AT

REVISED EDTTIOX.

EVERY

HORSE OWNER'S CYCLOPEDIA.

THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOUSE; GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS J

THE POINTS OF THE HORSE, WITH DIRECTIONS HOW TO CHOOSE HIM;

THE PRINCIPLES OP BREEDING, AND THE BEST KIND TO BREED

from; THE TREATMENT OF THE BROOD MARE AND FOAL;

RAISING AND BREAKING THE COLT : STABLES AND

STABLE MANAGEMENT ; RIDING, DRIVING,

ETC., ETC.

DISEASES, AND HOW TO CURE THEM.

the principal medicines, and the doses in which they can be safely

administered; accidents, fractures, and the operations

necessary in each case ; shoeing, etc.

By J. H. WALSH, F.R.C.S. ("Stonehenge").

WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE VETERINARY SURGEON COMES.

By GEORGE FLEMING, F.E.C.S.

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE, WITH SUGGESTIONS ON
THE BREEDING AND TRAINING OF TROTTERS.

By ELLWOOD HARVEY, M.D.

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN TROTTING TURF, AND
TABLES OF TROTTING AND PACING PERFORMANCES.

By HENRY T. COAXES.

TABLES OF BEST PERFORMANCES ON THE AMERICAN
RUNNING TURF.

By S. D. and L. C. BRUCE,

OF THE " TURF, FIELD AND FARM."
THE PERCHERON HORSE ; TABLES OF PEDIGREES OF CELEBRATED TROTTERS, ETC.

WITH NEARLY ONE HUNDRED FINE ENGRA VINGS ON WOOD AND STEEL.

SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION.

PHILADELPHIA :

PORTER & COATES.
1880.

COPYRIGHT,

PORTER & COATES,

1871.

COPYRIGHT,
HENRY T. COATES,

TO

JAMES H. WALLACE,

the author of

Wallace's trottixg register and American stud book,

and editor of wallace's monthly,

TO WHOSE UNTIEING INDUSTRY AND LABORIOUS INVESTIGATION

EVERY ONE INTERESTED IN THE HISTORY OF

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE

IS GREATLY INDEBTED,

^\)is 5Storfe

IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

(Hi)

CONTENT S,

CHAPTER I.

EARLY HISTORY OP THE HORSE.

The Horse o.' Scripture — The Greek Horse — That of the Romans — The
Arab of Antiquity — Efiyptian, Libyan, Numidian, and Moorish Horses -
The original British Horse — Ancient methods of using the Horse . 13

CHAPTER n.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

Habits — External Form a? indicated by Points — Proportions — Maturity —
Average Age — Periodical Moulting — Mental Development — Small
Stomach 1(

CHAPTER III.

THE HORSES OF THE EAST.

The Barb — The Egyptian Horse — The Horses of Dongola and Abyssinia —
Other African Horses — The Modern Arab — The Persian Horse — The
Turkish Horse — Other Asiatic Horses — The Australian Horse . . 30

CHAPTER IV.

THE HORSES OP THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE.

The South American Horse— The Mustang — The Indian Pony— The Cana-
dian Horse — The Morgan Horse — The American Trotter — The Narragan-
set Pacer — The American Thorough-bred — The Vermont Cart-Horse —
The Oonestog« Draught-llorse . ... 45

(V)

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

THE THOROUGH-BRED H0i<8E.

Early Maturity — Objt.ct of Encouraging the Breed — Essentials in the
Thorough-bred — Purity of Blood — Externiil Formation — Height — Color
— Coat, Mane, and Tail 57

CHAPTER Vr.

ON THE LOCOMOTITE ACTION IN THE VARIOUS PACES.

Natural and Acquire! Paces — Distribution of Weight — Attitude assumed
in Standing — Mode of Progression — The Walk — Trot — Canter — Hand-
Oallop — Extended Gallop — The Amble — Racking, Pacing, and Running
— The Paces of the Manege — Leaping, or Jumping . . . .76

CHAPTER VII.

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE HORSE.

Theory of Generation — In-and-in Breeding — Out-Crossing, Advantages
and Disadvantages of each Plan — Causes of a "Hit" — Importance of
Health and Soundness in both Sire and Dam — Best Age to Breed from —
Influence of Sire and Dam respectively — Choice of Sire and Dam — The
kind of Horse most likely to be profitable to the Breeder — Concluding
Remarks on Breeding 99

CHAPTER VIII.

THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL.

The Hovel and Paddock — General Management of the Brood-Mare — Treat-
ment when in Foal — After Foaling — Early Management of the Foal —
Weanins: and After Treatment of the Foal 117

CHAPTER IX.

THE BREAKING OF THE COLT.

Rarey'g Principles and Practice — Ordinary English Method of Breaking for
the Saddle — Superiority of the Latter when properly carried out — Break-
ing to Harness ' . 128

CHAPTER X.

STABLES.

Situation and Aspect — Foundation? — Stalls and Loose Boxes — Hay Cham-
ber anvl Granary — Materials for Floors — Doors and Windows — Drainage

CONTENTS. Vll

P>08

and Water Supply— Ventilation and Lighting — Stable Fittings — Harness
Room — Coach-House — Servants' Rooms — Ground Plana of Stables —
Necessity for Airing New Stables ....... 155

CHAPTER XL

STABLE MANAGEMENT.

Theory and Practice of Feeding and Watering — Dressing or Grooming —
Clipping, Singeing, and Trimming — Use and Application of Bandages —
Management of the Feet — Daily Exercise — Proper Temperature of the
Stable — Remedies for Stable Vices and Bad Habits — Preparation for
Work — Ordinary Sweating — The Turkish Bath — Physic — Final Prepara-
tion— Treatment after Work — Summering — Care of Saddlery and Har-
ness 177

CHAPTER XII.

RIDING.

Mounting and Dismounting — The Seat — Management of the Reins — Modes
of Starting the Horse into his Various Paces — Riding to Hounds — Out-
door Vices and Bad Habits 21^0

CHAPTER XIIL

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS, AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKELETON.

Classification of the Various Organs — Structure of Bone— Of the Skeleton
in General — The Artificial Skeleton — Number of Bones composing the
Skeleton — General Anatomy of the Spinal Column — Of the Head and
Face — Of the Thoracic Arch and Anterior Extremities — Of the Pelvic
Arch and Hind Extremities — Of the Tail— Of the Fore and Hind Ex-
tremities considered as Organs of Support and Locomotion . . . 248

CHAPTER XIV,

THE TEETH.

CHAPTER XV.

OF THE JOINTS AND MUSCLE — THE TISSUES ENTERING INTO THEIR COMPOSITION.

The Joints — Cartilage — Fibrous Tissue— Physiology of Muscle . . , 266

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE THORAX.

Contents of tbe Thjrax — The Blood — General Plan of the Circulation —
The Veins — Physiology of Respiration 272

CHAPTER. XVII.

THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC VISCERA.

The Abdomen and its Contents — Physiology of Digestion — Structure of
Giands and Physiology of Secretion — Depuration, and its Oflnce in the
Animal Economy — The Stomach — The Intestines — Liver — Spleen — Pan-
creas— Kidneys — Pelvis — Bladder — Organs of Generation, Male and
Female 278

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE NERVES AND SPECIAL ORGANS.

The Nerves— The Organ of Smell— The Eye— The Ear— The Organ of
Touch— The Foot . . 28fl

CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISEASES AND INJURIES OF BONE.

General Remarks — Splints — Ringbone and Sidebone — Ossification of the
Lateral Cartilages — Bone Spavin — Exostosis of the Humerus and Scapula,
or Shoulder-Joint Lameness — Fistula of the Withers, or Thiselo— Poll
Evil — Caries of the Jaw — Osteo Sarcoma, or Big Head — Fractures . 297

CHAPTER XX.

INJURY AND DISEASES OF THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONS.

Diseases of Muscle, Tendon, and Ligament — Of Cartilage and Synovial
Membrane — Inflamed Tendinous Sheaths — Inflamed Bursae Mucosae —
Strains— Those of the Back and Loins— Of the Shoulder— Of the Knee
— Of the Fetlock— Of the Coffin Joint— Of the Suspensory Ligaments—
Of the Back-Sinews — Breaking Down — Strains of the Hip-Joint, Stifle,
and Hock — Curb — Dislocation — Wounds of Joints .... 311

CHAPTER XXL

EISEASES OF THE THORACIC ORWANR AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

General Remarks — Catarrh, or Cold — Influenza, or Distemper — Bronchitis
— Chronic Cough — Laryngitis, Roaring, Whistling, etc. — Pneumonia and

CONTENTS.

Congestion of the Lungs — Pleurisy — Pleuroflynia — Phthisip— Broken
Wind — Thick Wind — Spasm of the Diaphragm — Diseases of the Heart —
Diseases of the Blood Vessels in the Chest and Nose ....

CHAPTER XXII.

DISEASES OP THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

General Remarks — Diseases of the Mouth and Throat — Gastritis — Stomach
Staggers — Dyspepsia — Bots — Inflammation of the Bowels — Colic — Diar-
rhoea and Dysentery — Strangulation and Rupture — Calculi in the Bowels
— Worms — Disease of the Liver — Of the Kidneys — Of the Bladder — Of
the Organs of Generation 350

CHAPTER XXIIL

DISEASES OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Phrenitis, or Mad Staggers — Epilepsy and Convulsions — Megrims — Rabies,
Hydrophobia, or Madness — Tetanus, or Lock-jaw — Apoplexy and
Paralysis— String Halt — Coup de Soleil, or Sun-stroke .... 376

CHAPTER XXIV.

DISEASES AND INJURIES OF CERTAIN SPECIAL ORGANS.

Diseases of the Ear — Inflammation of the Eye — Cataract — Amaurosis —
Buck-eye — Surfeit — Hidebound — Mange — Lice — Mallenders and Sallen-
ders — Warbles, Sitfasts, and Harness-Galls — Grubs — Bites and Stings of
Insects— Swelled Legs — Chapped Heels — Grease, or Scratches— Warts
— Corns — Sanderack — False Quarter— Quittor — Thrush— Canker — La-
minitis — Seedy Toe — Contraction of the Foot — Navicular Disease — Acci-
dents to the Legs and Feet 383

CHAPTER XXV.

CONSTITUTIOHAI DISEASES.

Fevers— Ana.sarca — Glanders — Farcy 4^7

CHAPTER XXVI.

SHOEING.

CHAPTER XXVII.

OPERATIONS.

Administration of Chloroform— Methods of Confining the Horse— Bleeding
— Firing — Setons and Rowels — Blistering — Castration— Docking and
Nicking— Unnerving— Reduction of Hernia— Administration of Physio
—Clysters- Back-Raking 431

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE PRINCIPAL MEDICINES, AND THE DOSES IN WHICH THEY CAN SAFELY BE
ADMINISTERED.

PAGE

Alteratives — Anaesthetics — Anodynes — Antacids — Anthelmintics — Aperi-
ents — Astringents — Blisters — Caustics — Charges — Clysters — Cordials —
Demulcents — Diaphoretics — Digestives — Diuretics — Embrocations —
Emulsions — Expectorants — Febrifuges — Lotions — Narcotics — Refriger-
ants— Sedatives — Stimulants — Stomachics — Styptics — Tonics — Vermi-
fuges, or Worm Medicines ......... 447

CHAPTER XXIX.
On SorNDNESS, and on the PrncHASE and Sale of Horses . . . 463

What to do before the Veterinary Surgeon comes .... 469

The Percheron Horse 493

A Shout History of the American Trotting Horse .... 503

Tables of Trotting Performances 553

Tables of Pacing Performances 575

Table of Best Performances on the American Running Tikf . . 583

Essay on the American Trotting Horse, and Suggestions on the
Breeding and Training of Trotters 597

Pedigrees of Celebrated Trotting Horses 637

Index 657

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Goldsmith Maid and American Girl Frontispiece

Mambrino Pilot. From a painting by E. Troye 24

BODINE 50

Lexington. From a painting by E. Troye 66

English Cart-Horse 74

Edwin Forrest 86

Smuggler W^

Lady Thorne. From a photograph by ScnREiuF.B & Son 122

Hopeful. From a drawing by Edwin Forbes 156

George M. Patciien. From a drawing by T. C. Carpendale 184

Dexter. Fi-om a photograph by Eockwood 200

Skeleton of the Horse 251

dise.vses op the horse - 297

Section of the Abdomen and Pelvis, with Intestines and Liver

removed— Longitudinal Section of the Thorax 350

Lord Clyde 422

Ethan Allen. From a photograph by Schreiber & Son 409

Alene 493

Earus... .... 505

Lady Suffolk 514

Mac. From a drawing by Egbert Clarke 518

Goldsmith Maid. From a photograph by Schreiber & Son 528

Thomas Jefferson. From a photograph by Schreiber & Son 532

Flora Temple and Colt. From a photograph by Schreiber & Son 599

Hamblf.tonian. From a photograph by Schreiber & Son 610

GOLDDUST 620

PAGE

Points of the Horse 20

Oblique Shoulder 22

Upright Shoulder 22

Proportions of the various Points 27

The Godolphin Arabian 31

Chaban, an Arabian Stallion 35

The Canadian Horse 47

Conestoga Draught-Horse 56

Fisherman— AN English Thorough-bred 62

Saunterer— AN English Thorough-bred 64

Starting for the "Walk 80

Eeceived Interpretation of the Walk 81

Exceptional Mode of Starting 82

Action in the True Trot 88

The Canter 90

Eeceived Interpretation of the Gallop 91

Correct Yiew oi? the Gallop ••• 94

(xi)

Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Mare and Foal 125

Kauey's Leg-strap, No. 1 131

Rarey's Leg-strap, Ko. 2 i:i2

Cruiser with the Lei^strap and Surcingle on 1.32

Cruiser in the Power of his Master 133

The Horse bounding on his Hind Legs 134

The Horse on his Knees, about to fall on his Side 135

The Horse tamed 138

Rarey's Halter or Bridle for Colts 142

Door for Loose Box KU

Ventilating Windows 1G2

Section of Catch-pit 103

Iron-surface Gutter 1G5

Ventilating Shaft 167

Head of Shaft 167

The Hanging Bail 1G8

Iron Fittings for Stalls and Loose Box 172

Ground-plan op a Racing or Hunting Stable 171

Ground-plan of a Stable for Four or Five Horses 170

Bar-muzzle for Crib-biters 203

Remedy for tearing the Clothes 205

Ground-plan of a Turkish Bath for Horses 214

The Hunter turned out to Grass 220

Ready 230

Profile View of the Bones op the Head and Face 254

Section of Incisor 257

thkef.-year-old mouth 259

Mouth of the Colt at Four-and-a-half Years 260

Upper Nippers and Tushes at Five Years Old 261

Lower Nippers and Tushes at Five Years Old 262

Lower Nippers and Tushes of a Six-y'ear-old Horse 202

Upper Nippers in the Eight-veak-old House 263

Lower Nippers and Left Tush op a very old Horse, the Right having

FALLEN OUT 204

Sectional Plan op Thorax and its Contents (throughout its Girth-place) 272

General Plan of the Circulation 275

Section of the Parts entering into the Composition of the Foot and

THE Fetlock and Pastern-joints 291

The Hoof 292

Front View of the Foot, with the Hoof removed 202

The Under .Surface of the Foot 292

View of Vessels of the' Foot, injected 294

View of the Arteries of the Frog and Sole, injected 295

Group of Bots attached to the Stomach 356

Section op the Foot in confirmed Laminitis 405

A Sound Fore Foot prepared for the Shoe 425

Shoeing 427

Seton Needles, One-quarter Size 438

Clams lined with Vulcanized India-rubber 441

The Fcraseur 443

Docking-knife 443

The Horse.

CHAPTER I.
EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

The Horse of Scripture— The Greek Horse— That of the Romans
— The Arab of Antiquity— Egyptian, Libyan, Numidian, and
Moorish Horses— The original British Horse— Ancient methods
oj using the Horse.

THE HORSE OF SCRIPTURE.
IHE EARLIEST RECORD of the Horse which we possess
is ill the Old Testament, where we first find him infer-
entially mentioned in the thirty-sixth chapter of Gen-
esis, as existing in the wilderness of Idumea about
the beginning of the sixteenth century before Christ.
Many commentators, however, render the word which is translated
" mules" in our version, as " waters," and thus a doubt is thrown
upon the correctness of the inference which is thence drawn.
Moreover, in the thirty-second chapter of Genesis, camels, goats,
Bheep, cattle and asses are all severally alluded to, but no horses ;
eo that it is highly probable that in the time of Jacob, whose de-
parture from Laban is there narrated, horses were unknown to the
Israelites. It was not until after their arrival in Egypt that the
Qorse is clearly alluded to. Jacob, on his deathbed, leaves us no
room to doubt his knowledge of the horse, and of its being domes-
ticated, for he speaks of the " horse and his rider" in the same
sentence. We need, therefore, go no further for a proof of the
early existence of this animal in Egypt, and may assume that
there were large numbers of them there, for Pharaoh is recorded
to have taKen " six hundred chosen chariots, and all the horses,"
to pursue the Israelites to the Red Sea. It is generally supposed
from the omission of all mention of horses while the Israelites
were in Arabia, that this country, which has since become so cele-
brated for them, was at that time entirely without them. The
proof, however, is entirely of a negative character, though I con-
ies that it is as strong as any of that naiure can well be. Indeed,
2 (13)

14 THE HORSE.

BIX hundred years later, Arabia could not have been remarkable in
an)' way for her horses, for Solomon, while he resorted to her for
silver and gold, mounted his cavalry fi-om Egypt. Yet the latter
country could scarcely be the native land of the Horse, not pos-
sessing the extensive plains which are peculiarly suited to his ex-
istence in a wild state, and it is considered probable that he wa9
introduced from the central regions of Africa, which are undoubt-
edly the native plains of the Quagga, the Zebra, and somr, other
congeners of the Horse ; but where, curiously enough, he is not
now found in a wild state. Thence he would naturally ir:.d hi&
way into Egypt, and through Arabia to Persia, Tartary anu Greece
ultimately reaching Great Britain ; but in what century he wa?
introduced there we are quite at a loss to conjecture.

THE GREEK HORSE.

Of the precise form of the Horse of Scripture we have no
account, beyond the glowing language of Job, which will apply to
almoGt any variety possessing the average spirit of the species.
The horse of the Greeks is far better known, being handed down
to us in the writings of Xenophon, and preserved in the marble
friezes of the Parthenon, which are now removed to our own Na-
tional Museum. The above Greek writer, in giving his advice on
the purchase of a horse, says, " On examining the feet, it is befit-
ting first to look to the horny portion of the hoofs, for those horses
which have the horn thick are far superior in their feet to those
which have it tnin. Nor will it be well, if one fail next to observe
whether the hoofs be upright both before and behind, or low and
flat to the ground ; for high hoofs keep the frog at a distance from
the earth, while the flat tread with equal pressure on the soft and
hard parts of the foot, as is the case with bandy-legged men. And
Simon justly observes that well-footed horses can be known by the
bound of their tramp, for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal when
it strikes the solid earth. But having begun from below, let us
ascend to the other parts of the body. It is needful then, thai
the parts above the hoof and below the fetlocks be not too erect
like those of the goat, for legs of this kind being stifi" and inflex-
ible, are apt to jar the rider, and are more liable to inflammation.
The bones n)ust not, however, be too low and springy, for in that
case, the fetlccks are liable to be abraded and wounded, if the
horse be gallopped over clods or stones. The bones of the shanks
should be thick, for these are the columns which support the body,
but they should not have the veins and flesh thick likewise j foj
if they have, when the horse shall be gallopped in difiicult ground,
they will necessarily be filled with blood, and will become varicose,
80 that the shanks will br thickened, and the skin be distended
and relaxed from the bone ; and when this is the case, it often

THE aRESK HORSE. 15

loUows that the back siuew gives vay and renders the horse lame.
But if the horse, whan in action, bend hi? knees flexibly at a walk,
you may judge that he will have his legs flexible when in full
canter ; for all horses as they increase in years increase in the flex-
ibility of the knee. And flexible goers are esteemed highly, and
with justice, for such horses are much less liable to blunder or to
stumble than those which have rigid, unbending joints. But if
the arms below the shoulder-blades be thick and muscular, they
appear stronger and handsomer, as is the case also with a man
The breast also should be broad, as well for beauty as for strength,
and because it causes a handsomer action of the fore-legs, which
do not then interfere, but are carried wide apart. And again, the
neck ought not to be set on like that of a boar, horizontally from the
chest, but like that of a game-cock, should be upright towards the
crest, and slack towards the flexure ; and the head, being long,
should have a small and narrow jaw-bone, so that the neck shall be
in front of the rider, and that the eye shall look down on what is
before the feet. A horse thus made will be the least likely to run
violently away, even if he be very high-spirited, for horses do not
attempt to run away by bringing in, but by thrusting out, their
heads and necks. It is also very necessary to observe whether the
mouth be fine or hard on both sides, or on one or the other. For
horses which have not both jaws equally sensitive, are likely to be
hard-mouthed on one side or the other. And it is better that a
horse should have prominent than hollow eyes, for such a one will
see to a greater distance. And widely-opened nostrils are far
better for respiration than narrow, and they give the horse a fiercei
aspect; for when one stallion is enraged against another, or if he
become angry while being ridden, he expands his nostrils to their
full width. And the loftier the crest, and smaller the ears, the
more horse-like and handsome is the head rendered ; while lofty
withers give the rider a surer seat and produce a firmer adhesion
between the body and shoulder. A double loin is also softer to sit
upon, and pleasanter to look at, than if it be single; and a deep
side, rounded toward the belly, renders the horse easier to sit, and
stronger, and more easy to keep in condition. The shorter and
broader the loin, the more easily will the horse raise his fore-
quarters and collect his hind-quarters under him in going. These
points, moreover, cause the belly to appear the smaller ; which, if
it be large, at once injures the appearance of the animal, and ren-
ders him weaker and less manageable. The quarters should be
broad and fleshy, in order to correspond with the sides and chest)
and, should they be entirely firm and solid, they would be the
lighter in the gallop, and the horse would be the speedier. But
if he should have his buttocks separated under the tail by a broad
line, he will bring his hind legs under him with a wider space be-

16 THE HORSE.

tween them, and, so doiug, he will have a prouder and str./nger
gait and action, and will in all respects be the better on them."

Here we have described, in most exact terms, a cobby but spirited
and corky horse, with a light and somewhat peculiar carriage of
the head and neck, just as we see represented in the Elgin aarbles.

THE ROMAN HORSE.

Of the Roman Horse we know far less than of that of the
G-reeks ; but the fact of its inferiority to those of the surrounding
nations is established, for no sooner were they brought into col
lision with the cavalry of Macedonia and Epirus than they suc-
cumbed. This could only be owing to the quadruped, for the
Roman foot-soldier was still unmatched. Caesar depended for his
cavalry upon Gallic horses, which were able to ride down the Ro
man horses of his rival Pompey without the slightest difficulty.
So also Crassus was unable to make head in Asia against the Par-
thian horse ; and from his day until British horses were trans-
ported to Oriental soil, the superiority of Asiatic horses remained
undisputed.

THE ARAB OF ANTIQUITY.

The Arab op the present day is said by his countrymen to
be the same in form, in courage, and in endurance, with the horse
which existed in Arabia before the time of Christ. I have shown
that there is every reason to believe that the Israelites who dwelt
in Arabia had no horses in the time of Jacob, and therefore it is
scarcely likely that this variety could have arrived at its present
state of excellence much before the commencement of the Chris-
tian era. But beyond the traditional accounts which are preserved
in the various tribes, there is no means of arriving at the truth,
and they are to be regarded with considerable suspicion. Buffon
comes to the conclusion, nevertheless, that Arabia is the birthplace
of this animal, and his opinions are followed by a host of subse-
quent writers ; but I have already given the reasons for the con-
trary conclusion. The dry nature of the country, and the scanti-
ness of herbage, show that in a wild state the horse could hardly
exist there, and that it is only by the care and superintendence of
naan that the Arabian horse has become so famous.

EGYPTIAN, LIBYAN, NUMIDIAN, AND MOORISH HORSES.

The Egyptian Horse is handed down to us on some of the
sculptures found in the ruins of Nineveh ; the carvings of which
are in a high state of preservation, and are very elaborate and
Bpirited. Even the superficial veins are carefully rendered ; and
hence we may place some reliarce upon the fidelity of the por-
traiture. In all these bas-reliefs the animal is represented with f

ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE. IT

large and coarse head, a high crest, and a heavy, lumbering body,
not very dissimilar to the Flemish horse of the nineteenth century.
Of the Libyan, Numidian, and Moorish horses, which are
alluded to by classic writers, we know little beyond the cursory
description of ^lian, who says that they were slenderly made,
and carried no flesh.

THE ORIGINAL BRITISH HORSE.

The nature of the original stock which formed the found-
ation of the modern European horse is extremely doubtful. In
Grreat Britain horses' bones are found in caves which are of ex-
treme antiquity, but they do not define with any certainty the
form of the original British horse, nor can we, with certainty,
arrive at the exact era at which the animals to which they be-
longed lived and died. It is, however, an ascertained "fact that
when the Romans invaded Great Britain they found the people in
possession of horses, and using them for their chariots as well as
for the purposes of riding. After the irruption of the Goths, and
the commencement of the dark ages, we have no reliable history
to guide us, and we are left to grope in the dark from the fourth
century, when Vegetius wrote on the veterinary art, until the
time of the Stuarts, when attention was first paid to the improve-
ment of the breed of horses in this country.

ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE.

The mode of using the horse adopted by the ancients was at
first by harnessing him to a rude chariot, without springs. In
course of time, the grooms who took care of him found that they
could manage him while on his back without the aid of the saddle
and bridle, which are comparatively modern inventions. Hence,
we see the horse represented in the Elgin marbles as ridden with-
out either the one or the other ; and there is also abundant written
testimony in support of this mode of equitation being practised by
the early Greeks. This ingenious people, however, invented the
snaffle-bridle, and both rode and drove with its aid, after the estab-
lishment of the Olympian games, in which chariot races formed an
essential feature. The curb-bit was invented by the Romans, or,
at all events, was first used by them ; but both that people and the
Greeks were ignorant of the use of the stirrup, and either vaulted
on their horses, or used the back of a slave as a stepping-stone, or
sometimes had recourse to a short ladder for the purpose. The
earliest period when it can be proved that the stirrup was in use
was in the time of the Norman invasion of this country. The
incidents of this event in history were recorded on the Bayeux
tapestry by the wife of William the Conqueror, and on this the
stirruj. was depicted, according to the authority of Berenger, as a
2* B

18 THE HORSE.

part of the trappings or the horse. Shoeing was not practised by
either the Greeks or Romans, and only in cases of lameness waa
the foot defended by a sandal, which, however, was sometimes
tipped with iron.

Until some time after the installation of the Olympian
Games the use of the horse was confined to war and the chase.
These games were held every four years, and are supposed to have
commenced about 774 years before Christ, and as it was not until
the twenty-third Olympiad that the horse was introduced in the
arena, the birth of horse-racing may be fixed at about the year 680
B.C. At first the horses were ridden, and the distance was about
four miles, but in the twenty-fifth Olympiad the chariot was intro-
duced, and after this time became the prevailing instrument of
testing the speed and powers of the Grecian horse. Here, also,
the distance was about four miles, but as a pillar was to be rounded
several times, the race depended quite as much on the skill of the
charioteer as on the qualities of his horses.

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

Habits — External Form as indicated by Points — Proportions — Ma
turity — Average Age — Periodical Moulting — Mental Develop
ment — Small Stomach.

HABITS.

The Habits of the horse in a wild or free state, are similar to
those of most of the gregarious and graminivorous animals. That
is to say, he places his salety in fiight ; but when compelled to make
a stand against any of the larger carnivora, he fights strongly with
his heels and teeth. In all countries he feeds upon grass (green,
or dried as hay), straw, or grain ; in addition to which articles may
be placed camel's milk, which is used occasionally in the deserts
of Arabia, when the usual supply of f )od is altogether deficient.
In a free state, where the horse has to travel far for his food, he
becomes inured to fatigue, and is able to make long journeys, with-
out the training which the domesticated animal requires. Thus
the South American and Californian horses, immediately after
being taken with the lasso, are able to carry their riders for sixty
or seventy miles on end at a fast pace, suff"ering, of course, from
the unaccustomed pressure of the saddle, but not otherwise the
worse for their exertions. The walk and gallop are the only na-
tural paces of the wild horse ; the trot and canter being acquired,

EXTERNAL FORM. 19

tliougli to some extent exhibited by the domesticated horse before
breaking, and evidently the result of the tendency which is always
displayed to hand down from one generation to another habits
which are not natural to the species.

EXTERNAL FORM, AS INDICATED BY POINTS.

The anatomy of this animal will form the subject of a special
division of this book, but the external form may now be discussed
with propriety. By horsemen in general this is considered under
certain subdivisions, which are called " points," and which are
severally represented by figures in the outline on the following page.

The relative proportions of, and exact shape desirable in,
each of these points, vary considerably in the several breeds.
Thus, when speed and activity are essential, an oblique shoulder-
blade is a sine qicd non ; while for heavy harness it can scarcely
be too upright, enabling the pressure of the collar to be more easily
borne, and allowing the animal to exert his strength at right an-
gles to its long axis. Many men are good judges of hunters and
hacks, but are almost wholly ignorant of the qualities desirable in
a coach or cart-horse. There are some elements, however, which
are wanted in any horse, such as big hocks and knees, flat legs
with large sinews, open jaws and full nostrils. It will, therefore,
be necessary to describe the points of each breed ; but I shall here
give those which are always to be attended to as being of import-
ance in any kind, whether used for racing or hunting, for the road
or for agricultural purposes.

Taking first the head : — It should be known that the vo-
lume of brain contained within it determines the courage and
other mental qualities of the individual. Now as, cseteris paribus,
size is power, so without a wide forehead (which part marks the
seat of the brain) you cannot expect a full development of those
faculties known as courage, tractability, good temper, &c. The
size of the muzzle is partly regarded as an element of beauty, and
partly as a sign of high breeding. Hence, in the cart-horse, a
coarse jaw and thick muzzle are not regarded. A large and patent
nostril cannot be dispensed with in horses intended for fest work,
and should be desired even in the cart-horse, for in drawing heavy
loads on a hot day, his breathing may be rendered almost as labo-
rious as that of the highly-tasked racehorse or hunter. So also
with the jaw, if there is not ample width between the two sides for
the development and play of the larynx and windpipe, the wind is
sure to be affected, and, in addition, the head cannot be nicely
bent on the neck. A defect in this last point is the usual cause
of that straight and inelegant setting on of the head which is sc
common, and which the practised horseman avoids, as alike un-
sightly and prejudicial to the wind and the mouth ; for a horse

IHE HOBSE.

POIKTS OP THE HORSE.

1. Muzzle.

2. Nostril.

24.

3. Forehead.

4. Jaw.

25.

5. Poll.

26.

NECK.

27.

6. 6. Crest.

28.

7. Thropple or windpip*

29.
30.

FORE-QUARTEB.

8. 8. Shoulder-blade.

9. Point of Bhoulder.

10. Bosom or breast.

31.

11. 11. True-arm.

12. Elbow.

82.

13. Focearm (arm).

33.
34.

35.
36.
37.

38.

14. Knee.

15. Cannon-bone.

16. Back sinew.

17. Fetlock or pastern-joint.

18. Coronet.

19. Hoof or foot.

20. Heel.

40.
41.
42.

BODY 0» MIDDLEPIECB.

21. Withers.

43.

22. Back.

44.

23. Ribs (forming together the bar-

rel or chest).

24. The circumference of the chest

at this point, called the girth
The loins.
The croup.
The hip.
The flank.
The sheath.
The root of the dock or tail.

THE HIND-QUARTEE.

The hip-joint, round, or whi: I'k)""

The stifle-joint.

33. Lower thigh or gaskin

The quarters.

The hock.

The point of the hock.

The curb place.

The caunon-bone.

The back sinew.

Pastern or fetlock-in<'>*

Coronet.

Foot or hoof.

Heel.

Spavin-place.

POINTS OF THE HORSE. 21

which cannot give way to the pressure of the bit is sure to become
dull in his mouth, and therefore unpleasant to ride or drive. The
eye is to be examined with a twofold purpose, firstly, as an index
of the temper, the nature of which is marked by the expression
of this organ ; and secondly, in reference to its present state of
soundness, and the probability of its continuing healthy. A full
and clear eye, with soft, gazelle-like expression, is scarcely ever
associated with a bad temper, and will most frequently continue
sound, if the management of the horse to which it belongs is
proper in itself. The ear should be of medium size, not too small,
nor too large, nor should it be lopped, though many good lop-eared
horses have been known, and some very superior breeds, like that
of the celebrated Melbourne, are notorious for this defect.

The Neck should be of moderate length, all beyond a certain
dimension being waste, and even a moderate-sized head at the end
of an extremely long lever being too much for the muscles to sup-
port. It should come out full and muscular, with a sweep between
the withers and the bosom, and should gradually diminish till it
runs into the head, with an elegan< bend just behind the ear. A
very narrow throat suddenly bent at the upper part, marked as the
thropple, is apt to be connected with roaring, and on that account
is objected to by horsemen.

In the Fore-quarters, there are several points to be atten-
tively examined, and among these, the shoulder is regarded as of
most consequence, when the horse under consideration is intended
for the saddle. It is evident that, unless there is length of the
blade, and also of the true arm, there cannot be a full surface for
the attachment and play of the muscles, nor can there be the same
amount of spring to take off the jar which follows each footfall.
The straighter the angle formed by the long axis of each of these
bones, the less spring there will be. So, also, if the angle is not
sufficient, the muscles of the shoulder-blade will not thrust forward
the true arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently clotncu with
muscles (without being loaded) to act on the fore-arm, commonly
known by the horseman as the arm. Hence it is found, that with
an upright shoulder, not only is the stride in all the paces short
and the action stumpy, but there is not that elastic movement
which enables the horse to carry his body along rapidly and evenly,
without rising alternately behind and before, and thereby jarring
himself or his rider. On the other hand, the upright shoulder,
loaded with a thick mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-horse,
and to a certain extent also, in the carriage-horse, in both of which
the pressure of the collar requires a steady and comparatively
motionless surface to bear it. The difference between the two
extremes of oblique and upright shoulders is well illustrated in
the accompany'ng woodcut, in which it will be seen that in the

22

THE HORSE.

former the angle between the blade (a) ani the true arm (b) is
very considerable, while in the latter it is much less. Hence it
results.^ that when the muscles of the blade bring the axis of the
arm into nearly the same line with its own axis, the forearm (e) in
the oblique shoulder will be thrust forward and raised to a greater
degree than in the upright formation, as is shown in the engraving
in the parts r(!presiented by dotted lines (d e). It follows, there-

OBLIQUE SriOULDEB.

JPRIOnT 8H0DLDEE.

tore, that horses intended to have high, and at the same time for-
ward action, should have oblique shoulders, for without them they
will almost to a certainty either have very mean and low action,
or, if they do bend their knees, they will put their feet down
again nearly on the same place as they took them from, which pe-
culiarity we so often see displayed in the cart breed, or tho6S
nearly allied to it. This is one of the most important uses of the
obliquity of the shoulder-blade as it seems to me, and one which
has not been generally admitted by writers on this branch of the
Bubject, though all are ready to admit that in some way or other
this formation is essential to good action. Another reason for the
obliquity of the shoulder in the riding-horse, is that without it the
saddle is not kept back in its proper place, and the horseman's
weight being thus thrown too forward, the action of the fore-
quarter is impeded. Mere obliquity, however, is not sufficient for
this purpose ; for, '"ithout a proper development of muscle, the
blade itself will nor, keep the saddle in its place. If, therefore,

POINTS OF THE IIOKSE. 23

there is a hollow just behind the top of the blade, eveu if this i»
slanting enough, you must expect the saddle to slip forward, and
should, in all doubtful cases, be careful to put one on before con*
eluding a purchase. The point of the shoulder should be well
developed, but not showing any rough protuberances, which are
equally objectionable with a flat or ill-developed point. The length
■)f the true arm is mainly dependent upon that of the blade ; but
sometimes, when this is oblique enough, the true arm is short and
upright, and the elbow stands under, or only a little behind, the
shoulder point. This is a very faulty conformation, and is seldom
attended with good action. The chief defect in the elbow is seen
when it turns inwards, and rubs so closely against the ribs that the
finger can hardly be insinuated between them and it. Here the
elbow is said to be tied or confined, and the horse is very apt to
turn his toes out; while the opposite formation is indicated by
turned-in, or " pigeon" toes, and turned-out elbows, frequently
accompanying long-standing rheumatism of the shoulders. It
does sometimes happen, however, that the toes are turned in or
out without affecting the elbow, but this is an exception to the
rule. A long and muscular fore-arm is a sure accompaniment of
strong and sweeping action, and should be carefully prized; in
other respects there is little to be noted here. Next comes the
knee, which should be broad, and when looked at from the front
should be much wider than the limb above and below. It should
taper off backwards to a comparatively thin edge, and should have
a good development of the pisiform bone, which projects back-
wards at its upper part. The leg, immediately below the knee,
should be as large as any other part, and not " tied in" there,
which indicates a weakness of this part. A bending of the knee
backwards is called a " calf-knee," and is not objected to in cart-
horses, in which it is by no means uncommon ; but it is very apt
to lead to strains of this joint in the racehorse or hunter. A knee
naturally bending somewhat forward is much preferred by good
judges, though, when it is the result of over-work, it is almost
equally to be avoided with the calf-knee. Flat, and at the same
time large, cannon-bones, without gumminess, are of great impcit-
ance, and if attended with a full-sized suspensory ligament, and
with strong, clean, and free back sinews, the leg is to be considered
faultless. The fetlock-joint should be of good size and clean,
whilst the pasterns should form an angle with the ground, of be-
tween forty-five and sixty degrees. Lastly, the foot should be well
formed ; but the construction of this part being hereafter more
fully described, 1 shall omit its consideration here.

In the Middlepiece the withers come first under notice. It
is usual to desire them high and thin, but they are very commorly
too much developed, and if the b )ny processes stand up like the
edge of a razor, without muscle OB them, they are to be regarded

24 THE HORSE.

as objectionable ratber tban otherwise. Tbe inexperienced horse-
man is apt to consider the existence of high withers as a sure sign
that the saddle will be carried well back, but there are some horees
whose withers are the greatest annoyance to the rider, for having
upright and short shoulder-blades, together with high withers, the
saddle rides forward upon the latter, and chafes them in spite of
all the padding which can be introduced. In looking at this point,
T believe the purchaser should almost entirely disregard it, except-
ing to take care that it is not too high for the formation and posi-
tion of the shoulder-blades. If these are long, and therefore
slanting, and especially if in addition to a proper position of the
bones they are furnished with plenty of muscle, the withers may
be disregarded, and the action may be expected to be good even if
they are so low as to show no rise between the neck and the back.

The volume of the chest is the measure not only of the capacity
of the lungs, but of that of the large organs of digestion. Hence,
unless there is a middlepiece of proper size, the wind is seldom
good, and the stamina of the individual will scarcely ever be suffi-
cient to beai hard work. But there is a limit to the development
of this part in those breeds which are required to move with much
velocity, where weight is a great object; and if the body of the
racehorse or hunter was as heavy as that of the drayhorse, the
speed would be greatly reduced, and tho legs would give way
during the first severe gallop. So also, a wide chest interferes
with the free and rapid action of the shoulders and arms as they
glide on the ribs ; and an open bosom is almost always fatal to high
speed. In the racehorse and hunter, therefore, capacity of chest
must be obtained by depth rather than width ; while in the cart-
horse, a wide chest and a frame roomy in all directions is desired,
so as to give good wind, and, at the same time, enable the animal
to keep up his flesh while working eight or nine hours per day.
For light, quick draught, a formation intermediate between the two
is the proper one; the large frame of the cart-horse being too heavy
for the legs to bear at a fast pace, and leading to their rapid de-
struction in trotting over our modern hard roads. The capacity
of the lungs is marked by the size of the chest at the girth; but
the stamina will depend upon the depth of the back ribs, which
should be especially attended to.

A SHORT BACK, with plenty of ground covered nevertheless, is
the desideratum of every practised horseman. Unless the mea-
surement from the shoulder point to the back of the quarters is
somewhat greater than the height at the withers, the action is
confined, especially in the gallop, for the hind legs cannot be
brought sufficiently forward on account of the interference of the
fore-quarter; and, indeed, from the want of play in the back, they
are generally too much crippled in that respect. A horse " slwrt
above and long be':>w" is the perfection of shape in this particular.

POINTS OF THE HORSE. 25

but he is not very commonly met with. Where length below is
seen, there i; generally too much space between the last rib and
the hip, while, on the other hand, coupled with a short back, we
too often see the legs all "jumped up together," and the action
short and stumpy. Next to these points in the middlepiece it ia
important to pay attention to the upper line of the back, which
should bend down a little behind the withers, and then swell out
very gently to the junction with the loins, which can hardly be
too wide and muscular. The inexperienced eye will often be
deceived by the hips, for if these are narrow the muscles rise above
them, and make the loin and back look stronger than they really
are, the contrary being the case where the hips are wide and
ragged. This latter formation, though not so elegant as the level
hip, is prized by th^ man who wishes to be carried well to hounds,
and he will jump at a horse which would be passed over with con-
tempt by the tyro as " a great raw-boned brute." A slightly-arched
loin is essential to the power of car-rying weight ; a much-arched,
or " hog" back, is almost sure to give uneasy action from its want
of elasticity.

In examining the hind-quarter, so much depends upon the
breed, and the purposes to which the animal is to be put, that only
a few general remarks can be given. Thus, for high speed, there
should be plenty of length in the two bones which unite at the
stifle-joint, without which the stride must be more or less limited
in extent. The exact position of the hip-joint not being easily
detected, the tyro has some difl&culty in estimating the length from
it to the stifle-joint, but he can readily measure the length from
the root of the tail, either with his eye or with a tape, if he cannot
depend upon his organ of sight. In a flat outline this will come
to twenty-four inches in a horse of fifteen hands three inches, but
measured round the surface it will be two inches more. Again,
the lower thigh, or gaskin, should be of about the same length ; but
if measured from the stifle to the point of the hock, it will be fully
twenty-eight inches in a well-made horse of high breeding. These
measurements, however, will be much greater in proportion than
those of the cart-horse, who requires strength before all things,
and whose stride is of no consequence whatever. In him, the
length of the upper, or true thigh is generally as great as that of the
thoroughbred, but the lower thigh, is much shorter, and the horse
stands with a much straighter hind leg, and consequently with his
hocks making a very slight angle. Muscular quarters and gaskin.<
are desirable in all breeds ; for without strong propellers, no kind
of work to which the horse is put can be duly performed. The
judge of a horse generally likes to look at the quarters behind, so
as to get a good view of their volume, and unless they come close
together, and leave -^t hollow helow the anus, he suspects that
3

26 THE HORSE,

there is a want of constitution, and rejects the animal on chat
account. But not only are muscles of full size required, but there
must be strong joints to bear the strain which these exert, and one
of the most important of all the points of the horse is the hock.
This should be of good size, but clean and flat, without any gum-
miness or thoroughpins, and with a good clean point standing clear
of the rest of the joint; the " curby place" and the situation of
spavin should be free from enlargement ; but to detect these dis-
eases a considerable amount of practice is required. Lastly, the
hocks should be well let down, which depends upon the length of
the thigh, and insures a short cannon-bone. The pasterns and
feet should be formed in correspondence with those of the fore
extremity, to which I have already alluded.

Such are the recognised points to be desired in the horse; but in
spite of the general opinion of good judges being in favor of them,
as I have described, no one can predicate with certainty that a horse
possessing them all in perfection will have a corresponding degree
of action out of doors. No one who has bought many horses will
be content with an inspection in the stable, even if the light is as
good as that of the open air, for he well knows that there is often
a vast difference between the estimate of the value of a horse Avhich
he forms indoors and out. Much of this depends upon the temper
of the individual, for if he is dull and heavy he will not " make a
good show," though still he may be capable of being sufficiently
excited by hounds, and many such horses are invaluable hunters.
Independently, however, of this element, it will be sometimes found
that the frame which looks nearly perfectly symmetrical while at
rest, becomes awkward and comparatively unsightly while in mo-
tion; and the horse which is expected to move well will often be
sent back to his stall with " That will do, thank you," after a
single run.

PROPORTIONS OF THE VARIOUS POINTS.

The proportions of the component parts of the horse, as I havo
already remarked, vary a good deal in the different breeds. The
following, however, may be taken as the most perfect; but they
refer especially to the racer, hunter, and hack, as well as to the
lighter and more blood-like harness horses, and must not be strictly
applied to the draught-horse in any of his varieties : —

This scale is drawn in inches, and, in the outline, the horse ia
supposed to be fifteen hands three inches, or sixty-three inches
high. The measurements are the average of those carefully taken
from six horses considered to be of perfect symmetry. Two of
these were celebrated stallions, two thoroughbred hunters, and two
chargers of greai value.

PROPORTIONS OF VARIOUS POINTS.

27

Height at withers and croup ....

Length from shoulder-point to quarter

From the lowest part of chest to the
ground

From the elbow-point to the ground .

From the withers to the pole, just be-
hind the ears, in a straight line . .

The same measured along the crest .

Length of head

Width across the forehead

From the withers to the hip .... 22
From the stifle to the point of the

hock, in the attitude Shown in the

plan 28

From the root of tail to stifle-joint . 26
From the point of the hock to the

ground 225

Length of arm from the elbow to the

pisiform-bone 19J

From the pisiform-bone to the ground 19J

Girth varies from 76 to 79.

Circumference of fore cannon-bone, 7i, 8, 8, 8, 8J, and 9 inches.

Circumference of arm just below the elbow, 16i to 18 inches.

On comparing these measurements with those of Eclipse, as
recorded by St. Bel, it will appear that there is some considerable
variation from those of that celebrated horse, which he is said to
have measured during life, and to have also checked his dimensions
after death. Thus, though Eclipse was very low before, and yet
was sixty-six inches high, his head was twenty-two inches long,
being the same as the average length of the six horses given by
myself, though they are three, inches lower at the withers, and at
least five inches lower at the croup. Again, though thus shown
to be particularly short, it must have been of extraordinary width ;
for, according to the same authority, it measured one foot across
helow the eyes ; I at, as Mr. Perciv ill remarks, this must be a
mistake for above the eyes. Indeed, I cannot help thinking, in

28 THE HORSE.

accordance with the opinions of the above distit^uished English
veterinarian, that in other respects "there appears some discord-
ance in his admeasurements" of Eclipse. Nevertheless, it may
safely be assumed, according to Mr. Percivall's summing up, that
" he was a big horse in every sense of the word ; he was tall in
stature, lengthy and capacious in body, and large in his limbs.
For a big horse his head was small, and partook of the Arabian
character. His neck was unusually long. His shoulder waa
strong, sufficiently oblique, and' though not remarkable for, not
deficient in, depth. His chest was circulai. He rose very little
in his withers, being higher behind than before. His back was
lengthy, and over the loins reached. His quarters were straight,
square, and extended. His limbs were lengthy and broad, and
his joints large, in particular his arms and thighs were long and
muscular, and his knees and hocks broad and well formed."

The scale which I have given likewise differs in many particulars,
though only slightly, from that which is usually found in treatises
on the horse; but I have preferred trusting to Nature herself
rather than to the observations of previous writers, which may be
consulted by the reader at any time.

MATURITY.

The horse completes his dentition at five years old, when
he may be said to be mature. At eight or nine years the lower
teeth lose their marks, or black concavities, after which there is no
reliable evidence of age, which can, however, be tolerably accurately
guessed at from the length of the front teeth or nippers, and from
the general appearance of the horse, especially about the eyes, as
will be hereafter shown.

Mares are very commonly allowed to breed in their
third year, being put to the horse as two year olds. They often,
however, come "in season" as yearlings, and many would then
breed if allowed to be covered. It is found by experience that the
foal robs the dam of some part of the nourishment which is destined
by nature to develop the maternal frame, and hence the young
mare is injured in size and substance if she breeds before she has
come very near to maturity.

AVERAGE AGE.

The average age of the horse, when allowed to live without
the risk of accidents and disease which he incurs in his usual work,
ie about twenty-five years. Instances of greater longevity are
recorded on good authority, and there is reason to believe that
occasionally he has reached to thirty-five or even forty years, but
these are rare exceptions, and there are few which live beyond the
twenty-eighth year, while a large proportion die before the twenty-
fifth. Stallions are over-fed and under-exercised in proportion, so

MOULTING— MENTAL DEVELOPMENT— STOMACH. 29

that it is no wonder they become diseased, and seldom die from
old age; but brood-mares are not so mismanaged, and it is found
that they become quite worn out soon after their twentieth year ;
and even if allowed to live they waste away and die by degrees,
generally somewhere between their twenty-third and twenty-eighth
year.

PERIODICAL MOULTING.

The horse sheds his coat once a year in all countries, and
in our climate a second half-moult is performed in the autumn,
when the summer short coat is partially shed. This second change
consists, however, chiefly in a growth of the already existing hairs,
which become coarser and longer, especially about the legs and
under-parts of the body. At the same time the coat loses its gloss,
and the color is less rich, blacks becoming rusty brown, and bays
more yellow or sandy-colored than before. The hair of the mane
and tail is constantly in a state of growth, and is not shed period-
ically.

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.

. In mental development the horse ranks below the dog, but
he is capable of a considerable degree of education, though in
countries where he is kept constantly confined he does not appear
to great advantage in this respect. That he may be made to
understand what is said to him is clear enough from the mode of
managing farm-horses, which are all taught to obey tbe voice. I
have on one occasion seen a circus-horse walk, trot, and gallop at
the word of command, and change his paces on the instant; but
this feat I have never known performed by any other exhibitor,
nor do I think it would easily be imitated. It requires a high
order of intellect to distinguish between the three paces and
change them on the instant, and if I had not myself witnessed the
performance on two several occasions I should scarcely have cred-
ited it. The brain of this animal does not require much rest by
sleep, and four or five hours in quiet are sufficient to keep him in
health if he is not very hard worked. He readily sleeps standing,
and some individuals never lie down ; but this habit of sleeping
standing should not be encouraged, as it greatly distresses the legs,
and tends to produce fever of the feet, or some other mischief in
the lower extremities.

SMALL STOMACH.
One op the greatest peculiarities in the structure of the
horse is the small size of his stomach, which is also of a very
simple nature. He is likewise without a gall bladder, showing
that the digestion must be continuous and not interrupted by dis-
tinct intervals, as in the ruminants and carnivora. Nature has
thus framed this animal in order that he may be at all times able
2*

30 THE HORSE.

to exert his utmost speed, which he could not do with the mass of
provender in his stomach which is carried by the cow or sheep.
The same provision is shown in the udder of the mare, which is
not larger than that of the goat or sheep.

All these several characteristics of the horse will be more mi-
nutely considered under the different heads to which they each
belong ; bu*^ they are here grouped together to give a better general
idea of the animal which is under examination. '

CHAPTER III.

THE HORSES OP THE EAST.

rhe Barb -The Egyptian Horse — The Horses of Dongola and
Abyssinia — Other African Horses — The Modern Arab — Tht
Persian Horse — The Turkish Horse — Other Asiatic Horses—
The Australian Horse.

For the following descriptions of Oriental varieties of
the horse I am indebted to the accounts of travellers, having only
seen one or two of them, and those only as single specimens, with
the exception of the Arab.

THE BARB.

This kind is named after the country in which it is found,
which is rather an extensive one, comprehending the states of
Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Fez, and Morocco, all lying on the northern
coast of Africa to the west of Egypt. Vegetation is very luxu-
rious in the valleys watered by the streams which descend from
the Atlas Mountains in their course to the Mediterranean, and
grass is abundant in the early spring and autumn, but in the
Buminer season the great heat burns it all up ; and therefore the
hoKe is dependent upon the care of man for fodder during a great
part of the year. Berenger describes the true Barb as follows : —

" The fore-hand is long, slender, and badly furnished with
mane ; but the neck rises distinctly and boldly out of the withers ;
the head is small and lean ; ears, of good size, and well placed ;
shoulders, light, obliquely sloping, and broad ; withers, thin and
high ; loins, straight and short ; flanks and ribs, round, and well
developed; haunches, strong; croup, somewhat too long; quar-
ters, muscular and full ; legs, clean, and the tendons clearly marked
and separate from the bone; pasterns, somewhat too long and
slanting ; feet, sound and of good shape. In size they are lower
than the Arabs, seldom Treasuring more than fourteen and a half

THE %aR3.

31

hands, and they have not as much spirit, speed, or endurance, al-
though in external things they are perhaps superior to him."

The GoDOLPHiN Arabian, of which the annexed cut is a
representation, is said to have been imported into France Irom
Barbary, and is supposed to have been presented by the Emperor
of Morocco to Louis XIV. as a fine Barb; but he was thought so
little of in Paris that he was set to draw a cart about the streets,
from which ignoble occupation he was rescued by Mr. Coke, and
brought over to England. This gentleman gave him to a Mr.
Williams, who kept the St. James' Coffee-house, and by him he
was presented to the Earl of Godolphin for stud purposes. It

-,0X1^^^

was, however, only by chance that his value was discovered; for
being used as teazer to Hobgoblin, he was merely put to Roxana
on '■jhe refusal of that horse to cover her, the produce being Lath,
one Oi" the best horses of the day. The Godolphin Arabian was
of a brown bay color, and is said to have been about fifteen hands
in height. He is supposed to have been foaled about the year
1724, and died in 1753, A remarkable feature in this horse is
the height of his crest, and he is also invariably represented with
round and drooping quarters. Several portraits of him are in
existence, but all render these point's in the same manner. I an

32 THE JiORSE.

not aware that there are any reliable grounds for consideriug this
celebrated horse as a Barb rather than an Arab, and according to
the usual description of the former, his size is against the hypo-
thesis. Still, as he is generally so considered, I have added hia
description to that of the Barb, leaving my readers to draw their
own conclusions.

THE EGYPTIAN HORSE

In the first Chapter I have shown that there is a strong
reason for believing that the horse was introduced to Arabia
through Egypt, and that the latter country again derived its supply
from the central regions of Africa, which probably also furnished
the Barbary States. The modern Egyptian horse is a very second-
rate animal, and, according to Burckhardt, " is ugly, of coarse shape,
and looking more like a cart-horse than a racer." He says, " Their
legs and knees, and short and thick necks, are frequent defects
among them. The head is sometimes fine ; but I never saw good
legs in an Egyptian horse. They are not able to bear any great
fatigue, but when well fed their action occasionally is more bril-
liant than that of the Arabian; their impetuosity, however, ren-
ders them peculiarly desirable for heavy cavalry, and it is upon
this quality alone that their celebrity has ever been founded."

There are said to be some fine breeds in the interior of the
country ; but, as a rule, the Egyptian horse stands very low in the
estimation of travellers. Of late years more attention has been
paid to his breeding by the Viceroy and his subordinates, and it is
said that some considerable improvement has taken place.

THE HORSES OF DONGOLA AND ABYSSINIA.

The Dongola breed has been celebrated by that trustworthy
authority, Mr. Bruce, as of the highest symmetry, size, and
strength. He also praises highly their temper and docility, but
seems to know nothing of their actual performances. Other wri-
ters, however, find fault with their want of substance, and pro-
nounce them to be deficient in stoutness.

The Abyssinian Horse is generally described as of good siz^
and power, but I know of no reliable authority on which to depend
in reference to carticular points.

OTHER AFRICAN HORSES.

Besides the above distinct breeds of African horses there
are several others which are not clearly made out, but to which
individual travellers have alluded as, in their opinion, decided
varieties of the animal. Thus Mr. Tully speaks of the Bornou
horse as superior both to the Barb and Arab, but his statement is
not verified by travellers of later date. The South African horse,
used by the Kafirs in the recent wars witb the Boors oi" the Cape

THE MODEE^ ARAB. 33

of Good Hope, is a most wiry and ixseful animal ; but there is no
doubt that he has been greatly altered from the original form of
the native horse by crosses with the English and Arabian breeds,
which have been obtained by theft. In the early days of this set-
tlement the native horse was very small, seldom reaching to four-
teen hands, and though hardy and capable of standing a good deal
of work, yet plain and unsightly in appearance. The colonista
have so improved this original stock that they can now furnish
several thousand horses annually for exportation, averaging fifteen
hands in height, and of very superior form and action. They
show a great deal of Arabian blood, but many of them bear a
strong resemblance to the thorough-bred English horse, several of
which breed have been at various times introduced into the colony.

THE MODERN ARAB.

The controversy relating to the value of this breed in the
stud has raged with such vehemence that it is difficult to obtain
an unprejudiced opinion upon it. One thing, however, is quite
clear, namely, that to it in a great measure we owe the pre-eminence
of our English thorough-bred. But how long it would take to
bring a modern Arab, even of the highest caste, to the state of
perfection in which we find our own West Australians and Stock-
wells it would be difficult to say. This subject, however, will be
better discussed in treating of the English breed itself

Ali Bey, who has investigated the subject with great acuteness,
and who has had opportunities beyond the reach of ordinary wri-
ters, describes six distinct breeds of Arabs. " The first," he says,
" named the ' Dgelfe,' is found in Arabia Felix. They are rare at
Damascus, but pretty common in the neighborhood of Anaze.
They are remarkable for speed and fire, yet mild as lambs; they
support hunger and thirst for a long time, are of lofty stature,
narrow in the chest, but deep in the girth, and with long ears. A
colt of this breed at two years old will cost in his own country two
thousand Turkish piastres.

" The second breed, called ' Seclaoni,' comes from the eastern
part of the Desert, resembles the ' Dgelfe' of Anaze in appear-
ance, but is not quite so highly valued.

'' Next comes the ' Mefki,' handsome, though not so swift as the
two former breeds, and more resembling the Andalusian in figure.
They are very common about Damascus.

" Then the Sabi resembles the Mefki ; and the fifth breed, called
Fridi, is very common '^ut it is necessary to try them well, for
they are often vicious, and do not possess the excellent qualities of
the other breeds.

" Sixth, comes the Nejdi, from the neighboi-hood of Bussorah,
and if they do not surpass, they at least equal, the ' Dgelfe of

34 THE HORSE.

Anaze, and Seclaoni/ Horses of this breed are little known at
Damascus, and connoisseurs assert that they are incomparable;
thus their value is arbitrary, and always exceeds two thousand
piastres."

The first and last of these breeds are those which are most sought
after by East Indian sportsmen ; and Colonel Bower, who is one of
their strongest admirers, tells us that he once possessed a three
year-old colt which stood fifteen hands and an inch at that age.
He describes him as having " the stereotyped assortment of Eastern
beauties : could stick his riose in a tumbler, and looked the gentle-
man all over; remarkably muscular, and as stately in his bearing
as an autocrat, but his clean flat wiry legs, measuring eight inches
round the shank below the knee, had nothing English in their
composition. .This was' a pure Anaze Arab, but his career in the
field was cut short by his casting himself in his stall, and dislocat-
ing his hip." It will be seen that no mention is here made of the
breed which has been so long familiar to those who read our mo-
dern histories of the horse as that called " Kochlani" or " Kailhan,"
descended from the stud of Mahomet, who is supposed by mnny
historians to have laid the foundation of the Arabian pedigrees.
There is a tradition that the Prophet, being desirous of selecting
mares for his stud, had a number of them which had been used as
chargers kept for two days without water. At the end of that
time, when mad with thirst, they were set at liberty, and at the
moment when they were close to the coveted water, his trumpets
sounded a war charge, which had such an effect upon five of them
that they abandoned the water, and gallopped to the spot where
they expected to meet with the still greater excitement of war.
These five were therefore selected to form the foundation of his
stud, and from them it is supposed that the race called "Kochlani"
are descended. There is a slight similarity between this name and
that of the second in the list enumerated by Ali Bey. and perhaps
his " Seclaoni" may be identical with the " Kochlani" of previous
writers. It is asserted by Oriental travellers that pedigrees exist
which can be traced five hundred years back, and in the highest
breeds there is no doubt that at present great care is taken, and
many ceremonies performed at the covering of the mare. After
the birth of the foal, a certificate is always duly made out by the
local authority, and this must be done within seven days of its
being dropped.

Arabia is, in great measure, made up of rocky mountains Jind
sandy deserts ; but in Arabia Felix there are numerous valleys of
remarkable fertility ; though it is chiefly on the limited oasis sur-
rounding each well or spring of water that the Arab horses are
dependent for their food. It is found even in this country that a
very luxuriant her])age does not suit the horse, whose frame be-

THE MODERN ARAB.

35

comes coarse and heavy if he is reared upon the succulent grasses
of rich meadows, and therefore it is probable that much of the
wiryness of leg and lightness of frame in the Arab is due to the
sandy soil in which the grasses of these oases take their roots.
Besides this, the dry air may have something to do with the devel-
opment of muscle and tendon, while the soft sands of the desert
render it unnecessary to protect the feet with iron shoes, and thus
they are enabled to grow into the form which nature has designed
for them as the most suitable to bear the superincumbent weight

"CHABAN," AN ARABIAN STALLION.

Pure Arabs are considerably smaller than our modern tho-^
rough-breds, seldom exceeding 14 hands 2 inches in height. The
head is remarkable for the width across the forehead, which is also
full and square, while the muzzle is finer, the face more hollowed
out, and the jaws more fully developed in their proportions than
in any other breed with which we are acquainted. The eye is full
and soft, yet sparkling with animation on the slightest excitement;
the ear is small ; the neck arched ; the shoulders oblique, but mus-
cular ; the withers moderately high and thin ; the chest rather
light in girth, but the back ribs deep in proportion, and the hips.

36 THE HORSE.

tliougK narrow, well united to the back by a rounded mass Cj" pow-
erful muscles. The croup is high, and the tail set on with a con-
siderable arch. The bones of the legs are large in proportion to
the size, and the tendons full and free, the suspensory ligaments
bein^ particularly strong and clean. The hocks are large and free
both from curbs and spavins; and, lastly, the feet, though small,
are sound, and capable of bearing an amount of battering which
few well-bred English horses can sustain. The prefixed engraving
of " Chaban," an Arabian stallion, shows most of these pointa
extremely well, and the general characteristics of the breed are
particularly well indicated by the artist, who took the sketch fr )m
a celebrated Arabian of high caste in the stud of the King of
Wurtemburg.

From the full development of the brain in this breed it
might be expected d priori, that the amount of intelligence and
courage possessed by them would be far above the average ; and
such is the result of experience. Most of them are extremely
docile, and in their native plains, where they pass their lives in
constant communion with their masters, they are possessed of fine
tempers ; but if they are highly fed, and at the same time deprived
of exercise and cruelly treated, their nervous system is so sensitive
that they rebel, and when they fight they persevere to the death.
A vicious Arabian is, therefore, a very unmanageable brute, and
difficult to cure of his bad propensities. Good treatment, however,
has its eff"ect upon him, and when he once shows his forgiveness he
may be depended on by the individual that he takes into his good
graces. This trait has been well exemplified in the savage Arabian
lately tamed by Mr. Rarey, and in a still more marked manner in.
former years in the case of Chillaby, who was, if possible, more
savage than Cruiser, and yet was so completely tamed by Hughes,
the celebrated circus-horse trainer, that he was able to exhibit him
as a trained horse, and was never once disappointed by him. Thia
is, I believe, more than Mr. Rarey can say of the above well-known
Bavage horse, which was one of the first he operated on in this
country.

The pood of this kind of horse is of a very dry though nour-
ishing nature, and neither when at liberty nor when tied up can
lie get much water, the prevalent opinion being that an unlimited
supply of this fluid injures his shape, and interferes with his wind.
It is said that the Arab horse is only fed twice a-day : but I con-
clude that this only refers to his allowance of corn, and that in
the intervals he is permitted to pick up what little dry herbage
the soil aff"ords. Wonderful stories are told of the distances which
young colts are compelled to go when first mounted, but I confess
that I look with great suspicion upon these travellers' tales. About
five or six pounds of barley or beans, or a, mixture of the two, con*

THE MODERN ARAB. 37

Btitute the daily allowance of corn, which is about the v^eight of
half a peck of good oats, and would be considered poor feed hy
our English horses, unless the proportion of beans is very large.

The colors of the Arabian horses are mostly bay, chestnut,
and gray, but occasionally black. The skin itself of the gray
horses is of a deep slate color, and the manes and tails are darker
than the rest of the body.

The speed of the Arabs, which have recently been brought
over to this country, is undoubtedly not nearly equal to that of
our thorough-bred horses for courses of moderate length, that is,
not exceeding two miles ; and there is no reason to believe that at
longer distances there would be an essential diiference in the result.
In the Groodwood Cup an allowance is made them of a stone, yet
no Arab has ever had a chance of winning, and as far as this test
goes they are proved to be inferior to the French and American
horses. In India a difference of weight, varying from 1 stone to
1 stone 7 pounds, is made in favor of Arabs as against imported
English horses, " in order to bring the two together" in racing
parlance, yet even then few Arabs can compete with the second-
rate horses which are imported from this country. Colonel Bower
tells us that " in India the weights range from 7J stone to 10
itone, and no uncommon timing fur Arabs is 2 minutes and 54
seconds the mile and a half; 8 minutes and 52 seconds the 2
miles — it has been done in 3 minutes and 48 seconds, and the Arab
that did it was once my property, and his name was the Child of
the Islands. He was a daisy-cutter, and yet I have ridden him
over the roughest ground, and never detected him in a trip. A
pleasanter, safer hack could not be, and a fleeter Arab the world
never saw. He stood 14 hands 2 inches, bay with black points,
wiry limbs, very muscular all over, and measured 7| inches round
a fore leg of the finest bone and flattest sinew." This time is aa
good as that of the average of our Derbys, but the test is a very
fillacious one, and unless the time is taken over the same course,
and that in the same running condition, no comparison can pos-
pibly be drawn.

Captain Shakspear, in his recently published work on the
*• Wild Sports of India," gives the following most minute descrip-
tion of the Arab, as he is now met with in India. As it differs in
Borne particulars from the accounts of other observers, I extract it
entire. The price of a good Arab, he says, varies from 150^. to
200^., and there is plenty of choice in the Bombay and Bengal
markets.

" The points of the highest caste Arab horse, as compared with
the English thorough-bred, are as follow : the head is more beauti-
fully formed, and more intelligent; the forehead broader; the
muzzle finei ; the eye more prominent, more sleepy-looking in
4.

38 THE HORSE.

repose, more brilliant when the animal is excited. The ear is
more beautifully pricked, and of exquisite shape and sensitiveness.
On the back of the trained hunter, the rider scarcely requires to
keep his eye on anything but the ears of his horse, which give
indications of everything that his ever-watchful eye catches sight
of. The nostril is not always so open in a state of rest, and indeed
often looks thick and closed; but in excitement, and when the
lungs are in full play from the animal being at speed, it expands
greatly, and the membrane shows scarlet and as if on fire. The
game-cock throttle — that most exquisite formation of the throat
and jaws of the blood-horse — is not so commonly seen in the Arab
as in the thorough-bred English racehorse ; nor is the head quite
so lean. The jaws, for the size of the head, are perhaps more
apart, giving more room for the expansion of the windpipe. The
point where the head is put on to the neck is quite as delicate as
in the English horse. This junction has much more to do with
the mouth of the horse than most people are aware of, and on it
depends the pleasure or otherwise of the rider. The bones, from
the eye down towards the lower part of the head, should not be
too concave, or of a deer's form ; for this in the Arab as in the
English horse denotes a violent temper, though it is very beautiful
to look at. Proceeding to the neck, we notice that the Arab stal-
lion has rarely the crest that an English stallion has. He has a
strong, light, and muscular neck, a little short, perhaps, compared
to the other, and thick. In the pure breeds, the neck runs into
the shoulders very gradually; and generally, if the horse has a
pretty good crest, comes down rather perpendicularly into the
shoulders; but often, if he is a little ewe-necked, which is not
uncommon with the Arab, it runs in too straight, and low down
in the shoulders. The Arab, however, rarely carries his head,
when he is being ridden, so high in proportion as the English.
He is not so well topped, which I attribute to the different way he
is reared, and to his not being broken in regularly, like the Eng-
lish horse, before he is put to work. His shoulders are not so flat
and thin, and he is thicker through in these parts generally for
his size than the English thorough-bred horse. His girth does
not show so deep, that is, he does not look so deep over the h^art;
but between the knees and behind the saddle, where the English
horse very often falls off, the Arab is barrel-ribbed; and this gives
him his wonderful endurance and his great constitutional points.
This also prevents him from getting knocked up in severe training
or under short allowance of food, and in long marches. His chest
is quite broad enough and deep enough for either strength or
bottom. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is both m length and
backward inclination, compared to the humerus, or upper bone of
the arm, ([uite a3 fine in the high-caste Arab as in the English

THE MODERN ARAB. 39

horse ; while both bones are generally better furnished with mus-
cles, better developed, and feel firmer to the hand. But some of
the very fastest Arabs have their fore legs very much unde^ them ;
indeed, so much that no judge would buy an English horse so
made. Yet, whether it be that this form admits of the joints
between these bones becoming more opened, when the horse
extends himself, or whatever be the cause, it is a fact that blood-
horses thus made are almost always fast horses. The upper part
of their shoulder-blade seems to run back under the front part of
the saddle, when they are going their best. This formation is
most common in the lower-sized Arab, and apparently makes up
to him for his deficiency in height. The very finest-actioned
Arabs have had this peculiarity of form. They are rather apt
to become chafed at the elbow-points by the girths, and almost
require to have saddles made on purpose for them. The elbow-
point, that essential bone, which for the sake of leverage should
be prominent, is fine in the Arab, and generally plays clear of the
body. The fore-arm is strong and muscular, and is pretty long ;
the knee square, with a good speedy cut for the size of the animal,
equal to the English horse ; while below the knee the Arab shines
very conspicuously, having a degree of power there, both in the
suspensory ligaments and flexor tendons, far superior, in proportion
to his size, to the English horse. These are distinct and away
from the .-fhank-bone ; they give a very deep leg, and act mechani-
cally to great advantage. The bone looks small, but then it is
very dense, the hollow which contains the marrow being very
small, and the material solid, more like ivory than bone, heavy,
%nd close-grained. The flexor tendons are nearly as large and as
thick as the canna bone. The pasterns and their joints are quite
in keeping with the bones above them, and are not so long, straight,
and weak as those of the English horse. The feet are generally
in the same proportion : but the Arabs themselves appear to be
very careless in their treatment of them. T\e body or centre piece
of the Arab horse has rarely too great length. This is a very
uncommon fault in the pure breed ; and there is no breed of horses
that are more even in this respect than the Arab. Behind this,
we come to a great peculiarity in the breed — his croup. I might
say an Arab horse is known by it : he is so much more beautifully
made in his hind quarters, and in the way his tail is put on, than
most other breeds. His loins are good ; he is well coupled ; hia
quarters are powerful, and his tail carried high ; and this -even in
castes that have very little more than a high-bred stallion to recom-
mend them. The straight-dropped hind leg is always a recom-
mendation, and almost all racing Arabs have it; and this, when
extended, brings the hind foot under the stirrup, and the pro-
pellers being of this shape give a vast stride, without fear of over-

40 THE HORSE.

reach. The thighs and hocks are good; tlie latter very rarely
know either kind of spavin or curbs. The points and processes
are pre-eminently well adapted for the attachment of the muscles ;
while the flexor tendons of the hind legs generally correspond with
those of the fore. The hocks are not so much let down, nor the
hind legs so greyhound-like, as in the thorough-bred English horse.
In stride, too, he is somewhat different, inasmuch as it is a rounder
way of going, and is not so extended or so near the ground, but ia
more like a bound. However, there are exceptions ; and I have
bred pure Arabs whose stride, for their size, was very extended,
and quite like that of English racehorses."

The Mare is commonly supposed to be more highly prized by
the Arabs than the stallion ; but this idea is said to be unfounded
by the celebrated Abd el Kader, in a highly interesting letter to
General Daumas, which is published in the fifth number of Baily's
Magazine of Sports. He remarks :

" It is true that the foal proceeds from the sire and from the
dam, but the experience of ages has proved that the essential parts
of the body — such as the bones, the tendons, the nerves, and the
veins — proceed always from the sire. This is beyond all doubt.
The meanest Arab knows now that any malady specially belonging
to the bones, under which the sire may be suffering at the time of
covering, will be perpetuated in his produce, such as splints, bone
and blood spavins, the shape of the bones, and all diseases of the
vertebral column. The dam may give to her produce color, and a
certain amount of resemblance in form, the foal naturally partak-
ing of some of the qualities of the animal which had so long
borne it ; but it is an incontestable fact, that it is the sire who gives
strength to the bones, substance to the tendons, vigor to the nerves,
rapidity of pace, in short, all the principal qualities. He also
communicates what may be called moral qualities, and if he be
unquestionably of high blood the foal is preserved from vice. Our
fathers have said. El aond por ma audouche hiela — 'A horse of
noble race has no vices.' An Arab will lend his stud horse gra-
tuitoi;sly ; he never accepts payment for his services. To hire out
a fitud horse for money is, in the eyes of an Arab, an unworthy
action, and is contrary to the generosity for which he is renowned,
and although the law allows it, I have never known an instance of
it. But though the Arab lends his stud h(n-se gratuitously, he
does not do so to the first comer, nor for any mare. No ; the sup-
pliant is often obliged to make use of the intercession of persons
of great interest, or even of his wives, if he would not see his re-
quest refused. On the other hand, the Arabs are very difficult in
their choice of a stud horse, and if they cannot find one of pure
blood, th^y prefer leaving their mares unproductive rather than
put thert to a commun horse. To procure a good sire they do no«

THE PERSIAN HORSE. 41

hesitate to travel any distance. The preceding has ah-eady inti-
mated to you my conclusion, that the sire has more to do with the
foal than the dam. And my conclusion is identical with the uni-
versal opinion of the Arabs. They say, El Mr ilebal el fahal —
' The foal follows the sire.' "

In corroboration of this opinion, he describes the Arab horses
as distinguished under the following heads : — " El Horr^ El Had-
jim, El Mekueref, and El Berdoune. El Horr is that in which
Bire and dam are both of noble race ; that takes the lead. El
Hadjim is that in which the sire is noble and the dam of common
race ; it is considered less than El Horr, its name Hadjim, ' defec-
tive,' being derived from the word ' Hurdjiss,' which signifies
faulty. El Mekueref is that in which the dam is high bred and
the sire is half bred ; although this approaches the Hadjim, it is
of much less value. The name of this class is derived from ' haraf'
mixed. El Hadjim is superior in quality on the same principle
that a man whose father is white and whose mother is a negress is
superior to him whose mother is white and whose father is a negro.
El Berdoune is that class in which both sire and dam are badly
bred. This animal is a stranger to our country. The value of a
horse is in its breeding."

THE PERSIAN HORSE.

Sir John Malcolm and Sir Robert Ker Porter, both of whom
resided many years in Persia, are the chief authorities on this
subject. The former says : — " A variety of horses are produced
in Persia. The inhabitants of the districts which border on the
Grulf still preserve here those races of animals which their ances-
tors brought from the opposite shore of Arabia. In Pars and Irak
they have a mixed breed from the Arabian, which though stronger
is still a small horse compared with either the Toorkoman or Kho-
rassan breed, which are most prized by the soldiers of Persia.
Both these latter races have also a great proportion of Arabian
blood." Sir Robert thus alludes to them : — " The Persian horses
never exceed fourteen or fourteen and a half hands high; yet
certainly on the whole they are taller than Arabs. Those of the
Desert and country about Hillah seem very small, but are full of
bone, and of good speed. General custom feeds and waters them
only at sunrise and sunset, when they are cleaned. Their usual
provender is barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals are
picketed, is Dut into a nosebag and hung from their heads ; but if
stabled, it is thrown into a lozenge-shaped hole, left in the thick-
ness of the mud wall for that purpose, but much higher up than
the line of our mangers, and then the animal eats at his leisure.
Hay is a kind of food not known here. The bedding of the horse
consists of his dung. After Ir nng exposed to the drying influence
4 *

42 THE HORSE.

of the sun during the day, it becomes pulverized, and in that state
is nightly spread under him. Little of it touches his body, that
being covered by his clothing, a large nummud from the head to
the tail, and bound firmly round his body by a very long surcingle.
But this apparel is only for cold weather; in the warmer season
the night-clothes are of a lighter substance, and during the heat
of the day the animal is kept entirely under shade. At night he
is tied in the court-yard. The horses' heads are attached to the
place of security by double ropes from their halters, and the heels
of their hinder legs are confined by cords of twisted hair, fastened
to iron rings and pegs driven into the earth. The same custom
prevailed in the time of Xenophon, and for the same reason, to
secure them from being able to attack and maim each other, the
whole stud generally consisting of stallions. Their keepers, how-
ever, always sleep in their rugs amongst them to prevent accidents,
and sometimes notwithstanding all their care they manage to break
loose, and then the combat ensues. A general neighing, screaming,
kicking, and snorting soon raise the groom, and the scene for a
while is terrible. Indeed no one can conceive the sudden uproar
of such a moment who has not been in Eastern countries to hear
it, and then all who have must bear me witness that the noise is
tremendous. They seize, bite, and kick each other with the most
determined fury, and frequently cannot be separated before their
heads and haunches stream with blood."

THE TURKISH HORSE.

This variety seems to be merely the Arab developed by higher
food into a larger size and more massive proportions. The horses
of Constantinople are often sixteen hands in height, with very
elegant proportions and a crupper more highly developed than that
of the Arab. They are said to be extremely docile, and the two
specimens which I have seen imported into this country certainly
bore out this character, both of them, though stallions, being as
quiet as any English geldings. They had very high crests and
arched necks ; and this is said to be one of the characteristics of
the breed. In the records of the turf in this country, many of
the most celebrated sires are mentioned as Turks; but though
imported from Turkey, it is very probable that some of these were
genuine Arabs.

OTHER ASIATIC HORSES.

The Horses op Toorkistan are described by Sir R. K. Porter
aa scanty in barrel, long in the leg, with ewe necks and large heads.
When crossed with those of Persia, they, however, are said by him
to produce a most magnificent animal, all elegance and elasticity,
and of a stronger form and ^^mewhat larger size than the heei

OTHER ASIATIC HORSES. 43

Arabians. Sir Alexander Burns attributes to them, on the other
hand, a very high crest, and large and bony though somewhat
long bodies. He says, also, that in Bokhara there is a breed of
Kuzzak horses, sturdy and small, with shaggy coats and very long
manes and tails, much and deservedly admired.

The Tartar Horses are small and narrow, with long necks,
weak legs, large heads, and light middles. Nevertheless they are
described as fast and untiring, and of the most hardy nature, so
that they can support themselves on a quantity and quality of food
upon which even our donkeys would starve.

In various parts of Tartary horses are found in a wild
state, and present a rough inelegant form not unlike that of our
New Forest ponies. In them the characteristics of the domesti-
cated Tartar horse already described are exhibited in a marked
manner, and there is every reason to believe that the two breeds
are identical, and that the ranks of the latter are recruited from
the enormous herds of wild horses which are found in countless
thousands on the edges of the vast deserts of the country. They
are generally of a red color, with a black stripe along the back,
and manes and tails of the latter color, but almost always reddish
at the roots of the dock and edges of the mane. The Tartars eat
the flesh both of the v/ild and domesticated horse, and are said to
cook the meat under their saddles. They also manufacture a drink
called koumiss from the milk obtained from the mare, which is
fermented and distilled into an intoxicating beverage.

In so vast a country as India, it might be expected that
numerous breeds of horses would be found, varying almost as much
as the climates and soils of Bengal and Cabool. In the immediate
neighborhood of the three presidencies imported and country-bred
Arab, as well as Persian and Turkooman horses, are common
enough, as also are importations from the Cape of Good Hope,
Australia, and Van Dieman's Land. English horses are not nearly
so numerous, the expense and risk of the voyage deterring most
people from the speculation, the doubtful nature of which may be
estimated from the fact that the insurance is twenty-four to twenty-
five per cent., and this only insures the landing of the animal alive;
for if it is so wasted and worn as to die an hour afterwards, the pol-
icy is of no value to the insured. Williamson, in his Wild Sports
of the East, describes the native Bengal breeds in the following
terms : — " They have generally Roman noses, and sharp, narrow
foreheads, much white in their eyes, ill-shaped ears, square heads,
thin necks, narrow chests, shallow girths, lank bellies, cat hams,
goose rumps, and switch tails ! Some occasionally may be found
in every respect well shaped. They are hardy and fleet, but inca-
pable of carrying great weights. Their vice is proverbial; yet
until they arriva at four or five years they are often very docile

44 THE HORSE.

and gentle ; after that period they, for the most part, are given to
rearing, kicking, biting, and a thousand equally disagreeable
habits." Other writers have defined the several breeds found
throughout the southern parts of India, and named them also, as
Toorl-i/, Cozakee^ Tazsee, &c. ; but I understand from good author-
ity that there are really no such breeds in existence now, and
probably they were only called into being by the active imagina-
tions of inventive writers. Large breeding studs were kept by
some of the native princes, but these were mainly dependent upon
imported Arabs and Persians, and could claim no peculiar strain
as their own. The same mixture of blood prevails in the present
day, with the exception of the horses in the northern provinces.

The Birman Horse is very small, being seldom higher than
thirteen hands, and it is said that some specimens are less than
eleven. The same remark applies also to those of China, Siam,
and Java.

THE AUSTEALIAN HOESE.

The Irishman's fifth quarter op the world is now
abundantly supplied with horses of the first class, in size, speed,
and stoutness, though little more than half a century ago the ani-
mal was altogether unknown there. At first, from the proximity
of India and the Cape of Good Hope, the horses of these colonies,
and those of inferior value only, were imported into the new settle-
ment; but about the year 1835 great eti'orts were made by several
enterprising settlers, both in the Island of Van Dieman and also
on the continent of Australia, and several horses of good breeding
were imported from this country, especially by Mr. Wilmore in
the former island. It was soon found that the climate is admirably
suited to this animal, and there are now colonial-bred horses,
adapted for the turf and the road, as well as for agricultural pur-
poses, superior in soundness and probably in stoutness, even if
they are deficient in face, as compared with the British thorough-
bred. As far as I know, no Australian horse has been imported
into England, so that we have no means of comparing the two on
terms advantageous to the mother counti-y ; nor possibly can we
altogether depend upon the glowing accounts which are furnished
us of the appearance and performances of our Antipodean rivals.
Still I am inclined to believe that as the soil and climate are ad-
mitted to improve the appearance of the imported horses, as indeed
they do all our domestic animals, and as disease of all kinds is
extremely rare, so it will be found that in all good qualities the
Australian horse is at least on a par with our own. Their breeders
are so spirited and determined that neither money nor trouble is
spared in procuring the best blood, an evidence of which is afi'orded
by the fact that at the recent sale of Lord Londesborough's stud,
the large sum of 3120 guineas (about $15,000) was invented for

THE SOUTH AMERICAN HORSE, 4o

A.ustralia. This, probably, is the heaviest price yet paid at one
sale by any colonial breeder, but numerous smaller speculations
have been going on for the last twenty years. Hence, whatever
position is attained by our friends over the water, they will en-
tirely owe to the parent country; and I strongly suspect that
before long we shall have to go to them to procure sound horses
of high breeding for our own studs.

CHAPTER IV.
THE HORSES OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE.

The South American Horse — The Mustang — The Indian Pony —
The Canadian Horse — The Morgan Horse — The American
Trotter — The Narraganset Pacer — The American Thorough-
bred— The Vermont Cart-Horse — The Conestoga Draught-
Horse.

TEE SOUTH AMERICAN HORSE.

