, and has been fashioned from a flake. It is stained a light brown colour, a condition occurring in nearly all the worked flints obtained from FLINT ARROW-HEAD fiom Uptoii Park, Essex. the surface of the gravels and beneath the alluvium. As may be seen from the figures one of the wings is unfortunately broken. The length of the tang is very remarkable. Flint Arrowheads are rather rare in the Home Counties, in this respect contrasting greatly with their abundance in Suffolk, Yorksliire, and elsewhere. 115 NOTES ON THE SEEDS OF PLANTS FOUND IN THE ALLUVIUM OF THE RIVER LEA, AT WALTHAMSTOW, ESSEX. By CLEMENT REID, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. With remarks by A. S. KENNARD and B. B. WOODWARD, F.L.S., F.G.S, THE seeds on which the list is founded, were obtained by Mr. Kennard while working over the alluvial material for mollusca. The reader is referred to the paper in the present volume {ante p.p. 13-21) for geological and other details. Nothing in this list suggests a date earlier than Roman or much newer than Romano-British. The plants correspond •closely with those found in Roman Silchester, and include many •of the same cultivated species and weeds of cultivation. Grape- seeds show that the deposit containing them is not older than the Roman period. The absence of many common weeds of later introduction, and the presence of the vine, suggest that the deposit is not much newer than Roman, though it is still uncertain to what extent the cultivation of the vine died out after the Saxon invasion. Ranunculus aquatilis, L. Viburnum opulus, L. repens, L. Polygonum convolvulus L. Nuphav luteum, L. „ amphihium, L. Vitis vin if ey a, 'L. {Gr2ipe) Alnus gluiinosa, L. Acer campcstre, L. Covylus avellana, L. Frunus spinosa, L. Quevcus rohur, L. „ domestica, L. (Damson) Cevatophyllum suhmersum, L. ,, avium, L. Iris pseudacorus, L. Ruhus friUicosus, L. Sparganium ramostim P L. Crataegus oxyacantha, L. Potamogeton natans ? L. •CEnanthe lachenalii, Gmel. Scirpus lacustris, L. „ crocata, L. Carex riparia, Curtis Cornus sanguinea, L. Triticum sativum, L. (Wheat) ■Samhucus nigra, L. Remarks by A. S. Kennard and B. B. Woodward. In our paper on the mollusca, cited above, we expressed the opinion that the beds from 3 to 10 feet in thickness were the ■equivalent of the 60 feet found at Tilbury. Since this statement Nwas made, Mr. T. V. Holmes has published an account (Essex Il6 NOTES OX MARINE ANIMALS. Nat. xii., p.p. 224-231) of a buried channeJ at Walthamstow which is without doubt of the same age as the buried channel of the Thames, namely Holocene. Hence it follows that the beds from which we obtained our collection must belong to the later part of the Holocene, and are certainly Post-Neolithic, if not later than the Bronze age. Mr. R. Lydekker, F.R.S., has already pointed out that the remains of Oxen (Bos longifvons) frpm these beds represent a large breed, and therefore are of nO' great antiquity. Professor Diirst, of Zurich, who examined some remains of the Bovidae in our possession from these beds, pronounced one skull to belong to the Roman breed of cattle,, whilst the others were in his opinion of an equally late date. Thus all the available chronological evidence points to a late date for the origin of the wide spread alluvial beds and in this view we concur. NOTES ON MARINE ANIMALS OBTAINED IN ESSEX WATERS IN 1902 AND 1903. By H. C. SORBY, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. AS might be expected, this present summer has been extremely bad for collecting, but still I have been able to obtain a few animals which I had never before found in Essex.. Until I collected a number in the Orwell in Suffolk, TereheUidcs sirceinii, Sars, had not been found in Britain for over 100 years, and then only a single specimen. This year for the first time I obtained a fine one in the mud of the Colne, a short distance below Brightlingsea Creek. We there also found a single specimen of the Planarian worm Linens gracilis, Johnson.. Near the " Stones" at East IMersea, we found for the first time a good example of Linens ohscuvns, Desor., which I had never seen except in the extreme limits of the county, in the mud o£ the River Stcur, at Mistley. These Nemertians can elongate themselves in a remarkable manner, and may be killed well extended by adding a little menthol to the sea water in which they are kept. When transferred from salt water to fresh, their- surface is quickly altered into a white mucus ; and I was very sorry not to find other specimens, in order to ascertain whether the whole animal is so changed. This year by dredging off Mersea. I obtained a single specimen of Haminea (Bnlla) hydafis^ NOTES ON ANCIENT WATER-PIPES. II7 of whicli I found three last year, being an addition to the list of Essex mollusca. Though I had dredged over the same ground for many years, not a single specimen had ever been found previously. Last year I collected for the first time in the River Colne a number of the beautiful blue Medusa, Cyanea lamavchii. NOTES ON ANCIENT WATER-PIPES. By A. MORLEY DAVIES, B.Sc, F.G.S. THE following notes are offered as a supplement to Mr. T. V. Holmes's interesting article on "Tree- Trunk Water Pipes" {ante pp. 60-75). I thmk it will be found that there w^as no extensive use of elm- wood pipes in or about London before the time of the New Kiver. All references to water-pipes during the middle ages that I have seen refer to them as of lead. The earliest known plan of a system of water-pipes is probably that of the Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury, which dates from before 11 67. It is preserved at Trinity College, Cambridge, and reproduced in Willis's Architectural History of the Converdual Buildings of the Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury, In a record quoted in that work the water is said to be brought from the distance of a league outside the city " tut suz terre par pypes de plum." These leaden pipes were doubtless made in the same way as those found at Pompeii, which are pear-shaped in cross section, and made from sheet lead folded together (Mau's Pompeii : Its Life and Art.y Leaden pipes seem to have been used for the early conduit pipes in London from 1236 on. The accounts of the Keepers of the Conduit in 1350 include 8 marks and 12 pence for one *'fozer" (about a ton) of lead, but there is nothing about wood (Riley's Memorials, p. 265.) When extensive works were about to be undertaken by the Corporation in 1443, the Royal Charter granting them the necessary rights allowed them to " comman- deer" 200 foudras plumbi. (Rymer's Foedera, vol. xi. p. 33.) John Norden in his Surveyor's Dialogue (1607) describes an imaginary survey of a manor, which is of great value as a picture of country life at the time. When the Surveyor is approaching the manor-house, he remarks : — iSee note on the invention of metliod of casting pipes of lead, ante p. 75. — Ed. Il8 NOTES OX WOODEN WATER-PIPES. *' I see the conducts are made of earthen jMpes, which I like fane better than them of Leade, both for sweetnes and continuance under the ground." p. 85. From this we may gather tliat earthenware pipes (which are no doubt meant by "earthen") were a comparative novelty, and that wooden pipes were either altogether unknown to Norden or that he did not consider them worth mention. I take the following quotation at second-hand from Gilbert White's Selhorne (footnote to Pennant Letter VI.') "November 29, 1731, a little snow having fallen in the night, it was, by eleven the next morning, mostly melted away on the surfoce of the earth, except in several places in Bushy Park, Avhere there were drains dug and covered with earth, on which the snow continued to lie, whether those drains were full of water or dry ; as also' where elm-pipes lay under ground " — See Hale's Hcemastatics, p. 360. Much information regarding the use of elm-wood pipes by the New River and other London water companies, their disad- vantages, and the date of their replacement by iron pipes, may be found in Matthews's HydrauUa (1830.) NOTES ON THE PRESENT-DAY USE OF WOODEN WATER-PIPES. By E. DICK. Clacton College. IT may interest readers of Mr. Holmes' paper in the Essex Naturalist {ante pp. 60-75) to hear that wooden water- pipes are still largely used in certain country districts of Switzerland. In my native village, which is situated in the lower part of the Bernese " Emmenthal," the water is supplied both by conduits and by pumps that are made of wooden pipes. The water which feeds the " running fountains " comes from a source about i^ miles distant. The pipes are exclusively made of medium-sized unbarked Jftr-trunks, and from sixteen to twenty feet long. In order to prevent their splitting, they are bound at either end by iron bands ; iron bands are also driven inside the aperture. I could not tell how long the pipes last, but I remember that frequent repairs were necessary. As it is, of course, not possible to bend the pipes, " water- chambers," i.e. square pits laid out with bricks or cement and aThis is really portion of one of Sir William Jardine's notes in his edition of Selborne 1853.— Ed. NOTES ON WOODEN WATER-PIPES. II9 about two inches deep, are dug out at the places where tlie conduit must take a turn ; these chambers act as a sort of small reservoirs from which the water at once flows off in the desired direction. These water tanks also serve the purpose of the more modern man-holes. In addition to the running fountains ihey have in many houses a pump, also made of wooden pipes. The wells are of a good depth, say 35 to 45 feet. Not only the pipes, but the piston rods as well, are made of fir-wood. Similar wooden pumps are besides used for other purposes, as, for instance, to pump out the storage pits of liquid manure on farms. To mention yet another use of wooden channels to conduct water : the houses, wooden from end to end, have wooden gutters, which are chiselled out of rather thinner but long fir-trees, fastened to the shingle roofs. In our villages perfectly straight pipes are made, and the boring is done entirely by hand. This work requires strong hands and a good deal of skill ; it is mostly performed by pro- fessionals, but the farmers supply the raw mateiial. The tree trunk, already bound with iron bands at either end, in order to prevent its splitting, is firmly fastened on two carpenter's benches, at the height of about four feet from the ground. I forget how it is fastened, there may be several ways of doing it w^ell. The boring is started with a small drill, so as to make it easier to drive in the large and heavy borer that is to give the pipe the necessary calibre. The borers are of good material and very sharp; they have shafts long enough to reach a little further than the middle of the length of the trunk. A long handle of strong wood can be pushed through a hole in the shaft, like a thread through a needle. At some distance from the trunks, where the boring is to begin, the shaft is made to rest on a support with an iron groove, which can be raised or lowered. This support is placed so as to bring the borer exactly into the boring line and then made fast. The borer is applied to the trunk, where one man must hold it with his hands whilst two others begin to work it. At first they proceed very gently and slowly, and frequently ascertain whether they are in the proper lines. As they advance, however, the danger of a deviation becomes less, whilst the men have to use all their strength to force the heavy implement through the 120 MEETING OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES' wood. One half of the pipe being done, they complete it by boring'Jn the same way from the other end^ The pipes when finished are thrown into a pond, where they swim undisturbed until thev are wanted. MEETING OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES' COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIA- TION