For some time after the discovery of America, at the
conclusion of the fifteenth century, the horse was entirely unknown
in that hemisphere, but according to Azara a few specimens were
introduced there by the Spaniards in the year 1535, and in the
year 1537 several were shipped to Paraguay. From these have
been bred the countless herds which have since spread over the
whole southern part of the western world, and passing the Isthmus
of Panama have wandered into North America. In both these
divisions the horse runs wild, wherever there are plains suitable to
him, and not yet brought under cultivation j but it is in the south
that the wild horse is to be found in the greatest numbers, on the
extensive plains which stretch almost unbroken from the shores of
La Plata to Patagonia. Here herds numbering some thousands in
each are to be met with, each under the guidance of a master stal-
lion, who enforces entire submission to his will as long as he has
the power to do so. Here the native Gaucho has only to throw
his lasso, and he can at any time supply himself with a horse which
wiM carry him for miles at a hand gallop, when he changes him
fnr another, and is thus always mounted at a cheap and easy rate.
In this way Captain Head rode all across the continent from one
shore to the other, nearly using up one horse in the course o'f fifty
or sixty miles, and then looking out for another before the first
was so spent as to be unable to assist him in making the exchange.
These wild horses greatly resemble their Spanish ancestors in make
and shape. They are said to be possessed of a fair amount of

46 THE HORSE.

Bpeed, but- not above the average of foreign breeds. They are,
however, from their roving habits, in excellent wind, and it is said
that a Graucho has been known to ride one fresh caught nearly a
hundred miles without drawing bit.

THE MUSTANG, OR WILD HORSE OF NORTH AMERICA.

Like the wild horses of South America, those of Mexico
and California are in all probability descended from Spanish blood,
and indeed it is impossible now to discover, with anything like
certainty, the source of the Indian Ponies, large herds of which
run wild in the northern and north-western parts of this extensive
continent. So little do the Americans now know or care about
these wild horses, that the late Mr. Herbert, who has treated of
the American Horse in two volt*, quarto, omits all mention of them,
excepting the most cursory allusion to the Mustang as the origin
of the Indian Pony, in common with the Canadian horse. I shall,
therefore, not weary my readers with extracts from Mr. Catlin's
somewhat fanciful writings, but at once proceed to allude to the
modern domesticated breeds of horses met with in the United
States and Canada,

According to Mr. Herbert, who seems to have taken great
pains to arrive at the truth, " with the one solitary exception of
the Noimian horse in Canada, no special breeds have ever taken
root as such, or been bred, or even attempted to be bred, in them
purity, in any part of America. In Canada East the Norman
horse, imported by the early settlers, was bred for many generations
entirely unmixed ; and, as the general agricultural horse of the
province, exists, yet so stunted in size by the cold climate and the
rough usage to which he has been subjected for centuries, but in
no wise degenerated, for he possesses all the honesty, courage, en-
durance, hardihood, soundness of constitution, and characteristic
excellence of feet and legs of his progenitor." Besides this native
Canadian there are also, among the more active kinds, the Morgan
horse, the American trotter, the Narraganset pacer, and the tho-
rough-bred descended from English imported horses, with scarcely
any admixture of native blood ; and of the agricultural varieties,
the Vermont and Conestoga draught-horses, in addition to several
others not so easily made out.

THE INDIAN PONY.
The Indian Pony, which seldom or never exceeds thirteen
hands in height, is remarkable for activity and strength, as com-
pared with its size, appearing' like its Scotch congener, to be almost
overwhelmed with its rider, whose feet nearly touch the ground,
yet moving under its load with freedom. It has a high crest,
and a flowing mane and tail, with a proud carriage of the head of

THE CANADIAN HORSE.

47

it very pleasing charaetcr. The body is strongly built, ajid the legs
and feet are made of the most lasting materials. Large herds of
these ponies run wild in the prairies of the north-west, and many
are brought into '^anada for the use of the ir^tabitants.

THE CANADIAN H0E8E.

THE CANADIAN HORSE.

The Canadian Horse is generally about fourteen to fifteen
hands high, and is a remarkably hardy animal, capable of travelling
very long distances, but in his pure condition not above the average
in speed. When crossed, however, with a thorough-bred torse, he
•:ombines the speed of the latter with his own endurance and iron
constitution and legs, and in this way a great many of the best
American trotters are bred. Mr. Herbert says, " His crest is lofty,
and his demeanor proud and courageous; his breast is full and
broad ; his shoulders strong, though somewhat straight, and a little
inclined to be heavy ; his back broad, and his croup round, fleshy,
and muscular ; his ribs are not, however, so much arched, nor are
they so well closed up, as his general shape and build would lead

48 THE HORSE.

one to expect ; liis legs and feet are admirable — the bone large and
flat, and the sinews big and nervous as steel springs ; his feet seem
almost unconscious of disease ; his fetlocks are shaggy ; his mane
voluminous and massive, not seldom, if untrained, falling on both
sides of his neck, and his tail abundant, both having a peculiar
crimpled wave, if I may so express myself, the like of which I
never saw in any horse which had not some strain of his blood." I
give a sketch on the preceding page of one of these horses, showing
the shape and action peculiar to them. It is said by good judgea
to be an excellent likeness.

THE MORGAN HORSE.

The Morgan Horse has recently been paraded in America as
a distinct strain, kept pure in its own district for more than half a
century, and descended from a single horse, in the possession of
Mr. Justin Morgan, a schoolmaster in Vermont. In the present
day the " Morgans" are so much sought after that in the year 1856
the Agricultural Society of Vermont offered a prize for the best
essay on the subject, which was awarded to Mr. Linsley, an inha-
bitant of the same states According to this authority, the founder
of the family, or strain, was got by a horse called " True Briton,"
which was said to have been stolen, and whose pedigree is there-
fore doubtful. Mr. Linsley endeavors to prove, however, that he
was a son of the English thorough-bred horse Traveller, which he
assumes to be identical with the son of Partner, known as Morton's
Old Traveller, giving as his authority a pedigree inserted in the
Albany " Cultivator" of 1846. The same authority is also ad-
duced to prove that the dam of True Briton and also of Justin
Morgan's horse were of nearly pure English blood, and that the
latter was descended from the famous " Cub" mare ; but the facts
adduced seem of the most doubtful nature, and I believe that the
Morgan horse would in this country be considered as undoubtedly
half-bred.

Mr. Linsley describes the founder of the Morgan strain in the
following terms : — He " was about fourteen hands high, and weighed
about nine hundred and fifty pounds. His color was dark bay,
with black legs, mane, and tail. He had no white hair upon him.
His mane and tail were coarse and heavy, but not so massive aa
has been sometimes described ; the hair of both was straight, and
not inclined to curl. His head was good, not extremely small, but
lean and bony, the face straight, forehead broad, ears small, svnd
very fine, but set rather wide apart. His ejes were medium size,
very dark, and prominent, and showed no white round the edge of
the lid" (Qy. iris?). "His nostrils were very large, the muzzle
small, and the lips close and firm. His back and legs were per-
haps his most noticeable points. The former was very short, the

THE MORGAN HORSE. 49

shoulder-blades and thigli-bones being very long and ODiique, and
the loins exceedingly broad and muscular. His body was rathe-
long, round, and deep, close ribbed up ; chest deep and wide, with
the breast-bone projecting a good deal in front. His legs were
short, close jointed, thin, but very wide, hard and free from meat,
with muscles that were remarkably large for a horse of his size,
and this superabundance of muscle manifested itself at every step.
His hair was short, and at almost all seasons soft and glossy. He
had a little long hair about the fetlocks, and for two or three inches
above the fetlock on the back side of the legs ; the rest of his
limbs were entirely free from it. His feet were small, but well
shaped, and he was in every respect perfectly sound and free from
blemish. He was a very fast walker. In trotting his gait was
slow and smooth, and his step short and nervous ; he was not what
in these days would be called fast, and we think it doubtful whether
he could trot a mile much, if any, within four minutes, though it
is claimed by many that he could trot it in three. Although he
raised his feet but little, he never stumbled. His proud, bold, and
fearless style of movement, and his vigorous untiring action, have
perhaps never been surpassed."

He describes him as being fast for short distances, by which he
explains that he means a quarter of a mile, which he says was the
usual distance run in those days. From this celebrated horse are*
descended, more or less remotely, "Black Hawk," " Ethan Allen,"
"American Eagle," and a host of horses celebrated for gamencss,
and many of them for fast-trotting powers. But those who dis-
pute the claims of Mr. Justin Morgan's horse to be considered the
founder of the family, assert that before his time a similar horse
prevailed in this district which was made up of crosses between
the Canadian horse and the English thorough-bred. I shall, how-
ever, leave this much-vexed question for the Americans to settle
among themselves, contenting myself with a description of the mo-
dern Morgan horse as he is recognised throughout the states of
America. He is generally, though not universally, admitted to be
very stout and enduring, with good action, especially in the trot,
and great hardness of constitution. He shows very little evidence
of pure blood; indeed it may be said that the reverse is the case, as
lie invariably possesses a thick and long mane and tail, with a con-
siderable curl in both, signs which may be truly said are fatal to
his claims. In height he seldom exceeds fifteen hands. His frame
is corky, but not remarkably well put together, there being gene-
rally a deficiency in the coupling of the back and loins. The fore-
head is very light, and carried high, somewhat in the fashion of
the Canadians, but not so heavy in the crest and junction of the
neck to the shoulder, though the setting of the head is equally
thick. On the whole, the Morgan horse may be described as ex-
5 D

00 THE HORSE.

tremelj useful, bui deficient in what we call "quality," in propor-
lion to the absence of thorough blood.

THE AMERICAN TROTTER.

The true modern trotting horse is a most remarkable
instance of what may be done by keeping an animal to one kind
of work for generations, and selecting the specimens best fitted for
it to breed from. In this country a thorough-bred horse, or even
one of nearly pure blood, could not be found at any price to trot a
mile in three minutes, yet in America there are plenty, of blood
almost entirely derived from the English turf horse, which will
perform the distance in two minutes and forty seconds, and some
in considerably less time. In America private and public trotting
matches in harness have been for many years the chief amusement
of the town population, and, until very recently, when flat racing
or running, as it is called there, has been more developed, a fast
trotter fetched a higher price than any other description of horse.
Trotting matches are, in fact, the national sport, just as racing is
that of our own country. Latterly, however, the amusement has
been somewhat on the decline, the aristocratic classes holding them-
selves aloof, and patronizing the turf in preference. Still there is
no diminution in the pace of their trotters, and, on the contrary,
the celebrated Flora Temple has recently made the best time on
record, having, on the 15th of October, 1859, when fourteen years
old, done a third mile heat in two minutes, nineteen and three-
quarter seconds, and having, in June, 1861, performed three sepa-
rate mile heats in the wonderfully short time of seven minutes,
six and a half seconds.

Mr. Herbert, in his quarto work on " The Horse of America,"
clearly shows the reason why our transatlantic cousins excel us in
their trotters, and why they take to this species of amusement in
preference to others. After enumerating several which do not
appear to us quite so cogent as to him, he more pertinently says,
'' Another reason, inferior in practical truth to the others adduced,
but physically superior, is this, — that before American trotters
could be generally used in Great Britain, the whole system of
British road-making must be altered, which is not likely to occur.
On an ordinary English macadamized turnpike, which is exactly
the same as the hardest central part of the New York Third Ave-
nue, without any soft track alongside of it, an American trotter
would pound his shoes oif in an hour's trot, and his feet off in a
week's driving; and this is doubtless, whatever may be said of the
objections heretofore offered, one which must operate for ever
against the general use of trotters after the American fashion.

THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 51

unless tliey be trained and kept exclusively for sporting purposes.
This, however, is no more, but even less likely to occur than the
total alteration of the whole system of English road-making, and
the entire change of the tastes and habits of the English people :
since the point which renders the trotting horse so popular here
would then be wanting, namely, his equal adaptability to ordinary
road driving and purposes of general utility, and to occasional
matching and turf amusements of a peculiar though inferior descrip-
tion." This is the true cause of the " decline and fall " of trotting
horses in England, for in the early part of the nineteenth century
there were ten good performers on the trot for one now. The pace
is not a natural one, and in its highest perfection, especially, it
must be developed by constant practice. But this is forbidden on
our modern roads, which, as Mr. Herbert truly remarks, would
ruin the legs and feet of any horse ridden or driven at such a pace
as to do a mile in two minutes and thirty seconds. I fully believe
that the horses of America have sounder legs and feet than those
of our own country, partly from being kept cooler in their stables,
partly from their being less stimulated by inordinate quantities of
oats and beans, but chiefly from their ancestors having been less
injured by hard roads than those of our own. If this is the case
we must have in every succeeding generation more and more diffi-
culty in getting sound roadsters, and such, I believe, is really
the fact.

By many people it is supposed that the American trotter is a
distinct breed or strain of horses, and that we can in this country
easily obtain plenty of horses able to do their mile " within .the
thirties," by importing individuals and breeding from them. This
hypothesis, however, appears to be unfounded according to the
evidence of Mr. Herbert, as recorded in his " magnum opus," and
that of other writers in the New York sporting press. The former
gentleman, who is "well up" on this subject, says: — "And first
we shall find that the time trotter in America is neither an original
animal of a peculiar and distinct breed, nor even an animal of very
long existence since his first creation. Secondly, we shall find
that in an almost incredibly short space of time, owing to the great
demand for and universal popularity of the animal, united to a
perfectly devised, and now ubiquitously understood, system of
breaking, training, and driving him so as to develop all his quali-
ties to the utmost, the trotting horse of high speed, good endurance,
showy style of going, and fine figure, has become from a rarity a
creature of every-day occurrence, to be met with by dozens in the
eastern and middle states, and scarcely any longer regarded as a
trotter, unless he can do his mile in somewhere about two minutes
and a half. Thirdly, it will appear that the trotting horse is, in
no possible ser*-^, a distinct race, breed, or family of the horse '

52 THE li.ESE.

and that his qualities as a trotter cannot be ascribed or traced to
his origin from, or connection with, any one blood more than an-
other. It is true, and it is to be regretted, that of trotting horset
the pedigrees have been so little alluded to, and probably from the
nature of circumstances are so seldom attainable, that few, indeed^,
can be directly traced to any distance in blood. Enough is known,
however, to show that some horses of first-rate powers have come
from the Canadian or Norman-French stock ; some from the ordi-
nary undistinguished country horse of the southernmost of the mid-
land states; some from the Vermont family; some from the Indian
pony; and lastly, some mainly, if not entirely, from the thorough-
bred. To no one of these families can any superiority be attributed
as producing trotters of great speed. All have shown their speci-
mens by means of which to claim their share in the production.
Only it may be affirmed, generally, that while some very famous
trotting horses have been nearly, if not entirely, thorough-bred, the
low, lazy, lounging, daisy-cutting gait and action of the full-blooded
horse of Oriental blood is not generally compatible with great trot-
ting action or speed. Still it is true that the best time-trotters
have not the round, high-stepped action which is prized in carriage-
horses, or parade-horses for show, and which probably originated
and existed to the greatest extent in the Flemish or the Hanove-
rian horse of the coldest of all imaginable strains of blood; and that
they have in a great measure the long reaching stride, the quick
gather, and the comparatively low step of the thorough-bred."

THE NARRAGANSET PACER.

It is supposed that this beautiful variety of the American
horse, which is now nearly or quite extinct, is descended from the
Spanish horse. There are several traditions afloat in support of
this and other theories, but by general consent it is admittec that
the above theory as to his origin is the true one. According to
this, he was introduced into New England by Governor Robinson,
from Andalusia, and for many years the breed was kept up for the
supply of Cuba, the voyage being much shorter than that from the
mother country, Spain. These horses were of good size and natural
pacers, the action being on alternate sides, but remarkab " eaoy
which is more than can always be said of the modern r% . ' ^ oi
pacers. As the roads improved, however, in the West _ da
islands, carriages were introduced, and then, the demand ceasing
almost entirely, the breed was neglected, and is now unkn'.wn in
its pure form.

. THE AMERICAN THOROUGH-BRED.

Until the English Thorough-bred Horse is described, it is
scarcely possiV^e to enter fully into the pedigree of the American,

THE AMERICAN THOROUGH-BRED. 53

descended as the latter is from stock imported from the mother
country. But, taking the ftict for granted, I may proceed to allude
to the progress which has been made in the United States, from
the date of the first importation. It appears that shortly prior to
the year 1750, a Mr. Ogle, the Grovernor of Maryland, was in pos-
session of Spark, presented to him by Lord Baltimore. About the
Bame time he also imported Queen Mab, by. Musgrove's gray Arab;
and, soon afterwards. Colonel Tasker obtained Selima, daughter
of the Godolphin Arabian-; while Colonel Colville's Miss Colville,
known in the English Stud Book as Wilkes' Old Hautboy mare,
Colonel Taylor's Jenny Cameron, and Routh's Crab, were severally
introduced into the colony. In 1747, Monkey, by the Lonsdale
bay Arab, though in his twenty-second year, crossed the Atlantic,
and got some good stock, followed during the next year by Jolly
Roger, by Roundhead, out of a Partner mare. About 1764, Fear-
nought, a son of Regulus and Silvertail, and therefore of the very
highest English blood, went to America, and within a few years
of that date Morton's Traveller, by Partner, out of a mare by the
Bloody Buttocks Arabian, which completes the list of the importa-
tions prior to the War of Independence. It must be observed,
that, before the year 1829, no Turf Register existed in America^
and hence there is not the same guarantee for the fidelity of a
pedigree as in England, where there are authentic records which
reach to a much earlier pei'iod. Moreover, the war upset the
homes of so many families, that multitudes of documents were lost;
but, nevertheless, I believe sufiicient has been preserved to prove
the authenticity of the pedigrees belonging to the horses which I
have enumerated, and whose progeny can be traced down to the
present day, their blood being mingled with that of numerous im-
portations of a more reeenj; date. The love of raciHg was very soon
implanted in the colonists of Maryland and Virginia, from whom
it spread to North and South Carolina, and in these southern states
the sport has been kept up to the present day with great spirit.
Tennessee was inoculated with the virus of the racing mania soon
after its first settlement, as also may be said of Kentucky, both
states having possessed some very celebrated horses at various
times. New York joined in at a much later period than the southern
states, no organized racing-club existing there until after the com
mencement of the present century; although there were small
racecourses at Newmarket and Jamaica before the Revolution.
But the energy of the true Yankee sent the New Yorkites ahead,
and they soon became worthy rivals of the southern statesmen.
From 1815 to 1845, the great stables of the North and South
were carried on under a most honorable rivalry; but at the second
of these dates, it so happened that a vast number of the most ener-
5*

04 THE HORSE.

getic supporters of the turf in the northern states witl drew from
the arena, and, as they disappeared, none filled the gaps, except
a few professed trainers and jockeys, who carried racing on entirely
as a business, and regardless of that honorable spirit which had
previously distinguished it. Trotting also came into fashion, and
the fanatics preached a crusade against both, which took double
effect upon the sport, already tottering to its fall. It may indeed
be said, that from 1845 to 1855, racing in America was confined
entirely to the south ; but about 1855 or 1859 a new jockey-club
was established in New York, and its members laid out a new race-
course on Long Isknd; but still the second effort was not equal to
the first, and New Orleans has taken the wind altogether out of
the Long Island sails, by the spirited attempt which has been
made by Mi Ten Broeck to match his stud against the first Eng-
lish horses on their own ground. That he has failed in carrying
off the Derby with Umpire is no proof of the general inferiority
of American horses to those of England, any more than his other
great successes are enough to insure a conviction of the opposite
condition in any unprejudiced mind. Umpire might have been
an exceptional horse, and granting to him the high form which he
was last year (1859) assured to possess, it would prove nothing
quoad the general form of the horses of his country. Still it
cannot be denied that they are much nearer to our own than was
believed to be the case before Mr. Ten Broeck came among us; but
how near they are is yet a vexed question, which will take some
time to settle.

The American thorough-bred horse is said to be much
stouter than the modern English strains ; and without doubt Mr
Ten Broeck's Prioress can stay better than most English horses,
though she is not considered by the Americans themselves to be
quite up to the best staying form whicli they possess. This sub-
ject, however, will be better considered after the performances
of the English horse are carefully examined. It must be remem-
bered that, with the exception of the horses recently brought over
to this country, we have no n}oans of comparison beyond the time
test, which is not a reliable one ; firstly, because we have no time-
racea here; and, secondly, because none of our long distances are
run from end to end. As far as I have had an opportunity (jf
seeing, and with the single exception of Charleston, all Mr. Tea
Broeck's horses have been extremely narrow, the crack Umpire in
particular being " like two deal boards nailed together," as the
" men of stable mind " say here. His hips are the narrowest 1
ever saw in a horse supposed to be of first class, and those of
Prioress are not much more developed. The celebrated horse,
Lexington, who is out of the same mare as Umpire, is also reported
to have been very narrow in the hips, so that probably this peon-

VERMONT AND CONESTOGA HORSES. 55

liarity runs throughout that strain of blood, but whether derived
from Alice Carneal or from Boston (who got both Lexington and
Leconipte, the latter the sire of Umpire) I cannot say. Neverthe-
less, unless the time-test is utterly fallacious both Lexington and
Lecompte must have been stout, for they lave each done four
miles, under seven stone two, in seven minutes twenty-six seconds,
with a start similar to that adopted in England. Lexington, with
the same kind of start, has performed the same task in seven min-
utes twenty-three and a half seconds, and with a running start
against time, in the extraordinarily short time of seven minutes
nineteen and three-quarter seconds.

THE VERMONT CART-HORSE.

A DISTINCT BREED of draught-horses under this name is de-
scribed by Mr. Herbert as existing in Vermont and the adjacent
country, though now, he says, less marked than it was prior to the
introduction of railroads. I cannot, however, find any other
authority for it, nor do I quite agree with the a1)ove writer in
thinking the breed, if he rightly describes it, as identical with the
Cleveland Bay. He says, "These are the very models of what
draught-horses should be ; combining immense power with great
quickness, a very respectable turn of speed, fine show, and good
action. These animals have almost invariably lofty crests,' thin
withers, and well set on heads ; and although they are emphati-
cally draught-horses, they have none of that shagginess of mane,
tail, and fetlocks, which indicates a descent from the black horse
of Lincolnshire, and none of that peculiar curliness or waviness
which marks the existence of Canadian or Norman blood for many
generations, and which is discoverable in the manes and tails of
very many of the horses which claim to be pure Morgans. The
peculiar characteristic, however, of these horses, is the shortness
of their backs, the roundness of their barrels, and the closeness of
their ribbing up. One would say that they are ponies until he
comes to stand beside them, when he is astonished to find that thej
are oftener over than under sixteen hands in height."

THE CONESTOGA DRAUGHT-HORSE.
The last on the list of American horses is that known under
the above name, which was given to it from being produced in the
valley of Conestoga, within the state of Pennsylvania. It is a verj
large muscular horse, often reaching to seventeen hands and up-
wards, and closely resembling the heaviest breeds of G-erman and

56

THE HORSE.

COXESTOGA DRAUGHT-HORSE.

Flemish cart-horses. The early settlers of this part of the United
States were mostly Gerilians, and they either brought over with
them some of the hofses of their country, or else they have since
selected from those within their reach the animals most resembling
in appearance their old favorites when in their fatherland. There
is, however, no record of the origin of the breed, and all that can
be done is to describe it as it now exists.

The accompanying sketch embodies the general appearance
of these horses, and by comparing it with the London dray-horse,
it will be seen that it differs only slightly, having the same heavy
outline of form, united with similar comparatively light limbs, but
not burdened with the mountains of flesh and heavy crests which
have been produced in England for purposes of show. In Penn-
sylvania, these horses are chiefly used for wagons, and some few
of thenij when of inferior shape, for the canal traffic. They are
good honest workers, and are quicker and lighter in their action
than might be expected from their weight. Indeed, some of them
are still used %t heavy carriages ; but even in Pennsylvania, for

EARLY MATURITY. 57

quick work, they are generally replaced by the Vtrmont horse, or
Bome nondescript of mixed blood, with which America is com-
pletely overrun.

In color they follow the Flemish horses, except ^hat black is rar«
among them, but like the Flemish they are free from chestnut, and
the larger proportion of them are bay, brown, or iron grays.

CHAPTER V.

THE THOROUGH-BRED HORSE.

Early Maturity — Object of Encouraging the Breed — Essentials in
the Thorough-bred — Purity of Blood — External Formation —
Height — Color — Coat, Mane, and Tail.

EARLY MATURITY.

It is an undeniable f\ict, as I believe, that preternaturally
early maturity is incompatible with lasting qualities of any kind ;
but, though the same rule generally holds good throughout nature,
there are some exceptions. Thus, the oak is more lasting than the
larch, and the elephant outlives the horse, but the goose and the
duck, which arrive at maturity in the same number of months, do
not live through a corresponding series of years. The forcing pro-
cess in gardening is always productive of tenderness, whether the
produce be the cucumber or the sea-kale, and this tenderness is
only another name for imperfect formation to resist decay. In the
days of Eclipse and Childers they were permitted to attain their
full growth without forcing, and, not being wanted till five years
old, their ligaments, terdons, and bones had plenty of time to be
consolidated before they were submitted to the strains and jerks of
the extended gallop. There is also reason to believe that they
were rkot nearly so much or so soon stimulated by large feeds of
oats, as is now invariably the custom, but that they were allowed
to remain at grass, with the shelter of a hovel, during the first ■
three or fo'ir years of their lives. All this is now changed ; the
foal is filled with corn as soon as he will eat it, and at the end of
the first year he is furnished as much as the old-fashioned three-
year-old. One chief difficulty of the trainer now is to keep his
horse sound, and, unfortunately, as disease is n most cases heredi-
tary, and too many unsound stallions are bred from, the difficulty
is yearly on the increase. Without doubt roaring is far more
common than it used to be, and the possession of enlarged joints,
and back sinews, is the rule instead of the exception. During the

68 THE HORSE.

last ten years, the Derby has five times been won by an iinfound
animal, which the trainer was almost immediately afterwards obliged
to put out of work, either from diseased feet or a break-down, and
yet few breeders think of refusing to use such horses as these.
Nevertheless, good legs and feet, and a hearty constitution, are no
small recommendations, and Mr. Merry may thank them for \nn
ning him the great prize of the year 1860, with Thormanby, a son
of that wonderful mare Alice Hawthorne. Thormanby, however,
is not an instance of a colt having been reserved till he was arrived
at his growth, for there are few horses which have been more used,
having run fourteen times as a two-year-old; but his naturally
excellent legs and feet, and the fine down on which he is trained,
have enabled him to pull through unscathed. Now the reliance
which was placed by his backers on these good qualities, proves
that he is an exception to the rule ; for if they were at all common,
they would be of comparatively little advantage. The truth really
is, that the average racehorse of modern times is of such forced
growth, that he is unable to bear the wear and tear of training as
he used to do, and hence a much larger percentage of unsound
animals is to be met with. He is bred mainly for speed, super-
added to which is as much stoutness and soundness of constitution
as can be procured among the most speedy horses at the service
of the breeder. By a perseverance in this method of selection, he
has undoubtedly become more speedy, and less lasting in propor-
tion to his speed, that is to say, he cannot be extended for as long
a time as he used to bear with impunity. But that he cannot
cover as much ground in a given time as formerly is, I think, an
error, — for there is every reason to believe that any distance may
now be run in as short a time at least, as either in the middle of
the last century or the beginning of this.

OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED OF HORSES.
The great object of encouraging the breed of racehorses is,
however, lost sight of, if suitable crosses for hunting, cavalry, and
hack-mares cannot be obtained from their ranks. In these three
kinds, soundness of the feet and legs is all important, together with
a capacity to bear a continuation of severe work. These qualities
are highly developed in the Arab, and until lately were met with
in his descendants on the English turf. Even now a horse with a
stain in his pedigree will not bear the amount of training which a
thorough-bred will sustain, his health and spirits soon giving way
if forced to go through the work which the racehorse requires to
make him " fit." But the legs and feet of the latter are the draw-
backs to his use, and the trainer of the present day will generally
be sadly taxed to make them last through a dry summer. Our
modern roads are also much harder since the inti'oduction of mac-

OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE B HEED. 59

adamization, and thus, in proportion to our greater demands, is the
absence of the material to meet them. A hack that is not pretty
well bred is now neglected, except for high weights, because his
paces are not soft and pleasant, and he does not satisfy the eye.
But how many of the fashionable sort will bear constant use on
the road without becoming lame ? And how many sound horsea
are there to be met with out of a hundred, taken at random from
the ranks of any kind tolerably well bred ? Every horse proprietor
will tell you, scarcely five per cent.; and some will even go so far
as to say, that a sound horse is utterly unknown. In considering
the principles and practice of breeding, I shall again refer to this
subject; but I wish now to impress upon my readers that while
the racehorse of 1860 is as fast as ever, as stout as ever, and as
good looking as ever, he is made of more perishable materials in
proportion as he comes to maturity at an earlier period. Any of
our modern two-year-olds would probably give two stone, and a
beating to Eclipse at the same age, but if afterwards they were put
to half-bred mares for the purpose of getting hacks, chargers, or
hunters, the stock of Eclipse or Childers would be much more
valuable than any which we have at present. We are sadly in
want of sound and well bred stallions for general purposes, and if
the government of the country does not soon interfere, and adopt
some means of furnishing these islands with them, we shall be
beaten on our own ground, and shall have to import sound useful
horses from Belgium, France,' Hungary, or Prussia, whichever
country can best spare them. The old-fashioned and sound tho-
rough-bred horse has been the means of improving the above three
breeds ; and even now we possess horses which are perfect in every
other respect but soundness, being excellent hacks, hunters, and
light carriage-horses, and often all in one. This last kind is the
perfection of the horse ; and if many such could be produced it
would be a great advantage, because most people would like a horse
which could " make himself generally useful," if such an animal
could be obtained. Without high-breeding, however, this is im-
possible ; and yet with most of our purest strains, though it is
attainable for a time, the condition in which it exists does not last
long, in consequence of the effect of the hard road upon their soft
legs or contracted feet. Consequently, as I have already remarked,
there is a necessity for government interference to produce such a
breed of th urough-bred horses, by careful selection, as shall give
us the above three kinds of horses useful in civil life, from which
may ho called a plentiful supply of cavalry horses, whenever wanfeed;
for the very same qualities are demanded in all, and what will suit
the one will be equally advantageous to the other.

But even though the thorough-bred horse is well fitted to com
pete with others in all cases where speed is the chief point of trial—

60 TLE HORSE.

as ill flat-racing, steeple-chasing, hunting, &c., — ^yet he is not so
well qualified for some kinds of harness-work, or for road-wovk of
any kind, as the horse expressly bred for these purposes. There
is no doubt that thorough-bred horses might be selected and bred
expressly for this kind of work, and would excel all others, because
originally their limbs and constitutions were at least as sound as,
or perhaps even sounder than, any other class of horses; but while
they are selected and bred solely for speed, without much reference
to these other qualities, it is useless to expect much improvement ;
but on the contrary, they may be expected to become yearly more
and more soft and yielding. For many purposes the Eastern horse
is wholly unfit— -as, for instance, for heavy and dead pulls ; here
his high courage, light weight, and hasty temper are adverse to
•the performance of the task, and he is far excelled by the old Eng-
lish, or modern improved cart-horse. No thorough-bred horse
would try again and again at a dead pull like many of our best
breeds of cart-horses ; and therefore he is little calculated for work
which requires this slow struggling kind of exertion. The pull of
the Eastern horse, or his descendant, is a snatch ; and though it
may to a certain extent be modified by use, yet it can never be
brought up to the standard of the English cart-horse, even if the
weight of carcase and size and strength of limb of the former
could be sufficiently increased.

ESSENTIALS IN THE THOROUGH-BRED.

Such then are the general qualities of the thorough-bred
liorse and the purposes to which he can be beneficially applied. It
remains now to consider the formation and specific characteristics
best adapted to the turf, which is his chief arena ; and also to the
hunting-field, which now absorbs a very large number of his breed.
Finally, it will be necessary to consider him as a means of improv-
ing other breeds, such as the cavalry-charger, hack and harness
horse, but these subjects will fall under the respective heads here
mentioned.

PURITY OF BLOOD.

In the first place purity op blood must be considered as a
sine qud non, for without it a horse cannot be considered thorough-
bred, and therefore we have only to ascertain the exact meaning
of the term " blood." It is not to be supposed that there is any
real difference between the blood of the thorough-bred horse, and
that of the half-bred animal ; no one could discriminate between
the two by any known means; the term "blood" is here synony-
mous with breed, and by purity of blood is meant purity in the
breeding of the individual animal under consideration ; that is to
say, that the horse which is entirely bred from one source is pure
from any mixture with any other, and may be a pure Suffolk

EXTERNAL FORMATION. 61

Punch, or a pure Clydesdale, or a pure thorougli-bred horse. But
all these terms are comparative, since there is no such animal as a
perfectly purely bred horse of any breed, whether cart-horse, hack,
or racehorse ; all have been produced from an admixture with
other kinds, and though wow kept as pure as possible, yet they
were originally compounded from varying elements ; and thus the
racehorse of 1700, was obtained from a mixture of Turks, Arabs,
and Barbs. Even the best and purest thorough-breds are stained
with some slight cross with the old English or Spanish horse, as I
have heretofore shown, and therefore it is only by comparison that,
the word pure is applicable to them or any others. But since the
thorough-bred horse, as he is called, has long been bred for the
race-course, and selections have been made with that view alone,
it is reasonable to suppose that this breed is the best for that pur-
pose, and that a stain of any other is a deviation from the clearest
stream into one more muddy, and therefore impure; the conse-
quence is, that the animal bred from the impure source fails in
' some of the essential characteristics of the pure breed, and is in
so far useless for this particular object. Now, in practice this is
found to be the case, for in every instance it has resulted that the
horse bred with the slightest deviation from the sources indicated
by the stud-book, is unable to compete in lasting power with those
which are entirely oi pure blood. Hence it is established as a
rule, that for racing purposes every horse must be thorough-bred ;
that is, as I have already explained, descended from a sire and
dam whose names are met with in the stud-book.

EXTERNAL FORMATION.

Next comes the external shape or conformation of the
racehorse, which is a subject very much studied by those who have
the selection and management of them. Experienced trainers, and
those who have watched the performances of the celebrities of the
turf for successive years, will tell you that " the horse can run in
all forms," and so no doubt he can as an exception, but the rule
nevertheless is, that there is a standard which should be regarded
as the best suited for the race-course, and this will vary somewhat
according to the performance which is required of each individual
There is no doubt that the most skilful selection is not always at-
tended with success, and the statistics of the turf do not lead us
to believe that £1000 invested under the advice of John Scott or
John Day, in the purchase of a yearling, will always bring a re-
muneration. Indeed, the contrary has so often been the case, that
high-priced yearlings are generally regarded with suspicion, when
they make their first appearance on the course. The winner of
the Derby of 1860 m snt a-begging, and was at last bought for a
very moderate price. So also with Butterfly, the winner of the Oaks
6

<52 THE HORSE.

no store was set upon lier until she came to be tried; and even on
the morning of the race she was not generally thought good enough
to win The celebrated Blink Bonny was a mean-looking mare, and
would not have fetched £50 at Tattersall's, from her appearance

FISHERMAN.

alone, and that wonderful animal Fisherman was never liked till he
proved his powers. Still, it cannot be denied that a good judge will
select the ten best horses out of twenty, or perhaps out of a hundred ;
but he will possibly leave the very best out of his list. The theo-
retical rule is simple enough, but it requires great experience, and
a good eye to carry it out in practice. It is simply this, that,
cseteris jjaribus, the horse which is formed in the mould most like
that of the greatest number of good racehorses, M'ill run the best.
Thus, supposing it is found that out of fifty good horses, forty-
nine have neat heads, light necks, deep chests, oblique shoulders,
long racing hind-quarters, strong hocks, &c., the presumption will
be that a horse resembling those forty-nine in shape, will also re-
semble them in speed and endurance. On the other hand, it ia

EXTERNAL FOKMATION. 63

admitted on the turf, that high-breeding is of more consequence
than external shape, and that of two horses, one perfect in shape,
but of an inferior strain of blood, and the other of the most -win-
ning blood, but not so well formed in shape, the latter will be the
most likely to perform to the satisfaction of his owner on the race-
course. On this principle the proverb has been framed and handed
down to us, that " an ounce of blood is worth a pound of bone,"
and with the above explanation such is really the case. But in
spite of all this recognised superiority of blood, it is indisputable
that for the highest degree of success there must be not only high
purity of blood, and that of the most winning strains, but there must
also be a frame of the most useful character, if not always of the
most elegant form. Many of our very best horses have been plain^
and even coarse-looking — as, for instance, most of the Melbournes,
and especially that very fast horse. Sir Tatton Sykes ; but in spite
of their plainness, all their points are good and useful, and the
deficiency is in elegance, not in real utility. On the other hand,
there are some strains which unite elegance with utility, such
as the fast and stout Venisons, which are remarkable for their
beautiful frames and neat Arabian heads. But there must always
be a distinction made between what is really useful and what is
only agreeable to the eye. There are some characteristics which,
over and above their mechanical advantages, indicate high-breeding,
and as such are regarded with especial lavor by purchasers. For
these a term has of late years been invented, the meaning of which
is well understood, but somewhat difficult to define. Thus, we
hear it often remarked, that a particular horse is deficient in "qua-
lity," or that he has it in perfection; and in proportion to the one
or the other of these conditions is he meant to be praised or con-
demned. It is not simply a word synonymous with " breeding,"
for a horse may show high breeding, and yet be deficient in "qua-
lity," but if with a look which convinces you that he has a pure
pedigree, he conjoins a perfect symmetry in all his parts, and in
the shapes displayed by the thorough-bred, he then comes up to
the description which stamps a horse in these days with the highest
seal of approbation, for " he has plenty of quality."

But what is the recognised form of the racehorse ? I must here
explain to the tyro that the word " form" is used with two different
significations by racing men, and like the word " box" is very puz-
zling to foreigners. In the common acceptation it is synonymous
with ■' «;hape," and merely means the mechanical development of
the individual. But in the language of the turf, when we say that
a horse is " in form," we intend to convey to our hearers that he
is in high condition and fit to run. So again, the word is used in
still another sense, for we speak of a horse's " form" when we wish
to allude to his powers on the turf, as compared with other well-

64

THE HORSE.

known animals. Thus, if it is supposed that two three-year-olds,
carrying the same weight, would run a mile-and-a-half, and come in
abreast, it is said, that "the form" of the one is equal to that of
the other. It is necessary, therefore, in order to make a descrip-
tion intelligible, when using the term in its mechanical significa-
tion, to add the adjective, external, although, at first sight, it may
appear to be an instance of tautology, for it might be alleged that
internal forms can only be ascertained by dissection. With this
explanation, I must now proceed to discuss what are generally con-
sidered to be the best shapes, for the purpose of combining speed
with stoutness, remembering that we are examining the thorough-
bred horse, and are not alluding to any other. As an instance of
a very opposite conformation to that of Fisherman at page 62, 1
insert here a portrait of Saunterer. both after careful paintings by

SAUnTERER.

Mr. Barraud. These are generally admitted to have been the two
best horses of their time, yet it is scarcely possible to imagine a
greater difierence to exist in first-class animals, than is displayed
by them. Fisherman, short and strong, looks more like a hunter
than a racehorse j while Saunterer, long and elegant, appears in-

EXTERNAL FORMATION. 65

capable of carrying more than ten stone. The student will do
well to study these animals carefully, but it must not be omitted
that the portrait of Fisherman was taken after he was thrown out
of training.

The body or trunk is the grand centre of all the muscular pul-
lies and bony levers, which are used to move the horse, and it
must, therefore, first come under consideration, although, as a
matter of convenience, the horseman generally commences with
the head. It is quite true that it in turn receives its orders from
the brain, as will be hereafter explained, in treating of the nervous
system, but as a mere machine it may be regarded independently
of that organ altogether. It must, however, be viewed in three
difierent aspects, inasmuch as it has three different ofl&ces to per-
form. These are, first, to carry its load, and propel it by means
of the levers connected with it. Secondly, to afford room for the
heart and lungs to perform their functions in its " chest," without
interfering with the play of the shoulders ; and, thirdly, to lodge
an efficient apparatus of nutrition. The first of these divisions
comprehends the back, loins, and croup; the second is the
CHEST ; and the third may be considered under the head of the

BACK-RIBS, plank, AND BELLY.

The Back, Loins, and Croup of the race-horse, as indeed of
all horses but those used exclusively for draught, are generally
described as necessarily moulded more or less in the form of an
arch. Every architect is aware that this formation is best adapted
to carry weight. A straight-backed greyhound is by some expe-
rien-ced coursers, preferred to one which has a slight arch in that
part ; but in this animal there is no weight to be carried beyond
that of his own carcase, and, therefore, even granting the supe-
riority in him of a straight loin (which I do not), there is no
analogy between the two animals. Nor do I believe altogether in
the received theory which attaches importance to the arched loin,
because of its greater capacity/ for hearing weight from its mechani-
cal form. Practically I concede, as an admitted fact, that a horse
with this construction of frame will carry weight better than one
which has a hollow loin; but, on examining the skeleton of each,
it will be seen that in neither are the bodies of the vertebrae in
this part of the spine arranged so as to form an arch, or if there
is one, it has its concavity, not its convexity upwards, which cer'
tainly will not conduce to its weight-bearing powers. The fact
really is, that in the arched loin the spinous processes are unusually
long, and are raised into a crest like the high withers. By this
development of bone an extra space is afforded, for both the lodg-
ment and attachment of muscles, and herein is the secret of the
extra power. Between the pelvis and the bodies of the vertebrae
a true arch is formed, and according t^ the slope or fall of the
6* E

66 THE HORSE,

quarters will it be useful in carrying weight; but this is quite
irrespective of the loin, which may be arched or flat in conjunction
with either formation. It is, however, most common to find an
arched loin united with an inclined pelvis, and when the two are
found together, the horse possessing this formation may be con-
sidered so far as "up to weight." Sometimes we see the pelvis
inclined, but the tail set on high, and the loin hollow, and then we
may sur'jly predicate that there will be a want of power in these
parts, and that the seven stone of Lord Redesdale will be quite
sufficient for tht animal to carry. "With this objectionable shape,
there is a hollow on each side of the croup, which is very charac-
teristic of the defect, and which is carefully eschewed by the expe-
rienced horseman. If the spine between the two supports afforded
by the fore and hind extremities were really an arch, length would
but little affect it, for we know that an arch of ninety feet span, is
no stronger than one of a hundred feet, if both are properly con-
structed ; but being nearly a straight line, with its component parts
kept in their proper places, by a series of levers and pullies, length
tells most unfavorably; and " a short back, with plenty of length
below," is the height of the horseman's ambition to possess.

Mr. Percivall has fallen into a strange error in estimating tne
advantages of a long back, as may be readily seen on an examina-
tion of the following passage : — " Regarding the dorsal portion of
the spine, with its superimposed burthen, as a pole or lever, sup-
ported in front by the fore limbs, and behind by the back limbs,
after the manner of a barrel of beer, or a sedan between its bearers ;
it is manifest, that the greater its length, the greater must be the
leverage, and consequent reduction of the weight of the burthen.
On this principle, the legs of the long-backed horse are actually
sustaining less load than those of the short-backed horse, even
though their riders or burthens may be of equivalent weights, from
the circumstance of their operating at a greater distance from the
load." The fellacy of this argument is apparent to every person
who has the slightest knowledge of mechanical powers; but as my
readers may not at all be in a position to estimate its value, I shall
just make a few observations upon it, as I have heard it adduced
on several occasions, to support the advantage of a long back. Now
we will suppose a weight of 500 pounds on a plank, supported upon
four props, two being five feet from the other two, and the pairs
one foot apart, resembling, in fact, the relative position of the feet
of a horse. Let the whole be arranged on a weighing machine, so
that only the four legs touch its table, and take the weight. Then
remove the two pairs of legs to a distance of six feet, and again
take the weight. According to Mr. Percivall it ought to be less
than before, but, tested by actual experiment, there will not be the
hundredth part of a rrain variation, even if the instrument is suflB-

EXTERNAL FORMATION. 67

ciently delicate to re2;ister that weight. A. and B. cairy a weight
between them, suspended to a pule, and they find it mure conve-
nient to have that pole tolerably long, because they can shift the
weight from one to the other more easily than with a shorter one,
but they carry the same weight in either case. A. can raise it by
means of his long lever more easily than with a short one, but he
can only eflFect this by making use of B.'s hand as a fulcrum, and
for the moment throwing the weight off himself upon it, while B.
returns the compliment in his turn, and both are relieved. For
the mere purpose of carrying weight, therefore, a short back is to
be preferred ; but there is a limitation put to this by the necessity
for length of limb to give pace, and if the legs are too long for the
back, the action of the fore-quarter is impeded by the hind, and
vice versd. Hence, in all horses, a reasonable length is preferred,
and this will vary according to the occasion for weight-carrying
power. In the thorough-bred horse, pace is essential, and his back
must consequently be of sufficient length to allow the free use of
such limbs as will give stride enough to develop it. We shall
hereafter find, that the cart-horse may have a much shorter back,
even though he has no weight to carry, but he requires strong
couplings of the hind and fore-quarter for the former to act upon,
in dragging heavy weights, and as in him pace, beyond the walk,
is never required, a short back may be allowed to be a great advan-
tage, without any attendant evil.

The most important elements of strength in the back and loins
are the depth and breadth of its muscles, for they, and not the
tones, as I have shown, are the real mechanical means by which
not only weight is carried but propelled. Now to lodge these mus-
cles, there must be high spinous processes, wide hips, and such a
formation of the ribs as to give width at their upper parts. Gene-
rally speaking the two last coincide, but sometimes the hips stand
out in a very "ragged" or prominent position, while the ribs are
flat. This formation, however, comes next to the most approved
combination, and is far better than the narrow hips and flat sides
which we now see in too many of our thorough-bred horses. In
connection with this division of the body may be taken the croup,
the upper outline of which is formed by the prolongation of tha
spine towards the root of the tail; but the essential parts are made
up by the pelvis. It is very generally assumed that in order to
develop high speed, the pelvis must be long, and this I believe to
be perfectly true ; but the length need not be in a perfectly hori-
zontal direction, and is I think much better if developed at an
inclination of about twenty-five degrees, that is to say, with a con-
siderable fall. With this formation there may be the same length
for the attachmemi of muscles, and the same leverage in their action
on the thigh, for the situation of the hip joint (or round bone) is

68 THE HiJflSE.

not altered in relation to them, though it is lower and more forward
in reference to the spine. Hence the muscles which draw the
thigh forward have more power, and also act much more quickly,
giving that rapid thrust of the hind legs forward which is essential
to good and strong action. With the perfectly horizontal croup
you may have a long sweeping stroke which tells over such a course
as Newmarket, but you very rarely meet with a quick coupling and
uncoupling, unless the pelvis is set on the sacrum or continuation
of the spine, at a considerable angle, so as to give the quarters
more or less droop. Most of our best horses have exhibited this
formation, while a great number of very handsome, but utterly
useless brutes, might be enumerated which possess the high croup
of the Arab in an exaggerated condition, of which Mr. Gratwick's
Ethiopian is a good example. If the portraits of the Godolphin
Barb are at all to be depended on, we are indebted to him for the
introduction of this useful, though not particularly elegant shape,
and I believe that it is in this direction, and in point of size, that
he has been so useful in the stud. The eye is captivated by the
animal, which, as the dealers say, " has both ends up;" and expe-
rience teaches every horseman, who will profit by it, that both the
Btargazer and the high-crouped horse are to be avoided. In select-
ing the thorough-bred horse, then, choose such as have a deep and
wide back and loin, avoiding either the " roach back," which causes
that part to be inflexible, and the hollow one, which tends to give
way too much under weight, but regarding as most desirable such
a width of ribs and hips, and depth of spinous processes as shall
give sufficient lodgment for muscles, and looking also for a proper
length of spine, not too short for stride, nor too long for strength.
Lastly, let the pelvis be attached at such an angle as to give a slight
droop to the quarters, whether the tail be set on in correspondence
with it or not, for the dock does not always come out of the pelvis
in the same position viewed in relation to that part alone.

Some of the above opinions are in opposition to those of Mr
Percivall, who objects to a great width of hip in the race-horse,
and also asserts that he cannot be too lengthy and straight in his
quarters. He says, "Although the race-horse may prove disadvan-
tageously broad across his hips, I believe he will never be found
either too lengthy or too straight in his quarters; by which I mean
the length and elevation of an imaginary line carried from eithei
hip to the point of his quarter or of another carried from the sum-
mit of his rump to the root ot his hock. Such straight formation
of quarter implies small degree of inclination in the position of the
pelvis, the effect of which is extension of the angles between the
pelvis and the femoral bones, and corresponding increase of the dis-
tances between the pelvis and the stifles in front, and between the
pelvic and hocks behind; thereby augmenting the dimensions of

EXTERNAL FORMATKN. 69

the muscles running between these salient points, and at the same
time furnishing them with, under the circumstances, tlie greatest
advantages in their action. Length and straightness in the quar-
ters must therefore be regarded as characteristic attributes of the
race-horse." Of the probability of meeting with too great a width
of hip in the race-horse I am extremely doubtful, and nntil I see
it I shall continue sceptical. The Melbournes, which have thia
part wider than in any other strain, are certainly not to be despised,
and, in spite of Mr. Percivall, I must, on the contrary, continue to
admire them, whenever they are to be found ; my chief regret is,
that wide hips are so scarce among the descendants of that horse.
The second division op the body, or the chest, in the
thorough-bred horse, must afford sufficient room for the heart and
lungs, but it must not be too wide, or it will interfere with the free
play of the shoulder-blade as it glides on the side. An open bosom
is regarded as a sure sign of want of pace by every racing man of
experience, and I know of no single exception. One of the finest two-
year olds I ever saw in every other respect was Lord Standbroke's
Rose de Florence ; but I could have laid any reasonable odds that
she would be deficient in pace, because she was made as wide as a
cart-horse between the forelegs, and so she proved to be on trial.
A horse of fifteen hands three, or sixteen hands when in stud con-
dition should measure at least seventy-four inches, and should be
wide through the part where the rider's knees come on the saddle j
but below this the ribs should rapidly shelve inwards, and in this
way allow the shoulder points to come closer together, and the
elbows to act without being " tied." The anatomy of this part is
treated of elsewhere, and I am now regarding it simply in propor-
tion to the rest of the body. Anatomically, and considered per se,
a round or barrel-like chest is the best, because it admits of more
free expansion and contraction, but when either high speed or
smooth action is required, this formation is objectionable for the
reasons I have given above, and in all cases it is to be avoided in
the thorough-bred horse, while in some other breeds it must be
looked for with great anxiety. It has been proved that good wind
may be obtained from a chest possessing great depth without much
width, and in some cases with a very narrow bosom, as in the cele-
brated Crucifix (dam of Priam) ; and as the opposite proportions
are incompatible with speed, they must on that account be alto-
gether rejected. The withers are generally thin, and sometimes
raised quite into a razor-like form, which, however, is a defect, as
it is attended with no advantages to counterbalance the difficulty
which it presents in the way of the saddler, who is constantly being
called on to prevent his tree hurting the horse's back. A mode-
rate development of the spinous processes is required to give attach-
ment to the muscles wlrich support the neck and move the shoulder,

70 THE HORSE.

but tlie excessive h^iglit whicli we sometimes see is not of the
sligttest avail for this purpose.

The next and last component parts of the body are the
BACK-RIBS, flank, AND BELLY. Here we have chiefly to consider
the proper lodgment of the organs of nutrition ; but there is also
the junction of the fore and hind quarters to come under review.
For both these purposes the back-ribs should be long, or, as such
a formation is generally called, " deep," so as not only to give pro-
tection to the contents of the belly, but to afford a strong attach-
ment to the muscles which connect the chest to the hips. The
space, also, between the latter and the last rib should not be large,
or there will be an element of weakness ; but if too limited, the
action in the gallop will be confined, and the hind legs will not be
brought sufficiently forward. About the breadth of the hand is
the proper allowance to make for this space in a horse of average
size and make, and either more or less than this may be considered
a defect. To obtain this formation, the ribs themselves must be
set wide apart, and not huddled up together, as you sometimes see,
leaving a great space between the last and the hip. When the
back-ribs are long, the lower outline of the belly swells consider-
ably below the level of the girth-place, and a very elegant 'shape
is developed, as well as one generally united with a hardy consti-
tution. Sometimes, it is true, the two are not combined, and now
and then we meet with a very good feeder and robust animal with
shallow back ribs ; but the rule may be considered to be as I have
stated it, and the purchaser will do well to attend to it in making
his selection, when he knows nothing of the character of the indi-
vidual. For fast road-work, where the failure of the legs is gene-
rally the limit to the amount of work, a very heavy carcase is an
objection, as it increases the weight upon them ; and an overtopped
harness-horse — that is, one with a body too big for his legs — is a
most worthless brute ; but in the thorough-bred there is seldom
this formation, and the tendency is, on the other hand, to be too
light in the flank, rather than too deep. A light-carcased or
herring-gutted horse when " set" for the race-course or the fast
hunting country looks cut in two, and his performances generally
0 >rrespond with his appearance.

Projecting forward with a beautiful sweep, the neck comes
out Df the chest in this kind of horse with a most elegant outline.
Of a greater length than in any other, it is also proportionally
thin; i?ut both these dimensions may easily be exaggerated, a very
long and thin neck being objectionable, and rarely corresponding
with good wind. The lines resemble greatly those of the neck of
the gamecock ; and when there is a decided angle about three or
four inches from the jaw, the horse is said to be " cock-throppled,"
and it is then generelly supposed that he is wire than usuallj

EXTERNAL FORMATION 71

.iable to become a roarer or a whistler. The curve of this part a
good deal depends upon the breaking and subsequent riding, differ-
ent hands producing a great variation in the carriage ; but if the
bones are so formed and connected together that the natural curve
has its concavity upwards, it is almost impossible to produce a
proper bend in the other direction, though still much may be ac-
complished by perseverance. A " ewe neck," as this is called, is
very objectionable on this account; bu,t it is very often combined
Trith speed, fine action, and great gameness. More depends upon
the junction between the head and neck, than upon the latter in
itself, for by long-continued perseverance, it may be made so supple
as to bend at the rider's will; but if the jaws are too narrow to
allow the head to bend upon the neck, no means that can be ap-
plied will make any impression, and the result is that the mouth is
spoiled, and frequently the temper also. A large and free wind-
pipe, that is, one of sufficient diameter for the passage of air, and
not tied down by any bands of fascia, will be necessary for good
wind ; and this point should specially be examined.

In the head is contained the organ of intelligence, which is
also the chief seat of that nervous energy which animates the
whole body. Here also are the eyes, and the external apertures of
the breathing apparatus ; so that the form of this part of the body
is of great importance. Size is power, and, cseteris paribus^ a large
brain is to be regarded as a most valuable adjunct. Hence the
head should be wide above the eyes, as well as between the ears,
and somewhat full or projecting in the forehead also, in order to
give lodgment to a brain of good volume. It is the great develop-
ment of this organ in the thorough-bred and his Eastern relations,
that gives the extraordinary stoutness and fire for which they are
so remarkable ; and therefore a horse of this breed deficient in
volume of brain will be found in these respects no better than his
low-bred rivals. In every other part, the weight should be reduced
to the minimum necessary for carrying on the functions peculiar
to it, save only the eye, a very small one being generally found to
be pi'oue to disease. The thorough-bred horse has a beautifully
full and gazelle-like eye; but in this organ many half-bred animals
are quite equal to him — the eye of the cart-horse, however, show-
ing the opposite extreme. A very prominent or unnaturally con-
vex eye, called a " buck eye," is not to be regarded as desirable,
being an evidence of shortness of sight, and therefore not to be
confounded with the full and soft expression indicative of good
manners, high courage when roused, and soundness. Next to the
eyes in importance are the nostrils, which sh7uld be open, and
when the horse has gallopped should stand out stiffly, showing the
red lining membrane, and admitting the air freely. Of course,
even the smallest nostrils are of larger area than the windpipe ;

72 THE HORSE.

but there is generally a coincidence between tlieir size and that of
the internal passages higher up, and on that account a patent nos-
tril is to be looked for with some anxiety. I have known some
horses with small nostrils possess excellent wind, because in them
the internal conformation was of full size, and if, as I before re-
marked, the area of the two nostrils together is always much
greater than that of the windpipe, they cannot in themselves rffer
any impediment to breathing. Without a trial, however, as the
internal passages cannot be measured, the size of the nostrils must
be accepted as the best guide to that of the more essential parts,
and practically this is sufficient for general purposes, only inferior
to an actual trial. The ears should be moderately long, thin, and
not inclined to " lop." The muzzle should be fine ; but in those
very pointed jaws, which their owners regard with so much pride,
as " small enough to drink out of a quart pot," the nostrils are
seldom large enough, and hence they are to be regarded with great
suspicion, beautiful as they undoubtedly are. A slight concavity
in the front line, descending from the forehead to the front of the
muzzle, is regarded as a mark of breeding, and, if not too marked,
deservedly so ; but a very deep concavity is often attended with a
vicious temper. Lastly, a lean and wide lower jaw should not be
omitted as a grand desideratum ; the former point is merely a sign
of breeding, but the latter is (as I before remarked in describing
the neck) essential to the proper bending of the one part on the
other. The experienced horseman always passes his fingers be-
tween the angles, and if there is not plenty of room, he knows that
the head cannot be well carried, and he is inclined to suspect that
the larynx will be impeded in its functions, and that, consequently,
respiration will be afiected either by roaring, whistling, or some or
other of the many forms of " making a noise." With all these
dimensions, which may, comparatively, readily be described, there
should be combined a cheerful and airy expression of countenance,
without any appearance of vice. The thorough-bred horse is not
often too sluggish, and it is not in that direction that we should
look for infirmities of temper ; nor is it easy to describe the marks
or signs by which vice of any kind can be at once recognised from
the mere expression. Still the horseman will do well to study the
countenance of this as well as other breeds of horses, and he will
find, in course of time, that no little assistance will be derived
from it.

The SnouLDER-BLADE is, like the head, peculiarly formed in
the Eastern horse, having greater obliquity in its position, and a
superior length and breadth, as compared with all others. For the
reasons which may be alleged for the desirability of these character-
istics, I must refer to pages 21-22, where I have already given them.
Suffice it to observe, that an obliquely-place and broad blade, well

EXTERNAL FORMATION. 73

clothed with muscles, is the desirable formation of this part, added
to a well-developed " point," as the prominence at the joint between
the blade and true arm-bone is called by the horseman. If this is
too level and smooth, the muscles which are attached to it have
. not sufficient leverage ; while if it is very ragged and prominent,
it is a mark of diseased or excessive growth of bone, and is gene-
rally attended with a stiffness of the part. Indeed, in examining
a shoulder blade, freedom of action is to be regarded much more
than its exact position when at rest; for if you have the desired
effect, it matters not (except for breeding purposes) whether it is
exceptional or not; and, as a matter of course, it is better to have
a freely-playing shoulder which when at rest is too upright than a
perfectly formed one confined to its place, as we sometimes see it.
The oblique shoulder-blade is specially required in all horses which
come down upon their fore legs after a spring, whether this is in
the gallop, or the leap, or the trot, for the use of it is by its elas-
ticity to break the jar which is thereby occasioned. The upright
form is stronger, as the weight is placed more directly over the
column which bears it, but it allows of less elasticity under the
sudden shock given by the impetus of the body as it approaches
the earth, and for this reaso^i is only suited to the slow work of the
cart-horse, or heavy machiner. In conjunction with the oblique,
and therefore long blade, is always found a long true arm, which
is sometimes so extended backward as to place the elbow absolutely
in the way of the girths, and then perhaps may be considered as
too long, especially as it throws the weight of the fore-quarter
much in front of the fore legs, and tends to make the horse pos-
sessing it somewhat unsafe, unless his action is particularly free.
This part also should be well clothed with muscles.

The fore arm or arm, as it is generally called, is not re-
markable for any great peculiarities, but it is somewhat larger in
proportion to the cannon bone than in other breeds.

The knee is broad and deep, from before backwards, and the
leg below the knee is peculiarly free from that contraction or
"tying in" which in the cart-horse and allied breeds is so objec-
tionable, being an element of weakness when the joint is exposed
to the strains incidental to fast work of any kind. So also a bend-
ing backwards of the joint called the "calf-knee," common in the
cart-horse, is condemned in the race-horse for the same reason.

The bone op the leg both in the fore and hind-quarter is
small, but of compact substance, while the suspensory ligament
and back sinew are so large, and stand out so freely, as to appear
to form quite one-half of the leg. The fetlock joints are clean
and of good size, the pasterns long and elastic, and the feet though
small as compared with other breeds, yet large enough for the
7 .

74 THE HORSE.

weight tliey have to earr_ their horny covering being also tough
and compact.

In the hind-quarter the Eastern horse and his descendants
excel all others in symmetry and in the length of the various parts
composing it. Comparing the cart-horse with the subject of the
present investigation, one is struck with the greatly increased
length of the thighs of the latter, approaching almost to the pro-
portions of the greyhound. In .the cart-horse, when walking, the
stifle joint can hardly be seen, while in the race-horse it is brought
out prominently at every step. This gives the stride necessary for
pace, and the fast strain of blood known as that of Selim, and his
brothers Castrel and Rubens, possesses this peculiarity in a marked
manner, though from the high position of the stifle in them, and
their straight hocks, many people lose sight of this peculiarity.
With regard to the hocks' of a race-horse, they should be of full
size, clean, and as a matter of course, free from curbs or spavins.
They are also generally considered to require very long points, that
is to say, the projecting lever to which the ham-string is attached
should be long. From an examination of many race-horses I an:
satisfied that for speed this may be over-done, for though power ig
gained by it, quickness is sacrificed; and a very long point to the
hock is apt to give long, dull, and dwelling action, entirely oppo-
site to quick pace, though perhaps telling over a long flat. All
are agreed that the gaskin or lower thigh must be muscular, and
both for beauty and efi"ect this is a most important point. In other
respects, the hind-quarter of the thorough-bred should resemble
that of any other variety of the species.

The whole of these points should be in proportion to one an-
other; that is to say, the formation of the horse should be " true."
He should not have long well-developed hind-quarters, with an
upright, weak, or confined fore-quarter. Nor will the converse
serve, for however well formed the shoulder may be, the horse will
not go well unless he has a similar formation in the propellers. It
is of great importance, therefore, that the race-horse should have
all his various points in true relative development ; and that there
shall not be the hind-quarter of a long racing-like horse, with the
thick confined shoulder which would suit a stride less reaching in
its nature. A remarkable instance of the advantages of such a
formation is exhibited in Saunterer, whose frame is not charac-
terized by power or any other special perfection, but being per-
fectly true in his formation he was one of the best, if not the very
best, horse of his year, as he proved by his various achievements.
At pdge 64 will be found an engraving of him, copied from one of
the bsst portraits I ever saw, by Mr. H. Barraud, which should be
carefully examined.

IM

h^^'

/

HEIGHT— COLOR— COAT, MANE, AND TAIL. 75

HEIGHT.
In height the race-horse varies from fifteen hands to sixteen
and a half, or even seventeen hands; but the general height of our
best horses is about fifteen hands three inches. Few fii'st^class
performers have exceeded the height of Surplice, who is sixteen
hands one inch, as is also another Derby winner, Wild Dayrell.
Sir Tatton Sykes was fifteen and a half hands ; and between his
height and that of Surplice may be ranged every great winner for
the last ten or twelve years. This average, therefore, may fairly be
laid down as the best height for the race-horse, though it cannot
be denied that for some small and confined courses — as, for in-
stance, that of Chester, a smaller horse of little more than fifteen
hands height has a better chance, as being more capable of turn-
ing round the constantly recurring angles or bends.

COLOE.

The color of the thorough-bred horse is now generally bay,
brown, or chestnut, one or other of which will occur in ninety-
nine cases out of a hundred. Gray is not common, but sometimes
appears, as in the recent case of Chanticleer and many of his stock.
Black also occasionally makes its appearance, but not more fre-
quently than gray. Roans, duns, sorrels, &c., are now quite ex-
ploded, and the above five colors may be said to complete the list
of those seen on the race-course. Sometimes these colors are
n^ixed with a good deal of white, in the shape of blazes on the
face, or white legs and feet; or even all these marks may occur,
and the horse may have little more than his body of a brown, bay,
or chestnut. Most people, however, prefer a self color, with as
little white as possible ; and nothing but the great success of a
horse's stock would induce breeders to resort to him if they were
largely endowed with white. Gray hairs mixed in the coat, as
in the Venison's, are rather approved of than otherwise ; but they
do not amount to a roan, in which the gray hairs are equal, or even
more than that, to those of the other color mixed with them.

COAT, MANE, AND TAIL.
The texture of the coat and skin is a great proof of high
breeding, and in the absence of the pedigree wotild be highly re-
garded ;' but when that is satisfactory it is of no use descending to
the examination of an inferior proof; and, therefore, except as a
sign of health, the skin is seldom considered. In all thorough-
bred horses, however, it is thinner, and the hair more silky than
in common breeds ; and the veins are more apparent under the
skin, partly from its thinness, but also from their extra size and
number of branches. This network of veins is of importance in
allowing the circulation to be carried on during high exertions,

76 THE HORSE.

when, if the blood could not accumulate in tliem, it would often
choke the deep vessels of the heart and lungs ; but by collecting
on the surface great relief is aiforded, and the horse is able to
maintain such a high and long-continued speed as would be im-
practicable without their help. Hence, these points are not useful
as a mere mark of breed, but as essential to the very purpose for
which that breed was established.

The mane and tail should be silky and not curly, though a
slight wave is often seen. A decided curl is almost universally a
mark of degradation, and shows a stain in the pedigree as clearly
as any sign can do. Here, however, as in other cases, the clear
tracing of that all-powerful proof of breeding will upset all reason-
ing founded upon inferior data. The setting on of the tail is often
regarded as of great importance, but it is chiefly with reference to
appearances ; for the horse is not dependent for action ?r power
upon this appendage. Nor is strength of dock of any certain value
as a sign, for I have known some very stout horses with flaccid
and loosely pendent tails ; but still it may be accepted as a general
rule, that when the muscles of the tail are weak, those of the rest
of the body are likely to be so also.

CHAPTER VI.
ON THE LOCOMOTIVE ACTION IN THE VARIOUS PACES.

Natural and Acquired Paces — Distribution of Weight — Attitudt

assumed in Standing — Mode of Progression — The Walk —

Trot — Canter — Hand- Gallop — Extended Gallop— The Amble —

. Racking, Pacing, and Running — The Paces of the Manege —

Leaping.

NATURAL AND ACQIHRED PACES.
In a STATE OP NATURE it is probable that the horse only pos-
sesses two paces, namely, the walk and the gallop; but when he is
the produce of a domesticated sire and dam, even before he is
handled, he will generally show a slight tendency to trot, and
sometimes to amble, rack, or pace, if any of his progenitors have
been remarkable for these artificial modes of progression. In this
country, however, it may be assumed that the horse, without being
taught, walks, trots, and gallops, more or less perfectly, according
to his formation and temperament.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT.
Except in the gallop and canter, in the fast trot, and in
leaping, the weight of the horse ' borne by two or more of the legs.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 77

and we shall find that in consequence of the projection forwarda
of the head and neck, the larger moiety is sustained by the fore
leg (or legs) than by the hind. This can easily be demonstrated
in the act of standing; but the same rule which applies to that
position will also serve for any other.

It is important to the horsemaster to ascertain the circumstances
which will change these proportions, because he finds practically
that, in road work, the fore legs wear out faster than the hind, and
consequently any means by which the weight on them can be re-
duced will be a gain to him in a pecuniary point of view. M.
Baucher placed a horse with his fore and hind legs on separate
weighing machines, and found that a hack mare when left to
assume her own attitude, weighed on the fore scales 210 kilo-
grammes, while her hind quarters drew only 174, the total weight
of the animal being 384 kilogrammes, each of which is equal to
21bs. 2ozs. 4drs. 16grs. avoirdupois. By depressing the head so
as to bring the nose to a level with the chest, eight additional
kilogrammes were added to the front scales, while the raising of
that part to the height of the withers transferred ten kilogrammes
to the hindermost scales. Again, by raising and drawing back the
head, in a similar way to the action of the bearing rein, eight kilo-
grammes were transferred from the fore to the hind scales, and this
should not be forgotten in discussing the merits and demerits of
that much-abused instrument of torture. M. Baucher then mounted
the mare, when it was found that his weight, which was sixty-four
kilogrammes, was placed in the proportion of forty-one kilogrammes
on the fore quarters to twenty-three on the hind. A considerable
change was of course produced by leaning backward, and by using
the reins in the manner of the bearing rein, the former transfer-
ring ten kilogrammes from the fore to the hind quarters, and the
latter act adding eight more.

Every practi-sed horseman knows that his horse's fore legs
will suffer in proportion to the weight which is thrown on them,
while their relief is an additional source of strain to the hind legs.
The spavined, and more especially the curby-hocked horse, relievea
these parts by using his fore legs to carry more than their proper
proportion of weight, while the animal affected with any painful
disease of the fore limbs carries almost all the weight of his body
on his hind legs, which are advanced under him in the most pecu-
liar manner. The value of artificially changing the natural car-
riage of the horse, so as to make his hind legs come forward and
carry more than their own share of weight, is chiefly felt in
chargers, hacks, and harness horses, while, on the contrary, it is
injurious to the hunter and the race-horse, whose hind quarters
bear the greatest strain
7*

78 THE HORSE.

THE ATTITUDE ASSUMED IN STANDING.

Standing may be considered under two heads, the first com-
prising the attitude naturally assumed by the horse when inclined
to rest himself, and the second that forced upon him by education,
for the sake either of appearances, or to keep him ready to start at
a moment's notice, as in the cavalry horse. "When standing free
or naturally the horse always rests one leg, and that generally a
hind one, changing from one to the other as each becomes tired in
its turn. In the forced attitude all four are on the ground, and
each supports its share of the superincumbent weight. In either
case the different joints are kept from bending, by the almost in-
voluntary combined action of the flexor and extensor muscles,
which will keep him standing even in sleep, in which respect he
diifers from the human subject. The oblique position of the
pastorns affords a considerable aid, but without the semi-involun-
tary support afforded by the muscles, the stifle and hock joints
cehind, and the shoulder and elbow before, would inevitably give
way.

MODE OF PROGKESSION.

In Mv)VING forward, whatever the pace may be, the hind
quarters are the main propellers, and thrust the body forward on
the fore legs, which serve as imperfect segments of wheels, each in
its turn making a revolution forwards and backwards through a
segment of a circle, like a pendulum. This forward motion is
either effected by one hind leg at a time, as in the walk, trot,
amble, and rack, or by the two, nearly if not quite synchronously,
as in the canter, gallop, and leap. In any case, the hind legs (or
leg) must be drawn forwards under the body, or the body thrust
backwards upon them, when a contraction of various muscles tends
to straighten them, and as they are fixed upon the ground, which
acts as a fulcrum, the body must give way, and thus passes forward
with a speed and force proportionate to the muscular power exerted.
In the various paces this mechanical action is differently effected
in detail, but the principle is the same in all those contained m
each class to which I have alluded. In the first, the weight is
borne by tlie hind and fore quarters between them, while propul-
sion is effected by one side of the former ; but in the second, it is
taken at intervals by the fore and hind limbs, the latter propelling
it with great force, and the former serving as props to it when it
comes to the ground from the air, and also causing it to rebound
for another interval of time.

THE WALK.
There are two questions involved in this pace which have led
to discussions without end. Firstly, there is that connected with
the order of sequence in which the feet are moved. Secondly, that

THE WALK. 79

relating to the part of the foot which first touches the ground.
Of each of these, therefore, I must enter into a particular de-
scription.

In examining the order op sequence in which the feet ate
taken off the ground, it appears to me that a very simple matter
lias been converted into a complicated one No one with a grain
of observation can dispute that all the foui legs in this pace move
separately, and not, as in the trot and amble, by twos of opposite
or the same sides. Solleysell, however, says that " in a walk the
horse lifts the near fore leg and far hind leg together," and Perci-
vall, in quoting this passage, calls him " this true observer of Na-
ture ;" but, nevertheless, the latter author goes on to disprove the
correctness of the very passage he has just quoted, though he does
not seem very clear upon the subject. His description is as fol-
lows:— " At the mandate of the will to move forward, the fore leg
is first put in motion, the order of succession in the walk appearing
to be this : — supposing the right or off fore leg to move first, that is
no sooner carried off the ground than the left or near hind foot is
raised, the former being placed upon the ground prior to the latter.
The two remaining feet move in respect to each other, in the same
order of lime, the left or near fore after the off hind, the right or
off hind after the near fore; it being observable that as each
hind foot follows in the line of movement of its corresponding fore
foot, the hittei- would very often get struck by the former, did it
not quit its place immediately prior to the other being placed upon,
partly or entirely, the same ground." Can anything be more con-
fused than this jumble of words, which is solely so because it i&
desired to make the horse begin with a fore foot in preference to a
hind one. Any one who examines the action of the feet of one
side only will have no difficulty in perceiving that the hind foot is
raised frctu the ground and moved forward for half its stride befor,'^
the fore foot is disturbed, the same order being observed on the other
side in succession. Hence, if the horse is started from the stand-
ing position with all the feet on the ground, it follows that he rmist
begin with a hind foot, because with whichever of the sides he
fitarts he lifts the hind foot half a pace before the fore foot, as ia
admitted by Percivall himself, for he says, " the latter (fore foot)
would often get struck by the former (hind foot) did it not quit its
place immediately prior to the other being placed upon, partly or
entirely, the same ground." It is very difficult to convey a correct
idea of this fact by illustration, because the eye has become accus
tomed to the erroneous view which is conventionally received by
artists. However, with the assistance of Mr. Zwecker, who hat
himself studied the subject carefully, I am enabled to present the
following engraving, which, though apparently awkward and un-
graceful, is literally correct. Here the near hind foot (1) is just

80

THE HOBSE.

STARTING FOR THE WALK.

about to be placed on the ground, on tbe spot which the near fore
foot (2) has just left. The off hind foot (3) will follow next in
succession, and lastly the off fore foot (4) will complete the ca-
dence. But if each fore foot leaves the ground just as the corres-
ponding hind foot is finishing its stride, it follows as a matter of
necessity, if the action is carried on throughout in the same way,
that in starting from a point of rest the hind foot of one side or
other is the one to begin the walk. Next follows the fore foot on
the same side, then the opposite hind foot, and lastly the fore foot
of the opposite side. The order of progression, be it observed, is
the same, whether the description commences with the hind or fore
foot, and the argument is after all of little consequence ; but the
truth is really, as was observed by Borelli, that the hind foot is the
first to move when the horse starts into a walk from a state of rest
in which all four feet are placed as in ordinary standing. There
may be positions in grazing where the fore foot advances first; but
then the pace cannot be considered as the customary walk.

In the accompanying outline the horse is represented in
the manner usually accepted by artists, with the near fore foot (2)
in the air, and apparently leading off. But if, as I have endeavored
to^how, the hind foot must of necessity start first, although tbia

THE WALK.

81

2 4 1

EECEIVED INTEEPEETATION OP THE WALK.

engraving affords to the eye of the observer the most graceful and
striking position which is taken up in the walk, yet it is not the
one with which the horse commences that pace. Here the near
hind foot (1) has already been brought forward and placed on the
ground, on or near the spot occupied by the fore foot, which is in
the air; the off hind foot (3) is just about to leave the ground,
having expended its share of progressive force, and the weight of
the body is borne by the off fore foot and the near hind one.
Whenever a fore foot starts first (which, as I have already re-
marked, may occasionally occur, as, for instance, in grazing, or
when the weight is unnaturally thrown upon the fore quarters),
the attitude is most constrained, and the proper sequence, or ca-
dence, if the animal is forced into a quicker pace, is not fallen into
without a most grotesque degree of rolling, which conveys to tb e
eye a full idea of the forced nature of the pace. Mr. Zwecker
has endeavored to fix this upon paper in the annexed engraving,
but though I fully admit that the drawing is correct, I confess that
I am not satisfied with the result of his labors. However, it may
serve to convey to mv readers the fact which I wish to impress

82

THE HORSE.

upon the mind, viz., that a walk in which either fore leg eom-
mences the cadence is unnatural, or, at all e\ents, exceptional.

I HAVE THUS ENDEAVORED TO SHOW (and it may, I think, be
considered as the most simple mode of describing the pace) that,
as a rule, when the horse is starting from a state of rest into a
walk he commences with one of the hind feet, the particular one
chosen being that which at the time bears the least weight of the
body upon it. Next follows the fore foot of the same side, then the
opposite hind foot, and lastly the fore foot also of the opposite side

4 1

EXCEPTIONAL MODE OP STARTINO.

When once it is shown that the hind foot almost touches
the heel of the foot which precedes it, before the latter is raised,
of which a moment's observation will satisfy any careful obsex'ver,
the order of sequence becomes clear enough, and, as I set out with
observing, a subject which is generally made extremely complicated
becomes ae simple as possible. In nine hundred and ninety-nine
cases out of a thousand the horse starts on the walk with a hind
foot, and the only exception is when he is, from circumstances, at
the time in an unnatural attitude.

The second question in dispute to which I have alluded is
that involving the part of the foot which first touches the ground

THE WALK. 83

in this pace. ]n this country veterinary writers have generally
considered that in the sound foot the toe first reaches the ground,
and undoubtedly Mr. Percivall is no exception, for he says at page
143 of his Lectures, " To the eye of the observer there is the
slightest perceptible difi"erence between the toe and heels coming
to the ground in favor of the former, a difference that need not
disturb the horseman's good old rule, that a horse in his walk
should place his foot fairly and flatly down." This theory has,
as far as I know, never been admitted by practised horsemen, ani
in the year 1855, in describing the perfect hack, at page 526 of
"British Rural Sports," I wrote as follows : " The walk should be
safe and pleasant, the fore foot well lifted and deposited on its
heel." The first veterinary surgeon, however, who combated the
opinions of his brethren, was Mr. Lupton (a disciple of Mr.
Gamgee), who early in the year 1858, inserted in the Edinburgh
Veterinary Review the following " Physiological Reflections on the
Position assumed by the Fore Foot of the Horse in the varied
Movements of the Limb" : —

" 1. The foot of a living horse in a state of rest remains firmly
on the ground, that is the toe and the heel are on the ground at
one and the same time ; but if during this position the extensor
muscles were to contract, then the toe would be raised from the
ground ; and if, on the other hand, the flexor muscles were to
contract, then the heel would be raised from the ground. Now,
during progression, the first movement which takes place is the
contraction of the flexor muscles, by which (together with the
muscles of the arm) the foot is raised, the toe being the last
part of that organ raised from the ground. The foot is now in
a position to be sent forward, which is brought about by the
contraction of the extensor muscles ; the foot is then thrown out
as far as the flexor muscles will admit, and when at the greatest
allowable point of tension, the heel is brought in apposition with
the ground. The flexors now in their turn contract, the heel is
first raised from the ground, and lastly the toe, which brings me
back to the point I started from,

" 2. Viewing the leg of a horse as a piece of mechanism (allow-
ing the leg to be even in a state of anchylosis), and comparing it
to the spoke of a wheel, during the revolutions of which the pos-
terior part of the inferior extremity, or, in other words, that part
which is attached to the tier, comes in contact with the ground
first; if in the place of the spoke the above-mentioned leg of the
horse were there placed, the heel in that case would come in con-
tact with the ground first, and the toe last.

"3. As to the anatomy of the foot.

" The foot is composed of the os pedis, os naviculare, and a
email portion superiorly of the os corona. Between the alae of the

84 THE HORSE.

OS pedis we have tli« frog and the fibrous frog in fact, a beautiful
ehistic cushion ; and postero-laterally the lateral cartilages, readily
yielding on the application of pressure. Seeing this arrangement,
I naturally seek to find the cause of its existence, and I suggest
that it is there in order, by coming in contact with the ground,
firist to break the concussive efi"ect, likely, if being hard and un-
yielding as the formation at the toe, to be productive of much cost
to the animal frame.

" 4. The progress of action is from the heel to the toe. For
example, man, during progression, puts his heel to the ground
first; the ox also places his heels similarly on the ground first, and
dogs bring their pads in contact with the ground first; does it not,
then, seem undeniable, when reasoning by analogy, that the horse
similarly brings his heels to the ground first ?

" During progression, the body moves forward ; during which
movement the toe, as evident to every observer, leaves the ground
last, that is, when the flexors are contracting. If such be the case,
then, for the toe to come in contact with the ground first, as some
affirm, and the heel last, is a retrograde and impossible movement.

" Three principal impressions are made on the foot during pro-
gression, namely:

" 1. On the heel, when great expansion and yielding takes place,
owing to the pressure on the frog, which is forced upwards, causing
the ultimate expansion of the walls of the hoof, &c.

" 2. On the middle part of the foot, when the bones bear the
weight of the body. The flexors and extensors being, for the in-
stant, in a state of quietude, i. e. neither of them are extending or
contracting.

" 3. On the toe, when the animal gives a push, by which an
impetus is given to send the body forwards.

" The foot comes on the ground nearly flat, I admit, but the
heel is for an instant on the ground before the toe.

" I humbly assert, in conclusion, that the progress of action is
from the heel to the toe, and not from the toe to the heel."

It appears to me that argument is here thrown away, for as it
is admitted by both sides that the toe and heel are each in certain
cases placed on the ground first, it is manifest that either may be
in all. Observation, therefore, and not theoretical argument, must
determine under what circumstances the foot is deposited with ita
toe on the ground, and vice versa. Mr. Spooner, and nearly the
whole of the London school, say that the toe touches first in all
cases but in the disease known as laminitis; Mr. Lupton, Mr
Gamgee, and the Edinburgh new school, assert, on the contrary,
that, as a rule, the heel touches the ground a shade the first. Their
assertions reach to all paces; but here I think a mistake is com-
mitted, for I am confident that in trottint!;, the toe touches the

THE WALK. 85

ground slightly before the heel in a large proportion of cases. In
the walk I am quite satisfied that Mr. Lupton and his followers
are right, and that the heel is presented to the ground in all good
walkers, but so slightly first as to escape the notice of careless
observers. If the toe is not raised it is apt to tip the inequalities
of the ground, and we have that disagreeable sensation of inse-
curity in the walk which a bad hack invariably gives. Many
horses go very close to the ground, but if the extensors turn the
toe well up in bringing the leg forward, however closely to the
ground it is carried, it is safely deposited on it. On the contrary,
& high action, with the heel raised, is never safe, either on the
walk or the trot. It is quite contrary to the experience of horse-
men out of the veterinary profession to assert that either toe-action
or heel-action is invariably met with in sound horses, and I believe
the facts to be as I have stated them. That in laminitis the toe
is raised in an exaggerated form no one will deny, but the extent
is far greater than any one supposes to exist in a healthy foot.
I have possessed one or two horses which, though perfectly sound,
would wear out the heels of their shoes before their toes, and one
of them was a high-stepping mare with remarkably good feet. Now
the friction in all cases after the foot is put down must be greater
on the toe than the heel, because it scrapes the ground, more or
less, as it leaves it. When, therefore, the heel is worn out first, it
proves that this part touches the ground first, though the converse
does not hold good, for the reason which I have given.

Having discussed these two questions, I come now to examine
what is done in each movement of the legs, independently of the
order of their going, and of the above toe and heel controversy,
and shall proceed to consider in what the good walk difi"ers from
the bad.

Writers on the horse divide each movement of the leg into
three acts, consisting of the lift, the swing, and the grounding.
In the first act, the foot is raised; in the second, it is thrust for-
ward ; and in the third, it is firmly but lightly deposited on the
ground. But these may severally be well performed, and yet the
horse be a bad walker, because his body is not well balanced on
the legs in contact with the ground while the other or others are
moving. A good walker should take short quick steps, ivith his
hind legs icell under him, and then he will be able to plant his fore
feet firmly but lightly on the ground in succession. If his stride is
too long, his hind legs cannot be always well under him, because they
must be wide apart when both are on the ground; and the body can-
not then be ba.lanced securely, because there is too long an interval
elapsing while the one hind leg is passing the other. Hence, in such
a horse, there is a waddling movement from side to side, so often
seen in the thorough-bred horse, whose full tail shows it verv niani-
8

86 THE HORSE.

festl/, but whose rider feels the inconvenience much more clearlj
than it is seen by the uninterested looker-on. The clever hack, on
the contrary, moves forward without his body deviating a hair's
breadth from the line in which it is progressing, neither undulating
to the right and left nor up and down. The rider of a first-rate
hack should be able to carry a full glass of wine in his hand for
any distance without spilling a drop; and if the action on the walk
is not smooth enough for this, it cannot be considered as approach-
ing to perfection. Many horses step short and quick, and yet do
not walk well, because their shoulders have not liberty enough to
thrust their arms forward during the act of swinging the leg; and
hence the pace is slow, for the foot is put down very near to the
spot from which it was lifted. In choosing a good walker, there-
fore, see that his feet are lifted smartly, that they are well thrust
forward, and placed firmly but lightly on the ground. Look at
him well from behind, and observe whether he hits himself on the
fetlock joints as one foot passes the other; and at the same time
examine whether, as he lifts his fore feet, he turns them out, or
" dishes," which is a very serious fault, in consequence of the loss
of time which it occasions. In most horses the hind foot oversteps
the place from which the corresponding fore foot has been removed ;
but in a good hack this should not exceed an inch, or the pace will
not be smooth and smart, as I have already observed. Very few
walkers actually touch one foot with the other, as in the trot, nor
do they overreach with violence so as to injure their heels; the
only objection, therefore, is to the length of stride, which I have
shown to produce an uneasy efiect upon the rider. But whenever
the horse appears to move as if his fore feet are in the way of the
hind, he will rarely, even with the best tuition, become a pleasant
and safe hack.

The rate op walking is very seldom quite five miles an
hour, though horses are to be found which will accomplish the
distance in that time, or even less. Many will do a mile in twelve
minutes and a half; but to get beyond this is a very difficult task.
Indeed, there are few horses which in their walk will bear pressing
to the utmost speed of which they are capable, without breaking.
It may, I think, be assumed, that the average pace of good walkers
is about four miles and a half to four miles and three-quarters
per honr.

THE TROT.

This pace may be described under three heads, namely, the jog
trot, the true trot, and the flying trot. In all three the diagonal
limbs move exactly together, but in the first the time during which
each foot is on the ground is much greater than that in which it
is in the air. In the second the contrary is the case ; while, in the
third, the horse is carried completely ofi" his legs for a considerable

THE TROT. 87

space of time, between the several bounds whicb are made by tbe
two feet of opposite sides as they touch the grou»d in succession
The jog trot seems to come naturally to the horse when he is first
mounted ; and, as long as he is fresh and fiery, the colt will main-
tain this pace, unless he is permitted to exceed it. He will prefer
it to the walk for a long time ; and it is only by good hands, com
bined with patience, that a spirited colt can be. made to walk ; for
he can generally jog quite as slowly, and often much more so.
Farmers are very apt to accustom their young horses to the jog
trot, because they find by experience that it does not injure their
legs or feet; but to a rider unaccustomed to this pace it is by no
means an easy one. In the true trot, as exemplified below, the
feet are on the ground a comparatively short space of time, the
body being carried so rapidly forward that they are moved oflF
almost as soon as they are deposited on it. By examining this out-
line, it will be seen that the position of the fore and hind limbs of
the two opposite sides exactly corresponds, and this will be the
case, whatever may be the period of the action in which the ob-
servation is made. As in the walk, each step may be divided into
three acts ; but I see no advantage in thus attempting to separate
or analyze what must be considered in its totality, if it is to be re-
garded with any advantage to the observer. In the flying trot,
which is well shown in the portrait of Flora Temple, at page 489,
all the legs are for a very short period of time off the ground, as is
there delineated, but still there is always an exact correspondence
between the position of the fore and hind legs of opposite sides.
The chief difference between these three varieties of the trot con-
sists in the rapidity of the propulsion which is going on. This in
the first is very slight; and the more elastic the fetlock joints, the
better and softer is this pace. The feet are raised, and the legs
are rounded or bent ; but the body is not thrust forward, nor are
the shoulders moved in the same direction to any appreciable ex-
tent. The consequence is, that the feet are deposited again very
close to the spot from which they are taken, and the pace is as
slow as the walk. In the true trot, if it is well performed, the
hind legs must be moved as rapidly as, and with more force than,
the fore legs, because they have more work to do in propelling the
body, the latter having only to sustain it during the operation.
Grood judges, therefore, regard the hind action as of even more
importance than that of the knees and shoulders; for if the former
do not drive the body well forward, good pace cannot be obtained
nor will it be easy and rhythmical. In this kind of trot elasti.
fetlocks are fatal to speed, as they prevent the instantaneous effect
upon the body of the muscular contractions of the hind limbs, and
cause the action to be dwelling and slow. Very fast trotters are,
therefore, rough in tlieir "feel" to the rider, and are not suited

88

THE HORSE.

ACTION IN THE TRUE TROT.

for tLe purposes of pleasure. Indeed, no one would mount one of
tliem from choice ; but when they possess good mouths, they are
pleasant enough to drive. In examining trotting action, regard
should be paid to the plane through which each limb passes, for if
this is not parallel with that of the median line of the body the
action is not true and smooth, and there is great risk of one limb
cutting the other. This is best seen by watching the trot from
behind as well as before, which gives an opportunity of investi-
gating the movements of both pairs of limbs. Every horse should
be so made that, when he stands, his fore canna bones should be
quite parallel ; but in order to be so, as they stand closer together
than his elbows, they must form a slight angle with the arm at the
knee ; and hence, as this part is bent, there is always a slight ten-
dency to turn out the foot, the exaggerated form of which is called
"dishing." The observer will, therefore, do well to ascertain the
extent to which this should be carried, or he will be apt to con-
demn a perfect goer as a "disher," from finding that he turns out
his toes in bending the knee, though only in the trifling degree
ordained by nature. If, in bending by the hand the fore foot to
the elbow, the inner heel of the shoe is in contact with the outside
of the arm, there will not h% k)0 much turning out of the foot, and

THE TROT— THE CANTER. 89

(he purchaser need not he afraid of this defect existing in the
horse he is examining. Provided the fetlocks and canna-bones are
not actually touched or " hit" in trotting, the fore-legs cannot be
moved too closely together ; but if they pass very near to one an-
other in a fat dealer's horse, it may be suspected that when he is
reduced in flesh to a proper working condition, boots will be neces-
sary. A practised eye is required to judge of this correctly, and,
if there is any doubt, one had better be consulted.

The Norfolk trotter of the present day has very perfect action,
intermediate between the pointed and flying trot of the American
horse, and the round high knee-action of the London park-horse.
Even he, however, is not nearly so pleasant to ride as the tho-
rough-bred, when the latter can trot at all ; but many of this breed
have been so long accustomed to the gallop, that their trot is a
most imperfect pace. When they do perform it properly, it gives
a most delightful feel, and no rider for pleasure, if money is at his
command, should " throw his leg" over any but a thorough-bred,
or one nearly pure in blood.

THE CANTER.

The canter is a thoroughly artificial pace, at first extremely
tiring to the horse, and generally only to be produced in him by
the restraint of a powerful bit, which compels him to throw a great
part of his weight on his haunches. It is very difficult to describe
or define this pace, either in a pen-and-ink sketch or by the aid of
the painter. Indeed it is often quite a matter of opinion to decide
whether a horse is cantering or galloping. Many writers, and
among them Mr. Blaine, have attempted to draw a distinction, by
confining the canter to the pace which is executed without the feet
ever leaving the ground altogether ; but this definition is not gene-
rally admitted and followed, and many a horse whose canter would be
readily allowed by all horsemen to be true, may be seen to leave the
ground entirely for a certain interval of time, however small it may be.
There is so great a variety in the modes adopted by diflferent horses
for performing the canter, that no single description will suffice,
nor indeed is it easy, as I before observed, to define any one of
them. Sometimes the carriage is extremely elegant, the hind legs
well under the body, and all moving like clockwork, with the head
bent on the neck, and the mouth playing lightly on the bit.
When such a pace is performed with the right leg leading, the
canter is exactly adapted for the female seat, in which the right
shoulder is of necessity slightly advanced, and it is therefore the
object of the breaker to obtain it. But it is only in those horses
which combine a free use of their limbs with fine temper and good
mouths, that such a pace can be developed, and if any one of thesa
qualities is deficiei^t it is useless to attempt to teach them. ()b
8*

90

THE HORSE.

the otlier hand, the pony or galloway will often canter without
throwing any extra weight on his hind legs, with a loose rein and
extended neck. This kind of pace may be detected by the ear on
a turnpike road, by the quick pat-ter-ring sound which is evolved.
It is extremely easy to the horseman, but is not so well adapted to
female equestrianism, as it jerks the body in an ungraceful manner.
The true canter, as adapted for ladies, is indicated below, though

it is so difficult to represent, that it is not so clearly done as might
be wished. When the off leg leads off, the near one has to bear
more than its share of work, and hence, unless a change is occa-
sionally made, the fetlock joint of that leg is almost sure to suffer.
Ladies should therefore either trot for a part of their daily rides,
or teach themselves and their horses to change the lead from that
with the off leg to that with the near.

THE HAND GALLOP.
Between the canter and the true gallop there intervenes a
pace which may be easily confounded with either, unless Mr
Blaine's definition of the canter is accepted, when the hand gallop

THE EXTENDED QALI OP.

91

can easily be distinguished from it. This pace is merely a slow
and measured gallop, in which for a very short period all the legs
leave the ground, but in which the propulsion is steadily given,
and not with those snatches or jerks which are necessary to de-
velop the high speed of the extended gallop. The body also is
not nearer the ground than in the act of standing, and this may be
considered as one of the best distinctions between the hand gallop
and the extended stride of the faster pace. The French writers
distinguish between the two by asserting that in the hand gallop
there are three beats, while in the flying gallop two only are per-
formed ; but in practice there is no such variation.

THE EXTENDED GALLOP.

According to most observers, this pace is a succession of
leaps, smoothly and rhythmically performed, but Mr. Percivall has
shown that there is a considerable difference between the two ac-
tions. He says in his lectures, — " In galloping a horse, in hunt-

EECEIVED INTERPRETATION OF THE QALLOP.

ing, for example, the rider needs no person to tell him of the mo-
ment when bis horse is taking a leap, however trifling it may be;
his own sensations inform him of every grip or furrow his horse
leaps in his course, and should he have occasion to make a succes-
sion of such jumps, the rider's sensations in his saddle are of a
very different — very uneasy — kind, compared to such as he expe
riences during the act of galloping. This arises from two causes :
from the spring or movement of the body necessary to produce the
leap being more forcible or sudden than that required for the gallop,
and from the latter being created and continued rather by the sue-

92 THE HORSE.

ce^^ive action of tlie two hind feet at one moment, and of that of
che two fore feet at the next moment, than from the synchronous
efforts of either biped, as happens in the leap. The two great
propellers of the animal machine — the hind feet — are in the leap
required to act simultaneously, to make one grand propulsory
effort; not so in the gallop, that being a movement requiring main-
taining, not by synchronous exhausting efforts of the hind feet,
but in swift succession, first by one, then by the other; and the
same as regards the office performed by the fore limbs, which latter
probably amounts to little more in effect than the susteutation of
the fore parts of the body. The vault into the air required for
the leap is only to be effected by extraordinary subitaneous effort,
but the stride of the gallop, requiring frequent repetition, does
not exact this effort — amounts, in fact, to no more than a sort of
lift from the ground, multiplied into a reiteration of forcible bear-
ings forward, maintaining, increasing, or diminishing the momen-
tum of speed, effectuated by throwing the hind feet as flir forward
'inderneath the body as possible, plunging them one after the other
with inappreciable rapidity into the earth, and thus by two strenuous
thrusts against the ground, one in aid of the other, working the ani-
mal machine in its fleet — almost flying — course. In the gallop as in
the trot, no sooner is a certain momentum acquired, than by each
successive propulsion of .the hind feet the body is sprung or lifted
off the ground, flying as it appears in the air, and the greater the
speed, the more this volitation becomes apparent. Hence the ap-
pellation given to the pace, manifestly the utmost speed, of flying
GALLOP. Even this, however, according to my judgment, is ar
action different from leaping. When a horse leaps or jumps in his
gallop, — which he will do sometimes when he is beany and has but
just emerged out of his stable, — he is said to buck, because his
action then resembles that of the deer, in whom the gallop might
with a great deal more propriety be called a succession of leaps :
even the deer, however, cannot continue this bucking action after
being driven into his speed, or in a state of fatigue, showing that in
him it is to be regarded rather as a gambol than as his proper work-
ing onward action. And that the hind and fore feet in pairs are
not grounded synchronously, I think admits of a demonstration in
two ways: first, by the position they assume one in advance of the
other in the gallop ; secondly, by the clatter the steps of a horse
in the gallop are known to make upon hard or resonant ground,
and which may be heard either by a spectator or by the rider him-
self. Whence we probably derive the phrase, a rattling gallop."

But while I agree with Mr. Percivall that there is a difference
between the act of leaping and galloping, as performed by the
horse, I do not quite see that it is an abuse of terms to describe
the gallop as a " succession of leaps" — that they are not preciselv

THE GALLOP 93

similar to those made in overcoming an obstacle does not necessa-
rily make them other than leaps. The word leap is not defined in
our dictionaries so as to confine its meaning beyond that appertain-
ing to its synonym, spring, and probably even Mr. Percivall would
not deny that in the gallop, the horse, as well as the deer, makes
a succession of springs. The dispute is founded, as is so often the
case, upon a want of agreement as to the meaning of a word, and
not on a difference of opinion as the essence of the act itself
Blaine, Percivall, and every careful observer of the horse in action,
Well know that in the act of galloping the horse leaves the print
of his hind feet one in advance of the other, while in leaping he
generally, in fact almost invariably, makes them opposite one
another. There is a contradiction apparent in Percivall's remarks
about the deer's gallop, which in one place he observes "might
with a great deal more propriety be called a succession of leaps,"
while in the next sentence he says that this "bucking action" in
the deer " is to be regarded rather as a gambol than as his proper
working onward action." The deer's gallop very closely resembles
that of the horse, but as he is a stronger and higher leaper, espe-
cially in proportion to his size, he can continue those bounds with
the hind legs opposite each other much longer and with more ad-
vantage than the horse, who seldom makes more than two or three
in succession.

To REPRESENT THE GALLOP pictorially in a perfectly correct
manner is almost impossible. At all events it has never yet been
accomplished, the ordinary and received interpretation being alto-
gether erroneous. When carefully watched, the horse in full
gallop will be seen to extend himself very much, but not nearly to
the length which is assigned to him by artists. To give the idea
of high speed the hind legs are thrust backward and the fore legs
forward in a most unnatural position, which if it could be assumed
in reality would inevitably lead to a fall, and most probably to a
broken back. It is somewhat difficult to obtain a good view of a
horse at his best pace, without watching him through a race-glass
at a distance of a quarter of a mile at least, for if the eye is nearer
to him than this the passage of the body by it is so quick that no
analysis can be made of the position of the several parts. But at
the above distance it may be readily seen that tne iiorse never as-
Bumes the attitude in which he is generally represented, of which
an example is given at the beginning of this article. When the
hind legs are thrust backwards, the fore feet are raised and more or
less curled up under the knees, as ;t is manifest must be the case
to enable them to be brought forward without raising the body
from the ground. In the next act, as the hind feet are brought
under the body the fore legs are thrust straight before it ; and so
whichever period is chosen for the representation, the complete

M

THE HORSE.

extension so generally adopted must be inaccurate. It may be said
that this is meant to represent the moment when all the feet are in
the air, and theoretically it is possible that there may be a time
when all the feet are extended; because, as in the fast gallop the
stride is twenty-four feet long, while the horse only measures six-
teen from foot to foot, it follows that he must pass through eight
feet without touching the ground, and during that time, as of ne-
cessity his legs must move faster than his body, the fore legs ma^/
change their position from the curled up one described above to
the extended one represented by all painters as proper to the gal-
lop. Observation alone can therefore settle this question ; but, as
I before remarked, a race-glass at a distance of a quarter of a mile
enables a careful observer to satisfy himself that our received
ideas of the extended gallop are incorrect. Nevertheless, if a
proper interpretation is given, the eye at once rebels, and on ex-

CORBECT VIEW OF THE GALLOP,

amination of such a figure as we here give, founded on perfectly
correct principles, the mind refuses its assent to the idea of great
pace, which is that which is desired to be given. These facts are
well known to artists, and some of them, including the celebrated
Jieech, have tried the experiment of drawing the galloping horse
properly ; but their entire want of success shows the impossibility
of the performance.

As IN THE CANTER SO in the gallop a lead is always made of one
leg before the other, and as one tires the other changes place with
it. A good, true, and strong galloper will seldom require this re-
lief, but a weak one, especially if not completely broken, will efiect

THE AMBLE— RACKING, ETC. 95

the cliange continually. Sometimes this causes the loss of a race,
for it cannot be done without interfering with the action, and con-
sequently with the pace. A good horseman prefers that his horse
should not confine himself to one lead, but he does not like him to
change after he has once started, for the above reason. The right
leg in front is more easy even to the male rider than the left, but
not materially so, and except for female equestrianism no horse
should be taught to lead invariably with the right leg either in the
gallop or canter. In the change the truth or harmony of action is
often disturbed, and the horse jerks himself and his rider in a
disagreeable manner, which is another reason why the change of
legs should not be encouraged.

There is a great variation in the length of the stride, and
in the rounding or bending upwards of the foot under the knee.
Sometimes even in a fast gallop the distance between the prints of
the same feet will be no more than sixteen feet, while in others it
will measure twenty-four, twenty-five, or even twenty-six feet.
The first is too short for any race-horse ; but a moderately short
stride enables the horse to get ofi" with a quicker start, and to
ascend and descend hills better than a very long one. Where,
however, a distance of level ground is to be covered a long stride
tells, and a horse possessing it has a great advantage over one
whose gallop is short, however quick and smart it may be. For
this long stride there must be length of limbs, especially of the
two bones meeting at the stifle joint; and this is the perfection of
the form of the race-horse, as I have already described at page 73.

THE AMBLE.

Like the trot, this pace is performed by two legs alternately
moving in exact correspondence with each other. Instead, how-
ever, of these being of opposite sides, they are of the same side,
and one lateral half of the body is moved forward while the weight
of the whole is supported on the other. The pace is altogether
unnatural to the wild horse, but in some domestic breeds it has
become naturalized, and the foal will in them display the amble
long before it is taught anything by the hand of man. In the
cameleopard the amble is the only kind of progression, whether
the animal goes slowly or fast ; and in dogs, especially in pointers,
greyhounds, and Newfoundlands, this pace is occasionally displayed
Formerly an ambling palfrey was in great request for ladies' use,
but in the present day the pace is not regarded with favor by any
of the inhabitants of the British Isles.

BACKING, OR PACING, AND RUNNING.
In this country no other paces are recognised than the five
which I h%ve already described, but in America a fast kind of

96 THE HORSE.

amble is distinguished by tbe name of racking, or pacing. It is
performed by two legs of the same side acting synchronously as in
the amble, but they are moved with much more rapidity, and the
result is a speed greater than that of the fastest trot, by several
seconds in the mile. This will be apparent on consulting the re-
cord of the best performances of the American horses, at pp. 504-6,
where Pocahontas, a pacer, is set down as doing a mile in 2 minutes
17 J seconds, while their fastest mile trot on record occupied 2
minutes 19f seconds. Kunning is an indescribable kind of trots,
in which the limbs do not move regularly together, but each seems
to act independently as in the walk. The consequence is that it is
ill possible for the rider of a running horse to rise in his stirrups,
but the action being very easy there is no occasion for this relief.
It is not capable of being performed at a slow rate, and it is gene-
rally produced among horses which are ridden without a saddle,
and in which as a consequence the riders do not relieve themselves
and their horses by rising in it.

THE PACES OF THE MANEGE.

In the military schools of riding a variety of paces are
taught even in the present day, but the old riding masters adopted
many more, which are now discontinued. Some of them are in-
tended to enable the soldier to use his sword or spear with double
advantage, as the volte and semi-volte, but the majority of those
still- retained are for the purpose of carrying out the combined evo-
lutions necessary to cavalry. The " passage," for instance, is a
side movement, that enables a number of horses to be changed
from close to open order, which would be a difficult task to per-
form with horses not taught to perform it. Backing is likewise
necessary for similar purposes ; but this should always be taught
to every horse, whether used by the military or by civilians. A
minute description, however, of the several paces of the manege
would occupy too much space here, and is only useful to the cavalry
soldier, who will learn their nature much better from practical in-
struction by the riding-master of his regiment.

LEAPING, OR JURIPING.

The description of this act given by Mr. Percivall is most
unsatisfactory. He says, " The leap is either a sudden spring into
the air, in which the feet quit the ground simultaneously, or else
it is an act compounded of an imperfect rear and kick in quick or
slow succession, according to the manner in which it is performed.
The leap can hardly be regarded as an act of progression ; com-
monly it being in a forward direction, undoubtedly progress is
made by it, but it is possible for it to amount to no more than a
jump or a bound off, and upon the same ground, as is the case

LEAPING, OR JUMPING. 97

when a horse is said to 'buck' in his leaping, that is, to come
down upon or near to the spot from which he arose " Now in
this sentence, short as it is, I maintain that several misstatements
are made ; as I shall proceed to show. To begin with the latter
part. If a horse is properly said to "buck" in his leaping, it is
evident that the two cannot be synonymous, or there would be no
occasion for the distinction, and therefore if "bucking" means
jumping up and coming down on the same ground, which is the
general acceptation of the term, leaping cannot mean the same,
which it is said sometimes to do by Mr. Percivall in the quotation
which I have adduced. When a horse simply " bucks " in his
play he does not leap forward, but springs into the air, and even
then he generally makes some progression. When he "bucks"
in his leaps, he must progress, because he begins on one side of
the obstacle to be overcome, and finishes on the other. It is not
meant that he. then acts exactly as he does in play, or when viciously
trying to dislodge his rider, but that his action resembles to a con-
siderable extent this true bucking, in which little or no progres-
sion is made. I therefore hold that Percivall's exception is not
founded in truth ; and that the act of leaping necessarily implies
progression, for without it the perpendicular spring into the air is
properly distinguished by the term bucking, as admitted by Perci-
vall himself Then, turning back to the first sentence, I think
every careful observer will admit that in the leap, whatever may
be its kind, the feet do not quit the ground simultaneously. Mani-
festly in the standing or slow leap the fore feet rise first, unless
the horse "bucks," when all rise almost but not quite at the same
moment. A careful examination of the mechanism of the horse
will show that this must be the case, because, as the fore legs are
straight to the last, there is no spring in them, and if they were
not first raised by the action of the loins and haunches, as in rear-
ing, they would remain on the ground until they were dragged by
the hind quarters turning a somerset over them. In the human
body, as the legs are ordinarily kept straight, they must be bent
before a spring can be taken, for even the angular ankle joint re-
quires a bent knee to enable it to act upon the toes. In the horse
the fore leg resembles that of man in this respect, but the hind
leg in the standing position is bent at the stifle and hock, and is
then exactly like a man's when he is prepared to take a standing
jump. As a consequence of this the fore quarter of the horse
when he is standing must be raised by the hind, since it has no
angles to give a spring with, and if so it must leave the ground
first, as I have already shown. The flying leap may readily be
seen to be accomplished by the fore feet leaving the ground first.
and no one I believe disputes this, so that it is unnecessary to dis-
cuss it.

9 G

98 THE HORSE.

It may, therefore, I think, be asserted with truth that the leap
is always made by the horse raising his fore quarter, and then sud-
denly and powerfully straightening his hind limbs 3 with the ground
as a fulcrum he propels his whole body forwards, and more or less
upwards, according to the height of the obstacle to be overcome.
In descending from the height to which the whole body has Veen
raised, there is a considerable variation in the relative periods of
time at which the fore and hind feet touch the ground. Some-
times the fore feet come down almost perpendicularly, and so far
before the hind that they have to bear the whole force of the
united mDmentum and gravity before the hind ones reach the
ground, and then a very slight mistake will occasion a fall. At
others they come down " all fours," that is, all the feet touching
the ground at the same moment, occasioning a great shock both to
horse and rider, and -also a considerable loss of time in getting
away agai/i into the stride. In the best style the horse touches
ground with his fore feet first, but being well extended they are
in a position to do no more than act as a spring to break the shock,
and the hind legs coming down immediately afterwards bear nearly
the whole force of momentum and gravity, which the fore legs are
unable to do safely, as I have already shown.

Mr. Percivall is also in error as to the width of ground which
horses have been known to clear ; for he gives twenty-two feet as
an extraordinary effort in a steeplechase, whereas such a distance
is covered by any hurdle-jumper in ordinary practice, as I have
twenty times proved by careful measurement. I have myself seen
thirty-two and thirty-three feet cleared by steeplechasers, and it
is well known that Proceed and Chandler covered respectively
thirty-seven and thirty-nine feet in two separate steeplechases. So
a jump six feet in height is a very great performance, being eight
inches higher than the withers of a horse of sixteen hands. Some-
thing more than this has however been done, and I myself once
saw a horse clear a stone wall two or three inches above six feet
high, with the slightest possible touch of one stone with a hind
foot, but sufficient to dislodge it. Very few horses, however, can
be relied on to cover more than twenty -five feet in width, and four
feet, or four feet six inches in height, and an average banter will
not often do so much, especially if at all tired by a long run, or if
without the excitement attendant on the chase.

THEORY OF GENERATION. 99

CHAPTER VII.
THE PRI.'ICIPLBS OF BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE HORSE.

Theory of Generation — In-and-in Breeding — Out-Crossing, Advan-
tages and Disadvantages of each Plan — Causes of a "Hit" —
Importance oj Health and Soundness in both Sire and Dam —
Best Age to Breedjrom — Infuence of Sire and Dam respectively —
Choice oj Sire and Dam — The Kind oj Horse most likely to be
Projitcible to the Breeder — Concluding Remarks on Breeding.

THEORY OF GENERATION.

The importance of understanding the principles upon which
the breeding of the horse should be conducted is so great that
every one who superintends a stud, however small, should study
them carefully. To do this with advantage, he must investigate
the changes which take place after the union between the sexes,
and must endeavor to ascertain the influence which the sire and
dam respectively exert upon their offspring.

In the year 1855, while engaged in preparing the article on
the breeding of the horse in " British Rural Sports," I carefully
drew up the following epitome of the laws which govern the gene-
ration of the mammalia. Since then, the subject has constantly
been before me ; but, in spite of the numerous investigations car-
ried on by other observers, I have seen no reason to modify, in any
material degree, what I then wrote ; and I shall, therefore, to pre-
vent confusion, insert it entire, what slight additions may be neces-
sary being included within parentheses.

1. The union of the sexes is, in all the higher animals, neces-
sary for reproduction ; the male and female each taking their re-
spective share.

2. The office of the Male is to secrete the semen in the
testes^ and emit it into the uterus of the female (in or near which
organ), it comes in contact with the ovum of the female — which
remains sterile without it.

3. The Female forms the ovum in the ovary ^ and at regular
times, varying in diff"erent animals, this descends into the uterus^
for the purpose of fructification, on receiving the stimulus and ad-
dition of the sperm-cell of the semen.

4. The Semen consists of two portions — the spermatozoa^ which
have an automatic power of moving from place to place, by which
quality it is believed that the semen is carried to the ovum ; and
the sperm-cells^ which are intended to co-operate with the germ-
cell of the ovum in forming the embryo.

5. The Ovum consists of the germ-cell, intended to form parf

100 THE HORSE.

of the embryo, — and of the yolk, which nourishes both, until tht
vessels of the mother take upon themselves the task ; or, in ovip-
arous animals, till hatching takes place, and external food is to be
obtained. The ovum is carried down by the contractile power of
the fallopian tubes from the ovary to the uterus, and hence it does
not require automatic particles like the semen.

6. The Embryo, or young animal, is the result of the contact
of the semen with the ovum, immediately after which the sperm-
cell of the former is absorbed into the germ-cell of the latter. Upon
this a tendency to increase or " grew" is established and supported
at first, by the nutriment 3ontained in the yolk of the ovum, until
the embryo has attached itself to the walls of the uterus, from
which it afterwards absorbs its nourishment by the intervention
of the placenta.

7. As THE Male and Female each furnish their quota to the
formation of the embryo, it is reasonable to expect that each shall
be represented in it, which is found to be the case in nature ; but
as the food of the embryo entirely depends upon the mother, it may
be expected that the health of the offspring and its constitutional
powers will be more in accordance with her state than with that
of the father; yet since the sire furnishes one-half of the original
germ, it is not surprising that in external and general character
there is retained a facsimile, to a certain extent, of him.

8. The Ovum of Mammalia differs from that of birds chiefly
in the greater size of the yolk of the latter, because in them this
body is intended to support the growth of the embryo from the
time of the full formation of the egg until the period of hatching.
On the other hand, in mammalia the placenta conveys nourish-
ment from the internal surface of the uterus to the embryo during
the whole time which elapses between the entrance of the ovum
into the uterus and its birth. This period embraces nearly the
whole of the interval between conception and birth, and is called
utero-gestation.

9. In all the Mammalia there is a Periodical " Heat,"
marked by certain discharges in the female, and sometimes by other
remarkable symptoms in the male (as in the rutting of the deer).
In the former it is accompanied in all healthy subjects by the de-
scont of an ovum or ova into the uterus ; and in both there is a
strong desire for sexual intercourse, which never takes place at
other times in them (with the single exception of the genus Ui-
111 ana).

10. The Semen retains its fructifying power for some days, if it
is contained within the walls of the uterus or vagina, but soon ceases
to be fruitful if kept in any other vessel. Hence, although the
latter part of the time of heat is the best for the union of the sexes,
because then the ovum is ready for the contact with the somen.

THEORY OF GENERATION. 101

yet if the semen readies the uterus first, it will still cause a fruit-
ful impregnation, because it remains there (or in the fallopian
tubes) uninjured until the descent of the ovum.

11. The Influence of the Male upon the embryo is partly
dependent upon the fact, that he furnishes a portion of its sub-
stance in the shape of the sperm-coll, but also in great measure
upon the eiFect exerted upon the nervous system of the mother by
him. Hence, the preponderance of one or other of the parents
will, in great measure, depend upon the greater or loss strength of
nervous system in each. No general law is known by which this
can be measured, nor is anything known of the laws which regu-
late the temperament, bodily or mental power, color or conforma-
tion, of the resulting offspring.

12. Acquired Qualities are transmitted, whether they belong
to the sire or dam, and also both bodily and mental. As bad qua-
lities are quite as easily transmitted as good ones, if not more so,
it is necessary to take care that in selecting a male to improve the
stock he is free from bad points, as well as furnished with good
ones. It is known by experience that the good or bad points of
the progenitors of the sire or dam are almost as likely to appear
again in the offspring as those of the immediate parents in whom
they are dormant. Hence, in breeding, the rule is, that like pro-
duces like, or the likeness of some ancestor.

13. The purer or less mixed the breed the more likely it
is to be transmitted unaltered to the offspring. Hence, whichever
parent is of the purest blood will be generally more represented in
the offspring; but as the male is usually more carefully selected
and of purer blood than the female, it generally follows that he
exerts more influence than she does ; the reverse being the case
when she is of more unmixed blood than the sire.

14. Breeding "In-and-in" is injurious to mankind, and has
always been forbidden by the Divine law, as well as by most hu-
man lawgivers. On the other hand, it prevails extensively in a
state of nature with all gregarious animals (such as the hoise),
among whom the strongest male retains his daughters and grand-
daughters until deprived of his harem by younger and stronger
rivals. Hence, in those of our domestic animals which are natu-
rally gregarious, it is reasonable to conclude that breeding " in-and-
in" is not prejudicial, because it is in conformity with their natural
instincts, if not carried farther by art than nature teaches by her
example. Now, in nature, we find about two consecutive crosses
of the same blood is the usual extent to which it is carried, as the
life of the animal is the limit ; and it is a remarkable fact, that in
practice, a conclusion has been arrived at which exactly coincides
with these natural laws. " Once in and once out" is the rule for
breeding given by Mr. Smith in his work on the breeding for the

9 *

102 THE HORSE.

turf; but twice in will be found to be more iu accordance with the
practice of our most successful (early) breeders.

15. The influence op the first impregnation seems to
extend to the subsequent ones ; this has been proved by several
experiments, and is especially marked in the equine genus. In the
series of examples preserved in the museum of the College of Sur-
geons, the markings of the male quagga, when united with tho
ordinary mare, are continued clearly for three generations beyond
the one iu which the quagga was the actual sire ; and they are so
clear as to leave the question settled without a doubt.

16. When some of the elements of which an individual
sire is composed are in a cordance with others making up those of
the dam, they coalesce in such a kindred way as to make what is
called " a hit." On the other hand, when they are too incongru-
ous, an animal is the result wholly unfitted for the task he is in-
tended to perform.

These principles, together with the observations following upon
them, have been quoted verbatim, at great length, by the late Mr.
Herbert, in his elaborate quarto work on " The Horse of America,"
with the very flattering testimony that he had done so ''not for
the purpose of avoiding trouble, or sparing time, but because he
conceives the principles laid down to be correct throughout, the
reasoning logical and cogent, the examples well taken, and the de-
ductions such as can scarcely be denied." In support of this
opinion, he adduces several instances in which a " hit" has occurred
in America by carrying out the last axiom in the preceding list.
Thus he says, at page 260 of his second volume, "I think myself
that it is made clear by recent events, and that such is shown to be
the case by the tables of racing stock given at the close of the first
volume, that, previous to the last quarter of a century, the Ame-
rican turfman was probably breeding in too much of the old Vir-
ginia and South Carolina ante-revolutionary stock, and that the
American racehorse has been improved by the recent cross of mo-
dern English blood. It is also worthy of remark, that every one
of the four most successful of modern English stallions in this
country which have most decidedly hit with our old stock — Levia-
than, Sarpedon, Priam, and Glencoe — all trace back to several
crosses of Herod blood; Glencoe and Priam not less than three or
four several times each to crosses of Partner blood, and directly
several times over to the Godolphin Barb, or Arabian, which are
the very strains from which our Virginian stock derives its pecu-
liar excellence. It is farther worthy of remark, that two stallions
have decidedly hit with the imported English mare Reel, as proved
by her progeny, Lecompte and Prioress, respectively to Boston and
Sovereign. Now Heel, through Glencoe, Catton, Gohanna, and
Smolensko, has herself no less than seven distinct strains of HeroJ

IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 103

blood Boston, arf every one knows, ti-aces directly through Timo-
leon. Sir Archy, Diomed, Florizel, to Herod. Sovereign, also,
through Emilius, his sire, has Herod on both lines as his paternal
and maternal gg.g. sire ; and Tartar, the sire of Herod, a third
time, in one remove yet farther back. Now this would go to jus-
tify Stonehenge's opinion that the recurrence to the same original
old strains of blood, when such strains have been sufl&ciently inter-
mixed and rsndered new by other more recent crosses, is not inju-
rious, but of great advantage ; and that, on the whole, it is better,
coeter is paribus^ to do such than to try experiments with extreme
out-crosses."

IN-AND-IN BREEDING.

"When any new breed of animals is first introduced into this
country, in-and-in breeding (by which is to be understood the pair-
ing of relations within the degree of second cousins twice or more
in succession) can scarcely be avoided ; and hence, when first the
value of the Arab was generally recognised, the breeder of the
racehorse of those days could not well avoid having recourse to
the plan. Thus we find, in the early pages of the Stud-book, con-
stant instances of very close in-breeding, often carried to such an
extent as to become incestuous. The result was our modern tho-
rough-bred ; but it does not follow that because the plan answered
in producing that celebrated kind of animal, it will be equally
successful in keeping up the breed in its original perfection. In
" British Rural Sports," I have given a series of examples of suc-
cess resulting from each plan, which I shall not now repeat, merely
remarking that the opinion which I formed from an attentive ex-
amination of them remains unchanged. This opinion was expressed
in the following words : —

" If the whole of the pedigrees to which I have drawn atten-
tion are attentively examined, the breeder can have no hesitation
in coming to the conclusion, that in-breeding, carried out once or
twice, is not only not a bad practice, but is likely to be attended
with good results. Let him ask what horses have been the most
remarkable of late years as stallions, and, with very few exceptions,
he will find they were considerably in-bred. It has been remarked,
that the Touchstone and Defence blood almost always hits with the
Selim ; but it is forgotten that the one was already crossed with
that horse, and the other with his brother Rubens. On the other
hand, the Whisker blood in the Colonel has not succeeded so well,
it being made up of much crossed and more distinctly related parti-
cles, and therefore not hitting with the Selim and Castrel blood,
like his cousins, Touchstone and Defence. It has, however, par-
tially succeeded when in-bred to the Waxy and Buzzard blood, as
in Chatham and Fugleman, who both reunite these three strains.
The same applies to Coronation, who unites the Whalebfire blood

104 THE HORSE.

in Sir Heruules with that of Rubens in Ruby ; but as Waxy and
Buzzard, the respective ancestors of all these horses, were both
grandsons of Herod, and great-grandsons of Snap, it only strength-
ens the argument in favor of in-breeding. This conclusion is in
accordance with the 14th and 15th axioms, which embody the
state of our present knowledge of the theory of generation ; and
if they are examined, they will be seen to bear upon the present
subject, so as to lead one to advise the carrying out of the practice
of in-and-in breeding to the same extent as has been found so suc-
cessful in the instances which I have given. Purity of blood in
intimately connected with the practice, because the nearer it is to
one standard, the more unmixed it is, and by consequence the more
fully it is represented in the produce. Hence, it is doubly needful
to take care that this pure blood is of a good kind ; because if bad,
it will perpetuate its bad cjualities just as closely as it would the
good, or perhaps still more so "

I have nothing to add to these remarks ; and if I were to adduce
the few instances in their support which can have occurred since
1855-6, when they were written, I should add little to the mass of
evidence which I have already collected. An appeal to the past
can only be answered in the way which I have recorded ; for the
evidence of repeated success in resorting to the practice of in-breed-
ing is too strong to be gainsaid. "We will now consider whether
the eflPects of an out-cross are of superior or equal value.

OUT-CROSSING.
Between in-and-in breeding, which I have defined as the
pairing of animals within the relationship of second cousins, and
the opposite extreme of uniting those which are not at all allied in
blood, there are many degrees ; but as, in the thorough-bred horse,
there are scarcely two in the Stud-book which cannot be traced
back to the same stock in one or more lines, we do not generally
understand " a cross" to demand absolute distinctness of blood.
For instance, Teddington is generally considered as the result of
as marked a cross as we ever met with in the modern Stud-book.
For five generations, the same name never appears in the pedigree
tables of his sire and dam ; but in the sixth, we find the name of
Sir Peter occur three times on the side of his sire, and twice on
that of his dam, besides six other lines of Herod blood on the part
of the sire, and eight on that of the dam. Here, therefore, there
was a return to the original lines of blood, which had been in-bred
twice each, after five successive departures from them as far as
could be eff"ected in this particular kind of horse. The last are
called " crosses," though not being exactly the reverse of in-breed-
tug, for the reason, as I before remarked, that an absolute freedom
from relationship is not to be found, or, if so, extremely rarelv

ADVANTAGES, ETC, 105

Breeders very ofteb fancy that they put two animals together ■
which aie without any corresponding lines or strains of blood in
their composition ; whereas, in point of fact, the rehitionship exists
only four or five degrees off. The horse and mare are, perhaps,
fourth or fifth cousins, often second or third ; but, in examining
the Stud-book, the blood of the sire, grandsire, and great-grandsire
is apt to be forgotten, because it is not given, the name only being
mentioned In the book to which I have already alluded, I have
inserted a long series of pedigree tables, drawn out to the sixth
generation, with a reference also to the earlier pedigrees; by
which, at one glance, the breeder may see how constantly, in
going back, the same names occur in every table. Eclipse, Herod,
and Conductor, the three contemporary descendants of the Darley
Arab, the Byerly Turk, and the Godolphin Barb, or one of their
immediate descendants, will be seen in the fifth, sixth, and seventh
remove of all our thorough-bred horses, and often the names of all
three will be found repeated four, five, or six times apiece ; yet the
horse itself whose pedigree is being examined, as in the instance
of Teddington, is considered to be the produce of a cross, and is
not, therefore said to be in-bred.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH PLAN.

Having thus explained the meaning of the two terms, and
having, in " British Rural Sports," collected a series of examples
of success in crossing nearly equal in number to those adduced in
which in-breeding had been resorted to advantageously, I shall
now proceed to say a few words upon the probable advantages to
be derived from each plan. In the first place, it may be laid
down that nearly an equal number of good horses have lately been
bred by adopting either mode of proceeding ; but no first-rate horse
has appeared whose parents were incestuously allied. In the second
place, it may be gathered from experiments with horses and other
domestic animals, that very close in-breeding, continued for any
length of time, is apt to develop the weak points in the constitu-
tions of the breed in which it is adopted. The cautious breeder,
therefore will do well to avoid running this risk, and will strive to
obtain what he wants without having recourse to the practice,
though, at the same time, he will make up his mind that it is
unwise to sacrifice a single point with this view. Experience
tells us that it is useless to expect to develop a new property or
quality in the next generation, by putting a female entirely
deprived of it to a male which possesses it even in a marked
degree. Some instances of success will attend the adoption of
this course, but as a rule it cannot be relied on in the majority of
instances. Thus, a slow, stout mare, containing no lines of fast
hlnod in her pedigree, will not be likely to breed a fast colt, though

106 THE HORSE,

put to a flying stallion, whose blood is not stout in a consideruMe
proportion of his ancestry. Two or three consecutive crosses with
the same or similar blood will almost of a surety eifect the object;
but the first will rarely do so. Again, we know, if we put two
■animals together, equally in-bred or equally crossed, the produce
is, on the whole, as likely to resemble the one parent %s the other,
though there may be a difference of opinion as to particular points.
But, if not thus equally composed of similar elements, the more
in-bred parent will be represented in a greater proportion than
the crossed one ; and hence it follows, that if it is desired to keep
up the qualities of the horse or mare in his or her descendant, the
mate must be selected, if possible, less in-bred than he or she is.
West Australian himself and his stock are excellent examples of
this theory. His sire, Melbourne, was the result of a series of
crosses ; while his dam, Mowerina, was in-bred to Whalebone and
Whisker, own brothers ; and her sire and dam were second cousins.
The result has been, that both in " The West" and in his stock
the Whalebone element has been univei'sally manifested, and not
the slightest trace of Melbourne has ever appeared, as far as my
knowledge of his stock allows me to judge. This is in perfect
accordance with the 13th anxiom in the epitome of the laws
which govern the breeding of our domestic animals. (See page
101.)

CAUSES OF A "HIT."

A " HIT," in breeding, is understood to mean an instance of suc-
cess ; but though it often occurs, the reason for it is not always
very clear. My own belief is that it generally results, as I have
laid down in the 16th axiom, from the reunion of lines which have
been often kept separate for several generations. Thus, it is a
fact (so patent that every writer on the breeding of the horse, of
late years, has admitted its truth), that the Touchstone and Sultan
blood have almost invariably hit. The reason, granting the pre-
mises which I lay down, is plain enough — each goes back to Selim,
the former through the dam of his sire, Camel, and the latter being
Bon of that horse. Many other examples of a similar nature might
be adduced, though not observed so extensively as in the case of
Touchstone, because few horses have been put to so many mares
as he has. I do not mean to assert that no hit can occur without
such a reunion of previously separated lines, but I believe that,
under other circumstances, it will rarely be found to show itself;
and if, as I before observed, there is a relationship between all
thorough-bred horses, either remote or near, there must be this
reunion to some extent. This, however, is not what I mean ; the
return must be to a line only removed two, three, or four genera-
tions, in order to be at all marked; and if more than these inter-

A "HIT"— SOUNDNESS OP PARENTS. 107

vals exist, the hit cannot be said to depend upon the reunion, since
this must occur in all cases ; and what is common to all cannot be
instanced as a particular cause of any subsequent result.

The fact really is, as proved by thousands of examples, that
by putting A and B together, the produce is not necessarily made
up of half of each. Both parents have qualities belonging to the
several members of a long line of ancestors, and their son (or
daughter) may possibly be made up of as many as seven propor-
tions of one parent, and one proportion of the other. It generally
happens, that if there is any considerable degree of consanguinity,
or even a great resemblance in form, to some of the ancestry on
each side, the produce will draw together those elements, and will
be made up of the characteristics peculiar to them in a very large
proportion. This accounts for the preponderance of the Touch-
stone form in the West Australian stock ; while the same horse is
overpowered in Orlando and his stock, by the greater infusion of
Selim blood in the dam Vulture, who is removed exactly in the
same degree as Touchstone from Selim and his brother Castrel;
and the two latter, therefore, have more influence on the stock than
the former. Here, then, we have two remarkable instances, which
each show a hit from the reunion of strains after two out-crosses ;
while, at the same time, they severally display an example of two
lines overpowering one in the stock of the same horse. It may be
argued, that in each case it is the blood of the dam which has
overpowered that of the sire, — West Australian being by Mel-
bourne, out of a daughter of Touchstone; while Orlando is by
Touchstone, out of a mare descended from two lines of Selim and
his brother Castrel. Now, I am myself a great believer in the in-
fluence of the dam over her progeny, and therefore I should be
ready to accept this argument, were it not that, under ordinary
circumstances, both Melbourne and Touchstone have been sure to
reproduce their likenesses in their several sons and daughters.
Every racing man who has been on the turf while the Melbournes
and Touchstones were in their glory, was able, in almost all in-
stances, to say at the first glance, " That is a Melbourne or a Touch-
stone colt or filly." But, in the cases of Orlando and West Aus-
tralian, the resemblance to their respective sires was not apparent;
and, as I before observed, it is still less visible in their stock. In
the language of tne stud, this is called " going back" to a particular
strain ; and it is so constantly observable, that there is no necessity
for dwelling further upon it.

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND SOUNDNESS IN BOTH SIRE
AND DAM.

Our present breed op horses is undoubtedly less healthy
than that of our ancestors ; and this tendency to unsoundness is

108 THE HORSE.

not markeq in any particular department of the animal economy,
but the defect shows itself wherever the strain is the greatest from
the nature of the work which the animal h;is to perform. Thus,
the racehorse becomes a roarer, or his legs and feet give way. The
hunter fails chiefly in his wind or his hocks, because he is not used
much on hard ground, and therefore his fore legs are not severely
tried, as in the case with the racer, who often has to extend him-
Belf over a course rendered almost as hard as a turnpike-road by
the heat of a July or August sun. The harness-horse often be-
comes a roarer, from the heavy weights that he has to draw, espe-
cially if his windpipe is impeded by his head being confined by
the bearing-rein. The hack, again, suffers chiefly in his legs, from
our hard Macadamised roads; while the cart-horse becomes unsound
in his hocks or his feet, the former parts being strained by his
8ev,ere pulls, and the latter being battered and bruised against the
ground, from having to bear the enormous weight of his carcass.
But it is among our well-bred horses that unsoundness is the most
frequent; and in them, I believe, it may be traced to the constant
breeding from sires and dams which have been thrown out of train-
ing, in consequence of a break-down, or " making a noise," or from
some other form of disease. It is quite true, that roaring is not
necessarily transmitted from father to son ; and it is also manifest
that there are several causes which produce it, some of which are
purely accidental, and are not likely to be handed down to the next
generation. The same remarks apply to the eyes; but, in the main,
it may be concluded that disease is hereditary, and that a sound
horse is far more likely to get healthy stock than an unsound one.
In the mare, probably, health is still more essential; but if the
breeder regards his future success, whether he is establishing a
stud of racehorses, or of those devoted to any kind of slower work,
he will carefully eschew every kind of unsoundness, and especially
those which are of a constitutional character. If a horse gets
blind in an attack of influenza, or if, without any previous indica-
tions of inflammation, he breaks down from an accidental cause,
the defect may be passed over, perhaps; but, on the contrary, when
the blindness comes on in the form of ordinary cataract, or the
break-down is only the final giving-way in a leg which has beet
long amiss, I should strongly advise an avoidance of the horse
which has displayed either the one or the other. I believe that a
government inspection of all horses and mares used for breeding
purposes would be a great national good; and I look forward to its
establishment, at no distant time, as the only probable means of
insuring greater soundness in our breeds of horses. I would not
have the liberty of the subject interfered with. Let every man
breed what he likes, but I would not let him foist the produce on
the public as sound, when they are almost sure to go amiss as soon

BEST AGE TO BREED FROM. 109

js they are worked. Ships must now all be registered at Lloyd's,
in the classes to which they are entitled by their condition ; and
horses, as well as mares, should be registered in the same way,
according to the opinion which the government inspector may form
as to their health and the probability of getting or producing sound
and useful foals. The purchaser would call for the registration-
mark, when he asked for the pedigree of the horse he was about
to buy; and if it was not a favorable one, he would, of course, be
placed upon his guard. If this plan could be carried out in prac-
tice, as well as it looks on paper, much good might be done, I am
assured ; but we all know that inspectors are but mortals, and that
they are liable to be biassed in more ways than one. Still, I be-
lieve that the evil is becoming so glaring, that something must
soon be done ; and I see no other mode so likely as this to be ad-
vantageous to the interests of the purchaser and user of the horse.

BEST AGE TO BREED FROM.
The general opinion throughout England is, that one cr
other of the parents should be of mature age; and that if a very
young mare is chosen, the horse should not be less than eight, ten,
or twelve years old. If both are very young or very old, the pro
duce is generally small and weakly ; but by adopting the plan above-
mentioned, the services of young and old may be fully utilized. A
great many of our very best performers on the turf have been got
by old stallions ; as, for instance. Whisker, son of Waxy, in his
twenty-second year ; Emilius, son of Orville, in his twentieth ;
Voltigeur and Newminster, whose sires were respectively twenty-one
and seventeen ; Blink Bonny, who was got by Melbourne, in his
twentieth year; and Wild Dayrell, by Ion, when seventeen years old.
To these may be added, Gemma di Vergy, Lifeboat, and Gunboat,
three celebrated sons of Sir Hercules, and all got by him after he
was twenty years old — the last named when he was twenty-five
years of age. So, also, many were out of old mares ; including
Priam, whose dam was twenty when she dropped him; Crucifix,
the daughter of Octaviana, when twenty-two years old ; Lottery,
out of Mandane, in her twentieth year ; and Brutandorf, produced
by the same mare when she was twenty-two. From these instances,
the breeder may conclude that age is no bar to success, if matched
with youth on the other side; but the instances of success in breed-
ing from two aged parents are rare indeed. It is next to be ascer-
tained what is the earliest age at which this animal can be relied
on for breeding ; and here, again, example is better than theory.
The most remarkable instance of moderate success in adopting this
plan is in that of The Ugly Buck, whose dam. Monstrosity, was
put to Venison when only a two-year-old. The horse, also, was
not more than seven, and the dam of Monstrosity bred her in her
10

110 THE HORSE.

fourth year. But thougli Ugly Buck proiLJsed well as a two-year-
old, he foiled in his subsequent career, and his example is not, there-
fore, to be considered as at all conclusive. Still, his is a most ex-
traordinary instance, and as such it should not be lost sight of.
There are many cases in which the first produce of a mare has been
her best; such as, in former times, Mark Anthony, Conductor,
Shuttle Pope, Filho da Puta, Sultan, Pericles, Oiseau, Doctor Syn-
tax, Manfred, and Pantaloon. Nevertheless, these may be con-
sidered to be exceptions, and a large majority of the brood marea
in the Stud-book are credited with their most successful produce
subsequently to their first. The rule generally adopted is to wait
till the mare is three years old before breeding from her, and then
to put her to a horse of at least full maturity — that is to say, seven
or eight years old.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SIRE AND DAM RESPECTIVELY.
I HAVE ALREADY, at page 40, alluded to this question as relating
to the breeding of the Arab horse in his native country, and have
there shown that the opinions held by Abd-el-Kader, in modern
days, do not coincide with those which have long been supposed
to be general in Arabia. In the passage which I have there
quoted, this celebrated chief attempts to define the exact part which
each parent takes in producing the foal, but he goes still farther in
subsequent answers to the questions asked by General Daumas, in
relation to the value put by the Arabs on their stallions and mares
respectively. To these Abd-el-Kader replies as follows: "It is
true that Arabs prefer mares to horses, but only for the following
reasons : the first is that they look at the profit which may arise
from a mare as very considerable. Some Arabs have realized aa
much as 20,000 dollars from the produce of one mare. They have
a proverb that 'the fountain-head of riches is a mare that produces
a mare.' This is corroborated by the prophet Mahomet, who says,
' Let mares be preferred, their bellies are a treasure, their backs the
seat of honor.' The greatest blessing is an intelligent wife or a
mare that produces plenty of foals." These words are thus ex-
plained by commentators : Their bellies are a treasure because the
mare by her produce increases the riches of her master; and their
backs are the seat of honor, because the pace of a mare is easier
than that of a horse ; and there be those that say it is sufficiently
BO as in time to render a horseman effeminate. The second reason
is that a mare does not neigh in war, that she bears hunger, thirst,
and heat better than a horse, and that therefore she is more useful
to people whose riches consist in camels and sheep. Now all the
world knows that our camels and sheep thrive only in the desert,
where the soil is so arid that Arabs drinking chiefly milk find water
seldom oftener than every eight or ten days, in consequence of tha

INFLUENCE OF SIRE AND DAM. Ill

distance between the pasturages, which are only to be found in the
neighborhood of wells. The mare is like the serpent, their low-
ers increase in hot weather and in arid countries. Serpents which
live in cold or watery countries have little venom or courage, so
that their bite is seldom mortal, whereas those that live in hot
countries are more irritable, and the virulence of their poison is
increased. Whilst the horse can less easily bear the heat of the
sun, the mare, doubtless from constitutional causes, finds her ener-
gies increase with the greatest heat. The third reason is that the
mare requires less care and less nourishment. The owner can lead
and turn her out to graze with the sheep and camels, and he is not
obliged to have a person constantly watching her; whereas a horse
cannot do without being highly fed, and he cannot be turned out
without an attendant for obvious reasons. These are the true rea-
sons of an Arab's preference for mares. It does not arise from
the foal inheriting the qualities of the dam rather than those of the
sire ; it does not proceed from its being better at all times and
under all circumstances to ride a mare rather than a horse ; but it
is based upon material interests, and on the necessities enforced by
the description of life which Arabs lead. It must, however, be
admitted that a horse is more noble than a mare. He is stronger,
more courageous, and faster. That a horse is stronger than a mare
is thus proved. If both were struck by the same mortal wound
a mare would fall at once, but a horse would seldom drop i;ntil h
had carried his rider into safety. I saw a mare struck by a ball
on the leg ; the bone was broken ; unable to bear the pain she fell
immediately. A horse was hit in the same manner ; the broken
limb hung only by the skin; he continued his,course, supporting
himself on his sound leg, until he bore his rider from the battle-
field and then fell. The Arabs prefer mares to horses for the rea-
sons I have given, and those reasons are suificient to show why
amongst us the value attached to the possession of a mare is greater
than that they attach to the possession of a horse, even though tho
breeding of each were the same; for whilst on the one hand the
foal takes more after the sire than the dam, on the other the pro-
prietor of a horse cannot gain in many years as much as the pro-
prietor of a mare can gain in one year, if she throw a foal.
However, when a horse has displayed any extraordinary qualities,
it often happens that he will not be parted with, probably pro-
ducing to his master in the way of booty or otherwise as much as
the most valuable mare. I saw amongst the Annazas, a tribe ex-
tending from Bagdad to Syria, horses so beyond all price that it
was almost impossible to purchase them, and certainly impossible
to pay ready money for them. These animals, of a fabulous value,
are sold only to the highest personages, or to rich merchants who
pay for them by thirty or forty instalments, or by a perpetual rent

112 THE HORSE.

settled ou the vendor or his deceudants. The birth of a horse can
never be considered a misfortune by an Arab, however much he
may prefer a mare for the material advantages which they procure.
Mares almost always produce, and it is on that account principally
that they are preferred. I repeat it — the birth of an animal that
guarantees its master against humiliation can never be considered
a misfortune. A poet says : ' My brothers reproach me with my
debts, yet I never contracted one but for an honorable purpose.
In giving the bread of heaven to all, in purchasing a horse of noble
race, and buying a slave to attend upon me." — Bailey's Magazine
of /Sj)orts, June, 1860.

My own belief in this matter, founded upon observations made
during a long series of years on the horse as well as the dog, is
that no rule can be laid down with any certainty. Much depends
upon the comparative physical power and strength of constitution
in each parent, even more perhaps than the composition of the
blood. There have been many instances of two brothers being
used in the stud, both among horses and greyhounds, in which one
has almost invariably got his stock resembling himself in all par-
ticulars, not even excluding color, while the descendants of the
other have rarely been recognisable as his. Thus among horsea
the Touchstones have been mostly brown or dark bay, and as a lot
have shown a high form as racehorses, while the Launcelots have
been of all colors, and have been below mediocrity on the 'iurf.
Several examples of the same nature may be quoted from among
greyhounds, such as Ranter, Gipsey Prince, and Gipsey Royal,
three brothers whose stock were as diflFerent as possible, but the
fact is so generally recognised that it is not necessary to dwell upon
it. Now surely this diflference in the power of transmitting the
likeness of the sire, when the blood is exactly the same as it is
observed to extend over large numbers, can only depend upon a
variation in individual power. Not only does this, apply to the
males, but the females aiso show the same difference. Some mares
have gone on producing foals which afterwards turned out first-
class whatever horse they were put to, as, for instance, Phryne
(dam of winners by Pantaloon, Melbourne, and The Flying Dutch-
man), Barbelle, who produced Van Tromp by Lanercost, De Witt
by The Provost, and The Flying Dutchman by Bay Middleton,
Alice Hawthorne, successively as well as successfully put to Bird-
catcher, Melbourne, Touchstone, Windhound, Melbourne or Wind-
hound, and Sweetmeat; and lastly, Ellerdale, dam of Islington
and Ellermere, and Gildermire by Flying Dutchman, Summerside
by West Au.stralian, and Wardersmarke by Birdcatchcr. On ap-
pealing to the greyhound, also, we see some remarkable iiistances
within the last few years, of which Mr. Jardine's Ladylike and
Mr. Randcll's Riot may be considered as very strong casns in point

CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM. 113

The latter bitch also may be instanced as having been extremely
successful in the stud, while her own brother, Ranter, in the same
kennel, was a total failure. There must consequently be something
more than mere breeding t® produce a successful result, and this I
am inclined to think resides in the strength if the constitution
possessed by the individual.

But even supposing the horse or mare displays this constitu-
tional power, there is something which controls h, as we have seen
in the two cases already instanced of Orlando and West Australian
III the former horse the influence of the sire, great as it usually
has been shown to be, was compelled to succumb to the combina-
tion of. the three lines traceable to Selim and his brother Castrel,
while in the other tbfs same horse Touchstone prevailed (still,
however, on the side of the dam) apparently only because there
was a combination of two very recently separated lines of Waxy
blood through his sons Whalebone and Whisker. The second of
these examples is the more worthy of note, because in tracing
back the lines of the sire and dam, the name of Trumpeter from
whom Melbourne is lineally descended is met with three times in
the pedigree of the former, and four times in that of the latter.
Here then but for the neaMess of the two lines of Waxy I should
have expected the produce to follow the Trumpator strain through
Melbourne, but as I have already observed, beyond the third re-
move this influence is very much weakened. We may therefore
come to the conclusion that it is not always superior strength of
constitution, nor the greater purity or antiquity of the blood which
determines the influence to be expected by either parent, but that
sometimes the one and sometimes the other is the cause. And as
the former cannot well be determined, the latter is the foundation
for the plans of the breeder, who will on the whole do well to fol-
low the maxims first laid down by that celebrated breeder of horses
and cattle, the second Earl Spencer, whose opinions were in con-
formity with the 13th axiom for breeders which I have inserted at
page 101.

CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM.

The necessity for health in each parent has already been
insisted on, but beyond this point, which is generally admitted,
(here are several others to be attended to. Thus, since the pre-
ponderance of either over the form and temper of the progeny will,
in all probability, fall to that one which has the superior purity of
blood, it follows that if the breeder wishes to alter in any important
particular the qualities possessed by his mare, he must select a
horse which is either better bred or some of whose lines will coa-
lesce with those of the dam's, which it is desired to perpetuate
Thus, supposing a mare to be made up of four lines, two of which
10*

314 THE HORSE.

are decidedly bad. and one which is so good as to attract the notice
of her owner, then let him look around and select some horse in
whose pedigree is to be found a similar strain, taking cia'e that the
relationship is not so close as to lead to disappointment on the score
of the bad effects attributable to in-breeding. But there are many
brood mares not in the Stud-book, whose pedigrees are not ascer-
tainable, and in their case this rule will not apply. Here a different
plan must be pursued, and a horse must be chosen whose shape,
action, or temper coincides with the particular quality which it is
desired to perpetuate. I am strongly inclined to believe that it ia
comparatively of little use to look about for sires who possess those
qualities in which the dam is deficient. Such a course of proceed-
ing has so constantly ended in disappointment, within my own
knowledge, that I believe I am justified in condemning it. A stal-
lion (whether horse or greyhound, the same is observable) is known
to have been very fast, or very stout, as the case may be, and hav-
ing obtained the one character or the other, breeders have supposed
that they have only to send mares deficient in either quality, and
they would insure its development in the produce. If the mare or
bitch happens to possess among her ancestry stout or fast lines of
blood, the produce will display the one or the other, if she is put to
a horse possessing them ; but, on the contrary, if the lines of the
dam are all fast, or all stout, no first cross ^yith a sire possessing
the opposite qualities will be likely to have any effect, though no
doubt there are some few exceptions to this, as to 'all other rules.
The instances in support of this position are so numerous within
my own knowledge, that I should scarcely be able to make a be-
ginning, and every one draws upon his own experience, or who
will examine the " Stud Book" and the '■^Coursing Calendar," will
find examples without end throughout every volume of each. It
would be invidious to select any stallion now in this country, but
among those which have been well tried here in the stud, and are
here no longer, may be mentioned the Flying Dutchman. This
horse was well known to have been himself not only fast, but stout,
and, as a consequence, even those breeders who are aware of the
necessity for regarding both of these qualities were induced to
breed from him, expecting that the result would be to give them
similar stock in the next generation. The contrary, however, was
the case. In many cases speed was developed, but in almost every
instance, without an exception, that speed was not allied with stay-
ing power. The unlooked-for result has been attributed to his
sire, Bay IMiddleton, whose stock have been notoriously flashy; but
if the pedigree of BarbcUe, his dam, is carefully examined, a still
stronger reason may be assigned. If her lines are traced back five
generations, it will be seen that out of her thirty-two progenitors
in that remove fourteen are descended from Herod or his sire,

CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM. 115

Tartar^ and these in addition to the already overtlowing quantum
of the same blood in Bay Middletou himself. Now I am a great
admirer of the blood of Herod, and I believe him to be one of. the
chief foundations of the high form of our modern horses ; but its
peculiar characteristic is speed, not stoutness, and it requires a
conibiuation with the stouter blood of Eclipse, or some other horse
of that strain, to make the possessor capable of staying a distance.
With these fast lines the produce of Barbelle has always been fast,
but it can ,T3arcely occasion surprise that her stoutest son. Van
Tromp, sho ild be by Lanercost, nor that Orlando, with his double
lines of Selim and Castrel blood, should get a mere half-miler like
Zuyder Zee. The Flying Dutchman was, no doubt, a grand per-
former himself, but his may be regarded as a somewhat exceptional
case, and this opinion is supported by the failure of his own bro-
ther (Vanderdecken) on the turf, although cast in a mould which
would lead one to expect a still greater success.

In paying attention to the performances of the ancestry
of both sire and dam, regard must also be had to their size, as this
element is considered of much importance. Neither a large nor a
small sire or dam will perpetuate the likeness of himself or herself
unless descended from a breed which is either the one or the other.
It only leads to disappointment to breed from a tall stallion or
mare if either is only accidentally so, and not belonging to a breed
generally possessing the same characteristics. Many a small mare
or bitch has surprised her owner by producing him animals much
larger than herself, but on tracing her pedigree it will almost al-
ways be found to contain the names of animals of above the average
size. Moderately small mares are generally of a stronger consti-
tution than very large ones, and on that account they will often
answer the purposes of the stud better than larger animals, pro-
vided tliey are of a sort usually cast in the moidd which is desired.
This should never be lost sight of by the breeder, and where, as
in breeding thorough-breds, the pedigree can be traced far enough
for this purpose, there is no excuse for neglecting the circumstance.

The above precautions are sufficient in all those cases where
the pedigree is attainable, but there are many brood mares, as I
before remarked, in which nothing is known of their antecedents.
Here, the breeder can only act upon the general rule that " like
produces like," and cannot take advantage of the addition which
I have made to the 12th axiom, at page 101, of the words, ^'or the
likeness of some ancestor." In such cases, for the reason which I
have given, disappointment will constantly attend upon the fiisl
experiments, and until the mare has produced her first foal, and he
has gone on to his third or fourth year, the value of the dam can
haidly bs ascertained. Breeding is always, more or less, a lottery.

116 THE HOESE

but when it is carried on with dams of unknown parentage, it is
ten times more so than it need be. Were I to commence the
establishment of a breeding stud, whether of cart or carriage
horses, hacks or hunters, I would never introduce a single mare
whose dam and grand-dam as well as the sire and grand-sire would
lot be produceable as good specimens of their respective kinds.
Beyond the second remove there would always be some difficulty in
aoing with the lower-bred mares, but I would certainly go as far
as this in all cases. If the sire and dam, grand-sire and grand-
dam, were, on the whole, of desirable form and performances, I
would choose the produce as a brood mare, but not otherwise ] and
though, of course, I should be obliged to pass over some important
defects in individuals, I would not do so if they were common to
all, or nearly all, of the four. In this way I should expect to do
more than by simply choosing " a great roomy mare" without
knowing her pedigree, in the belief that she would be sure to re-
produce her likeness.

THE KIND OF HORSE MOST PROFITABLE FOR THE BREEDER

TO CHOOSE.

When a person makes up his mind to bestow his attention on
the breeding of horses as a speculation, it behooves him to consider
what kind is best suited to the nature of his land and the length
of his purse, as well as to his own knowledge of horses. Unless
he has plenty of fine upland grass and a command of money, it is
quite useless for him to think of the race-horse ; nor will he do
well, without these concomitants, to dabble in hunters. Cart-horses,
now-a-days, pay well when there is work for them to do up to their
third or fourth year ; and carriage-horses are likewise a good specu-
lation, when the land is suitable to their development. No one,
however, should turn his attention to the breeding of hacks on a
large scale, since they will almost inevitably cost more than they
will fetch at five years old. The farmer who keeps one or two " nag "
mares is the only person who can be said to rear hacks without
loss ; and he only does so, because he begins to use them for his own
slow work as soon as they are three years old. Even in his case,
however, I much doubt whether the same food which has been
given the colts would not have been turned to greater profit if given
to horned cattle ; and the only thing which can be said in favor of
the former is, that they eat coarse grass which the latter will refuse,
To make the breeding of the horse turn out profitably, the hack
and inferior kind of harness-horse ought to be the culls from a lot
of colts intended for the hunting-field, and then, the one with the
other, they may be made to pay.

THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL. 117

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON BREEDING.
Tub angry discussions which have taken place in the year
1860, between Lord Redesdale and Admiral Rous, indicate plainly
what is the general opinion on the subject of the diminution in
the stoutness of our horses. Breeders, therefore, should turn their
attention to this, point, and should be doubly careful to avoid
weedy or diseased sires and dams. It cannot be denied that our
modern thorough-breds possess size and speed; but they certainly
do not shine in staying powers, as I have already more than once
remarked. But there are some strains particularly free from this
defect, and these I have endeavored to point out. It should not,
moreover, be forgotten that though the thorough-bred horse will
bear more work, especially at high speed, than any other kind, yet
he can only do this if well fed and warmly housed. Being a
nat've of a warm and dry climate, he requires to be protected from
the weather ; and the young stock must be well reared in all re-
spects, or they will never pay. If, therefore, the breeder is not
determined to put up warm hovels in every paddock, and if he is
stingy of his corn, he had far better let his stud of mares be com-
posed of lower bred animals. If a thorough-bred horse and a
donkey are both fed upon the lowest quantity and quality of food
which will keep the latter in condition, the donkey would beat its
high-bred antagonist over a distance of ground — that is to say, sup-
posing the experiment to be continued long enough to produce a
permanent effect upon the two animals. A cart-horse colt, or one
of any kind of low blood, will do well enough if reared, till he is
put to work, upon grass and hay ; but a race-horse or hunter, of
high breeding, would show a badly-developed frame, and be com-
paratively worthless for his particular kind of work, if he were not
allowed his corn from the time that he is weaned.

CHAPTER VIII.
THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL.

The Hovel and Paddock — General Management of the Brood-
Mar e — Treatment when in Foal — After Foaling — Early Man
agement of the Foal— Weaning.

Having already alluded to the principles which should
guide the breeder in the choice of his mares, I need not further
allude to them beyond the remark that, independently of those
which I have indicated, he must take care that they are each pos-
sessed of a frame suitable to carry a foal, and of a constitution
hardy enough to sustain the drain upon the system caused by the

118 THE HORSE.

young animal, botL before and after birth. If the pelvis and back
ribs are not large and deep, the foetus will not have room to be de«
veloped and brought into the world ; and unless the mare is a good
feeder, and is also furnished with an udder which will give suffi-
cient milk, she will not afford enough nourishment to her foal,
which will, therefore, be weakly and badly developed in its pro-
portions. The shape may be easily detected beforehand, but the
constitution and milking properties cannot so well be predicated,
though the experienced eye and hand of the stud-groom will
enable him to give a tolerably correct guess.

HOVEL AND PADDOCK.

If the breeder is about to undertake the production of a
number of horse;^ of any kind, he must establish a regular stud-
farm, which for all horses should be on sound upland, with a sub-
soil of chalk or gravel. The presence of fine white clovers is in
itself almost sufficient to show that the soil will be suitable to the
horse; but, if possible, there should be an absolute practical know-
ledge that the situation has agreed with the animal, before any
heavy investment is made. If the surface fall is good, draining
may not be necessary, but in most cases the herbage will be greatly
improved by the introduction of tiles. Low, marshy situations may
serve during the autumn months to freshen up a stall horse, but
they are utterly unfit for the rearing of young stock, and snould
be carefully avoided. If the stud is highly bred, and the feeding
is to be good, the colts will be very mischievous, and unless care
is taken to make the fences safe, they will break bounds, or injure
themselves in the attempt. Deep ditch -^s are very unsafe, for the
mare as well as her foal are very apt to get cast in them, with a
serious or fatal injury as the result. Posts and rails answer well
enough, where timber is plentiful, but, in the long run, they are
expensive from the necessity for constant repairs. Banks with thorn
hedges on the top are the very best of all means for enclosing the
paddocks, and are even better than stone walls, which, however, are
excellent for the purpose if they have the soil raised against their
bases, without which the foal is liable to slip up against their sur-
face, and thus sometimes blemish his knees. There is a great
difference of opinion as to the size necessary for the paddock.s, and
the number of mares which should be allowed in each. In some
well conducted stud-farms, as, for instance, in that belonging to the
Kawcliffe Company, near York, the enclosures are very large, and
a dozen, or even as many as eighteen, mares and their foals are
turned out together as soon as the weather permits, and the spring
grass grows high enough. In qthers, as at the Hampton Court and
Middle Park establishments, the paddocks are each only calcu-
lated to tako three or four mares and their foals ; and the yearlings.

HOVEL AND PADDOCK. 119

also, are never allowed to exceed four iu any one paddock. Mr
Martin, the clever and exf erienccd manager of the first-named stud,
is of opinion that colts should have room enough to gallop, and
thus early accustom their joints and sinews to bear the strains which
they must, sometime or other, be subjected to. On the other hand,
the argument is held that in a small paddock the foal gallops quite
as much a? in the larger one, and puts his joints to the strain in
stopping himself at the corners, whilst there is less injury from
other accidental causes, such as kicks and the jamming of a lot
together in a narrow gateway. On the whole I am inclined to be-
lieve that the latter plan is the best, for experience shows that a
well-fed foal will gallop daily, for hours together, even in a two
acre paddock.

At foaling time each mare must have a separate hovel or
loose-box, but as, practically, it is found that she always gives
some few hours' notice of her approaching parturition, it is the
custom to bring her into the close neighborhood of the house of
the stud -groom at night, so that he may be at hand to render her
assistance, if necessary. Any loose-box answers for that purpose,
if it does not open to a warm stable, which would render it too
hot for an animal which has been for months exposed to the open
air. But after foaling the mare will also require a hovel to her-
self for six weeks or two months, when the foal will be strong
enough to take care of itself in running among other mares.
Indeed, at all times, the mares should at night be in separate hovels,
even when during the day they run in the same paddock with two
or three others. This hovel should be about twelve to fifteen feet
long, and not less than ten feet wide. The height may easily be
too great, because in the early spring the weather is often so
severe that the mare cannot impart sufficient heat to a very large
volume of air. From eight to nine feet will therefore be ample,
the former being well suited to the larger area which I have given
above, and the latter to the smaller. It is a very common plan,
when economy is much studied, to build four hovels back to back,
at the angles formed by four small runs, by which a saving in the
internal walls is effected. This, however, necessitates a northerly
or easterly aspect for two out of the four, either of which is objec-
tionable. Two hovels may readily be placed side by side ;n the
most desirable situation, and these may be made to open into
separate runs. The walls should be built of brick or stone, which-
ever is locally the cheaper material, or where gorse is abundant
they may be formed from it, being the cheapest of all.

In some counties what is called "wattle and dab" is very
generally employed for outbuildings of this kind, and when they
are roofed with thatch, which carries the water well oif the sides,
it answers very well. It is composed of common wood quarter

120 THE HORSE.

ings, with the uprights connected together by transvei fe bars like
the rounds of a ladder, about eight inches apart. When the
whole framework is put together thus, some soil, which should be
clay or loam, is well worked together with straw and water into a
tenacious mixture, which is forked over each transverse bar in
succession, and the whole smoothed down till it assumes a regular
and even surface. Cottages and outbuildings are put up in this
way in Devonshire and Dorsetshire at very little expense, straw
costing the farmer little or nothing, either for the walls or the
roof, and the wood being also the produce of his own land. The
labor, therefore, is the only part which costs money, and that is
not paid for at a very high rate, where wages rarely exceed nino
shillings a week. When gorse is used, it is adopted in the follow-
ing way: — The door-posts and uprights are first fixed, and should
be either of oak — which is best — or of good sound Memel fir;
they should be about six inches by four, and should be fixed -six
feet apart, with three feet sunk in the ground. After thus fixing
the framework, and putting on the wall-plate and rafters, the whole
internal surface is made good by nailing split poles of larch, or
other timber, closely together across the uprights, taking especial
care to round off the ends when they appear oat the door-posts.
Thus the whole of the interior is tolerably smooth, and no accident
can happen from the foal, getting his leg into any crevice between
the poles, if care is taken to nafl them securely, and to leave no
space between them. When this internal framework is finished,
the gorse is applied outside, as follows : It is first cut into small
branches, leaving a foot-stalk to each, about twelve or fifteen inches
in length : these branches are arranged in layers between the up-
rights, the stalks pointing upwards and inwards, and the prickly
ends downwards and outwards. When, by a succession of layers
of these brushy stalks, a height of eighteen inches has been raised,
a stout and tough pole, about the size of an ordinary broom-stick,
and six feet long, is laid upon the middle of the gorse, and so as
to confine it against the split poles and between the uprights. The
workmen kneel upon this pole, and by its means compress the
irorse into the smallest possible compass, and while thus pressed
down, and against the internal framework, it is confined to the lat-
ter by five or six loops of strong copper wire. When this is pro-
perly done, the gorse is so firmly confined, and withal so closely
packed, that neither wind nor rain can penetrate, nor can all the
mischief-loving powers of the foal withdraw a single st«lk. After
fixing the first layer, a second is built up in the satrie way, and
when neatly done the exterior is as level as a brick vvall ; but if
there are any very prominent branches they may bt sheared off
with the common shears, or taken off with the ora^nary hedging
bill-hook. When it is desired to make the exti vior look very

HOVEL AND PADDOCK. 12]

smootl). a hay-trusser's knife is used ; but the natural ends, though
not so level, are a much better defence, and last longer than the
cut gorse. In the interior the stalks sometimes project, and if so
they must be smoothly trimmed off. The roof should be covered
in with some material, which is cool in summer and warm in win-
ter, and for this purpose, therefore, nothing is so bad as slate, or
so good as thatch. Objections are sometimes made to the latter
material that it harbors vermin, but if the mares are well fed, I
must doubt their ever becoming lousy, unless these parasites xre
introduced by some animal from without. In any case, tiles xre
preferable to slates, and on the average they are also cheaper.
Pantiles are not easily made proof against the wind, but plane-
tiles, when properly pointed, are quite air-tight, and are far warmer
in cold -weather than slates, while they are also coobr in summer.
The door should be at least four feet or four feet six inches wide,
and seven feet to seven feet six inches high, with all the angles to
the sides and top of the frame rounded off to prevent accident
from striking the hip or head. The door, of oak or elni, should
be cut in half across the middle, so as to allow the lower half to
be shut, while the upper, being open, admits a free supply of air.
A small window should be inserted in the wall, for light and ven-
tilation when the door is closed. When straw is abundant it is
usual to leave the floor in its natural state, the litter absorbing all
that falls from the mare and foal, and being changed often enough
to keep the place dry. In case, however, this cannot be done, the
flooring should be similar to that for ordinary stables, that is to
say, laid with bricks or pebbles, clinkers being much too expen-
sive for such a purpose. Where chalk is abundant, it forms an
excellent floor, if a drain is cut all round the building, and the soil
being taken out to the depth of nearly a foot, the chalk is filled
in to a little above the level of the natural surface, and is then
well rammed down, a drain and trap being inserted in the middle.
The last point which requires consideration is the kind of manger
which is best adapted to the use of the mare and her foal, if the
latter is to be fed in the way proper to thorough-bred stock. In
any case, a wooden manger of the ordinary kind should be fixed,
with a staple for the rack-chain to fasten her up. A hay rack
should be so arranged that it can be filled from the outside; without
difiiculty; which is easily managed by building a little wooden
excrescence on to one of the outer walls, leaving a hole in the latter
for the mare to feed herself through. A wooden lid, covered with
zinc, lifts up and permits the introduction of the fodder without
the necessity for carrying a fork into the hovel, which will some-
times injure the mare or her foal. Well-bred young anintals of
this species are so mischievous that when shut up they will lump
into any place which can possibly hold them, and many a bfoJtto

l'J2 THE HORSE.

leg or back has ensued from an open hay-rack, placed near tbe
ground, attracting the gambols of a foal. A few wooden bars
nailed across the opening efi'ectually prevents this, while the addi-
tion of a low manger in another corner provides for the feeding
of the foal with kibbled oats, if such should be the plan adopted,
and the fourth is occupied by a water-tank. External to the
hovel the only provision necessary is a yard, which may be omitted
if the paddock is always dry from the land being well drained.
Unless this is the case, however, the yard should always be pro-
vided, as there are many days throughout the year when the
weather is fine enough over head to allow of the foal being turned
out of doors with advantage, if it can be protected from the wet
grass or wetter soil. A yard is, therefore, truly valuable in the
absence of a dry soil, and it should be paved with bricks, stones,
or pebbles, well covered with a layer of litter, to prevent slips and
strains.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE.

When it has been decided to breed from a fnare, if she is
not already thrown out of work, it will often be necessary to cool
her down, by turning her out to grass and taking away her corn,
before she wiil become stinted. Thorough-bred mares are not, as
a rule, allowed to take the horse while in work ; but sometimes
they are so constantly " in use," that no other means will enable
the trainer to go on with his work of preparation. There is a won-
derful difference in this respect: some animals are rarely " in use,"
oncf; or twice a year being the outside ; while others are so every
nine days throughout the spring, — the average, perhaps, being in
that state at about intervals of two or three months from the time
of shedding their coats till the beginning of autumn. Again, some
are not upset in their work by this natural process ; while others
refuse to feed, lose condition, and cannot be depended on ibr half
their usual exertions. Either extreme requires a change of feed-
ing; for, on the one hand, the cool temperament is excited by the
freedom of a run at grass, and on the other, the warmer one is
benefited by losing the heating qualities of her corn. At all events,
it is found, in practice, that though the majority of maiden mares
will become stinted while at work, yet that a large number require
a run at grass before they will become in foal. As I before re-
marked, thorough-bred mares are generally entirely devoted to the
stud from the time that they are put to the horse ; but there are
many others of lower breeding which their owners desire to work
on for some months afterwards. It is often apparent that the legs
of a hack or harness-mare are wearing out, and her owner decides
upon having a foal from her, but wishes to avoid the expense of
keep from tho spring, when he puts her to the horse, till the next

TREATMENT WHEN IN FOAL. 123

January or February, varying, of course, with the time of foaling.
All mares are the better for slow work up to within two months
of foaling; but they should not be ridden or driven so fast as to
occasion exliuiistion. Cart-mares are generally used to within a
few days of their time, taking care to keep them at light work and
to avoid straining them. With these precautions, if the legs keep
tolerably sound, a mare may be made to earn her keep for nine
months out of the eleven which are the duration of her pregnancy.
The time of sending the mare to the horse will vary with the
purposes for which her produce is intended. If for racing, it is
desired that she shall foal as soon as possible after the first of
January; and as she carries her foal about eleven months, the first
time of her being " in use" after the first of February is the period
chosen for her. All other horses take their age from the first of
May ; and as this is the time when the young grass begins to be
forward enough for the use of the mare, the breeder is not anxious
to get his half-bred foals dropped much before -that time. As,
however, mares are very uncertain animals, he will do well to take
advantage of the first opportunity after March, as by putting off
the visit to the horse, he may be disappointed altogether, or the
foal may be dropped so late, that winter sets in before it has ac-
quired strength to bear it. These remarks apply to maiden mares
only ; those which have dropped a foal are generally put to the
horse nine or ten days afterwards, when almost every mare is in
season. For this reason, valuable thorough-bred mares are often
sent to foal at the place where the sire stands who is intended to
be used next time. The travelling to him so soon after foaling
would be injurious to both the dam and her foal, and hence the
precaution I have named is adopted. The mare then remains to
be tried at intervals of nine days, and when she is stinted, the foal
is strong enough to bear any length of journey with impunity.
Mares and their foals commonly travel by road twenty miles, or
even more, for this purpose; but they do not often exceed that
distance, and about fifteen miles a day is quite as much as a nine
days' old foal can compass without injury, and that done very
quietly, the mare being led at a slow pace all the way.

TREATMENT WHEN IN FOAL.
When the mare is in foal, if not intended to be kept at
work, she should be turned out in good pasture; but it should not
be so rich and succulent as to disagree with her stomach, or make
her unwieldy from fat. The former mistake is a constant cause
of miscarriage, the bowels becoming relaxed from the improper
nature of the food. On the other hand, if it is not sufficiently
good, the mare will become thin, and will starve her foal in its
growth. Mares that have been corned highly all their lives should

124 THE HORSE.

havo a feed or two daily, after they are six months gone, and espe-
cially if the autumnal grasses are not rich and plentiful. Most
half-bred animals, however, do very well till about Christmas;
after which, hay and corn, with a few carrots, should be liberally
given them, still allowing them to pick up what grass they can find
in their paddocks. Excessive fat is a state of disease, and inter-
feres with the due nutrition of the foetus, while it is very danger-
ous at foaliug-time, when it not only interferes with the process,
but also tends to produce fever. Supposing the mare to be at
work, she should have some kind of green food — lucerne being the
best, and vetches, perhaps, the worst for the purpose, the latter
being too heating, especially to the organs contained within the
pelvis. Any of the grasses or clovers answer well; and, after they
are done, carrots form an excellent succedaneum, given sliced in a
bran mash every night. By adopting these articles of food, the
mare is kept free from inflammation, and yet the foal is well
nourished, which are the two essential points to be considered.