AT BELFAST, 1902. MR. W. WHITAKER, F.R.S., kindly acted as Delegate of the Essex Field Club at the Belfast Conference, and he gave at our meeting in November last a short verbal summary of the proceedings. Owing to the delay in the issue of the printed Report of the Conference it has not been possible to give, until the present part of the Essex Naturalist, our usual account of the proceedings. Now that the British Association's Belfast volume is out, and on our library shelves, it will be sufficient to quote from the report some passages which more particularly concern and appeal to the members of our own club. At the first Conference, on September nth, 1902, the Chair- man, Prof. W. W. Watts, M.Sc, Sec.G.S., delivered a very interesting address. In alluding to the raison d'etre and functions of these annual conferences, he said : — " First and foremost in my belief comes the fact that this Conference is the only body which gives a kind of corporate existence and standing to the Local Societies as a whole. It is the only thing which brings the Societies into touch with one another, and it is the only hope that at present exists for united action and systematised work. That delegates should make acquaintance, meet in friendly intercourse, and compare notes as to work done by themselves and one another is also a good side of our gathering, which is capable of further development than it has yet received. " Secondly, the annual printing of a list of Societies known to be doing important work, with an index of their publications, is a most useful guide to those desirous ot working up the literature of any area. The publications are always of limited issue and still more limited circulation, and they are most difficult to obtain a few years after date. The Association has most wisely treasured the publications which have been sent to it, and it is to be hoped that this nucleus of a valuable and unique collection will be placed where it is widely accessible. I Compare Evelyn's account of the making of wooden water-pipes, in the "Notes" in the present part.— Ed. COMMITTEE OF BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 121 *' Thirdly, comes the stimulation of mutual example and rivalry. The Local Societies are especially noted for their wide-reaching aims and the all-embracin Iritolor Ncurolenii sclitcclilemlali Neurolerus apriliiius Dryoplianta folii Dryophanla tasclienbergi Dryoplianla Ion given I lis Diyophanta similis Dnoplianla divUa Drj'ophanta agania Andiicus sicboldii Ajidricus tesUiccipcs Aiidiku?. corlicis Andiicus gcmmatus Andiicus radicis Andiicus Audiicus Aiuliicns Amiricus Andricus Amtricus Andricus Andricus Andritiis Andricus Aiulricu'i AndriLUs Andiicus Andricus Irilincatus plobuli jiillator collnris cunalor callidoma cinatus fecundalrix malpigliii aulumnalis r.nmuli usUl-u^ sulil in us scminalioiiis Andricus quadrilincatus Andricus albopuiicUita I. I Bioi'hiza aptcra Olivier. Agamic Linnasus. Sexual Sihenck, Agamic Schenck. Sexual Ol, Agamic -Sclilcchlciidali. Sexual Hiiilig. Ag.imic fllg. Sexual Mayr. Giraud. Sexual Linn. Sdiltdl. Htg. Adlel. Hlg. Htc. Hlg. Hlg. AcUor. Fabricius. Hlg. Hl^. Hlg. Hlg. Hlg. Hlg. Adicr. Hlg. Adiei. Hlg. Linn. Hlg. Foiisc. Gir. Htg. Scliltdl. I Fal). I tab. I. I Trigoiiaspis rcnum i Htg. 1a. Tiigonaspis ciiistalis Hlg. I. I Cynips.koUari Agamic Sexual Agamic Sexual Agamic Agamic Agamic Sexual Agamic Sexual Agamic Sexual Agamic Sexual Agamic Sexual Agamic Sexual Agamic Agamic Agamic Sexual Agamic Agamic Agamic Agamic Agamic 1 Agamic I Sexual I Agamic Sexual I Agamic July to Oclober May and June Julv to September MaV July, August and September Maj- August and September End of Mav, and June May April, and beginning of May July to October End of April .ind during May {as a rule appearing a little later than D. similis) July to October lind of April and during May End of July to September End of July to September End of May till the following April or M.iy June In September or not until the following April June Breaks ihrougli llie bark in late autumn but does not mature till September of the following year June and July September and October May and June, The old Ralls remain on the tree for an indefinite period August and September May End of July and during August and September May July and August Seplember and Oclober End of September and during October May and June August and September June to August June lo October May End of April and during May j Autumn and Winter I May ; old galls may rci ain on Ihe tree for an indefinite period Seplember and early in October April and May, and part of June End of May Id 'October ; old galls^may remain on; the tree for an indclinite peiiod " GENUS NEUROTERUS (HARTIG). On the back of the leaf; falls to the ground at the beginning of October On theleaf or catldn On the back of the leaf ; falls to the ground jt tlic end of September On the leaf margin or on the petiole On the back of the leaf; falls to the ground late in the autumn In the tissue of the leaf On tlie back of Ihe leaf; falls to the ground at the end of October Usually on ihe leaf, sometimes on the twig On the catkin between the anther-lobis In the bud GENUS DRVOPHANTA (FOERSTER). On the back of the leaf In adventitious buds on the trunk, or rarely on twigs growijig from ihese buds On the back of the leaf On twigs growing from adventitious buds on the trunk of llie tiee On the back of the leaf On the back of the leaf GENUS ANDRICUS (HARTIG). On the stem, usually nc.ir the base On the petiole or on the leaf midrib In old wounds and injuries of the trunk In buds or on the leaf jieliole On the loot, rarely on the lower part of the tiunk On the stem, rarely on the leaf petiole In terraini.il or axillarj- buds Develops from a bud In the buds, sometimes almost enveloped in the bud scales Usu.illy in the leaves In axillary buds On the male catirin Terminal or axillary buds Buds Buds, usu.tily axillary Usually on the $ catkin Un the back of liie leaf, sometimes on the fiont Tciminal or axillaiy buds Stalk of the S catkin ^lale catkin Axillary or terminal buds GENUS BIORHIZA (WESTWOOD). Root Tenninal or axillary bmis GENUS TRIGONASPIS (HARTIG). Back of the leaf Buds of young oak plants, on twigs, or from adventitious buds on the trunk GENUS CYNIPS (UNN.^US). Tenninal or axillary buds April End of June March and April June A piil June Mav J»iy July, second year Beginning ofiJIay January to March May and June November, or following spring May and beginning of June End of October, or November November April or May August April and May July and August Ajjril and May of the seccnd year August End of March or duiini; April .July End of March or beginning of April ol the second ye. June April June April April A]>ril July November, sometimes in the following March Seplember. or not till the following spring April, sometimes second year April, sometimes second year March and April I December and January, sometimes in March I June December and January, sometimes later End of May to the middle of June I (Cameron) September and October, or following April and May i Cymps lignicola (Mai shall) Cynips lentrcularis (01 }, Ncuroterus malpighii (Htg.) Cynips quercus baccarum (Linn.), Spathegaster baccarum (Htg.), Spathegaster interruptor (Hlg.). Neurolerus baccarum (Mayr.) Neurolerus pezi/aefomiis (Schlech.) Spathegaster olbipes (Schenck), Neurolerus albipes (Mayr,) Cynips numismalis (01 ), Neurolerus re.iumuri (Htg.). Neurolerus numismatis (MajT.) Sp-ithegasler vesicatnx (Schlechtdl.) Spathegaster tricolor (Htg.), Spathegaster varius (Schenck.) Spathegaster apiilinus (Gir.) Cynips quercus-folii (Linii.), Cynips folii (Htg.), Diplulepis scutellaris (01.), Cynips scutellaris (Schenck.), Dryoplianta scutellaris (Adler.), Diyophanta folii (Mayr.) Spathegaster taschenbcrgi (Adler.' (Schlech.), Drophanta taschenbergi (Mayr.) Cynips longiventiis (Htg.) Spaihegasier similis (Adler.) t.'ynips divisa (Hlg.) Cynips agama (Htg.), Dryophanla agama (Mayr.) Cynips sicboldii (Htg.), Cynips corticalis (Schenck,), Aphilotiix iitboldii (Mayr.) Andricus sieboldii (Mayr.) Cynips coiticis Htg.), Aphiiotrix corlicis (Mayr.) Andricus corlicis (Mayr.) Cynips radicis (Fab.), Aphiiotrix radicis (Mayr.) Andricus noduli (Htg.) (Adler), Andricus radicis (M-ar.) Cynips glubuH (Htg.), Apliitolrix gjobuli (Ma>T.) Cynips inflatot (Thorns.), Andricus globuli (Mayr.) Cynips coUaris (Htg.), Aphiiotrix collaris (Mayf.) Cynips cur\ator (fhoms.) Cynips callidoma (Thorns.), Aphiiotrix callidoma (AdIcr.) Andricus callidoma (Mayr.) Cynips gemmae (Linn.), Cynips fecundalrix (Htg.), Aphiiotrix gemmae (Mayr.) AphilotilK malpighii (Adler.) Cynips autumn.ilis (Htg.t, Aphiiotrix autumnalis (Mayr.) Cynips quercus lamuli (Linn.), Teras amentorum (Htg.) Ncuinierus osIil'us (Gir.) Diplolepis sobtariuh (Fonsc), Cynips ferruginea {Htg,», Aphiiotrix solitarius (Adler.) Cynips seminaiioiiis (Gir. J, Cynips inflorescentiac (Schltdl.), Aphiiotrix seminalionis (Mayr.) Cynips 4-lineatus (Thorns.), Andricus flavi comis (Schenck.), A]>liilotris quadrilineatus (A dler.) Cynips roajoUs (Gir.), Cynips albopunctata (Schldl.), .\philoIiix albopunctata (Mayr.) I Cynips aptera (Fab.) I Cynips quercus lermin.ilis (F.ib.), Teras terminally (Marshall) (Adler.) ' Biorhiza renum (Gir.) (Adler.), Trigonaspis megaptera (Cam.) I Cynips megaptera (Pz.), Cjnips crustalis (Tboms.), Trigonaspis megaptcia (Mayr.) OF EPPING FOREST. 169 galls appear in May, maturing at the end of the month. During June the sexual generation of flies emerges, oviposition taking place on the root (sometimes, according to Adler, in the leaf bud). The females may be apterous, but the males are always winged. OCCURRENCE IN EPPING EOREST. Biovkiza apteva. Fairly plentiful and probably abundant, but less noticeable on account of their situation. Biorhiza tenninalis. \'ery abundant. Occur singly or two or three together, many growing from the terminal buds. They are found also growing from the axillary buds. The}^ vary greatly both in size and colour, and are very subject to parasites and commensals of almost every insect order. Some trees were simply a mass of galls, which remain on the tree in many cases during the greater part of the winter. First appearance noted, May loth. Genus TRIGONASPIS {Hartig). The Agamic Forms of this genus are wingless like the ■corresponding forms of the genus Biorhiza, but they are all much smaller in size ; the head is also dilated behind the eyes, and the ovipositors differ considerably. The sexual form is very well marked and entirely different to the agamic generation, the wings being large and well formed and the abdomen red in colour. There is only one British species at present known. It has not been ascertained for what reason there is an egg resting stage in the agamic generation. The eggs are deposited in the leaf by the sexual flies, at the end of May or beginning of June, but the larvae do not leave the eggs, and gall growth does not commence, until September. The reason for the apterous condition of the agamic generation is probably due to the fact that the perfect insects do not require their wings before oviposition as the eggs are deposited in the adventitious buds on the trunks of the trees, usually near the ground, or in buds on young stems from six inches to a foot in height, which grow up around the trees from acorns which have fallen to the ground and germinated. It is quite the exception to find galls at any great distance from the ground. The same thing applies to those Biorhiza tenninalis females -which are apterous, namely, that they would appear to be 1 70 THE OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS gradually getting rid of wings which are of no service to them and are even a hindrance when laying their eggs in the roots of the tree. (26). — Agamic Generation. I. Trigonaspis renum (Htg.) Inquiline. Synevgus thaumacera (Dal.) Gall. The