Excitement op every kind is a fertile source of " slipping"
the foal ; and everything which is at all likely to have that effect
should be carefully avoided. The smell of blood is said to have a
very prejudicial influence in this way; and there is no doubt that
one mare miscarrying will in some mode affect others in proximity
to her. Possibly the same cause may act on all ; but it seems to
be generally concluded that the act is really contagious, either from
what is called sympathy, or in some other as inexplicable way. If
a mare has " slipped" a foal in a previous pregnancy, double care
should be taken, as she will be far more likely to do so again than
another which has hitherto escaped the accident. It occurs most
frequently about the fourth or fifth month, therefore extra care
should be taken at that time. The suspected individual should be
kept quiet by herself; but it is better to allow her the run of a
small retired paddock, than to confine her to her hovel, where, for
want of exercise, she will become restless and anxious. Purging
physic should not be given, unless it is absolutely necessary; and
if the bowels are so confined as to require some stimulus of this
kind, and bran mashes and other changes in the food fail to pro-
duce any efi'ect, choice should be made of the mildest aperient
which is likely to answer the purpose. With regard to the ma-
nagement of the mare in parturition, I shall leave its consideration
to my colleague, who will, doubtless, be of the same opinion as
myself, that, if assistance is demanded, it is safer to have recourse
at once to a properly educated veterinary surgeon. Stud grooms
who have had much experience will sometimes be able to aid
Nature with advantage; but, in the long run, they will probably
do more harm than good, if t/aey attempt any serious interference

EARLY TREATMENT OF THE FOAL. 125

TREATMENT AFTER FOALING.

In a healthy state the, mare very soon recovers the effort?
which she has made in bringing forth the foal; and, in fine wea-
ther, she may be allowed to enter her paddock on the second day
afterwards, Avhich is generally soon enough to suit the strength of
the foal, though occasionally the young animal is very active within
six hours after it comes into the world. For a couple of months,
or perhaps less in some cases, the mare and foal are better kept in
a paddock by themselves ; but in a large stud this is difficult when
the foals come very quickly; and then several mares of quiet tem-
perament are put together, still keeping separate those which are
shy or vicious. Until the mare can get plenty of grass, she should
have carrots, bran mashes, and a feed or two of oats, which at firs!
are better given in the shape of gruel — the water with which this
is made having the chill taken off. Rye-grass is cultivated and cut
for the mares daily by those who have early foals ; but, though it
is better than hay, it is not equal to good upland clover-grass.
Lucerne is excellent, but it cannot be grown so early as rye. I
have already described, at page 123, the proper time for again
putting the mare to the horse, so that I need not enter into thit
subject here. During the remainder
of the time of suckling, no special
treatment is required, except to see
that the mare is well fed and protected
from the weather. At weaning-time,
she sometimes requires a dose or two
of cooling medicine ; but generally she

is so nearly dry, that no interference

is required. mare and foai.

EARLY TREATMENT OF THE FOAL.

If the young animal is well formed and healthy, it will re-
quire no attention beyond that which I have specified as necessary
for the dam. There are, however, several accidents to which it is
liable ; such as rupture either at the navel or flank, inversion of
the feet, &e. ; all of which will be treated of in their proper places.
About the time of the mare being " in use," the foal is generally
purged a good deal, and a warm drench will often be required. At
the end of a month, or sometimes earlier, the foal will eat bruised
oats ; and highly-bred young stock are generally allowed, from this
time, first a single quartern, and then by degrees two quarterns of
oats. Half-breds, and even cart-horses, would be the belter for this
stimulus to development ; but if it is begun, it should be continued ;
and, unless the foal shows such promise that it is expected to turn
out extraordinarily well, the' extra expense will not be reimbursed

120 THE HORSE.

The half-peck of oats cannot be put down as costing less than six
pounds a year ; and thus, at five years of age, the colt will have
cost thirty pounds more than if he had been fed on hay and grass
alone. Now, between a race-horse reared on corn, and another
confined to hay and grass, the difference in value would be a thou-
sand per cent.; and in first-class hunters, though not so great as
this, it would be very considerable. But among inferior horses, on
the average, it would scarcely reach the sum I have named as the
prime cost of the oats; and, therefore, though in the depth ot
winter a quartern or half a peck is generally given with a little bran,
yet, when there is good grass, this is neither necessary nor is it
economical. Shelter from the weather should, however, be afforded
to colts of all classes during the winter season ; and unless they
have this, they soon grow out of form and lose flesh, however well
they may be fed. It is now fully recognised that warmth and pro-
tection from the rain encourage the growth of all our domestic
animals; but in none are they more influential than in the one
which I am now discussing. A colt neglected in its first winter
never recovers its proper shape, nor does it grow into the size and
strength of body and limbs which naturally appertain to its breed.
Independently, therefore, of the cruelty in exposing the young
animal to a climate for which it is not fitted, the plan does not
pay; and on the latter account, if not on the former, even the
most heartless, who consider their own interests, will make suitable
provision for protecting their young horse-stock from the inclem-
ency of our winter climate.

The foal should be handled from the very first week of its
existence ; but there is no occasion to use it roughly in accustom-
ing it to the pressure of the hand on all parts of its body and
limbs. If this process is very gradually commenced, no resistance
will at any time be offered, and the foal will allow its feet to be
picked up, and its head and ears to be rubbed, without taking
oflFence. Grooms are sometimes in the habit of showing off" their
powers in this way, by taking the foal up in their arms ; but this
can do no good, and may possibly lead to' injury of the walls of the
abdomen. About the fourth or fifth month, and before weaning is
commenced, a light head-collar should be put on ; and after the
Ibal is accustomed to its pressure, by repeatedly handling the part
on successive days, a leading-rein should be buckled on, and the
young thing enticed to follow the groom without any absolute co-
ercion. At the same time, it must be made to feel that resistance
is useless; and if it begins to pull, it must on no account be al-
lowed to get away, the groom yielding as long as the foal pulls
straight back, but coercing it gently with a side strain. A care-
fully handled foal will rarely give any trouble in this way ; but
there is an astonishing variation in the power which different men

WEANING, 127

nave over the animal creation. Some will again control withoul
using the slightest violence, while others will be always fighting
with their charge, and after all will not be able to do nearly aa
much with them as their more quiet and clever rivals. The latter
class should never be allowed to have anything to do with young
horses ; and though there may be occasional exceptions which re-
quire severe measures, yet if once a man is found resorting to vio-
lence with a foal which he has had the management of from the
first, he should, in my opinion, be removed from his postj or, at
all events, he should be carefully watched, and a repetition of the
offence ought to be considered as a notice to quit. Long before
the coming among us of Mr. Rarey, this was recognised amongst
the most extensive breeders of horses in this country ; and though
cruelty was not unknown among them, any more than it is now, it
was fully recognised as not only an unnecessary but an unsatis-
factory means of mastering the horse.

THE WEANING AND AFTER TREATMENT OF THE FOAL.
The usual age for weaning the foal is about the end of the
sixth month, that time being selected because the dam is generally
about " half gone" with her next foal, and cannot bear the double
drain upon her system. Nor does the foal benefit much by the
milk after this age, the teeth and stomach being quite strong
enough to crop and digest the succulent grasses that are to be had
from August to October, those being the months during which the
several breeds attain the middle of their first year. If the autumn
is a dry one, and grass is scanty, a few steamed turnips or carrots
may be mixed with bran, and given to the foal night and morning;
but, as a rule, unless it is to be highly forced into its growth for
the purpose of early racing, it will require only the grass which it
can pick up when it is turned out. Three or four foals are gene-
rally placed together in the same paddock for company, and in this
way they miss their dams far less than if confined by themselves.
Care should be taken that nothing is left within their reach which
can do injury, every fence and gate being carefully examined to
see that no projecting bolt, nail, or rail is likely to lay hold of their
bodies or limbs as they gallop about in their play. Foals of all
ages are mischievous animals, and the better fed they are the
more inclined they seem to lay hold of anything which attracts
their notice.

Besides the shelter of a hovel, which I have already in-
sisted on, the foal requires throughout its first winter good feed-
ing proportioned to its breeding and the pui'poses for which it is
intended. Racing colts are allowed three or four feeds of bruised
oats, with steamed carrots or turnips, and sometimes steamed hay;
but the general plan is to give as much as they will eat of the best

128 THE HORSE.

upland hay, in its natural state, after they have finished their allow-
ance of corn. Young stock intended to be sold as huntei-s and first-
class carriage-horses are always allowed half a peck of bruised oats,
and a few carrots and turnips will not be thrown away upon them
Hacks, and inferior young stock of all kinds, get through the winter
upon hay and barley-straw, part being sometimes cut into chaff,
and mixed with a quartern of bran, daily; and if they are very low
in flesh, a few oats being added. During severe frosts the straw-
yard is the best place for the foal, on account of the hardness of
the ground in the fields, and here he will easily keep himself warm
and dry, and he can be attended to according to his wants. Let
the breeder, however, constantly bear in mind that a check given
to the growth in the first winter is never afterwards entirely reco-
vered, and that if the colt which has experienced it turns out well
he would have been still better without it.

CHAPTER IX.
THE BREAKING OF THE COLT.

Mr. Rarty's Principles and Practice — Ordinary Method of Break-
ing for the Saddle — Superiority of the Latter when properly
carried out — Breaking to Harness.

The YEAR 1858 will ever be memorable in the annals of the
English stable for the success of Mr. Rarey and his partner, Mr.
Goodenough, in extracting 25,000^. from the pockets of English
horsemen by the promise of a new method of breaking and train-
ing the animal which they all loved so well, but so often found not
quite obedient to their wills. The plans by which obedience was
to be insured were kept a profound secret, but to prove Mr. Rarey's
power, the French coaching stallion, Stafford, the English thorough-
bred, Cruiser, and a gray colt in the possession of Mr. Anderson,
of Piccadilly, all notoriously vicious, were privately subdued, and
afterwards exhibited in public. Subscribers were invited to pay
ten guineas each, with the engagement that as soon as five hundred
names were put down, the American would teach them in classes,
each subscriber binding himself, under a heavy penalty, to keep
the secret. The result was that eleven hundred ladies and gentle-
men paid their money, and kept their promise so well that until
the appearance of a small shilling volume, published by INIessrs.
Routledge & Co., which detailed the whole process, in, the very
words given to the American public some years before by Mr.

MR. RAREY'S MODE OF BREAKING. 129

Rarey, no one but the subscribers had any certain knowledge of the
yecret, although it subsequently appeared that it had oozed out,
and had been propounded in several directions as a rival scheme
of much older date. However, it is not now my intention to at-
tempt the discovery of the inventor of the system generally known
as Rarey's, my sole object being to ascertain its real worth in
breaking young stock, and in remedying or curing the vices to
which older horses are occasionally sujjject. It will be seen here-
after that Uiough I think the plan of great service in some cases,
T doubt its utility as an aid to the breaker ; but, having cost the
country far more than 25,000?., and having received the approval
of hundreds of experienced horsemen, it would ill become me to
pass the subject over without giving reasons for the conclusions to
which I have arrived. I was not one of the original subscribers,
but I have seen Mr. Rarey exhibit his extraordinary powers over
the horse more than a dozen times, so that I am in a position to
form an opinion upon the whole process as compared with our ordi-
nary English methods, with which I have also long been practi-
cally acquainted.

In his public demonstrations Mr. Rarey always commenced
by some introductory remarks on the natural history of the horse,
in which there was nothing to impress the auditor with any great
respect for his powers. At the end of this act, which was evi-
dently intended to kill time, jve were put in possession of the
three fundamental principles of the new theory of the proper
management of the horse, namely : —

First, " That he is so constituted by nature that he will not offer
resistance to any demand made of him which he fully compre-
hends, if made in a way consistent with the laws of his nature."

Secondly, " That he has no consciousness of his strength beyond
his experience, and can be handled according to our will without
force."

Thirdly, " That we can, in compliance with the laws of his na-
ture, by which he examines all things new to him, take any object,
however frightful, around, over, or on him, that does not inflict
pain, without causing him to fear."

No one will, I believe, dispute the first two of these principles,
which have certainly nothing very novel in them. The third,
when promulgated, was more opposed to our experience, and a de-
monstration of its truth was naturally enough required before it
was accepted. To comply with this demand horse after horse was
submitted to an exhausting and painful proof, which I shall pre-
sently describe, and then certainly anything which did not inflict
pain was borne without apparently producing fear. This, there-
fore, was proving the letter of the third principle ; but was the
spirit of it established? The words just quoted, if they mean
I

130 THE HORSE.

anything, signify that is only necessary to allow a horse to exa-
mine the drum and he will show no fear of it. But is this the
real fact ? I trow not. Before a high-couraged horse will allow
a drum to be beaten on his back be must either submit to a long
course of training under the old system, or he must go through
the royal road of JMr. Rarey, of which nothing whatever is said
in the three principles alluded to. Take an ordinary hunter after
he is exhausted by a long run, and he will bear the noise of a
drum, or any other alarming agent, to which he would, when fresh
and actiTe, show the greatest objection. Why, then, should we
be astonished that a shorter method of exhausting the uervoua
energy should have the same effect, even if it is shown in a still
more remarkable manner, as we shall presently see it is ? As far,
therefore, as Mr. Rarey's principles are concerned I have little to
say against them, except that if the third is meant to apply to the
exhibition of the drum beaten on the backs of his several subjects,
it is not very ingenuous in the language which is used.

Before Mr. Rarey came to England he had, as I have
already remarked, published in America a little pamphlet which
described his several plans for driving a colt from pasture; — driv-
ing into a stable and haltering, and the kind of halter used, &c.
It also contained an account of an experiment with a robe, show-
ing that the horse, as soon as he discovers by his senses that an
object has no power or will to hurt him, goes up to it, and soon
becomes regardless of its presence. All these remarks, however,
have no interest for my readers, as they are of no utility whatever,
and the sole remaining contents of the pages which were published
by Messrs Routledge, and received with so much interest in this
country, were the directions for throwing the horse, and afterwards
handling, or " gentling" him, as the American operator calls the
stroking the limbs, which he always puts into practice after the
horse is down. If this little book had been published a few months
earlier it would have entirely destroyed the pecuniary prospects
of the partners, but coming late as it did, it prevented the pay-
ment of any more ten guinea subscriptions, and reduced the charge
for the sight of the process to guinea and half-guinea tickets for
seats at the Alhambra. I shall, therefore, proceed to describe the
casting process, as witnessed by myself, and then examine into its
nature and effect upon the horse, whether in breaking or taming
him.

The apparatus which is required is, first of all, an ordinary
snaffle or straight bit in the mouth, without which nothing could
be done with any vicious horse; and if any animal is to be " Ra-
reyfied," the preliminary operation is to get this into the mouth.
Stafford was brought to Mr. Rarey with the aid of guide-ropes,
which were fastened to h's head and held by grooms on each side

THE LEG STRAP. 131

[n him, therefore, this first essential point was accomplished.
Cruiser also had a halter, strengthened with iron, and in him also
there was a means of laying hold of the head, which was eagerly
seized by the operator. The plan adopted in his case was to fix
an iron staple to the door-post, and then running through this a
strong leather strap, to which a spring hook was attached, the op-
portunity was seiz'ed when the horse came open-mouthed to the
door, and he was securely laid hold of and drawn up to the staple,
so as to compel him to allow the introduction of a bit. The gray
colt at Mr. Anderson's was bitted ; but the zebra was loose in his
cage, and I do not at all know how the gag in which he was ex
hibited was forced into his mouth, but I believe it was effected
by a rope thrown round his neck and drawn up to the bars of his
cage.

The second part of the apparatus is the leg-strap for the
near fore leg, being very similar to a stirrup-leather, which, with
the addition of a strong loop, can be made to answer the same
purpose very well. Before applying this strap, which at once
makes the horse harmless for offence, he must be rendered ap-
proachable, which, in ordinary animals, is effected merely with
the aid of the bridle. In Stafford, however, as I before remarked,
guide-ropes were used; and in the case of Cruiser, he was enticed
up to a wagon loaded with hay, under which was Mr. Rarey, and
through the wheel of which this leg-strap was quietly and cau-

raret's leg btrap. No. 1.

tiously buckled on his leg. As soon as this is done the horse is
innocent of all mischief except with his teeth, for he cannot kick
on three legs, and even his mouth may be kept away from the
operator by drawing on the off rein. To bring him speedily to
submit to the power of the operator, the other leg must also be
confined, which is effected by first buckling on a surcingle, as re-
presented in the last engraving, and then catching the off fetlock
in the running noose of leg-strap No. 2, which is made in the an-
nexed form. Provided with this second strap in his pocket, and hav-
ing already applied the leg-strap No. 1, and the surcingle as shown

132

THE HOilSE.

MR. raret's strap. No. 2.

above, the subject under manipulation is either induced to drop
his off foot into the noose, or it is slipped round his ankle, while
the off rein is held by the other hand to keep the teeth off the
operator. As soon as this loop is firmly drawn round the leg, the

CRUISER WITH THE LEO STRAP AND SUnCINOLE 0>'

Oilier end is slipped through the surcingle under tlie belly, and

CRUISER IN THE POWER OF HIS MASTER. 133

entire control of the horse is only a work of time. The arrange-
ment of these straps is well shown in the engi-aving, where Crui-
ser is sketched ready for the final struggle. Up to this time, almosl

CRUISER IN THE POWER OP HIS MASTER

every horse will he tolerably quiet and unresisting, some squeal-
ing when any approach is made to their elbows to tighten the sur-
cingle, and others when the strap No. 2 is slipped through it. Few
however, plunge much ; and if they are made to hop on three legs,
they are able to go on for so long a time, without producing the neces-
sary amount of fatigue, that the operator would be tired before his
pupil. It is at this stage — that is to, say, with the use of the leg-
strap No. 1 — that the predecessors of Mr. Rarey stopped, and they
consequently failed to gain the absolute control which he bas in-
variably obtained with the slight, but really important, additions
which he has made, and which he uses in the ingenious manner
which I shall now describe. It may be observed that, with a vio-
lent horse, it is always better to let him feel his want of power for
doing mischief with the near fore leg strapped up, and the slight
degree of fatigue which a few minutes' hopping will produce, be-
12

134

THE HORSE.

fore tlie second strap is called into play, especially if the cperator
has not acquired great skill in the use of the apparatus. When
this is done, and the second strap is applied, and slipped through
the surcingle, as shown at page 133, taking care to put a stout
glove on the right hand, the left rein is taken in the left hand, and
gently jerked — using, if necessary, the usual slight stimulus with
the tongue, to make the horse move, which he can only do by

THB HORSE BOUTTDINa ON HIS HIND LEGS.

raising the off fore leg off the ground in the action known as hop-
ping. The moment this begins, the right hand firmly draws the
off leg up to the surcingle, and keeps it there, when the horse must
either bound into the air on his hind legs, or he must go down on
the ground, supported from falling on his side in the attitude of
kneeling. To avoid mischief, therefore, the loose box or yard
where the operation is carried on should be thickly bedded with
straw; for no knee-caps are stout enough to protect the joints from
injury on hard ground; nor, if they escape being bruised, will the
shock to the body on falling be at all safe. Even straw can hardly
be relied on, if the floor beneath is of brick, stone, pebbles, or
hard natural soil; for it is apt to give way during the struggles of

THE HORSE ON HIS KNEES.

135

iLie horse, and allow the knees to reach it without the intended
protection. When, therefore, there is no tanned riding-school, or
other similar surface, at command, a good solid bed of manure
(which is always to be had wherever horses are) should be spread
a foot thick at least, and over this clean straw may be laid. To
return to the subject of the operation, whom we left with the alter-
native of bounding in the air on his hind legs, or falling on his
knees in the annexed attitude, the chief art in managing this part
of the process is to keep firm hold of the strap attached to the off
leg close to the surcingle ; the hand being protected by the glove,
can easily prevent it from slipping through during the struggles
of the horse, and at the same time serves as a point d'appui for
tho operator, so that he can follow the movements of the bounding
animal in whatever direction he may progress. The operator must
on no account attempt to stand away from his patient, nor must he
advance before the girth-place ; but keeping close to this, lie is in

THE HORSE ON HIS KNEES, ABOUT TO PALL ON HIS SIDE.

no danger, provided he has the sense
if the horse should throw himself down

and the ability to give way
towards his side. The

136 THE HORSE.

rein, being still held in the left hand, prevents the horse falling
away from the operator, and is also used by him as a means of
guiding the animal, if he happens to progress in a direction which
is cot desired. Nothing else is to be attempted till the horse has
quite exhausted all his energies, which those possessed of high
courage will soon do ; but low-bred animals are very apt to turn
sulky, and, refusing to plunge, remain on their knees, in spite of
every kind of stimulus which can be given them short of severe
punishment with the whip, which is to be avoided, as opposed
to the principles on which the whole process is founded. By
taking time with these brutes, they may always be made to tire
themselves, for the kneeling position is very irksome to them,
and the most stubborn will give a plunge now and then to re-
lieve themselves, though they will not follow up one with another
as speedily as a thorough-bred. Sooner or later (the time vary-
ing from ten minutes to two or three hours), the tail begins to
tremble, the flanks heave, and a profuse perspiration breaks out,
which are signs that the horse of himself desires the recumbent
position, and will lie down of his own accord, if not pulled over
by the right hand of the operator. JNIr. Rarey, in his public exhi-
bitions, has never, so far as I am aware, waited for this to take
place, but, perhaps to prevent wearying his audience, has always
pulled his patient over on his side as soon as be could accomplish
the feat. In many cases, this impatience has led to a partial
failure ; the horse, not being tired out, has refused to submit, and
it has only been after repeating the process once or twice that com-
plete control has been obtained. Those gentlemen, therefore, who
wish to try the experiment for themselves, will do well to avoid
any risk of a repetition, which they may not be able to manage
with the dexterity of the great American tamer. liCt them wait
till the horse is thoroughly tired, and then only interfere to such
an extent as to keep him leaning towards their side, by laying hold
of the right rein instead of the left, as shown in the engraving at
page 134; and drawing the head away from themselves. Mr.
Earey generally used the right hand for this purpose, when he
wished to throw his patient before he was exhausted, because he
could in that way employ more force; and, at the same time, his
dexterity was such, that, if a bound was made, he was always
ready to hold the strap attached to the off foot before the horse
could get fairly on his hind legs. In whichever way the task is
accomplished, the effect is apparently the same — the horse lies ex-
tended on his side, panting and sweating, in the most exhausted
condition ; but, of course, showing more of these symptoms of
distress the longer he has been kept resisting the restraints put
upon him. Now comes the test of the practical ability of the ope-
rator ; for whereas before he had only plain directions to carry out,

HINTS TO OPERATORS. 137

he has at this stage to judge how far his efforts are successful If
he takes off the straps too soon, the patient is patient no longer,
but rises rapidly, and perhaps rewards him by planting a severe
blow on his ribs. It is here that Mr. Rarey displayed his great
skill to perfection. Apparently by intuition, he knew when his
pupil was mastered; but, as he was always ready to explain, it was
really by two symptoms that he judged whether he had gained the
mastery or not. One of these was the expression of the eye, which
it would be difficult to describe, and which experience alone could
adequately convey to those who wish to understand it; but the
other, being readily tested, is within the reach of every one. This
consists in the entire flaccidity of the muscles of the neck and
limbs; and until this is ascertained to have been obtained, the
straps should not be entirely removed. Mr. Rarey's plan of pro-
ceeding at this stage was the following. A second or two after the
horse went down, he let him raise his head, and then dragged it
down again to the ground by the mane. On repeating this once,
twice, or thrice, the animal would give in as far as that part was
concerned ; and being rewarded with a pat of the hand, the head
remained still on the ground, and that part was " gentled." Next
removing the leg straps, the fore legs were separately gently
rubbed downwards; and on being lifted, and let fall, as if dead,
they also were passed as in a similar satisfactory state. The ope-
rator then going round by the back, proceeded to gentle the hind
'imbs ; and though, in vicious horses, he sometimes had narrow
escapes of being kicked, yet by his great activity and clever mode
of seizing his opportunity, he always succeeded in keeping out of
harm's way. Finally, the operator passed in front of the legs, and
performed all the usual " clap-traps" of putting his head between
them, knocking the hind and fore shoes together, standing on the
body, &c. While in this state, the horse lies in the attitude and
with the expression which is very well represented in the accom-
panying sketch, and there he will gladly lie as long as he is per-
mitted to do so. But he is not to be allowed to recruit his powers ;
and as soon as he had gone through the tricks which I have
described, Mr. Rarey made him rise, and then showed that the
power which he had gained was not lost as soon as the animal stood
ou his legs again. Calling for a saddle, it was in every case shown
to the horse, and put first on his head, then on his neck, and finally
in its proper place. The animal then always submitted to be
mounted, and even allowed the dangerous plan recommended and
adopted by Mr. Rarey, of standing close to the hind-quarter while
putting the foot in the stirrup, to be carried out without kicking,
which before the " Rareyfication" most of the vicious brutes ope-
rated on in public would probably have done.

By this plan, it is indisputable that any active man, of good
12*

138

THE HORSE.

THE HORSE TAMED.

temper, but possessed of firmness and courage, and accustomed to
deal with horses, may gain such a control over even the most vicious,
that he can do what he likes with them in-doors. No one who
has examined into the matter can doubt Mr. Rarey's power, nor can
he refuse him the merit of improving upon the old system of con-
trolling the horse, by the addition of the second leg strap, which
adds so much to the power of the human arm that the most violent
and muscular horse has no chance whatever. The secret lies in
two essential features ; first, that the horse must never be coerced or
resisted unless the man is certain of success in controlling him ;
and, secondly, that when the former is thoroughly convinced of his
powerless condition, and his muscles are tired out, the latter inter-
feres and relieves him of his trammel, " gentles" him, gives him
kind words, and at length encourages him to rise. The efi"ect is
marvellous — the most vicious brute, who would previously tear any
man to pieces, after he is thus first coerced, and then " gentled " and
relieved, appears to grow fond of his master, and follows him about
like a dog. Clearly, therefore, Mr. Rarey may be considered as
having been eminently successful in propounding a system of horse-
taming ; but it by no means follows that his process is equally, oj
even at all, useful in hor&Q-hreaking.

RAREY'S METHOD. 139

There are other questions, alao, which remain to be con-
sidered in relation to the method which I have described. First,
is it permanent quoad the individual who has carried it out?
Secondly, does the vicious horse who has been subdued and
•* gentled " by one man, show the same absence of vice towards
others ? And thirdly, is he injured in any way by the operation ?
On the first of these points there appears to be strong evidence
that, if the operator gives occasionally a very slight reminder of
his powers, the effect of one, two, or three lessons, repeated at
short intervals, will continue for at least a year or two. There are
numerous instances which have come to my knowledge of horses
resuming their vicious habits within two or three months of re-
ceiving such a lesson from Mr. Rarey, that they would allow him
to do what he liked with them ; but in the case of the savage
Cruiser, there is reason to believe that he never once rebelled
against his master from the time that he first gave in. In his case,
however, the operation was repeated hundreds of times ; and there
fore it does not go so far as I have stated to be the rule, but other-
might be adduced which keep strictly within it ; and there are
also private individuals who have practised on horses which have
never been exhibited in public who have kept up their control
unimpaired. The evidence in favor of the lasting nature of the con-
trolling power, when exercised by the operator himself, is too strong
to be gainsaid : and the first question may, I think, be safel}
answered in the affirmative. But in reference to the second, the
evidence is all the other way; and on putting Cruiser into the
witness-box he would tell us that he has r-everal times turned against
his groom, and put his life in danger. Still, it must be remembered
that, prior to his treatment by " Rarey fication," no man dared enter
his box ; and on comparing his two states, before and afterwards,
it may be truly said, that though not absolutely cured of his vicious
propensities, he is comparatively so. Probably the same conclusion
may be arrived at in those cases which are related of relapses from
virtue to vice ; but, at all events, such instances are numerous
enough, and attested in a manner so respectable, that every pos-
sessor of a coerced horse should be always on his guard. The last
question is somewhat difficult to answer, because the injury, if real,
is not apparent. The chief means of testing the effect is on the
powers of race-horses, several of which have felt Mr. Rarey's
straps, and been controlled by his master hand. Now, I believe
there is uo instance of a horse which has gone through the opera-
tion doing any good subsequently on the turf. All have shown
either a want of speed or heart ; and whatever has been the cause
of this, they have run behind those animals whose form was con-
sidered by good judges to have been previously inferior to them-
Thus, Mr. Merry's Miss Finch, when she first appeared, beat sev-

140 THE HORSE.

eral fields of first class two-year-olds ; and it was generally believed,
when she afterwards was beaten, that it was only because her
temper was so bad. Yet when this defect was so far remedied by
the process I am considering, that Mr. M. Dawson could ride her
constantly as a hack without much inconvenience, she never re-
covered her racing powers, and neither in private (as I have been
informed), nor in public, certainly, did she ever exhibit any
approach to her former speed.

On the whole, therefore, it may fairly be concluded that
Mr. Rarey's plans are well adapted for the control of vicious horses,
supposing they are not subsequently wanted for the turf, in which
case the utility of the process 'is very questionable. As, however,
all our horses are not vicious, and as by the casting and gentling
nothing more is efi'ected than a general control, it remains to be
considered how far this is useful in breaking colts for general pur-
poses. My own belief is that it acts by producing in the horse a
compound feeling of fear and gratitude, the former being the re-
sult of his fruitless efforts to get rid of the controlling hand of
man, and the latter being established from finding that hand re-
lieve him of his straps and then caress and "gentle" him. If,
therefore, any horse, even without vice, is required to exhibit to
his master or mistress any relations more intimate than those which
are usually practised in this country, great advantage will result
from the establishment of this fear and gratitude. With the ex-
ception, however, of cavalry and circus horses, we generally con-
tent ourselves with that amount of intercourse which is acquired
in the saddle, and we do not want our hacks to exhibit tricks, nor
do we require them to follow us about at liberty like our dogs. It
has been attempted to show that this particular plan gets rid of a
great deal of cruelty to the horse, but this is altogether unfounded,
for long before the great American trainer made his appearance,
writers on the horse had denounced its use, and though many
cruelly severe breakers and grooms existed, as they still exist, yet
they were exceptions to the general rule. Cavalry horses, especially
when on service, are required to submit to the control of the men
in many ways which are never in demand for hacking or hunting,
and the mere power of compelling the horse to lie down and re-
main on the ground is worth a great deal of trouble to acquire.
As far as they are concerned, I think the use of Mr. llarey's
straps most valuable ; and it must be remembered that this was all
that the Canadian military authorities certified in their recom-
mendations which Mr. Rarey brought with him across the Atlantic
The clever management of his partner, Mr. Groodenough, and the
profound secrecy maintained for so long, carried the public away
far beyond this, and, as in the fable of the fox who had lost his
tail, all those who had spent their ten guineas were anxious to

ORDINARY ENGLISH MErilOD. 141

place their friends in the same predicament. This is the only way
in which I can account for the extraordinary conclusions to which
so many practised horsemen arrived in 1858. Since that time, it
is true, the fashion has subsided, and a more temperate view has
been taken, the general opinion of good judges being, I believe,
pretty much in accordance with those which I have always held
publicly and privatel}', and which I have here endeavored to con-
vey to my readers.

Before proceeding to inquire into the merits of Mr. lla-
rcy's plan as compared with our own mode of breaking, it will be
well to describe what the latter is, and then ascertain which is the
best mode of carrying out our object. No horseman in this country
would dream of using the animal he intends to ride or drive with-
out the control of a bit, and although he may aid this powerful
instrument with his voice, his leg, his whip, or his spur, yet it
always has been, and still is, the chief agent in the management of
the horse. Again, no colt is to be considered as broken until his
rider or driver has altered his paces, and given him such an action
in the walk, trot, canter, and gallop, or in some two or three of
these paces, that he has become pleasant and safe. Now the plans
which I have just described do not effect either of these objects,
indeed their tendency is rather to interfere with the making of a
^ood mouth, for the bit will sometimes cut the angles of the lips,
and in this way tend to make it afterwards dull. 1 do not mean to
assert that this is necessarily carried far enough by Mr. llarey to
make his plan objectionable on that account, but merely that if
anything is done towards breaking a colt, it is injurious rather than
beneficial, with the single exception of the establishment of a
mental control, which, as I shall presently show, is not wanted in
more than one or two per thousand of our horses.

THE OEDINARY ENGLISH METHOD OF BREAKING FOR THE
SADDLE.

In this country the breaker of the hack is not only supposed
to produce in his pupil what is called a good " mouth," but also to
teach him the use of his legs, so as to give a pleasant feel to his
rider in the walk, trot, and gallop, and in the canter, where spe-
cially required. The racehorse is only " mouthed" and " backed,"
his subsequent education being confided to the trainer ; and the
hunter, in addition to these developments, is taught to get over
the various fences which he is likely to meet with, in a clever
manner. Each class must, therefore, go through the same pre-
liminary process, which consists in producing a good mouth, and
in making the colt bear his rider patiently in the saddle. To efl"ect
these objects when the colt is running at large ho must be caught
and haltered, and I shall now proceed to show how the matter is

142

THE HORSE.

eflFected ah initio. In doing this it will be necessary to examine
into the best apparatus for carrying it out.

The halter, whicb in this country is generally first used, is
the ordinary one, made of hemp-webbing, for the head, with a run-
ning eye in the back of the nose-piece, in which runs a stout rope
attached to the head. Thorough-bred colts are always made to
carry a light leather head-stall from the end of their first year,
and so, indeed, are all well-bred yearlings of any value. The large
mass of colts run unhaltered till they are to be broken, which is
generally commenced when they are three-year-olds. Ponies and
small hacks are then often taken into use, the latter being quietly
ridden by the breeder for his own purp6ses till they are four or
five years old, when they are sold. Mr. Rarey recommends for all

UB. RAREY'8 HALTER OE BRIDIE FOR 0OIT8.

RAREY'S METHOD. 143

purposes a eathern halter, made like an ordinary head-stall, but
rather lighter. Tliis is at once put on the colt, and by buckling
a leading-strap to the nose-band, either before or behind, anything
may be done which is required, short of mounting. Two small
billets and buckles attach any bit which may be selected to the
rings which connect the cheek pieces to the nose-band, and thus
the halter is converted into a very useful breaking bridle. It
wants, however, the stiff padded nose-band of the cavesson, but
this is only required with very violent and determined colts. The
above engraving represents Mr. Rarey's halter-bridle, with his
ordinary breaking bit.

The bit which is usually employed in England for colts is a
heavy smooth snaffle, with a tongue-piece and keys depending from
its central link. For racing colts a very excellent bit has lately
been extensively introduced, consisting in a mere smooth ring of
iron, with a loop on the upper part for attachment to the head-
^tall, in the same way as in Mr. Rarey's bridle. In front of this
loop the ring is introduced into the mouth, and the back of the
circle takes the leading rein, which is thus allowed to slip on either
side, and keep a secure hold of the jaw, however much the colt
may pull at it. I have a dislike to the snaffle for colts, because I
have found it constantly pressing on one corner of the mouth more
bhan the other, the animal putting his head on one side, and lean-
ing upon that half of the mouthpiece, so as to relieve each side of
the jaw alternately, instead of allowing the two divisions of the
snaffle to bear equally on the angles of the mouth. I much prefer
a bit made with an unjointed mouthpiece, curved in a segment of a
circle, with the usual tongue-piece and keys attached to the middle by
a roller. This curved mouthpiece should have smooth rings turned
upon it, which will prevent the horse from rubbing his lips from
side to side, and tend to form a very pleasant and delicate mouth.
I have known it used with great success in breaking hundreds of
colts, and I have myself found its advantages in a great number
of horses, young as well as old. These, together with a martin-
gale, buckling on to the bit, are all that are required for making
the mouth.

In addition to the apparatus for this part of the colt's educa-
tion, arrangements must also be made for accustoming him to bear
die weight of the rider, and for attaching the bit to some part of
the body. In commencing the breaking it is customary to put ou
merely a roller with a leathern surcingle over it, kept in its place
by a crupper, which, for facility of putting on, should have a buckle
on one side. In front of the surcingle, on each side, two buckles are
stitched, serving to attach the reins either high up, or even crossed
over the withers, or low down, or sometimes both high and low
Until within the last thirty or forty years, what is called a dumb

144 THE HORSE.

jockey was always attached to the roller, but this is generally now
dispensed with, though with the elastic reins introducod by Mr.
Blackwell I think it may be made very useful. Lastly, to the
crupper long hanging straps are attached, so as to accustom the
young animal to the pressure of the coat or habit. Provided with
this apparatus, and with a long leading rein of webbing, the breaker
is prepared to subdue the wildest colt.

The first thing to be done is to get a halter or headstall
on, which is only to be effected either in a stable or similar enclosed
place, or among a herd of other horses, when the colt is so closely
packed in that he cannot move. Every one must have seen the
Welsh and Irish drovers rush into the middle of a herd, and seiz-
ing an unbroken colt round the neck, hold him till a halter is
slipped over his head. The same plan greatly facilitates the hal-
tering of any colt; but a couple of steady horses are quite enough
to keep a colt steady in any building or small yard. The breaker
arranges so as to have one on each side, and then going up between
them, he has the colt held for him while he very slowly and quietly
insinuates his hand, with the head of the halter in it, over thi'
neck, just behind the ears. With a little dexterity, this is soon
done, and then the nose-band being slipped into its place, a good
hold can be secured. Every horseman must, however, agree with
Mr. Rarey, that the rope halter with a running noose is most im-
proper, and that a leathern headstall should always be chosen. It
is quite true, that a single turn of the cord of the halter into a
half-hitch prevents all mischief, and this is done by good breakers ;
but the headstall or cavesson should be put on as soon as possible,
and the former may be worn constantly till the breaking is com-
plete. With the leading-rein attached to the nose-band, the breaker
can now restrain the colt from getting away j and, by kind words
and gentle treatment, the young animal soon becomes accustomed
to his presence, and will allow him to approach and handle him all
over. When this is borne easily, he may be led out about the
fields, and green lanes if there are any; but while he continues to
resent the approach of moving objects by violent bounds, nothing
should be put in his mouth out-of-doors. If he is very wild and
ungovernable, he may be made to trot gently round and round in
a circle on some soft ground, the breaker at first following him up,
but soon being enabled to " longe" him while standing in the cen-
tre. After a day or two, the breaking-bit already described may
be slipped into his mouth, and attached in the way shown in the
engraving at page 142. It should, however, only be allowed to
hang there without reins at first, and it may either be kept on
while the colt is being led about, or for an hour or two daily while
in the stable. In this way the jaw and lips become accustomed to
the pressure of the bit, and lose the painful sensation which it at

BREAKING— BAUCHER'S ME'lHOD. 145

firsi/ occa'sions. If, on the other hand, the reins are at once buckled
on, and are then strained tightly back to the surcingle, or dumb-
jockey, the delicate mucous membrane becomes sore, and even
ulcerated, and the foundation is laid for that dull, unyielding
mouth which is so objectionable on every account.

It should never be forgotten, that the mouth is the foun-
dation upon which all the subsequent proceedings are to be con-
ducted. A horse may naturally have fine action, and he may be
so framed that, if he were properly bitted, he would be a delight-
ful hack or hunter; but if his mouth is spoiled in breaking, his
fine action is thrown away, because it cannot be regulated and
controlled by such a trifling exercise of strength in the hand and
arm as is consistent with riding for pleasure. Many a pulling
brute has won a steeplechase, or shown to advantage in the hunt-
ing-field, with a professional " up," which would not be ridden for
ten minutes by an amateur who could afford to make his own selec-
tion. Hence, the first thing which the breaker has to set about
is the formation of a good mouth ; and this is exactly what Mr.
Rarey's plans fail to provide, and, indeed, it is what they interfere
with in a great degree, as I have observed at page 143. Well,
then, let us examine into the received mode of obtaining a good
mouth in England. M. Baucher has carried the European prin-
ciples of producing it to a very high degree, and it will be neces-
sary to allude to his plans also; but, on the whole, I cannot but
think them superfluous for ordinary purposes, and should be per-
fectly content with a horse broken in the best English methods,
which now combine the "supplings" of the great French breaker
with the old dead pressure adopted in the methods of our ances-
tors. The difference between the two is mainly this, that we in
England content ourselves with confining the head by the reins in
a position which, while it does not compel the horse to lean upon
his bit, yet makes him try to avoid its pressure by bending his
neck, and thus rendering its muscles supple. 'M. Baucher, on the
contrary, prefers that the whole of this suppling shall be per-
formed by the pressure of the breaker's hand ; and, doubtless, his
is the best plan, if the man employed is competent to the task,
and the time thus devoted can be afforded. It takes a fortnight
or three weeks to "make" a horse's mouth, so far as to fit him to
bear the hands of his rider, in either way; but as less than two
liours a day during that time will not suffice, and as in the one
case the horse supples himself, while in the other a man must
effect the change, M. Baucher's method costs twenty-eight hours
of skilled labor, -in addition to subsequent breaking, and it is there-
fore very expensive. The course of proceedings which good Eng-
lish breakers now adopt is as follows. The bit having been allowed
for some davs to remain in the mouth without reins, as already do-
13 ' K

146 THE ORSE.

scribed, the breaker next proceeds to attach a rein to it in the
ordinary way, and to buckle this loosely to the surcingle or dumb-
jockey, whichever he may employ. Mr. Blackwell's india-rubber
reins are thought very highly of by some for this purpose ; but, aa
far as I have tried them, 1 prefer plain leather, because I object to
constant pressure, however slight, upon the mouth. A drop of
water falling constantly and regularly upon a stone will wear it
away sooner than the same quantity dashed at once upon it; and, in
the same manner, permanent gentle pressure upon the mouth is more
irksome than a more severe occasional pull. The great art consists
in shortening the reins so gradually, that the pressure can always be
avoided by bending the neck, and this the horse soon learns to do;
and thus, at one and the same time, he gains control over his mus-
cles, and inures his jaws and lips to the bit; It is generally neces-
sary, while the "bitting" is going on, whether in the stable or at
exercise, to fix the head down by a martingale, buckled to each side
of the bit; for without this the horse, in his struggles to get rid of his
restraints, will often toss his head so high as to do himself a serious
injury. If the mouthing is conducted in the stable, the horse is either
put into a loose-box (which is the best plan), or he is turned round
in his stall, and kept in that position by buckling the ordinary pillar
reins to each side of the bit. At first, the reins should hardly
confine the head at all beyond the position in which it is naturally
carried when the horse is excited ; but each day a hole or two may
be taken up, until such pressure is made, that the horse has a ten-
dency to relieve his neck and shoulders by advancing his fore legs
and rounding his neck. The best plan is to put on the breaking
tackle for an hour in the stable, then loose the reins for a quarter
of an hour ; after which the colt may be led out for his regular
daily exercise, and may be " longed" with the reins buckled more
or less tightly, according to the experience of the breaker and the
condition of the mouth. In most cases, the process is hurried far
too much ; the breaker contracts to do all that is required for a
given sum, varying from one guinea to three, and it is his object
to spend as little time over each of his pupils as will serve to make
them barely rideable. This is objectionable in principle, though
it is very diflScult to know how to improve upon it without running
the risk of extortion ; but when a colt is to be broken for the use of
the owner, or any of his family, he will do well to see that plenty
of time is devoted to the formation of the mouth, and this [ have
ah-eady said should extend to a fortnight. If the breeder has a
lot of colts which are to be placed in the breaker's hands, the latter
can, with the assistance of a few lads, go on with a dozen at the
same time, and in that way too great an outlay of money is avoided;
but if there is only one in his hands, he can hardly do justice to
bis employer at the ordinary rate Hitherto I have only alluded

BREAR7NG. 147

to longeing, without describing it or alluding to the object with
which it is adopted. I must now, however, say something more
about it, because in this stage it becomes an important element of
success. It may be remembered, that I have laid down a fortnight
as the least interval which should elapse from the commencement
of breaking before the colt is fit to be backed with safety to the
breaker or his assistant. Not that he may not be ridden in much
less time than this, but that if he is, it will be at the expense of
his mouth. Longeing is a means of at once giving exercise in a
short space of time, and also of accustoming the colt to use his
limbs while some degree of pressure is made on the mouth by the
bit, without giving himself pain from moving the head. Now,
the act of keeping this part still necessitates an even and smooth
style of going, and so all things work together to produce the
pleasant feel which is given to the rider by a perfect hack. A
good mouth may be acquired in the stable, but it is soon spoiled
out-of-doors, either by longeing in a hurried manner, or by the bad
hands of the rider, whether breaker or subsequent user. To keep
it. great care is requirea at every stage of breaking; and none but
a man possessed of head, temper, seat, and hanas can finish a colt
as he should be turned out. Longeing, therefore, I hold to be a
most important part of the art of breaking; and its absence from
Mr. Rarey's principles and practice shows that he has taken the
dull pulling mouth of the American horse as his model, and not
the beautifully yielding, yet steady one of the English hack. In
the United States, where Mr. Rarey acquired his extraordinary
powers, riding is little practised ; and those horses which are used
have leathern mouths, and are ridden with three legs, rather than
with a pair of legs and a pair of hands, as with us. We need not,
therefore, be surprised that he has altogether overlooked the im-
portance of acquiring a fine mouth, and has regarded the mere
control over the horse, in some way or other, no matter how, as
the sole object to be desired in breaking. At length, when the
breaker is satisfied that the colt has gained the power over his
limbs at all paces, which he will have gradually given him in his
daily longes, by increasing the tightness of the reins and accele-
rating the pace, (taking care to change the directions of the cir-
cles,) he thinks it time to give his pupil the finishing lessons,
which can only be done in the saddle. Before mounting, however,
he is enabled to teach the colt the meaning of each pressure of the
rein, which at first is utterly unintelligible. By taking both in
each hand, and pressing backwards, he causes him to back ; and
by drawing them forward, to proceed in that direction. The right
hand moved to the right, makes the colt move his head, and after-
wards his body, towards that side, and vice versa with the left
hand In this way, all is prepared for the mounting, which should

148 THE HORSE.

be first attempted when the colt is somewhat tired after . long and
Bteady longe. The breaker should, during the last week's daily
exercise, put on a saddle instead of a roller and surcingle, keeping
it in its place by loose girths and a crupper. Every day he should
bear occasionally upon the stirrups, smacking them against the
saddle, and thus accustoming the colt to noises, and also to pres-
sure on his back. When all is ready, he has only to put his foot
in the stirrup, standing with his back to the shoulder, and then,
after partially rising two or three times, and coming down again,
he finally plants himself firmly in the saddle. Most careful break-
ers have a roll of cloth buckled firmly in front of their saddles ;
and with this precaution, even if the colt bucks or kicks, it is
almost impossible for him to dislodge them. When thus mounted,
the breaker should be in no hurry, but let the colt get accustomed
to the intruder. Let him wait till the pupil has somewhat reco-
vered from the shock, and then only let him urge him forward at
as slow a pace as he likes. If all has been conducted well through-
out the preliminary stages, and the colt is good-tempered, he will
walk away quietly enough, and generally no trouble will be given
for a day or two; when, probably, there will be some slight fight,
which may be either in causing the pupil to go where he does not
want to go, or in making him face some object which frightens
him. At first, neither whip nor spur should be used, for the ob-
ject of neither is understood ; and if the colt will not readily
move forward, he should be led or driven by an assistant, and not
whipped or spurred by his rider. In process of time, however, he
is made gradually to understand these signs by the tact of the
breaker; and then if he oiFends, he must be punished accordingly,
but it must always be remembered that the fault must be met im-
mediately, or not at all.

The amusing and experienced author of ^' The Horsc and
his Rider" has drawn attention to the misconception of the diff"er-
ences in character between a wild horse and a tame one, which is
entertained in this country. He says : " It is generally conceived
that in the difficulty of sticking on to the back of a horse there
exist three degrees of comparison, namely :

" 1. That it is rather difficult to ride a horse that has been
broken in.

" 2.' That it is exceedingly difficult to ride a tame one that haa
not been broken in.

" 3. That it must be almost impossible to mount and ride a wild
horse just caught, that has never been broken in.

"We will, however, humbly venture to assert that, in ceitain
instances, the three steps of this little ladder might be reversed.

"1. In a state of nature the horse is such a zealous advocate of
our popular principle of 'self-government,' he is so desirous to

BREAKING. 149

maintain his ' independence,' that although he tvill allow almost
any quadruped, even wolves and lions, to approach within a certain
distance, yet the moment he sees a man, though on horseback, he
instinctively turns his tail towards him, and, when followed, gal-
lops away.

" If, consequently, by the triumph of reason over instinct, he be
caught, saddled, and if all of a sudden, to his vast astonishment,
he finds sitting astride his back, with a cigar in his mouth, the very
human being he has always been avoiding, his first and almost only
feeling is that of fear^ and, accordingly, if he be retained by the
bridle, instantaneously, by a series of jumps on all four legs, he
makes impromptu his fii'st hurried, untaught, unpractised effort to
dislocate a rider. But if, instead of being as it were invited to
perform these unsophisticated antics, he be allowed, or rather by
whip and severe spurs, be propelled to do what he most ardently
desires, namely, run away, his power of resistance is over, and his
subjection inevitable. For at the top of his speed, just as when
swimming, a horse can neither rear, kick, nor plunge, and accord-
ingly at his best pace he proceeds on his sure road to ruin, until
not only all his wind is pumped out of him, but after that, until
twisted hide-thong and sharp iron have converted his terror of
man into an ardent desire to be obedient to his will. In fact, like
a small nation that has unsuccessfully been contending against a
great one, he wishes to put an end to the horrors of war, and to
sue for the blessings of peace.

" 2. If a domestic horse that has never been broken in be sud-
denly saddled and mounted, the rider has greater difficulties to
encounter than those just described; for the animal is not only
gifted by nature with all the propensities of the wild horse to re-
ject man, but, from being better fed, he has greater strength to
indulge in them ; besides which he enjoys the immense advantage
of being in a civilized, or, in plainer terms, an enclosed country.
Accordingly, instead of being forced to run away, his rider is par-
ticularly afraid lest he should do so, simply because he knows that
the remedy which w^ould cure the wild horse would probably kill
him. In fact, the difference to the rider between an open and au
enclosed field of battle is exactly that which a naval officer feels in
scudding in a gale of wind out of sight of land, and in being
caught among sand-banks and rocks in a narrow channel.

" 3. Of all descriptions of horses, wild and tame, by far the most
difficult to ride is that young British thorough-bred colt of two or
three years old that has been regularly ' broken in ' hy himself,
without giving the slightest warning, to jump away sideways, spin
round, and at the same moment kick off his rider. This feat is a
beautiful and well arranged combination of nature and of art. Like
the pugilistic chaTapion of England — Tom Sayers — he is a pro-
13*

150 THE HORSE

fesaional performer, gifted with so much strength and activity, and
skilful in so many quick, artful tricks and dodges, that any country
practitioner that comes to deal with him is no sooner up than
down, to rise from his mother earth with a vague, bewildered, in-
coherent idea as to what had befallen him, or ' how he got there.'

" If a horse of this description and a wild one in his own
jountry were to be mounted there simultaneously, each by an
jqualiy good rider, both the quadrupeds, probably at the same
iioment, would be seen to run away; the Briton forever, to gain
lis liberty; the other quadruped, just as surely, to lose it I"

Nothing can better convey to the reader the difficulties which
the English horse-breaker has to contend with, than this extract
from the pages of Sir V. B. Head, who has had ample opportuni-
ties of judging both the varieties oif" the species which he (|(iscribes.
It shows the necessity for the cautious proceedings which I have
endeavored to describe as the proper mode of breaking our young
horses, and which I am satisfied will enable the breaker to perform
his task in a way which will be satisfactory to his employer. It
may, however, be worth while to examine into the methods adopted
in the French school, as first introduced by M. Baucher.

His "Metijod op Horsemanship" was published nearly
twenty years ago, and has been generally received on the continent,
where the principles of the maniye have always been more highly
prized than in this country. The author tells us, as his first prin-
ciple, "that all the resistances of young horses spring from a
physical cause, and that this cause only becomes a moral one by
the awkwardness, ignorance, and brutality of the rider. In fact,
besides the natural stiffness peculiar to all horses, each of them
has a peculiar conformation, the greater or less perfection of which
constitutes the degree of harmony that exists between the forces
and the weight. The want of this harmony occasions the un-
gracefulness of their paces, the difficulty of their movements — in
a word, all the obstacles to a good education." To remove these
iefects, M. Jiaucher adopts certain methods of suppling the neck,
m which he considers the chief obstacle to perfect action resides.
Without going into the long details of the various supplings, it will
be sufficient to describe the general division of the work which the
author considers necessary. This, he thinks, must extend to two
months, divided into one hundred and twenty lessons of half an
hour each, two being given each day. During the first series of
eight lessons, the breaker will devote twenty minutes to the sta-
tionary exercise for the flexions of the jaw and neck, which can
hardly be efficiently described without the illustrations given in
the book itself. During the remaining ten minutes, he will make
the horse go forward at a walk, without trying to animate him ;
applying himsel/ all the time to keeping the horse's head in a per-

BREAKING TO HARNESS. 151

pendicular position. lu the second series, comprising ten days, the
first fifteen uiiuutos will be occupied in stationary supplings and
backings, t'ollowod by an equal time devoted to moving straight
ahead in the walk and trot. The rider, while taking care to keep
the head in good place, will commence a slight opposition of hand
and legs, in order to give regularity to the paces. The third series,
making up twelve days, will combine the previous supplings with
2)iroiictfcs ; while the fourth and fifth series, making up the whole
time, will go on to develop the various elementary paces of the
manitje. Now, in all tliis, it appears to me that we have only our
best English modes of breaking carried out to excess ; and I am
yet to learn that any great novelty has been introduced by this
standard authority of the French school.

SUPERIORITY OF THE ORDINARY METHOD.

It will readily be gathered from what I have already writ-
ten that for breaking the average colt I greatly prefer the methods
which have been in use for many years in this country. Mr. Ra-
rey is entitled to every credit for introducing a novel mode of con-
trolling a vicious horse, which is also of service in training cavalry
and circus horses. Beyond these departments, however, his plan,'?
effect no good as far as my judgment goes, and instead of improv-
ing the mouth they have a tendency^ to injure it. I have shown
that time and patience are grand elements of success in horse-
breaking, and that it is a disadvantage to hasten the process, which
is all that Mr. Karey pretends to etiect. We do not want to man-
age our horses without reins, but on the contrary to guide them
and stop them with the slightest possible touch consistent with the
equilibrium to be maintained in the saddle. Hence the first object
is the formation of a good mouth, and as this requires a consider-
able time to develop, there are ample opportunities for gradually
accustoming the colt to the presence and control of his master
while it is being produced. If several breakers were to be pitted
against each other as to which should first ride a high-spirited
unbroken colt, undoubtedly Mr. Earey would come oft" victorious ;
but, on the other hand, I would back against any horse broken by
his method, another which had been submitted to a good breaker
on the old English plan, if the palm was to be given to that one
which should prove to have the most perfect mouth and action.

BREAKING TO HARNESS.
The early proceedings in breaking a colt to harness are
exactly the same as for the saddle, and indeed it is well in all cases
to make him handy to ride before he is put into the break. We
may therefore assume that this has been done, or at all events that
a good mojth has been made, and the colt handled and accustomed

iO:i THE HORSE.

to bear the hip-straps hanging loosely "over his sides prior to put-
ting him in harness.

There is some difference op opinion among breakers as to
the best plan of conducting this operation. Some contend that for
every kind of harness the horse ought to be put in with another,
who will compel him to move or stop at the will of the driver.
Others assert that on the contrary, every young horse should be
put in first by himself, and then if he refuse to move he can be
allow©! to wait till he is tired of inactivity, which practically he
soon is. My own opinion is founded upon more than twenty years'
experience with all sorts of horses, and I am persuaded that by far
the safest and best method is to put every horse into double harness
fii'st. Many farmers break their colts in by putting them to plough
between two other horses, but the pull at this work is too dead for
well-bred colts, and many jibbers are produced in this way. Every
high-couraged horse has a tendency to jump forward on the first
impulse to do so, and feeling the restraint of the collar he is irri-
tated to increase his pull, whereby his shoulders are galled, causing
him to dislike his work from the pain which he suffers. It is quite
possible to break in a colt of average good temper for single har-
ness without putting him first into double, but the plan is always
attended with danger to both horse and driver, and I should
strongly caution my readers against it. Even after two or three
lessons in the double break, which have been quietly submitted to,
the colt often turns restive when put in by himself, but still by
that time he knows what he has to do, and is not made sulky by
being punished without cause.

The apparatus necessary for breaking to harness consists of,
1st, a set of strong double and single harness, made in the ordinary
way, except that the crupper for the colt should buckle on one
side ; 2dly, a double break of the ordinary construction ; but it is
a safe plan to have the whole s^iace between the fore carriage and
the splinter-bar made up with iron rods so close together that if a
horse kicks he cannot get his legs hung over the bar; 3dly, a
single break, to be hereafter described.

Before the colt is put to draw he should be accustomed to
the pressure of the harness, and as a matter of course in any case
he must have this put on him. Every groom ought to know how
to do this, but at the same time in a colt he should be cautioned
to proceed slowly and quietly, so as not to frighten him. Mr.
Rarey's plan of showing the horse everything which is to be put on
him is a very good one, and taking advantage of it, before the collar
is slipped over the head a little time may be allowed for the future
wearer of it t3 smell it and examine it with his eyes also. Many
breakers, to avoid the danger of alarming their pupils by putting
the collar o\ Jr their heads, have this part made to open at the

BREAKING TO HARNESS. 153

withers, where a buckle secures it after it has been slipped up
under the neck. But collars made in this way are not so firm as
when constructed in the ordinary mode, and are more liable to
punish the shoulders, so that what is gained in one way is lost in
the other. A quiet and handy man can always slip a collar over
a horse's head if he will take time, and especially if he has pre-
viously handled the animal and made nim accustomed to his pre-
sence. As soon as this part of the harness is in its place the pad
and crupper must be gently put on the back, and then quietly
raising the tail with every hair gathered and firmly grasped in the
left hand the right slips the crupper under it, and as soon as this
is done the left drops the tail and assists the right to buckle the
two parts together. In the previous breaking the colt has been
accustomed to the crupper, so that there is no occasion for extra
care in this part now. The pad is then drawn forward to its place,
the bellyband buckled, and the rest of the harness being put on in
the ordinary way, the colt is allowed to feel it for a few minutes,
and should then be led out in a yard or other convenient place for
an hour. The general practice is after this to put him to at once,
but it is far better if the colt is at all shy to take off the harness
and postpone the commencement of actual breaking till the
next day.

The actual putting to is managed differently in double and
single harness, but as I have endeavored to show that the former
should always precede the latter, I shall commence by describing
it. In breaking to double harness a steady old horse should be
provided, usually called a break-horse. All that is wanted is an
animal of good courage and free from vice, who will draw steadily
off on the slightest notice, and will stop firmly when required.
Some old horses which have had a great deal of practice in the
break will assist their masters in a wonderful manner. If a colt
kicks over the pole they will press against the intruding leg and
cause him so much pain that he remains quiet till he is relieved.
Indeed, it matters not what the attempt is, they defeat it by some
counter manoeuvre, but these horses are rare and fortunately are
by no means essential to success. Before attaching the colt the
break -horse should be put to, and it is usual to place him on the
near side. Then, having the break conveniently situated for start-
ing, the colt is brought out with a halter on and the cord knotted
to his tracebearer, so as to give a good hold in case he plunges or
kicks. The pole-piece is then loosely buckled up, after which the
inside trace is slipped over the roller bolt, and then the breaksman
pushing the quarters forcibly inwards the outside trace is carefully
adjusted and the pole-piece buckled up to its proper length.
Quickly but quietly and without fuss the reins are crossed and
buckled, and the ends bein taken by the breaker he mounts to

154 THE HORSE.

the box, gives the ^ ord to the break -horse to move, and the break
is quietly started without any notice to the colt, or effort on his
part. In the great majority of instances no resistance is made,
and all goes on smoothly for some time. The break should be
driven slowly for three or four miles, and then the breaksman who
asiists the breaker going to the side of the colt pulls him round
by the halter as the breaker drives the break-horse in a wide circle
for turning. In returning the horses should be stopped and started
again several times, and if the colt is pretty handy the turning
may be repeated once or twice, but more than an hour's drive
should not be attempted for fear of galling the shoulders, to pre-
vent which the inside of the collar should be well oiled on all occa-
sions just before starting. When taking the young horse out the
process of putting to should be exactly reversed. A repetition of
this lesson, and constant turning into narrow lanes and crowded
streets, together with uphill and downhill work, will soon make the
young horse handy in double harness, though for town work a con-
siderable time must elapse before he can be depended on in a
crush, especially without a steady companion. No horse should
be depended upon until he has been roused either by accidental
circumstances, or, if these do not present themselves, by an appli-
cation of the whip, for it often happens that a colt will go quietly
enough while his temper is unruffled, but when it is once upset he
shows fight until he is conquered or himself gains the victory.
Now it is far better that this should occur while in the hands of
the breaker than after he is sent home as thoroughly perfect in
harness.

When the colt has had five or six lessons in double harness,
and has been made to show the nature of his temper in the way
I have just described, he may safely be put in the shafts, but not
till then. The single-break is a stoutly-built two-wheeled vehicle,
with strong and straight ash shafts. It should be so high as to
preclude the possibility of the horse kicking over the drawing-
bar; and though occasionally it will happen that a clever animal
will kick very high indeed, yet there are few that will get over a
bar three feet from the ground. A kicking-strap and safety-rein
should always be used, for fear of accidents; and a breaker of
experience generally uses the driving-rein in the cheek and the
Bafety-rein in the lower bar; both being held in the same way as
for four horses. No bearing-rein should be employed; and the
tugs should be made open above, so as to drop the shafts into them.
With these precautions, there is no difficulty in putting a colt into
eingle harness; but, if at all stubborn, he may not be easily made
to start, having no break horse to take him off. Usually, however,
when five or six lessons in double harness have been given, the
co' walks off quietly enough; but, after one or two lessons, ho

STABLES— SITUATION ANP ASPECT. 155

discovers that what is to be done must be done by him unassisted,
and he is then very apt to give himself airs, if his temper is at all
inclined to be bad. Kicking may be kept under by the kicking-
strap; running away may be restrained by the bit^ but jibbing in
single harness is very diflBcult to get over. If necessary, an out-
rigger may be applied to the break, and a second horse put on;
but it is better to exercise the patience by quietly sitting still,
when, after a short time, the jibber generally moves on of his own
accord. Beyond these expedients, nothing more is required than
time and practice.

CHAPTER X.

Situation and Aspect — Foundations — Stalls versus Loose Boxes —
Hay Chamber and Granary — Doors and Windows — Drainage
and Water Supply — Ventilation and Lighting — Stable Fittings —
Harness Room — Coach-House — Serva7its' Rooms — Ground
Plans of Stables — Necessity for Airi?ig New Stables.

SITUATION AND ASPECT.

The two most important points to be regarded in the choice
of a situation, are, first, the power of excluding damp; and, sec-
ondly, the best means of keeping up a tolerably even temperature
in winter and summer. It is seldom that the stables are fixed
without regard to the convenience of the inmates of the house
itself, the corner most out of sight being the one usually selected
as good enough for them. It sliould not, however, be forgotten,
that the horse is a native of a dri/ country, and cannot be kept in
health in a damp situation either in-doors or out. Nothing, ex-
cept starvation, tells injuriously so soon upon the horse as damp
when exposed to it — he loses all life and spirit; work soon tires
him ; his coat stares ; he will scarcely look at his food, and he be-
comes rapidly emaciated, severe disease, often in the shape of some
prevailing epidemic, showing itself after a short time, and gene-
rally soon ending in death. Grease and cracked heels, swelled
legs, hide bound, inflamed eyes, and coughs and colds, are the
evils which attend damp, when exhibited only in a slight degree;
but these are sufficient to interfere with the use of the horse, and,
irrespective of other reasons, as domestic comfort is greatly de-
pendent on the carriage being always at command, the stables
should not be sacrificed, as thi 7 too often are, to a fancy for keep
ing them out of sight.

156 THE HORSE.

In choosing the situation, therefore, a spot should be looked
out which will be high enough to allow of perfect drainage at all
seasons of the year. No periodically overflowing brook should
ever be allowed to discharge it" contents info the foundations, for
even if the floor of the stable tself is kept above the water, yet
the soil underneath will be saturated, and acting like a sponge,
will allow the damp to creep up the walls incessantly. Sometimes,
in order to keep the stables well out of sight, a hollow is chosen,
and the floor is then excavated below the level of the surrounding
surface. The consequence is, that even in a summer-storm, the
rain-fall of the surrounding land finds its way — either into the
stable, or around it; and the effect is equally injurious in either.
Concrete under the floor, and courses of slate at the bottom of the
walls, will do something to meet the evil ; but it is better to avoid
it altogether by choosing a site at least two or three feet out of
the way of all flood-water, and with a good fall into a sewer or
adjacent running stream.

As to the aspect, there is some difference of opinion whether
it should be northei-ly or southerly, all being adverse to a direc-
tion either due east or west; the former being too cold, and the
latter too hot. As far as I know, all writers on the subject havo
preferred a southerly aspect, until the recent appearance of Mr.
Miles' " General Remarks on Stables," in which valuable work an
opinion is expressed that "the prevailing desire to have the front
of the stable due south is a mistake." The reasons for coming to
this conclusion are grounded upon the fact, which is undeniable,
that a more even temperature can be maintained if the situation
is sufficiently sheltered from the stroke of the wind. No doubt,
a southerly aspect allows the sun to enter with great power in the
summer; but my experience does not lead me to believe that flies
are less likely to get in through a door or window open to the
north, than through similar openings looking south. Mr. Miles
even objects to the heat of a winter's sun, which, he says, in the
middle of the day makes the stable almost as hot as in the sum-
mer ; the heat being often suddenly succeeded by a degree of cold
approaching the freezing point. Here, again, I certainly cannot
follow him, and I should hail with pleasure any beams of the sun
which show themselves between November and March, either in
the stable or kennel. Animal life is always benefited by the direct
rays of the sun, although, when the heat produced by them is in-
tense, the mischief done is so great as to counteract the advantage.
Still, in the winters of this country, such a thing is not, in my
opinion, to be dreamt of, as a properly ventilated stable becoming
too hot, and I look upon Mr. Miles' conclusions as being consider-
ably strained when he is arguing in favor of a northerly aspect.
r do not mean to assert thi^*, on the whole, he is wrong, but that

FOUNDATIONS— STALLS. 157

his arguments are based upon certain assumed facts which T hesi
tate to accept. It should not be forgotten that his own stable,
which is undoubtedly a pet one, was accidentally built to face the
north ; and, therefore, while, on the one hand, his experience of
the advantages of this aspect should be accepted with all respect;
on the other, it may be conceded that he naturally has a tendency
to overlook the disadvantages because they are inevitable.

FOUNDATIONS.

In most cases stables are not built of more than the basement
ftory, with a loft over, which is generally, almost entirely, con-
structed in the roof; the walls, therefore, are not high, and do not
require deep foundations, even if they are built on clay, which is
more liable to cause cracks, &c., than any other species of soil of a
uniform character. It is a very common plan, on this account, to
lay the foundations of any kind of coarse and stony material ; but if
this is done, a course of broken slates should be laid in cement a
little above the level of the ground ; or, instead of this, a course
or two of hard bricks should be laid in the same material, so as to
prevent the damp from striking up the walls by capillary attrac-
tion. A neglect of this precaution has, in several instances within
my _own knowledge, kept stables damp in spite of attention to
drainage and a resort to all sorts of expedients which could be car-
ried out subsequent to the building of the walls.

STALLS AND LOOSE BOXES.

With regard to the number of stalls or loose boxes which
should be grouped together in one apartment, there is little differ-
ence of opinion now-a-days among practical men, that more than
from four to six horses should not be allowed to stand together.
The former number is the better; but sometimes there may be
circumstances which will excuse the latter being adopted ; as, for
instance, when this number are kept, and the space occupied by a
partition-wall is an object. Even then, however, a boarded parti-
tion may be introduced, and as it will not occupy an additional
room, there is no objection on that account. When a larger num-
ber of horses are stabled together, there is great difficulty in keep-
ing up an even temperature, unless, as in the case of omnibuf! and
cab horses, the same number are nearly always absent at work. In
private stables, however, all or nearly all the horses are often out
at once, and then in a large space the temperature is reduced so
much, that when they return, two or three at a time, followed by
others, and compel the doors to be constantly opened and shut,
there is, first of all, danger of chilling each as he comes in, and if
he escapes this, of producing that injurious effect when the next
horse come° home. Practically it is found that the long row o''
14

158 THE HORSE.

Btalls does not conduce to the health of the horses, and although
It may please the eye of the master to look down a long line oi'
valualole animals, this arrangement is by no means to be recom-
mended. Either two stalls with a loose box at one or both sides,
or, perhaps, as I said before, even four stalls with a similar arrange-
ment of loose boxes, should be the aim of the builder of a stable
for general private work, and in this, as well as in all othej* cases,
appearances should be sacrificed to utility.

Of late years there has been a great demand for loose boxes,
and every private horse-keeper who could afford the extra space,
has adopted the plan, at all events for a large proportion of his
stud. For hunters and race-horses, when they are doing severe
work, there can be no doubt that the quiet and liberty allowed in
a box are far preferable to the restraint of a stall, where the horse
is constantly liable to be disturbed by the ingress and egress of
men and horses. In the stall, also, there must be a slope (though
not necessarily a great one), from before backwards, so as to pro-
vide for surface drainage ; and this compels the horse who is tied
to the manger to stand with his hind feet lower than his fore,
which is a tiresome position if continued for any length of time, and
which therefore induces so many to stand back to the full length
of their reins. But the horse is a social animal, and does not like
solitary confinement any more than the dog; indeed, some which
will do well when placed in a stall, will even refuse their food, and
actually lose condition, if removed to a loose box, out of sight of
companions. If therefore the quiet and comparative liberty of a
loose box can be combined with the society of the stall, the only
objections to each are got rid of, and the best kind of accommoda-
tion for the horse is provided, though even in a loose box it is not
always desirable to leave the inmate loose.

In large stables intended for business purposes, such as for
omnibus, cab, and wagon horses, loose boxes are out of the ques-
tion, on account of the area which they require, extra width being
necessary for the horse to turn round in, inasmuch as he cannot in
them put his head over the travis, as he always does while turning
in a stall. A full-sized animal must have his box at least 10 feet
wide by 12 long, which gives an area of 120 superficial feet, in-
stead of 80 or 85, the area required for a six-foot stall, including
the gangway. Indeed, the above dimensions are scarcely large
enough for a box, a roomy one being from 15 to 18 feet long by at
least ten feet wide. Again, the consumption of straw in a box is
much greater than in a stall, the droppings of the horse not being
deposited in any one place, as in the latter, but scattered all over
the surface, and spoiling the litter whereon they may happen to
lie. For t^ese reasons loose boxes are not introduced into any

HAY CHAMBER AND GRANARY, 159

stables but tbose for race-horses, hunters, and in a certain propor-
tion for hacks and carriage horses. In every large establishment
a small number must be set aside for the sick and lame, but I am
now solely discussing their merits as applied to horses doing work

HAY CHAMBER AND GRANARY.

In every STABLE conducted economically, whether in town or
country, a space should be allotted for storing hay, straw, and corn.
Hay and straw are either sold by the ton or by the load, which is
two cwt. less, and on that account the loft should always hold at
least a ton of hay, and the same quantity of straw, because if a
smaller bulk is purchased, it cannot be obtained at the regular
market price. Now a ton of hay cut into trusses will nearly occupy
the space over an ordinary loose box, supposing that the walls of
the loft are not carried up far above the floor, and every additional
yard in height of wall allows stowage for another ton. Straw occu-
pies more space by nearly one-half, and it may be calculated that
a loft formed entirely in a tiled roof of the usual pitch, must have
an area equal to two roomy loose boxes, or two stalls and a box, to
stow away a ton of hay and a ton of straw, and even then there
will be little space for any other purpose. To find room for a
corn-bruiser and chaff-cutter, as well as for a stock of oats, a
granary with an area at least as large as a loose box should bo ar-
ranged, and with these conveniences a stable may be said to be
complete — that is to say, with dry and airy stowage-room, surne-
where, amounting altogether to about 2000 cubical feet. If the
number of horses kept is larger than three or four, the hay-chamber
need not generally be increased to any great extent, because the
hay and corn are purchased by the ton or load ; but it is often a
great convenience to have accommodations for two or three months'
provender, and therefore it is always well to be provided with space
enough for that purpose, if it can be so arranged.

With these calculations to guide him, the builder has
next to consider where he shall fix the stowage-room which I have
said will be necessary. Formerly a loft was almost always provided
over the stable, in which the provender was kept; but in those
days, when high racks were in vogue, a trap-door was left over
them to keep them supplied, and the consequence was, that, in the
first place, the horses were continually annoyed with the dust fall-
iu'jT through, and, in the second, the hay was injured by the vapor
frum the stable reaching it through the same opening. On these
accounts a great outcry was raised against placing the loft in this
situation ; and stable-architects insisted upon a hay chamber, as it
was called, being built on the ground-floor, or at all events in some
other situation than that usually allotted to it. There was great
sense in this precaution, and for a time credit was due to the pro-

160 THE HORSt.

moters of the improvement; but on the subsequent introduction of
low racks (tvhich the grooms did not object to u-hen tliey had to bring
their hay iit through the stable door)^ and the simultaneous dismissal
of the openings over them to the loft, the objections to the old
situation of the latter were done away with; and the objections of
the grooms having been removed, no opposition could be offered
by them, and thus it has come to pass that in most of our best
stables low racks are established without openings over them, and
with the hay and straw stowed in a loft overhead, perfectly pro-
tected from injury from the stable emanations, by means of a sound
floor and a good ceiling beneath it. The fodder so placed does
good instead of harm, inasmuch as being a bad conductor of heat
it tends to keep the stable cool in summer and warm in winter.
Arrangements are easily made for throwing it down through a
shaft in some convenient spot, clear of the horses ; and as it can
more readily be filled from the cart or wagon through the window
than a chamber on the ground, labor is economised also. On the
whole therefore it may be laid down that if low racks are adopted,
which I shall hereafter show are the best on every account, the
loft should be placed over the stable, while even if high ones are
preferred, it may be fixed in the same situation, provided no open-
ings which will allow the passage of dust and steam are left above
them.

The construction of the hay chamber should be such as will
provide for getting the hay and straw into it; for the daily supply
of these articles out of it into the stable can always be easily ma-
naged without mechanical assistance. Mr. Miles, in the work
which I have already quoted, suggests the introduction of a spout
leading down from the loft to the manger, so as to convey the corn
and chaff into it; but I have a great objection to any plan which
allows of a direct communication from the one to the other, and as
neither corn nor chaff is a bulky article, it is easy for the groom to
carry them in his sieve. Moreover, each feed of corn should be
sifted and examined for stones, which cannot so well be done in
the bulk. I should therefore strongly advise the planner of a
stable to avoid all such premiums upon laziness, and to keep the
ceiling of his stable perfectly intact, except for the purpose of
carrying off the obnoxious gases which are the product of respi
ration.

The granary, however, will require several fittings ; and, in
the first place, it should be so constructed as to be mice-proof. If
the walls are soundly built, no mice can gnaw through them, but
even if they are of soft materials, a lining of Roman cement will
exclude mice altogether. This article also keeps the corn dry,
and forms an excellent floor, as well as lining for the walls. If
the granary is on the ground, instead of using boards, which har-

FLOORS, DOORS, AND WINDOWS.

161

bor vermin of all kinds, lay a course of bricks edgeways upon
concrete, and then upon the former have an inch of Roman cement
carefully laid, and take care to allow time for it to harden. When
this is done, corn may be stored without fear of loss by mice, and
all that is necessary is to turn it over every fortnight if at all new,
or once a month if dry. Few grooms are to be trusted with an un-
limited supply of oats, as they will almost all waste them in some way
or other. It is better therefore to shut off a part of the granary
with open lattice or wire-work, admitting a free current of air, but
not allowing anything large enough to contain corn to pass. At
stated intervals the allowance of corn may be taken out and kept
in the other part of the granary till wanted. Here also should be
fixed a corn-bruiser and chaff-cutter, and also a bin for oats, beans,
and chaff.

MATERIALS FOR FLOORS, DOORS, AND WINDOWS.

\n attempt has recently been made to revive the old plan of
laying an open or perforated wooden floor so as to allow the urine
to pass through, and thus keep the litter dry. Mr. Haycock, in
his " Grentleman's Stable Manual," is a strong advocate for this
plan, but I cannot say that I am impressed with his arguments in
its favor. That it may save the litter to some extent is clear enough,
but it only does so at the expense of cleanliness, for as the wood
absorbs a great deal of the urine in its descent, ammonia is con-
stantly being given off, and the stable is never sweet. For this
reason these floors were abandoned in the early part of the present
century, when they were extensively tried, and I should much
regret their general re-introduction. It may be laid down that no
material should be used for stable floors which absorbs the urine,
but to select one which in itself is liable to decomposition is doublj
wrong.

The DOORS of stables are generally made
of yellow, or, as it is called in the midland
districts, red deal. Sometimes elm is used,
but it is very liable to cast or warp. Unless
the proprietor is very particular about ap-
pearances, what is called a "ledge door" is
considered sufl&cient, the rails being of inch-
and-half stuff, and the boards which are only
nailed on, from three-quarters of an inch to
one inch thick. The ordinary thumb-latch
is very apt to catch in the skin of the horse
as he passes through, causing often a severe
wound, and on that account a sunk catch is
preferred which drops into a recess made
for it in the door-frame, but this is not
14* L

DOOR FOR LOOSE BOX.

162

THE HORSE.

adapted for a " ledge door,", a frame at least two inctcs in thick-
ness being necessary to allow of the lock being let in. For loose
boxes a door may be made with the upper half of open iron work
as in the annexed engraving, but these are expensive and can only
be adopted when money is not considered. In a door of this con-
struction the hinges are so arranged that with a rounded edge to
the frame there is no sharp projection, and even when wide open
the hip of the horse passing through cannot possibly bo injured.
No door should be less than three feet six inches wide and seven
feet high, and the outer door is better if made three feet pine or
even four feet in the clear.

All stable windows should be of iron, and if they are cast
with iron bars six inches apart from centre to centre, no horse will
break the glass. Every other bar may be made to project so as to
form the framework for the glass, and in this way serve a double
purpose. In building new stables I should always prefer to place
the windows close to the ceiling and above the mangers, so as to
give the horse the fresh air where he wants it. If they are made
to open in a valvular form, as represented below, on the same prin-
ciple as has long been adopted in church windows, and as I have
for years recommended for lighting and ventilating kennels, there
is no down draught, and every advantage is obtained from the fresh
air without the disadvantage which ensues when it blows down
upon the back or loins. In the engraving (a) represents the win-
dow perfectly closed, in the state
admitting light but no air; (b)
shows the same window opened
as far as the framework will allow,
intermediate degrees being regu-
lated by the ratched rod (c), which
is fixed to the upper edge of the
frame, and catches on the top rail
of the sash. Iron frames of this
shape may be obtained by order
of any iron-founder, or they
may be made of wood. The glass
must be guarded with bars either
fixed to the sashes theniselv«s or
to the framework. It will be seen
in the figure (&) that I have indi.
catcd with an arrow the direction
which the air inevitably takes aa
it enters the stable. Of course
these windows may be fixed in any wall other than that at the
head of the horse, but I prefer the latter, as being the nearest to
the nostrils whrrethe air is wanted for the purpose of respiration.

VENTILATl.NO WINDOWS.

DRAINAGE.

163

The size should be about two feet square The additional cost is
very trifling when it is considered that no other openings need be
provided for the admission of air.

DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY.

Next in importance to the choice of the situation and aspect,
IS the method to be adopted in draining the stable. The former
cannot well be altered, but the latter may, and therefore I have
placed it second. To ensure the perfect performance of the office
of cleansing the stable, the first thing to be done is to provide a
means of receiving the liquid which constantly must fall upon the
flooring, consisting partly of the urine of the horses, and partly
of the water used in keeping them clean. Several plans are adopted
for this purpose, some of which are founded upon true principles
of economy, while others are wasteful in the extreme. In towns
and cities provided with sewers and water pipes, liquid manure is
seldom worth the cost of removing it, and hence in them there is
no choice, and the whole of the liquids flowing through the drains
must pass ofl" into the common sewers. Even here, however, a
catch pit should be provided somewhere outside the stable, without
which the traps will either become clogged if made gas-tight, or
they will admit the foul emanations from the common sewer if
they are so arranged as to allow of the free flow of drainage from
the stable into them. Such a pit as that represented below will

SKOnON OF CATCH PIT.

serve all the purposes required, and if it is regularly cleaned out
once a week by the groom there will never be an overflow, while
in no case can any gas pass through it from the sewers. It is
merely a square pit lined with brick or stone and cemented. The
size mus^ depend on the number of horses, but if made on the cal-

164 THE HOIvdE.

culation of one cubical foot per horse up to four horses, and haif
an additional foot for each horse beyond this number it will fulfil
all the conditions required. The principle on which it acts is as
follows : The liquid drainage enters from the stable at (a), and
falls into the inner half of the pit, marked (h), which is separated
fr3mthe other half by an iron partition (c). This is fixed above
in a stone or iron lid (d), which, being fitted in a frame at the top
of the pit, effectually closes it except when taken up by the
groom for the purpose of removing the solid contents at (h). The
sides of the iron partition (c) should run in grooves cut in the ce-
ment lining the pit, which it should pretty accurately fit, but only
so as to keep all solid matter from passing through. A space of
from two to four inches according to the size of the pit is left be-
neath the iron partition and the bottom or floor, and through this
the liquid passes, filling the outer half (e) and overflowing through
the pipe (/) as fast as it has run in at (a), the same level being
always maintained in the two halves of the pit. With this simple
apparatus properly constructed all internal stench traps may be
done away with, and the iron surface-drains which I shall pre-
sently describe alone introduced.

The first thing in all stables is to provide for the rapid removal
of any fluid which falls upon the litter, whether it be urine or
water used in washing legs or floor. Without this damp arises and
the health of the inmates suff"ers in proportion. Foul gas, such as
is given off from decomposing matters in sewers, is no doubt preju-
dicial, but damp is still more so ; and while I would be careful to
guard against the former I would still more cautiously attend to
the exclusion of the latter. Hence it is that I would exclude all
internal traps ; and every one who has watched the proceedings of
his own stablemen will have seen how constantly, if they know
their business, they are obliged to clean out the stench traps if
they are furnished with them, or on the contrary how slowly these
articles allow the fluids to pass off if they are not thus attended to.
Even the old-fashioned simple plan of making the stalls to fall
rapidly to an open gutter, and carrying this straight behind the
horses through an opening in the wall to the manure-hole, will
answer better than neglected stench traps ; and as it is always wise
to count upon the occasional carelessness of the men, it is expe-
dient to arrange on this basis if it is practicable, which I know by
experience it is, by the adoption of the catch-pit I have described.
In the country such a pit may be interposed between a liquid
manure tank and the stable, or it may simply be placed outside,
taking care that the drain (/) has some safety valve to allow of
the escape of any gas which is generated beyond it either in the
liquid manure cistern or in the drain which carries away its con-
tents, whatever they may be. No trap will prevent the passage of

DRAINAGE— WATER SUPPLY— VENTILATION. 165

gas if the pressure is greater than that of the atmosphere, and in
many cases decomposing animal matter at a high temperature
evolves gas under one considerably greater. The best stench trap
will then be offensive, but a bad one choked with solid matter will
be doubly so. By thus doing away with all internal traps, and
simply using wrought iron gutters of the annexed form, which are

IRON SURFACE GUTTER.

provided with moveable covers, that allow of their being regularly
cleaned out with a common besom, such perfect drainage may be
attained that the stable neither smells badly nor feels at all damp.
It will be seen that angular joints are forged so as to connect the
stall drains with those at the backs of the horses, and in this way
there is no difficulty whatever in keeping the litter perfectly dry
excepting just at the spot where the urine or water first falls. If
the drain at the backs of the horses is a very long one it must be
sunk beneath the surface and carried on by means of glazed
earthenware or iron pipes, with grated openings behind each horse
(not trapped), but the iron gutters above described are quite suffi-
cient to provide for three or four horses.

Water-Pipes, where there is no pump, must be laid in the
ground so as to be out of the reach of frost, and should be furnished
with a good-sized cistern in or near the saddle-room, where it can
be kept from freezing. The system of laying on water pipes to
the mangers, by which they may be readily filled, is a good one,
but it costs money and is by no means necessary. If the iron sur-
face drains which I have described are used no flushing is required,
a besom easily cleaning them out, but pipe drains are certainly the
better for a good flushing now and then. Hard pump water is not
BO good for drinking as soft or river water, but in many situations
nothing else can be obtained. When soft water is within reach it
may easily be conducted into a cistern in the saddle-room, where
its temperature will be always nearly that of the stable.

VENTILATION AND LIGHTING.

I HAVE ALREADY entered to some extent upon the best form of
wiodows for stabling, and have shown how fiu- they may be applied
to the purpose of supplying air from without. Sometimes, how-
ever, there are already in the building windows of the ordinary
construction ; and in that case it will be necessary to introduce
ventilators, of some shape or other, to admit the external air. In
all cases, some provision should be made for preventing any

166 THE HORSE.

draught falling upon the horses, and for regulating the amount of
air. The common round tube, with a bend at a right angle
downwards on the outside of the wall, is the cheapest form in which
this can be done ; but it is very apt to be rendered totally inefficient
by being stuffed with hay in cold weather, and left in this state
ever afterwards. Several patents have been lately taken out for
getting a down-draught by the side of the up-draught tube ; of
which Mr. Moir's four-sectioned plan is, perhaps, the best. In
this a large tube of iron is made to descend from the apex of the
roof to the stable ceiling ; and being divided into four tubes by
iron plates, which rise above the top, the wind always descends
through one or two of these tubes whenever there is the slightest
air moving. Unfortunately, however, it happens that when it is
most wanted it is totally inactive — namely, in the hot calm days of
summer. Ventilation is always easy enough when there is a wind
blowing; and, indeed, the difficulty then is to moderate it; but it
is when there is no air moving that stables become so hot and close.
I have known these down-current tubes tried in all sorts of places,
including stables, kennels, work-rooms, cigar-divans, &c. ; but 1
have always found that, without the power of moderating the down-
draught by closing-valves placed at the bottom of the tubes, they
are not only useless in calm weather, but highly dangerous in a
wind. Now, horses have not the sense to close valves, when a
wind rises in the night, and grooms are absent from 8 o'clock p.
M. till 6 A. M., during which time a whole stableful of horses may
be chilled to an alarming extent. Hence, if adopted, I should
never venture to leave these ventilators open during the night, and
this would take away from their efficiency sufficiently to forbid their
use. I greatly prefer the valvular window which I have described
at page 162, for the introduction of air, and a plain ventilating
shaft, such as I shall presently allude to, fr r carrying off the foul
air. Failing the window from any cause, nothing is better than a
latticed ventilator, which should be fixed in the head wall, or in
either of the side walls, near the head.

Having thus provided for the admission of fresh atmospheric
air, the next thing to do is to carry it off, when it has been used
for the purposes of respiration. As I before remarked, it is not
safe to depend upon the wind for this purpose ; and the only re-
maining agent is ine diminution in its specific gravity when air is
warmed by respiration. By taking advantage of this principle,
the foul air is carried off from the upper parts of the stable if a
shaft is fixed there for its passage. Sometimes a small shaft is in-
troduced over the head of each horse; but in practice it is found
that one large shaft, about a foot square, will purify a stable con-
taining four or five horses. It is better to fix this about the mid-
dle of the stable, as regards its length, but near the heads of tha

VENTILATIKG SHAFT.

Ibl

VENTILATING SHAFT.

horses, as shown in the above section of a stalled stable. The tube
may be made of wood — and, indeed, this material is better than
iron, because it does not condense the steam as it ascends nearly
80 much as metal, and there is less dropping of water from it. The
upper end of this shaft should be guarded from down-draughts,
either by a cowl which will turn with the wind, or by a covered
ventilator of galvanized iron fixed on the ridge of the roof, the
price of which will depend on
the size. At the bottom, a sheet
of iron, considerably larger than
the shaft, should be fixed about
three inches below the mouth, so
as to prevent any down-draught
striking the horses; and also to
catch any drip from the conden-
sation of the steam of the stable,
as it comes in contact with the

interior of the shaft. This, however, will be almost entirely
avoided by making the shaft of wood, as I have already mentioned.
Loose boxes must be ventilated separately, if they are not open to
the stable; but if they are, the same shaft will take off their foul air
as is used for the stalls, provided there are not more than four or
five horses in the same spjice. A shaft about six inches in diam
eter is amply large enough for one box ; and this, with the venti-

HEAD OF SHAFT.

168

THE HORSE.

lating window or the separate ventilator I have described, will
keep any box in a healthy condition, if its drainage is properly
attended to. There is a very common notion that no ascending
shaft will remove the carbonic-acid gas, which is one of the results
of respiration, because its specific gravity is so great that it lies
cloge to the floor. This, however, is a fallacy in practice, though
perfectly correct in theory, because all gases have a tendency to
mix rapidly together ; and hence, although the weight of pure
carbonic acid gas is so great that it may be poured from one glass
into another, yet, as it is given gradually ofi" by the lungs, it does
not remain separate, but mixes with the bulk of air in the stable,
and is carried off with it. For this reason, there is not the slightest
necessity to admit the fresh air near the bottom of the stable, as is
sometimes contended for. If it is attempted, nothing can prevent
a draught falling upon the bodies of the horses when they are
lying down, and they inevitably catch cold. If the upper regions
are kept pure, the whole air soon mixes; and thus, when the open-
ings are fixed near the ceiling, as I have described, all the good
which is wanted from them is obtained without any risk of draught.

STABLE FITTINGS.

There are two modes op
SEPARATING stalls from each
other; that most commonly
adopted in private stables being
the travis, whilst in cavalry and
cab stables the hanging bail is
used for the sake of economy
of money and space. The latter
being considerably cheaper than
the former, I shall describe it first.
All that is necessary is a strong
pole of ash, oak, or elm, which is
fixed about three feet from the
ground between the horses, one
end being attached to the manger
by a strong iron hook and eye,
and the other being either sus-
pended from the ceiling by a
chain or attached to a post, reach-
ing from the ground to the ceiling
in such a way that, if the horse
gets fixed under or over it, he can
readily be relieved by striking
upwards the ring (a), which
liberates the hook (b) and allows
the bail (c) to fall to the ground

V "^

9-^

c

HAItaiNa BAIL.

LAN

STABLE PITIINGS. 169

A better plan is to use a plank of elm instead of a pole for the
Dail, and the difference of cost is not very great. I have myself
adopted this plan with advantage in a two-stalled stable, wliich i?
too narrow for a travis, the whole width for two horses being barely
ten feet. Here, of course, two stalls would be unsafe, for no horse
can be accommodated properly with less than five feet six inches
from inside to inside of stall-posts, and this would require eleven
feet six inches, being eighteen inches more than I had to do with.
I find that a plank of elm, one inch and a half in thickness and
eighteen inches deep, will protect a horse very effectually from the
kicks of his neighbor; and as I happen to have had an inveterate
kicker in one of the stalls for six months, without injury to her
fellow, the trial has been a pretty severe one. The hangings at
each end are just the same as for bails, a chain, in my stable
descending from the ceiling, and no tail-post being used on account
of the propensities of the mare in question. She would have de-
molished any fixed post behind her in a single night; but the
hanging plank of elm not being a fixture, gave way to her blows,
and she soon left it alone. If the horse is tied up with one rein
only, he can bite his neighbor with great facility over the bail,
but twc reins are just as efficient with hanging bails as with a
travis, i'.nd these should never be neglected.

The length op the travis should never be less than six feet
six inches, and if tbe stable is fourteen feet deep, which, it ought at
least to be, the travis may be seven feet long with advantage. Be-
yond this length it should not extend except in very roomy stables,
as there is danger of straining the back in turning out of a nar-
row gangway into the stall. No travis should be less than seven
feet in height at the head, and four feet six, or five feet at the
tail-post. If lower than this, the horses can bite each other over
the head, or kick over the tail, and so become hung, from which
latter accident serious mischief may ensue. The tail-post is gene-
rally made only to reach high enough to take the ring for the pil-
lar reins, but it is far firmer if carried to the ceiling. When the
stable is to be built from the ground, the tail-posts may be made
to economize wood in the flooring-joists above, as they diminish
their length by one-half. A moderately stout beam, say eight
inches by four, is carried from end to end, and into this the posts
are framed, while the joists, running in the direction of the stalls,
are only seven feet long each, for which a very small scantli::ig
will suffice, even if heavy weights of hay and straw are placed in
the loft. This is a great consideration, as the floor of the loft re-
quiring to be made strong, the joists, when fourteen or fifteen feet
long, should be at least ten inches deep. If wooden posts are sunk
into the ground, which they must be if short, they soon decay,
whereas, when they rei sh the c\ iling, as I have advised, they may
15

170 THE HOKSE.

be dowelled into a stone rising above .he floor, aid tbus escape
destruction. Charring the part buried is the usual expedient
adopted to prevent decay, but though it acts beneficially to some
extent, it does not long put ofi" the decomposition of the woody
matter by the damp of the floor.

A GANGWAY BAIL IS somctimes used in stables, when valuable
horses art; kept in stalls, such as hunters and race-horses. It is
merely a strong piece of oak which is dropped into a mortice in
the stall-post at one end, and into another made in the wall oppo-
site ; so that, if either of the horses gets loose, he cannot reach
his neighbors. It also serves to prevent two horses from hanging
back and kicking at each other, which vicious animals will some-
times do.

The MANGERS AND RACKS are now almost invariably made of
the form, as shown on p. 172, whether of wood or iron; the addi-
tion of a separate cavity for water, bran mashes, or gruel, being a
modern invention. With the single exception of Mr. Miles, I am
not aware of any recent authority on the subject who has written
in favor of the old high rack, and after about fifteen years' expe-
rience of each in my own stables, I can confidently recommend
the low position for its manifold advantages both to the horse and
his master. The above-named writer gives as the reasons for his
preference of the high rack, " that besides the chance there is of
a horse getting his feet into a low rack, when he is either frolic-
some or alarmed, it is open to the objection that he is constantly
hanging his head over his food, and breathing on it while he is
feeding, which renders the undermost portion of it moist and
warm, and makes him reluctant to consume the whole." Now the
first of these objections may be tenable, for, no doubt, a horse can
get his feet into a low rack, but a-^ he can into his manger, and as
this must be placed low, no farther harm is done in the one case
than in the other. Moreover, the rack being placed in the corner
is not so likely to receive the feet as the manger in the middle.
But, in either case, if the bottom is strong enough to bear the
weight, which it ought to be, no mischief is done, an 1 the horse
gets down again when he likes. The second objection I contend
to be wholly without foundation, and I do this after carefully try-
ing the experiment for a month, with the same four horses, tended
by the same men, and doing the same kind of work. It so hap-
pened that in the year 1845 I required two additional stalls ; and
at that time having high racks in my own three-stalled stable, I
hired one of two stalls close adjoining. In this I placed two of
the three horses for a month, and carefully weighed the hay which

STABLE FITTINGS. 171

was consumed by them during that period, at the sance wime weigh-
ing that eaten by the other three horses in the three-stalled stable.
At the end of the month I changed the two horses for two of those
in the three-stalled stable, and again weighed the hay consumed
by each. The result was, in round numbers, a saving of ten
pounds of hay per week per horse, and this was done without any
further limitation than the judgment of the head groom, who,
moreover, was prejudiced in favor of high racks. I immediately
introduced low racks into my own stables, and have used them
since with the greatest satisfaction and advantage. Such is the
result of my own experience, and I find that all those of my ac-
quaintance who have tried the low racks, are strongly impressed
with their advantages, nor have I ever known an accident result
from them. The only place where they are dangerous is in the
loose box of the brood mare with her foal, where the latter may
damage itself by getting into the manger, but against this risk I
have cautioned the breeder at page 122. In those stables where
a long wooden manger is fixed, the alteration of a part to form the
low rack is easily accomplished, and the saving in hay will soon
pay for the trifling outlay.

With regard to the material of which the racks and
mangers should be made, I am not quite so settled in my convic-
tions. Wood is undoubtedly the cheapest, and it has the advan-
tage in its favor that the horse, in laying hold of the cap with his
teeth, when he is being dressed, which most high-couraged horses
do, wears them out much less rapidly than with the iron manger.
This objection is met by making the cap so wide that the horse's
jaw will not embrace it, and with this modification I have nothing
to allege against the metal but its price, — while it has the advan-
tage that mice cannot gnaw through it, and that it does not become
decomposed by remaining constantly damp, which is the case with
wood. The iron is generally lined with enamel, but as I believe
that its oxide is absolutely advantageous to the health of the horse
when taken into the stomach with his food, I do not care whether
this additional expense is incurred or not. The enamel always
looks and is clean, which is in its favor, but, as I said before, this
is its only real advantage. With these preliminary observations,
I shall describe each, so that in fitting up a stable the proprietor
may take his choice.

(1.) Wooden mangers may .be economically made in part of
elm or deal, and in part of oak, which latter wood should always
be used for the capping, on account of the wear occasioned by the
teeth, and for the bottoms, to prevent decay. The top of the cap
should be from 3 ft. 3 in. to 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and the
manger itself should be 13 inches wide at the top and 9 inches at
the bottom ; depth 1 1 inches. The caps should be 4 inches deep

172

THE HORSE.

and 3 inches wide, and these should be firmly wedged into the
wall or travis at each end. The bottoms may be of inch oak, and
the backs, ends, and fronts, of inch elm, or, if deal is used, they
should be a little stouter. Supposing low racks to be introduced
also of wood, they should be 2 feet wide, and should project 5
inches beyond the manger, making them 18 inches deep inside.
An oak post must be dropped into the floor at the junction of the
two, so as to give strength at this part, and the two caps may be
strongly nailed or bolted to the top of this. The rack is generally
made from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 3 in. deep outside, whirih leaves a space
Delow suffici'-nt to insure the free passage of seeds and dust,

(2.) Iron mangers are made of the same dimensions as the
above, but in general the capping of the rack is continuous with
that of the manger, as shown in the engraving on this page.
Both are five inches wide, to prevent the horse laying hold of the
iron and thus wearing down his teeth. A water-tank occupies
one end of the space at the head of the stall, the manger the
middle, and the rack the other end, — the two former being
generally enamelled inside. The addition of the tank is in favor
of iron as a material ; for water remaining in wood soon rots it,
and hence even if wooden mangers are preferred, tha tank, if
adopted, must be of iron.

The only remaining fitting yet to be described is the enam-
elled tile, which is now very generally introduced in first-class
stables at the heads of the stall above the mangers. I cannot say
that I see any great advantage in them, as a coat of sound Koman
cement will be as impervious to all kinds of diseased secretions aa
the best enamel, — that is to say, when each in washed. Neverthe-
less, I have shown these tiles in the annexed engraving of a couple

IRON FITTINQS FOR STALLS AND LOOSE BOX.

of stalls and a loose box, which is taken from the pattern plan ex-
hibited at the '^t. Pancras Iron works. Here all the iron fittings

HARNESS-ROOM. 173

«(rhich I have alread} described are introduced, and mj loader may
judge for himself of their appearance, which is certainly, in my
opinion, extremely neat and well adapted to the requiremants of
the horse. The stalls show the iron manger, rack, and trough, as
described at page 170. The floor is laid with blue paviors, cut to
fit the wrought-iron gutters alluded to at page 165. The loose box
is lined with inch deal, and the partition from the stalls is of open
iron-work. This also shows the corner manger-rack and trough
suitable for a loose box. The only objection that I know to these
very complete fittings is on the score of expense.

I HAVE ALREADY SAID that I object to corn and chaff-shoots
arranged so as to open into the manger, on account of the dust which
they bring down. If the corn and chaff are kept upstairs, a shoot
may be arranged so as to deliver them at or near the gangway, the
particular spot chosen depending on circumstances which will vary
with almost every stable. A granary, or corn-room, on the ground
floor, does not admit of a shoot.

The walls of a stable should be lined, whenever they come in
contact with the horse, with inch elm or deal. Without this, in
cold weather, the brick or stone, whether plastered or not, is too
cold, and if a delicate horse lies down with his loins against it, he
will probably be attacked with rheumatism, or perhaps with in-
flammation of the kidneys. Usually, also, as I have already ob-
served at page 172, the head wall above the manger is lined either
with boards or enamelled plates, which have lately been introduced
as being cleaner than boards, as they undoubtedly are. They are
either of enamelled iron, nailed on to boarding, or of vitrified plates
set in cement, the latter being cheaper and having nearly the same
appearance.

HARNESS-ROOM.

Every Harness-Room should be provided either with a stove or
open fireplace, in order to dry the saddles, harness, and clothing, when
they come in wet. If, also, it can be so arranged that a supply of
hot water can be obtained, by fitting a boiler to the back of the
fire, the groom will be always provided with what he must occa-
sionally obtain from some source or other. No establishment can
be considered complete which does not pravide plenty of hot water
when wanted; and if it is heated in the saddle-room, so much the
better.

When the saddles and harness are cleaned, they must be
put away till wanted; and here they must be protected from injury,
either in the shape of scratches, damp, or dust. Harness and
saddle brackets are made either of wood or iron ; the former being
the cheaper, but the surface they present being necessarily larger,
they do not allow the stufiing to dry so well as iron brackets, which
are made to turn up and form a hook below, on which bridles may
15 *

174 THE HORSE.

be hung. This is a capital plan where space is i,canty, but other-
wise it is not to be recommended. Where a long cupboard can be
separated oflf by hanging doors, either of glass or panel, the har-
ness and saddlery can be kept in very nice order ; and even a cur-
tain of cloth or canvas will serve a similar purpose, when drawn
across in front of them. In addition to the brackets, bridle hooks,
either single or double, must be attached to the walls, to hang the
bridles, stirrup leathers, &c., to. Masters who are particular about
their stable arrangements have many other fittings, such as wheels
for whip-lashes to hang over, &c. &c.; but those which T have
enumerated are the essentials for a harness-room intended for use
rather than show. A double hook suspended from the ceiling,
where it can be used to hang dirty harness on while washing it, is
extremely useful; but any groom who understands his business
will suggest something of the kind, according to circumstances.

COACH HOUSE.

In the coach house mere standing room is all that is neces-
sary to provide if the harness-room stove is made to answer the
double purpose of airing both, which should always be managed.
Open carriages may be kept in tolerably good order without any
stove, but the lining of close carriages soon becomes mouldy unless
heat m some form or other be applied.

SEEVANTS' ROOMS.

Little need be here said of the servants' rooms, but I cei
tainly agree with Mr. Miles in his objection to placing them, ovei
the horses. Quiet is essential to the sleep of these animals, and if
grooms are to be walking over head at all hours their sleep must
necessarily be disturbed. It is always well to have a groom's room
within hearing of his horses, so that if any of them get cast, or are
taken ill, he may be able at once to go to their assistance, but this
can readily be done without placing any lodging rooms over the
stalls or boxes.

GROUND PLANS OF STABLES.

In deciding on the best ground plan for stabling a great deal
must always depend upon the kind and number of horses to be
placed in it. In the following plans I shall consider the two ex-
tremes aflPorded by those for racehorses or hunters on the one hand,
and on the other by the hack or harness stable for two or three
horses where space is a great object. As a general rule racehorses
and hunters require a loose box each, because they are often
greatly distressed, and must then have entire rest and quiet to
enable them to recover themselves. They are also a great many
hours together in the stable, and being called upon for great exer-
tions when out they ought to have plenty of air when indoors.

GROUND PLAN OF STABLE.

175

The best proportions for their boxes are sixteen to eighteen feet
long by twelve feet wide and nine or ten high, but these are per-
haps a little above the average. Nevertheless I have given these
m the annexed plan of a

FEET.
RACING OR HUNTING STABLE.

It is divided into four separate stables thirty-six feet long and eigh-
teen wide, in which three or even four loose boxes may be separated
by partitions nine feet high with open iron tops, as shown at page
172, or one or more may be divided by travises into six stalls each,
six feet wide. I have already alluded to the fittings for each, and
therefore I need say nothing more here beyond alluding to the
plan itself.*

* The plan on the ensuing page, of a stable belonging to Mr. Samuel R.
Phillips, of Philadelphia, was selected after a careful examination, as
being unusually well arranged for four or five horses. It has now accom-
modations for fire horses, but it could be made very convenient for four
by taking out the partition between the fourth and fifth stalls, thus making
three stalls and a loose box. — Editor.

176

THE HORSE.

33 '/2f.}

PLAN OF 8TABIJE FOR FOUR OE FIVE H0E8E8.

A Stalls.

B Hay-Rack.

C Carnage House.

L Doors.

E Closet for harness, with glass doors.

F Stairs to the Hay Loft, &c.

G Manger.

H Stench Trap.

W Windows.

NECESSITY FOR AIRING NEW STABLES.

To PUT HORSES INTO NEW STABLES without airing them is to
give them cold or rheumatism. Indeed those which have been
merely uninhabited for some months are not fit for horses that are
accustomed to be kept warm and dry, without taking the following
precautions. If the walls are very new some open stoves should
be kept burning for at least a week, not with the windows and doors
shut, as is often done, but with a good current of air blowing
through the whole building. In the absence of regular stoves
loose bricks may be built up so as to allow a good draught of air
through the coals or wood burnt in them, and thus to give out as
much heat as is wanted. For stables that have merely been closed
for a month or two a fire kindled on the floor and kept burning for
a few hours will suffice, but when the horses are first brought in,
their beds should previously be made up ready for them, and then
the doors, windows and other ventilators should all be shut till the
stable becomes thoroughly warmed by the natural heat of their
bodies, which it soon is. When this is accomplished, if the wea-

FEEDING. 177

ther is warm, the ventilators should be opened as usual, and the
windows also if necessary ; but it is better to err on the safe side,
and not to do this till the groom is perfectly satisfied that his
charge are *-ll comfortably warm.

CHAPTER XI.

STABLE MANAGEMENT.

Vheory of '■ Practice of Feeding and Watering — Dressing or Groom-
ing— C''pping, Singeing, and Trimming — Use and Application
of Ihndages — Management of the Feet — Daily Exercise — Fro-
per Temperature — Remedies for Stable Vices and Bad Habits —
Preparation for Work — Ordinary Sweating — The Turkish
Bath — Physic — Final Preparation — Treatment after Work —
Summering — Care of Saddlery and Harness.

In the following pages, my attention will be specially di-
rected to the management of private stables ; and therefore the
race-horse, the omnibus and cab horse, and the poster, will not pass
under review. Those who are engaged in their superintendence
make it their business to ascertain what is best to be done; and,
whether they do or not, each of them fancies that he knows better
than any one else how to elFect his object.

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING AND DRINK

In adapting the quantity and quality of horse-keep to the wants
of each horse, regard must be paid first of all to the small size
of this animal's stomach, which affects all alike ; secondly, to
the work for which he is designed; and thirdly, to the peculiar
constitution of each individual. From the first of these causes the
horse must never be allowed to fast for any long period if it can
possibly be avoided, it being found from experience that at the end
of four hours his stomach is empty, and the whole frame becomus
exhausted, while the appetite is frequently so impaired if he is
kept fasting for a longer period that when food is presented to hiui
it will not be taken. Previously to the introduction of railroads
harness-horses were often required to do long distances in the day,
and it was found that if the whole journey must be performed
without stopping to bait, it exhausted the horse less to increase
the pace up to nine or ten miles an hour than to dawdle over the
ground on an empty stomach. If two horses are driven or ridden
fifty or sixty miles under similar conditions as to the weight they
have to draw or carry, and th,- one is taken at the rate of six miles

M

178 THE HORSE.

au hour, -whicli will keep him fasting from eight and a half to ten
hours according to the distance, while the other is travelled fast
enough to do it in six or seven hours, the latter will be less ex-
hausted than the former, though even he would be ah the better
for a feed in the middle of the journey, the time devoted to this
act being easily picked up by the increased energy which would
be given by the corn. No horseman of experience is ignorant of
these facts, and after a long day the hunting man who knows what
he is about will always be seen on the look out for a feed of corn
or a pint of oatmeal for his hunter, before he attends to his own
wants. The human stomach will bear hunger far better than that
of the horse, and if the rider feels his appetite pretty keen, he may
be satisfied that the animal which carries him is still more in want
of food. The kind ofivork which the horse is intended for affects
not only the quantity of food required, but also itvS quality. Thus
very fast work, as in racing and hunting, strains the muscular
system as well as the heart and lungs to the utmost, and therefore
the food which is best fitted for the development of the former to
the highest degree consists of those kinds which present the ele-
ments contained in the muscular tissue in the largest propoi'tions
consistent with the due performance of the digestive powers. These
are found in oats and beans, but nature herself teaches every ani-
mal instinctively to keep within such limits as are safe, and hence
it is found that though every horse will greedily devour a peck or
a peck and a half of corn daily, yet he will not go beyond this
quantity even though it is not sufficient for his wants, and in spite
of his being deprived of every other kind of food. The demands
of his muscular system are supplied by the corn, but there are
certain saline matters in hay which are not found in the former,
and being necessary for the performance of several important func-
tions the stomach receives its warning through the appetite and
no more corn is received into it. On the other hand, the hard-
worked horse fed on hay alone craves for corn, and will greedily
devour almost any quantity put in his manger until he upsets his
digestive powers, when the appetite for it ceases. It is found by
experience that a certain proportion of hay and corn is best adapted
lo each horse according to the work he has to do, and his own par-
ticular constitution, so that in laying down rules for feeding it i8
necessary first of all to ascertain what demands will be likely to bp
made upon the system. Few owners of carriage-horses would like
to see them driven to the door with their muscles showing ihc
lines between them as they ought to do in a race-horse when fit to
run. Such a state of high training as will put the latter in con-
dition would be impracticable for the former without wearing his
legs out, and not only destroying his rounded and level appearance
but taking away the air of high spirit and life which tsnds so

FEEDING. 1V9

much to gratify the eye. Hence the feeding suited to give the
one nothing but muscle is not fitted for the other, who must have
more hay and less oats, as well as less work. So also in deciding
upon the proportion, if any, of oats and beans, regard must be had
to the amount of work which is demanded, for there can be no
doubt that while admitting the good eflfects of beans in large quan-
tities upon the severely tried cab or omnibus horse, they are inju-
rious to the carriage-horse, whose blood soon becomes heated under
their constant use. Lastly, the peculiar constitution of each horse
must be studied before it can be known whether the average quan-
tity and quality of food which will suit the -majority of horses
doing the same kind of work, will be enough or too much for him.
Some washy animals pass their food through them so quickly that
they do not absorb from it one-half of the nutritive elements con-
tained in it. These must be fed largely if they are kept at work,
and those articles of food must be selected for them which have a
tendency rather to confine the bowels than to relax them. Inde-
pendently of this extreme case it never can with certainty be pro-
nounced beforehand what amount of food will keep an untried
horse in condition, but in a large stable an average can easily be
struck, and it is this quantity alone which can be estimated here.
The blood of a horse fed on highly nitrogenized food does not diiFer
on analysis from that of another which has been kept on the oppo-
site kind of diet. Physiological research, however, tells us that
muscle is chiefly composed of fibrine, and that every time a bundle
of its fibres contracts a certain expenditure of this material is made,
calling for a corresponding supply from the blood, which cannot
be afforded unless the food contains it. Hence the badly fed horse
if worked soon loses his flesh, and not only becomes free from fat,
but also presents a contracted condition of all his muscles. And
thus science is confirmed by every-day experience, and the fact is
generally admitted that to increase the muscular powers of a horse
lie must have a sufficient supply of nitrogenized food. As I have
remarked above, the nutrition of muscle requires fibrine — but in
addition the brain and nerves must be supplied with fatty matter,
phosphorus, and albumen. The bones demand gelatine and earthy
salts, and the maintenance of heat cannot be efi"ected without car-
bon in some shape or other. But it is chiefly with nitrogenized
food that we have to deal in considering the present question,
there being plenty of the other substances I have mentioned in all
ths varieties of food which are not largely composed of fibrine. It
may therefore be taken for granted that the hardly worked horse
requires oats or beans, or both mixed together in varying propor-
tions, together with such an amount of hay as will supply him with
the starch, gum, sugar, fat, and saline matters which his system
requires, while on the oti er hand the idle animal does not use hi?

180 THE HORSE.

muscular system to any extent, and therefore does not require mucli
or any oats or beans.

Salt is the only kind of seasoning which has stood the test of
experience in this country, and even it is by no means generally
employed. Some grooms give an ounce of common salt in the
water daily, others give it by sprinkling it on the hay, while a
third set leave a lump of rock salt constantly in the manger for
the horse to lick. The last is the only really safe and useful mode
of using this article, and I am persuaded that all horses will thrive
better if they are allowed a lump of rock salt constantly within
their reach. The quantity which is thus taken is by no means
large, for rock salt does not easily dissolve by the mere contact of
the moist tongue. A lump weighing two or three pounds is placed
in the manger, and it will generally be found that a pound will
last nearly a month, but there is a great variation in the quantity
consumed by different horses.

The water which is given to the horse will materially affect
his condition if it is not suitable to him in quality or quantity, or
if he is allowed to take it when heated by work. Thirst is most
distressing to this animal, and if he has not his water regularly
when his stomach demands it, he will not only refuse his solid
food, but he will drink inordinately when he has the opportunity,
causing colic or founder to supervene. For this reasoi. it has
lately been the fashion to provide iron tanks on a level with the
manger, which are intended to be kept constantly full, and indeed
some are arranged with cisterns and ball-cocks for that purpose.
But those who contend for this constant supply have overlooked
the fact that every horse when he first comes into the stable is
unfit to be allowed to " take his fill" of water, and yet he will be
sure to do so if the water tank is open to him. Undoubtedly for
horses which are never heated by work the tank is perfectly safe,
because as they never become thirsty, since they prevent the full
development of the appetite by driflking small quantities as it
arises, so they are never induced to do themselves an injury by
imbibing large quantities of water at any time. On the other
hand, working horses are kept out of the stable without water for
five or six hours on the average , and when they come in they are
not only very thirsty, but they are generally in a state in which a
full draught of fluid will seriously injure them. For this reason
I think the tank unsuited to the ordinary private stable, though
of course it is easy to prevent mischief by taking care either to
have a cover over it, which is kept down till the horse is cool, or
to let off the water for a similar j^eriod. The question is one in-
volving a choice of evils incidental to carelessness, and it is doubt-
ful whether in the long run the horse is more likely to be injured
by being allowed to i\\ himself with water at the time I havp

WATER. 181

alluded to, or by being deprived of his proper allowance of it al
regular intervals. Nothing is more easy for the master to detect,
when he visits his stable (as he should do at uncer*^^'ain hours),
than a state of thirst. Few horses are allowed as much corn aa
they will eat, and the rattling of the sieve or bin will make every
occupant of a stall place himself in an attitude of expectation.
But if the lifting of a bucket produces the same eager look, and
especially at any hour but the usual time of watering, it may at
once be concluded that the horse is not regularly and sufficiently
supplied with fluid, and it will generally be found that his condi-
tion suffers accordingly. It is astonishing how little water will
suffice if it is given at I'egular intervals, and it is the neglect of
this periodical supply which produces the craving that leads to
dangerous repletion. If it is decided to adopt the tank, provision
should also be made for emptying it readily, without calling upon
the groom to bale it out with a teacup, which I have actually seen
done in one particular stable, the owner of which prided himself
on the perfection of his arrangements. If the water only came
into contact with the iron, no great harm would ensue, because
thp oxyde formed by the union of the oxygen in the water with
the metal itself, in the shape of common rust, is by no means pre-
judicial to health. But no iron manger containing water will long
remain free from decomposing vegetable matter, unless it is regu-
larly scrubbed out daily, because the horse, as he holds his head
over it during his feeding, drops particles of hay, corn, &c., into
the water, and this being raised in temperature to that of the sta-
ble, soon dissolves the starch and other ingredients which are
prone to decomposition. The consequence is that the sides of the
tank become foul, being covered with a thick slime, which not
only renders the water nauseous to the horse, but also makes it
prejudicial to his health. For this reason a waste-pipe and stop-
cock are absolutely essential, for by their aid alone can the groom
be expected to do his duty.

The quantity of water which will be imbibed by horses
varies even more than that of their solid food, yet ignorant grooms
are too apt to give all alike. The most strenuous advocate for the
continuous supply would doubtless make an exception at those
limes when horses are just about to be severely galloped, as in
hunting or racing; and on the other hand, almost all grooms who
know their business allow their charge to fill themselves at night,
and also give them a liberal allowance when they have done their
work and are dressed and cooled down after it. I have found in
my own stable, in measuring the actual quantity of water drunk
by the horses, that even among those which are doing the same
amount of work and eating similar food both in quantity and
quality, the water will vary from two buckets a day to nearly five
lt>

1S2 THE HORSE.

If salt is given, it will produce considerable thirst at first, 6ut
after a time this efi'ect ceases, and I have not found it in the long
run make much diiference. Green food will also make less altera-
tion in the desire for water than might be expected, which may
be accounted for by the fact that it increases the secretions of
urine and perspiration, and also acts gently on the bowels; so
that, hough more fluid is taken into the system with the green
food, yet a proportionably large quantity passes oiF. It is, how-
ever, necessary to be cautious in the allowance of water to horses
which have just begun to eat grass, for if given in the usual quan-
tity on a stomach full of green food, it will very probaLjy bring
on an attack of colic. As a rule, no horse should go to any
moderately fast work with more than half a bucket of water in
him, and that should have been swallowed at least an hour. This
subject, however, will be better considered under the next head.

The quality of water best suited to the horse is one mode-
rately soft, but it should not be rain water collected in tanks,
which soon becomes full of decomposing vegetable matter. I have
known the health of a whole stable full of horses seriously injured
by using rain water, as was proved by the fact that its filtration
through charcoal, gravel, and sand soon restored the animals to a
fair state of health, without any alteration in their solid food or
work. On the other hand, very hard water disagrees almost to
an equal extent, often producing the state of the skin known as
' hide-bound," and sometimes affecting the bowels in the form of
serious diarrhoea. But in course of time most sound horses be-
come accustomed to hard water, and then a change to that which
is soft must be carefully avoided whenever work is to be demanded
of them. Thus in sending hunters or harness-horses used in fast
work from home, when they have been accustomed to either kind
of water, it often happens that their health is upset, and this is
quite as likely to occur when the change is from hard to soft, as
from soft to hard water. Trainers of valuable race-horses are so
aware of this fact, that irrespective of the risk of poisoning, which
they thereby avoid, they take water with them, knowing the inju-
rious effects lijiely to be produced by a sudden change.

The proper temperature of the avater given in the stable
i5 a matter of serious importance, and the effect of a bucketful of
cold water to a horse just come in from his work is very serious.
Even in a state of rest cold water will often produce cramp or colic,
BO that careful grooms never give it by any chance without warm-
ing it, either by the addition of a little hot water, called " chilling"
it, or by letting it stand for some hours in the stable or saddle-
room. If the former method is adopted, it should not be made to
feel actually warm, for in that state it nauseates a delicate feeder,

DRESSING, OR GROOMING. 18:^

but it should merely have the chill taken off, so that in dipping
the hand into it, no sensation of cold is produced.

DRESSING, OR GROOMING.

]Jr THE TERM DRESSING is generally understood the purifica-
tion of the skin, which the horse requires. He is never in the
highest health unless the pores are kept free from the scurf which
forms on them whenever he sweats, and the object of the strapping
which he receives at the hands of his groom is to get rid of thia
mechanical obstruction, as well as to brace the nerves of the sur-
face by the friction of the brush or whisp. This dressing must be
renewed daily, even if the horse has not been sweated, and each
time that he comes in from work it is necessary to repeat it. The
former operation is or should be conducted in the same manner
every day, but the latter will vary according to the state of the
animal when he comes in, that is to say, depending upon whether
he has been sweated and is cool again, or if he is still wet, or has
been in the rain with or without exercise enough to warm him, or
lastly, if he has been ridden or driven through dirty roads or over
a deep country. Each of these conditions will therefore require a
separate consideration.

The usual morning's dressing is commenced either as soon
as the horse has done his early feed, or on coming in from exer-
cise, if such is allowed or enjoyed. The utility of grooming after
work cannot be denied, for it would be absurd to contend that a
horse coming in wet and dirty should be left in that state till the
next day; but it is perhaps necessary to explain to the idle groom
that it is not a mere polishing of the surface of the coat which is
wanted, but a deep steady pressure of the brush into the roots of
the hair, so as to remove all the scurf which collects around them
and clogs the pores, through which the sweat ought to be allowed
to exude freely. Practically it is found that an hour's good strap-
ping daily, not only gives a polish to the coat, but it causes the
secretion of a fine oil, which has a tendency to throw off water,
and thus may save the horse exposed to the rain from catching
cold. Moreover, it certainly stimulates the nerves so as to enable
them to bear exposure to the weather, which would otherwise tell
injuriously on an animal which is covered up with thick clothing
in-doors, and stripped of everything, even of the long coat which
nature gives him, when he is submitted to the " pelting of the piti-
less storm." When the horse is turned out to grass, he is washed
by every shower of rain, and though his coat continues to look
dirty on the surface, yet the skin itself is braced by the winds and
cleansed by the waters of heaven. Not so, however, in-doors
Here his clothing keeps his coat short, and keeps up a continual
Btate of insensible perspiration, the watery particles of which pass

184 THE HORSE.

off through :he woollen rug or serge, lea-; mg the salts and animal
matters behind, as is apparent on examining the internal surface
of any clothing which has been worn for any length of time with-
out washing, when it will be found to be lined with scurf, and
matted with oily animal matters. There are many drugs which
will give a gloss to the skin, but they will diminish instead of
increasing its capability to bear exposure, and hence their use is
altogether forbidden by those who know their injurious effects.
The horse which is little used requires dressing to take the place
of exercise, and if he has plenty of good strapping, his coat will
look like satin; but the hunter and the hack or harness-horse,
exposed to all weathers, must be carefully groomed and receive
plenty of elbow grease, or his coat will look hollow and stand out
like "the quills of the fretful porcupine," whenever he is allowed
to stand for a few minutes in a cool wind.

The first thing which the groom does in commencing his
mornings task is to turn the horse round in his stall, and fold the
quarter piece back upon itself, so as to expose the whole of the
fore quarters. Then, taking his brush in the hand nearest the
head, whichever side he begins with, he works away at the head
and face till he has thoroughly cleansed those partvS, carefully
clearing out the dust and dirt from the roots of the ears, where it
is very apt to lodge, and continually cleaning his brush with the
curry-comb held in the other hand. !Next proceeding to the neck,
he works at that part in the same way, turning the mane over to
the other side, and then going to the shoulders, bosom, and legs,
and finishing off with a whisp of hay slightly damp, instead of the
brush. Having thoroughly worked at this half of the body, the
horse is turned round in his stall, and the hind quarters and flank
treated in the same way. the clothing being removed entirely while
this is going on. In the spring and autumn, when the coat is
being shed, the brush should never be used, and the whisp alone
should be depended on. Nothing spoils the look of the nevT coat so
surely as the brush, except perhaps the currycomb ; but this latter
should not, under any circumstances, touch the skin of a horse
when it is in proper order, and it is scarcely necessary to forbid its
use when the coat is being shed, at which time it would be posi-
tively cruel, as well as injurious to the appearance. The brush
and whisp having effectually cleansed the skin, and given the hair
itsslf a certain amount of polish, the finishing stroke is put to the
dr<^ssing by means of the linen rubber, with tho addition, in well-
managed stables, of the leather. Either or both of the.se in sue
cession are steadily passed over the surface in the direction of the
hair of each part, and then- the quarter piece or ng, as the case
may be, is replaced, taking care to throw it lightly in front of its
proper place, and then to draw it steadily backwards, so as not to

3 -^
I' O

DRESSING, OR GROOMING 185

disturl tte propei position of a hair. The ro^ w is smoothly put
on, being first laid on the back double, and then the offside is turned
over into its place, when the straps being laid hold of under the
belly, it is properly tightened and the quarter piece smoothed
beneath it. This completes the dressing of the body, but there
are several minor points still to be attended to. A clean sponge
is squeezed out, and with it the nostrils, eyes, and anus are sponged
clean, and, if necessary, the mane is damped so as to enable the
groom to comb and brush it smoothly down on its right side. The
tail also is carefully combed out, beginning at the lower end, if it
is a full one, and not touching the top until the bottom is smoothly
arranged. Lastly, the legs and feet are attended to, the stopping,
or whatever may be in the latter, being picked out, the legs washed
if stained, and then carefully rubbed dry. Many grooms, when
they have white legs to keep clean, begin the dressing by washing
them, and then putting on flannel t»andages, they leave them on
till they have done the body, when they are taken off and the legs
rubbed with the leather and linen rubber, till they are quite dry,
finishing with plenty of hand rvibbing if they are at all inclined
to fill. All this being done, the litter is put straight, and the horse
is ready to have his second feed. A good deal of muscular exer-
tion, and laid out in the right way, is necessary for the due per-
formance of the groom's daily task. There is no royal road to
make a horse's coat, when in work, really look well, and not less
than an hour's hard strapping will suffice for this daily. White and
light gray horses will take up even more time than this, as with
all the care that can be exercised the thighs and legs will occa-
sionally become stained by lying in the dung dropped during the
night. Soap and water laid on warm, and well rubbed, will get
rid of a great deal of the brown color left, and if it is not suffered
to increase by successive layers, it may be removed with compara-
tive ease. The slight tinge which remains may be got rid of by
the aid of washerwoman's blue, a bag of which is to be dipped into
clean water and the skin washed with this after the soap has been
got rid of. A little experience is required to ascertain the exac t
amount of blue, but one or two experiments will soon teach an in-
telligent groom.

Whenever a horse is wanted to go out, he must again be
whisped over before his saddle or his harness is put on. The groom
strips the whole of the clothes off, turns him round in the stall,
and carefully clears all the dust away from the ears and head with
the rubber ; then, proceeding regularly backwards, the whole body
is smoothed over, and the saddle and bridle or harness put on.
Lastly, the feet are picked, and an oil-brush is rubbed over the
outside of the hoofs, to give them a neat appearance, when tha
16*

186 THE HORSR

pillar reins are bui^kled to the bit on each side, and the horse is
left till he is wanted.

Dressing after work depends upo.a the state in which the
horse is returned to the stable, when he may be cool and clean, ot
in a profuse sweat still going on, or with his sweat dried in, or
completely smothered with dirt, or wet from rain, but chilled rather
than too hot j or lastly, when exhausted from a severe run or other
hard work.

When the horse returns cool and glean, the groom throws
his rug lightly over his quarters, and, taking a bucket and a brush
he proceeds to pick and wash out the feet, standing on the near
side, with his back to the horse's head, so that he can use his left
hand to hold the feet, and his right for the brush. If the legs
are quite clean, there is no necessity for washing them at all; but
most grooms do so as a matter of course, and if they are properly
dried afterwards, there is no objection to the plan. Hunters, and
valuable horses of all kinds, are immediately protected by flannel
bandages ; but in ordinary stables the legs are merely partially
dried with a rubber, and are left in that state till the horse is
dressed over. If the work has been continued for more than four
or five hours without feeding, it will be well to put on flannel band-
ages, and let the horse have a feed of corn ; but, otherwise, it is
better to finish the dressing first. The cloth being removed, a
whisp of hay is taken in the hand, and first the head and neck, and
then the body, is dressed over ; finishing oft" with the rubber, as
previously described. The clothing is then put on, the legs thor-
oughly dried, the litter put straight, and the task is finished.

When brought in still sweating profusely, if the weather
is warm, the horse must be led about in the shade, ivith the sad-
dle on, till he is nearly or quite dry; for if he is put into the stable
before he is cool, he will break out again as badly as ever, and if
the saddle is removed the back will become sore. A hemp halter
is cooler and more handy than a head-collar, and it is usually em-
ployed out of doors for all purposes connected with cleaning. In
the winter, this exposure to the air out of doors is not necessary ;
and, indeed, it would often be dangerous, the stable being gener-
ally cool enough to stop all tendency to sweat, even with a light
rug on. At this season, therefore, after the legs are washed and
the bandages put on, which they should be whenever the horse is
in a sweat, the dressing may be conducted in the usual way, in tie
expectation, which will seldom be disappointed, that at the end cf
half an hour's strapping, the skin will have become quite cool, and
will look all the better for the profuse cleansing which it has re-
ceived by means of the watery fluid given off by it. A scraper
will be necessary, which may be either of wood or iron ; and with
this all the superfluous moisture is at once scraped from the sur-

DRESSING, OR GRC DMING. 187

face, which greatly facilitates the process of di/ing. Two men
ought then to set to work, each taking a side, and working first at
the head, and then gradually backwards. In this way, no part is
allowed to chill, and the moisture is removed as rapidly as possi-
ble. In the use of the whisp, the rubbing need not always be
hard ; and it should be chiefly against the direction of the hair
till it is nearly dry, when the proper direction is again taken.
There is a good deal of art in drying a sweating horse, and nothing
but experience and practical teaching will give it. As a gen-
eral rule, it takes two men nearly three-quarters of an hour to
thoroughly dress a horse coming in profusely sweating, supposing
the weather to be only moderately warm. In very hot weather,
such au attempt would be quite fruitless, and the only resource is
to wait patiently till the effects of exercise are abated suflBciently
to allow of the ordinary clothing being worn. Experience soon
tells the groom how soon he can venture to begin, and no rule can
possibly be laid down which will supply the place of this valuable
power. Even when the horse is taken in, he must not at first be
clothed, but he must be dressed without anything on him; and in
summer he must often be left for some time afterwards in a naked
state. When there is a good open yard shaded from the sun, the
dressing should be done out of doors; and when this can be
managed, it may be commenced much sooner than in the stable,
unless this is a very cool one. Slight muscular action, either by
walking, or in some other shape, is necessary to prevent conges-
tion of blood in the internal organs; but it matters not whether it
is effected by simply leading the horse about, or by stirring him up,
as is always the case in dressing even the dullest animal. In other
respects, there is no difference from the plan last described.

When the sweat is completely dried in, the hair is full
of powdery matter, which must be thoroughly brushed out, before
the skin will look well or the horse be properly dressed. To do
this, nothing more is required than the use of the brush previously
to the whisping over ; but a good deal of time must be spent in
getting rid of all the foreign matters left behind on the evapora-
tion of the watery particles of the sweat. There is an amount of
grease in it which makes the powder stick to the hair, and no-
thing but hard .abor will get it away. For this reason, many grooms
adopt the plan of washing their horses all over with soap and
water, when they come home in this state ; and although I prefer
dry rubbing, I would rather have water used than let the skin re-
main full of dry sweat. A common water brush is generally used,
or, if the coat is thin, a sponge will be fir better. No time must
be lost in the operation ; and unless two men can be spared, the
rug must he thrown on as soon as the water is scraped off with the
scraper, an i the skin is just partially dried. In this state he maj

188 THE HORSE.

be left for a few minutes ; attention, in the meantime, being paid
to the thorough drying of the head and neck, ^\'hich cannot well
be clothed advantageously. These parts soon dry; for in washing
them there is no occasion to wet the mane, which may be *.urned
over to the other side while each is being cleaned, and the ordinary
coat of the head and neck holds very little water. After they
are made comfortable, the cloth is turned partly back over the
loins,* and the shoulders, ribs, and bosom are dried with the whisp
and rubber ; after which the whole is stripped off, and the hind
quarters thoroughly dried.

A HORSE SMOTHERED IN DIRT is by careless grooms too often
left to dry with it all on ; and then it is brushed out, or, if idle-
ness reigns triumphant, a besom is taken in hand for the purpose.
Where the particles of mud are few and far between, and are
already dry or nearly so, there is no objection to their being re-
moved by friction alone ; but if they are wet and (as they gener-
ally are) in large masses, water must be used to get rid of them j
and the whole of the legs, belly, flank, and tail will often require a
good slushing with a brush and water before the dirt is removed —
the tail being placed in the bucket itself, if it is a long one, and
thoroughly cleansed in that way. A scraper is then employed to
get rid of the water, the legs are superficially rubbed and then
bandaged, the clothing is thrown on, and the dressing may be com
menced as usual.

In case the skin is wet prom rain, whether the work has
been fast or not, it is seld im necessary to provide against a continu-
ance of the moisture, foi the chill of the rain will generally pre-
vent any tendency to break out in a sweat. The horse is, therefore,
at once taken into the stable, and, if very wet, he is scraped ; after
which he is rubbed over, and his clothing put on while his legs are
being attended to, by washing, bandaging, &c. The dressing is
then conducted as in the case of the horse coming in sweating in
cool weather.

An exhausted horse demands all the resources of the groom's
art, without which he will suffer in more ways than one. An
extreme case seldom occurs, except in hunters, who require the
greatest care to bring them round after a severe run. On coming
into the stable, if their powers have been taxed to ihe utmost, and
their ears are cold and drooping, the first thing to be done is to get
these warm by friction ; an assistant, in the meantime, preparing
eome gruel, while another puts some warm flannel bandages on the
legs. It is wonderful what a restorative is found in the friction o^
the ears, after a few minutes of which, a moderately tired horse
will look quite a different animal, evidently enjoying the process,
and dropping his head to the hands of the groom with the most
perfect air of enjoyment. Where, however, there is only on«=

CLIPPING vs. LONG COATS. 189

^oom for the whole task, the bandages should be put on first —
that is to say, as soon as the clothing is thrown on ; then tlic gruel
should be given, and as soon as this is swallowed the ears should
be warmed by friction. No attempt at dressing should be made
till the gruel is taken and the ears are warm j and if they cannot
be restored to their proper temperature, a warm cordial of ale and
spices should at once be given. Usually, however, there is no
occasion for this ; and, after getting the stomach attended to, the
skin of the body begins to recover its natural temperature, and the
extremities become warm again. In the course of an hour, the
dressing may generally be effected; but no time should be lost in
it, and the skin must not on any account be chilled. After it is
done, a feed of oats and a few split beans may be given, if the
appetite seems inclined to return; but sometimes, when the ex-
haustion is excessive, no solid food can be taken with safety till the
next day; and gruel, with cordials, must be resorted to as the only
kind of support which the stomach will bear.

CLIPPING, SINGEING, AND TRIMMING.

The coat of the horse is changed twice a year, the long
hair of winter coming off in April and May, or sometimes earlier,
when cne stables are warm, and there is no exposure to severe cold.
A slight sweat hastens this shedding, as every horseman knows by
experience, and even in harness the hairs are cast in the face of
the driver to his great annoyance on a windy day. Clipped horses
are longer than others in shedding their coats, and present a most
disagreeable mottled appearance, which makes the state still more
noticeable. The long hair on the legs is about a month later in
coming off, and indeed it will not fall till midsummer, unless some
more violent means than are used in ordinary dressing are adopted.
With some breeds and individuals the winter coat is not very much
longer and coarser than that of the summer ; but all, save blind
horses, show more or less difference in favor of the summer coat.
Curiously enough, horses which are totally deprived of sight, have
almost invariably a good winter's coat, often better than that which
they show at other seasons ; but why this is so no one has ever
been able to explain, though I have never known the fact disputed.
About the middle of October, or early in November, the summer
coat is thrown off; but some of the hair appears to remain as a
sort of undercoat, among which the long, coarse hairs of winter
make their appearance. These continue growing for six weeks or
two months if they are clipped or singed, and even after Christ-
mas, if the weather is cold and the skin is much exposed, there
will be an evident increase in length of some of the hair. In
accordance with the growth of this on the body is that of the hair
on the legs, which become feathered all the way down below the

190 THE HORSE.

knees iu the forelegs, and half way down the backs of ths eanna
bones in the hind legs. Low-bred horses have more hair on these
parts than thorough-breds ; but even these latter, if they are not
^tabled tolerably warmly, exhibit a great deal of hair on their legs.
Those who can see no possibility of improving on nature come to
the conclusion that this long hair is a defence against the cold,
which ought not to be removed, and they argue that clipping and
singeing are on that account to be rejected altogether. But these
gentlemen forget that the horse in his native plains has always a
short coat, and that the winds and rains, which cause him here to
throw out an extra protection, are not natural to him. Moreover,
if the animal is left to follow his own impulses, even when turned
out in this country, he will be all the better for his long coat, for
while it has the great advantage of protecting him from the cold,
it is not wetted by sweat, because he does not voluntarily gallop
long and fast enough to produce that secretion. The natural pro-
tection is therefore undoubtedly good for the horse when left in a
state of nature ; but when man steps in and requires the use of
the horse for such work as will sweat him severely, he discovers
that a long coat produces such great exhaustion, both during work
and after it, that it entirely forbids the employment of the horse
for hunting, or any fast work. I have myself many times found it
impossible to extend a horse for any distance on account of his long
coat, which distressed him so much as to make him blow directly,
whereas on removing it with the clipping scissors he could gallop
as lightly as a race-horse, and be able to go as fast and as far
again as before. When this happens in the course of the week
following the previous failure, the only change made being in the
coat, there can be no mistake made, and a constant repetition of
the same result leaves no room for dispute as to the beneficial effects
of removing the hair. But, say the opponents of the plan, " All
this may be true, yet it is unsafe to expose the clipped horse after
he has been warmed, or indeed at any time." Experience tells a
very different tale, and informs us that so far from making the
horse more liable to cold, clipping and singeing render him far less
so. Suppose one of ourselves to be exposed to a cold wind, should
we rather have on a thin dry coat or a thick wet one ? Assuredly
the former, and undoubtedly the wearer of it would be less liable
to cold than he who has the wet one on. So with the horse. As
long as his winter coat can be kept dry he is protected by it, and
the slow worker, who is not made to pull such heavy weight as to
sweat him, will be all the better for its protection, but the moment
the pace is suflSciently accelerated to warm the skin the sweat pours
forth, and is kept up in-doors by the matted mass of moist hair
with which the horse i«< covered. In former days I have had horses
>vet for weeks together, from the impossibility of getting them drv

CLIPPING vs. LONG COATS. 191

in the intervals of their work. They would break out afresh when
apparently cool, and by no possible means could they be thorouirhly
dried. This, of course, wasted their flesh to a frightful extent, but
on clipping them it was soon put on again, showing the great
advantage of the plan. A chronic cough almost always accom-
panies this state of constant sweat, and it will be lucky for the
owner of a horse so treated if it does not become acute and put an
end to the miserable existence of the poor ill-treated brute. The
case is not always fairly put, as, for instance, by Stewart, in bis
Stable Economy, at page 120, where he says, " A long coat takes
up a deal of moisture, and is difficult to dry ; but whether wet or
dry it affords some defence to the skin, which is laid bare to every
breath of air when deprived of its natural covering. Every one
must know from himself whether wet clothing and a wet skin, or
no clothing and a wet skin, is the most disagreeable and danger-
ous. It is true that clipping saves the groom a great deal of labor.
Ee can dry the horse in half the time, and with less than half of
the exertion which a long coat requires ; but it makes his atten-
tion and activity more necessary, for the horse is almost sure to
catch cold, if not dried immediately. When well clothed with
hair he is in less danger, and not so much dependent on the care
of his groom." Now, I maintain that this passage is full of falla-
cies and misstatements. The comparison is not between wet cloth-
ing and a wet skin, and no clothing and a wet skin ; but, as I have
before observed, between a wet long coat and a dry shoi't one. The
clipping removes the tendency to sweat, or if this secretion is
poured out it ceases directly the exercise which produced it is
stopped. But taking Mr. Stewart on his own terms, who has not
experienced the relief which is afforded by taking off wet gloves
and exposing the naked hands to the same amount of wind and
cold ? This is exactly the case as he puts it, and tells directly
against his argument ; but it is scarcely worth while to discuss the
subject at any length, for I know no horseman of experience in
the present day who does not advocate the use of the scissors or
the lamp, whenever the winter coat is much longer than that of
summer. That horses are occasionally to be met with which show
little or no change in the autumn I know full well; but these are
the exceptions to the rule, being few and far between. The vast
majority would have their hair from one to two inches long if left
in its natural state, and they would then be wholly unfit for the
uses to which they were put. We may therefore consider that it
is admitted to be the best plan to shorten the coat in the autumn,
and all I have to do is to discuss the best modes of effecting the
purpose, with a view to decide whether clipping or singeing is to
be preferred.

Clipping is seldom performed by any but the professed artist.

192 THE HORSE.

inasmuch as it requires great practice to make the shortened coat
look even and smooth. When a horse is well clipped his skin should
look as level and almost as glossy as if he had on his ordinary
summer coat ; but inferior performers are apt to leave ridges in
various directions, marking each cut of the scifesors. It should not
be done till the new hair has attained nearly its full length, for it
cannot be repeated at short intervals like singeing. If it is
aixempted too soon the new coat grows unequally, and the skin in
a fortnight's time looks rough and ragged. A comb and two or
three pairs of variously curved scissors are all that are required,
with the exception of a singeing lamp, which must be used at
last to remove any loose hairs which may have escaped the blades
of the scissors. Two men generally work together, so as to get the
operation over in from sixteen to twenty hours, which time it will
take to clip an averaged-sized horse properly. These men were
formerly in great demand at the clipping season, and it was extra-
ordinary how little rest sufficed for them, but now the use of the
gas singeing-lamp has nearly superseded that of the scissors, and
clippers are not so much sought after. While the process is going
on, the horse ought to be clothed as far as possible, careful men
removing only as much of the quarter piece as is sufficient to
expose the part they are working at and no more. As soon as the
whole body is gone over as well as the legs, the singeing-lamp is
lightly passed over the surface, which will leave the hair burned to
such an extent as to require either washing or a sweat, which lat-
ter is generally adopted, in the belief that it has a tendency to
prevent cold. My own opinion is that this is a fallacy, and that
soap and water used quickly and rapidly, followed up by a good
strapping and the use of plenty of warm clothing, is far less likely
to chill the horse than the exhaustion consequent upon a sweat.
I have tried the plan repeatedly, and known it tried by others still
more frequently, but I have never heard of any ill effects resulting.
Very often a sweat is exceedingly inconvenient, either from the
difficulty in getting ground, as happens in towns, or from the in-
firm state of the legs. But soap and water can always be obtained,
and if carefully used there is not the slightest danger attending
them. Of course, after the removal of a long coat the skin requires
an extra protection in-doors in the shape of a double allowance of
clothing, and it will be necessary to avoid standing still out of doors,
though, as I before remarked, on the whole the risk of taking
cold by horses worked hard enough to sweat them is less if they
are clipped than if they have their long coats on.

Singeing requires less practice than clipping, but it cannot be
done without some little experience of its difficulties, and a novico
generally burns the skin as well as the hair. To keep a horse's
coat in good order it must be singed several times in the course of

SINGEING— SHAVING -TRIMMING. 193

the autumn, beginning as soon as the new growth has attained a
length of half an inch beyond what is usual. The singeing-lamp
is then passed lightly over the whole body, and soap and water
being used, as I have described under the head of clipping, or a
sweat given if that plan is preferred, the coat is left for a fortnight
or three weeks till it has grown another half-inch, when the pro-
cess is repeated, and again a third, and even a fourth time if
necessary. On account of these repeated applications of the lamp,
the professed singer is not so often employed as the clipper, espe-
cially as the former's work is not so difficult to perform as that of
the latter.

The lamp now in common use is attached to a wide copper comb
made like a rake in principle, and so arranged that the teeth raise
the hair and draw the ends into the flame. Where gas is procur-
able the comb is attached to the gas-pipe by a flexible tube, and
the lamp consists merely in a number of holes perforated along the
edge of the comb, so that a series of jets of gas are lighted, and
burn so strongly, that the coat is completely removed as near the
skin as the teeth of the comb raise it. If gas cannot be obtained.
a wide wick of cotton is inserted in a flat holder, and the ends pro-
truding to the level of the teeth, while a reservoir filled with naphtha
supplies them with that inflammable fluid, a constant flame is main-
tained, but not nearly equal in strength to that from gas. As the
coat is not allowed to grow so long before it is singed, so the cloth-
ing need not be much increased after its removal, and, indeed, in
well regulated stables there is little or no change required. Singe--
ing is performed in less than one quarter the time of clipping, and
a shilling's worth of naphtha is enough for one horse, unless his
coat is unusually long.

Shaving was introduced some years ago to a limited extent, but
it requires so long a confinement of the horse after it is performed,
that it was soon abandoned. The hair is lathered and cut off" with
the razor as closely as from the human chin, and unless this is
done exactly at the right time, the growth subsequently is too short
or too long. Instances have been known in which horses have
remained naked until the next spring, and were thereby rendered
perfectly useless, as they were chilled directly their clothing was
removed. The only advantage in shaving over clipping is to be
found in the reduced labor required ; a good razor, or rather set
of razors, soon going over the surface. But the invention of singe-
ing did away with this superiority, and the shaving of horses is
therefore one of the fashions of a day which have now disappeared.

Trimming. The jaws, nostrils, ears, legs, mane and tail, are all
more or less subjected to the care of the groom, who removes
superfluous hairs from each or all by various means, as follows : —

ThejiWs, nostrils, and ears are singed, the last named not being
17 N

194 THE irORSE.

tou.'hed inside, as the internal hairs are clearly a protection of tho
delicate lining membrane of the ear from the cold and wet. The
long bristles of the nostrils may either be cut oif, pulled out, or
singed oflF, but the first plan is the easiest and the most humane.
There are, also, some bristles about the eyes which are generally
removed, but it is very doubtful whether many an eye would not
be saved from a blow in the dark if they were left untouched.
Fashion, however, dictates their removal, and her orders must
generally be complied with. The hair which grows an inch or
more in length beneath the jaw. being of the same nature as the
rest of the coat, can only be singed off with advantage, and it
should be done as fast as it grows, especially if the singeing is not
universal, or there will be a different color presented in these parts.
Nothing gives a horse such a low-bred appearance as a goat-like
beard, and the trimming of this part alone will completely alter the
character of the animal where the hair has been at all long. The
legs are trimmed partly by singeing, and partly either by clipping
or pulling out the hairs. Great dexterity is required to manage
this performance in a workmanlike manner, so as to avoid the stale
and poster-like appearance which is presented by a leg clipped all
over (without a corresponding clipping of the body), and at the
.same time to remove all, or nearly all, the superfluous hair. In
the summer, a clipped leg is totally inadmissible, and even from
the legs of a badly-bred horse the hair may be pulled by gradually
working at it for a little time every day with the fingers, armed
with powdered resin. This prevents the hair slipping through
them, and by its aid such a firm hold may be obtained that, as I
said before, perseverance will enable the groom to clear the legs
entirely, with the exception, generally, of a strong lock of hair
behind the pastern. When this is very obstinate, it is allowable to
use the scissors to clear away the hair below the horny growth
which is found there, but there should always be left a slight
fringe round this, so as to avoid the sharp and stiff outline presented
by the clipped leg. In the winter, the arms and backs of the
knees, as well as the bosom and the insides of the quarters, will
generally want singeing, whether the body is submitted to the lamp
or not; but in the summer, even if any long hairs are left there,
they are easily removed by the hand armed with resin. Unless
general clipping or singeing is practised, the front surfaces of the
legs do not require trimming at any season of the year.

The mane is not now usually cut, but formerly it was a very
common practice to " hog" it, that is, to cut it to a sharp-pointed
ridge, sticking straight upwards from the crest, and giving that
part the appearance of extraordinary height. Sometimes, how-
ever, the mane is very thick, and then for the sake of appearances
it in necessary to thin it, which is done by twisting a small lock

TRIMMING. 195

at a time round the comb, and pulling it out; this gives some
little pain, but appar ntly not much, and evidently not more than
the trimming of the legs, and not so much as in pulling out the
feelers or bristles growing from the nostrils. A small lock of the
mane i» generally cut just behind the ears where the head of the
bridle rests, as it would otherwise lie beneath that part in an un-
tidy manner.

In trimming the tail various methods are adopted, when it is
cut square; for if the hairs are allowed to grow to the full length,
no interference is necessary beyond an occasional clipping of their
points to prevent them from breaking or splitting. A square tail,
however, whether long or short, demands the careful use of the
scissors or knife, without which the horse to which it belongs is
sadly disfigured. Two modes are practised, — in the first the tail
is carefully combed out, and then allowing it to fall in its natural
position, it is gathered up in the hand just above the part to be
cut ofi", and here a sharp knife is drawn across it backwards and
forwards without notching it, till it passes clean through. The
tail is then released, and any loose hairs projecting are removed
with the scissors. The second mode is not so easy, but when well
carried out is more satisfactory to the eye, inasmuch as it is capa-
ble of giving a sharper and more defined edge to the square tail.
As in the first method, the tail is carefully combed out; it is then
held by an assistant's hand, placed beneath the root of the dock,
as nearly as may be in the position which it assumes in the animal
Jut of doors. While thus poised the operator takes a pair of
sharp scissors, and holding the blades horizontally open, he in-
sinuates one of them through the middle of the tail at the place
to be cut, passing it straight backwards, and cutting the hair
quite level from the central line to the outside on his own left.
Then reversing the blades, and keeping to the same level, he cuts
towards the right, and if he has a good eye and can use his hands
in accordance with its dictates, he will have presented a very
prettily squared tail. On the other hand, if these organs are
defective, or if he wants experience, he will have notched the end
of the tail in a most unsightly manner. If the groom wishes to
try his hand in this operation, he should get hold of a long tail,
and begin far below the point where the squared end is intended
finally to be. This will afford him five or six experimental cuts,
and if he cannot satisfy himself, as he nears the proper length,
that he will be likely to succeed, he can still call in the aid of a
more skilful operator before it is too late. The hair of the tail
grows so slowly, that two or three months are required to remove
the disfigurement which is sometimes caused in this way, and con-
sequently it behooves the groom to be doubly careful, for his own
sake as well as his master's.

196 THE HORSE.

To make the m vie lie smoothli/ on its proper side, wliich it
sometimes obstinately refuses to do, it must be plaited in small
locks, and the ends loaded with lead, if it cannot be made to lie
down without. An experienced groom, however, will generally
succeed in so managing the plaits that they lie close to the neck,
which is all that can be effected by the aid of lead, but some-
times the hair is so obstinate that nothing else will effect the
object in view.

USE AND APPLICATION OF BANDAGES.

Bandages are applied to the legs of the horse for three differ-
ent purposes. First, to give support to the blood-vessels and
synovial capsules; secondly, as a vehicle for applying cold lotions;
and thirdly, for drying and warming them.

For the mere 'purpose of support either linen or flannel bandages
may be put on, according to the weather, and the tendency to
inflammation. The legs of seasoned old horses are seldom so prone
to become hot as those of young ones, and excepting in very
warm weather, flannel bandages seem to suit them better than
linen. On the contrary, if flannel is applied to the legs of a colt,
even if they are not inclined to inflame, they will become hot and
uncomfortable, and he will learn to tear them off, in which some
horses become perfect adepts. Whichever kind of bandage is put
on, it should be previously tightly rolled with the strings inwards,
then taking it in the right hand, and unwrapping about six inches,
they are laid against the canna bone on the side nearest to the
groom, so that the folds shall have a tendency to unroll /rom him
and not to him. While the left hand keeps the end from slip-
ping, the right passes the roll of bandage closely round the leg
till it meets the left, when the latter, still pressing the end against
the leg, lays hold of the roll, and allows the right to be brought
back to meet it on the other side. After which the coils are re-
peated till the whole bandage is run out and the leg encased, one
row being slightly above or below the level of the next, as may
be required. The great art consists in avoiding unequal pressure,
and yet giving sufficient to accomplish the purpose for which
bandaging is designed. From the projection backwards of the
pastern-joints it is impossible to make the folds lie perfectly
smooth, and there must be loose parts, which however are covered
over by the next turn. No written description, however, will
suflice to teach this little operation, and the young groom should
watch a good bandager, and imitate him as exactly as he can.
The strings at the end serve to tie the bandage on, and these also
must neither be so tight as to cut the leg, nor so loose as tj allow
the bandage to fall down.

When cold lotions are to be applied by means of bandages, linen

BANDAGES— MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 197

is the proper material, as flannel is too bad a conductor of heat, by
evaporation, for the purpose. The whole bandage, after being
rolled up rather tightly, should be dipped in cold water, or in
the lotion which may be recommended, and then while quite wet
it is to be applied in the way which I have just described. The
following lotion is useful for the purpose : —

Take of Tincture of Arnica a wine-glassful.
" Nitre J oz.
" Sal Ammoniac 1 oz.
" Water half a bucketful.
Mix and use by dipping the bandages in before applying them, and by
wetting them with this solution afterwards by means of a sponge.

If the groom is careful, he may remove inflammation of the legs
better by means of dipping them in cold water, or the above lotion
may be applied with a sponge every half-hour, holding each leg
over the bucket, than with the aid of bandages. A cold douche
by means of a forcing garden engine is also extremely beneficial to
the legs, but it must be used out of doors, as it will wet the litter
and the walls of the stall if the water is splashed over them within
doors.

For Drying and Warming the Legs when the horse is being
dressed, flannel is the only proper material for bandages. Its mode
of application is not of much consequence, provided the bandages
are put on rather loosely, for tight pressure has a tendency to
prevent the return of natural heat, which is so much desired.
After wetting the legs the bandages should be applied somewhat
more tightly, so as to absorb the moisture as much as possible.

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET.

In the stabled horse the feet require constant care, for
they are not only artificially shod, but they are allowed to stand
on a material which is a much worse conductor of heat than the
surfiice of the earth, by nature designed to bear them. Hence, if
neglected, they either become hard and brittle, or they are allowed
to be constantly wet, and then the soft covering of the frog is de-
composed, and emits a disagreeably smelling discharge, which soon
wastes it away, leaving no other protection to the sensible organ
beneath, and constituting what is called an ordinary thrush.
Again it is found by experience, that not only must the shoes be
renewed as they wear out. but even if no work is done, and conse-
quently they are not reduced in size, they no longer fit at the ex-
piration of about three weeks, and they must then be removed, to
allow of a portion of the sole and crust being cut away before they
are again put on. The groom must therefore attend to the follow-
ing points: — Firsf^ to prevent the feet from becoming too dry;
secondly^ to take measures against their becoming thrushy from
17*

198 • THE HOKSE.

wet; thirdly, to see that ;he shoes are removed at the end of every
three weeks, or more trequ(intly if necessary; and fourthly, to
examine carefully every day that they are securely nailed on with-
out any of the clenches having started up from the surface, so as
to endanger the other leg.

Dryness of the feet is prevented by the use of what is called
stopping, which is composed either of cow-dung alone, or cow-dung
and clay mixed, or of cow-dung and pitch. The first is by far the
most powerful application, but it moistens the sole too much if
employed every night, and then produces the opposite evil in the
shape of thrush. A mixture of equal parts of cow-dung and clay
may be used every night with advantage, and this I believe to be
the best of all stoppings. It should be kept in a strong box of
wood, about a foot long and eight inches wide, with a handle across
the top, and it should be applied the last thing at night to the soles
of the fore feet only, by means of a thin piece of wood, a foot long
and a couple of inches wide, with which the space within the shoe
is completely stufi'ed. If the feet are obstinately dry, in spite of
repeated stoppings with cow-dung alone, which will rarely be the
case, a table-spoonful of salt may be added to the' cow-dung, and
this will never fail. For most horses stopping with cow-dung alone
once a week is sufficient, but the groom can judge for himself, by
their appearance, of the number of stoppings required. If three
parts of cow-dung and one of clay are used, the feet may be stopped
twice a week, or, perhaps, every other night, and if equal parts of
each are adopted as the composition, almost any feet will bear being
stopped every other night, with the exception of flat or pumiced
soles, which should never be stopped at all. On the night before
shoeing, every horse, even if he has flat soles, will be the better for
having his feet stopped, the application softening the horn so as
to allow the smith to use his knife to slice it without breaking it
into crumbling fragments. Several patents have been taken out
for felt pads, to be soaked in water, and then inserted in the hollow
of the shoe, but they do not answer nearly so well as cow-dung
stopping, which has far more emollient qualities than mere water. I
believe nothing has yet been discovered which has qualities at all
equal to this old-fashioned natural remedy.

TuRUSHES are prevented by keeping the frogs free from ragged
layers of the elastic substance of which they are partly composed,
and at the sanie time by maintaining a dry state of the litter on
which the horse stands. I am not now considering the manage-
ment of the horse at grass, where thrushes are generally produced
when the weather is very wet, or when the pasture is of too marshy
a character, but the frogs of the stabled horse, which ought never
to be allowed to be so moist as to become decomposed. Some
ttlterated conditions of the frog which are still considered to come

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 199

under the gen jral denomination " thrush," are due to severe in-
ternal disease of the bones of the foot, and are not caused by mois-
ture at all. Still these are rare exceptions, and the ordinary thrush
of the stable may be considered as invariably caused in the latter
way. Cases are also occasionally to be met with, in which, from-
general grossness of the system, the sensible frog throws off part
of its horny covering, and secretes a foul matter instead. The
managemenii of these diseased conditions conies within the province
of the vetei nariau, and I shall therefore not enter upon its con-
sideration j but the prevention of the mere decomposition of the
external surface by moisture is a part of the duties of the groom,
and so is the application of the proper remedies for it, as soon as
the nature of the case is clearly made out. Here antiseptic astrin-
gents, which are quite out of place in inflammatory thrush, are the
only useful applications, and by their means alone can the decom-
position be stopped. Of these Sir W. Burnett's solution of chloride
of zinc is the best, but in mild cases, Coudy's fluid, which is the
permanganate of potass, will answer well, and is not so poisonous
in its nature if carelessly left about. Friar's Balsam, with as much
of the sulphate of zinc dissolved in it as it will take up, is the old-
fashioned grooms' remedy for thrush, and a very good one it is if
carefully insinuated into the cleft of the frog on a piece of tow
wetted with it. The grand principle, however, is to prevent thrush
rather than to cure it, but when horses are bought, or come home
from grass with it, the curative method must be carried out.

The removal of the shoes at regular intervals, whether they
are worn out or not, is a most important part of the duties of the
groom. On examining the shape of the foot it will be seen that
the diameter of the circle in contact with the shoe is greater than
that of the coronet, and hence as the shoe is forced away from it"
original position by the growth of the horn it confines the wall.'
to the extent of the difference between the diameter of the foot at
its old position and that of the part which it now occupies. For
if two lines from the surface of the coronet on each side were
continued through the outside surface of the crust to the new seat
of the shoe, they would be far from parallel, and yet the shoe nails
must have been carried on in perfect parallel lines on account of
the unyielding nature of iron. For this reason a shoe, when it
has not been removed at the end of a month, will be found to lie
within the heel of one side or the other, by which to some extent
contraction is prevented, but at the expense of the heel, into
which the corresponding part of the shoe has entered. This is a
frequent cause of corns, and hor.ses which have once been subject
to that disease should have their shoes removed once a fortnight.

One of the most annoying accidents to the horseman is
the lo3s of a shoe, whether it happens in the hunting field or on

200 THE HORSE.

the road. Some horses can scarcely be prevented by any care of
their grooms from pul'.ing off a shoe in hunting when they get
into deep ground, but on the road there is no such excuse, and the
frequent loss of a shoe by the hack or harness-horse is sufficient
"to condemn the groom of carelessness in this particular. Every
morning when the feet are picked out it is easy to look the shoea
over and feel if they are tight. The clenches also ought to be
examined, and if they are not raised at all it may safely bo predi-
cated that the day's journey will be completed without the shoe
being lost. A raised clench may severely cut a horse on the inside
of the other leg, and in those who are predisposed to "speedy
cut" it may cause severe injury, and perhaps occasion a fall of the
most dangerous character.

DAILY EXERCISE.

Without regular exercise no horse can long be kept in
health, and I believe that as far as this point is concerned even
those which are hard-worked would be the better for half an
hour's airing every morning as soon as they have been fed and
before they are dressed. But those masters who are particular
about the mouths of the animals they ride or drive, find that the
hands of their grooms are generally so heavy that they spoil the
delicate "feel" on which the comfort and pleasure of riding and
driving so much depends. Hence in such cases the poor horse is
condemned to confinement in his stable, not only on the day when
he is to be ridden or driven, but on those also when he is to be
idle. The health of the body is sacrificed to the maintenance of
that delicate condition of the mouth which is so highly prized by
good horsemen and accomplished whips, and I confess that I plead
guilty to having for a long series of years acted on this principle.
A fair share of health may be maintained without exercise if the
work is never interrupted for more than a single day, and at the
same time there being only one pair of hands to interfere with
the mouth, its delicacy is not impaired, that is to say if they are
not as bad as those of the groom. Sometimes a large and smooth
■snaffle is allowed as an exercise bridle, in the hope that it cannot
injure the mouth, but even this will do mischief if the weight of
ihe rider is thrown upon it, as is too often the case. Leaving out
of the question this objection to the adoption of exercise, there
can be no doubt that a daily walk out of doors for half an hour
or an hour, especially if it can be managed on turf, will be of the
greatest service to the horse's health.

PROPER TEMPERATURE OF THE STABLE.

There is scarcely any point upon which there is so much
difference of opinion, as in relation to the temperature of stables

PROPER TEMPERATURE OF STABLE. 201

Some contend for an amount of heat which would raise Fahren-
heit's thermometer to 65° or 70°, while others would never have
their stables, if they could help it, above 45°. So much depends
upon the kind of horse in them, and the work he has to do, that
is to say, whether he is much exposed to the cold or not, that no
rule can be laid down which is applicable to all stables, but I be-
lieve it may be asserted that none should be above 60°, or below
50°, if it can be avoided. There are days in the summer season,
when the air out of doors in the shade stands at 90° or 95°, -ind,
of course, in such weather, it is impossible, even with the doors
and windows wide open, to keep the stable at a lower degree, or
even within several points of those above stated. So also, with a
thermometer scarcely above zero, it will be difficult to keep the
air wholesome, and yet to prevent its temperature falling lower
than 45°, which, at such seasons, feels very warm to those who
come in from the external air. But, with these exceptions, I
think the rule which I have laid down is a good one. The warmer
the stable, the better the coat looks, till it is exposed to the
weather, and even if it is so, it will take no injury if the horse is
kept moving, but if not, it soon becomes chilled, and not only
does the general health suffer, but the appearance also. There is,
however, another, and very serious objection to hot stables, con-
sisting in their ill-effect upon the legs and feet, which inflame
much more readily in a Warm atmosphere than in a cool one. I
have often known horses stand severe rattling for months together,
while standing in a stable which was so cold as to make their coats
as rough as badgers, but when removed to warmer quarters, they
have at once gone " all to pieces," their legs or feet becoming in-
flamed from missing the refrigerating effect of cool air after theii
daily work. The body may easily be kept warm enough by extra
clothing, and, if necessary, a hood and breastplate may be worn
all day and all night, but not even wet bandages will cool the legs
if they are surrounded by hot air. On the whole, therefore, for
the private gentleman's stable, including those for hunters, hacks,
and carriage horses, I should advise a regular temperature to be
preserved as near 55° of Fahrenheit as possible. In coming in
from the external air this will appear very warm to the sensations,
but it is far below the high state of heat at which many of our
stables were kept, until within the last few years. I have often
known 70° to 75° of Fahrenheit insisted on as the lowest which
would suffice to get a hunter into condition, but practice proves
the reverse, and that with plenty of clothing he will do in a cool
stable of the temperature I have recommended, far better than in
one possessing a higher range. The celebrated " Nimrod" (Mi.
Apperley) was a great advocate for a hot stable, which he thought
onght never to be reduced much below 70° or 75°; but his

202 THE H0R<5E.

opinions, valuable as tliey undoubtedly are in the main, cannot be
looked upon as in all points to be relied on.

REMEDIES EOR STABLE VICES AND BAD HABITS.

Crib-biting is a diseased condition of tlie stomach, for which
there has never yet been a cure discovered, except on the princi-
ple of restraint. It may, therefore, be considered under the pre-
Bent head. In crib-biting the teeth are applied to some fixed
object — generally the manger, so as to afford a fulcrum for the
muscles of the neck to act from, and by preventing this, or by
contriving so that the contraction of the muscles of the neck shall
give pain, the vicious habit is got rid of for the time. The most
common method is to buckle a leather strap so tightly round the
neck, just behind the jaw, that when the horse attempts to crib,
he tightens the muscles of that part, and these being pressed
against the strap, occasion such pain that the act is not completely
carried out, and even if it is on the first occasion, the attempt is
not repeated. The strap is buckled sufficiently tight to do this,
without much impeding the act of swallowing, or the flow of
blood from the head, through the jugular veins to the body; but
in confirmed cribbers no ordinary pressure will suffice, an-d then
the head often becomes affected from the impediment which is
caused to the return of the blood from the brain to the heart. To
remedy this defect Mr. Cook, Saddler, of Long Acre, two or three
years ago, invented a neck strap, containing a number of prongs,
which pass through holes in a spring guard, and unless this is
strongly pressed, they do not touch the skin. It is applied by
thro<^t straps to an ordinary head collar, and in slight cases it is
found to answer most perfectly, but when the vice has become
confirmed, and the desire to indulge in it is very strong, the pain
occasioned by the prongs is endured, and no effect at all is pro-
duced. It is not therefore of much use, as the common strap
does no injury in those cases where Mr. Cook's is effectual, and
the latter will not avail when the plain strap is forbidden, on ac-
count of the extreme pressure required. I cannot, therefore, re-
commend any plan but such as will totally prevent the prehension
of the manger, and this is accomplished by one of two ways. In
the first of these, the manger itself is either concealed, or the
corn and hay are placed on the ground, in a space slightly sepa-
rated from the rest of the stall by a row of bricks, or other similar
bodies, which cannot be laid hold of. To the concealed manger
and rack there is the objection, that while the horse is feeding, he
can go on cribbing without interruption, and as this is the time
chiefly chosen for the act, success is only partly achieved. Plac-
ing the food on the ground is entirely successful in stopping the
habit, but it leads to some waste of provender, as the horse is apt

CRIBBING— KICKING. 203

to tread upon it, after which he will refuse to eat it. By far the
beit preventive, in my opinion, is the bar muzzle, consisting in an
iron frame work, covering the lips and nose, and suspended from
the head by a leather head collar, so that the lips can reach the

BAB MUZZLE FOR CRIB-BITERS.

corn or hay, but the teeth are too wide to pass through the bars
and seize the manger. This mechanical contrivance is entirely
harmless, and perfectly effectual, the sole objection to it being
the fact that it proclaims the wearer to every one who looks into
the stable as a cribber. This may be a valid reason for rejecting
its use for dealers' horses, but in a gentleman's stable, utility and
humanity ought to have precedence of such a feeble argument.
When the bar muzzle is adopted, it should always be kept on,
excepting, of course, when the bridle replaces it for work or exer-
cise, or while the head is being dressed.

Kicking the wall or stall post is sometimes a very annoy-
ing trick, and though not always done in a vicious manner, it is
objectionable, because the kicker is liable to lame himself, or one
of his neighbors. In mares it is often of a sexual nature, and in
them it is much more common than in geldings, — the extent to
which it is carried by them being generally greatest at the begin-
ning and end of their being " in use." At such times some marea
go almost mad, if they have an irritating neighbor, who keeps
smelling them, and I once had one who kicked herself to pieces in
a paroxy.3m of this kind, which nothing but tying up the fore-leg
could restrain. There are several remedies in common use, but
none can be relied on in all cases. Foremost among these is the

204 THE HORSE.

use of gorse, nailed to the stall-post, which will almost invariably
quiet a low-bred animal, especially if a gelding, but high-bred
mares will sometimes kick at it all the more, for the punishment
they receive. A padded leather strap, buckled round the canna
bone, with a common sinker attached to it, or, instead of this, a
few links of heavy chain, will generally keep the horse from kick-
ing:, because in making the attempt he gives his coronet and pastern
a heavy blow. If, however, this plan is unsuccessful, it is liable to
cause lameness, from the inflammation produced by the blows,
and, therefore, the eff"ect must be carefully watched. Few horses
kick out with both legs, and a pair of hobbles buckled round the
hind fetlocks will, in a vast majority of cases, put an end to thn
trick as long as they are worn, without any risk, or producing
any serious annoyance, save only what is inseparably connected
with the prohibition of the indulgence in the desire to kick. A
narrow strap buckled round the part just above the hock, so as to
confine the ham string, will have the desired efi"ect, by giving in-
tense pain when any attempt to strike out is made, but is a most
annoyiug infliction to the horse, and generally prevents his lying
down, from the necessity which there is for bending the hock, in
reaching the ground. I should, therefore, give the preference to
the bunch of gorse, or if that is not readily procurable, to the sinker
of wood or iron suspended to a strap round the leg.