galls are situated on the back of the leaf, usually there are a great number on each leaf. They are small irregular galls- very often kidney-shaped, but the form varies. Greenish white to red in colour, becoming brown later, when mature, unless parasitised. They are arranged along the leaf veins. Imago. Colour : Brownish to yellowish red. Antennoc : Thirteen-jointed. lliorax :. Punctured, dull ; scutellum : hair\'. Abdomen : Shining, vertex shagreened ; almost sessile. Legs : Lighter yellow than the body ; claws : simple. Wings : None. (26.) — Sexual generation. Ia. Trigonaspis crustalis (Htg.) Inquilines. Synevgus thaumacera (Dal.) 5. facialis and 5. paUicov?iis (Htg.) Gall. Appears from adventitious buds near the base of the oak trunk, on shoots growing from the trunk, or on shoots growing out of the ground from acorns dropped from the trees. Shape : Globular, size variable. Apex sometimes pointed. Colony : White, \ellowish white, pink, or bright red. Imago. Colour: Black (abdomen, red), shining. Antennae : Dull reddish brown at the base, darker towards apex. Thorax : Black. Head : Black. Abdomen : Red or bright orange, shining, distinctly pedunculate. Legs : Orange, base ot coxae infuscated. Wijigs: Long and well developed, clouded in front of the cubitus and often at the base of the radial cellule. Account of the Generation Cycle. The flies from the Trigonaspis renuni galls appear in December and January, though sometimes later. The eggs are laid in the adventitious buds on the tree trunks, or on buds on young stems.. In April the small red gall of Trigonaspis crustalis appears, but in cases where oviposition has taken place later, these galls do not form until as late as the middle of May. From the end of May imtil the middle of June the flies emerge, the females pricking OF EPPING FOREST. lyi the veins of the undersurface of the tender leaves. Not until September do the galls of Tvigonaspis reniun appear, and they then take about three weeks to mature, falling to the ground in October. The galls turn brown when the larvae matures, the perfect insects emerging during the winter, or not until the second year. OCCURRENCE IN EPPING EOREST. Trigonaspis renuni. Extremely common. First appearance noted, September 22nd. Trigonaspis cvnstalis. Wety abundant. Commonly found on young oak plants about a foot in height, in which case a gait may be present in every bud both above and below ground. In the case of an old pollard oak, where the adventitious buds growing on the trunk were very numerous, I found the galls so plentiful as to practically cover the whole of the bark near the base of the tree. Although when situated on the trunk the galls are usually to be fouuvi near the ground, I have occasionally found them as much as from six to eight feet up the trunk. The galls may appear from the leaf stalk, and in one case I found a gall arising direct from a leaf. First appearance jioted. May 3rd. From a typical example of the galls of this species growing on a young oak plant which I supplied from Epping Forest, a coloured model in wax has been made and exhibited at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Genus CYNIPS [Linnants). This genus contains only one British species, which is the largest of our gall-making Cynipidae. It is easily distinguished from the insects of any other genus by the presence on the abdomen of a rich pubescence of a silky nature. There is only one generation a year, which is agamic, no males being known. Although this genus includes only one British species, there are eighteen known in Europe, all of which are very difficult tO' separate as perfect insects. This gall, like that of Biovhiza terininalis, remains on the tree for a considerable period. 172 THE OAK GALLS AND GALL INSECTS When they occur in great numbers on a single plant, as is often the case with young stock, they are exceedingly injurious. I have seen many young trees covered with the galls, completely stunted and practically useless. The galls are of little or no use for ink making purposes, because as Cameron remarks, they contain only seventeen per cent, of tannic acid as against fifty per cent, in Aleppo and other :galls. The presence of tannic acid in the gall acts perhaps as a protection for the enclosed larva, though birds often peck the galls open to get at the grub, in spite of their bitter properties. The galls are very liable to parasitic infestation and harbour inquilines and commensals ; the presence of these intruders can often be told by various wart-like excrescences wdiich appear on the outer surface of the galls. (27). Agamic. I. Cynips kollari (Htg.) Inquilines. Synevgus pallicoynis, S. melanopiis (Htg.) and S. ninliavdi (Mayr). Gall. Appears from terminal and axillary buds. Round in shape, varying in size up to 3 m m. Green to brownish red when young often at this time marked with darker spots, the apex is usually drawn out and slightly bent. As they become older and ^row larger they assume a golden yellow colour or remain quite green ; in both cases they turn brown subsequently, at maturity. Single celled unless parasitised. Very often tw^o galls may be found joined in one, in which case there is usually one larval cell containing a single larva. The gall substance is much harder immediately around the larval chamber than elsewhere, w^ith the exception of the outer epidermal tissue of the gall. Imago. Colour: Reddish yellow, which varies shghtly in intensity. Antetmae'. 13-jointed, basal joint pale, third joint longer than the others. Thoiax : Pubescent, parapsidal furrows complete, scutellum completely covers the metanotum which, like the median segment, is very dark. Abdomen : Smooth, shining, more or less black above, partially covered with a silky pubescense. Ovipositor : Long and spiral. Lfos : Yellow, paler than the boiy, fore librae •fiinged with hairs. /F/z/^-.f : Long, hyaline, and slightly hairy. OF EPPING FOREST. 175 The Cynips hoUari galls as a rule mature in September, the flies emerging in October. Sometimes they emerge early in September, while some remain in the galls during the winter, appearing in April or May. The eggs are laid in the buds. According to Beyerinck, who carried on experiments with this fly in 1 881, the first sign of gall formation occurs at the end of May, maturity being reached in September, and oviposition taking place in October. According to my own observations, the galls are still very small at the beginning of July, dark reddish brown in colour witli a prominent red apex ; by the second week in July they had assumed a more globular appear- ance and changed their purple colour for green, becoming golden yellow before turning brown at the end of August. When quite young I found in many instances that there were two galls growing out from the axil of the leaf, one being of larger size than the other as a rule, in which case the smaller dried up. In other cases both galls continued to grow together. The prominent apex of the young gall is represented on the mature gall by a small point. When parasitised the galls are often smaller and much darker in colour than the non-parasitised galls. The difference is some- times very noticeable. In such cases, on making a section through one of these galls it will often be noticed that towards the centre there is a circle consisting of five or six cells of Synergid larvae which have exterminated the cell of the original maker of the gall together wdth its occupant. Over Europe the gall is widely distributed, but it is not found very far north. It has been known in Britain for about seventy years, and was probably introduced about 1830. It first made its appearance in Devonshire, whence it has spread over England and Scotland. I have found it abundant this year in different parts of Kent, Devon, Monmouth, Brecon, and Cheshire. In Epping Forest it is very common, but I have not found it so abundant as in many other localities. First appearance noted, June 30th. In conclusion, I may add that my researches have extended over a small portion of Epping Forest only, namely, that part 174 MEETING OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES' situated between Chingford and High Beach ; also that I have been obhged to leave the district from time to time for short periods, which may account for the fact that I was unable to find some of the catkin galls such as Andvicus pilosiis and A. nndus, althougli the corresponding agamic generation A. fccundatrix was abundant ; and I also found A. malpighi later on in the year. In the foregoing account I have perhaps added little to our knowledge of the oak gall-making Cynipidae. My object, however, has been, not only to make a list of the oak-galls I have met with in Epping Forest, and to add certain species to those which have already been found in Essex, but also to put what we already know in such a concise form as may stimulate future research by showing how exceedingly interesting the subject is, and how wide a field for inquiry and study remains still unexplored. THE CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES'COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, SOUTHPORT, 1903. REPORT OF THE CLUB'S DELEGATE. F. W. RUDLER, F.G.S., President E.F.C., Secretary oi the Conference of Delegates. [ Read Xovemher 28///, 1903.] EXCEPTIONAL interest attached to the Conference of Delegates this year, inasmuch as the President of the Association, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., had under- taken to address the meeting on the necessity of organising Science, wath special reference to the question whether the British Association could help in any way, and if so, whether the Corresponding Societies could take any part therein. This address was the outcome of recent activity on the part of the Corresponding Societies Committee. Last year that Committee approached the Council of the British Association with the view of securing some improvement in the means of communicating with the local Societies so as to aid more satisfactorily the work of some of the scientific Committees appointed by the Association. The COMMITTEE OF BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 1 75 matter was referred by the Council to a Committee consisting of the President, the President-elect, and the General Officers of the Association, together with Professor Armstrong, F.R.S., Professor Meldola, F.R.S., and Professor Perry, F.R.S. This influential Committee reported in due course, and as their report contains some valuable suggestions of much interest to local Societies it seems desirable to quote from it rather fully : — " The Committee have considered the commmiication from the Correspondin*^ Societies Committee referred to them by the Council, and have examined into the general character of the work carried on by the Corresponding Societies, and the nature of the subjects discussed at the Conferences of Delegates held annually under the auspices of the British Association since the year 1885. They are of opinion that the range of subjects very fairly covers most of the branches ■of scientific investigation in which local .Societies might be expected to bear a a part. New subjects are added from time to time, and means have been taken by the Corresponding Societies Committee to give publicity to suggestions for any suitable line of investigation instigated by the CoiTCsponding Societies themselves. Of the numerous branches of inquiry being carried on by British Association Committees in which the Corresponding Societies ate invited year by year to take a part, some have been materially assisted by the Corresponding Societies or their individual members. The subjects suitable for investigation by local Societies are necessarily governed in their scope by local conditions, but among those already brought under the notice of the Corresponding Societies there are some of a general character which might very well be taken up systematically all over the country. The Committee do not consider it necessary to furnish the Council with a complete list of such specific subjects, as these are already included in the various Reports of the Corresponding Societies Committee. They desire, however, to call the attention of tiie Council to the necessity for systematic co-operation among the local Societies for the carrying ■out of investigations of such general importance as the various surveys, archaeo- logical, ethnographic, photographic, and botanical, which have on several occasions been brought under the notice ot the Corresponding Societies at the Conference of their Delegates. These and other investigations of a similarly wide range which may from time to time be suggested furnish ample work for the Corresponding Societies, and the Committee find that in certain districts ■considerable progress has been already made, or that steps are now being taken to organise the work already suggested." 'fe-- After certain suggestions with reference to the work of the Sectional and Organising Committees of the Association, the Report proceeds as follows : — " In view of the increasing importance of science to the nation at large, your Committee desire to call the attention of the Council to the fact that in the Corresponding Societies the British Association has gathered in the various centres represented by these Societies practically all the scientific activity oi' tlic provinces. The number of Members and Associates at present on the list of the Corresponding Societies approaches 25,000, and no organisation is in 176 MEETING OF COT"" "'"ONDlSs'G SOCIETIES' existence anywhere in i..^ ^ounti;y better adapted tlian the British Association for stimulating, encouraging and cd^ordinating all the work being carried on by the seventy Societies at present enrolled. Your Committee are of opinion that iurther encouragement should be given to tliese Societies and their individual working members by every means within the })o\ver of the Association, and with the object of keeping the CoiTcsponding Societies in more permanent touch wilh the Association they suggest that an officiiil invitation on behalf of the Council be addressed to the Socieites through the Corresponding Societies Committee asking them to appoint standing British Association Sub-Committees to be elected by themselves with the object of dealing with all those subjects of investigation common to their Societies and 10 the British Association Committees, and to look after the general interests of science and scientilic education throughout the provinces and provincial centres. Your Committee may point out that the only permanent bodies carrying out systematic scientific woik under the auspices of the Association are the vaiious Committees appointed by the Sections to undertake particular investigations and to report thereon to their respective Sections. The proposal now submitted is equivalent to a request that the Corresponding Societies should themselves appoint such Standing Committees for stimulating every branch of inquiry in which these Societies are co-operating with the Association. It is believed that the active workers in every Society would by this means be brought to realise more fully that their labours are contributing to the general advancement of science ; and since the subjects at present brought under the notice of the Corresponding Societies cover practically every department of science represented by the Sections of the Association, it is hoped that these new British Association Sub-Committees of the Corresponding Societies may serve as nuclei for creating and maintaining locally public interest in every branch of scientific knowledge. "Your Committee desire to lay special emphasis on the necessity for the extension of the scientific activity of the Corresponding Societies and the expert knowledge of many of their members in the direction of scientific education. They are of opinion that immense benefit would accrue to the country if the Corre- sponding Societies would keep this requirement especially in view Avith the object of securing adequate representation for scientific education on the Education Committees now being appointed under the new Act. The Educa- tional Section of the Association having been but recently added, the Correspon- ding Societies have as yet not had much opportunity for taking part in this branch of the Association's work, and in view of the re-organisation in education now going on all over the countiy, your Committee are of opinion that no more opportune time is likely to occur for the influence of scientific organisations to make itself felt as a real factor in national education. TJiev do not at the present juncture think it desirable to formulate any definite scheme detailing precise methods by which the Corresponding Societies might be of service to the cause of scientific education. Some Societies might prefer to unite to form Educational Consultative Committees of their own, and to place their services at the disposal of the Education Authority of their Cottnty or Borough. Others might prefer that individual members of their Societies should be added to the Education Committee, and others again might prefer to act indirectly by helping to foster public opinion in favour of that kind of education which it is the chief function of a scientific corporation, such as the British Association to promote. In view of the importance which your Com- COMMITTEE OF BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 1 77 mittee attach to this branch of the work now proposed for the Corresponding Societies, it is sufr^ested that the circular issued bv the Council in accordance with the recommendation in this report sliould invite special expressions of opinion from the Societies throui^h their delet^ales at the next Conference at Southport, so that if it is considered desirable tliat local eflFort in the cause not only of science but also of scientific education would be strengtliened if backed up by the authority of the Association, the necessary steps may be taken by the Council to bring pressure to bear upon the Educational Committees through the Board of Education. "The standing British Association Sub-committees of and appointed by the Corresponding Societies, whether for educational or any other branch of work, would, through the Corresponding Societies Committee, be in touch with the Association, and it would always be open for these sub-Committees to forward to the Corresponding Societies Committee suggested subjects for investigation or for discussion at the Conference." In accordance with this report a letter was addressed to the President, the Secretary, and the Delegate of each of the Corresponding Societies, pointing out the advantage of securing closer co-operation with the Corresponding Societies Committee by the appointment of a Special Committee to deal with such subjects of investigation as are cominon to the Society and to the Committees of the British Association. The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee states that a Conference was held on June 24 between the Committee of Council and the Corresponding Societies Committee, when it was decided that the questions raised in the Report of the Com- mittee of Council should be brought forward for discussion at the Conference of Delegates at Southport. The first meeting of the Delegates was held in the Chapel Street Congregational Schoolroom in Southport, on Thursday, September loth, under the chairmanship of Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S. After the report of the Corresponding Societies Com- mittee had been read, Mr. Whitaker explained that he occupied the chair in consequence of the absence of Mr. Herman Merivale, who had been nominated as chairman, and. had early in the year accepted the nomination. Sir Norman Lockyer then briefly addressed the delegates. He wished to hear their opinion with regard to some of the questions which he had raised in his Presidential Address. In that discourse he had advocated the formation of a great Guild of Science. " We in this Empire," said Sir Norman, " certainly need to organise science as much as in Germany they find the need to organise a navy. The German Navy League, which M 178 MEETING OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES' has branches even in our Colonies, already has a membership of 630,000, and its income is nearly ;^20,ooo a year. A British Science League of 500,000 with a sixpenny subscription would give us £"12,000 a year, quite enough to begin with." It was suggested that in the formation of such an organisation the Corresponding Societies might take an active part. " The present moment [said the President] was very opportune for the formation of such a body, because you have throughout the kingdom, from Land's End to John O' Groats, a great number of councils — county councils, city councils, town councils, district councils, parish councils, and goodness knows what — ami it struck me, if we could manage somehow to influence the debates of these bodies, it would be very much better for science, and ultimately, I think, ver\- much to the benefit of the Association. I am a very himible person, a very hardworking man, and I have been working for the last forty years to try in my little way to get adopted some better views of science in this country. Well, I am a miserable failure, and all the people .vho have made similar endeavours are like me— miserable failures. We have done absolutely nothing. So far as my experience goes, all the attempts made by individuals during the last forty years — I can go back forty years in my own work — have been practically of no effect, and that was the reason why I thought it was possible that by some such organisation as I sketehed last night we miglit do something better. That ' something better ' is, to put it plainly, looking after votes. Unless we can control votes in the House of Commons and in the councils throughout the country, science will not be any better. If we can control votes s:ience will be benefited ; and scientific bodies working with a goal in view from one end of the country to the other would be a most important factor in our future national life. Of that I am perfectly convinced; but I am only an individual, and therefore I asked permission to come and listen to you, gentlemen, who have had more experience than I can claim to have, representing as you do different societies, and familiar with the conditions in your own localities, and therefore able to say whether it is possible to catch votes, to influence councils, and gradually to infuse a scientific spirit into the county councils, the town councils, and the district councils of England. ' ' These remarks, coming from so high an authority as the President of the Association, were felt to have much weight, but the discussion revealed, as might be expected, certain difficulties of a practical character, and some divergence of opinion as to the objects which should engage the attention of the local societies. Professor E. H. Griffith, of Cardiff", in an excellent speech, doubted the expediency of starting with the avowed object of catching votes, and rather dwelt on the necessity of bringing home to the working-man the value of science in its industrial applications. " Let us appeal," he said, '' to the ' man in the street ' on the facts which must convince him that science is of abiding benefit COMMITTEE OF BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 179 to him in his daily hfe. Let us get him imbued with that idea, and votes will follow." Mr. W. F. Stanley, of Croydon, held that if science is to make lieadway in the future we must get hold of the "■ boy in the street," rather than the man. He pointed to the excellent results achieved by the various Polytechnics, and