In scratching the ear with the hind foot, the horse is very
apt to get his leg over the collar rein, if the sinker is not heavy
enough to keep the rein tightly strained between the head collar
and the ring in the manger. Impatient animals, also, which are
continually pawing at their litter, will sometimes get one of their
fore feet over it, but this is not so serious an accident. To pre-
vent the mischief occasioned in either case by the struggles to get
free, especially when the hind leg is thus caught, the rings for tho
collar reins are sometimes made to draw down with a spring-catch,
which releases them when pulled in that direction, but in no other.
When, however, the sinker is properly weighted, it is almost im-
possible for such an accident to occur ; and this simple invention
has now become obsolete.

Tearing the clothes off is by no means an unusual stable
habit, and it is one very diSicult to cure. There are two efiectual
preventives, however: one of which consists in the regular employ-
ment of a rough horsehair cloth, made like that for hops, outside
the rug, and which is so disagreeable to the teeth, that no horse
will attempt to tear it; the other is carried out by means of a pole
of ash, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with an iron
eye attached to each end. One of these is fastened, by means of
a short leathern strap and buckle, to the side of the roller-pad,

STAB:iE VICLS.

205

while the oiher has a strap or chain about a foot long, which
attaches it to the head collar. The pole should reach about fifteen
■.nches beyond the point of the shoulder, and it should be fixed on
the side which is genei-ally uppermost when the horse lies down,
so as not to be under him in that position. It is a very simple and
cheap apparatus, and any village blacksmith can make and apply
it. The following engraving will illustrate my meaning better than
the most detailed description without it.

REMEDY FOR TEARINO THE ClOTHES.

Weaving is a mark of an irritable nervous system, beyond
which it is harmless, but quite incurable. It consists in a perpetual
moving of the head from one side of the manger to the other, with
an action like that of a wild beast in his den. The constant friction
soon wears out the collar-reins when there are two, and on that
account a single rein may be adopted in this particular instance
with advi'ntage.

Eating the litter is a peculiar appetite, which chiefly occurs
either in those horses which are kept short of hay on account of
their tendency to fatten, or when the animal possessing it has beer
18

206 THE HORSE.

ptabled for a very long time together and requires a change;. In
the former case nothing but the muzzle will be of the slightest
service but in the latter a run at grass, or soiling indoors for a
month Dr two, will remedy the disorder of the stomach. Rock salt
in the manger will sometimes have the desired effect, producing a
degree of thirst which will make dry litter distasteful.

Kicking and biting savagely are marks of actual vice, and
scarcely come within the limits of the present section. Still the
groom must know how to guard against them in the best way, so
as to save himself from danger without unnecessarily punishing the
horse. There are some animals which cannot be effectually re-
strained without severity, but on the average, kindness and firm-
ness united will overcome any horse. Sometimes it is necessary
to put on the muzzle while the dressing is going on, but this is
chiefly because the skin is so irritable that the brush or whisp
excite sensations which lead to the use of the teeth or hind legs
to prevent their recurrence. In such cases as these Mr. llarey'a
method of subduing a savage horse is extremely valuable

PREPARATION FOR WORK.

I HAVE ALREADY OBSERVED that these pages are not in-
tended to serve as a guide for the trainer of the race-horse, and
that they chiefly apply to the management of the hunter, hack,
and carriage-horse belonging to the private gentleman. The de-
scription of the mode of preparation for work will therefore include
the mode of fitting the hunter for his duties, and of getting the
hack and carriage-horse into condition, from the state in which
they are usually first brought into the stable, either from grass or
the dealer's hands.

In the present day, the hunter is prepared almost as care-
fully as the race-horse or steeple-chaser, when he is intended for
any of the grass countries. Nothing short of a regular preparation
will enable a horse to go through a fast thing in Northamptonshire
or Leicestershire, and no man in his senses would ride a horse
there in the front rank, unless he was thoroughly fit. The stud-
groom, therefore, requires for his purpose a training-ground where
he can give his horses their sweats, without which it would be
impossibre to get them into condition. A very large space is not
necessary, but a very small one will not suffice, the constant turning
incidental to a limited gallop producing a great strain upon the
joints. If possible a gallop measuring at least a mile and a half
or two miles in circumference should be obtained, and with this
length, including a moderate rise in its extent so as to open the
horse's pipes well at the finish of the sweat, it is the groom's fault
if his charge is not brought out thoroughly fit when the hunting
season commences Of course, when makin": this assertion, I am

pkeparation for work. 207

calculating that lie has been allowed suflScient time, which will
depend greatly upon the state in which he finds his horses in
August. If they have been at grass, it is almost impossible to get
them ready by the middle of November, but a well summered
horse soiled in a loose-box with a proper allowance of corn, may
be thoroughly prepared by that tim'e if he is set to work by the
middle of August. This will allow of two clear preparations, with
an intervening week for cooling physic. Should the horse be up
from grass, another month or six weeks at least will be required,
which must be employed in giving him nothing but walking exer-
cise, with a dose of physic at the beginning, and repeated at the
end of three weeks or a month. Horses at grass in the summer
are seldom allowed any corn, and Ihe change from grass to the
more stimulating food of the stable must be made gradually, or
some of the important organs will assuredly fail. Hence the
necessity for extra time, and the addition which I have made to
•the calculated period for conditioning a hunter summered indoors,
is barely sufficient for this purpose, when he is. full of grass or of
the fattening food which is given to make him up for the dealers.
In either case great care and some experience are necessary in
altering the entire management of the animal, so as to give him
corn and exercise enough to prepare his frame gradually for the
strains which it will have to bear in the hunting field, without
producing inflammation. With all the objections which I hold to
physic, I must confess that here I think it to be indispensable ;
and invariably, as soon as a raw horse is settled in the stable, I
should get him thoroughly cleaned out before I began to give him
hay and corn. I have always found it advantageous just to allow
a couple of days to elapse before giving the physic, which will
serve to fill the large bowels with the new kind of food. A mash
should then be administered at night, and repeated if necessary till
it has had the desired efi"ect in softening the dung, when the physic
may be given. Two or three days will elapse before it has set
sufficiently to allow of walking exercise ; but as soon as this can be
ordered with safety, the horse should be walked out twice a day
for an hour and a half each time, or two hours in the morning and
one in the evening, whichever may be preferred. The division of
the cxerci=i«. into two periods is far better than keeping the green
horse out for so long a time as three hours, which will make him
weary ; whereas, the shorter period will not tire any horse, and a
mid-day rest will restore his whole frame, and enable him to go
out again in the evening as cheerfully as ever. I need scarcely
observe that the shoes should be attended to, and the feet put in
proper order, for three hours' walking exercise in ill-fitting shoes
will do great harm, especially to feet that are not accustomed to
their pressure. By persevering with steady slow work, and feeding

208 THE HORSE.

on a moderate allowance of hay and corn, the latter not exceeding
two feeds at first and three at the end of the month, the horse will
be ready by the middle of August to have a second dose of physic,
after which he may commence in earnest his _;?rs« real preparation
This also is chiefly confined to slow work, but if the horse is gross
he may have in the course of the four or five weeks to which it
extends one or two sweats of moderate length and speed. Great
caution must always be exercised by the groom at this time ; on no
account should any fast work be given, unless he is satisfied that
bis horse is in perfect health and in good spirits. Every increase
in the food and work should be carefully watched, and its effects
noted, so as to guide him in deciding whether he can venture to
take another step. It must be* remembered that hitherto the feeds
of corn have been only three quarterns of oats daily, and the exer-
cise has not extended beyond a walk ; but during the next few
weeks the former must be doubled, or nearly so, and the latter must
go on into a daily slow trot of two or three miles on turf, with an
occasional steady gallop in place of this, and. as I have before
remarked, one or two sweats if the system is overloaded with fat.
But unless the hunter is very fleshy, nothing more than slow trots
and canters will be required until after the next dose -of physic.
The increase in tlie quantity of corn will seldom tend to put on
fat, and as the amount of hay should be small, not exceeding lOlbs.
a day, unless the horse is gross in his nature, he will have put on
muscle, and lost some of the internal fat which is so prejudicial to
condition.

The object of the sweating process is to remove super-
fluous fatty matters, which act prejudicially in a twofold manner.
In the first place the fat itself is so much dead weight to carry,
and on the calculation that seven pounds are equal to a distance in
an average length of race, it may readily be understood that the
huge quantity of adipose tissue, which is carried by a fat horse,
will, by its weight alone, retard any attempt at high speed. But,
not only is fat to be objected to on this score ; for it is also known
by experience, that its pressure on the important internal organs,
when it is deposited around them, interferes with the proper per-
formance of their several functions. The muscles of the limbs,
when they are marbled with fat, as we see them in the slaughtered
ox and sheep, are unable to contract vigorously, but when a simi-
lar condition occurs in the muscular tissue of which the heart is
composed, violent exertions are interdicted, or, if they are attempted,
they are attended with dangerous and often fatal results. Again,
it is ascertained that sweating has a local, as well as a general
eflect, and that, by producing a copious discharge of fluid from the
ekin covering any particular part, there will be a removal of any
Buperfluous fat which may be lodged beneath it, before the rest of

SWEATING. 209

the body is peroeptibly acted on. Hence, when t].e groom thinks
that his horse is loaded with fat about the heart, he pats on extra
" sweaters" over that part, or on the contrary, if his object is to
unload the ridge of dense adipose membrane, which constitutes a
high crest, he puts on two or three extra hoods, and sweats chiefly
in that region of the body. The local effect of these partial
sweats is, perhaps, a good deal overrated, but undoubtedly there is
some foundation for the general belief. The use of clothing for
sweating is not nearly so frequent as it used to be, even in racing
stables, and horses are not now drawn so fine, by a great deal, as
they were twenty or thirty years ago. At that time runners in
the Derby, or in any other great race, when they were saddled,
looked like living skeletons, and to an eye unaccustomed to the
hard lines presented by their limbs, the beauty of their forms was
entirely gone. Now a difi"erent system prevails; the object is not
to reduce the horse as much as he will bear, but to bring him out
as big as he can be^ consistently with good wind. The celebrated
trainer, John Scott, has shown what can be done in this way, and
his example is now generally followed. So also with hunters,
although they are often required to do more, perhaps, than any
other variety of the horse, and in the grass countries are made as
St as if they were going to run in a steeplechase, yet they are
brought to covert looking big and full of muscle, without any
pretensions to be considered as drawn fine. Still the sweat, either
in clothes or without them, must be occasionally carried out, or the
internal organs will continue loaded with fat, as is natural to them
when they have been for some time in a state of rest, coupled with
high feeding. The use and amount of sweaters must be propor-
tioned to the constitutional peculiarities of the individual ; in one
horse a slow gallop will produce a perfect lather on the skin, while
in another treated in all respects in the same way, there shall be
hardly a hair turned. So also the efi'ect of apparently the same
degree of sweating on different horses is very variable, producing
a great relief in one case, and scarcely any in another. The groom
mast not attempt to carry out anv fixed rule, but must watch the
effect of each days work, and increase or diminish the amount
next day according to circumstances.

As I BEFORE REMARKED, a sweat may be with clothes or with-
out, the object in each case being not so much to do a certain
amount of work, but to get rid of a fixed quantity of superfluous
fat and humors. On the other hand, a gallop has quite the oppo-
site end in view, being intended to brace the muscles, heart, blood-
vessels and lungs, by stimulating them to act in an extraordinary
degree, but without any view to reduce the weight of the body or
any part of it. In a sweat, therefore, the pace is slow and long
continued ; no exertion is made to render it smart, or to develop
18* o

210 THE HORSE.

actwn in any shape, the t* . ole attention of the groom being devoted
to the single object which is connected with the removal of fat.
It is usual, therefore, to send the horse along at a slow, steady,
hand-gallop for four miles, or in very gniss animals for five or six,
the last half mile only being done at anything like a fast pace, and
even then the horse should not be extended to the utmost, on
acc(uut of the great extra weight he has to carry, if he has two or
three sweating blankets on. It is quite necessary to bear in mind
this special object of the sweat, inasmuch as it has lately become
the fashion to sweat without either clothing or exercise, by means
of the Turkish bath. The opponents of this practice contend that
it can never supersede the old plan, because, though it will get rid
of superfluities, it will not develop muscle ; but they forget that it
is not used for the latter purpose, but is solely confined to the one
object, which by the employment of sweating blankets out of doors
is accompanied with considerable risk. The Turkish bath is, in
fact, a means to one end only, and must not h^ employed for any
other. No horse could have his muscles and heart, his wind and
limbs, made more wiry and enduring than before by any number of
baths; but he may be put into a condition which shall fit him for
being so, without the risk to the legs and feet which a number of
sweats in heavy clothing will always cause. No wonder, therefore,
that trainers eagerly resort to the use of the bath, especially as
every year their horses seem to be getting more and more liable to
break down. It is quite true that the old fashioned sweat com-
bines muscular exercise with the process of unloading the system,
but in so doing, the time of the groom is the only thing saved, and
no one would take that into the calculation, as being worthy of
consideration. In the new mode, when he is too gross, the horse
is sweated on one day, and on the next he may be galloped, if
necessary, the bath producing so little fatigue, that he may have
any amount of exercise directly after it, to which he is accustomed.
Newmarket trainers are not very easily induced to adopt a novelty.
but many of them have made up their minds as to the advantages
of the bath, and several of those who are to be regarded as the
highest authorities, have erected one on their premises. In resort-
ing to the bath at first the attempt was made to save doubtful legs
only, but the good effect was soon found to extend beyond this, and
in almost all cases where there would be any necessity for sweats
and clothing, the Turkish bath is adopted instead, by those who
have the means at their disposal. I shall, therefore, describe each
of these plans in detail.

ORDINARY SWEATING.
When the old fashioned sweat is intended to bo given, and
it is not proposed to reduce any part in particular, it is usual to

SWEATING. 211

put on an old . ag next the skin, or, in Large stables, a sheet kept ex-
pressly for the purpose, and lieuce called a "sweater;" then an
old hood and breast-cloth, next a second quarter-piece is put on,
and even a third in some cases, and lastly, a complete set of clothing
over all, the saddle, as usual, completing the arrangement. If any
special part is to be reduced, as, for instance, the brisket or bosom,
an extra cloth is folded like a shawl, and the ends being crossed
over the withers, it is kept in its place under the breast-cloth, by
the pressure of the saddle ; or a rug may be folded and placed
round the chest, without extending to the loins, in case the heart
is supposed to be oppressed with fat. All these points of detail
will call upon the groom for an exercise of ingenuity and tact, and
if he possesses these qualities, he will have no difficulty in placing
his sweaters where they will be required. When they are all
securely fixed the horse is ridden out, and after walking for a short
time to empty himself, he is started off to go his sweat, which is
generally four miles, doing three quarters of the distance at a slow
pace, and then being set going a little faster, and at last brought
out to his top-speed, if in full training, or nearly so if in his second
preparation. By his top-speed, however, is not to be understood
the very outside pace which can be got out of the horse, but only
such a speed as is short of that by so much as will preserve his
stride io^ full vigor, and prevent that over-pacing which leads to
the rupture of muscular or tendinous structure. In his first prepa-
ration he should seldom be extended, and it is better to increase
the distance rather than to accelerate the speed beyond the steady
gallop ; but few horses refuse to sweat at a slow pace in this stage
of training.

As SOON as he has finished the distance, the trainer examines
his state, and either directs him to be walked or trotted on to the
rubbing place, which should be a box set apart for the purpose,
either on the training-ground or at the usual stables ; or if the
ground is at a distance from any available stable, the shelter of a
haystack or high hedge should be sought for. The full benefit of
the sweat is not obtained unless the fluid is scraped off before it
has had time to be re-absorbed, which is the result, if it is allowed to
remain on the skin after this has ceased to give out any fluid. Its
vessels in that case, instead of perspiring, adopt the opposite ex-
treme, and appropriate the sweat by their own power of absorption ;
thus doing away with the chief benefit which was expected and
desired from the sweat itself When the hand of the groom, ap-
plied to the shoulder of the horse under his breast-cloth, tells him
that the sweat is coming kindly, the horse may have a couple of
rugs heaped upon him, and be suffered to give out fluid for a very
few minutes only; but if it does not break out at once, three or four
must be put on him, and he must wait a quarter of an hour or

212 THE HORSE.

twenty minutes before he is fit to scrape. If he sw^eats freely, the
groom in charge of his head may rub his ears and wipe his eyes,
so as to refresh him slightly; but if there is any difficulty in bring-
ing on the sweat this will only retard the process, and he may be
allowed to stand quite quietly, and without any attempt to reiresh
him by the above little attentions, or by rubbing his legs, or wiping
his thighs or bosom. As soon as the groom is satisfied, the hood
is taken off, and the head and neck rapidly scraped, together with
the bosom, from which the breast-cloth is removed, and the rugs and
quarter-piece turned back so as to expose the whole neck and the
points of the shoulders. One or two strappers may be employ^'d
in scraping and afterwards drying this part, besides the one holding
the bridle; but if the horse is quiet enough, this may be removed,
and the head dressed all the more effectually. A very few minutes
suffice for drying this half of the horse, when the bridle should be
readjusted, and the quarter-piece and sweaters wholly turned off
over the croup; upon this the strappers again set to work with their
scrapers and rubbers, they soon get rid of every particle of sweat,
and have the coat perfectly dry and smooth. Much depends upon
the stage of training; in the early part, the sweat is profuse, thick,
and soapy, and takes more time to dry; while in the latter stages,
when the horse is getting fit, it is watery and scanty, the horse will
scarcely scrape, and dries without the slightest trouble. This is a
good sign of condition, and the necessity for a repetition of the
sweat may generally be gathered by the appearance of the fluid,
which, when thick and lathery, shows that there is much gross fat
in the system requiring removal ; but, nevertheless, it also shows
that great care must be taken in the process, lest mischief should
be done, by calling upon nature too rapidly while the animal is in
this fat state, and liable to inflammation of all kinds. After rub-
bing all the coat dry, and smoothing it down with the leather
rubber, the usual clothing should be put on, and the horse allowed
his exercise, which he may have as usual, care being taken that
he does not catch cold if the weather is severe. The reason why
the horse is taken out again is, that if he were left in the warm
stable he would break out into a second sweat, and if he Avere placed
in a cool one he would surely take cold. Walking exercise, there-
fore, with a short canter, is adopted as a means of avoiding both
of these injurious conditions; but he should not continue it longer
than to put him into a cool state, and restore his nerves and blood-
vessels to their usual condition. The length of ground and pace
for sweating vary with the age, condition, and purpose for which
the horse is trained, the maximum length being six miles, and the
minimum two to three, with a speed varying with every indivic^ual
case, and depending upon the age, breed, and action of the horse,
as well as his constitution and legs, and the state of preparation in

THE TURKISH BATH. 213

which he is. Sweats are given at periods varying from once a
week to once a fortnight after the first preparation, but seldom so
often during tliat time. When sweats are given without clothing,
they are in other respects just the same as described above, and
the strappers are required in a similar way to dry the horse at
once ; but the quantity of sweat is not nearly so great, and two
good hands will generally suffice for the purpose. In almost all
cases, even where clothing is not used, it is heaped on when the
borse is taken into the stable, in order to encourage the flow of
perspiration.

THE TURKISH BATH.

The Turkish bath when employed for hjrses, requiies two
boxes to be prepared, contiguous to each other, and, if economy is
an object, to the saddle-room also, in order that one fire shall serve
for all. The annexed plan has been carried out on this principle,
the fire-place A being placed in the saddle-room, and heating it, as
well as a boiler for hot water. It is sunk eighteen inches beneath
the floor of the saddle-room, so as to allow of the commencement
of the flue at B entering the bath-room, with its bottom two feet
from the floor of that apartment, and to pass beneath the final exit
of the flue, as it leaves to enter the chimney at F. The flue is
supported on arches, clear of the wall, from B to C rising two
inches in the foot, so that when it reaches the corner C, its bottom
is four feet from the ground. It is built exactly like the usual
flue of a hot-house, with dampers, and all the arrangements pecu-
liar to that apparatus. From C to D it may be either on arches,
or supported on slate built into the wall, as the heat is from this
point not sufficient to crack that material. At D the bottom is
about six feet high, and when it reaches the entrance B, it will
give plenty of head room for a horse to pass beneath. On this
side it is built in the wall, but still on arches so as to expose as
large a radiating surface as possible, and serves to heat the other
box H to the temperature required to prepare the horse for his
sweat. Finally, it passes along the upper part of the fourth wall,
in which also it is built in the same manner, and makes its exit
over the part where it entered, at F. Here the flues are so arranged
by dampers, that the current of warm air may either be directed
along the flue B C D E F, or it may be turned off" into the chim-
ney F, entirely or partially. Ventilators must be introduced freely
in the walls, so as to give plenty of fresh air when it is required,
or to shut it ofl^ completely, to raise the temperature to the proper
degree before the horse is admitted. One or two valves, in addi-
tion to the door I, all capable of being opened and closed at will,
must also be fixed in the wall, between the boxes Gr and H, and
by their means, added to the heat given off } y the flue in it, this
preparatory-box may be heated to 80° or 90° of Fahrenheit; so as

214

THE HORSE.

to bring on a gentle action of the skin, before the horse is intro-
duced to the actual sweating-box — G. The preparatory-box, H
may be fitted up liko a common loose box, and may be used as
Buch, whenever tb? bath is not required, but the latter should hav*

THE TURKISH BATH. 215

ao manger or any other projecting body of metal, for when the
heat is raised to 160°, the contact with the teeth and tongue is by
no means pleasant. Tan forms the best material for the floor, or, if
this cannot readily be obtained, sawdust will answer nearly as well,
if the wetted parts are changed after each bath. A brick floor
feels too warm to the feet, and when the bath is given very h( t, it
may injure them, if uncovered by some non-conductor of heat, so
that it is better to avoid all risk, by using tan or sawdust. With
tills apparatus in working order, and the fire lighted in the stove
A, the box H is heated to 80° or S0° of Fahrenheit, by robbing
G of its warm air through the open door I, and the valves in vhe
wall between the two to which I have already alluded. As soon
as this is jjrepared, the horse is brought into it with his clothing
on, and allowed to remain for a short time, which may be twenty
minutes, half an hour, or an hour, according to the state of his
skin, and the warmth of the box. As soon as he is settled in it,
the clothes may all be removed, and here he may remain, with a
whisp of hay in the rack, to amuse him, and chilled water in the
tank, till his skin shows evident symptoms of breaking out, and the
bath is prepared, that is, until the latter is raised to a temperature
of 140° at the least. To effect this the door I and the adjacent
valves may have been closed, if necessary; for a small box once
raised to 80° or 90°, will keep its temperature with the horse in it
for the time which is required. The groom must be careful not
on any account to take his charge into the bath till his skin is
beginning to sweat, for if he does, the blood may be driven too
forcibly to the brain, without the relief which is afforded by the
natural discharge from the skin, and dangerous mischief may be
produced. On being taken into the bath G, a bucket of chilled
water is placed within reach, and he is tied up with his head in
the corner nearest the entrance door, which must be left open, so
as to allow him plenty of fresh air. In about a quarter of an hour
the sweat begins to pour out in large volumes, and this should be
encouraged by friction with the hand, which may be guarded with
horsehair gloves. As it becomes very profuse, a scraper may be
applied occasionally, but two grooms, each with horsehair gloves
on, will be able to remove it by keeping up continuous, deep, and
steady pressure upon the skin, so as at once to squeeze out the
watery particles from the hair, and to remove any scurf and other
tenacious matters which accumulate there. According to the
amount of reduction which is required to be made in the fatty de-
posits, and to the action of the skin, will be the time required to
be devoted to this operation, but in general it is completed in half
an hour. Some horses, however, have been kept sweating for a
full hour, as I am informed, without apparent injury, and have
afterwards gone out to rrercise as full of life as ever. Indeed, it

216 THE HJRSE.

is said that the effect is usually to increase the spirits and liveli-
ness of all the- horses subnitted to it. During the operation of the
bath , the preparatory room should have had its doors and windows
thrown freely open, and it should be left in this state when the
horse returns to it, some grooms liking to have a strong draught
through it while the horse is being cooled. In this process there
is a considerable variation in the practicos adopted in those stables
where this novel kind of sweating is introduced. Some grooms
wash the horse all over with cold water ; others dash the water
over the whole body the moment he comes from the bath, while
a third set content themselves with the free admission of a current
of cold air to the skin. Time must determine which of these plans
is the best, but I am told on excellent authority, that they have
all been tried with advantage. The fact is that when the skin is
sweating freely under the stimulus of heat, and before its vessels
are beginning to flag in their action, cold in any shape may be ap-
plied, so long as it is not continued long enough to reduce the
pulse below its natural standard. Again, there are some grooms,
who, after they have applied cold water, return the horse to the
bath for a few minutes, the air in it being reduced to about 100°
of Fahrenheit, and on bringing him out, take him at once to hib
box or stall, when he is dressed as usual, till he is perfectly dry,
after which he is clothed and fed.

As MAY NATURALLY BE EXPECTED, "the Stable mind" is very
much agitated by this innovation on established usages. On the
one hand, it is argued by the thick-and-thin supporters of the bath,
that, with the aid of walking exercise alone, and without a single
gallop, a horse may be got into perfect condition, either for the
race-course or the hunting-field. I have been told by a gentleman
whose authority is fairly to be relied on, that he has ridden a
stableful of horses thus prepared, in the front ranks of the crack
countries, and that he never was so well carried in his life. None
of them were galloped, except by himself; and until the season
(1860-1) began, not one of them had been taken off a walk, as far
as he knew, and he said he had the greatest confidence in his
groom. On the other hand, the opponents of the bath hold that
it only removes fat and fluids of all kinds, and that fast work must
be given to the same extent as without it, the additional sweat
produced by the former exhausting the horse very materially, to
the prejudice of his condition. As far as my own opinion goes, I
am inclined to believe that the truth lies between these opposite
extremes; and that though a horse may be made light and airy bj
means of the bath and walking exercise alone, his muscles cannot
be braced and rendered bigger, as they are by actual fast work.
Incredible as i*. may appear, I have been told on very high author-
ity, that a horse sweated twice, or even three times in the week,

THE TURKISH BATH— PHYSIC. 217

will do as much work, and as fast too, as if he had not gone through
the process. If the bath has removed all fat and humor, ho will
uot sweat in his gallops ; and if any of either is left, it will do him
no harm to get rid pf it. Indeed, after all, the difference from the
old plan of sweating in the stable without exercise is not very great
in principle ; and that was always found to be of service when the
legs or feet were unsound. Under that plan, the horse was heavily
clothed, and being just gently trotted, was taken back to his box,
loaded with more clothes until he sweated freely, and was thus re-
lieved of his fat without being galloped.

PHYSIC.

In my previous remarks I have alluded to physic as neces-
sary for the purpose of getting rid of the food which the horse may
have been taking, before he comes into the stable, without injury,
but the effects of which are somewhat in opposition to the condi-
tion required for hard work. In addition to this object, however,
physic is given with several other purposes in view ; but these may
be said to bring it within the province of the veterinarian rather
than of the groom. Thus, in the horse recently brought up from
grass, it will often be necessary to expel worms ; and though the
experienced groom may be able to do this without risk, yet it is
scarcely safe to recommend the young h;).nd to attempt the task.
At all events, if he does, he must be guided by the directions given
in another part of this book ; and I shall merely direct my attention
to the eiFects of physic — firstly, in getting rid of injurious food;
secondly, in cooling the stomach and general system, and thus
enabling the latter to bear the increased stimulus afforded by extra
food; and thirdly, to get rid of internal fat and humors in conjunc-
tion with sweating.

To THE EFFECTS OP PHYSIC IN GETTING RID OF INJURIOUS

FOOD, I have already alluded; but I may here mention two or three
circumstances which will serve to modify the dose, or to forbid it
altogether. Curiously enough, when a horse comes in from grass,
his bowels being in the usual loose state which accompanies that
kind of feeding, he will generally require more aloes than when
fed upon dry food. The reason of this seeming paradox is simple
enough : his bowels have become accustomed to the stimulus pre-
sented by grass to their lining membrane, and are not easily roused
to action by aloes, which is only a vegetable, still more stimulating,
it is true, but simply in degree. A man accustomed to drink, will
not be so much affected by swallowing a pint of brandy, even if he
is already half drunk, as a perfectly sober man would be, if he had
not previously been inured by '.ong usage to its effects. The groom
must not, therefore, fancy th»t a physic-ball of three drachms, or
even sometimes four drachma will be sure to act on a horse of
19

ai8 THE HORSE.

average size and constitution, just up froi grass; for he will find
from four and a half to five and a half dracnrns more likely to serve
Lis purpose. Unless he knows the constitution of the animal, he
had better content himself with the former; but generally thia
quantity will not have much appreciable effect beyond a very gentle
clearing out of the bowels. No mash is necessary, because the
2;rass has already prepared the bowels quite sufficiently. Of course,
ff the horse is already too low in flesh, no physic should be given
at this time.

The cooling powers of physic are those which render it
particularly valuable in aiding the preparation of the horse for fast
work. If at any time the legs become hot, a dose will carry off
the plethoric condition which shows itself in this way, and the rest
which must be given after it will assist in relieving them. At
this time, a mash should always precede the physic ; and a second
on the following night will often be necessary before the dose can
safely be given. The same effect would be produced by perma-
nently taking away some of the corn ; but this would put an end
to the preparation altogether, and it is to avoid this alternative
that the physic is given. The old plan was in all cases to give a
course of three doses, at intervals of nine days, to every horse when
first taken into work; but if plenty of walking exercise is used, and
the corn is gradually increased, with an ounce of nitre in the mash
every Saturday night, this routine is quite unnecessary, and a
couple of doses at the intervals I have fixed will suffice. Very
gross, lusty horses will, perhaps, require one, or even two addi-
tional doses; and, on the contrary, light herring-gutted animals
wil: do without any. The art of the groom consists in fixing upon
the proper quantum, beyond or below which he ought not to go.

The third object of physic is that which is superseded by
the use of the Turkish bath, with much less injury to the system.
Both act by removing superfluous fluids from the body, through
the agency of the blood-vessels, absorbents, and secreting organs;
all of which must co-operate in either case. The fluids lie stored
up in the meshes of the cellular membrane, either in the shape of
oily or watery matters. To remove them, the blood in circulation
must flrst be called upon to part with some of its corresponding
materials, which it does either through the mucous membrane of
the bowels, when physic is given, or by means of the skin, when
sweating is adopted. This sudden drain from the blood is then
made up from the store which has been previously taken from it,
and laid by in case of such an emergency ; and thus, though the ex-
ternal means employed are very different, the real effect is the
same. Both drain the blood of large quantities of water, contain-
ing certain soluble matters; and this sudden call upon the vital
fluid compels its vessels to fall back upon the Btored-up materials

PHYSIC— FINAL PREPAR.xTION, 219

wliich are lodged around the heart and other internal organs, and
which it is the grand object of the training-groom to remove

But the effects of physic are not always so simple and inno-
cent as those to which I have alluded. A strong horse is some-
times over-purged by a very mild dose, and a weak one will occa-
sionally die from this cause. Hence, this agent should not be idly
used ; and not only is it actually dangerous to life in some few
cases, but it weakens the tone of the stomach in many more. Still,
in the majority of horses, a well-mixed physic-ball, carefully given,
and followed by proper management, will freshen the digestive
organs rather than weaken them, and may be regarded as a most
valuable addition to the resources of the groom.

FINAL PREPARATION.

To GET A HUNTER THOROUGHLY FIT, he must not only have
gone through the preparatory work which I have described, but
he must undergo a further winding up, according to the old-
established rule on the subject, and irrespective of the vexed ques-
tions connected with the Turkish bath, which may be considered
to be yet in abeyance. Having had a gentle dose of physic at the
end of his first preparation, he is proceeded with as follows: —
Every day he is walked out for three or four hours, either at one
or two periods of the day. If he is thorough-bred, he will bear
some brisk gallops and one or two sweats, with or without clothing,
every week ; but half-breeds do not stand much fast work, and are
better confined to walking and trotting exercise, with an occasional
spirt of half a mile. These low-bred animals cannot bear any liber-
ties to be taken with their systems ; and I am told that with them
the Turkish bath is far more eifectual than with the horse of pure
Eastern blood. I can easily imagine this, as I know how badly
the former class bear reduction, and yet how important it is to
clear their wind. The feeding should be confined to oats and hay,
with a bran-mash on Saturday night. About five quarterns of
oats will, on the average, suffice ; but no rule can be laid down,
nor can it be positively asserted that no beans should be given.
In some cases the appetite is so bad, that without them enough
corn will not be taken ; and this is especially true wi*h reference
to those old horses which have been accustomed to beans for many
years. When the feet and legs, as well as the wind, are all sound,
beans may be allowed without fear ; but when there is a screw
loose in any of these departments, they produce inflammation there,
and should be carefully avoided. Ten pounds of hay may also be
laid down as the average quantity of this article suited to the
hunter; but here, also, no absolute rule can be can-ied out. Some
horses would "drop in two," as the grooms say, if only allowed ten
pounds of hay daily; while others would look quite lusty with that
quantity A handful of chafl" with each feed of corn is all that

220 THE HORSE.

should be given of this article, as more than this is apt to fill the
horse out in the middle of the day. Towards the end of this pe-
riod, which may extend to five or six weeks, the horse gradually
gets into high condition, and at any time, on a day's notice, he
may be ready for the hunting-field. All that is required is to give
him no hay on that morning, but to feed him twice on his usual
allowance of corn, with a few go-downs of water only each time
The hunter does not require to be "set" overnight, like the race-
horse, and he may advantageously be given his usual weight of
hay at the bedding him up the night before; but if he has any
tendency to eat his litter, it is prudent at all times, but more espe-
cially then, to put a muzzle on him late at night, when he has
eaten his hay.

Hacks and Harness-horses demand nearly as much time
and care to prepare them for their work, especially in relation to
the amount of corn which is allowed them. They seldom want so
much as five quarterns daily; but whatever quantity they may re-
quire, it should not be given them until they are gradually accus-
tomed to its use. So also with regard to the hammering of their
feet and legs on the road, it will be found that these demand sea-
soning as much as their wind and muscles. If this is not attended
to, the best formed legs and feet will become inflamed, and a valua-
ble horse may be lamed, when, with proper care, he might be made
to do his work with ease. Our own bodies, when untrained to bear
the blows of the fist, show the marks of the glove clearly enough;
but in the course of time, when the skin has gradually become
inured to the stimulus, even the terrible right hand of Tom Sayers
would fail to leave its mark upon the ribs of a well-trained opponent.
This difi"erence in the result of the application of physical force
arises partly from the tendency to inflammation being subdued by
temperate living and abundant exercise, and partly from the nerves
and vessels of the skin becoming habituated to the blows which
they receive. So also with the hack and harness-horse ; when first
they are brought into the stable, their vessels are full of gross hu-
mors, and their feet and legs have long been accustomed only t6
the soft and elastic turf upon which they have been reared. They
are, therefore, prone to inflammation in everyway; and until theii
systems have been hardened by plenty of exercise, and their lega
and feet have been gradually inured to our hard roads, they should
be kept from every kind of fast work.

TREATMENT AFTER WORK.

After work, the horse requires to be treated according to its
nature and the extent to which it has been carried. Thus the
hunter may demand remedies for exhaustion, blows on the legs,
thorns in the legs, overreaches, cu*", &c. ; but the hack and car-

TREATMENT AFTER WORK. 221

riagii-horse Mill only need the ordinary grooming, whi h has been
described at page 183 ; that is to say, provided the feet are not in
pain from ill-fitting shoes.

Exhaustion is sometimes so great that before any food can be
taken a cordial must be given, in the shape either of a warm ball,
or a quart of warm spiced ale. Grenerally, however, some gruel
will suffice, when aided by a warm box and the other comforts
which are aiForded by the groom, including dressing, clothing,
bandaging, &c.

Bloavs on the legs are reduced by hot fomentations, continued
for half an hour at a time, and repeated at intervals of one, two,
or three hours, in proportion to the severity of the mischief Cold
applications are too apt to relieve the skin and cellular membrane
beneath it at the expense of the joints, and I have never seen them
of much Sv rvice. Nothing, I believe, is so valuable in all blows
received in the hunting-field as hot fomentation, but it should be
thoroughly carried out, and not done by halves, as it too often is
by careless grooms. It no doubt has a tendency to increase the
swelling for a time, but in doing this the blood is drawn to the
surface, and internal mischief is often prevented. I have had
young horses come home with their knees and shins terribly
bruised over timber and stone walls, but though the fomentation
with hot water has enlarged the knees to a frightful size, there
has been no lameness on the next day; and the swelling has gra-
dually disappeared, leaving the joints as free as ever at the expira-
tion of forty-eight hours. On the other hand, I have tried cold
wet bandages for similar injuries, but I have invariably found that
they gave present relief to a slight extent, but left the limbs stiif
and rheumatic often for the next two or three weeks. The addi-
tion of a little tincture of arnica to the water for fomentation is a
great improvement when it is at hand, and I should always advise
the hunting groom to keep a stock of it by him during the season.
A wineglassful is enough for half a bucket of hot water.

Thorns are most troublesome to the groom, and it is often a
question of great doubt whether to per^uvere in the endeavor to
remove them, or to leave them alone until they manifest themselves
by the inflammation they produce. When the hunter comes home,
his legs should be carefully examined while they are wet (that is
to say, if his exhausted condition does not forbid the loss of time) ;
and if the hand clearly detects any projection, search should at
once be made with a view to the removal of the foreign body
Usually, however, the thorn has buried itself, and it is only when
it has produced some considerable degree of inflanmiatiou that,
attention is drawn to the spot. When lameness is shown in any
of the limbs on coming home from huuting, the groom always is
inclined to suspect a thorn as the caijse of mischief, and I have
19*

222 THE HORSE.

known the penknife used in half-a-dozen different places to cut
down upon what was supposed to be a buried thorn, which wap
never discovered, for the plain reason that no such matter was
present in the leg.

Overreaches must be dried up as quickly as possible, and
should not be treated like common wounds, for the reason that the
horny substance of the foot, when it becomes softened and decom-
posed by the matter flowing from a wound near it, acts like a
poison upon the ulcerated surface. It is better, therefore, to apply
a little friar's balsam, or some other astringent, such as sugar of
lead, rather than to use wet bandages or bran poultices, which 1
have sometimes known to be applied.

Simple as well as contused cuts are far better treated in
the horse with hot fomentations than by any attempt to heal them
at once. Unless they are very extensive or deep, the only point
in which they are to be regarded is with reference to the blemish
which they may leave. Sometimes the edges gape so wide, that a
stitch or two must be inserted, but in such a case it is better to
intrust the operation to a competent veterinary surgeon.

SUMMERING.

Until Mr. Apperly first drew attention to this subject, forty
years ago, at which period those horses which were not required
to work through the summer, were invariably turned out to grass ;
hunters, as a regular rule, were stripped of their clothing in April,
and sent to grass on or about the first of May, that is, as soon as
the first young blades showed themselves, this kind of food being
supposed to be particularly advantageous to them, from its cooling
powers.

The sudden change from a warm stable to the cold nights often
met with in May frequently produced inflammati\>n of the lungs
or bowels, and this alone was sufficient to cause the ]ilan to be looked
on with great suspicion as soon as it was shown that it was by no
means absolutely necessary. But not only was this danger incurred ;
for even if the hunter remained in good health during the summer
yet when he came up in August he was so fat and unwieldy froir
eating the su<;culent grasses of that season, that he was quite unfit
to be ridden, and had to go through a series of severe sweats.
which he was ill able to bear. Considering the slow pace at whicli
liunting was carried on in the eighteenth century, a horse recenily
up from grass, if he had been allowed corn while out of doors, af
was generally done, was able to go through a run, though it mighl
be at the expense of the coat tails worn by his rider, which werf"
liberally lathered with soapy sweat. But in the present day, wheo
the hunter requires to be as fit as a race-horse, he must have tht
same amount of preparation ; and we all know what sort of chance

summer:.ng. 223

a hoive would have of -winning a race in November if he is eating
nothing but grass in i^ugust. Indeed, a fast run in Leicestershire
is even more trying to condition than an ordinary race, because,
though the pace is not quite so good, it is more true, and lasts four
or five times as long. Hence the old plan has been almost uni-
versally given up, and the hunter is summered in a loose box,
where he is generally "soiled" on vetches, lucerne, and clover
Moreover, it is found by practical experience, that far more good
may be done in renovating the legs in-doors than out at this season
of the year. In the winter, cold, starvation, and soft ground all
combine to restore the legs to a cool and healthy state; and a run
from October to May will do far more good than the same time
passed in a loose box. But during the summer the ground is hard,
the sun shines fully upon the legs, so as to inflame them if they
have any tendency that way, and the grasses are so succulent that
the body becomes heavy and the blood full of gross humors, both
of which last conditions tell with double force upon the legs and
feet. Again, the flies which are so tormenting to horses in June,
July, and August, cause them often to gallop about in the most
frantic manner, and thus not only is another obstacle presented to
their improvement, but it very often causes these parts to becomo
worse than in the season. But some will say that much of this
risk may be avoided by turning the hunter out into the marshes,
where the soil is always cool, soft, and moist. This is quite true;
nevertheless, the gain to the legs is at the expense of the general
system, which is so completely upset by moist grasses, that instead
of eight or nine weeks it will require as many months to eradicate
their ill effects. As far as the hunter is concerned, there can be
no question in my mind that a loose box is the proper place for
him during the summer ; and that he should be allowed a yard to
run into if it can possibly be so arranged admits of little doubt,
but if this is inconvenient, the Nimrodian plan of confining hin:
in the ordinary loose box is to be accepted in its entirety. The
hack or harness horse does not receive so much injury from a
summer's run as the hunter, but if he requires rest for his legs, it
is far better to turn him out in the winter season than during the
opposite division of the year. Nevertheless, as there are still some
advocates of the summer's run at grass, I shall give directions foi
it, as well as for the soiling in the stable, as advised by " Nimrod."
Soiling is conducted as follows : — At the conclusion of the hunt-
ing season the horse is gradually cooled down, either by removing
his clothing in the stable, and letting him first stand there naked
for two or three weeks, or by putting him with it on into a moder-
ately warm loose box, and after he has been there a day or two
taking it away by degrees. At the same time he is deprived of his
corn, and fed upon hay on'y ; but this change also must not be too

224 THE HORSE.

"sudden, demanding a month for its complete carrying out, which
will bring the time on to the beginning or middle of the month of
May. A large airy loose box should then be provided, the floor
being covered with six inches of tan or sand, and the door being
so arranged that in warm weather it may be left open, a chain being
drawn across from post to post. Here the horse is left for a few
days till he is thoroughly accustomed to his new berth, and his
coat is full of dust and scurf, when he may have a dose of physic,
and while under its effects his legs may be blistered, or dressed
with iodine ointment, or some of the many applications which are
used for the purpose of producing absorption of the morbid de-
posits which have been thrown out during the winter.

After the physic is set, green food of some kind may be
commenced, consisting of Italian rye grass, young vetches, or
lucerne, or, if these cannot be obtained, of ordinary meadow grass.
At first an equal quantity of hay must be allowed for old hunters,
or the change from dry food to green will produce too great an
eifect on the bowels. Young and hearty horses will, Viowever, be
none the worse for this ; and, indeed, when they are turned out,
all have to bear the change in its fullest extent. I am not fond
of vetches for soiling horses, as they either purge them when they
are young, or heat them too much when their seed-pods are fully
developed. For working horses the latter condition is especially
suited, as they have the effect of beans, and when green food is
wanted merely to renovate the stomacb without depending on its
soiling properties, I see no objection to them. But for hunters
when soiled heating food is to be avoided, and on that account I
cannot see the advantage of vetches to this kind of horse. As
there is no galloping over hard ground the shoes may be removed
altogether, and even tips may be dispensed with. The feet should
be pared out nicely, the blacksmith removing all broken fragments
of horn, and inspecting them afterwards at least once a month.
Now is the time to attend to any early symptoms of sand crack,
seedy toe, &c., prompt measures at this season often leading to a
prevention of these annoying evils. If the horse is not more than
ten or twelve years old, his corn may be stopped altogether while
he is eating green food in June and July, but a favorite old hunter
should be indulged with a couple of quarterns daily, or he will
probably lose flesh to a great extent. The young horse is always
prone to inflammation, which a cooling treatment will remove, but
the old one is more seasoned, and he will get more harm from being
lowered in his general system than the benefit to his legs will re-
pay. By the month of August all these plans will have co-
operated to produce the desired effect; the legs are cool and fine,
and the lumps and bumps incidental to the hunting-field have en-
tirely disappeared. If they have been very extensive, two or three

SUMMERING. 225

doses of physic should have been given, bu> in general one dose as
ordered at the beginning of the soiling, and another at the end,
when the commencement of training takes its turn, will be suffi-
cient. I have now brought the horse to the middle of the month
of August, at which time the preparation for work, described at
page 206, et sequitur, must be commenced in earnest.

Turning out to grass, or pasturing, demands some little
attention, which however horses seldom receive. Excepting in
the height of summer it is a very dangerous practice to turn a pre-
viously warmly clothed and stabled animal into the fields without
gradually accustoming him to the change of climate. The aver-
age temperature of our spring nights is not more* than 40° of
Fahrenheit, and frequently this degree of cold is united with a
keen wind and sharp rain. Even if a hovel is provided, the horse
is almost sure to get wet before he betakes himself to its protec-
tion, and its door being necessarily open the wind can enter freely
It is therefore found that at all other seasons but the summer
quarter two or three weeks at least must be devoted to the harden-
ing of the skin to bear the climate out of doors. This is done by
first of all removing the clothes by degrees, avoiding all attempts
at dressing, so as to allow the scurf to accumulate and protect the
skin, and then changing the warm stable for a cooler box, which
may be closed at first, and day by day left more and more open to
the weather by admitting the air through its various apertures.
If the horse is of a delicate constitution, and the weather is cold
and wet, the turning out should be delayed till there should be a
change for the better, or if it is decided on at all risks the precau-
tion should be taken for the first two or three nights to bring him
under some dry shelter, avoiding, of course, a warm stable, as
doubly injurious.

When unsoundness op the feet or legs is the inducement
to turn out, and the time at which it is desirable to do this is the
summer season, the choice should fall upon a marsh. Hard ground
will increase the mischief, and, between July and September, al-
though it may be soft just at one particular time, it cannot be
expected to remain so long. In any case some precaution should
be taken against the horse galloping about on his first being let
loose, which, from the joy he experiences at getting his liberty,
he almost invariably does. To prevent this, the legs should be
blistered a few days before, so as to seize the opportunity when
they are swollen, stiflF, and sore, and when, as a natural conse-
quence, a gallop would be so extremely painful as to be altogether
out of the question. A cradle must be kept on to prevent blem-
ishes, but this is no more objectionable out of doors than in. In
almost every case this application would be necessary for the dis-
eased condition of the extremities, whether the horse was turned

22fi

TMI'^ HOUSE

nut (.r not; l>ii(, it, in hc.iU'r to Hchc. ihr. r)[.(Mirl.irtiI(_ wliih; tlic Ic^ti
arc Ht/ill Mtiiriiiid soro. Kiittors or li(tl»l»I(!H iiuiy \ni f it on (lie Coro-
loj^H with tlu! HiiiiK) ohjoct, if tlio fcot, only jirc; the Hcat of niiH-
<;hi(!l'; l)ii( to influiiKKr joints or luu-k nirirw.M t.licy am not h( woll
Huit(!(), fnini tlio pniHwiirc tlicy produco on tlio lonncsr, nod the
strains \vlii(!li tliey causo to tlio latter. Alter a few days' liberty,

NTKR TIUINEI) OUT TO (IIIAHB.

the tendeiiey to fi^allop will be lost, and as tlio le/^s gradually re-
cover t-li(!ir elasti(!i(,y tlie liorse is not so jirono to overdo liiiiiself
in his exorcise, and will generally remain content witli a moderate
•pace; or, if tlio legs are very unsound, tlie l)list(!r miiy be ro
pea ted.

TllK RENOVATION oT TllK UKAf-TFI, wlioii tliis lins been broken
down by disease or bard work, is best en'ccted on good w(jund up-
lands. Tbo liorbage on salt niarslies will sometimes agree with
tho horse even better than ordinary meadow grass, but this forms
the exception to the rule, and is not to be relied on in general.
fn schicting a run in such a ease care should be; taken tliat the
hcrbago is of the dcsiicd nature, the best ])rool' of which is that
it has agreed with liors(!,s in prcviiuis seasons. I'].\pcrienci!d judgoH
can generally proimunce upon the jirobability of tlie desired icsult

HUMMRUTNO- CAllK OF SADDLERY. 221

uftcr iiiHjxMrliii^ ilio ni(.ii;i(iori, })ii(/ on (lio wlinl(! their opinion,
h()wcv<!r W(!ll Inuridcd, is nut, h<» iiiiicli (,(» lio rc,li(!il on ;iH Uio fact
tliat'horww liuvo acl.n.illy |)C(;oino I'niHli wliilt! (-unicid out, l,li(!ro.

I'llK FORK FKIOT hIiouM iilwJiyH 1)0 pn)(x?r;t(!(l })y "tips," which
aro Dicrcly HJiort nh()(iH r(!;i<!hiiig only two-thirdH of tho wiiy to tho
hocls, wliich lire IIkjm loft unoovcrod. 'J'ho object is to avoid the
risk of hrcakiii^^ iiway tho tooH, wliioh \h incurred whonovor tho
foot is hattorod on liard f!;roun(l, aw it ol'ttin in whfsn it iH Htanipcd
continually, as horH(!H aro very aj»t to do, on thcj hiuv; Hurlaco which .
is kept dry hoiKtath :i, Hliolttirin-^ trco. Hero the fli<!H an; very apt
to collect around tho liorwoH, and to get rid of their annoyance tho
IcgH aro constaiitly in motion. If tho full nhoo iH left on, tho liind
t(JC iH very apt to catch itH heel in d(!ep ground, and t(!ar it wholly
or partially off; and, nionsovor, it iw too often neglected, and eitlKir
the IumsIh prcHH into the Hole, produ(;ing cornn, or th(!y (!on(ino th«
frog, a.nd leatl to diH(!!iHo of ttia,t important org!i,n. Tips may Hafely
bo left on without removal for two or thnse montliH, wherfiaH hIiooh
rc(|uiro attending to every throe or four weekH. 'I'ho hind Hhoos
are alwayn takcui off", partly becauHo the hind feet aro not ho liable
to be broken at tho tocH, but chiefly beeaiiHO they would bo dari-
gcrouH to otlnsr aiiimalH if thciy were left on from the Bcvoro dam-
age which irt done by a kick with an aruKid liocil.

lIoHKi'iH wiiOKK .jriouiiAli VKINK liavo )>ocomo o))literated from
adhenivo inflammation following bleeding, an; unfit to be turned
out in conHcquerico of tho dilliculty which Ih prewiuted to tho re-
turn of th<! blood from tho head by itn low poHition in grazing.
So alHo thoHO which have rec(!ntly Huflerod from ntaggerH Hhould
not be sent out to griiHH, for fear of tho position cauHing a return
of tho diHoaHo.

CAIUO OF SADDLFIiV AND HARNESS.

TitK MANAdKMKNT OF KA DDIJOH-Y muHt liavo a tre))lo ohjcct,
Firat.^ tho groom nhould tak(! cmtcj that ho do(!H nothing which Hhall
injure tho borne. HccoiuUi/ ^ he muHt have a due regard to liifl
inaBter's cr)mfort in using it. And, Ihirdli/, ho munt ploano tho
eye. T muHt thoroforo hIiow how each of tlicHo purjioHCH can ]wM,t
bo eff"oct(;d.

To AVOID iN.iiiitiNO TDK iioitKK thc! groom hIiouM begin wlien
ho firnt comcH in from work, ^ind, Itc.forv, lir, renwvf;n ihc aaddlf; or
ajUar. Tt in aHC(!rta,iri(;d by experience that if those aro taken off
when the Hkin beneath tlnsm is hot and Hweating, inflamiriation will
almost Hundy follow, while by leaving them looHcly in their places
for a short time no injurious effect is pr!rc(!ived. If a groom who
is master of his business is watched when his horses come in, he,
will bo soon to looswi their girths and lift tho saddles from their
backs for u second, replacing them loosfdy, and leaving (hem there

'12S THE HORSE.

while ho takes of the bridles and makei nis arrangements for
dressing. In liarness-horses everything but the collars may be
taken off, and after turning them to reuiuve the harness and traces,
they may be replaced and left as near to the shoulder as the posi-
tion of the . horse with his head in the manger will allow. This
rule should be invariably followed whenever horses come into tho
Btahle after having done any amount of work. If they have
merely gone out for a short airing, and the skin beneath the saddle
or collar is not even damp, there is no occasion for the precaution,
and the saddle or collar may at once be removed. The next thing
to be done to the saddlery in reference to the horse's comfort is to
dry the lining carefully before it is again used. Even the lining
of harness-pads should be attended to, and in the winter this cannot
be done without placing each before the fire. After the serge
lining is dry, it is an excellent plan to beat the stuflBng with a
stick, so as to remove the powdery particles left by the sweat,
which soon clog up the interstices and form a matted cake with
the woollen materials used if they are allowed to remain.

In attending to the comport op the master the groom
must take care to keep all the leather which comes in contact with
the hands or legs perfectly supple, yet so clean that no stain is left
behind. Nothing is more annoying than to get off the saddle for
the purpose of paying a morning call, and find the insides of a
light pair of trousers stained all the way down. This is perfectly
inexcusable, and its occurrence marks the ignorance and careless-
ness of a servant in the most unmistakeable manner. The same
remark applies to the reins, which never ought to soil a pair of
white gloves. Whenever blacking is applied to harness it is
impossible altogether to prevent the tendency to leave a stain, but
if it is carefully put on, and well brushed, As long as it is kept dry
it may be lightly handled with impunity. If buckles are to be
altered, the gloves must suffer, and for this reason, when gentlemer
drive their own horses, they generally prefer brown driving reins,
which may be treated in the same way as riding reins, and kept
clean accordingly. The following directions for cleaning Saddles
and riding bridles, and also for brown driving reins, or any other
parts of the harness made of undyed leather, will serve the pur-
prse extremely well. As long as the leather remains dry and
cl'jan it needs no attention, but when it is wetted, either by rain,
01 by the water necessary for cleaning it from road dust, it becomes

hard and stiff, and must be softened with some kind of oily matter.
Neat's-foot oil is that usually employed, but for saddles it is rather
of too greasy a nature, being apt to leave a mark on the trousers
if it has been liberally applied. The best application is deer's
Buet, whioh should be gently warmed and rubbed in before the

eather is quite dry again, after being wetted ; that is to say, while

CAflE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 229

it remains limp, for if it is held to the fire long enough, all wet
leather becomes hard and stiflf. A very little oil or suet will suf-
fice, if it is used as soon as the leather is nearly dry, after each
wetting, but when leather has been left for days in a dry place
after being thoroughly wet, it becomes so stifi" that nothing but a
good soaking with oil will restore its pliability, and even with this
it remains stiif to a certain extent, unless it is very slightly damped,
in conjunction with the use of the oil. Vegetable oils, with the
single exception of castor oil, are too much inclined to become
hard to suit leather, and none but the latter should ever be em-
ployed. Its nauseous smell is an objection to it, but otherwise it
will answer the purpose almost as well as neat's-foot. Horse-fat,
if used carefully, and in very small quantities, is a capital applica^
tion, but one liberal dressing with it spoils the look of leather,
giving it a sodden appearance, which it never recovers.

To MAKE SADDLERY AND HARNESS LOOK WELL tO the eye,

several receipts, and directions for using them, are necessary ; in-
cluding the following, for avoiding injury from chemical decom-
position : —

(1.) Do not allow brass or plated furniture to be within reach
of the air of the stable ; for the ammonia given off" from the urine
will tarnish them. Gas, also, is prejudicial; and if it is burned
in the harness-room, it should be contained within a glass chamber,
which has a ventilating shaft, so as to carry off the products of
combustion into the external air. Gas stoves are particularly pre-
judicial ; and, indeed, so are all stoves which allow the fumes
given off by the coals to pass into the room.

(2.) As soon as possible after the harness is taken off, if the
weather is fine, take a leather, kept specially for the purpose, and
wipe off the dust ; sponging with a damp sponge those parts which
are soiled with sweat. If the traces, belly-band, &c., are splashed
with mud, wash them at once ; on no account soaking them in
water, or using more of it than is necessary. Dry them, as far as
possible, with the leathers. If the black dye with which the
leather is stained has come off to any serious extent, a little of a
solution of green copperas may be used, but this is not often neces-
sary. Unbuckle the bits from the bridle, put them in clean water
for a short time, then take them out, and remove every particle of
dirt from them. Dry with the leather, and rub a very little neat's-
foot oil on them. Before they are used again, they must be polished
with the dry leather, aided by a little silver sand, if they have
become at - all rusty. The curb-chain will always want rubbing
loosely in the hand with a little silver sand, finishing with the
l(?ather.

Black harness must be kept constantly polished by hand-
brushing it with some composition specially prepared for the pur-
20

230 THE HORSE.

pose This mu&o be of a greasy or waxy nature, to prevent the
rain from dissolving it, and washing it off upon the coat of the
horse. One or other of the following compositions will answer tho
purpose :

BECIPES FOB HAENE8S BLACKING.

No. 1.

Spirit; of Turpentine . . . 1 pt.

Beeswax . . . .4 oz.

Prussian Blue . . .1 oz.

Lamp Black . . . . ^ oz.

Slice the wax very thin, put it in a jar and pour on the turpentine. Let

it stand twenty-four hours, then grind the other ingredients together on a

stone or marble slab, and mix carefully up. It must be kept in a covere'd

tin box.

No. 2.
Take the above composition and add the following, which improves the
polish : —

Spirit Varnish . . . 1 pt.

Gum Benzoiii . . . . 2 oz.

Soi't Soap . . . . 1 oz.

Melt together in a water bath, and when thoroughly incorporated mix all
together on a stone and cover up directly.

CHAPTER XII.

Mounting and Dismounting — The Seat — Management of the
Reins — Modes of Starting the Horse into his Various Paces —
Riding to Hounds — Out-door Vices and Bad Habits.

MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING.
The celebrated Rarey
has recently given us a new
light upon the subject, which
is quite at variance with those
directions which have hitherto
been considered to be the cor-
rect ones in this country. Thus,
Captain Richardson, in his val-
uable work on Horsemanship,
advises as follows : — " Stand
opposite the near fore-foot of
the horse, place the left hand
on the neck near to the withers, ha "ing the back of the hand to ih»

MOUNTINa AND DISMOUNTING. 231

horse's head, and the reins lying in front of the hand. Take up
the reins with the right hand, put the little finger of the left hand
between them, and draw them through until you feel the mouth
of the horse ; turn the remainder of the reins along the inside of
the left hand, let it fall over the fore-finger on the ofi-side, and
place the thumb upon the reins. Twist a lock of the mane round
the thumb or fore-finger, and close the hand firmly upon the reins.
Take the stirrup in the right hand, and place the left toe in it as
far as the ball; let the knee press against the flap of the saddle,
to prevent the point of Che toe from irritating the side of the horse;
seize the cantle of the saddle with the right hand, and springing
up from the right toe, throw the right leg clear over the horse,
coming gently into the saddle by staying the weight of the body
with the right hand resting on the right side of the pommel of the
saddle; put the right toe in the stirrup." Now this is in the main
applicable to a man of five feet ten inches or six feet, but to a
shorter individual attempting to mount a horse of fifteen hands
three inches, it is an impossibility, simply because he cannot reach
the cantle from the same position which enables him to hold the
stirrup in the left hand. The Captain is also wrong, in my opinion,
in directing that the body should be raised into the saddle directly
from the ground, with one movement. This will always bring the
rider down into the saddle with a very awkward jerk; and the
proper direction is to raise the body straight up till both feet are
on a level with the stirrup-iron, and the,n with the left leg held
against the flap of the saddle by the left hand on the pommel, the
right leg is easily thrown over the cantle, and the body may be
kept in the first position until the horse is quiet, if he is plunging
or rearing. A short man can generally place his foot in the stir-
rup while held in his hand, but it should be known that all cannot
do this, because I have seen young riders much vexed at finding
that they could not possibly do what is directed. Most of our
writers on horsemanship are of the military school, and endeavor
to cut every one's cloth by their own coats. They are able to do
certain things easily, and so are their men, because they are mostly
of the height already specified, but as sportsmen and civil eques-
trians are of all heights, I shall endeavor to accommodate my re-
marks to all heights and classes. In all cases the rider should
stand at the shoulder, though with a short man it is much easier
to mount a tall horse from the hind-quarter, but the danger of
kicking is very great ; and even in mounting with " a leg," in the
jockey style, I have known the thigh very nearly broken by a
kick. If the hand can steady the stirrup it should do so, but if
the person is too short, the foot can be placed in the stirrup with-
out its aid ; then taking the reins between the fingers, much aa
directed in the passage already quoted, and grasping a lock of the

232 THL HORSE.

mane with the finger and thumb, the body is raised till the right
foot is brought to a level with the left, when the right hand seizes
the cantle, and with the left grasping the pommel, the body ia
steadied for a short time, which, in the ordinary mount, is almost*
imperceptible, but in a fidgety horse is sometimes of considerable
length. The leg is now thrown gently over the saddle, and as it
reaches the cantle the hand is withdrawn, after which the body
sinks into the saddle in an easy and graceful manner. The right
foot is then placed in the stirrup, with or without the aid of the
right hajid holding it.

Sucn'is THE English method. Mr. Karey, in opposition to
this plan, advises that the right hand and arm shall be thrown over
the saddle, the horseman standing with his back to the quarters,
and thus incurring the chance of being severely kicked.

THE SEAT.

The position of the rider in the saddle, called " the seat,"
admits of several variations according to the purpose to which he
is devoted, but it is mainly influenced by the length of the stir-
rups. In the military style these are so long that the weight of
the body Is conveyed to the saddle by the inside of the thighs, or
" fork" alone, while in that adopted in the East this part scarcely
touches the saddle, and the breech and feet distribute the weight
between them. Colonel Greenwood, who is the only military writer
on horsemanship that can be taken as a guide for the road, tells
us — " There is one direction which I think' applies to all seats.
Turn th,; thigh from the hip, so as to bring the hollow to the sad-
dle ; this places the foot straight to the front, with the heel out
and the toe in. Trotting without stirrups on the thigh only, with
the heel down and the toe up, shoulders back, a snaffle rein in
each hand like a rough-rider, is the best possible position for sit-
ting." Now the latter part of this is quite true, but the former is
not quite consistent with my own experience, for if the short
fitirrups of the Eastern horseman are adopted, the hollow of the
thigh cannot be brought to the saddle, yet this style he admits is
•' admirable in its way." Dismissing then the military seat for
which Colonel Greenwood's directions may suffice, I may assert
that, in the ordinary English style, there are four points necessary
to be considered; namely, (1) the position of the weight, which will
be mainly influenced by (2) the position of the knees well forward
on the flap, (3) the proper length of the stirrup-leathers, and (4)
(he carriage of the body. If the weight is not laid upon the
middle of the saddle, which is the axis of the " see-saw " motion
made in the gallop, it has to bo raised at every stride, and thus
additional labor is thrown on tho horse. With long stirrups in the
military style this is of necess) ,y done ; but, with short stirrups.

MANAGEMENT 0? THE REINS. 233

the knees are often placed on the flaps behind the leathers, and
then the breec i remains close to the cantle and sometimes almost
overlapping it. To get the length of leather adapted to most men,
though there are occasionally exceptions, the rider should sit well
on his fork, and then the stirrups should be taken up or let down
till they just touch the ankle bone. For road riding this enables
the hollow of the thigh to touch the saddle, because the ball of the
foot being on the stirrup, the heel is down an inch and a half below
it; whilst, in the hunting-field, as the stirrup is worn "home," the
knee is carried higher and more forward on the saddle, and the
weight is distributed between it, the breech, and the foot. With
regard to the carriage of the body, all the directions in the world
will not make it easy, and without the supervision of a master, or
a friend, to point out defects, no one can be sure that he is sitting
in a good, much less an elegant style. It is not possible even to
know that the shoulders are square, or that the body is not carried
on one side, defects which I have known persisted in for years
without the slightest consciousness of them on the part of the
rider, who would gladly have rectified them if he had known of
their existence. One rule may, however, be given, namely, that
no efibrt should be made to move in any direction, and that, on
the contrary, every endeavor should be directed to keep the body
and legs as still as the action of the horse will allow, bearing in
mind that the opposite extreme of stiffness is almost equally bad.

MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS.

There are three distinct modes of holding and managing
the reins. In the first, adopted by the military school, the left
hand does all, without any assistance from the right, which is occu-
pied with the sword, lance, or carbine. In the second, the left
hand holds the reins, aided occasionally by the right ; and in the
third, or " two-handed method," the reins are permanently held
one in each hand. The first of these is only needed in the manhge,
and I therefore shall not allude to it ; while the last requires no
description, further than to mention that it is the mode adopted
by the colt-breaker, and that it gives far more control over the
mouth than either of the others. As single and double reins
are differently placed in the hand, a description of each will be
necessary.

The single rein is held by placing all the fingers but the first
between the two leathers, and then, making both turn over that
one, they are firmly held by pressing the thumb against it. This
gives a firm grasp, and at the same time allows of either being
pulled tighter than the other by turning the wrist. To shorten
the grasp, the right hand has only to lay hold of the loose part of
the rein, and then the left, sliding forwards towards the neck, cau
20*

234 THE BjRSE.

close wherever it may be desired. In order to be sure tbat the
elbow is held against the side, the thumb should always point
towards the horse's ears; and the nearer the little finger can be
carried to the pommel of the saddle the better. In using the
single rein, the management of the mouth, if a good one, is easy
enough ; nevertheless, there are various directions for the purpose
adopted in different schools, which are dependent upon altogether
conflicting principles. Every tyro knows that the horse turns to
the left by pulling the left rein, and to the right by pulling the
opposite one ; and the problem to be solved is to do this by one
hand only. Now, this with the single rein is easily effected by
raising the thumb towards the right shoulder, when the right rein is
to be pulled, or by drawing the little finger towards the fork for the
left; in both cases by a turn of the wrist, without lifting the whole
hand. But over and above this action on the mouth, and in many
cases independent of it, is a movement which, in trained horses,
is capable of much greater delicacy, and which depends upon the
sensibility of the skin of the neck for its due performance. It is
efiected by turning the whole hand to the right or left, without
any urist action, so as to press the right rein against the neck, in
order to cause a turn to the left, and the left rein against the neck
for the opposite purpose; at the same time rather slackening the
reins, so as not to bear upon the mouth by so doing. In this way
a horse may be turned with a much greater degree of nicety and
smoothness than by acting on the corner of his mouth. But
liighly-broken horses, such as the military troop-horses, are often
too much used to their bits to answer to this slight and delicate
manipulation; and therefore it is eschewed by Captain Richardson,
as well as by Colonel G-reenwood, but, strangely enough, for oppo-
site reasons, and each attempting to substitute a very different
process for it. I am well aware that some horses can never be
taught it, but must always have a bearing made on the mouth
before they will turn; yet, when it can be inculcated, it makes the
animal so tractable and agreeable to ride, that it is a highly desira-
ble accomplishment; and I cannot, therefore, join in condemning
its use, but should rejoice if it could in all cases be fully developed.
The double rein is usually held by those who ride for plea-
sure in this country as follows : — Begin by taking up the snaffle-
rein, and place the fore and middle fingers between its two por-
tions; then lay hold of the curb-rein, and either hook it loosely
on to the little finger, if not immediately wanted, or draw it up to
the requisite degree of tightness and turn it over the fore finger,
when it will lie upon the snaffle-rein, and, together with it, will be
gripped by the thumb. By adopting this plan, the curb-rein is
always at the command of the right hand ; and it may be shortened
or let out in" a moment, which is of constant occurrence in every

MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS- STARTING TO TROT. 235

day's ride. The hand is held as with the single rein, with the
thumb pointing to the horse's ears ; in turning, however, there ia
much less power of bearing on either side of the bit by raising
the thumb or lowering the little finger, because the distance be-
tween the snaffle-reins is only half what it was, and therefore the
mode of turning by pressure upon the neck is doubly desirable ;
and hence its general adoption in those cases where double-reined
bridles are used, as in the field and on the road. Sometimes, to
obviate this objection, the snaffle-reins are placed as in the single-
reined bridle, outside the little finger, and then the curb is hooked
over the ring-finger, between the snaffle-reins, so as to allow of the
full manipulation of the mouth by the hand, without bearing upon
the neck. But the objection to this is, that the curb cannot be
shortened without releasing the snaffle ; and therefore the horse
must either be ridden on the curb alone while this process is be-
ing efi'eeted, or his head must be loosed altogether ; whereas, in
the other mode, his mouth is still under the control of the snaffle
all the time that the curb is being let out or taken in.

The ATTAINMENT OP " GOOD HANDS," by which is to be under-
stood a light and delicate handling of the reins, is, or ought to
be, the aim of every rider. The most delicate mouth in the world
is soon spoilt by bearing heavily on it, as is too often done by
grooms, and, indeed, by the average run of our horsemen. So
also in hunting, if the horse is not allowed his head in making his
effort, he will be almost sure to fail in exactly doing what he
meant, and will hit timher, if he is put at that class of fence,
or will drop his hind legs into the ditch, if there is one. Bad
riders use the reins as a means of balancing themselves in the
saddle, and this is especially done in the hunting-field, where they
would be utterly unable to maintain their seats without the aid thus
afforded to the proper grip and balance. Every one in learning to
ride ought to be taught to go through all the paces, and to jump
the bar without any reins in his hand ; and when he finds he is
able to do without them, he will learn to use them only in the way
for which they are intended.

MODES OF STARTING THE HORSE INTO HIS VARIOUS
PACES.

To MAKE A HORSE Start off in a quick walk, when he is not
inclined to do so, either from being too fresh or too raw, is by no
means an easy task. I have often ridden one for several days in
succession, before I could make him settle down to a fair walk,
and even then the slightest excitement would upset all my apparent
previous progress. This is especially true of those horses pos-
sessed of such elastic joints, that they could "jog" at a rate much
slower than thej could walk. Here restraint by the bridle is out

236 THE HORSE.

of the question, and any excitement by the voice or heel increases
the jog into a full trot, without passing through any intermediate
stage. The difficulty consists in the fact that for a perfect walk
the head must be at liberty, and when this is allowed to a generoua
horse, he is inclined to go off at a rate faster than suffices for the
pace in question. The only plan, therefore, is to ride such horses
quietly, till they are leg weary, whatever the number of hours may
be required, and then it is possible to loose their heads without
their taking advantage of the liberty to go off " ai score." In-
deed, in the walk, the head should never be much confined, and
yet the rider should not entirely leave it uncontrolled; the finest
possible touch is enough, so that on any trip the hand is at once
informed of it by the drop of the head, when, by a sudden jerk of
the bridle, not too forcible, it rouses the horse, and prevents his
falling. It is not that he is kept up by pulling the rein, but that
he is roused by it and made to exert himself, for many horses seem
regardless of falls, and would be down twenty times a day if they
were not stimulated by the heel and bit. Confinement of the head
in the walk is absolutely injurious, and more frequently causes a
fall than saves one. A good walker will go on nodding his head
to each step, more or less as it is a long or a short one; and if this
nodding is prevented by the heavy hand of the rider, the fore-foot
is not properly stretched forward, the step is crippled, and very
often the toe strikes the ground; when, if the head were at liberty,
it would clear it well. In horses which are apt to stumble in the
walk, I have generally found that a loose rein, with the curb held
ready for a check, is the safest plan ; and then the htjrse soon finds
that he is punished the moment he stumbles, and in a very short
time he learns to recover himself almost before he is reminded.
■ I do not like the spur or the whip so well, because the use of either
makes the horse spring, forward, and often blunder again in his
hurry to avoid this kind of punishment. The check of the curb,
on the other hand, makes him recover himself without extra
progress, or rather by partially stopping him, and thus he is better
able to avoid his fall. The body is allowed to yield slightly to the
motions of the horse, but not to waddle from side to side, as is
sometimes seen. Some horses do not stir the rider at all, while
others throw him about and fatigue him greatly; and this may
generally be foretold when the tail sways much from side to side
in the walk, which is caused by the over-long stride of the horse,
a very desirable accomplishment in the race-horse or hunter, but
ndt in the hack.

The jog trot ia a pace that there is seldom any difficulty in
effecting, and on the contrary, as I have just observed, the rider is
often engaged for hours or days in breaking the young horse of it.

The req tlar trot is generally easy to produce, but sometimes

STARTING TO TROT. 237

when the canter has been much adopted, it is not so readily effected.
The best plan is as follows : — Take hold of both the reins of the
BnaflBe, and bear firmly, but steadily, upon the mouth, lean slightly
forwards in the saddle, press the legs against the horse's sides, and
use the peculiar click of the tongue, which serves as an encour-
agement to the horse on all occasions. If properly trained, he
will now fall at once into the trot, but if he breaks into a canter
or gallop, he must be checked and restrained into a walk, or a
" jog-trot." Where the horse has been much used to canter, and
can go at that pace as slowly as he walks, there is often great diffi-
culty in making him trot, for no restraint, short of a total halt,
will prevent the canter. In such eases, laying hold of an ear will
often succeed, by making the animal drop his head, which move-
ment interferes with the canter, and generally leads to a trot. The
rising in the stirrups is generally practised in civil life, as being
far less fatiguing to both horse and rider; but in the military
schools the opposite style is inculcated, because among a troop of
horse it has a very bad effect if a number of men are bobbing up
and down, out of all time. If it were possible for all to rise to-
gether, perhaps the offence against military precision might be
pardoned ; but as horses will not all step together, so men cannot
all rise at the same moment, and the consequence is that they are
doomed to bump upon the sheep-skins in a very tiresome manner,
fatiguing alike to man and horse. This rising in the saddle of itself,
encourages horses which have been accustomed to it to trot in
preference to any other pace, and they understand the faintest in-
dication of it as a sign that this particular pace is to be commenced,
and trot accordingly. The civilian's mode of riding the trot is as
follows : — At the precise moment when the hind and fore legs are
making their effort to throw the horse forward in progression, the
body of the rider is thrown forcibly into the air, in some horses to
60 great an extent as to make a young rider feel as if he never
should come down again. After reaching the utmost height, how-
ever, the body falls, and reaches the saddle just in time to catch
the next effort, and so on as long as the trot lasts. In this way, the
horse absolutely carries no weight at all during half his time, and
the action and reaction are of such a nature that the trot is accel-
erated rather than retarded by the weight. No horse can fairly
trot above twelve miles or thirteen miles an hour without this rising,
though he may run or pace in the American style, so that it is not
only to save the rider's bones but also to ease the horse that this
practice has been introduced, and holds its grpund in spite of the
want of military sanction. It is here as with the seat ; utility is
sacrificed to appearances ; and whenever the long and weak seat of
the barrack-yard is supplanted by the firm seat of the civilian, I
shall expect to see the rising in the trot abandoned, but certainly

238 THE HORiE.

not till tlien. The military length is not now what it was thirty
years ago ; and perhaps some time or other soldiers may adopt the
rise, but I am afraid not until they have produced many thousands
more sore backs than they need have done if they had never prac-
tised it. In the trot, the foot should bear strongly on the stirrup,
with the heel well down, and the ball of the foot pressing on the
foot-piece of the stirrup, so that the elasticity of the ankle takes off
the jar, and prevents the double rise, which in some rough horses
is very apt to be produced. The knees should always be main-
tained exactly in the same place, without that shifting motion which
is so common with bad riders, and the legs should be held perpen-
dicularly from the knee downwards. The chest should be well
forward, and the waist in, the rise nearly upright, but slightly
forward, and as easily as can be eflfected without effort on the part
of the rider, and rather restraining than adding to the throw of
the horse

GrOOD HANDS and a quiet seat only, with the aid of a curb bit
properly adapted to the mouth, are required to develop the canter,
by restraining the gallop ; but to make a horse start off at once,
with a lead of either leg as desired, is altogether another matter.
To do this, the canter with either leg leading must first be com-
pletely taught, so that there is no difficulty in making the horse
display that particular pace at any time. Then just at the moment
before starting, pull the rein, and press the heel on the side oppo-
site to the leg which it is desired the horse should lead. The rea-
son of this is obvious enough ; every horse in starting to canter
(and many even in the canter itself) turns himself slightly across
his line of progress, in order to enable him to lead with that leg
which he thereby advances. Thus supposing a horse is" going to
lead off with the off-foreleg, he turns his head to the left and his
croup to the right, and then easily gets his off-leg before and his
uear-leg behind into the line which is being taken. Now, to com-
pel him to repeat this action, it is only necessary to turn him in
the same way, by pulling his head to the left, and by touching
him with the left heel, after which he is made to canter by excit-
ing him with the voice or whip, whilst at the same moment he is
restrained by the curb. When once this lead is commenced, the
hold on the curb and pressure on the legs may be quite equal ; but
if, while the canter is maintained, it is desired to change the lead-
ing leg, the horse must be collected and roused by the bit and voice,
and then reversing the pull of the reins and the leg-pressure, from
that previously practised, so as to turn the horse in the opposite
way to that in which he was started, he will generally be compelled
to change his lead, which is called " changing his leg." The seat
in this space is a very easy one, the knees taking a very gentle hold
of the saddle, the feet not bearing strongly upon the stirrups, and

THE GALLOP. 239

ihe body tolerably upright in the saddle. TLe hands must not be
too low, but should keep a very gentle but constant pressure upon
the bit, and should, if there is the slightest tendency to drop the
canter, rouse the mouth by a very slight reminder, and also stimu-
late the spirits by the voice or whip.

The gallop being generally, though not always, his fastest
pace, the horse may be forced into it readily enough by the stimu-
lus of the voice, whip, or spurs. Sometimes very fast trotters can-
not gallop so fast as they can trot, but these are rare exceptions,
and need not be considered in any other light. It is therefore
useless to describe the mode of starting this pace ; but some allu-
sion may advantageously be made to the best method of riding it.
There are two seats adopted, the ordinary one being to sit down
into the saddle and keep as close to it as possible, but another
being also practised called standing in the stirrups. The former is
the usual seat, and it is only in racing or in the very fast gallop
at other times that the latter is adopted. In sitting down the feet
may be either resting on the ball of the toe, as in the other paces,
or with the stirrup " home" to the boot, as is common in all field-
riding. The body is thrown easily and slightly back, the knees
take firm hold, the rider being careful not to grip the horse so tight
as to distress him, which fault I have known very muscular men
often commit. The hands should be low, with sufiicient pull at the
mouth to restrain, but not to annoy him and make him "fight;"
and if he is inclined to get his head down too much, or the re-
verse, they must be raised or lowered accordingly. When the
standing in the stirrups is to be practised, the weight is thrown
upon them, steadying it with the knees and thighs, which should
keep firm hold of the saddle. The seat of the body is carried well
back, while at the same time the loin is slightly arched; but by
this combined action the weight is not hanging over the shoulder
of the horse, as it would be, and often is, when the breech is raised
from the saddle and brought almost over the pommel, with the
eyes of the rider looking down his horse's forehead, or veiy nearly
so. If a jockey of more than seven or eight stone, with a good
seat, is watched, it will be seen that his leg does not descend
straight from the knee, but that it is slightly thrown back I'rom
that line, and consequently that his centre of gravity is behind it,
so that he can, by stifi"ening the joint, carry his body as far behind it
fis his stirrup is, without ceasing to stand in it. Very light jockeys
adopt a somewhat diflferent seat, riding with longer stirrups and
throwing their weight greatly on the muscles of the thigh, while
they raise the breech entirely from the saddle, but only for a cum-
paratively small distance. This gives them a strong hold of their
horses, without which, being so small, they could not ride them.
Standiuir in the stirrups cannot long be maintained without fatigu'"

240 THE HORSE.

to the rider, and it is only adopted in racing or in short gallops
over bad ground, as in hunting, when there is a deep piece of fal-
low, or a steep hill, or any other kind of ground calculated to tire
the horse.

BIDING TO HOUNDS.

The kind of seat generally adopted in riding to hounds has
been already described, and I need not therefore allude to it again.
I may, however, remind the tyro that the less he depends upon
balance, and the stronger hold he can get of the saddle with his
knees and calves, the more likely he will be to avoid a fall without
his horse coming down also. If this accident happens, a loose seat
sometimes befriends the rider by causing him to be thrown out of
the way of the horse, but in the long run the man who has a strong
grip of his saddle will fare the best. Glood hands and judgment
are equally necessary, and the combination of these three qualities
makes up the finished performer across country, always supposing
the presence of nerve in addition.

There are certain rules adopted in fell hunting countries,
which must be stringently carried out in order to insure the safety
of the hounds and horsemen, and avoid those disputes which would
otherwise constantly occur between riders jealous of each other's
prowess. These may be summed up in the following plain direc-
tions : —

When near the hounds keep to the right or left of them, and
not directly behind, where you are always in danger of riding over
some of the tail hounds. So also when the pack are crossing a
thick fence, when there is often only one gap weak enough to aHow
of their getting over, avoid its proximity, and take a place at least
a dozen yards off.

Independently of hounds, every rider should take a line of
his own, or if he is unable to do this and must follow a leader, let
him keep such a distance behind that if a fall takes place he can
avoid jumping upon him. In a large field of horsemen, every one
cannot possibly take a diffc'rent line, nor is it easy to keep always
at a safe distance ; but at big places there is generally some hesita-
tion, and a proper interval can be maintained. No one should
attempt to pass his neighbor either on the right or left of the line
he has chosen, when near a fence; but of course this is not to de-
prive him of his chance of taking the lead in the middle of a large
enclosure, when a little racing can do no harm. By the adoption
of this rule, jostling and crowding at a weak place are avoided,
which without it would be sure to lead to serious accidents.

Use "5 our judgment in saving your horse in deep ground,
making up for the apparent loss by putting him along whenever a
sound headland or good turf can be obtained. It is not going
straight over sound land that distresses a horse, but the making

RIDING TO HOUNDS. 241

use of him over deep ground, and at the wrong time. Many men
peem to know no difference between sound turf and rotten or wet
arable, and will kick their horses along over high ridge-and-furrow
in a wet clay district, at a pace which no horse can bear for more
than a mile or two in such a country. A workman would look
out for headlands or footpaths, &c. ; and would, by a slight ddtour,
gain upon those who disdained to leave the line even for a few
yards. Wet and sticky ridge-and-furrow tires a horse dreadfully,
and the consequence is, that if he is pushed over it he speedily
loses his powers and wind, and falls in a very ugly way at the first
fence he comes to of a size above the average. Hence, every man
who aspires to go well to hounds must learn to be a "judge of
pace," and should endeavor to make out the signs of distress, and
the best way of avoiding it. So much depends upon condition
and breeding, that it is very difficult for a man with a strange horse
to know what liberties he may take with him. Some well-bred
ones will be blown, yet if nursed they will come again and again,
while the dunghill-animal will give up when once he has lost his
wind, and is gone for that day at least. In ascending steep banks,
a careful and active horseman will dismount and lead his horse up,
and by so doing often gains a mile or two upon his less humane
and cautious antagonist. In ascending hills it is often expedient
to make a zigzag; but in descending you can never go too straight,
as the opposite course often leads to a dangerous slip on the side,
with a crushed knee or ankle as a consequence. Few horses fall
forwards, and they always manage to save themselves by slipping
down on their haunches. This is a point of great importance, and
should always be strictly attended to.

There are two general directions, which will serve for
almost all descriptions of fence. These are, that if a height is to
be overcome, the horse should be taken slowly up to it, in a col-
lected manner, with his haunches well under him. On the other
hand, width requires impetus, and the pace should be forced
during the last few strides up to a very high rate. Under the
former head may be classed timber (in all the varieties of gates,
single posts and rails, stiles, and palings), walls, strong pleached
fences, and banks. To the latter belong water in all shapes,
double posts-and-rails, bullfinches, and those fences with a ditch
on both sides, as well as those which have a wide one on the land
ing side. In addition to these there are the actual standing leap
seldom practised in the present day, the creeping style, the " on
and off" leap, and the " drop," which is a variety of the standing
leap.