suggested that the local scientific societies should get into direct touch with these institutions. " I think," remarked Mr. Stanley, " if our societies can affiliate themselves to the polytechnics, and have representa- tives on the committees of these bodies, which, so far as I am aware, are very anxious for their admission, we shall have ibegun to unite our societies together, and we shall be able to draw them to a focus." Several high authorities on scientific education contributed to the further discussion of the subject. The Rev. J. O. Bevan, expressed his fear that the suggestions had come too late, and that efforts ought to have made long ago for securing the due representation of science on the various educational bodies which had recently been constituted. He referred to the unsatisfactory way in which science is, in many cases, introduced to the young student, and observed that " Science is often at a discount in the minds of the pubHc because, as a matter of fact, the science whicli is taught in some of our schools is, not to put too fine a point on it, no science at all. We want it taught by well-trained teachers, rather than that the children should be crammed with certain facts of science by a teacher, who, because he has just taken a course of twelve lessons in agriculture, for example, is supposed to know all about the nature of the soil, the value of manures, the rotation of crops, and so on. As a matter of fact he knows very little, and parents unite in holding him up to scorn. I do not want a cook who can present yards of certificates, and yet spoils my dinner. Science is at a disadvantage. Let us be careful ; we not only want science taught, but we want it taught in a proper scientific way." The Chairman (Mr. ^Vhitaker) pointed out that at the Croydon Natural History Society, a junior class of members had been started. The young members pass into the Society as full members, w^hen they become a certain age, without the formality of election, but merely by an increase in their subscription. Mindful of the immense value of imbuing young people with scientific tastes, it seems to me that much good might arise from the general adoption of such a course as that which has been l8o MEETING OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES* introduced at Croydon. Is there any reason why the Essex Field Club should not, in like manner, institute a division for young members, who would at least be attracted by the excursions, and having acquired, by contact with naturalists, a love for the study of natural science, would pass in due course into the Club- as ordinary members ? As the outcome of the discussion on the President's address, the following resolution was ultimately proposed and carried unanimously —a similar resolution having been passed in the various sections : — "That, as urged by the President in his address, it is desirable that scientific workers and persons interested in science be so organised that they may exert permanent influence on public opinion, in order more effectively to carry out the- third object of this Association, originally laid down by its founders, viz., " To' obtain a more general attention to the objects of science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress," and that the Council be asked to take steps to promote such organisation." A paper was read by INIr. W. Rankin, B.Sc, of Leeds, on- " The Methods and Results of a Botanical Survey of Counties." The late Dr. Robert Smith, of Dundee, commenced such a survey in Scotland, and his brother, Dr. W. G. Smith, and Mr.. Rankin have recently published the results of their work in Yorkshire. The chief object of this Botanical Survey is to reduce to certain well-defined terms the vegetation of a county, and then to examine the biological features of each term. The scenery is regarded as a function of the vegetation, as. well as of the rocks. In the somewhat difficult area of the West Riding of Yorkshire, about fifteen groupings, or plant- associations, more or less well-marked, are distinguished. In the moorlands there are five types— the bilberry summit, the cotton-grass moor, the heather moor, the grass-heath, and the limestone hill pasture. Five groups are also recognised in the woods, namely coniferous upland, and lowland oak, ash-hazel copse and beach. The areas of cultivation include the lowdand wheat and the upland oats. In some places a lowland swamp vegetation is developed. "The mapping of a large area is not the only end sought [observed ]Mr.. Rankin]. In surveying any district, moorland, woodhmd, or wheatland, extensive notes are taken of the nature of the plant associations and the various- conditions under which they exist. In order that our conclusions may be sounder, excursions are taken at all times of the year. Notes taken in one district are: COMMITTEE OF BRITISH ASSOCIATION. l8l <:ompared with those taken in another, and similar. Thus a general list of plants representative of the association or area is finally arrived at. In a similar way are built up the lists of plants for all associations, and information obtained concerning their biological conditions. *' It will readily be seen that by our methods the plant species inhabiting a district are arranged in the associations as they are actually found, and not, as is almost invariably the case in local floras, in the groupings of the Natural Orders. In certain ways this alternative point of view is very advantageous, ^like to the beginner whom it is sought to interest in Nature study as to the maturer naturalist, who can find in the solution of oecological problems motive for endless study and enjoyment. There is a danger of thinking that the robbing ji countryside of its rarest plants, to be carried home, dried, labelled, and buried in sheets of jxaper, is the beginning and end of botany. The present method puts no premium on this ; the commoner plants are the most observed, and yet there is a place in our scheme for the rarest. By regarding the trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, mosses and moulds as individuals of one community, dependent in a variety of ways upon one another, rather than as items meet to be labelled, and put into compartments, one is led to study the biology of the vegetable kingdom, to use the microscope, and through it to see visions of a thousand problems, some answered, many awaiting answer. And yet the syste- matic side of the science is not obscured." Here in Essex, it seems to me, there is room for attempting to carry out such a vegetation-survey as that commenced in the north. Our Club has contributed materially to a knowledge of the flora of the county ; but the new method is to view the local plants in their relation to soil, climate, and other physical con- ditions, which are controlling features in plant-distribution. A map of Essex showing the vegetation-districts sketched out on the new lines has yet to be constructed. Not that the floristic method of plant-study is in any way to be displaced ; it is simply to be supplemented by a general view of the distribution of vegetable life, capable of cartographical expression. A short communication was sent to Southport by our esteemed member, Mr. Holmes, calling attention to certain •omissions in the new edition of some of the Ordnance Survey Maps, on the 6in. scale. On the older map there occurs at one spot in Greenwich Park the words " Roman Remains," and at a neighbouring place just outside the park, the map gives the information, " Roman Remains found here." In the newer map of the same district (edition of 1894-96) these words' are omitted. The curtailment of any archaeological information known to be well founded, is a matter to which local societies may fairly call attention in relation to the maps of their respective localities. l82 MEETING OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES* The main feature of the second Conference of Delegates, held on Tuesday, Sept. 15, was a valuable communication from our Secretary, Mr. William Cole. Under the title of -'A suggestion with respect to Exploration and Registration Work for County Local Societies," the writer pointed out the way in which local scientific activity might be encouraged by financial assistance from the Education Committees of our County Councils. [These suggestions are printed on another page (p. 183). Ed.] Mr. Cole's suggestions were well received by the delegates, and have since been sympathetically discussed by the Corres- ponding vSocieties Committee. Certain legal difficulties with respect to the allocation of the Technical Instruction money have, however, been raised ; but it may be hoped that these in due course will be overcome. Mr. Herbert Stone, the President of the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society, submitted a letter relating to the question of railway fares for members of Local Societies on excursions. He held that tickets at reduced fares should be granted to members individually, and not necessarily going in parties. S.uch a privilege, it appears, is conceded to anglers and golfers, but has been refused to members of natural history societies. The Assistant-Secretary of the Royal Meteorological Society appealed to the various local societies for copies of any papers and reports which they may publish relating to meteorology, in order that the titles may duly appear in i\\e International Catalogue oj Scientific Literature^ which is being assisted, so far as Britisli meteorology is concerned, by the Society. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S., begged the delegates to assist him in obtaining specimens of well-shrimps, for his report on the Underground Fauna of Great Britain. These little freshwater crustaceans are apt to escape notice, or to be considered not worth collecting. Miss Sargant, of the Holmesdale Natural History Club,^ expressed her desire to obtain information from local naturalists,. in connection with her investigations on British orchids. She is anxious to receive particulars as to the length of time in the year during which the leaves of any native orchid are above ground. [The leaves are commonly so inconspicuous that they escape notice out of the flowering seasons]. COMMITTEE OF BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 185 Information is also solicited as to the reproduction of such species by means of seed under natural conditions. (a) What species produce seed freely or at all ? (b) In the case of each species examined, are seedlings found in the neigh- bourhood of the parent plants, and do they seem to survive the first winter ? (c) In the case of young plants— that is, those which have not flowered— can those which have grown from seed be easily distinguished from vegetative shoots when such occur ? (^) In general, what proportion of the young plants in each species are seedlings ? Miss Sargant, like a true naturalist, observed that she should like the information to be obtained, as far as possible, without rooting up the clumps, which is rather like killing the goose which lays the golden eggs. Drawings of germinating seeds would be acceptable. Mr. J. David Thompson, of Washington, D.C., U.S.A., addressed the delegates, and explained that he had been appointed editor of a Handbook of the Learned Societies of the World, to be issued b}^ the Carnegie Institute. For the purpose of this work he asked Secretaries to send him full information respecting their Societies. Thus ended the Southport Conference — a meeting which promises to be memorable, inasmuch as it may mark a new departure in the work of many of our local Societies, by extending their sphere of usefulness to the promotion of scientific education throughout the country. A SUGGESTION WITH RESPECT TO EXPLOR- ATION AND REGISTRATION WORK FOR COUNTY LOCAL SOCIETIES. By W. COLE, F.L.S., F.E.S., Hon. Sec. Essex Field Club, [Being a paper read at the Southport Meeting of the Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association^ September i^th, IQ^S^-] HAVING been Secretary to a registered local scientific society during the whole period of the life of the Corre spending Societies Committee of the British Association, 1 have been impressed with the number and variety of the subjects recommended to the attention of local societies by the Com- I This paper will be printed in the Report of the British Association, but we repro- duce it in order to gather the opinions of our members on the proposal. — Ed. 184 EXPLORATION AND REGISTRATION WORK mittee from year to year. I have also been struck with the lack of practicability of many of these recommendations from my point of view — that is, of one having the success and progress of his society at heart. Such matters as " The Collection of Statistics concerning Trained Chemists employed in English Chemical Industries" ; investigations concerning "The Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction," or the " Consideration of means by which better practical effect can be given to the introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884," and the like, although subjects of professional importance, are but little adapted to enlist the co-operation of a body of amateur biologists, geologists, and archaeologists. It seems to me that the subjects most likely to prove attractive to the members of the greater number of our local Societies are those connected with such branches of science as are within the opportunities and abilities of amateur observers, and which at the same time are such as will arouse the enthusiasm and *' county-patriotism " of the supporters of the Societies. It is difficult at all times to obtain a sufficient number of members to permit of the carrying out of the necessary work of the Societies (meetings, publica- tions, etc.), and it is still more arduous to collect funds for any piece of work supplemental to the routine business. I suggest that local Societies will best aid in their humble way the progress of science by confining their energies to the acknow- ledged three main objects of their existence — the minute study of the natural history and archaeology of the counties ; in educational work of a propagandist character ; and in assisting in the formation of well-planned local museums and scientific libraries in their own districts. All holding similar views will cordially approve of such pieces of work as the photographic survey of a county, or of the botanical survey advocated in a paper placed upon the agenda at the present meeting. And to be welcomed is the project for the preparation of a map index to prehistoric remains, so ably advo- cated by Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., at the Belfast meeting of this Committee.^ I should like to expatiate briefly upon these ideas, and, as I have no authority to speak for other counties, I will confine my remarks to Essex. 2 Abstracted in the last part of the Essex Naturalist atite pp. 123-6. FOR COUNTY LOCAL SOCIETIES. 185 In Essex considerable changes in the flora and fauna may be anticipated in consequence of rapid extension of building, the cutting down of woods and hedges, alterations on the coast brought about by the draining and cultivation of salt marshes and the silting up of estuaries, &c. Dr. Sorby has described the changes in the shallow-water fauna of the coast during the last fourteen or sixteen years. Inland and near the towns, the destruction of raptorial birds and mammalia by gamekeepers and the increase of insectivorous birds consequent upon the enforcement of the Wild Birds Acts, are causes which apparently determine the disappearance of many insects and mollusca which is so regrettable. These are strong reasons for the preparation of more detailed floral and faunal catalogues than any yet pro- duced, of the character which I understand Dr. Smith and Mr. Rankin will advocate in their paper. If such work is not done soon it will be too late, as the rapid changes of environment and food will exterminate some species and modify the habits of others. And I would emphasize the importance of our local museums being furnished with extensive and accurately localised sets of plants, animals, and fossils before destructive influences have blotted out for ever many rare forms and variations. The sea has washed away a great part of our fragment of Waltonian Crag, and the builder has covered up or carted away our river-terraces and brick-earth deposits. This scientific collecting and registration, if done systematic- ally and thoroughly, will need not only much careful work, but also the expenditure of considerable sums of money. The desirability of carefully registering and systematically exploring the prehistoric remains in Essex has engaged our attention for many years past. As long ago as 1883 our Vice- President, Professor Meldola, F.R.S., read a paper before this Conference on '' i^ocal Societies and the Minor Prehistoric Remains of Britain." The paper was printed in extenso in the Transactions of the Essex Field Club vol. iv. pp. 1 16-122. The destruction of some of these remains, and the precarious tenure of existence of such as remain, have often been the subject of remark, as in the noteworthy address of Mr. Read referred to above. I am very glad to say that the suggestions of these gentlemen with regard to cataloguing and mapping these in- teresting relics is now being carried out in Essex. Our . l86 EXPLORATION AND REGISTRATION WORK Vice-President, Mr. Chalkley Gould, has prepared for the first volume of the Victoria History of Essex a very complete list of them, accompanied by a map. But a catalogue, however excellent, is only a preliminary step. Accurate plotting down, on large scale plans, of the outlines, geographical positions and elevation of these works, and their careful scientific exploration £0 as to determine their probable periods and motives, still remain to be undertaken. I venture to submit that this is work which must be done by local Societies if it is to be done at all. Great London associations may undertake the "reconstruction " of Silchester ; a fortunate county may possess a Pitt-Rivers to plan and munificently carr}' out archaeological explorations ; we may find the study of the physical and life-conditions of the North Sea becoming a matter of Government and international importance. But the patient tasks of collecting and registering plants, animals, and fossils, and the examination of minor earth- works, camps, red-hills, deneholes, &c., should be the duty and pleasure of local enthusiasts. The councils and officers of many of our local societies hardly need committees of the British Association to indicate these lines of activity. They have been fully alive to them ever since their societies were called into existence. But, as we in the Essex Field Club know full well, such work is very costly, and in most cases needs funds quite in excess of the slender balances at our bankers. We have the will, but we lack the means. And this is the position with very many of our local societies. Is there any escape from this difficulty ? I think it can be shown that there is a way out. Everyone knows that our county councils have very con- siderable annual sums entrusted to them for purposes summed up in the very elastic phrase "technical instruction." This is in addition to any rate for primary or secondary education. The allocation of this technical education money is in the hands of committees of the councils, subject to some sort of revision by the Board of Education. The annual income from this source in Essex is considerably over ^20,000. ]\Iy proposal is that the Education Committee of each county in which a recognised scientific Society exists should be asked to allocate a small annual sum (say from ^100 to £"200) for the FOR COUNTY LOCAL SOCIETIES. 187 purposes alluded to, in accordance with some siicli scheme as the following : — 1. That the local Society should in each year lay before the Education Committee of the County Council proposals and plans for any explorations or investigations which in the opinion of the expert committee of the Society, are worthy of being undertaken, and that on approval the estimated sum required for the work and for the publication of the report be allocated to the Society. 2. The committee of the Society having accompUshed the work, should prepare a detailed report, with such maps and illustrations as may be necessary. This report might be printed in tiie journal of the Society, copies bemg struck off for sale. Or the reports might be issued on a uniform plan for the whole kingdom. In any case the reports should be issued at a very cheap rate for distribution to the public. 3. Any sum unexpended might be returned to the council, or carried to the next year's work. 4. In selecting the subjects proper for such a series of investi- gations the peculiar conditions and requirements of each county will be considered. Taking Essex as an example, the following may be suggested : — (a) The accurate surveying and plotting down on large-scale plans of typical prehistoric remains, particularly of such as may be in danger of destruction, and the careful exploration of the same under expert direction. (b) The preparation of accurate lists and of maps of the county, showing the positions and mode of occurrence of any relics of prehistoric age hitherto found therein, with indications of the museums or collections in which they are preserved, and references to any published details and figures. (f) Exploration work in the shallow-water districts of the North Sea and in our estuaries and rivers, so as to collect materials for full and accurate lists of the marine and fresh- w^ater fauna and fiora, and to study the conditions regulating the occurrence of each form where possible. (d) The mapping out of the distribution of inland plants and animals, having like regard to the conditions of their occurrence ; the study of the varying conditions of agriculture and gardening in different parts of the county. l88 EXPLORATION AND REGISTRATION WORK {e) The exploration of interesting geological deposits, so as to accumulate, before they disappear, as perfect sets as possible of •characteristic fossils. Examples : our Walton Crag, brick-earths and terrace gravels. (/) The study and registration on large-scale maps of coast erosion and the formation of sandbanks and the silting up of our ■estuaries. (g) Any special investigations which may be suggested by the County Council itself, or by the British Association Committee. 5. All specimens, plans, &c., thus obtained or made should be •deposited in the county museum, the museum authorities undertaking to suitably preserve and register them for future study. 