In collecting the horse, and properly putting him at hia
fence, there is a great art, and nothing but practice will give it in
perfection. Double-posts-and-rails require a great deal of collect-
21 Q

242 THE HORSE.

ijig and rousing, and the horse must go pretty fast tt them, as also
must he at all wide jumps, including water in all its forms. One
essential is, that the horse shall have confidence in his rider ; for
if he thinks he may turn to the right or left he will most probably
do so, unless he is very fond of jumping. Nervous men commu-
nicate their feelings to their horses, and though it may be difficult
to explain how it is done, there is no doubt of the fact. It is re-
markable how soon horses find out what kind of man they carry,
and how they alter under difi'erent hands. This is partly owing
to a mismanagement of the mouth, but in great measure also to
the trepidation of the rider. Unless, therefore, he has full confi-
dence in his own courage, he need never expect his horse to go
steadily and straight at his fences. The collecting is much easier
than the management of the bit at the leap itself, for there are two
opposite things to be done, and the delicate point is to hit the mo-
ment of change from one to the other to a nicety. The first is to
" catch hold of the horse's head," as it is called — that is, to bear
more or less upon the mouth, pull the horse on his haunches and
rouse him, either by voice, heel, or whip. This lasts till the mo-
ment of the effort made to rise over the obstacle, when the head
should be released, so that the horse may have all his bodily powers
at his command. If the head is confined the haunches do not act
fully, because in making the spring the head is protruded, and pain
is given by the bit if it is still held fast; and hence, to avoid the
pain, the extension does not take place, the leap is not made with
sufficient spring or power, and the horse alights too near the ditch,
if there is one, or possibly in it. But in releasing the head judg-
ment is required, for if the rein is too loose the horse is apt to
alight in such a position that he is " all abroad," and without great
help he will often fall ; hence, most good performers, though they
do not absolutely confine the head, yet they keep a very gentle and
delicate hold of the mouth, and not only thus prevent the horse
over-extending himself, but are also prepared to assist him if he is
inclined to fall. This is the finished style of riding, and is only in
the power of a man with a good seat as well as good hatds. Both
are wanted, because without the former it is impossib « to avoid
"riding the bridle" — that is, holding on by it as well as by tho
saddle ; and without good hands that delicate management of the
bridle which I have attempted to describe is impracticable. What
is called " lifting" the horse is sometimes attempted with the bit,
but I do not recognise its utility. When a horse is likely to touch
the top bar of a gate, or in any way to use too small an effort, a
stroke of the whip down the shoulder is the best lift. Rousing
and collecting are quite distinct from lifting, which I believe to be
a myth altogether. In creeping, good hands and quietness in the
saddle are the chief elements of «uccess, and without them both,

OUT-DOOR VICES- BHTING. 243

no one is likely to do much in this particular style; hence it is
that so few men can " creep" well, even though they have horses
accustomed to it under other hands. When the horse has leen
thoroughly taught to creep, his head may almost be left without
control, merely guiding him quietly to the gap, and then letting
him take his own way; but where the horse has to be made to
creep, a rein should be taken in each hand, and the head guided
as if with a silken thread, to the right or left, or wherever the ani-
mal is required to go. These remarks will perhaps be useful to all
who have no experienced friend ready to afford a practical demon-
stration of the same fundamental points. One actual lesson in the
field is worth all the reading in the world; but, in default of this,
the preceding observations will serve to assist the young aspirant
for honors in riding to hounds.

OUT-DOOR VICES AND BAD HABITS.

OuT-DOOR VICES depend upon the temper of the individual, and
include shying, rearing, kicking, lying down, plunging or buck-
ing, shouldering, and running away. Bad habits arise from a de-
fective formation of the body, and are confined to stumbling and
cutting.

Shying generally arises from timidity, but sometimes it is united
with cunning, which induces the animal to assume a fear of some
object for the sole purpose of finding an excuse for turning round.
The usual cause of shying is doubtless the presence of some object
to which the colt has not been accustomed, and if he has buck
eyes, which render him short-sighted, it will be difiicult to con-
vince him of the innocent nature of the novel object. There are
endless peculiarities in shying horses, some being dreadfully
alarmed by one kind of object, which to others is not at all for-
midable. When a horse finds that he gains his object by turning
round, he will often repeat the turning without cause, pretending
to be alarmed, and looking out for excuses for it. This is not at
all uncommon, and with timid riders leads to a discontinuance of
the ride, by which the horse gains his end for the time, and re-
peats the trick on the first occasion. In genuine shying from feir
the eyes are generally more or less defective; but sometimes this
is not the cause, which is founded upon a general irritability of
the nervous system. Thus, there are many horses which never
shy at meeting tilted wagons, or other similarly alarming objects,
but which almost drop with fear on a small bird flying out of a
hedge, or any other startling sound. These last are also worse,
because they give no notice to the rider, whereas the ordinary
shyer almost always shows by his ears that he is prepared to turn
round.

The best plan of treatment which can be adopted, is to

244 THE HORSE.

take as little notice as possible of the shying, and to be especially
careful not to show any fear of its recurrence when a wagon appears
in the distance. When the horse begins to show alarm, but not
till then, the rider should speak encouragingly to him, and. if
necessary, with a severe tone, which may even be supported by the
use of the whip or spurs, if his onward progress cannot be other-
wise maintained. The principle which should be carried out is to
adopt such measures as will get the horse to pass the object at
which he shies somehow or other, and this should be eifected with
as little violence as possible, always commending in an encouraging
tone as soon as the purpose is gained. Nothing has so great a
tendency to keep up the habit as the plan so common among igno-
rant grooms, of chastising the shyer after he has passed the object
of his alarm. If he can be persuaded to go quietly up to it and
examine it with his muzzle as well as with his eyes, great good will
be effected ; but this can seldom be done with moving wagons, and
heaps or stones are generally only alarming from defect of vision,
60 that each time they assume a new phase to the active imagina-
tion of the timid animal.

Rearing is seldom met with excepting among raw colts, or if it
is continued to a later period it is generally incurable. When exist-
ing in an aggravated form it is a most dangerous vice, as a fall
backwards over the rider has often led to fatal consequences.

The usual remedy for it in the colt is the ordinary running
martingale, which will keep down the rearer who is merely in-
dulging in his playful fancies. When, however, the vice has be-
come confirmed, nothing short of Severe punishment will be of any
service, and the horsebreaker generally resorts to the plan of knock-
ing the horse down as he rises by a blow between the ears with a
loaded crop. This stuns the hofse for a time, and alarms him so
much that he is often cured by one act of the kindj but it is at-
tended with some danger of injuring the horse, and the rider does
not always escape. Another plan adopted by active breakers is to
wait till the horse is just on the balance, and then slipping off to
the left, it is easy to pull him over backwards; but this also is often
followed by severe injury to the horse when the ground is hard.
I have almost invariably found that bad rearers have very supple
necks, which increases the difficulty of keeping them down by any
kind of martingale, and probably this will account for the habit
having become inveterate. A stiff-necked horse can scarcely rise
high if his head is confined even by the running martingale ; but
when the side-straps are tightly buckled to the bit, he is effectually
restrained, whereas with a loose neck the head can be so bent in
to the brisk«*, that no obstacle is offered. In such cases I have
known a cavesson with the noseband lined with sharp prickers,
and the martingale buckled to it ; a most effectual prevention, a»

OUT-DOOR VICES. 245

the slightest pull opens it, presses the prickeia into the aose and
gives acute pain. Whenever the rider finds a horse inclined to
rise, he should at once lean forward, and after ineffectually trying
the martingale to keep the horse down, he must loose his head,
or he will be almost sure to bring him backwards and cause a
severe fall.

For kickers, except when the habit is merely a mode of letting
off superfluous spirits, severity is the only remedy, and a strong
application of the whip down the shoulder the best means of using
it. At the same time the snaffle-reins ought to be firmly held, and
by their means the head kept up, for there is always a tendency
to lower this part in the act of kicking ; the gag snaffle is very
effectual for this purpose.

Lying down is rare in the present day, being chiefly confined
to under-bred horses and Welsh ponies, which are gradually going
out of use. The spur is the only means likely to keep a stubborn
brute up ; but in some cases its application is followed by the ani-
mal throwing himself down suddenly, instead of gradually.

Plunging may be described as a series of bounds into the air,
which when they are made up and down in the same place, or
nearly so, are called " bucking," from their resemblance to the
playful antics of the deer. A bucking horse is very difficult to sit,
but by sawing the mouth with a twisted snaffle it may generally
be stopped at once.

By shouldering is understood the attempt to crush the leg of
the rider against a wall, which some ill-tempered horses are fond
of doing. It is easily avoided by pulling the horse's head round
to the wall, instead of from it.

Running away is too well known to need description. In
some horses it is a species of temporary madness, and scarcely any
bit, however severe, will stop them. When there is room and
scope enough, the remedy is simple, but, unfortunately, runaway
horses generally choose a crowded thoroughfare to indulge their
fancies in. A gallop to a stand-still, with the free use of the spur
or whip at the latter part of it, will sometimes prevent a recurrence
of this vicious act; but where the tendency is very strong it will
have little effect. Punishing bits only make some high-couraged
horses worse, but the majority of runaways would be dangerous
with a plain snaffle only, and yet there are some which will go
quietly enough in it, while the adoption of a curb will rouse their
tempers at once. Of course they can only be ridden with great
care and judgment, and must never be roused unnecessarily. For-
tunately the mouths of horses are now made so much more care-
fully than in former times, and their management is so much better
understood, that we seldom hear of or see an accident from this
cause, either in the saddle or in harness. The most essential part
21*

246 THE HORSE

of the treatment of a runaway is the proper selection of a bit, 'whicli
should be sufficient to control him without exciting opposition from
the pain it gives.

Stumbling arises from a variety of causes, and the nature of
any particular case should be thoroughly investigated before any
remedy for it is attempted. Sometimes it is merely dependent
upon low or " daisy cutting" action, and then it is possible that it
may not be attended with danger. I have known many horses
which would stumble at least every half-mile, but yet they would
travel for years with sound knees, the other leg being always ready
to catch the weight. In other cases a stumble would only occur
at rare intervals, but if the trip was made it was rarely recovered,
and a fall was almost sure to follow. Again, it happens with some
horses that when they are fresh out of the stable, their action is
high and safe, but after a few miles the extensors of the leg tire,
and they are constantly making a mistake. Inexperienced judges
are very apt to examine the action of the fore legs alone, while that
of the hind quarter is of quite as much importance to safety, and
is more so as regards the ease of the rider. Lameness is a frequent
source of a fall, from the tendency to put the foot too soon to the
ground in order to take the weight off the other. And lastly,
upright pasterns will produce stumbling, when the shoulders are
60 formed that the foot is put down too near the centre of gravity.

The best plans for remedying these several conditions are
as follows. If the cause is weakness of the extensors no care can
be of much service, all that can be done being to be on the look
out for a trip, and then to take the weight off the fore quarter as
much as possible by sitting well back, at the same time using such
an amount of sudden pressure on the bit as to cause the horse to
exert himself, without any attempt to keep up the head by me-
chanical force, which is an impossibility. When laziness is the
cause, the stimulus of the spur or whip will suffice, and it often
happens that a horse is safe enough at his top pace while a slowei
one is full of danger. In lameness of course the remedy is to wail
till the foot or feet are sound again.

Cutting depends either upon the legs being set on too neai
together, or on their joints not acting in a proper hinge-like manner.
Many horses cut when in low condition, but are quite free from
the defect when in flesh, and in such cases it is only necessary to
let them wear a boot until they have had time enough to become
fresh. Wherever horses " go close" care should be taken that the
shoes do not project beyond the hoof, and the clenches of the nails
should be carefully watched, the groom seeing that they are filed
down by the smith if they stand up at all above the level of the
horn. Cutting may take place either on the prominent part of the
fetlo?k-joint, or midway between it and the knee, or just below

OUT-DOOR VICES.

247

the latte , which is called " speedy cutting," and is very apt to
tause a fall. A boot should be fitted to the leg in either case, and
worn till the part is thoroughly healed and all swelling has disap-
peared, when if any likely method of treatment has been adopted
the horse may be tried without it, but no journey should be under-
taken without one in the pocket in case it may be needed. A pe-
culiar method of shoeing, called a feather-edged shoe. wHI often
prevent this bad habit as long as it is adopted.

THE

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

CHAPTER XIII.

CLASSIFICATION OP THE VARIOUS ORGANS, AND PHYSIOLOGY
OP THE SKELETON.

Classification of the various Organs — Structure of Bone — Of tkt
Skeleton in General — The Artificial Skeleton — Number of Bones
composing the Skeleton — General Anatomy of th% Spinal Column
— Of the Head and Face — Of the Hyoid Arch — Of the Thoracic
Arch and Anterior Extremities — Of the Pelvic Arch and Hind
Extremities — Of the Tail — Of the Fore and Hind Extremities
considered as Organs of Support and Locomotion.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS.

The BODY OF the Horse, like all the vertebrate animals, may
be coDsidered as made up of several distinct apparatuses or systems.
Of these, the first is a machine composed of the bony skeleton,
or framework, the various parts of which are united by joints,
and moved by muscles. Secondly, there are contained within
the thorax the organs which supply the whole body with the means
of nutrition in the form of blood, and purify this fluid. Thirdly,
in the abdomen are presented to view the important organs which
assimilate the food to the condition of the blood; while in the ad-
joining cavity, the pelvis, are the urinary and generative appara-
tuses. Fourthly, the nervous system may be considered, as com-
prising the grand centre of the mental faculties, and, also, as pre-
siding over and controlling the whole of the functions performed
by the several organs ; and fifthly, certain special organs, as, for
example, those of sense, and, likewise, the foot will complete the
circle.

OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE.

The bones are composed of a tissue peculiar to them, enveloped
by a membrane the periosteum. They contain a semi-fluid of a

(248)

STRUCTURE OF pONE. 249

tatty nature, the marrow, and are pierced in various directions by
blood-vessels and nerves.

The proper tissue of the bones is made up of two distinct
substances, either of which may be removed by artificial means,
leaving the other entire. If, for instance, a bone is submitted to
the heat of a furnace, it retains its shape and rigidity, but becomes
much whiter in color, and is rendered extremely brittle. In fact,
the mineral salts entering into its composition are left, but the ani-
mal matter binding them together is completely decomposed and
carried off in a gaseous form. On the other hand, by immersing
a bone for two or three weeks in diluted hydrochloric acid, the
earthy salts are dissolved, while the animal matter is untouched.
Here the bone retains its original shape, but it is soft and flexible;
and instead of presenting its usual opaque yellowish-white color,
it is semi-transparent, and resembles the ordinary gelatine of the
shops. According to Berzilius, bone is chemically composed of
the following constituents — namely, cartilage, reducible to gelatine
by boiling ; blood-vessels ; phosphate of lime ; carbonate of lime ;
fluate of lime ; phosphate of magnesia ; soda and chloride oi
sodium.

Considered mechanically/, the bones form the framework of the
animal machine. In the limbs they are hollow cylinders, admirably
fitted by their shape and texture to resist violence and support
weight. In the trunk and head they are flattened and arched, to
protect the contents of the cavities they form, and to provide an
extensive surface for the attachment of muscles. In certain situa-
tions their exterior is raised into projections called processes, which
serve as levers for the muscles to act upon ; in others they are
grooved into smooth surfaces for the easy gliding of tendons, when
these are stretched between the fleshy part of a muscle and one of
its attachments. Lastly, they sometimes present a large hollow for
the lodgment of the belly of a muscle, as in the case of the scapula.

Wien microscopically examined, bone is seen to be made up of
a dense and homogeneous substance (basis substance), in which
are numberless minute cells (corpuscles of Purkinje). The basis
substance is partially fibrous and slightly lamellated, the layers
being concentric in long bones and parallel in flat; it is traversed
in all directions (more especially in the long axis, where there is
one) by canals (Haversian canals), which frequently branch and
inosculate, givinj^ passage to vessels and nerves. In certain situa-
tions the lamellae separate, and leave between them spaces of va-
rious sizes, called cancelli. Besides entering into the composition
of the basis substance, the lamellae are collected concentrically
round the Haversian canals, the boundaries of which they form,
generally to the extent of ten to fifteen layers. Both the compact
and spongy tissues are, therefore, composed of the same elementary

250 THE HORSE.

Structure, the fornaer being especially intended to afford resistanea
to violence with as little weight as is consistent with its office, for
which reason it is hollowed into a tube; while the latter is enlarged
as much as possible without unnecessarily adding to its weight,
the problem being solved by its development in a cellular form.

The Periosteum is a dense fibrous membrane which covers every
part of the surface of the bones, excepting their extremities when
they enter into the composition of a joint, its place being then
occupied by cartilage. When this membrane covers the bones of
the skull it is called pericranium, and when it invests the cartilages
of the ribs it receives the name perichondrium. It is full of blood-
vessels, especially in the young, and they freely communicate with
those of the surrounding soft parts. Hence it is extremely liable
to inflammation, either caused by injury to itself or to the parts
which cover it.

The marrow, or medullary substance, is contained in the cavities
formed within the bones, being of a yellow color and oily nature
in the shafts of the long bones ; and more or less red, from the ad-
mixture with blood, in the flat and irregular bones, and in the
heads of the long bones. It is contained within the areolar meshes
of a membrane, which lines these cavities, answering to the perios-
teum, which has been already described. This medullary mem-
brane is of excessive tenuity, and is composed of blood-vessels rami-
fying in fine cellular tissues. The use of marrow in the animal
economy is not very clearly demonstrated.

In the embryo, all the bones originally exist in the state of car-
tilage, being soft and flexible. By degrees vascular canals are
developed within its substance, by the union of its cells in rows.
These concentrate towards some one or more points, which in a
long bone are one in the centre of the shaft and one at each ex-
tremity. Starting from this point (^punctum ossificationis) , fibres
run out, embracing clusters of cells, and sending branches between
the individuals composing each group. In this manner the net-
work, characteristic of bone, is formed, the cells uniting to form
the permanent areolae and Haversian canals. At first the contents
of the cells are transparent, then granular, and finally opaque, from
the pressure of amorphous mineral matter. The several ossified
portions are quite distinct for a long time in the young animal, and
may readily be separated by boiling or maceration.

OF THE SKELETON IN GENEEAL.

The name skeleton has been given from the Greek word
ffxiUaj (to dry), it being the only part of the body which will bear
desiccation without change of form. In the vertehrata it is an in-
ternal bony framework, but in the Crustacea it invests the soft
parts, and f Drms an insensible covering to them, while at the same

THE SKELETON. 251

lime it serves tbi purpose of locomotion. In both these divisions
of the animal kingdom the skeleton forms a series of arches or
rings, capable of moving on each other, but so firmly attached as
to secure protection to the important organs contained within them.
In the horse, as in all the higher mammalia, these rings or arches
are double — one set, the superior, being continuous throughout the
whole length of the animal from the head to the root of the tail,
and containing the nervous system ; while the other lying below,
but closely connected to them, is interrupted in certain localities,
being found to exist chiefly in three regions : — 1st, where it forms
the jaws and bone of the tongue ; 2d, where, by means of the ribs
and sternum, it constitutes the thorax and its appendages, the an-
terior extremities ; and, thirdly, where, in the shape of the pelvic
arch, it protects the organs of generation, and, through the poste-
rior extremities prolonged from it, assists in locomotion. The
superior of these arches, from containing the brain, and its pro-
longation, the spinal cord, is called the neural arch. The inferior
is termed the haemal arch {alfia, blood), because it protects the
heart and its large blood-vessels as the latter pass from the thorax
towards the head and posterior extremities. In all the vertebrata
the neural arch consists of one continuous cavity, defended from
end to end by bony plates, strongly joined together; and in some
of the lower forms (lizards) the haemal arch is nearly as complete,
these animals having cervical ribs ; while the dugong and some
others are furnished with ribs in their tails. Consequently, it is
fair to consider the whole skeleton in the superior forms of the
animal kingdom as composed of two series of arched plates, firmly
united together, but still allowing more or less motion, and serving
to protect the centres of the nervous and sanguineous systems,
from which they have received their names.

THE ARTIFICIAL SKELETON.

The bones of the Horse, as of the other mammalia, may be
preserved with their natural ligamentous attachments connecting
them in a dry state, in which condition the skeleton is called a
natural one. It is usual, however, to macerate them so long that
all the soft parts readily separate, leaving the bones without any
of the ligaments or cartilages which are firmly fixed to them during
life. They are then put together by wires, &c., the cartilages being
represented by leather and cork. In this way it often happens
that the proportions are not exactly preserved, and, on reference
to an articulated skeleton in any museum, the inexperienced eye
may be greatly misled. Thus it is very common to represent the
thorax in the artificial skeleton as much shallower than it is in
nature, where its lower margin is on the average about midway
between the top •-? the withers and the ground. Again, in the

252 IHE HORSE.

fresh state, the intervertebral fibro-cartilage is in some parts of the
spine of considerable thickness; and if the proper substance is not
artificially supplied, the skeleton will be too short, or if too thick
a material is added it will be too long. In the engraving of the
skeleton occupying the opposite page, which is drawn from the
skeleton in the Museum of the Veterinary College of London, the
spine is correctly represented, but the thorax is too shallow, and
the scapula, together with the whole fore extremity, is placed too
far forward.

NUMBEE OF BONES COMPOSING THE SKELETON.
The skeleton is composed of two hundred and forty-seven
separate bones, which are united by joints to form the spine, tho-
rax, pelvis, tail, and fore and hind extremities. The spine is
finished anteriorly by the head, which is divided into the cranium
and face, and contains the teeth. Suspended from the head is the
OS hyoides, which completes the number of bones. Thus : —
The spine consists of 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 6 lumbar ver-
tebra—Total 31

The thorax is made up of the dorsal vertebrae, with 18 ribs

on each side, and the sternum in the middle — Total . . 37
The pelvis comprises 2 ossa innominata (or ilium, ischium,

and pubes), and 1 sacrum — Total 3

The tail contains on the average 17 bones 17

The fore extremity is made up on each side of the scapula,
humerus, os brachii, and 8 carpal bones, 3 metacarpal, os
sufi"raginis, os coronas, os pedis, os naviculare, 2 ossa sesa-

moidea — Total on both sides 40

The hind extremity has the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, 6
tarsal bones, 3 metatarsals, os sufi"raginis, os coronas, os
pedis, OS naviculare, 2 ossa sesamoidea — Total .... 38

Bones op the cranium 10

Bones of the face and lower jaw 18

Teeth 40

Bones op the internal ear, 4 in each organ 8

Os Hyoides, or bone op the tongue, made up of five sec-
tions 5

Grand total 247

GENERAL ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COLUMN.

The vertebral or spinal column is the first rudiment of
internal skeleton seen in the lower vertebrate animals, and this
constitutes the type of that great division of the animal kingdom.
In the horse, also, it is the portion of the skeleton first developed
in the embryo, and forms the centre around which all the other

SPINAL COLUMN— HEAD AND FACE. 25:J

parts are framed. At its first ^pearance it is a cartilafjinous
cylinder, surrounding and protecting the primitive trace of the
nervous system ; but as the embryo increases in growth, points of
ossification are developed corresponding to each vertebra, the whole
tube being finally divided into distinct pieces called vertehrse^ to
which the bones of the head are a prolongation, corresponding in
their nature, though differing outwardly in form.

The vertebrse are divisible into true and false, the former reach-
ing from the head to the pelvis, and the latter extending thence
backward, being respectively called the sacrum and coccyx.

The triie vertebrse comprise the 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 6 lum-
bar vertebrae. Each consists of a body, from which two laminae
or plates project upwards, terminating in a spinous process. In
addition to these are two lateral projections (transverse processes),
which serve the purpose of firmly connecting the vertebrse together
by means of the muscles attached to them, and also to the ribs and
extremities below. Lastly, each vertebra has two small surfaces
before and the same number behind (articular surfaces), which
form distinct joints between them.

Between the body, the laminae, and the spinous process, is an
opening, more or less triangular in shape, in which lie the spinal
cord and its investments. The edges of this opening are attached
to those before and behind by ligamentous tissues {ligamenta sub-
flava), which, opposite each intervertebral space, are pierced by
openings on each side to give exit to the vertebral nerves passing
out to the exterior of the body and to the extremities. Opposite
to these openings the bone is notched above and below, and these
intervertebral notches complete the parts common to the whole
series. Thus the vertebral or spinal column serves as a firmly se-
cured but flexible tube for the lodgment of the spinal cord, while
at the same time it gives passage to its nerves. By this formation
it is far less liable to injury, and also more useful as an aid to loco-
motion, than if it were made of one solid piece of bone, which, from
its length, would be readily broken.

OF THE HEAD AND FACE, AND OF THE HYOID ARCH.

Modern anatomists, following out the idea first suggested by
MacHse and Owen, consider the head as made up of six vertebrae ;
the posterior one, or that nearest to the neck, being the occipital
bone, the next two being made up of the temporal bone, and the
ultimate vertebrae consisting of the sphenoid and asthmoid bones
This is a somewhat fanciful hypothesis, when worked out in detail ;
hut it is obvious that the several bones of the skull subserve the
same purposes as the vertebrae, and resemble those parts of the
skeleton in forming a series of irregular arches to protect tho
22

254 THE HORSE.

brain, the division into separate pieces being far more secure than
il" the whole were in one.

FIG. 1. — PROFILE VIEW OF THE HEAD AND FACE.

1 jcciput. 7. Malar bone.

2. Parietal bone. 8. Posterior maxillary bone.

•3. Frontal bone. 9 — 11. Nasal bone.

4. Petrous portion of temporal bone. 10. Anterior maxillary bone.

5. Zygomatic arch. 11. Temporal fossa.

6. Lachrymal bone. 12, 13. Lower jaw.

The bones op the face, including the lower jaw and os
hjoides, depend from the neural arch or brain-case much in the
same way as the ribs and pelvic bones posterior to them are at-
tached to the vertebras, and though they enclose organs of less vital
importance, yet they are perfectly analogous to these parts in their
types and in the offices which they perform.

OF THE THORACIC ARCH AND ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES.

Lying in the horse at some distance posteriorly to the
three first segments of the haemal arch (the bones of the face, lower
jaw, and os hyoides), and separated from them by the neck, where
there is a hiatus, the thoracic arch and anterior extremities de-
pend from the vertebrae corresponding to them. In many of the
higher vertebrates the fore extremity is firmly united by a joint
to the thorax, and may be considered with it ; but in the horse it
is only attached by muscles, the thorax being slung between the
upper edges of the blade-bones by means of two broad sheets of
muscular fibres. Hence the collar-bone is entirely absent in this
animal ; and thus, while he is free from dislocations and fractures
of that bone, to which he would be constantly subject if it were
present, he is rendered more liable to strains and rheumatic in-
flammations of the muscular sling, by which freedcm of action is
impaired.

THE SKELETON. 255

In the artioulated skeleton it is usual to vonsider the
thorax as made up by the eighteen dorsal vertebrae superiorly, the
eighteen ribs and their cartilages on each side, and the sternum
with its cartilages below. But the cavity of the thorax, as bounded
by the diaphragm posteriorly, is not nearly so large as would be
supposed from a consideration of the dry skeleton, for though the
diaphragm is attached to the twelve posterior ribs near their car-
tilages, yet its surface is so convex towards the thoracic cavity,
that a very large space within the bony thorax is really occupied
by the abdominal organs.

THE PELVIC ARCH AND HIND EXTREMITIES.

Behind the thorax occurs a second interval corresponding
to the loins, where the haemal arch is deficient ; but at the pelvis
the circle is completed by the bones of the ischium, ilium, and
pubes, united to the sacrum above, and having the hind extremi-
ties firmly articulated to them at the hip joints. The pelvis con-
stitutes not only a firm and solid case for the protection of the
large blood-vessels, and of the urinary and genital organs, but it is
also intimately connected with locomotion, to which the posterior
extremities largely contribute.

THE TAIL.

This organ appears to be intended chiefly to protect the body
from insects ; but it also serves to some extent as an aid in bal-
ancing the body when rapidly moving in any new direction. It is
made up of from fifteen to eighteen bones.

THE FORE AND HIND EXTREMITIES CONSIDERED AS
ORGANS OE SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION.

Regarding the limbs as means op support, it must be re-
membered that the fore limbs are nearer the centre of gravity,
and, therefore, sustain more weight than the hind. The fore
quarter is suspended between the bases of the two shoulder-blades,
chiefly by the sen-ati magni, and in such a way as to require no
special muscular contraction. The four parts of which the limb
itself is composed being bent at various angles, are prevented from
giving way by the muscular actions of the extensors of the hu-
merus and ulna, the carpus (or knee) having little tendency to
yield, and the pastern being supported by the flexor muscles and
suspensory ligament. The hinder limbs, though sustaining less
weight, are not so favorably circumstanced for this purpose, the
angles between their several parts being generally more acute-
But if these are attentively regarded, there is not so much differ-
ence as is generally supposed. Thus, the first joint, the ilio-fe-
moral, forms a less acute angle t^an its analogue, the shoulder

256 THE HORSE.

joint. Again, though the stifle joint is considerahly bent, it is not
more so than the elbow joint, which will be clear on comparing
the two in the skeleton given at page 252. The chief disadvan-
tage sustained by the hind limbs as means of support will be found
in tlie hock, as compared with the knee, the latter being nearly
straight, while the former is much bent ; but as it has a long lever
to assist it (the os calcis), and as this is kept in position by the
powerful hamstring muscles, each of which serves its purpose far
more completely than the flexor of the carpus inserted in the os
pisiforme, it may readily be understood that the hind limb is not
greatly at a disadvantage in supporting the weight of the body.

As AGENTS OF LOCOMOTION, the offices of the fore and hind
limbs are widely difi"erent. Each has been already described as
consisting of four sections, bent at angles on each other. In the
fore limb these angles are framed to serve as springs, so that when
the feet touch the ground, they are enabled to adapt themselves so
as to avoid altering the line of progression of the body. In those
animals which have small and short fore legs, as the kangaroo and
hare, the most rapid locomotion ever consists in a series of curves ;
whereas, in the horse at full speed, the body progresses in one
straight line, owing to this elastic structure of the anterior limbs.
So, also, in descending from an extraordinary leap, the springy ac-
tion of the fore limbs of the horse is so powerful that he can get
off" again without dwelling, whereas the kangaroo and hare must
depend almost entirely upon their hind legs, and consequently stop
for a second after their descent. On the other hand, the angular
formation of the hind limbs is intended to enable the animal to
drive its whole body forward, by first flexing all the joints, and
thus drawing the feet under the belly ; and then suddenly ex-
tending them with the feet fixed in the ground, the weight is ne-
cessarily propelled. Or if the feet are not fixed they are lashed
out backwards, developing the action so well known as " kicking."
The difference between the powers displayed by the two limbs, in
straightening their component parts, is well displayed in comparing
kicking with the striking out of the fore foot, which is common
enough among vicious horses. It is true that the latter will some-
times cause a severe blow ; but it could very rarely break a limb,
which is the least amount of mischief to be apprehended from the
full force of a lash out with the hinder limb.

THE TEETH.

257

CHAPTER XIV.

THE TEETH.

The teeth are developed within their appropriate cavities or
Bockets, which are found exactly corresponding with their number
m the upper and lower jaws, being narrower in the lower than in
the upper. Before birth they are nearly all in a state of incom-
plete growth, covered and concealed by the gums, but soon after-
wards they rise through it in pairs, the first set, or milk teeth,
being in course of time superseded by the permanent t^eth as In
all the mammalia. The following is the formula of the complete
dentition of the horse : —

Incisors g, canine f , molars ||.

Each tooth is developed within its corresponding cavity in the
jaw, and is made up of three distinct substances — cement, enamel,
and dentine. The cement of the
horse's tooth (sometimes called
crusta petrosa) closely corresponds
in texture with his bone, and,
like it, is traversed by vascular
canals. The enamel is the hardest
constituent of the tooth, and con-
sists of earthy matter arranged in
the animal matrix, but contained
in canals, so as to give the
striated appearance which it pre-
sents on splitting it open. Den-
tine has an organized animal ba-
sis, presenting extremely minute
tubes and cells, and containing
earthly particles, which are partly
blended with the animal matter in
its interspaces, and partly con-
tained in a granular state within
its cells. These three substances
are shown in the annexed section
of an incisor tooth, see Fig. 2,
wliich is of the natural size.

In the molar teeth the ar-
rangement of these three sub-
stances is the same, except that the
cement and enamel dip down into
two or more cavities instead of one, and are also reflected in a sinu-
ous manner upon the sides. This inequality in the hardness of the
22* E

Fig. 2.— section of incisor.

c. Cement ou external surface.

c. Cement reflected within tlie cavity.
e. Enamel also reflected.

d. Dentine.

s. Tartar, colored black by decomposi-
tion of food, contained within the
cavity.

258 THE HORSE.

coinponcQt parts of these teeth causes them to weai away with
different degrees of rapidity, and thus leaves a rough surface,
which materially aids in grinding down the hard grain which
forms a large portion of the animal's food. In the upper jaw, the
table presented by each molar tooth is much larger than those of
the corresponding lower teeth, and therefore it is easy to distinguish
the one from the other.

The temporary or milk incisors differ in shape a good deal
from the permanent set The milk teeth are altogether much
smaller, but especially in the neck, which is constricted in them,
whilst in the permanent set, which go on growing as they wear out,
tJie diameter is nearly the same throughout. The former are also
whiter in color, and have grooves or indentations on their outer
surfaces, running towards the gum. Lastly, the mark on the table
is much slighter than in the permanent teeth. The temporary
molars are not distinguishable from the permanent teeth of that
class.

As A CONSEQUENCE OF THIS ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS, the

teeth, as they wear down, present a different appearance according
to the extent to which their attrition has reached. On this fact i&
founded a means of arriving at a knowledge of the age of the
horse after he has shed his milk teeth, which as a rule he does in
pairs at certain fixed periods. In order, therefore, to be able to
estimate the age of the horse from his teeth, it is necessary to
ascertain, as nearly as may be, the exact time at which he puts up
each pair of his milk or sucking teeth, and afterwards the periods
at which they are replaced by the permanent teeth. Finally, it
becomes the province of the veterina.-ian to lay down rules for
ascertaining the age from the degree if attrition which the per-
manent teeth have undergone. For th^se several purposes, the
horse's mouth must be studied from the earliest period of his life
up to old age.

In horseman's language the incisors are called nippers, the
canine teeth tushes, and the molars (jrinders.

By the END OF THE FIRST YEAR the colt has cut his twelve
nippers and sixteen grinders, which usually pierce the gums at the
following months. Before birth, the eight anterior grinders have
generally shown them.selves, followed about a weeek after foaling
by the two central nippers. At the end of the first month another
grinder makes its appearance all round, and in the middle of the
second the next nipper shows itself. By the end of the second
month the central nippers have attained their full size, and the
second ,'ire about half-grown, requiring another month to overtake
their fellows. Between the sixth and ninth months the corner
nippers are cut, and towards the end of the first year reach their
full size. This first set of nippers consists of teeth considerably

THE TEETH.

259

etnaller in size than the permanent teeth and somewhat different
in shape. They are more rounded in front, and hollow towards
the mouth, the outer edge being at first much higher than the
inner. As they wear down, these two edges soon become level,
but the corner nippers maintain this appearance for a long time.
At six months the central nippers are almost level, with the black
*' mark" in their middle wide and faint; and about the ninth
month the next nipper on each side above and below is also worn
down almost to a level surface.

During the second year the following changes take place : —
In the first month, and sometimes towards the end of the first
year, a fourth grinder is cut all round, which commences the set
of permanent teeth, the three first molars only being shed. At a
year and a half, the mark in the central nippers is much worn out,
and has become very faint; the second is also worn flat, but is not
so faint ; and the corner nippers are flat, but present the mark
clearly enough. In colts which have been reared on corn and
much hay, the wearing down proceeds more rapidly than in those
fed upon grass alone.

The third year is occupied by the commencement of the
second dentition, which is efi'ected in the same order in which 'ihe

B. Anterior maxillary bone.

1'. 1 Centi'ul pirnianent nippers,

full-gru\Mi.
2. 2. Milk teeth worn down.

. Corner milk teeth, still showing ceu-
tral mark
4. 4. Tushes concealed within the jaw.

milk teeth made their appearance. Both sets are contained within
the jaw at birth, the permanent teeth being small and only v^r-

260

THE HORSE.

tially developed, and lying deeper than the milk teeth As the
mouth grows, it becomes too large for its first set of teeth ind the
roots of these being pressed upon by the growth of the permanent
Bet, their fangs are absorbed, and allow the new teeth to show
themselves, either in the places of the former, or by their sides, in
which case they are known by the same of wolf's teeth. This
change proceeds in the same order as the cutting of the milk
teeth, commencing with the first grinder, which is shed and re-
placed by a permanent tooth early in the third year, a fifth grinder
(permanent) making its appearance about the same time. Towards
the end of this year the sixth grinder shows itself, but grows very
slowly, and the central nippers above and below fall out, and ar«
replaced by permanent ones, which, as before remarked, are con-
siderably larger in size and somewhat difierent in form.

At three years the mouth presents the appearance shown, on
the preceding page, the development of the permanent teeth vary-
ing a good deal in diiferent individuals. At three years and four
or six months, the next nipper all round falls out, and is replaced
by the permanent tooth. The corner nippers are much worn, and
the mark in them is nearly obliterated. About this time also the
second grinder is shed.

At four years of age, the mouth should differ from that

FlO 4 — MOUTH OF THE COLT AT FOUR AVD A HALF TEARS

.*.. Anterior maxillary bone.

1. 1. Central nippers, considerably worn

down.

2. 2. The next pair, fully developed, with

their edges elrglitly worn.
8. 3. Corner permanent nippers, in a state

of growth, with the edges of ths
cavity sharp, and the mark very

4. 4. ThetushessJiowiiig themselves through
the gum, but nut ful'-grown.

represented in fig. 3 in the following particulars: — The central
nippers begin to lose their sharp edge-, and have grown consider-

THE TEETH.

261

"bly in substance. The next nipper all round has grown nearly
to its full size, but not quite, and its edges are still sharp, with the
mark deep and very plain. The corner milk nippers still remain,
unless they have been knocked out for purposes of fraud, which
is sometimes done to hasten the growth of the permanent teeth,
and give the horse the appearance of being four or five months
oldei than he is.

Between four and a half and five years, the corner
nippers are shed, and the tush protrudes through the gum These
changes are shown at fig. 4.

At five years, the mouth is complete in the number of its
teeth; and from this date it becomes necessary to study their
aspect in both jaws. Fig. 5 shows the upper teeth at this age, by
comparing which with fig. 4 the slight growth in the half-year

UPPER N1PPLR8 AND TUSHES AT FIVE TEiRS OLD.

L 1 Central nippers, with the mark

still unobliterated.
2 2 Next nippers, with the mark still

plainer.

3. 3. Corner nippers, with the edges very

slightly worn.

4. 4. Tushes, well developed, and still shew-

ing the groove on the outside plainly.

may be traced. In the lower teeth of the same mouth, the edges
of the central cavities are much more worn away, the central
nipper having only a small black speck in the middle of a smooth
surface, while the next is much worn, and the corner teeth, though
showing the mark very plainly, bear evidence of having been used.
The tush is much grown, with its outer surface regularly convex,
aud its inner concave, the edges being sharp and well defined. The

262

TUE HORSE.

PIG. b. — LOWER NIPPERS AND TUijUi-b .^T FI\ E TEARS OLD.

1. 1. Central nipper.s, with their marks

almost entirely worn out.

2. 2. Next nippers, showing marks par-

tially worn.

3. 3. Corner nippers, with the mark plaiiilj

seen, but the edges partially worn.

4. 4. Tushes, with the grooves inside almost

obliterated.

sixth molar is at its full growth, and the third is shed to make
room for the permanent tooth in its place. These two last-named
teeth should always be examined in case.s where there is any doubt
about the age. After five years, no further shedding occurs in
any of the teeth.

FlO. 7.— THE LOWER NIPPERS AND TCSHES OF A bIX-\ EAR-OLD U0R8E

The lower jaw.
I I. The central nippers, with the

marks worn out.
3. 2. The next nippers, with the marks

disappearing.
3. 3. The corner nippers, show"ng the

mark plainly enough, but with th*
edges of the cavity considerably
worn.
4. The tushes, standing up three-quarteig
of an inch, with their points only
slightly blunted.

THE TEETH.

263

The six-year-old mouth is the last upon wliicli any great
reliance can be placed, if it is desired to ascertain the age of the
horse to a nicety; but by attentively studying both jaws, a near
approximation to the truth may be arrived at. It is ascertained
that the nippers of the upper jaw take about two years longer to
wear out than those of the lower ; so that until the horse is eight
years old, his age may be ascertained by referring to them, nearly
as well as by the lower nippers at six. But as diifereut horses
wear out their teeth with varying rapidity, it is found that this
test cannot be implicitly relied on; and in crib-biters or wind-
suckers the upper teeth wear out wonderfully soon. Fig. 7 is
taken from the lower jaw of a six-year-old horse, showing the marks
of the central nippers almost obliterated, but still presenting con-
centric circles, of discolored brown tartar in the middle ; next to
which is the cement, then the enamel, and the dentine, with a thin
layer of enamel outside. Up to this age, the nippers stand nearly
perpendicular to each other, the two sets presenting a slight con-
vexity when viewed together, as seen in figure on p. 254. After-
wards the nippers gradually extend themselves in a straight line
from each jaw, and, in the very old horse, form an acute angle
between them.

EIOHT-TEIR-OLD HORSE.

A. Anterior maxillary bone.

1. 1. Central nippers, worn to

surface.

2. 2. Next pair, still showing a sligJit

remnant of the cavitj'.

mar.k

Corner nippers, showing the

plainly enough.
Tvishes, more worn down than in

the lower jaw of the six-year-old

mouth.

At about the eighth year, the upper nippers present the

264 THE HORSE.

same appearance as already described in the lower nippers at six
years old. Both tushes are considerably worn away at their points,
and the upper ones more so than the lower.

At nine years of age the upper middle nippers are worn
down completely. The next pair have a slight mark left, but
their surfaces are quite level, and the corner nippers have only a
black stain, without any central depression.

-LOWER NIPPERS ANI

After nine years the age of the horse can only bo guessed
at from his teeth, which gradually grow in length, and are more
in a line with the jaw. The section of each nipper presented to
the eye becomes more and more triangular instead of being oval,
as seen in figs. 7 and 8 ; but after about the twelfth year the
triangular section disappears, and the tooth becomes nearly round.
In accordance with the increase of length is the color of the
tooth altered, being of a dirty yellow in very old horses, with
occasional streaks of brown and black. The tushes wear down to
a very small size, and very often one or both drop out.

Allusion has already been made to the practice of re-
moving the milk nippers for the purpose of inducing a more rapid
growth of the next set, which, however, is not materially affected
by the operation ; but dishonest dealers have recourse to another
deception, called hishoj.inr/, by which an aged horse may be passed
off upon an inexperienced person for a six-year old. The plan
adopted is to cut off all the nippers with a saw to the proper length,
and then with a cutting instrument the operator scoops out an oval

THE TEETH. 265

CJivity in the coi uer nippers, which is afterwards burnt with a hot
iron until it is quite black. It is extremely easy to detect the
imposition by carefully comparing the corner nippers with the next,
when it will be seeii that there is no gradation from the centre to
the corn 3r nippers, but that the four middle ones are exactly alike,
while the corners present a large black cavity, without a distinct
white edge to it, the dentine being generally encroached upon with-
out any regularity in the concentric rings. Moreover, on com-
paring the lower with the upper nippers, unless the operator has
performed on the latter also, they will be found to be considerably
more worn than the lower, the reverse of which ought naturally to
be the case. Occasionally a clever operator will burn all the teeth
to a properly regulated depth, and then a practised eye alone will
detect the imposition. In the present day there is not so great a
demand for six-year-old horses as was formerly the case, and pur-
chasers are contented with a nine or ten-year-old mouth if the legs
and constitution are fresh. Hence bishoping is seldom attempted
excepting with horses beyond the age of eleven or twelve ; and the
mere use of the burning-iron without cutting off the teeth will
seldom answer the purposes of the " coper." Formerly it was very
common to see mouths with the corner nippers burnt to show a
" good mark," and nothing else done to them; but, for the reasons
given above, the plan is now almost entirely abandoned.

Irregularities in the growth of teeth are by no means un-
common in the horse, often caused by the practice of punching
out the milk teeth to hasten the growth of the permanent set.
Instead of having this effect, however, the teeth are induced to
take a wrong direction, and not meeting their fellows they do not
wear down as they naturally should. In punching out the corner
nipper it is very often broken off, and the fang is allowed to remain
in the socket. The consequence is that the picking up of the food
does not hasten the removal of the fang of the milk tooth, and in-
stead of accelerating the growth of the permanent tooth in the
natural position, it retards it and sometimes drives it to seek a
passage through the gums behind its proper socket. Here, not
meeting the corresponding nipper of the upper jaw, it grows like
a tush, and has sometimes been mistaken for a second tooth of that
kind. Some horses are naturally formed with "pig jaws" — that
is to say, with the upper longer than the lower — and in these cases
the whole set of teeth grow to a great length, and interfere with
the prehension of the food

266 THE HORSE.

CHiPTEKXV.

OP THE JOINTS AND MUSCLE, — THE TISSUES ENTERING INTO
THEIR COMPOSITION.

Joint J — Cai tilage — Fibro u s Tiss ue — Physiology of Mvscle.
THE JOINTS.

The joints are all formed between two or more separate bones,
having a soft and elastic substance interposed, whose structure
varies with the amount of motion. Where this is extensive, as in
the joints of the limbs, the adjacent surfaces are covered with a
peculiar kind of cartilage arranged in a thin and very smooth layer
upon them. In addition to this protection against friction and
vibration, the bones are firmly bound together by strong bands of
white fibrous inelastic tissue under the general name of ligaments,
each bundle receiving a distinct api^ellation. In those situations
where the motion is limited, a mixture of cartilage and fibrous
tissue is inserted between the ends of the bones and attached to
both, as in the vertebrae, ischio-pubic symphysis, &c. ] while in
order to reduce the vibration and friction in certain important
joints fibro-cartilages are introduced, with both surfaces free, and
in contact only with the usual layer of cartilage, as in the stifle and
jaw. A lubricating fluid (called synovia) is required to reduce
the amount of friction ; and to produce it, as well as to keep it
within proper limits, a membrane (synovial) is developed. This
is attached to each bone in a peculiar manner, to be presently de-
scribed. Lastly, an elastic fibrous tissue (yellow) is met with in
certain situations, the most remarkable being the great ligament
of the neck.

CARTILAGE.

True cartilage (which is familiarly known to all when it shows
the large white masses in a breast of veal, as dressed for the table)
IS a homogeneous, white, semi-transparent substance, possessing a
certain amount of elasticity, and easily cut with a knife. In the
early embryo it exists as the sole foundation of the skeleton, bone
being afterwards deposited in its meshes and finally substituted for
it. This is called temporary cartilage. In after life it invests
those parts of the bones which enter into the composition of the
joints (articular cartilage, which is what we are considering just
now), and also forms the costal cartilages, the ensiform and carini-
form cartilages, and those of the larynx, trachea, and nose. Re-
ticular or memhraniform cartilage, difi'cring slightly from true
cartilage, is met with in the Eustachian tube, the external ear,
and the epiglottis.

CARTILAGE. 267

Structure. — On putting a slice of true cartilage under the mi-
croscope, it is seen to consist of a number of minute cells disseminated
through a vitreous substance. The cells are oval, oblong, or poly-
hedral in shape, and more or less flattened by packing. The mem-
brane forming the cell- wall is usually blended with the matrix, but
sometimes consists of concentric layers. White fibres usually en-
close the mass of cells, and even dip sometimes into those cells
re ore superficially placed. The cells or corpuscles are contained in
hollow cavities, called lacunae. Sometimes they do not entirely fill
up the lacunae, so that a vacant space is left. The corpuscles are
usually dispersed in groups, varying in size and form, through the
matrix ; the groups towards the surface of the cartilage are gene-
rally flattened conformably with the surface. In articular car-
tilage^ the matrix in a thin section appears dim and presents a
granular aspect, the cells and nuclei of which are small. The pa-
vent-cells enclose two or three younger cells. The groups they
form are flattened near the surface, and lie parallel with it. In the
internal part of this cartilage the cells assume a linear direction,
and point towards the surface. Near its attached surface cartilage
blends with the bone, the cells and nuclei of which become sur-
rounded by little granular bodies, which seem to be the rudimen-
tary deposit of bone. In costal cartilage the cells are very large ;
they contain two or more nuclei, which are clear and transparent,
and some contain a few oil globules. The cells, internally situated,
form oblong groups, disposed in lines radiating to the circum-
ference. We observe a great quantity of intercellular tissue, in
the form of white fibrous structure, the fibres of which are parallel
and straight.

Perichondrium (jtepl, around, and ^^ovdpot;, cartilage), is a
white fibrous substance, which covers the external surface of all
cartilages, except those of the joints. In this membrane the blood-
vessels which supply the cartilage with blood, ramify. It is analo-
gous to the periosteum which covers the external surface of bones.

Nerves. — No nerves have been traced into any of the car-
tilages ; they are destitute of sensation while free from inflam-
mation.

Blood-vessels. — Cartilage is non-vascular; it receives its nou-
rishment from the bone and perichondrium by imbibition. The
law of endosmose coming into operation when the tissue is thick,
as in the costal cartilages, canals are formed through which the
vessels pass to supply the parts which are too far removed from
the perichondrium. In articular cartilages no vessels enter. When
cartilage is removed by mechanical means, or by absorption, it is
not regenerated, and when fractured, as in the ribs, there is no
reunion by carti age, but by fibrous, or most frequently by osseous
deposition

L'6» THE HORSE.

Chemical Composition. — True cartilage contains three fifths
of its weight of water. It is ascertained that the cells and the in-
termediate substance are composed of diiferent materials. The
membranes of the cartilage cells are not resolved by boiling, and
offer a lengthened resistance to alkalies and acids. The contents
of the cells coagulate in water and dilute acids, and are dissolved
by alkalies. The intermediate substance consists of chondrin,
which differs from gelatine in not being precipitated by the mine-
ral acids.

FIBROUS TISSUE.

Fibrous tissue exists very generally throughout the body,
being composed of fibres of extreme minuteness. It is found
under three forms, as wliite fibrous tissue, yellow fibrous tissue, and
red fibrous tissue.

White fibrous tissue is composed of cylindrical fibres of ex-
ceeding minuteness, transparent and undulating. They are col-
lected first into small fasciculi and then into larger bundles, which,
according to their arrangement, compose thin layers or membranes,
ligamentous bands or tendons. The membraneous form is seen in
the periosteum and perichondrium, the fasciae covering various
organs, the membrane of the brain, &c. — Ligaments are glistening
and inelastic bands composed of fasciculi of fibrous tissue generally
ranged side by side, sometimes interwoven with each other. These
fasciculi are held together by separate fibres, or by areolar tissue.
They are of all forms, from the round band to the expanded mem-
brane known as a capsular ligament. — Tendons are constructed
like ligaments, but usually in larger and more rounded bundles.
Sometimes they are spread out in the form of aponeuroses.

Yellow fibrous tissue is also known as elastic tissue, from its
most prominent physical characteristic, in which it differs from
white fibrous tissue. It is so elastic that it may be drawn out to
double its natural length, without losing its power of returning to
its original dimensions. Its fibres are transparent, brittle, flat or
polyhedral in shape, colorless when single, but yellowish when ag-
gregated in masses. When this tissue is cut or torn, the fibres
become curved at their extremities in a peculiar manner. It is
met with in the ligamenta subflava of the vertebrae, the liga-
mentum colli, the chordae vocales, and membranes of the larynx and
trachea, and the middle coat of the arteries.

Red fibrous tissue, also called contractile tissue from its pos-
sessing the power of contracting under certain stimulants, is inter-
mediate between yellow fibrous tissue and muscular fibre. Its
fibres are cylindrical, transparent, of a reddish color, and collected
in bundles. It has no connection with the joints, but is met with
in the iris, around certain excretory ducts, and in the coats of the
veins.

FIBROUS TISSUE— PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 269

Chemical Composition. — The flexibility of fibrous tissue :s owing
to the presence of water in it, of which it contains about two-thirds
of its weight. A tendon or ligament will readily dry and become
brittle. Acetic acid causes it to swell up, and here the acid dis-
closes the existence of nuclei and elastic fibres. It is chiefly com-
posed of gelatine, which is extracted by boiling.

Blood-vessels. — White fibrous tissue contains few blood-vessels.
They usually follow the course of the fasciculi ; in ligaments they
run in a longitudinal direction, sending off" communicating branches
across the fasciculi, and eventually forming an open network.
The periosteum is much more vascular, but the vessels do not
strictly belong to the membrane, as the ramifications found in it
are chiefly intended for supplying blood to the bone which it
covers.

Nerves. — Small tendons contain no nerves, and large ones only
small filaments. In the periosteum, nerves are abundant; they
exist there chiefly for supplying the bones with sensibility. The
pain caused in rheumatism, which is an intensely painful disease,
is a proof of the sensibility of white fibrous tissue.

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE.

With trifling exceptions the whole of the movements of the
body and limbs are performed by the agency of that peculiar sub-
stance, known in our butchers' shops as " flesh," and recognised
by anatomists as muscular tissue. This constitutes the chief bulk
of the soft parts external to the three great cavities (the cranial,
thoracic, and abdominal), and in the half-starved subject of the
knacker or highly-trained race-horse, in which the fat has almost
entirely disappeared, the ordinary observer will detect nothing
but muscles (with their tendons) and bones beneath the skin
covering the limbs. On the trunk they are spread out into layers
varying in thickness, sometimes interrupted by flat tendons, so as
to form, at the same time, a protection to the organs within, easily
capable of extension or contraction, and a means of moving the
several parts upon each other.

Tendons resemble ligamenti in being composed of white fibrous
tissue, described at page 268. They serve to connect muscle with
bone, and are useful as aff'ording an agent for this purpose of much
less compass than muscle itself, and also of a structure not so easily
injured by external violence. Thus they are generally met with
around the joints, the muscular substance chiefly occupying the
space between them. There are three varieties of tendon — 1.
Funicular, consisting of cord-like bands ; 2. Fascicular, including
bands cf a flatter and more expanded nature; and 3. Aponeurotic,
which are membranous, and are chiefly met with around the ab-
domen. The fibres are firmly attached to the bones, which s;ener-
23* ' n

270 THE HORSE.

ally present rough surfaces for this purpose, and are also closely
incorporated with the periosteum. This union is so strong, that
it very rarely gives way ; and when extreme violence is used,
either the bone itself breaks, or the tendon snaps in its middle.
Tendons are non-elastic.

To THE NAKED EYE, an ordinary muscle appears to be com-
posed of a number of small bundles of fibres, arranged in parallel
lines, and connected by a fine membrane. These bundles may
still further be separated into what seem at first to be elementary
fibres ; but when placed in the microscope, they are found to be
themselves made up of finer fibres united into fasciculi by delicate
filaments. These ultimate fibrillge are polyhedral in section, ac-
cording to the observations of Mr. Bowman, so as to pack closely
together, and are variable in size in difi'erent classes and genera of
animals. They also difiier in appearance, one class presenting
stripes while the other is without them. The former includes all
the muscles whose movements are under the control of the will as
well as those of the heart, and some of the fibres of the oesophagus,
while the latter is composed of the muscles investing the stomach,
intestines, bladder, &c., which are comprehended under the gene-
ral term involuntary.

The Sarcolemma is the name given by Mr. Bowman to the
areolar tissue investing each fibre, sometimes also called viyolemma.
It is very delicate and transparent, but tough and elastic; in
general it has no appearance of any specific structure, but some-
times it presents an aspect as if there was an interweaving of fila-
ments.

When a fibrilla of striated muscle is examined under the
microscope of a high magnifying power, it is seen to present a
beaded appearance as if made up of a linear aggregation of dis-
tinct cells, alternately light and dark. When the fibrilla is
relaxed, each cell is longer than it is broad ; but, during the
action of the muscle, it assumes the opposite dimensions, the increase
in one diameter being always in proportion to the diminution of
the other. As the contraction takes place the substance becomes
firmer than before, but the bulk remains the same, the mass
merely gaining in thickness what it has lost in length. The
application of certain stimulating agents will produce the contraction
for a certain period after life is destroyed, varying according to
the vitality of the animal experimented upon and the nature of the
individual muscle. This is called irritability in the striated
muscles, which exhibit powerful contractions, alternating with re-
laxations— while in the involuntary muscles a more steady, per-
manent, and moderate contraction is met with, to •^hich the name
ai tonicity has been given.

Pure muscular fibre appears to be identical in jomposition

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 271

with, the fibiine of the blood, being made up of about eeventy-
seven parts water, fifteen and a half parts fibrine, and seven and a
half parts of fixed salts. The whole of the flesh of the body is
largely supplied with blood, and it is found by experiment, on the
one hand, that if this is cut off contraction ceases very speedily
after; and on the other, that in proportion to the amount of mus-
cular action will be the demand for fresh supplies of blood. None
of the gtriated muscles, except of the heart and the muscles of
respiration, can go on acting without intervals of rest, during
which, repairs in their structure are effected. If, therefore, the
voluntary muscles are to be brought into the highest state of vigor
and development of size, they must be regularly exercised and
rested at proper intervals. During the former condition blood is
attracted to them, and at the same time that fluid itself is ren-
dered more fit for the purposes of nutrition ; while, during the
latter period, the increased flow of blood continuing allows for a
complete reparation of the tissues. Thus we find the muscles of
the well-trained racehorse full and firm to the touch ; but if suflS-
cient intervals of rest are not allowed between his gallops, thev
will present a very different feel, being flabby and wasted, and in-
dicating that he has been " overmarked."

The voluntary muscles assume various shapes, according to
their positions and ofiices. Sometimes they are merely long strips
of muscular tissue, with a very short tendon at each end, as in the
levator humeri, and are then called fudform. At others their
fibres radiate as in the latissimus dorsi, which is thence called a
radiating muscle. A third set are called penniform, from their
fibres being attached to one side of a tendon, or hipcnniform, when
they are fixed to both sides like the full tail or wing feather of a
bird. A muscle with two masses of its tissue connected in the
middle by a tendon is called digastric.

In describing each muscle, it is usual to speak" of it as having
an origin from one bone, or set of bones, and an insertion into
another, the former term being generally assigned to the more
fixed division of the two. This is, however, merely for the sake
of convenience, and is entirely arbitrary.

BuRS^ Mucosa, which are shut sacs, varying in size from that
of a pea to a moderate pear, and lined with synovial membrane,
are placed on all the prominent points of bone over which tendons
glide. Thus there is a large one on the point of the hock, and
another on the elbow, both of which sometimes inflame .and
become filled with synovia, constituting the states known as
capped hock and elbow. A third situation is just above the
sesamoid bones, where the swelling from inflammation receives the
name of windgall. Where, as in the legs, the tendons have to
glide to a great extent, they are invested with synovial sheaths.

272

THE HORSE.

which are bound down by white fibrous tissue at the points where
the strain is the greatest. In the limbs the muscles are bound up
into masses by strong but thin layers of intercrossed white fibrous
tissue, which receives the name of fascia. In the horse this ia
very firmly attached to the surfoce of the muscles beneath, and
greatly interferes with the clean dissection of them.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE THORAX.

Contents of the Thorax — The Blood — General Plan of the
Circulation — The Veins — Physiology of Respiration.

CONTENTS OF THE THORAX.

The THORAX, or chest, is that cavity formed by the bodies of
the dorsal vertebrae superiorly; by the ribs and their cartilages
with the connecting muscles laterally; by the sternum inferiorly;
by the diaphragm posteriorly, and by the inner margins of the first
ribs and body of the first dorsal
vertebra anteriorly. It contains
the central parts of the import-
ant organs of circulation and
respiration, and gives passage to
the oesophagus, as it connects
the pharynx with the stomach.
As these lie within it, they are
allowed to play freely in per-
forming their functions, by being
enveloped by smooth serous mem-
branes, called the pleura and the
pericardium, the latter being
also protected by a fibrous layer.
A section of the thorax, as shown
in the plan, fig 10 will give some
idea of the relative situation of
these organs and their invest-
ments, as well as of the shape of
the cavity itself in this direction.
The heart is shown at A, lying
between the two bags oi the
pleura, in the space called the
mediastinum. The lungs are shown at B B, covered by a fine
Berous membrane (H H.), pleura pulmonalis, except at their roots,

*I0. 10.— SECTIONAL PLAN OF THORAX AND ITS
CONTENTS (THROUGHOUT ITS OIBTH-PLACE).

A. Heart.

B. B. Lungs.

0. E. D. F. Walls of the thorax.
0. G. Pleura costalis.
U. H. I'leura pulmonalis.

THE THORAX— TL 2 BLOOD. 273

where tlie air-tube3 and blood-vessels pass into tbeir substance.
This portion of the pleura is continuous with the serous membrane
lining the ribs (G Gr, pleura costalis), which thus allows them to
expand and contract freely, by allowing one surface to glide against
the other. Thus, the pleura on each side covering the lungs, and
reflected thence to the inside of the ribs, and the thoracic side of
the diaphragm, forms a shut sac or bag, which in the natural state
contains only sufficient serum to lubricate its walls ; but in disease
this is often increased to an enormous extent, ending in dropsy of
the chest, or in a collection of pus when the membrane is greatly
inflamed.

As the walls of the thorax expand by the action of the muscles
which move the ribs, as well as by the contraction of the diaphragm,
rendering its thoracic surface less convex, the cavity is enlarged
and air is drawn in through the trachea, constituting the act of
inspiration. On the other hand the contraction of the walls, and
the forcing upwards against the diaphragm of the stomach and
liver, by the action of the abdominal muscles, reduces the size of
the thorax, forces out the air, and induces expiration. The repe-
tition of these two actions is known by the general term respiration.

Before proceeding to describe the heart and lungs, it will be
necessary to examine the blood, for transmitting which fluid to all
parts of the body the heart and its vessels are formed; while, for
its proper aeration, the lungs, windpipe, and larynx, are intended
by nature.

THE BLOOD.

The blood, supplied from the food by the digestive process
hereafter to be described, furnishes all the tissues of the body with
a constantly renewed stream of the materials which they severally
require, whether for their nutrition or for the functions of secre-
tion and excretion performed by the various organs devoted to
these purposes. It is necessary, therefore, that this fluid should
be composed of elementary matters capable of combining to form
the materials required, or of those substances ready prepared
Thus, the muscles demand for their proper action fibrine and oxy-
gen, both of which are largely combined in arterial blood, while
the nervous system cannot respond to the calls of its grand centre
without having a due supply of fatty matter, also, in combination
with the oxygen obtained by respiration, which, howeve:*, is not
only intended to afford this gas, but also to remove the carbon
that would otherwise accumulate to a prejudicial extent. For
these several purposes the blood must be supplied with liquid ele-
ments by absorption from the digestive organs, and with its oxy-
gen, by imbibition through the delicate membrane lining the lungs>
on which it is spread as it passes through the system of blood-

274 THE HORSE.

vessels specially set apart for that purpose. When it is cons Jered
that the stomach, bowels, liver, pancreas, and spleen, are all occu-
pied almost solely in supplying the fluid with its grosser niaterials,
and that the heart, lungs, kidneys, and skin, are constantly engaged
in circulating it, supplying it with oxygen, and purifying it from
noxious salts and gases, its importance in the animal economy may
be estimated as it deserves.

As IT CIRCULATES in, or immediately after it is drawn from, itd
appropriate vessels, the blood consists of an opaque, thickish fluid,
composed of water, fibrine, albumen, and various salts, and called
Liquor sanguinis, colored red, by having suspended in it a quan-
tity of corpuscles of a peculiar nature, some being without any
color. When drawn from an artery or vein, and allowed to remain
at rest for a few minutes, a coagulation takes place, by which the
blood is separated into the clot (coagulum) and the serum. The
former is composed of fibrine, having entangled in its meshes the
corpuscles; and the latter is the hquor sanguinis, without its fibrine.
The blood corpuscles of the horse measure about the five-hundredth
part of a line in diameter, being considerably larger than those of
man, whose diameter is only the four-hundred-and-thirtieth part
of a line ; those of the ass being still smaller, though only slightly
so. As in all of the mammalia but the camels, these bodies are
circular flattened discs, and are of the same size (nearly) in all
animals of the same species, whatever may be the age or sex. Ac-
cording to Messrs. Prevost and Dumas, the blood of the horse con-
tains less solid matter than that of man, in the proportion of 9.20
to 12.92 in 1000 parts. The temperature is also lower by about
two degrees of the centigrade thermometer, the pulse slower in the
proportion of 56 to 72, and the respirations 16 per minute against
18 in our own species. The shade of color in the red corpuscles
depends upon the proportion of carbonic acid and oxygen com-
bined with them. If the former preponderates, a deep purple-red
is developed, known as that of venous blood; while a liberal supply
of oxygen develops the bright scarlet peculiar to arterial blood.
The saline matters dissolved in the liquor sanguinis consist of the
chlorides of sodium and potassium (which comprise more than one-
half of the whole salts), the tribasic-phosphate of soda, the phos-
phates of magnesia and lime, sulphate of soda, and a little of tho
phosphate and oxyde of iron.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION.
The blood is circulated through the body, for the purposes
of nutrition and secretion, by means of one forcing-pump, and
through the lungs, for its proper aeration, by another; the two
being united to form the heart. This organ is therefore a corn-
bound machine, though the two pumps are joined together, so aa

GENERAL PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION.

275

t() ajpear to the casual observer Id be one single organ. In com-
mon language, the heart of the mammalia is said to have two sides,
each of which is a forcing-pump ; but the blood, before it passes
from one side to the other, has to circulate through one or other
of the sets of vessels found in the general organs of the body, and
in the lungs, as the case may
be. This is shown at fig. 11,
where the blood, commencing
with the capillaries on the gene-
ral surface at (A), passes through
the veins which finally end in
the vena cava (B), and enters
the right auricle (C). From
this it is pumped into (D) the
right ventricle, which, contract-
ing in its turn, forces it on into
the pulmonary artery (E), spread-
ing out upon the lining mem-
brane of the lungs, to form the
capillaries of that organ at F,
from which it is returned to the
left auricle (Gr) through the pul-
monary veins. From the left
auricle it is driven on to the left
ventricle ; and this, by its power-
ful contractions, forces the blood
through the aorta (I), and the
arteries of the whole body, to
the capillaries (A), from which
the description commenced. But
though this organ is thus made
up of two pumps, yet they are

united into one organ, and the two auricles and two ventricles
each contract at the same moment, causing only a double sound to
be heard, instead of a quadruple one, when the ear is applied to
the chest. In the diagram it will be seen that one-half of the
cavities and vessels is shaded, indicating that it contains dark
blood, while the other contains blood of a bright red color. But
though we commonly call the one venous, and the other arterial,
the distinction only applies to the general circulation ; for that of
the lun^s is exactly the reverse, the pulmonary artery (p]) contain-
ing dark blood, and the pulmonary veins bringing it back to the
heart after it is purified, and has again received oxygen sufficient
to develop the scarlet color again. Between the auricles and ven-
tricles, and again at the openings of the latter cavities into their
respective arteries, valves of a form peculiar to each are placed, so

Fia. 11. — PLAN OF THE dRCULATlON.

A. Capillaries on the general surface.

B. Vena cava.

C. Right auricle.

D. Right ventricle.

E. Pulmonary artery.

F. Capillaries of the lungs, uniting to form

the pulmonary veins, which enter

Q. The left auricle.

H. The left ventricle.

I. The aorta posterior, dividing into small-
er arteries, and united with the capil-
laries at A.

J. The trunk of the aorta anterior.

270 THE HORSE.

is to allow of tilt free passa;j:e onwards of tli< blood, but not of its
return by regurgitation. If they become diseased, the action of
the heart is impeded, and the circulation of the blood is more or
less seriously interfered with. So, also, if the muscular fibres, of
which the walls of the auricles and in much thicker layers of the
ventricles, are composed, become weak by want of proper exercise,
or from the deposit of fat in their interspaces, a corresponding de-
gree of mischief is effected in the passage of the blood. The force
with which the left ventricle contracts may be estimated from the
fact, that if a pipe is inserted in the carotid artery of a horse, and
held perpendicularly, the blood will rise in it to a height of ten
feet; and the rapidity of his circulation is such, that a saline sub-
stance will pass from the veins of the upper part of the body to
those of the lower in little more than twenty seconds. Now, aa
this transmission can only take place through the current that re-
turns to the heart, and passes thence through the lungs and back
again, afterwards being forced into the lower vessels through the
aorta, it follows that every particle of this fluid passes completely
through the whole circulation in the above short period of time.

THE VEINS.

The veins generally correspond with the arteries, the blood of
which they return to the heart. Thus, there is a large vein which
conveys all the blood from the anterior half of the body supplied
by the anterior aorta, and this is called vena cava anterior. In a
similar manner the ixMerior vena cava is made up of veins which
accompany the several arteries that are found throughout the body,
with one remarkable exception connected with the secretion of bile.

Although, in general, the veins and arteries correspond in
their ramifications, yet there is a large class of superficial veins
which are not accompanied by any of the latter vessels. In horses
which for many generations have been accustomed to fast work,
these superficial veins are strongly developed, and are particularly
plain in the Arab and his descendants. As a consequence of this,
and of the fact that many of the arteries are accompanied by two
veins, the whole number of veins is much greater than that of the
arteries, and the internal area of the former may be considered to
be nearly double tliat of the latter. In their walls the veins are
much thinner than the arteries, though, like them, they have three
coats, the serous and cellular being very similar in structure, but
the fibrous is very much thinner and devoid of muscular fibres.
A feature peculiar to the veins is the existence of valves, which
are sometimes single, at others double, and occasionally arranged
ii' threes and fours around the interior of the large veins. They
vary in numbers, and are altogether absent in the pulmonary veins
in the venae cavje, and the vena portae.

BREATHING. 277

PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION.

The essence of the act of breathing consists in the absoyption
of oxygen from the air, and /he excretion of carbonic acid from
the blood which is circulated through it. In a state of rest thi?
interchange must go on with regularity, for carbonic acid is con-
stantly developed by the decay of the tissues, arising from ihu
peculiar necessities of the muscular and nervous tissues, and bj
the conversion of the carbon of the food which appears to be
required for the development of heat. But when the muscletj
of the whole body are called into play with unusual rapidity and
force, the development of carbonic acid is largely augmented, and
thus, not only is there a necessity for extra means of excreting
the carbonic acid, but there is also a demand for more oxygen to
unite with the carbon, which is the result of the disintegration
of the muscular fibres employed. Hence the acts of respiration
are more complete and rapid during exercise than in a state of
rest, and while much more carbonic acid is given off, a greater
volume of oxygen is absorbed from the air which is inspired.

It is found by experiment that if venous blood is exposed
to the action of oxygen, through a thin membrane such as blad-
der, it absorbs a portion of that gas, and changes its color from
dark red to a bright scarlet. This is in accordance with the re-
cognised laws of endosmose and exosmose; and as the blood cir-
culates in very fine streams within the vessels of the lungs, whose
walls are much thinner than an ordinary bladder, it may readily
be understood that it is placed in more favorable circumstances
for this interchange of gases than when tied up in a large mass
within a comparatively thick membrane. On examining the
structure of the lungs, they are found to be made up of a pair
of cellular sacs, communicating with the trachea, which admits
air into them ; and these sacs are furnished with a fine network
of capillary vessels distributed on their walls, and on those of the
numerous cellular partitions of which they are composed. Thus
the blood, as it enters the lungs in a venous state, is submitted
under very favorable circumstances to the agency of atmospheric
ail ; it readily absorbs the oxygen while it gives off large volumes
of carbonic acid gas, the result of the combination of previously
absorbed oxygen with the carbon given off by the various organs
of the body already allunded to.

The exact chemical changes which have taken place in the
atmospheric air exhaled from the lungs and in the blood itself are
believed to be as follows : 1. A certain portion of oxygen has dis-
appeared from the air. 2. It has received a considerable volume
of carbonic acid. 3. It has absorbed fresh nitrogen. 4. It has
parted with some of the nitrogen of which it was previously made
up The last two chmges cannot readily be demonstrated, b'lt are
24

278 THE HORSE.

iuferred from the fact that, under varying conditions of the body,
the nitrogen in the exhaled air may be either above or below the
proper proportional. Besides these, the air also receives a con-
siderable quantity of moisture, and some organic matters, which
in certain cases are largely increased. The changes in the blood
are not so fully known ; but it is now the general opinion of phy-
siologists that the formation of carbonic acid does not take place
in the lungs, but that the blood arrives there surcharged with it
already made, and not with carbon, as was formerly believed. The
action chiefly consists in the excretion of this carbonic acid, and
in the absorption of oxygen, which is stored up for the several
purposes for which it is required in the course of its circulation
through the body. Magnus demonstrated by experiment that
arterial and venous blood contain very different quantities of car-
bonic acid, oxygen, and nitrogen in a free state, for on obtaining,
by means of the air-pump, a volume of the gas contained in each
kind of blood, and analyzing them, he found them to be made up
as follows : —

Arterial. Venous.

Carbonic acid 62-3 71'6

Oxygen 23-2 15-3

Nitrogen 14-5 13-1

It appears, therefore, that in passing through the capillaries, the
gas in the arterial blood loses about eight per cent, of oxygen, and
receives about nine per cent, of carbonic acid, which action is re-
versed as it passes through the lungs.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC VISCERA.

/ he Abdomen and its Contents — Physiology of Digestion — Absorp-
tion— Structure of Glands and Physiology of Secretion — Depu-
ration and its Office^in the Animal Economy — The Stomach —
The Intestine f — Liver — Spleen — Pancreas — Kidney — Pelvis-
Bladder — Organs of Generation, Male and Female.

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS.

Lying immediately behind the thorax, from which they
dfO separated only by the diaphragm, are the important organs of
digestion, and the space in which they are closely packed is called
the abdomen. This part is capable of being distended downwards
and sideways to an en rnious extent, or of contracting till the lower

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS 279

walls approach very closely to the upper. The anterior boundary,
as before remarked, is the diaphragm, the plane of which movea
considerably in active respiration, causing the flanks, or postero-
lateral walls of the abdomen, to rise and fall, in a corresponding
manner, and thus to indicate the extent of distress in an exhausted
animal, or any peculiarity of breathing, as in " broken wind," or
in the several inflammatory conditions of the lungs. Posteriorly,
the boundary is an open one, being the anterior boundary of the
pelvis, and corresponding with the brim of that cavity. Superiorly
arc the crura of the diaphragm, the lumbar vertebrae, and psoas
and iliacus muscles ; and laterally, as well as inferiorly, the ab-
dominal muscles, and cartilages of the false ribs. Although the
abdominal muscles are capable of great dilatation, yet in the
natural condition they maintain a gentle curve only from their
pelvic to their costal attachments, and hence the depth and width
of the back-ribs and pelvis are the measui-e of the ordinary
capacity of the abdomen. Shallow and narrow back-ribs give a
small abdominal cavity, and generally speaking, a con-espondingly
weak condition of the digestive organs; for though this rule is
not invariable, yet it is one which may be held as a sufficient guide
for practical purposes. Instances do occur of stout and hearty
horses possessed of contracted middle pieces, but they are so rare
as to be merely objects of curiosity. The small space which is
devoted to the organs of digestion in the horse whose back ribs
are shallow will be readily understood by reference to the annexed
section, in which the enormous mass of intestines and the liver
have been removed, leaving only the stomach and spleen. Wheu
the walls of the abdomen are distended laterally and downwards,
as they always are in horses at grass, the capacity of the abdomen
is at least doubled.

The contents of the abdomen are the stomach, the liver,
the pancreas, the spleen, the small and large intestines, the mesen-
teric glands and chyliferous ducts, and the kidneys, together with
their vessels and nerves. Some of these organs are fixed close to
the spine, as the kidneys and pancreas ; but the others glide upon
each other as they are alternately empty or full, and to facilitate
this motion they are (like the lungs) invested with a serous coat,
the peritoneum. They may be divided into the hollow organs
which form one continuous tube (the alimentary), and the solid
viscera, which, with the exception of the spleen, are all of a
glandular structure, though difi"ering in their minute anatomy.
The alimentary canal consists throughout of three distinct layer?- :
the external serous coat (^ peritoneal)^ the middle or muscular coat,
and the internal mucous coat, which are united by cellular mem-
brane, sometimes regard d as forming two distinct additional coats

280 THE HORSE.

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION.

Before proceeding to examine into the anatomy of the ab-
dominal organs, it may be well to investigate the nature of the
processes which are carried out by them. To do this, the food must
be traced from its prehension by the lips and teeth to its expul-
sion from the anus. Thus, commencing with the mouth, we find
it there ground into a coarse pulp, and mixed with the saliva,
which acts as a kind o? fainent in converting the starchy matters,
which form so large a proportion of the horse's food, into sugar,
and, with the aid of the gastric juice, into the proteine compounds
necessary for the formation of flesh. Perfect mastication and
insalivation are therefore highly important processes to healthy
digestion. When it reaches the stomach, the food undergoes still
further changes by the agency of the gastric juice and of mace-
ration ; but this organ being small in the horse, it cannot remain
there long enough to be converted into perfect chyme (the result
of the first process of digestion), but is passed on into the duo-
denum for that purpose. Here it is further elaborated, and re-
ceives the bile and pancreatic juice, which are poured out through
their ducts opening on the internal surface of this intestine. The
nutritious parts of the food are now gradually converted into chyle;
and as it passes into the jejunum and ilium, it is there absorbed
by the lymphatics (here called lacteals), whose mouths open upon
the villi thickly lining this part of the canal. These unite into
one duct (the thoracic), and the chyle is by it carried into the
veins through an opening at the junction of the left vena cava an-
terior, with the allary vein. From the small intestines, ttie food,
minus its nutritive portions, is passed on into the large intestines,
and finally reaches the rectum and anus, in the form known as
faeces. The peculiar ofiices performed by the bile and pancreatic
fluid will be described under the sections treating of each of those
organs.

The absorption of fluid from the interior of the alimentary
eanal is eff"ected in two difi"erent modes — first, by the lacteals, which
take up the chyle through their open mouths ; secondly, by the
veins, which absorb it through their walls by the process known
as endosmose. In the former case the chyle is at once carried to
the heart; but in the latter, it passes through the liver, and be-
comes puiified and chemically altered in that organ The lacteals
pass through the mesenteric glands, which lie between the layers
of the mesentery.

STRUCTURE OF GLANDS AND PHYSIOLOGY OF
SECRETICN.

A GLAND may be defined to be an organ whose ofiice it is to
separate from the blood some peculiai mbstance, which is poured

THE GLANDS— DEPUKATION. 281

out through an excretory duct, whose iuteraal surface is continu-
ous with the mucous membrane, or skin. A simple gland is, in
fact, nothing more than a pouch of mucous membrane ; and a col-
lection of these pouches constitutes a compound one, which, if the
groups of which it is composed are loosely bound together like
grapes, as in the salivary glands, is called conglomerate ; whib, if
they are united into a solid mass, such as the liver, the term con-
globate is applied.

By secretion is understood the process of separation of various
matters from the blood ; the term being also applied to the pro-
ducts of the process, such as saliva, bile, &c., which are commonly
known as secretions. These are all removed from the blood for
one or two purposes — first, in order to be employed for some ul-
terior object in the various processes going on in the body, either
for its own preservation, or that of others ; or, secondly, as being
injurious to its welfare, and therefore to be discarded. The term
secretion is sometimes confined to the former, while the latter
action receives the distinguishing term excretion : but as in many
cases the fluid which is removed as being injurious to the system
is also used for beneficial purposes the distinction is not capable
of being strictly maintained. The nature of the process is es-
sentially the same in all cases, being carried out by the development
of simple cells, each possessing its own independent vitality. These
cells select certain ingredients from the blood, and then set them
free by the rupture of their walls ; and being situated on the free
surface of the lining membrane of the gland, which is continuous
with the mucous membrane or skin, the secreted fluid gradually
reaches the one or the other. It is impossible, at present, to ascer-
tain the precise means by which each gland is made up of cells
having special powers of selection ; but that the fact is so, i&
capable of demonstration. Thus, the cells of the liver select the
elements of bile ; those of the salivary glands, saliva ; and so on.
But, as we shall hereafter find, there are minute points of diflfer-
ence in the arrangement of these cells in the difi'erent glands. It
is now ascertained that the elements of the various secretions
exist in the blood ; and therefore the office of the glands is con-
fined to the selection and separation of their products, and they
have little or nothing to do with their conversion.

DEPURATION, AND ITS OFFICE IN THE ANIMAL
ECONOMY.

The whole of the various secretions which go on in the
body are necessary for the due preservation of its health ; but the
most important of the class alluded to above as excretions, must be re-
moved from the blood or death will speedily ensue. Thus, if saliva
and gastric juice, as well as the ot'^ >r secretions aiding digestioa.
24*

282 THE HORSE.

are not mixed with the food, the nutrition of the body will be
imperfectly carried on, and its health will suffer. But if the ele-
ment of bile and urine are retained in the blood, not only is the
system upset, but absolute death is produced in severe cases.
Hence it follows, that attention to the state of the organs of
depuration, or excretion, is of more importance even than those of
secretion, using these terms in the sense explained in the last para-
graph. The chief organs of depuration are the lungs, which re-
move carbon from the blood ; the liver, which secretes the bile ;
the kidneys which get rid of the urea ; and the skin, which relieves
it of its superfluous watery and some small proportion of its solid
particles. Experiment shows that the retention of carbon, or urea,
in the blood is speedily followed by death ; while the non-secretion
of bile, if entire, poisons the system; and in milder cases, its
absence from the alimentary canal interferes with the due elabora-
tion of the chyle.

THE STOMACH.

The stomach is situated on the left side of the abdominal
?avity, immediately behind the diaphragm. It resembles in shape
the bag of the Scotch bag-pipes, having two openings, two curva-
tures (a lesser and a greater), two surfaces, and two sacs, which
are generally divided by a constriction. Its volume varies with
its contents, but in the horse of average size it will not contain
more than three gallons, while the stomach of man, whose weight
is only one-eighth that of the horse, holds three quarts.

THE INTESTINES.

The intestines, large and small, constitute a hollow tube,
very variable in diameter, and measuring from eighty to ninety feet
in length in an average-sized horse. They extend from the stomach
to the anus ; and though nature has only divided them into two
portions, the small and large, yet anatomists have subdivided each
of ihese into three more, namely, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
— ccecum, colon, and rectum.

The small intestines are about seventy feet long, and vary
from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, except at their
commencement, where there is a considerable dilatation, forming
a sort of ventriculus or lesser stomach. They are gathered up
into folds, in consequence of the mesentery, which attaches them
to the superior walls of the abdomen, being of very limited extent
as compared with their length ; and thus they may be described
as presenting two curves, a lesser mesenteric curvature, and an
outer or free one covered by the peritoneum. The outer layer of
the muscular coa consists only of a few and scattered fibres, while
the inner one is 'ircular in its arrangement, and though t bin as

INTESTINES— LIVER— SPLEEN. 283

(iompared with the stomach, yet it is easily distinguished. The
mucous coat is gathered into a few longitudinal folds when empty,
which are vei'y marked at its commencement; but there are no
vah'ular appendages as in the human intestines. It is everywhere
studded with villi or little projections, like the pile of velvet,
through the open mouths of which the chyle is taken up, and be-
neath it are numerous glands named after their discoverers.

The large intestines, as their name implies, are of much
greater diameter than the small ; but they are not above one-third
of their length. Instead of being convoluted, they are puckered
into pouches by a peculiar arrangement of the longitudinal mus-
cular fibres, which are collected into bundles or cords, and being
shorter than the intestine, gather it up into cells. The mucous
membrane also has very few villi, which become more and more
rare towards the rectum.

THE LIVER.