6. As above indicated, all the reports should be published at a cheap rate, and copies deposited in local libraries and in the principal public libraries in the kingdom. The British Association might well be asked to catalogue these reports from the several counties as an Appendix to the Report of the Local Societies Committee. Such is a rough sketch of my proposal. I have assumed that a county scientific Society exists in each county. Where this is not the case, a joint committee of the smaller Societies of the ■county might be formed for this business. I ma}'' be permitted to observe that, in my humble opinion, it is most desirable that such Societies should at once unite to form strong county units. Each county should have one scientific Society and one archaeological Association, with local sub-committees, if thought necessary. The primary difficulties are left until the last. Would our county councils consider the subjects mentioned and the suggested method of treating them of educational value ? If so, would they assist ? and, finally. Is such an allocation of educa- tional funds legal ? . It is submitted that the small annual sum mentioned would, if •expended in this way, produce results of considerable educational value. We spend vast sums in teaching modern history, and ought we to consider the " buried history of Britain " (as it has been happily termed) of no importance ? The work of collecting information respecting plants, animals, fossils, encouraged and FOR COUNTY LOCAL SOCIETIES, 189 directed by the local committees, would certainly be of direct educational value to all taking part in it ; and the reports, when issued, would be admirable object-lessons, serving to show how much of interest our own counties possess. And now that the importance of museums in education is recognised by scores of thoughtful writers and speakers, would not the sets of specimens,, accurately named, localised and described, be of real use to students and investigators ? Of the scientific importance of the results from the work advocated it is unnecessary to speak before this Committee. And we must not forget that there is a strong feeling of local patriotism, which appeals to all. Of the legal aspect of the question I am not qualified to speak ; the problem might be submitted in the first instance to the Board of Education. Should it be found that the present law would not permit of such allocation of funds, it might not be difficult to induce the Government to introduce a two-line clause into some " omnibus " Educational Bill (there are sure to^ be a few in the near future) permitting the county councils to act as indicated above. It is suggested, if the proposals meet with the approval of the Scientific Societies Committee, that a small sub-committee be appointed, to meet in London and consider the steps that may be necessary to bring the matter before the public and the authorities. Perhaps the British Association itself would aid in bringing the matter prominently before those in authority and the public generally, and it might not be difficult to enlist the sympathies and co-operation of a few Members of Parliament favourable to scientific education, supposing any parliamentary action is necessary. I should like to see some active, practical steps taken ; in my opinion, the local Scientific Societies Committee could not confer a greater benefit on the Societies, nor aid more the progress and study of natural science and archaeology in the counties by the numerous amateurs now existing, than in promoting some such scheme as that I have advocated. [This little paper is printed as originally written, but in reply to some recent criticisms I may say that in putting archaeological investigation in front of the list of suggested subjects I was simply following recommendations that had been made by some distinguished men at former meetings of the British Association igO EXPLORATION AND REGISTRATION WORK. Committee. I am aware that such subjects as those grouped under {c) and (d) might be considered as more " practical " and more worthy of public support. But it may be anticipated that in the event of these county investigation committees being estabUshed, subscriptions in aid of " unpractical " investigations would come in, just as the Field Club has on several occasions raised considerable sums for camp and denehole explorations. Interest in the work would grow, and the established county committees would quickly gather up and enfold scattered energies in aid of their systematic labours. I cannot refrain from expressing disappointment at the somewhat colourless "recommendation" arrived at by the Corresponding Societies Committee after consideration of the proposal. In all patience we have had enough of barren " recommendations " and " resolutions," for a dozen years past. The plea now is for a practical working scheme, and I hope that some effort will be made to band together the county scientific societies to attempt a realization of some such plans as that •outlined above. Our quiet country scientists are too apt to forget that they have votes and a personal interest in good education equally with more outspoken folk ; they should not be too timid to accept Sir Norman Lockyer's advice, and become judiciously " political." Well-timed pleading might induce candidates for county work and honours to give heed to the ■claims of science in the disposition of the large sums now available for higher education. The disingenuous cry of '' save the rates " sometimes raised against analogous suggestions is not applicable to the trifling grants asked for ; these sums are almost infinitesimal compared wdth claims put forward on behalf of subjects of at least not greater " practical " and educational importance than some that I have indicated.] igi SOUTH ESSEX BRAMBLES. By C. E. BRITTON. DURING the latter part of the summer of 1903, I visited Warley Common and neighbourhood on two occasions for the purpose of collecting and observing brambles, and paid one similar visit to Danbury Common. Examples of all the various kinds of brambles gathered on these occasions, were included in the very large packet of Riihiis specimens, which I sent during the autumn to the Rev. W. Moyle Rogers, F.L.S. for examination. I am very much indebted to him for his great kindness in confirming my suggested names for some, and in furnishing names for others that were beyond me, and I am further indebted to him for the information that the following species and varieties of Ruhus are "new records" for the Watsonian Vice-county, 18 South Essex: — Rubus nitidus Wh. and N. ; R. imbricatus, Hort var. londinensis Rogers ; R. carpinifolius, Wh. and N. ; R. dumnoniensis, Bab.; R. pubescens Weihe] var. siihinevmis, Rogers ; R. angli- canus, Rogers; R. fuscus, Wh. and N. var. nutans, Rogers; R. adornatus, P. J. Muell; R. dumetorum, Wh. and N. var. hritannicus (Rogers) ; R. balfourianus, Blox. In the following lists an asterisk denotes that a dried specimen of the plant in question from the locality mentioned has been seen by Mr. Rogers. Warley Common'. Rubus idoeus, L., R. lindleianus,-- Lees ; R. rhamnifolius W4i. & N. ; R. pulcherrimus, ■' Neum. ; R. selmeri Lindeb. ; R. rusticanus Merc. ; R. pubescens Weihe var. suhinevmis* Rogers (also at Childerditch") ; R. sprengelii " W^eihe. Besides the usual pink-flowered form of this, there also occurs at Warley Common, a form " with white flowers which Mr. Rogers notes is a rare one. R. pyramidalis''' Kalt. ; R. leucostachys Schleich. ; R. anglicanus ''' Rogers ; (" a form one step towards type R. radula Weihe," Rogers); R. fuscus Wh. and N. var. nutans-'' Rogers; R. folio sus '■' Wh. and N. ; R. infecundus "^^ Rogers (also at Great Warley Street"); R. dumetorum, Wh. and N. ; R. balfourianus,''' Blox. On Tylers Conunon very few kinds of brambles grow. Rubus rusticanus Merc, and R. dumetorum Wh. and N. are plentiful, 192 SOUTH ESSEX BRAMBLES. and very sparingly, R. dumnoniensis, Bab. forma. This latter plant differs somewhat from the usual British form of this species. It is a beautiful plant with a roundish, deeply cordate terminal leaflet and bright pink flowers (in the type the flowers are milk- white). Mr Rogers remarks that it is almost identical with a form found growing by him in the Channel Islands at Sark and Guernsey. Other brambles seen in this neighbourhood were : R. rhamnifolius" Wh. and N., R. leucostachys, Schleich, and R. leucostachys x rusticanus" in profusion, the hybrid parentage of this being very well marked. Rubus fuscus Wh. and N. var. nutans'''- Rogers, R. foliosus Wh. and N., and R. rhamnifolius Wh. and N., grow on Coombe Green Common. R. coesins, L., near Upminster Station ; R. caesius X rusticanus" towards Tylers Common ; and along the same road R. corylifolius, Sm. var. cyclophyllus (Lindeb.) The most abundant brambles on Warley Common are R. selmeri,. Lindeb., and a form (or forms) which seems to connect R. nitidus Wh. and N., with R. afHnis Wh. and N., var. hriggsiauus Rogers, and, perhaps, R. lentiginosus Lees. Further study is required here, as this Warley Common form may cause the plant known as R. affinis Wh. and N. var hriggsianus, Rogers, to be associated with R. nitidus Wh. and N., rather than wdth R. afflnis Wh. and N. ; a result that w^ould be in accordance with the views of Dr. Focke. Danhury Common : R. idceus, L., R. nitidus," Wh. and N.,. R. imbricatus Hort. var. Icndinensis ^^' Rogers. This is identical with the plant growing on the commons on the south- western and south-eastern outskirts of the Metropolis, and dis- tinguished as a new variety in the Journal of Botany, March,. 1903. It is apparently very rare at Danbury. R. carpinifolius "' Wh. and N. (this also seems a rarity here), R. rhamnifolius„ Wh. and N., R. pulcherrimus, Neum., R. selmeri Lindeb. (by the road from Bicknacre) ; R. rhombifolius,'^' Weihe. A form or variety of this species growing abundantly here is ver}- similar to a Surrey plant found by Major WoUey Dod, ^vhich seems sufflcientl}' distinct from the type to be regarded as an undescribed variety. Further study is desirable. R. rusticanus Merc, R. sprengelii =■' Weihe, R. pyramidalis,''' Kalt. (a small form identical with the Warley Common plant. A highly glandular form "•' grows by the road from Bicknacre). R» ESSEX XATURALIST, To/. A7//., /'/. I'll. / ***. Polished Celt fkoxM DoddixNGHURst, Essex. One-half actual size. POLISHED STONE AXE. 193 leucostachys, Schleich, R. leucostachys x rusticanus is plentiful in one place at least, and sterile. R. echinatus, Lindl., R. foliosus, VVh. and N., R. infecundus, Rogers, R. adornatus," P. J. Muell (by the road from Bicknacre) ; R. hystrix * Wh. and N., R. dumetorum, Wh. and N., R. corylifolius, Sm. var. sublnstris (Lees) ; R. balfourianus, Blox. (roadside hedges by the Common). Besides these, I gathered at Danbury Common examples of several brambles which require further study another season. ON A POLISHED STONE AXE FROM DODDINGHURST, ESSEX. By F. W. READER. THE discovery of this implement, which is here represented {Plate VII.) is due to Miss Rosa Woltorton, a teacher in the school at Doddinghurst, who found it in her garden. The form of the stone appeared to Miss Woltorton to be unusual, and she placed it as a curiosity on the window sill, but without understanding the nature of her discovery. It was, however, recognised by the Rector, the Rev. F. A. Adams, when visiting the house, and was by him brought to public notice. It is a regularly polished axe of mottled flint, ochreous stained, of the type most usually found in East Anglia, having a pointed oval section, the sides being very slightly ground. The cutting edge bears marks of use. It has also received much subsequent rough usage, the butt-end having quite disappeared, while at large portion is missing from the cutting edge. These fractures are evidently later than the use of the implement and are not ochreous stained. Most of these later fractures are, however, not very recent, being variously weathered and patinated. The present length of the implement is 7 inches, its greatest width 2| inches. N 194 NOTES ON REPORT OF THE ESSEX BIRD PROTECTION SOCIETY, 1903. By FRANCIS DEXT, Hon. Sec. to the Society. [Read December i ^th, 1 903 . ] IN spite of the constantly increasing work thrown upon it by ParHament, the Essex County Council still finds time to devote its attention, amongst other objects, to the Protection of Wild Birds. The latest of several orders in Council made by the Home Secretary, varying and extending the provisions of the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1880, for the County of Essex, is dated Dec. 13, 1901, and is summarised in the Report for 1903, which has just been issued by the Essex Bird Protection Society. This Society, which was originally formed for the purpose of calling attention to the necessity of further protection for some of our rarer wild birds which were in danger of extinction, continues to do useful work in helping to make the Protection Order really effective, by employing watchers at various stations along the coast, to see that the law is observed, by stimulating the zeal of the County Police by giving small rewards in cases where extra vigilance has been shown, and by itself undertaking to prosecute offenders against whom proceedings would not otherwise be taken in such cases as are brought to its notice. From the summary of the Protection Order given in the report, it will be seen that two separate areas in the County are specially protected (i) The coast and estuaries, and (2) the suburban parishes which border upon Epping Forest, The Essex coast with its network of creeks, saltings and marshes from Harwich to Shoeburyness forms a natural breeding ground for a number of birds, among which are included black- headed gulls, terns, lesser terns, ring plover, redshank, peewit, sheld-duck, wild duck, teal, pochard, besides many others, and is the haunt in wdnter of large numbers of wild fowl. When the County Council took up the question of Protection, some of these species w^ere on the verge of extinction, as breeding species at any rate. The terns, and lesser terns in particular, had suffered great diminution by the robbing of their nests, which ESSEX BIRD PROTECTION SOCIETY. I95 are only too easily found, and from the indiscriminate shooting of the young birds just on the wing by the cockney sportsmen shooting from boats at the beginning of August. By the exten- sion of the close season to August 15, the young birds and flappers have the advantage of an extra fortnight, which enables them to get fairly strong on the wing before shooting commences, and the total prohibition of Sunday shooting along the coast gives them a further chance. All eggs are now also protected along the coast, and here the Bird Protection Society is fortunate in securing for a small fee the services of 11 persons, mostly fishery inspectors, whose duties and avocations take them con- stantly about the coast, who kindly undertake to act as watchers to see that the provisions of the Order are enforced, and to report offences. From the reports made by these watchers, extracts from Avhich are given in the Society's annual report, it will be seen that a distinct increase is to be noted in the numbers of shore breeding birds, and that the provisions of the Protection Order are now fairly well observed. Blackheaded gulls perhaps show the greatest increase, and several new gulleries have been formed ; terns breed regularly still in one or two places, and will it is to be hoped, hold their own ; that beautiful bird the lesser tern breeds in at least one place and the colony which a few years ago was all but extinc is now thriving and on the increase. Redshank and plover abound and ring plover are common enough on the shingle. There are few pleasanter places on a summer's day for an ornithologist than the marshes and sandhills when the saltings are all flushed with thrift, and the air is full of the cries of the blackheaded gulls or terns, redshanks and plover. In the south-western part of the County, Epping Forest, with its 6,000 acres, more or less, of woodland and plain, provides a sanctuary for quite a different class of birds, but in its way quite as interesting. To this 6,000 acres must now be added the 800 acres of Hainault, on the east of the Roding Valley. Here the protection of birds is looked after by the keepers, under the bye-laws made for the regulation of the Forest, but the lanes and waste strips of the adjoining parishes until lately were the hunting-ground of swarms of East-End bird-catchers. The Protection Order now extends the close time for certain wild 196 ESSEX BIRD PROTECTION SOCIETY. birds to the whole year in such parishes as are within the- MetropoHtan PoHce Area, and also protects the eggs of certain species. In this part of the county the Bird Protection Society^ do not employ any watcher, but confine themselves to doing what they can to second and stimulate the zeal of the police, who- are now generally active in enforcing the law. The President of the Society, Mr. E. N. Buxton, to whose initiative is due the reafforestation of Hainault, has also induced the owners of most,, if not all, the estates adjoining the Forest, to extend their protec- tion to certain species of birds, e.g., herons, ducks, kingfishers, magpies, kestrels, and owls, with satisfactory results. Reports from the owners of these estates and from the Forest keepers are received by the Bird Protection Society, and from them it would appear that owls, both barn and tawny, are certainly more numerous than they used to be. Magpies, never common in this district, breed regularly on one or two estates, but the number of nests reported remains about constant. Kestrels would certainly increase, but unfortunately, they often fall a victim to the temptations put in their way by the artificial rearing o pheasants, and so lose the good character they ought to enjoy It is particularly satisfactory to learn that there appears to be a decided increase in the number of goldfinches, a bird which has,, it is to be feared, peculiar attractions for the birdcatcher. Beyond making the suggestion that goldfinches might, like kingfishers, be protected thiroughout the county during the whole year, it would appear that the protection afforded to our Essex birds by the Order of 1901, is fairly adequate, and all that is necessary is that the Order should be enforced. It may be suggested, however, that the Order might be somewhat simplified,, meanw^hile the Essex Bird Protection Society is probably wise in confining itself to working on the lines of the Protection Order and can claim some share in helping to make it effective. Additional interest would be given to its annual reports if those interested in ornithology in the County would send any notes of interest in their district to me as secretary ; I am always glad to receive and incorporate any such notes in the reports. (Address : Loughion, Essex.) ESSEX NATURALIST, Vol. XIII., PI. VIII. '■•^#. Greywethers at Grays Thurrock, Essex. Photographed by Messrs. A. R. and IF. D. Holmes, 1903. 197 ON SOME GREYWETHERS AT GRAYS THURROCK, ESSEX. By T. V. HOLMES, F.G.S., F.Anthrop.Inst., Vice-President, E.F.C. {With Plate VIII.) • [Read November 28///, 1003.] THE massive blocks of silicious sandstone known as Grey- wethers or Sarsen stones, the remains of Tertiary beds of more than one geological horizon, are found irregularly •scattered over various parts of the London Tertiary Basin, from Berkshire and Wiltshire to Kent and Essex. Being usually noticeable as masses of hard stone lying on the surface of rocks ■of various ages from the Chalk upwards, in districts where there is scarcely any building stone, it is not surprising to find that in primitive times these blocks were used in the construction of rude stone monuments like Kit's Coty, near Maidstone, Stonehenge and Avebury. At a somewhat later period the name Sarsen (Saracen) stones implies a popular belief in their diabolical, or at least pagan, origin, use or distribution. For a thousand years ago the words pagan, or heathen, and diabolical meant to the mass of people much the same thing. Indeed in the well-known lines of Burns, written towards the end of the eighteenth century, we get the then popular identification of the devil with the author of the best-known form of heathenism thus pithily expressed : — *' The De'il cam fiddling thro' the toun, And danc'd awa' wi' the Exciseman; And ilka wife cries, Auld Mahoun, I wish you luck of the prize, man ! " The name Greywethers, on the other hand, simply notes the resemblance of these blocks to a flock of sheep, when they are numerous and close together, and are seen from some distance. Where they are abundant they have been prized as yielding very hard and durable building-stone for structures of much later date than Stonehenge or Avebury ; Windsor Castle, for instance, being largely built of the material they afford^ Thus where numerous on the surface of a district, they tend to ■disappear in proportion to the rate of progress in agriculture and building there, and to remain undisturbed and undestroyed only in wild uncultivated spots. As they are the sole remains of I Whitaker, Geology o/the London Basin p. 390, Lond. 1872. igS GREYWETHERS AT GRAYS THURROCK, ESSEX. Tertiary beds the softer portions of which have been removeci by denudation from the places where these blocks are now seen^ and as their distribution is extremely irregular, their occurrence,, when seen, is well worth noting from a geological point of view. But greywethers are not necessarily to be seen only on the surface of a district. Mr. Whitaker remarks that they "occur somewhat rarely in our River Gravel.""^ For the changes in the courses of rivers occasionally involve the imbedding in river deposits of blocks once some little distance from the banks of the stream. At an excursion of the Geologists' Association to the British Museum of Natural History on March 15th, 1902 {Proc. Geo!. Assoc, vol. xvii., pp. 365-6) the- members inspected a large Sarsen stone discovered in Thames- Gravel w^hen the foundations of the Victoria and Albert Museurrt were being excavated. It was presented to the N. H. Museum by Colonel C. K. Bushe, F.G.S., a member of the Association^ who saw it taken out. It is now in the Eastern Gardens of the Museum. In the Geological Magazine for 1867 there is a very short paper by ^the late Professor John Morris, once a much esteemed honorary member of the Essex Field Club, " On the Occurrence of Grey-Wethers at Grays, Essex." It occupies little more than a page (pp. 63-4). He remarks that the occurrence of Sarsen stones " has not, I believe, been generally noticed in this locality.'*" The various chalk, &c., pits, when he wrote, had not been worked so far back northward as they now are by a considerable distance. He states that " the Sarsen stones (of which some may be still seen lying about the large chalk pit) I have noticed during the progress of the workings as occurring on the upper surface of a bed of disturbed chalk, above the solid chalk, and covered by a blackish, or carbonaceous clay containing fresh water shells. They are of various sizes, some very large, and more or less waterworn." He adds that the position of the Sarsen stones seen by him was " about midway between the back of the present workings and the entrance to the pit." The grey wethers were evidently in old river deposits, though it is not now easy even to identify the exact pit of which Prof. Morris writes. But as the spot 2 Gtology of London and of part of the Thames Valley, vol. i., p. 330. GREYWETHERS AT GRAYS THURROCK, ESSEX. 199 where he saw the greywethers was about midway between the northern and southern ends of the pit, it was in all probability N FIG. I. — MAP. SCALE 6 INCHES = I MILE. O.C.P., Boundary of Chalk, &c., Pit, when the Map was made ; F.P., Footpath ; C.L., Contour Line ; X., Position of Greywethers. some hundreds of yards southward of the spot at which I saw some grey wethers in March and April, 1903. The position of those seen by me is shown on the map accompanying these remarks, which is from the ordnance map ■200 GREYWETHERS AT GRAYS THURROCK, ESSEX. of 6in. to a mile. The pit is that east of " Duvals," and west of the road from Grays to Stifford, and the mark indicating the position of the grey wethers also shows the most northerly point now attained by the pit. For some yards southward, however, the excavation extends downwards only to the level of the top of the chalk. The height of the section shown in my drawing is about 17ft. from the green-coated flints at the top of the chalk to the surface. Above the green-coated fimts are about 8ft. of Thanet sand, and above the Thanet sand are old Thames^river deposits, gravelly towards their base and sandy • •-• V'^;^i^?:jS^^;;^i^^ <^