This important organ is in close contact with the right side
of the diaphragm. It is of an irregular figure thick in the middle
and thin at the edges ; divided into three lobes ; convex on its an-
terior surface, where it is adapted to the concave aspect of the dia-
phragm J concave posteriorly. The color is that which is so well
known, and peculiar to itself. It is everywhere invested by the
peritoneum, excepting the spaces occupied by the large veins as
they enter and pass out, and the coronary ligament which sus-
pends it, as well as the three other folds of peritoneum, which
have also received particular names.

The function of the liver is doubtless chiefly of a depuratory
nature, but the soapy nature of the bile seems to be destined to aid
in dissolving the fatty materials which are contained in the food,
and to stimulate the intestines to perform their duties.

THE SPLEEN.

The spleen can scarcely be considered as a gland, inasmuch as
it has no excretory duct, but it contains within its substance a
number of little bodies, called Malpighian corpuscles, which most
probably perform the same ofi&ce as the absorbent glands. Its
weight as compared with the whole body is about the same as in
man, whose spleen weighs six ounces, while that of the horse rarely
exceeds three pounds. It is attached by the lesser omentum (a
fold of the peritoneum) to the stomach, and occupies the left side
of that organ. It is covered by a serous coat continuous with the
peritoneum, and its internal structure is spongy, and made up of
cells which contain a large quantity of blood.

The function of the spleen is not positively ascertained, but it
is believed to perform the ofiice of a reservoir for the blood re-
quired by the stomach, wt .h which it is closely connected by a sot

284 THE HORSE.

of vessels (vasa bre /ia), and also to effect some change in the blood
itself.

THE PANCREAS.

The pancreas is an elongated gland resembling in structure
the salivary glands, placed close to the spine, above the stomach.
It has two excretory ducts, which carry the pancreatic fluid se-
creted by it into the duodenum through a valvular opening com-
mon to it and the hepatic duct. The use of the pancreatic fluid
appears to be similar to that of the saliva.

THE KIDNEYS.

The kidneys are two oval organs situated beneath the psoas
muscles, and only retained in their position by the fatty cellular
membrane which envelops them, and by the upward pressure of
the other abdominal viscera below them. The right kidney is
completely within the ribs, but the left scarcely advances at all
beyond the eighteenth rib : each averages about forty ounces in
weight, but there is a considerable variation in size and form.
Unlike the corresponding organ in the cow, the horse's kidney is
not split up into lobules, though there is some little irregularity of
outline and surface.

THE PELVIS.

The cavity of the body known as the pelvis is situated be-
hind the abdomen, with which it communicates freely, each being
lined by a continuation of the peritoneum. A ridge of bone (the
brim of the pelvis) is the line of demarcation anteriorly. The
sacrum and os coccygis bound it superiorly, the anus posteriorly,
and the ossa innominata inferiorly and laterally. It contains the
bladder and rectum in both sexes, and in each the organs of gene-
ration peculiar to it.

THE BLADDER.

The bladder is a musculo-membranous bag destined to contain
the urine as it is gradually received from the ureters, which bring
it down from the kidneys. It lies in the middle of the pelvis,
occupying also more or less of the abdomen according to its con-
dition in point of repletion or emptiness. It is of an oval shape,
with its posterior extremity somewhat more pointed than the other.
and called its neck. At this point it gives origin to the urethra,
a canal for carrying off the urine. It receives the two ureters at
its superior surface, about an inch in front of the neck, where they
pierce the several coats in an oblique direction forming a complete
valve which prevents the return of the urine, and so invisible that
the presence of two openings is scarcely ever suspected by the
ordinary observer. Only about one-third of the bladder is covered
l)y the peritoneum, the remainder being made up solely of th<»

ORGANS , F GENERATION. 285

muscular and mucous coats which compose all the hollow viscera.
It is i-etained in its place by the cellular membrane which connects
it with the lower walls of the pelvis, posteriorly by the urethra,
and by the folds of the peritoneum which are continued from it
to the sides of the pelvis, and are called the broad ligaments of the
bladder.

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, MALE AND FEMALE,

The male organs op generation consist of the testes and
their ducts the vasa deferentia, the latter conveying the semen to
the urethra or to the vesiculae seminales, which are oval bags con-
nected with the upper surface of the neck of the bladder. Here
the seminal fluid is stored up for use, and when wanted is conveyed
into the vagina by means of the external organ or penis. The
anatomy of the testicles is that which mainly concerns the horse-
master, as they are generally removed by operation. They are
contained within the scrotum, which is externally composed of
skin wrinkled in the foal, but subsequently distended by the size
and weight of its contents. Beneath this is a layer of a pale yel-
lowish fibrous membrane called the dartos, which envelops the
testes and forms a separation between them. A thin coat of cellu-
lar membrane alone separates this from the double serous mem-
brane, the tunica vagina4is, which almost entirely envelops each
testis just as the pleura does the lung. In the early stages of fcetal
life the testes are contained within the abdomen above the perito-
neum, but being attached to the scrotum by a thin muscle (the
cremaster) they are gradually dragged downwards through the
inguinal canal and each brings a double layer of peritoneum, which
continues its connection through life, so that fluid injected into
the cavity of the tunica vaginalis will flow into the peritoneum.
' Hence inguinal hernia in the horse becomes scrotal in a very short
space of time, and rarely remains confined to the former position
The testicles with their appendages, the vesiculae seminales, form
the semen by the usual process of secretion. They are of about
the size of a duck's egg, and besides their attachment by the re-
flexions of the tunica vaginalis to the scrotum, they have also the
spermatic cord which suspends them to the inguinal canal through
which it passes. This cord it is which is divided in castration,
and it is well to ascertain its component parts. They are, 1st.
The artery which supplies the testicles with blood, and is of con-
siderable size and tortuous in its course. 2d. The artery of the
cord, small and unimportant. 3d. The veins which accompany
these arteries. 4th. The nerves and absorbents, the division of
the former giving great pain and causing a slight shock to the
system. 5th. The vas deferens or duct carrying the semen to the
urethra, and possessing walls of such thickness that it feels like

286 THE HORSE.

whipcord under the finger. These several p&.is are connected
together by cellular membrane and covered by the two layers of
reflected peritoneum, namely, the tunica vaginalis and tunica vagi-
nalis reflexa, by the thin layer of cremaster muscle, as well as by
a fourth investment, a continuation of the superficial fascia of the
abdomen. All these parts must be divided before the canal is
reached, for operating in castration.

The female organs op generation are essentially the ova-
ries, the uterus and its appendages forming the bed in which the
embryo is nurtured to maturity. The ovaries are two small oval
bodies, about the size of large walnuts, situated behind the kid-
neys, and having the fimbriated extremities of the fallopian tubes
hanging loosely adjacent to them. These tubes, one on each side,
terminate in the uterus, which is of a remarkable shape in the
mare. It consists of a body and two horns. The body has a
mouth, or os, which opens into the end of the vagina, while, in
itself, it is oblong, and in the unimpregnated state it is entirely
contained within the pelvis. Anteriorly it divides into two horns
(cornua), which diverge towards the loins, turning upwards, and
lying under the wings of the ossa ilii. They terminate in rounded
extremities Each cornu receives the fallopian tube of its own
side, the opening being so small as scarcely to admit a silver
probe. The vagina lies between the bladder and rectum, and is
about eighteen inches in length ; it is lined with mucous mem-
brane, and surrounded with muscular fibres, which form the
sphincter vaginae.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE NERVES AND SPECIAL ORGANS.

The Nerves — The Organ of Smell — The Eye — The Ear —
The Organ of Touch — The Foot.

THE NERVES.

The NERVOUS system may be compared to the fuel that
heats the water of the steam-engine, and converts that apparently
most simple and innocent fluid into the powerful agent which is
capable of developing almost any amount of force. This fuel,
however, is itself inactive until it is endowed with life by the
agency of fire; and, in the same way, the nervous system of the
animal being must be provided with the living principle, of whose
nature we can only judge by its effects when present, and by the
cessation of all action when absent. There are many processes

NERVOUS SYSTEM— NOSE— EYE. 287

which are carried on in the animal as in the vegetable without the
necessity for any direct stimulus from a nervous centre, such as
the growth of each separate tissue throughout the body, which
takes place in the former, just as it does in the latter, by a speciea
of cell-development and metamorphosis independent of nervous
energy ; but though this growth is thus accomplished, yet it would
soon be starved out for want of pabulum, were it not for the supply
of food to the stomach, which requires the mandate of the nervous
system for its performance, and so on with every corresponding
action of the body.

The nervous system is made up of two distinct substances,
one grey in color, and granular in structure, which is the seat of
all nervous power ; the other white and fibrous, which is the tele-
graph wire by which this power is communicated. Sometimes the
grey matter envelops the white, and at others it is enclosed within
it, but in every case each has its peculiar office, as above men-
tioned. Each collection of grey matter is called a ganglion, what-
ever its shape may be ; but the white fibres may be either in the
form of commissures for connecting the ganglia together, or they
may be agents for communicating with other organs, and are then
called nerves.

THE OKGAN OF SMELL.

The nose of the horse, like all the solipedes, is endowed with a
sensibility far greater than that of man ; but in this respect he is
not equal to many other animals, such as the dog and cat kinds,
and the sole use which he makes of this sense is in the selection
of his food.

THE EYE.

The organ of sight may be considered as consisting first of
all of an optical instrument very similar to the camera obscura,
now so commonly used in photography, and secondly of the parts
which are employed to move, adjust, and protect it from injury.

The eye itself consists of three transparent humors, which
answer the purpose of the lens of the camera, by collecting the rays
of light upon the back of the eye. These are the aqueous in front,
the crystalline lens in the middle, and the vitreous humor behind.
The first is a perfectly transparent and limpid fluid, secreted by
the Hning of the chamber in which it lies, and capable of being
rapidly renewed in case of a puncture letting it out. The lens, on
the contrary, has the consistence of very hard jelly, and is
arranged in concentric layers, like the coats of an onion. It is
merely a double convex lens, precisely like that of the camera in
its action, and is the chief agent in producing the impression of an
object upon the sensitive part of the eye. Behind it is the vitre-
ous humor, composed, like the aqueous, of a limpid fluid, but in-

288 THE HORSE.

Stead of being unconfined except by the walls of the chauiber in
which it lies, it is bound up in a network of transparent cells,
which give it the consistency and appearance of a delicate jelly.
Upon the perfect transparency and proper shape of these humors
depends the sight of the animal ; but in addition to the risk of
blindness from any defect in these parts, if the investing coats or
membranes are inflamed or disorganized, their functions are not
performed, and the sight is either impaired or destroyed. Thus
the rays of light may be fairly collected, so as to throw the impreS'
sion of every object within the sphere of vision upon the back of
the eye, and yet the horse may be blind, because the retina or
expansion of the optic nerve is disorganized by disease. When
inflammation attacks the coats of the eye, it generally extends to
the investments of the humors, and to the substance of the lens
itself, producing cataract or opacity of that part, but it is possible
to have the sight impaired from a mere defect of shape in the
anterior coat, so as to make the surface too convex and thus alter
the focus of the sight. This is the " buck-eye," which leads to
shying, and is perfectly incurable. The membranes a,ve, Jirst, the
cornea, a perfectly transparent coat, placed in front of the eye, and
inserted, like a watch glass, in the sclerotic coat covering the
posterior four-fifths of the globe. The latter is a white fibrous
membrane, strong and inelastic, so as to aff"ord protection to the
parts within it from external violence. This forms the white of
the eye, which, however, is only occasionally visible in the horse.
Beneath the sclerotic is the choroid coat, consisting of a network
of blood vessels, and lined with a black pigment, which again has
on its internal surface, at the part opposite the pupil, a greenish-
white iridiscent lining, called tapetum lucidum, or luminous carpet.
Lastly, within the whole of this surface is spread a beautiful
expansion of the optic nerve, called the retina, which receives the
impressions derived from the rays of light, forming a distinct figure
upon it exactly similar to the objects which are presented to it,
except in point of size, and in being inverted. Beyond these parts,
there is a provision made for moderating the rays of light according
to their intensity. This is effected by means of an opaque septum,
pierced with an oval hole — the former being called the iris, and
the latter the pupil. The substance of the iris itself is composed
of contractile tissue, which has the power of expanding or contract-
ing the pupil in obedience to the impression produced upon the
retina, and thus, if the eye is examined in a strong light, the pupil
will appear large when shaded by the hand, but contracts immedi-
ately on exposing the eye. The horse's iris is brown, varying
somewhat in shade in different individuals, and at the upper part
of the pupil it presents one or two little floating appendages, which
serve to moderate the sun's rays. Sometimes the brown color is

THE EYE— THE EAR. 289

absent, and the iris is either partiall}' or entirely white, in which
case it is called a " wall eye ;" but though this is considered
unsightly, it does not interfere with vision. The iris is stretched
across the chamber of the aqueous humor, and is thus enabled to
act freely. There are many other delicate structures worthy of
being examined, but want of space must prevent any further allu-
ciion to them.

The appendages of the eye are 1st. The conjunctiva or mem-
brane protecting the exposed surface of the eye. 2d. The eyelids
3d. The membrana nictitans or haw. 4th. The muscles of the
eye. 5th. The lacrymal apparatus. The conjunctiva covers the
whole front of the eye, being thin, and perfectly transparent in a
healthy state, but on the occurrence of inflammation speedily be-
coming red and puffy. It is reflected from this face to the inside
of the eyelids, and the whole membrane is extremely liable to in-
flammation from any external irritation. The eyelids have nothing
very remarkable about them, being merely cartilaginous shutters
covered with fine skin, and lined with conjunctiva, and raised and
lowered by muscles peculiar to them. The membrana nictitans or
haw is a cartilage lying just within the inner corner of the eye,
but capable of being thrust outwards so as to partially cover it
when the muscles retract the eye, and for want of space drive it
forward. This happens whenever the eye is irritated either by
an insect, or by the dust or hayseeds which are so often deposi-
ted upon the conjunctiva, and which, causing the eye to be drawn
back, displace the fat deposited in the back of the orbit, and this
again pushes forward the haw. For this reason, in all irritable
states of the eye, the haw is prominent, but it by no means follows
that its removal will diminish the irritation ; on the contrary, the
usual effect is to increase it, and the operation is not only useless,
but injurious. The muscles move the eye in all directions, and
have the peculiar property of keeping the long diameter of the
pupil always nearly in a line parallel with the horizon. Practi-
cally they are not of any great importance. The lacrymal appa-
ratus consists of the lacrymal gland, situated beneath the outer
wall of the orbit, and secreting the tears, which are intended to
wash the conjunctiva clear of any foreign body. The secretion is
thrown out upon its surface through a number of small ducts, and,
traversing from the outer angle to the inner, is conducted through
two small openings in the lids to the lacrymal sac, and from that
by the nasal duct to the nose.

THE EAR.
This organ is divided into the external ear for collecting the
waves of sound, and conveying them inwards, and the internal ear
which is situated within the petrous part of the temporal bone
25 T

290 THE HORSE.

The latter is a very complicated and delicate organ ; but its forma-
tion does not differ in any essential features from that of the other
vertebrate animals, nor are the diseases attacking it in the horse
of any particular importance, so that its description will be omitted.

THE ORGAN OF TOUCH.

The sense op touch is necessary for the proper appreciation
of the mechanical form and nature of the objects placed in appo-
sition to the body, and of their temperature It is seated gener-
ally in the terminations of the nerves of sensation on the skin ; but
there are certain parts specially endowed with these nerves, which
in the horse are the lips and the four extremities.

Every part of the skin is sensible to impressions from ex-
ternal objects, but the sense of touch, such as we possess in the
fingers, can only be said to reside in the lips, and partially in the
feet. All these parts are profusely supplied with nerves of sensa-
tion, and the horse may often be observed to use them in ex-
amining external objects, especially his lips, which are the most
delicate of his organs of touch. Mr. Rarey has lately drawn special
attention to this subject; but it has long been known to those
who are familiar with the habits of the horse. The feet are also
largely supplied with nerves, though not to the same extent as the
human fingers, and being covered with horny matter, the sensi-
bility of the surface is greatly reduced ; still there can be no doubt
that the horse uses them occasionally in making out the nature of
objects presented to him, and this is especially the case with the
fori! feet, though it will sometimes happen that the hind extremi-
ties are used for the same purpose, as for instance, in ascertaining
the nature of a hard body before kicking at it.

THE FOOT.

It is necessary to examine the structure of the foot most
carefully, not as an object of curiosity connected with the sense of
touch, but on account of the numberless diseases and accidents to
which it is subject. No part of the horse is so liable to the effects
of hard work and mismanagement as this, and there is conse-
quently none which more requires our care both in health and
disease.

The parts, entering into the composition of the foot, will be
b?lter understood by a reference to the annexed section of the
phalanges or fingers terminating the metacarpal or metatarsal
bones, as the case may be, with their investments. It will be seen
that there is very little space between the pedal bone and the
crust, which, together with the sole, forms a horny case or
natural shoe, for the sensibl? and delicate investments of the
bone. So small is this space, that when inflammation takes place

THE FOOT.

291

ita. 13— SECTION OF THE PARTS ENTERING INTO THE COMPOSITION OF THE FOOT AND '
FETLOCK AND PASTERN JOINTS.

A. Os suffraginis.

B. Os coronae.

C. Os pedis.

D. Os naviculare.

E. E. The perforans and perforatus tendons.
G. Inferior sesamoideal ligament.

H. Cleft of frog.

I. Side of frog cleft.

J. Sole.

K. Crust.

L. Coronary substance.

there is no room for any swelling (the invariable accompaniment
of that disease), and intense pain is occasioned, as well as rapid
disorganization of the structure itself. The horny case is
attached to the foot by a delicate membrane, which lies in folds
upon the pedal bone, and it can be torn away by violence, or when
piitrefaction has commenced, with great ease. These parts are
separately displayed. The several parts which we shall have to
examine, commencing from without, are — 1. The horny case oi
hoof; 2. The parts which secrete it ; 3. The arteries which supply
it with blood ; and 4. The pedal bone and cartilages, as well as
the navicular bone, which it encases.

The hoof consists of three distinct parts, which, though in the
recent state they are inseparably united, may be readily separated
after maceration for a few days. These are the external wall or
crust, the sole or slightly concave surface forming the bottom or
floor of the case, and the triangular central portion of this called
the frog. The crust reaches from the edge of the hairy skin tc
the ground, and averages about three incl ^,s and a half in depth.

292 THE HORSE.

The front is tte toe, the back the heel, and thi iutermediate part
the quarter on each side. It is said by Bracy Clark to be a
segment of a cylinder, but it is really narrower at the top than at

FlQ. l:j.— TUE HOOF.

FlO. 14.— FRONT VIKW OF THE rOOT. WITH TKK

A. Outer surface of crust.

B. Inner surface of crust.

C. Upper surface of sole.

D. Part corresponding with

the cleft of the frog.

E. Coronary band.

HOOF REMOVED.

A. Coronary substance.

B. Laminae.

the bottom, and it should rather be described as a section of a
truncated cone. When examined from the side, the anterior sur-
face should form an angle of about forty-five degrees with the line
of the sole, and the upper edge or coronary band should join the
sole, so as to leave a moderate substance at the heel ; for if too
great the foot does not expand, and is liable to disease from that
cause ; or if too thin and narrow, the foot is weak and gives way
downwards, ending in a convexity of the sole instead of the
reverse. The front of the crust is rather more than half an inch
in thickness, and in a strong foot of average size gradually
diminisliiiig to the quarters, at
the back of which it is generally
barely a quarter of an inch
thick, especially at the inner of
the two. This proportion is
however confined to the ft re
foot, for in the hind there is
little difference between the toe
and quarters in point of thick-
ness. The superior border, or
coronary band, is marked by its
whitish color. On its external
)oT surface it resembles the crust
below ; but internally it differs
ill being smoothly excavat<;d.

rtO. 15. — THE UNDER SCRFACE

A. Cleft of frog.

THE FOOT. 293

whilst the crust exhibits perpendicular striae, corresponJing
with the laminae; but this is not well shown in Fig. 13. In
examining the cut of the sole, Fig. 15, it will be seen that the
crust is bent inwards towards the frog at the heel on each side ;
there are the bars, which in the natural foot appear as sharpened
prominences, extending from the heels into the centre of the font,
between the sole and the frog, and which are useful as buttresses,
supporting the crust from being crushed inwards by the superin-
cumbent weight. The sole is the plate at the bottom of the foot,
which should be slightly concave downwards, and is fixed to the
inner edge of the crust, and the outer sides of the bars, and not to
their lower surfaces. Its usual thickness is about one-sixth of an
inch, but it will vary greatly in different horses, and it is thicker
where it runs back between the bars and the crust. It is secreted
in plates, which can readily be separated with a knife in that
direction. The frog is the prominent, triangular, and elastic
substance, which fills up the space between the heels posteriorly,
the bars on each side, and the sole in front. In the middle is a
longitudinal fissure, called the cleft, the sides of which should
form an angle of about forty-five degrees. In front of this cleft
is a solid wedge of the elastic borny substance, constituting the
frog, which lies immediately beneath the navicular bone and
has received the name of the cushion. Posteriorly it is spread
out into a thin band on each side which covers the bulbs of
the heels, and passes round the upper part of the wall constituting
the coronary frog-band of Bracy Clark, which is continuous with
the coronary substance. The structure of the horn which forms
these three divisions, varies a good deal. In the crust it is fibrous,
somewhat resembling whalebone in this respect, but not quite so
hard; these bristly fibres are united by'a gelatinous substance, but
they are arranged so as to lie in straight lines descending from the
coronary circle to the ground. The wall may, therefore, be
considered as composed of hairs agglutinated together, and each
secreted by one of the villi, which are so thickly spread over the
surface of the coronary circle. The sole is also fibrous, but not
nearly so much so as the wall ; and the fibres are not arranged in
so parallel a manner, taking rather an oblique direction from
behind forwards, and being more easily separated into scales.
"The frog differs from both, in possessing finer fibres and in smaller
quantity, in comparison with the gelatine, which formation renders
it more soft and elastic and also more prone to decomposition.
The horny matter is sometimes colored a grayish brown, some-
times white, and sometimes marbled by a mixture of the two
colors.

The hoof is developed by secretion, which- has its seat in the
corouary substance and laminae. It consists in a pouring out on
25*

294

THE HORSE.

their surface of a plasma, in which rounded cells develop them-
selves, in correspondence with the villi fioui which the secretion ia
poured out. These cells are arranged in layers, corresponding
with the secretory surface. In the crust this growth takes place
from the superior border to the inferior, but in the sole and frog,
from the internal surface to the external. This growth is constant
through the life of the animal, and it would give the hoof an
excessive development if it were not either for the wear of the soil
in the unshod horse, or of the action of the smith's knife in the
shod one ; but the increase of the wall being solely from above
downwards, it does not require any reduction on its external sur-
face. The coronary substance, sometimes called the coronary liga-
ment, is a fibro-cartilaginous band intervening between the skin of
the leg and the hoof, covered
with cuticle externally, and with
villi, which form a secretory sur-
face on the edge towards the
hoof. It is most liberally sup-
plied with blood, as we shall
presently see, and is attached to
the upper part of the coflBn bone
and extensor tendon by cellular
tissue. It gradually becomes
thinner as it descends upon the
pedal bone, and ends in puckers
or folds, which are continuous
with those of the laminae, and
are not even separable from then:
by maceration. The laminse
thus continuing upon the pedal
bone, consist of about five hun-
dred parallel folds or plaits,
plentifully supplied with blood,
and forming a secretory surface,
which aids the coronary suo-
stance to foi'ui the horn. They
lie upon an elastic substraxuiu
of fibrous periosteum, which ib
of great service in taking oft the
jar from the foot in its bauer-
Fu 16.— VIEW OP VESSELS OP THE FOOT, IN- iflg upou hard Toads, for It ap-
i. Plantar vein. pears that the Weight of the

2. Plantar artery. bodv is suspended fruni these

8. Brnnflies to tlie coronary substance and i , j j. • ^ ..i

iiimii,,,.. plates, and not carried upon the

i Poste, i.,r djvi8i<,n of plantar artery. gole. The laminae are contidu-

5. Perpendicular branch. ■ i i .. i

6. Anastumosis witli opposite plantar artery. OUS at the tOC With the Sensible

THE 1 OT.

295

sole, which is a vascular membrane covering the floor of the
pedal bone, and secreting the horny sole. In the centre of the
posterior part of this is the sensible frog, which is of nearly the
same shape as the horny frog, and is still more liberally supplied
with blood than the sensible sole.
The arteries supplying
these vascular structures with
blood, and the veins taking it
back, are of great importance,
and doubly so because it is in
these vessels that an operation is
often performed in inflammation
of the foot, calculated to afford
relief by a local abstraction of
blood. Commencing with the
large metacarpal artery, which
is the continuation of the radial
below the knee, we find it de-
scending by the side of the
tendo-perforatus under the pos-
terior-annular ligament. Imme-
diately above the fetlock joint
it splits into three branches ; the
middle one passing to the deep
parts of the leg, and the two
others, forming the plantar arte-
ries, descend on each side the
postero- lateral parts of the cor-
onary substance. Here they
divide into two leading portions,
the anterior running round to
meet its fellow of the opposite
side, and giving off with it a
coraplete fringe of vessels, which
are displayed in the accompanying representation of an injected
preparation of the foot. The branches uniting in front of the foot
and encircling the coronary ligament are called the superior cor-
onary circle. The posterior division of the plantar artery gives off,
opposite the pastern joint, the artery of the frog, which descends
obliquely inwards through the substance of the sensible frog, and
divides into two branches within it, after which it supplies the whole
of that substance with numerous vessels, and then goes on to the sole,
to which it gives off a number of radiating branches. After giving
off the artery of the frog, the plantar artery ends posteriorly in the
lateral laminal branch which passes through the foramen in the
ala of the os pedis, and supplies the laminae Thus the whole of

Fig. 17. — viem" of the arteries op the frou
and sole, injected.

A. Lower porous surface of pedal bone.

B. Lateral surface nf pedal bone.

C. C. The plaiitai' v<-ins.

D. D. The plantar arteries.

E. Lateral cartilage contracted by drying.

F. Veins of the frog, injected.

296 THE HORSE

these structures are full of blood-vessels, for not only are the
arteries above described ramifying thus extensively upon them,
but the blood is returned by corresponding veins.

Besides the pedal and navicular bones, there are also
two cartilaginous plates at the back of each ala of the pedal bone,
which are of considerable importance. These have been called by
the late Professor Coleman the lateral and inferior cartilages,
whilst others have given them the name of the true and false.
The lateral cartilages extend backwards and outwards from the
posterior and upper borders of the cofl&n or pedal bone. They are
united in front with the expanded terminations of the extensor
tendon, and by cellular membrane with the lower end of the os
coronas. Posteriorly they wind upwards around the ala of the
pedal bone, to which they are firmly fixed, forming the foundation
for the heel. But in addition to these lateral or true cartilages,
there are also two others, of a fibro-cartilaginous nature, which
commence from the sides of the former and proceed forwards
towards the heels of the pedal bone, and spread inwards upon the
surface of the tendo-perforans. They are scarcely worthy of being
described as distinct cartilages, and appear more like ordinary
condensed cellular membrane.

It will thus be seen that the foot of the horse is a most compli-
cated structure, which is liable to derangement whenever the hoof
or horny case is interfered with, and this may occur either from
mismanagement in shoeing, causing mechanical injury, or from
inflammation of the secreting surface, which will end in the for-
mation of imperfect horn, or from punctures or other wounds of
the foot. Perhaps in no organ does an injury so soon produce a
return at compound interest, for the inevitable first result is a mal-
formation of the hoof, and this again only adds to the original
mischief. Hence it is that in the foot, more than in any other
pare even, prevention is better than cure, for in many of its
diseases it happens that a cure cannot be obtained without rest ;
and yet it is also the fact that the secretion of horn will not go on
perfectly without the stimulus of necessity afforded by exercise.
The position of the leg is such that its veins have a hard task to
perform at all times in returning the blood from the feet, but when
the horse is not exercised at all they become doubly sluggish, and
congestion in them is almost sure to occur.

THE

DISEASES OF THE HOESE,

IHE ACCIDENTS TO WHICH HE IS LIABLE.
WITH THEIR TREATMENT.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISEASES AND INJURIES OF BONE.

General Remarks — Splints — Ringbone and Sidebone — Ossification
of the Lateral Cartilages — Bone Spavin — Exostosis oj the Hu-
merus and Scapula — Fistula of the Withers — Poll E.vil — Canes
of the Jaw — Osteo Sarcoma — Fractures.

GENERAL REMARKS.

The diseases of bone are not commonly attended by any con-
stitutional disturbance, and neither require an examination of
general symptoms, nor the adoption of any but local treatment,
beyond that attention to the health which is always necessary.
They may all be included under the heads of, — 1st. Exostosis, or
increased growth of bone. 2d. Caries, or ulceration. 3d Anchy-
losis, or unnatural union of two bones, in consequence of exostosis,
or caries, or both. 4th. Fractures, or disunion by external force.
Malignant diseases of the bone also occur very rarely in the horse,
so that it will be scarcely necessary to occupy any space with their
description, especially as they are perfectly incurable.

Exostosis is the result of increased action in the nutrition of
the part, and is much more prevalent in young horses than in old.
Indeed, after six or seven years of age it is very rarely met with,
and never attacks the bones at that age for the first time. It may
be recognised by a hard swelling of the part, which in recent cases
is painful on pressure ; but sometimes its site cannot be reached
with the finger, and the disease can then only be detected by its
efi'ects. A blow upon any of the bones, when unprotected by any-
thing but skin, will produce inflammation followed by exostosis;

(297)

298 THE HORSE.

but the most ordinary cause is the over..:,timulus of hard work
Heavy horses are more prone to exostosis than light ones, partly
from the weight of their bodies and their high lumbering action
jarring their limbs in a greater degree, but also from the more
spongy and open texture of their bones, which admit of the pres-
sure of large blood-vessels within them, and are thus more liable
to congestion, and consequent morbid secretion. Exostosis is shown
in the form of splints, ring and sideboue, and ossified lateral car-
tilages, as well as in the growths which occur occasionally in other
parts of the body which have received no distinguishing name.
The vitality of the new growth in exostosis is less than that of
healthy bone, and as a consequence, when excessive inflammation is
set up in the part, it will often die and be separated by absorption.

Caries (ulceration) occurs as a consequence of inflammation, and
in the horse either results from external injury, as in poll evil and
fistulous withers, or from mismanagement, as in navicular disease,
which latter aff'ection will be considered under the diseases of the
foot. It is always attended with pain, and in severe cases with the
formation of sufficient matter to require an outlet, but in very re-
stricted ulcerations, such as occur in navicular disease, the pus
passes into the joint, and is reabsorbed with the synovia.

Anchylosis, when it is the result of caries in the two adjacent
surfaces of a joint, produces union between them, but in the horse
it is generally of a secondary kind, the result of bony growths
(exostosis), thrown out from the surfaces of the two bones near
the joint, which coalescing, unite into one mass, and thus destroy
all motion.

SPLINTS.

The strict definition of this disease is " an exostosis from
the lower part of the small metacarpal bone, connecting it by bony
union with the large metacarpal bone," but among horsemen, any
bony growth from the cannon bone is considered a splint, and the
latter is almost as common as the former. The regular splint rarely
attacks the outer small metacarpal bone alone, but sometimes in
very bad cases both are implicated in the disease. It is difficult
to give a valid reason for this greater frequency of splint on the
inside than on the out, but it is commonly said that the inner
splint bone receives more of the weight of the body than the outer
one, and that it is more under the centre of gravity, but as it is
merely suspended from the carpus, and is not supported from below
(in any way, mediately or directly), this can produce no injurious
effect upon it. The fact is so, however, whatever may be the cause.

The symptoms of splint are generally a greater or loss degree of
lameness during its formation, but sometimes it may go on to attain
a large size without any such result, especially if its growth is slow.

SPl xNTS. 299

and the liorse is not severely worked. It is commonly lemarked
that a splint is of no consequence unless its situation is such as to
Intel i'ere with the back sinews, or suspensory ligament, and although
it is quite true, as has been asserted by learned veterinarians, that
the splint is far removed from the former, and seldom interferes
with the latter, yet it is almost always directly connected with the
attachments of the sheath of the tendon, and this being stretched
ovary time the leg is extended will occasion the pain which is ex-
pressed by the limp in the action. The size of the morbid growth
has no relation with the amount, or even with the existence of
lameness, for a very small splint will often be far more productive
of this symptom than a very large one. In examining a leg it is
often only after careful manipulation in the flexed condition that
a small bony tumor (of the size perhaps only of a garden pea) can
be detected, but when once the finger presses upon it, the horse
will almost invariably be found to flinch, and usually it will be
thrown out just where the sheath of the tendon is attached. Here
there is no union between the small and large metacarpal bones,
and the injury is confined to the inflammation produced in the
sheath, which will generally go ofi" after proper treatment and rest.
These small bony growths are not very uncommonly met with in
the hind legs, but they are not recognised there as splints. No
constitutional symptoms are met with in these cases, and they must
be ascertained by the local symptoms alone. Unless the splint is
in the way of the action of the other foot, and the skin on its sur-
face is bruised by repeated blows, there is seldom any swelling of
the soft parts, but when this occurs, the skin and cellular mem-
brane become puffed and hot, and extreme lameness is the result,
temporarily aggravated by every blow.

The treatment of a splint will depend upon the state in which
it exists, and upon the purpose to which the horse possessing it is
destined. If no lameness exists, and the blemish is not objected
to, it is far better not to meddle with it, for in the course of a few
years it will disappear by absorption as a matter of course.
Moreover it often happens that in attempting to remove a splint
by some irritating application, extensive inflammation is set vip in
the fibrous strictures attached to it, and lameness, which was not
previously in existence, is thenceforth a most troublesome attend-
ant. If, however, the horse is for sale, in which case the exist-
ence of a splint would be regarded with suspicion, or if lameness
has shown itself, it will be necessary to adopt measures likely to
ofi'ect the absorption of the morbid growth, and these are chiefly
two : — 1st, Sub-cutaneous scarification, or without, a seton, or the
eeton alone ; and 2d. Counter-irritation by means of some form of
blister. If the soft parts covering the splint are much inflamed,
the horse should have his corn taken away, and a dose of physic

300 THK HORSE.

given him, during which a wet bandagj should be ktipt constantly
applied, and indeed, in any case of splint severe enough to require
operation, the cooling remedies mentioned above should be adopted
beforehand. The operation is performed with a probe-pointed
narrow knife, shaped like a scimetar, with the cutting edge on the
convex side. A small opening is made in the skin about an inch
below the splint, and just large enough to admit the knife, which
is then introduced and pushed upwards with its flat side towards
the skit, till it reaches the tumor, when the convex edge is turned
towards this, and several extensive scarifications are made in the
periosteum covering it, after which the knife is withdrawn and a
fine seton-needle is introduced in its place, and passed upwards
until it reaches above the splint, when it is pushed through, and
the tape drawn out, and properly secured with a bandage. Of
course the horse must be cast and properly secured before resorting
to the knife. In the course of ten days or a fortnight, the tape
may be withdrawn, and the splint will almost invariably disappear.
Sometimes the seton is tried without the scarification, but it is not
nearly so successful, and is nearly as troublesome an operation. In
most cases both of these operations are unnecessary, and the
application of the following blister (which has a tendency to
produce absorption, independently of its counter irritative powers)
will have the desired effect.

Take of Biniodide of Mercury .... 1 drachm

Lard 1 ounce. Mix,

and after cutting the hair short, rub a little into the skin covering
the splint, every night, until a free watery discharge is produced
from the surface. To facilitate this the leg should be fomented
with very hot water every morning and afternoon, and this should
be continued for several days after the ointment has been dis-
continued. The horse will not gnaw the skin after this applica-
tion, and it is a very useful one for general purposes, when
counter-irritation is required to produce absorption. If, after a
week's interval, the splint does not appear much reduced in size,
the ointment should be re-applied, and repeated at similar inter-
vals till the swelling is removed. When the bony growth is very
extensive, neither scarification nor counter-irritation will be of
much service, and the leg must be fired, and afterwards repeatedly
blistered, but even with the best and most energetic treatment,
the part will seldom become sufiiciently sound to stand anything
but fllow work.

EINGBONE AND SIDEBONE.

lliNGBONE AND SIDEBONE both consist in the throwing out of
bony matter about the joints of the os coronge ; the former name
being given to the disease when it attacks that between it and

RINGBONE— OSSIFICATION OF CARTILAGES. 301

th(! 0? suiFraginis, and the latter when the seat is the paifcs around
its union with the os pedis or coffin bone. Very often, and espe-
cially in heavy cart or dray horses, ringbone and sidebo.ie co- exist
in the same leg, where the three bones are completely anchylosed,
and in which, during life, the only action was in the fetlock joint.
The disease attacks the hind leg as well as the fore ; but it is
more common in the latter than in the former.

The symptoms are a greater or less enlargement of the leg, of a
hard and unyielding nature, either immediately above the coronet,
as in sidebone, or a little higher, as in ringbone. In the latter
case, if thoroughly established, it surrounds the joint, whence the
name of ringbone ; but in the early stages it appears at certain
points from which it spreads all round. Sidebone is seldom so
extensive, and usually attacks the postero-lateral parts of the os
coronge, where the swelling is defined, and, except in very hairy-
legged or gummy-heeled horses, can easily be felt. In the early
stages the action is not impeded, but there is more or less soreness
or lameness. After much bone is thrown out, the joints are either
completely fixed or their movements are extremely limited.

The treatment in the early stage is precisely similar to that for
splint; but the operation of scarifying the periosteum requires
great care and some knowledge of the anatomy of these joints, or
the knife will pierce the capsular ligament, and increase the evil
it was intended to relieve. A seton without the scarification will
often be of service, and for sidebone, firing in the early stage will
be serviceable, though it is objectionable on account of the blemish
it leaves behind. The biniodide of mercury ointment already
described is most useful in slight cases, but in severe ones it will
rather tend to aggravate the growth, and when anchylosis has
ta*ken place, nothing but time and patience for the subsidence of
the inflammation will avail. When this has taken place, and the
joint is fixed, a high-heeled shoe will enable the horse to work,
with some awkwardness it is true, and the addition of a leather
sole, will to some extent take oflF the jar, which occurs in a greatly
increased ratio when the elastic action of the pastern joints is
destroyed.

OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES.
This is commonly known as ossification of the cartilages, or
false ringbone, no other cartilages being subject to ossification,
and these being therefore known par excellence as the cartilages.
In heavy cart-horses it oflen co-exists with ringbone and sidebone,
especially the latter ; but it also attacks well-bred carriage-horses,
and high actiuned hacks, which are comparatively free from those
diseases.

The symptoms sr'^. more o^ less enlargement of the back of the

26

302 THE HORSE.

coronet, and heel, the part feeling unnaturally hard and irregu-
lar or lumpy. If recent, there is generally increased heat on
careful examination with the hand ; but in old standing eases
there is nothing of the kind to be detected. Lameness is not
always present, but if the horse is rattled over hard ground, he
will be more likely to show the effects on the next day, by going
short and sore, than if he were free from this disease.

The treatment should be confined to recent cases, for in old
standing ones, unless lameness shows itself, it is better to avoid
any interference. A seton, with rest, has sometimes proved very
efficacious, even in confirmed ossification, and repeated dressings
with the biniodide of mercury ointment, will, in those cases where
the inflammation does not run very high, afford the Jest chance
of causing the absorption of some of the bone, for a complete cui'e
is never effected. When there is much heat in the part, bleeding
from the foot may be adopted, and afterwards, the application of
cloths dipped in cold water, with the addition of a glass of tincture
of arnica to quart of water. In confirmed cases, where the parts
have become callous, a leather sole to the shoe will take off the
vibration, and should be used during the summer season. Scari-
fication of the skin covering the enlargement with a lancet, encour-
aging the bleeding by warm water, and followed by the use of
cold water as soon as the bleeding has ceased, will sometimes do
wonders in recent cases. The scarification should be repeated at
intervals of five or six days, taking care to avoid injury to the
coronary substance near the hoofs, which is sometimes followed
by troublesome sores.

BONE SPAVIN
This disease, so frequently the cause of lameness in those
horses which use their hocks severely (as for example race-horses,
hunters, carriage-horses, and more particularly cart-horses), con-
sists in exostosis from the adjacent external surfaces of the tarsal
bones, always showing itself at the inner side of the hock joint,
on the scaphoid and cuneiform bones, and extending to the head of
the internal small metatarsal bone. As in the case of splint, the
occurrence of exostosis on the internal rather than on the external
side of the hock has been accounted for by the supposition that
increased weight is thrown upon the internal small metatarsal bone,
from the turning up of the outer heel of the shoe, which is the
common practice of smiths. It appears to me, however, that the
contrary is the case, and that though more stress is laid upon the
foot on that side, there is less weight on the inner side of the hock,
which has a tendency to spring open in that direction. This will
cause a strain upon the ligaments connecting the tarsal bones, and
nature coming to their aid throws out bone, which ultimately .«ub-

BONE SPAVIN. 303

Btitutes anchylosis for ligamentous union between these bones. In
all the actions of the hind leg, from the natural shape of the hock,
and more especially in those horses which are naturally " cow-
hocked," there is a tendency to yield inwards rather than in the
opposite direction. The consequence is that there is more strain
upon the ligamentous fibres which connect the scaphoid with the
two cuneiform and the internal metatarsal, than upon those uniting
the cuboid with the os calcis and external metatarsal bone. Hence,
although exostosis does sometimes show itself in other parts of the
tarsal bones, it here, as in the fore leg, is almost always confined
to what is called the " spavin place," namely, the contiguous sur-
faces of the scaphoid, cuneiform, and internal metatarsal bones.
In very bad cases the articular cartilage becomes involved, and
there is not only an external casing of new bone, but the internal
surfaces absolutely coalesce or anchylose.

The symptoms of spavin are a hard substance showing itself
beyond the proper level of the hock joint. There may or may not
be lameness, but if bone is thrown out the disease is established.
In recent cases whenever the horse is worked he will after rest
limp in his action, but the lameness soon goes ofi", and does not
show itself again until the part has been sufi"ered to become stiff
by a rest of an hour or two. The lameness is very remarkable,
and diff'ers greatly from that shown in any other disease. The leg
is drawn up with a quick catch, and yet there is a dragging of the
limb, indicating not only pain in the joint, but a want of action in
it. In the early stages the latter is not clearly developed, but
afterwards it is so well marked that a spavin may be pronounced
to exist without an examination of the joint. Where lameness is
not established, great care should be exercised in pronouncing on
the existence of spavin, for some hocks are naturally formed with
prominent heads of the internal metatarsal bones, and the inexpe-
rienced eye and hand are very apt to mistake these for exostosi?.
In such cases, by comparing the two hocks it will generally be
seer that they are both exactly alike, while in spavin, although
bot' joints may be the seat of mischief, yet they will seldom mani-
fest che disease to the same extent.

The treatment should be directed to the abatement of the inflam-
mation which gives rise to the pain, and also to promote absorption
of the new growth. Veterinary surgeons are very apt to assert
that the disease cannot be cured, and that a spavined horse will
always rejuain the subject of it, and therefore/unsound. But prac-
tically it is known that many a hock which has been the seat of
undoubted spavin loses all external enlargement, and no lameness
is shown in it, although tried most severely through a series of
years. Still on dissection after death, the ligaments will not show
their natural white and glistening structure, and the tarsal bone?

304 THE HORSE.

will be to a certain extent united by anchylosis. In rery bad
cases there will be also caries of the articulatory surfaces, and with
it inflamiiation of the synovial membranes, which may and often
does exist without the caries. Now as these are much more for-
midable diseases than exostosis, and far more difficult either to
cure or palliate, it follows that although certain remedies will be
generally successful with genuine bone spavin (exostosis), yet they
will fail when the above complication exists. The treatment must
therefn-e be adapted to the exact nature and extent of the disease.
Prior to the adoption of any plan the joint should be rested, the
outer heel of the shoe should be lowered, the corn should be taken
away, and the system cooled by appropriate treatment. After
these precautions are taken, the next thing is to decide upon the
remedies which will be suited to the case. They consist in — 1.
Blisters, which have a tendency to cause absorption ; 2. Firing; 3.
Setons, with or without subcutaneous scarification ; 4. Division of
the nerve. If there is simply a slight exostosis, with little lameness,
and no evidence of the joint being implicated, the biniodide of mer-
cury may be applied as described at page 300. Repeated dressings
will be necessary, and the joint must have at least two months' abso-
lute rest, the horse being placed in a loose box. This remedy is
often successful, but it will fail utterly where the exostosis is ex-
tensive, or there is caries, or even severe inflammation of the
synovial membrane. Arsenic, sulphuric acid, and other caustic
applications, have been counted as infallible cures; but while they
are just as certain to produce a blemish as firing, the extent to
which the inflammation and sloughing, caused by them, go is fai
more completely beyond our control. Arsenic has been known tc
destroy the joint, by producing a slough of the synovial membrane^
and it is said that the sulphuric acid, which, however, is often very
succes.sful, has had a similar unfortunate result; but of its being
followed by serioiis blemishes there is abundant proof. Firing is
the safest, and, therefore, the usual plan adopted for spavin, and
on the first intimation of the disease it is often adopted without
any necessity for having recourse to so disfiguring a process. Its
chief advantage is, that while it is a certain means of establishing
a strong counter-irritation, it has no tendency to cause any increase
of inflammation in the structures beneath the skin, and therefore
the good it does is unalloyed by any counterbalancing evil. It is
Qow the fashion to deny its use, and horsemasters are often tempted
to try some substitute for it in the hope of escaping a blemish ; but
too often they are compelled to submit to it at last, and probably
after the disease has been aggravated by some " unfailing" remedy.
If there is a strong desire expressed to avoid a blemish, the vete-
rinary surgeon is perfectly warranted in doing all in his power to
eff'ect a cure without the use of the irons ; but the mere fashion of

SPAVIN— SHOU- DER-JOINT LAMENESS. 305

the day should not induce him to decry a plan which has for so
many years been proved to be successful. In human surgery the
same course has been adopted, and for the last thirty or forty
years the actual cautery has been voted "barbarous" in this
country. Now, however, a counter current is setting in, and it is
the general opinion of the first hospital surgeons of the day that,
in certain diseases of the joints, no remedy is nearly so efficacious.
All sorts of attempts are made to render the use of the hot iron
less repugnant to the senses; but in the case of the horse it is only
oecessar}- to measure its comparative utility and the amount of
pain which it gives. The former has been already considered, and
as to the latter, if the irons are properly heated, I much doubt
whether their action is not less painful than that of any other
counter-irritant. Setons, perhaps, give less pain if skilfully in-
serted, and they are admirable remedies, having nearly the same
beneficial efi'ects as firing, and leaving a far slighter blemish. They
should be passed beneath a considerable track of the skin, covering
the " spavin place," and the tape requires to be smeared with blis-
tering cerate to produce sufficient irritation. Their use by them-
selves is often sufficient, but when preceded by subcutaneous
scarification they seem to act even more certainly than firing.

The method of operation is similar to that described for splints,
but it requires more knowledge of the anatomy of the parts to
avoid doing mischief by cutting into one of the joints. There is
always afterwards considerable effusion into the subcutaneous
cellular membrane, demanding two or three months for its removal ;
but as the spavined horse requires that interval of rest, this is of
little or no consequence. When the disease has gone so far that
no method of treatment will remove it, the nerve above the hock
may be divided, which will enable the horse to work without pain
for a time, but the disease goes on the faster, and the benefit
derived is only temporary.

Mr. Holmes, of Beverly, has obtained great celebrity for his
treatment of spavin on this plan, and undoubtedly not without
foundation. Some of his cures have been very remarkable, as
even old standing and extensive growths of bone have been re-
duced, and the hocks have remained sound afterwards.

EXOSTOSIS OF THE HUMERUS AND SCAPULA.
The heads of the bones adjacent to most of the joints of the
body are more or less subject to exostosis, though not so frequently
as those of the pastern bones and tarsus. Next to these probably
comes *he shoulder joint, the neighborhood of which is often the seat
of this disease. The left scapula and humerus of a horse are often
completely anchylosed, and of course there co-exists a proportionate

306 THE HORSE.

amount of lameness during the progress of the disea^se, while aftei
the anchylosis takes place the want of action is complete. An
examination by the hand of the point of the shoulder would readily
detect so large a growth of bone as this ; but smaller ones are often
thrown out beneath the mass of muscles surrounding the shoulder
joint, and consequently beyond the reach of the most accomplished
finger. The treatment should be on the same principle as for
spavin, omitting the subcutaneous scarification, which is not hero
practicable on account of the nature of the joint. Blisters, and
especially with the biniodide of mercury, will be the most likely to
succeed, but in most cases the cure will be only partial.

FISTULA OF THE WITHERS.

When a saddle has been allowed to press upon the spinous
processes of the dorsal vertebrae, it produces inflammation, which,
if neglected, leads to the formation of an abscess. But the situa-
tion of the part is such that the matter cannot escape, even if the
skin over the points of the bones is perforated, and it has a ten-
dency, by the force of gravity, to burrow down among the muscles
which connect the shoulder-blade with the trunk. The conse-
quence is, that there is extensive inflammation, and often lameness
of the shoulder, which could readily have been prevented by using
proper care before the mischief was done, or removed by the adop-
tion of suitable treatment afterwards before the disease is con-
firmed.

The symptoms in the early stage (that is, before a fistula is
established) are merely an enlargement of the ends of the spinous
processes, accompanied by heat and tenderness, but these go on
until an abscess forms, which may be known to the touch by the
fluctuating nature of the sensation which it gives on pressure
by the fingers of each hand. As soon as this is made out, an
opening should be made as low down as possible on the right side,
taking care that it will allow all the matter to run out as fast as it
forms. The reason why the right side should be chosen is, that
most horses lie down on that side ; but if the subject of fistulous
withers is in the habit of lying on the left side, the opening
sh.ald be made there in preference. When an actual fistula has
been established, and the matter points before or behind the
shoulder-blade, a sufficiently large opening should at once be made,
taking care again that there is no pouch below it which will
permit any accumulation. It is better to divide even important
muscles than to suff'er this to exist. In recent cases the establish-
ment of this dependent opening will alone suffice to eff"cct a cure ;
but in those of long standing, the lining of the fistulous passage

PCJL EVIL— CARIES OP THE JAW. 307

or passages has become converted into a substance almost resem-
bling cartilage, and refuses to throw out healthy g-.-anulations, so
as to lead to adhesion of its walls. Here a stimulus must be
applied to their interior, which may be either mechanical, in the
shape of a seton tape passed through from end to end and left
there, or chemical, by means of injections. The latter are best
composed of chloride of zinc diluted with water. One drachm of
this should be mixed in a pint of water, and carefully injected
into every part of the sinus twice or thrice a week.

POLL EVIL.

Poll evil is exactly similar in its nature to fistulous withers,
being produced by a blow on the prominent ridge, which is situ-
ated on the top of the poll. The blow is* generally produced in
the stable, by the horse suddenly lifting his head and striking it
against a low beam or the lintel of the door. Or it may be caused by
frequently straining against the halter rein, and thus producing
irritation and inflammation of the part. As the ligamentum colli
is attached above, and anterioi to, the inflamed part, when matter
forms it is confined and gives intense pain; besides which, it is a long
time before it opens a passage by natural means. The symptoms
are a painful swelling on the poll, of a soft nature, accompanied by
the sense of fluctuation on examination, just like that described as
accompanying fistulous withers. The treatment must be precisely
similar to that described in the last section ; but as the matter
when formed lies very close to the spinal cord, some caution must
be exercised in adopting stimulating injections, which are apt to
produce severe inflammation, likely to extend to these important
structures. So also in opening it, the knife should not be carried
deeply into the situation of the spinal marrow, which here iie.=
exposed, and is easily divided (as in the operation known by the
name of pithing), but it should be used in a slanting manner, again
selecting the right side in preference to the left. A seton is here
the safest plan for promoting granulation and adhesion, and as the
fistulous track is seldom very long, the tape will work its wav
gradually out, by which time the cure is efi'ected.

CARIES OF THE JAW.
The DPPiSR JAW, from its exposed situation, and the
lower from the same cause, and also from the ^abuse of the bit,
are liable to mechanical injury, which ends in caries (ulceration),
or sometimes in necrosis (mortification) of the part. Caries of
thejf lower jaw, between the tushes and grinders, is extremely
common, owing to the barbarous punishment which is inflicted by
the use of long levers to curb bits, together with light curb chains.
The bony plate forming the roof of the mouth is also often iniured

308 THE HORSE.

by the pressure of the part when a tight uoseband is employed to
keep the mouth shut. Either may be known by th(! existence of a
sore of a peculiar character ; there is a depression indicating a loss
of substance, and in this lies a mass of unhealthy granulation
(proud flesh), %ohich is not attached to the surrounding surface,
leing only fixed to tlie hottomof the cavity^ or perhaps partially on one
side. A watery and offensive discharge goes on constantly, but
this is lost in the saliva, and very often the only circumstance that
draws attention to the disease is the constant bleeding from the
mouth, on the slightest contact of the bit. When this occurs, the
mouth being full of pink froth, it should be carefully examined,
and the state of things here described will generally be found to
exist. The treatment should consist in the adoption of a bit
pressing upon another part of the mouth, changing the curb for a
snaffle. The wound should be kept open by the use of caustic
(lunar) daily, which should be pushed deeply into it for couple of
seconds, and will destroy the unhealthy granulations. By con-
tinuing these measures, taking care not to do more with the
caustic than necessary to keep down the fungous growth, a cure
can always be eflFected in course of time, without the aid of the
trephine or chisel to cut away the diseased bone.

OSTEO SARCOMA.

The jaws are occasionally attacked by a malignant growth from
tlieir cellular structure of a substance partaking of the nature both
of cartilage and bone. It increases sometimes to an enormous size,
and forms a large irregular tumor, which interferes terribly with
their functions, often growing so as to prevent the closure of the
teeth. The symptoms are entirely local, and when a large, unwieldy,
and irregularly hard swelling on either of the jaws is met with, it
may safely be set down as belonging to this class of disease. No
treatment is of any avail except excision, which can rarely be carried
through without rendering the horse unserviceable for his ordinary
duties.

FRACTURES.

Bones are not unfrequently broken in the horse; but as the
accident generally occurs either during the violent exertion of the
muscles of the limb, or from great external force, it follows that in
most cases the injury to the soft parts is so great as to forbid the
hope of a perfect reparation. When, for instance, a canna or
pastern bone gives way during the shock sustained in coming down

FRACTURES. 309

on hard ground from a leap, either at the moment of the fracture
or before the horse can be stopped, the upper end pierces the skin,
and also tears or bruises the tendons which alone connect it to the
part below. In surgical language, the fracture is a compound one •
and from the great tendency to contraction of the muscles, the
difficulty of bringing the disunited ends into apposition (or setting
them) is immense. Moreover, the horse is very unmanageable
when an attempt is made to confine him, and the means which are
adopted to keep the fracture set must therefore be very complete
as compared with those which will serve for the restoration of the
human being who has sustained a similar accident. Hence, unless
the animal is wanted for stud purposes alone, or unless the fracture
is a simple one, with little displacement, it will seldom be worth
the attempt to procure the union of a broken bone in the horse.
Many cases are on record in which after a fracture of a canna or
pastern bone a complete cure has been eff"ected, but they must be
considered as exceptional, and not as afibrding as much encourage-
ment.

The symptoms of simple fracture are a greater or less
degree of deformity of the limb, swelling, pain on motion, and a
peculiar grating or jarring which is felt rather than heard, and
which has received the name of " crepitus." The last symptom
can only be made out when the broken ends of the bone can be
brought together; but when this is impossible, the alteration of
form is in itself sufficient to lead to a detection of the nature of
the accident. In fractures of the head and spine there is no
crepitus felt, and the effect upon the brain and spinal cord of
pressure will be often the sole means of coming to a correct
diagnosis. Fractures of the pelvis are very difficult to make out,
unless the ala of the ilium is broken off", which is a common acci-
dent, for here the unnatural flatness of the hip, showing itself
without any great difficulty of moving the hind leg of that side,
plainly marks that there is no dislocation, and that the case can
only be one of fracture. It is always the result of a blow, either
when the horse is cast in a stall or in passing through a narrow
door-way, or from a similar cause ; and there will therefore bo some
swelling of the soft parts which will interfere with the examination
at the time, but as nothing can be done to restore the broken
portion to its place, and as there is no doubt about the diagnosis
from dislocation, this is of little consequence. Fractures of the
ribs cannot be readily detected ; but as they almost always follow
a kick on the part, and as they do not require any treatment
unless their broken ends press upon the important viscera of the
thorax or abdomen, it will be well to wait for the symptoms which
are caused by this mechanicil irritation before resorting to band-
ages, &c. When a fracture occurs in any of the bones of the

310 THE HORSE.

extremities, wJbich are concealed by a large mass of muscle, the
total inability to use the limb, and the loose way in which it is
connected to the body, so as to allow it to be moved in any direc-
tion, indicate the general nature of the case without difficulty,
though a careful examination must be made by a skilful surgeon
before the exact particulars relating to it can be ascertained.

The treatment will depend upon the bone which is broken, and
whether the fracture is simple or compound. In most cases of
the latter description none will avail, and the horse had better be
destroyed ; but if the owner is averse to this, it will be on the
whole the best surgery, though apparently not very scientific, to
encase the parts with adhesive plasters and tow, and then treat
it as a simple fracture.

If the bones of the skull are fractured, unless there are
symptoms of pressure on the brain, it is advisable to leave all to
nature, simply keeping the patient quiet and low, and if in a high
state of plethora, bleeding and physicking.

A broken lower jaw is by no means uncommon as the result
of a kick. The best treatment is to set the fracture, and then
mould some gutta percha to it, which may be confined behind by
strips round the forehead and poll, and before by a padded strap
passed through the mouth between the nippers and tushes, and
beneath the tongue. The horse must be fed upon mashes and
steamed food.

In fractures of the spine and pelvis nothing can be done
beyond rest and lowering, if necessary, by bleeding and physic.

Broken ribs, when they cause inflammation of the lungs or
liver by their sharp ends pressing upon these organs, may be
treated by buckling two or three ordinary rollers abreast of one
another tightly round the chest, so as to prevent the natural dila-
tation of the thorax, which takes place in inspiration, and which
keeps up the irritation by constantly moving the ends of the ribs.
The general means necessary to adopt to relieve the internal mis-
chief will depend upon its extent.

When either the scapula, humerus, or femur is broken,
all that can be done is to sling the horse, and by bandages endeavor
to bring the limb into as natural a position as possible, and keep it
there. There must of necessity be great displacement of the enda
of the bones, and these cannot by any means be brought into appo-
sition ; but the sides in contact with one another, as they over-
ride, will unite in course of time, and this is all that can be
achieved by the utmost efforts of the veterinary surgeon.

Fractures of the lower part of the tibia, of the radius, of the
canna bones and the pasterns, if simple, must be treated by adjust-
ing the ends (which is the chief difficulty, aud will often require
strong extension to be employed), and then adapting to the sides

FRACTURES— DISEASES OF MUSCLES, ETC. 311

jf the bcnes splints of wood or gutta percha. If, by the aid of
assistants, the parts can be brought into a good position, these may
oe carefully adjusted to maintain it, and may be kept in place by
tapes or straps fistened moderately tightly around them. It is
useless, however, to attempt a minute description of the means to
be employed, which can hardly be understood without a demon-
stration. Many horses have recovered a fair use of the limb by
the application of splints, without slinging, as they will take care
to avoid resting on that foot in consequence of the pain it gives;
but under the care of an accomplished veterinary surgeon, slings
will aflPord the best chance of recovery.

CHAPTER XX.

INJURY AND DISEASES OP THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONS.

Diseases of Muscle, Tendon, and Ligament — Of Cartilage and
Synovial Membrane — Inflamed Tendinous Sheaths — Inflamed
Burscz Mucosce — Strains — Those of the Back and Loins — OJ
the Shoulder— Of the Knee— Of the Fetlock— Of the Coffiu
Joint — Of the Suspensory Ligaments — Of the Back-Sinezvs —
Breaking Down — Strains of the Hip- Joint, Stifle, and Hock —
Curb — Dislocation — Wounds of Joints.

DISEASES OF MUSCLE, TENDON, AND LIGAMENT.

Muscle is subject to simple atrophy, with or without fatty de-
generation. The disease shows itself by a wasting away of the
part, accompanied by a flabby feel to the touch. It should be
treated by friction, gentle but regular work, and steel given inter-
nally, one drachm of the sulphate of iron powdered being mixed
with the corn twice a day.

Rheumatic inflammation of a muscle or muscles is one of
the most common of all the diseases to which the horse is subject.
Most frequently it attacks the muscles of the shoulder, or of the
loins, sometimes both those parts being involved at the same time.
When acute it receives the name of a cliill, and is generally brought
on by exposing the horse to a draught of air after work, or by im-
mersing him in cold water up to his belly, with a view either to
refresh h m, or when the groom is lazy, to save him the trouble of
cleaning The symptoms are lameness or inability to use the part,
the horse, when forced to do so, giving expressions of severe pain.
If the shoulder is afl"ected, the foot is not put to the ground, and
when the leg is moved backwards and forwards by the hand, great

612 THE HORSE.

pain is evidently experienced. In severe cases there is fever with
accelerated pulse (70 to 80), accompanied often by profuse sweat-
ing, and heaving at the flanks, the legs remaining warm. After a
short time the part swells, and is excessively tender. The treat-
ment should be by a copious bleeding, if the horse is of a mode-
rately strong constitution ; indeed, in severe cases it should be
carried on till the pulse is greatly reduced, and repeated the next
day, if it returns to its original hardness and fulness. The bowela
should be acted on as soon as it is safe to do so, and if the dung
is very hard, backraking and clysters should be used, to accelerate
the action of the medicine. The best aperient is castor oil, of
which a pint may be given with an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre
When this has acted, if the kidneys are not doing their duty, a
quarter of an ounce of nitre and a drachm of camphor may be
made into a ball and given twice a day.

Chronic rheumatism of the muscles is similar in its nature
to the acute form, but, as its name implies, it is more lasting, and
of less severity. It often flies from one part to another, attacking
the ligaments and tendons, as well as the muscular fibres. It is
seldom much under control, and attention should be paid rather to
improve the general health than to subdue the local affection.

Small tumors, of about the size of a pea, often form upon the
tendons, especially the " back sinews" of the fore legs. They may
or may not occasion lameness, but they are always to be regarded
with suspicion. As long as they remain indolent, they are better
left alone; but when they produce inflammation and pain, the
best remedy is the biniodide of mercury ointment, described at
page 300.

DISEASES OF CARTILAGE AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE.

Cartilage is subject chiefly to ulceration. When this occurs,
its cells become enlarged and crowded with corpuscles, which burst
and discharge their contents ; the intercellular structure at the
same time splits into bands, which, together with the corpuscles,
form a fibro-nucleated membrane on the face of the cartilage. In
old horses, the ulcerated cartilage covering the tibial surface of the
astragalus is sometimes converted into a soft fibrous substance,
which ultimately assumes the appearance of hard and dense bone,
commonly known as " porcellaneous or ivory deposit." It is ac-
companied by no symptoms of inflammation ; the sole evidence of
disease, during life, being a stiffness of the joint, and a peculiar
grating or crackling noise during all attempts at movement. When
caries of the head of a bone has caused a loss of substance, the
cartilage dies, and is gradually broken down by decomposition ;
but this cannot be said to be a disease of the cartilage itself. With
the exception of navicula disease (which will be included under

DISEASES OF CARTILAGE AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE. 313

the diseases of the foot), ulceration of cartilage is not very com-
mon in the horse.

Acute inflammation of the synovial membrane is seldom
met with ; but a chronic state, inducing an excessive secretion of
eynovia, is extremely common. The most usual situation is at the
hock, where the swelling has received the name of bag-spavin and
thoroughpin ; but they also occur at the fetlock and knee joints;
in the former case being sometimes confounded with windgalls,
which are inflamed bursas mucosae.

Bog-spavin is very apt to attack young horses, when they are
over-worked, before being fully seasoned ; but it may occur at all
ages. It shows itself at the inner side of the joint, because here
the ligaments are wider apart, and there is more room for disten-
sion. Its seat is the capsule between the tibia and astragalus,
which is here unprotected by any strong fibrous covering, and
readily yields to the gradual pressure of the secretion from its in-
ternal surface.

Thoroughpin may be either an increased secretion of the syno-
vial capsule, between the astragalus and os calcis, or between the
scaphoid and cuneiform bones, or of the bursa mucosa lying be-
tween the tendo Achillis and the tendo perforatus. In the first
of these cases, it often coexists with bog-spavin, and the synovia
may be made to fluctuate from one bag to the other, the only line
of demarcation being the astragalo-calcanean ligament.

Both bog-spavin and thoroughpin may exist, or either separately,
without occasioning lameness; but where they are just established,
there is generally some small degree of active inflammation, which
causes a slight lameness on first going out of the stable, but soon
disappearing.

The treatment should be by pressure, kept up for a long time,
by means of a carefully-adjusted truss, alternated with cold afiu-
sion, and the use afterwards of tincture of arnica, diluted with
water, as a wash. Subcutaneous scarification has succeeded in
some few cases in causing the secretion to cease ; but it has so
often produced extensive inflammation of the joint, that the opera-
tion is by no means to be recommended. Blistering with biniodide
of mercury has also occasionally answered ; but no plan is so suc-
cessful, on the whole, as pressure, alternating with cold afi'usion.

Delicate young foals are subject to a rheumatic inflamma-
tion of their synovial membranes, specially displayed in the knee?
and hocks, and apparently caused by exposure to cold. It seldom
goes on to produce disorganization of the cartilages, but tho capsu-
lar ligaments are distended with thin yellow synovia, causing
considerable stifi"ness. The cellular tissue around the joints also
becomes oedematous, and the legs fill all the way down to the feet.
It is commonly knowi among breeders as the "joint evil,^' and
27

314 TBf! HORSE.

though in itself it is not dangerous, yet it marks the existence of
constitutional weakness which is likely to occasion some more fatal
malady. The treatment should consist in attending to the general
health by strengthening the mare, which is best done by giving
her a drachm of the sulphate of iron in her corn twice a day.
The joints of the foal should be rubbed with equal parts of soap
liniment and spirit of turpentine, and it should be assisted to stand
for the purpose of sucking at regular short intervals if unable to
help itself. In aggravated cases, however, the foal is not likely
to recover its general strength, and it may be better to destroy it,
but so long as it can stand and feeds well hopes may be enter-
tained of the joints recovering.

INFLAMED TENDINOUS SHEATHS.

Every practical horseman is aware that the sheatbs in
which the back sinews and other tendons ai-e lodged are liable to
inflammation and thickening, without the tendon itself bein^
involved. By passing the hand down the leg, an irregular network
may be felt surrounding the tendons, which move up and down
without disturbing it ; and the surrounding cellular membrane is
also thickened, and becomes hard and unyielding. There may be
consTderable heat about the part, but often it is quite cool ; and
the disease may continue for months without any great lameness,
and with nothing to draw attention to it (excepting a slight
stiffness on leaving the stable) but the sensation communicated to
the hand. At length, an unusually severe day's work sets up
active inflammation, the leg rapidly fills, and there is so much
lameness as to cause the horse to be thrown by. — The treatment in
the early stage, should be the use of bandages, constantly kept
wet with arnica and water, and nothing but walking exercise.
After the thickening is fully established, no remedy shoi't of
blistering, or a charge, will be of the slightest avail, with a rest of
two or three months.

INFLAMED BURS^ MUCOSiE.

These synovial bags are liable to inflammation, either from
hard work, as in windgalls and thoroughpin, or from blows, as in
capped hock and elbow. The latter are said by some veterina-
rians to be serous abcesses; but there is no doubt that in all
horses a subcutaneous bursa exists on the cap of the elbow and
bock; and these become inflamed and filled with a very thin
synovia, when they are bruised. They never extend beyond a
certain size, and have no tendency to burst; nor are they inclined
to a healthy termination of their own accord, but go on in the
same condition frou" year to year.

"Windgalls, or puffs, are the most usual forms of these en-

INFLAME.3 BVSM MUCOSA. 315

largements, and may be observed in the legs (hind ^ well as fore)
of nearly every hard-worked horse, after a time. Great care in the
management of the legs by bandaging will sometimes keep them
off, and some horses have naturally no tendency to form them ;
but in most cases, on examining the legs, just above the fetlock
joints, of horses at work, a little oval bag may be felt on each
side, between the back-sinew and the bone. If recent, it is soft
and puffy ; but if the work is hard, and the wnndgall is of long
standing, it will be as tense as a drum. The synovial bag has no
communication with the fetlock joint; but there is another sac in
front of the joint, and beneath the tendons of the extensors, which
is often enlarged, though not so much so as the seat of the true
windgall, and which is generally, though not always, continuous
with the synovial capsule of the joint. — The treatment consists in
pressure by means of bandages, and the application of cold lotions,
if the legs are hot and inflamed. Blistering and rest will remove
them entirely ; but no sooner is the horse put to work again, than
they return as badly as ever. There is no radical cure but subcu-
taneous puncture and scarification, and this will produce too much
adhesion to be advantageously applied.

The form op thoroughpin in which the bursa mucosa be-
tween the tendo Achillis and the tendo perforatus is inflamed and
filled with synovia, has been alluded to at page 313, and its treat
ment is there described.

Capped hock is often the result of a bruise of the superficial
bursa, which is situated on the point of the hock, immediately
beneath the skin. It indicates either that the possessor has kicked
in the stable or in harness ; but it is more frequently caused in
the former way than in the latter. The swelling is sometimes
slight, being then just sufficient to show the point slightly enlarged,
and to give a soft, puffy sensation to the fingers, where there ought
to be nothing but bone felt beneath the skin. The bursa always
rolls freely on the bone, and when large, it can be laid hold of and
shaken like a bladder oi water. — The treatment should be directed
to abate any slight infiammation that may exist, if the case is
established ; but in recent ones, it is doubly necessary to apply cold
lotions, which, however, there is some difficulty in doing, owing to
the prominent nature of the part. A piece of stout calico or fine
canvas may, however, be shaped into a cap, carefully fitting the
point of the hook; and this being tied by several pieces of tape in
front of the leg, will allow not only of the application of cold
lotions, but of pressure also. By this plan, continued for some
weeks, considerable enlargements have been removed, but they
are very apt to return on the slightest bruise. Setons through the
bursa, and injections into its cavity of stimulating applications,
have often been tried; but ^ihey generally do more ha«n than

316 THE HORSE.

good, and nothing can be relied on but the conjoint use of pressure
and cold applications. The best lotion is the following : —

Take of Tincture of Arnica 3 ozs.

Muriate of Ammonia 2 "

Methylated Spirit of Wine ... 4 "

Water 3 pints. Mix.

Capped elbow is precisely similar in its nature to capped
hock, and must be treated in the same way. It is also known by
the name of capulet,

OF STRAINS.

The fibres of muscles, ligaments, and tendons, and the
FASCIA covering them, are all liable to be overstretched, and more
or less mechanically injured. This is called a strain, the symptoms
of which are similar to the inflammation of the part occurring
ideopathically. They are heat, swelling, and pain on pressure or
movement, shown by flinching in the one case, and lameness in the
other. In some cases there is considerable effusion of blood or
serum, the former occurring chiefly in the muscles, and the latter
among the torn fibres of the tendons or ligaments. The symptoms
and treatment will depend upon the part injured, which will be
found described under the following heads ; but in most cases an
embrocation composed of equal parts of laudanum, olive oil, spirit
of turpentine, and hartshorn, will be beneficial if applied after the
first active inflammation has subsided.

STRAIN OF THE BACK AND LOINS.

When a young horse has been hunted or ridden with hounds
over any kind of fence, he is very apt to over-exert himself in his
awkward attempts to clear the obstacle, and next day he will often
show a stifi'ness of the loins and back, which is seated in the large
muscles connecting the pelvis with the thorax. He is said to have
"ricked his back," in the language of the stable, and if the mis-
chief is confined to the muscles alone, he may generally be per-
manently cured, though he will be more liable to a return than an
animal which has never suff"ered from any accident of the kind,
[f, however, the spinal cord is injured, either from fracture of the,
vertebrae, or from efi'usion of blood or serum pressing upon it, the
case is difi'erent, and a perfect cure is seldom obtained. It is,
however, very difficult to form a correct diagnosis between the one
case and the other, and the treatment may generally be conducted
with the hope that the more important organ is uninjured. When
there is complete palsy of the hind extremities, so that the horse
can neither feel nor use them in the slightest degree, the case is
hopeless. For the management of the strain of the loins, a full
bleeding should be adopted, as it generally happens that the horse

STRAl^s. 317

18 pktliorlc and full of corn. Then apply a double fold of thick
flannel or serge, dipped in warm water, to the whole surface of the
loins, cover this over with a layer of indiarubber sheeting, and let
it remain on, taking care to renew the water if it has become dry.
It generally produces a copious sweating from the part, followed
by a slight irritation of the skin, both of which afford relief In
three or four days the flannel may be removed, and the embroca-
tion alluded to above rubbed in two or three times a day, which
will generally relieve the muscles so much that at the end of a
week or ten days the horse is able to move quietly about in a
loose box, and the cure may be left to time, aided by a charge on
the back.

STBAIN OF THE SHOULDER.

Shoulder strain was formerly very often chosen as the seat
of lameness in the fore extremity, solely because the case is so ob-
scure that it is beyond the knowledge of the unskilful examiner.
Nevertheless, it is by no means so uncommon as is supposed by
some writers, and perhaps it may be asserted that it is now more
frequently passed over when it really exists, than the reverse. It
generally is seated in the serratus magnus, or pectoralis transversus
muscles, but it may also occur in the triceps, or, indeed, in almost
any of the muscles around the shoulder joint. The symptoms are
very peculiar, and cannot well be mistaken by a careful observer
who has once seen a case of shoulder lameness. In all other kinds
(except the knee), the limb is freely moved while in the air, and
no pain is expressed until the foot is about to touch the ground ;
but here the lameness is greatest while the knee is being protruded,
and the limb is slung forward sideways, in a circular manner, which
gives an expression of great imbecility. It also occasions great
pain when the foot is lifted and drawn forward by the hand, just
as in rheumatism of the part (already described at page 312).
"When the serratus magnus has been strained by a fall from a drop
leap, or the pectoralis transversus by a slip, causing the legs to be
widely separated, there is often great obscurity in the case ; but
the history of the accident will generally assist in forming a cor-
rect diagnosis. The treatment in the early stage will consist in
bleeding from the plate vein, to the extent of five or six uarts of
blood, followed by fomentations with hot water, if there is much
heat and swelling, and giving a dose of physic as soon as the
bowels will bear it. When the heat has disappeared, or at once,
if there is none, apply the embrocation described at page 315; and
if this does not produce relief, add to it one quarter of its bulk of
tincture of cantharides.

STRAINS OF THE KNEE.
The knee, unlike its analogue in the human subject (the 'vrist),

27*

318 THE HORSE.

is seldom strained in tlie horse, in consequence of the strong lij^-a-
ments which bind the bones of the carpus together. Still it some-
times happens that the internal lateral ligaments are overstretched,
or, in calf-kneed horses, the posterior common ligaments, or that
connecting the scaphoid with the pisiform bone, or probably all
these will suifer from over-extension. The accident may be re-
cognised by the heat and swelling of the part affected, as well as
by the pain given on using the joint. The anterior ligaments are
seldom strained, but are liable to injury from blows received in
various ways. The treatment should be conducted on the same
principles as those of strains in the shoulder. Cold applications
will seldom do anything but harm in the early stage ; but after
hot fomentations have relieved the active mischief, by encouraging
the effusion of serum into the surrounding cellular membrane, the
former may be used with advantage. When the heat and other
signs of active inflammation have disappeared, the biniodide of
mercury ointment may be rubbed in, avoiding the back of the joint.

STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK.

Tins ACCIDENT shows itself at once, in consequence of the super-
ficial nature of the joint, by swelling, heat, soreness to the touch,
and lameness. It may be very slight or very severe, but in the
latter case it is generally complicated by strain of the back sinews,
or suspensory ligament. The treatment will be precisely on the
same plan as for strain of the knee. When the anterior ligaments
of the fetlock joint are strained and inflamed, as so often happens
with race-horses, the condition is known as "shin sore."

STRAIN OF THE COFFIN JOINT.

Dissection proves that this joint is sometimes the seat of
strain; but it is almost impossible to ascertain its existence with
certainty during life. The diagnosis is, however, not of much
consequence, as the treatment will be the same, whether the coflia
joint, or the navicular joint is the seat of the mischief. In any
case, if severe, bleeding from the toe should be had recourse to,
followed by cold applications around the coronet, by means of a
strip of flannel or felt, tied loosely around the pastern, and kept
constantly wet. When the heat has subsided the coronet should
be blistered.

STRAIN OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS.

The suspensory ligament not being elastic like the back
sinews (which, though not in themselves extensible, are the pro-
longations of muscles which have that property), is very liable to
strains, especially in the hunter, and to a less degree in the race-
horse. The accident is readily made out, for there is local swellmjg

STRAINS. 31&

and tenderness, and in the well-bred horse, which is Klone likely
CO meet with a strain of this kind, the leg is rarely sufficiently
gummy to prevent the finger from making out the condition of the
ligaments and tendons. There is no giving away of the joints as
in " break-down," but on the contrary the leg is flexed, and if the
case is a bad one, the toe only is allowed to touch the ground. In
ordinary cases, however, there is merely slight swelling of the
suspensory ligament in a limited spot usually near its bifurcation,
or sometimes in one division only close above the sesamoid bone to
which it is attached. The horse can stand readily on that leg,
but on being trotted he limps a good deal. Sometimes, however,
there is a swelling of the feet without lameness, but in this case
the enlargement is generally due to an effusion of serum into the
cellular covering of the ligament, and not to an actual strain of its
fibres. — The treatment will depend greatly upon the extent of the
mischief; if there is no great injury done, and the enlargement
is chiefly from effusion of serum, rest and cold applications by
means of bandages or otherwise will in the course of two or three
months effect a cure. G-enerally, however, the case will last six
or eight months before the ligament recovers its tone ; and in a
valuable horse no attempt should be made to work him before that
time. Where the swelling is small, as it generally is, bandages
have no power over it, as the projection of the flexor tendons keeps
the pressure off the injured part. Here, dipping the leg in a
bucket of water every hour will be of far more service than a
bandage, and the sudden shock of the cold water will be doubly
efficacious. After all heat has disappeared the biniodide of
mercury may be used as a blister two or three times, and then the
horse may either be turned out, or put into a loose box for three
or four months, after which walking exercise will complete the
cure.

STRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS.

In this accident the position of the leg is the same as in
strain of the suspensory ligament, and there is no giving way of
the joints. The flexor tendons are enlarged, hot, and tender, and
there is great lameness, the horse having the power to flex the joint*
below the knee, but resolutely objecting to extend them, by bearing
what little weight is unavoidable upon his toe. The case is often
confounded with a "break-down," but it may readily be distin-
guished by the fact that in the latter the joints give way on putting
the weight upon them, whilst in mere strains they do not, and
the tendency is to the opposite extreme. Frequently after a bad
strain of the flexor tendons, the fetlock is "over shot," or beyond
the upright, in consequence of the continued flexion of the joint.
to prevent pressure upon the injured fibres, and in the manage-
ment thl^ result should be carefully guarded against. The injury

320 THE HORSE.

is generally confined to the sheath of the tendons, which in most
cases gradually puts on an inflammatory condition for some time
before actual lameness is observed. In bad cases, however, the
ligamentous fibres which are given ofi" by the posterior carpal
ligament to the flexor tendons are ruptured, greatly increasing the
amount of inflammation and subsequent loss of strength. In any
case the tendon feels spongy, and slightly enlarged, and there is
more or less soreness on pressure and on being trotted, but in the
latter ease exercise removes the tenderness, and very often tempo-
rarily causes an absorption of the eflPused fluid, which is again
deposited during rest. This state of things goes on for a time, the
groom doing all in his power to alleviate it by wet bandages, &c.,
but at last a severe race or gallop brings on an extra amount of
inflammation, with or without actual strain of the fibres of the
tendon, and then there can be no doubt about the propriety of
rest and severe treatment. It often happens that both legs are
slightly afl^ected, but one being more tender than the other, the
horse attempts to save it by changing legs, the consequence of
which is that the comparatively sound tendons are strained, and
he returns to his stable with both legs in a bad state, but with one
of them requiring immediate attention. — The treatment should be
by local bleeding (from the arm, thigh, or toe), followed at first by
warm fomentations, and in a few days by cold lotions. A high-
heeled shoe (called a patten) should be put on the foot, so as to
allow the horse to rest part of the weight upon the heel without
distressing the tendon, and this will have a tendency to prevent
him from over shooting at the fetlock joint, which he will other-
wise be very apt to do from constantly balancing his leg on the toe.
After three or four days the hot fomentations will have done what
is wanted, and a cold lotion may be applied by means of a loose
linen bandage. The best is composed as follows: —

Take of Muriate of Ammonia 2 oz.

Vinegar \ pint.

MethyKted Spirit of Wine . . . . | pint.

Water 2 quarts. Mix.

With this the bandage should be kept constantly wet, the applica-
tion being continued for a fortnight at least, during which time
the patient must be kept cool, by lowering his food, and giving
him a dose of physic. At the end of three weeks or a month
from the accident, the leg must be either blistered or fired, the
choice depending upon the extent of injury, and the desire to avoid
a blemish if such a feeling exists. The former is the more efl&ca-
cious plan no doubt, but blistering will frequently suffice in mild
cases. If, however, the tendons at the end of a month continue
greatly enlarged, a cure can hardly be expected without the use of
the " irons."

BREAKING DOWN. 321

BKEAKING DOWN.
Great confusion exists among trainers as to the exact nature
of this accident, which is considered by the veterinary surgeon to
consist in an actual rupture of the suspensory ligament either
above or below the sesamoid bones, which, in fact, merely separate
this apparatus of suspension into two portions, just as the patella
intervenes between the rectus femoris and the tibia. Whichever
part of the suspensory apparatus is gone (whether the superior or
inferior sesamoidal ligament is immaterial), the fetlock and pastern
j jints lose their whole inelastic support ; and the flexor tendons,
together with their ligamentous fibres which they receive from the
carpus, giving way, as they must do, to allow of the accident
taking place, the toe is turned up, and the fetlock joint bears
upon the ground. This is a complete " break down ;" but there
are many cases in which the destruction -of the ligamentous fibres
is not complete, and the joint, though much lowered, does not
actually touch i^e ground. These are still called breaks down,
and must be regarded as such, and as quite distinct from strains
of the flexor tendons. The accident generally occurs in a tired
horse, when the flexor muscles do not continue to support the liga-
ments, from which circumstance it so often happens in the last
few strides of a race. The symptoms are a partial or entire giving
way of the fetlock joint downwards, so that the back of it either
touches the ground, or nearly so, when the weight is thrown upon
it. Usually, however, after the horse is pulled up, he hops on
three legs, and refuses altogether to put that which is broken down
to the ground. In a very few minutes the leg " fills" at the seat
of the accident, and becomes hot and very tender to the touch.
There can, therefore, be no doubt as to the nature of the mischief,
and the confusion to which allusion has been made is one of names
rather than of facts. Treatment can only be directed to a partial
recovery from this accident, for a horse broken down in the sense
in which the term is here used can only be used for stud purposes
or at slow farm work. A patten shoe should at once be put on
after bleeding at the toe to a copious extent, and then fomenta-
tions followed by cold lotions should be applied, as directed in the
last section. As there must necessarily bo a deformity of the leg,
there can be no objection on that score to firing, and when the
severe inflammation following the accident has subsided this opera-
tion should be thoroughly performed, so as to aff"ord relief not only
by the counter irritation which is set up, and which lasts only for
a time, but by the rigid and unyielding case which it leaves behind
for a series of years.

X

322 THE HORSE.

STRAINS OF THfi HIP JOINT, STIFLE, AND HOCK.

The hip joint, or round bone, is liable to be strained by
the bind feet slipping and being stretcbed apart, or by blows
against tbe side of tbe stall, wben cast, wbicb are not sufficient to
dislocate the femur, but strain its ligaments severely. The conse.
quence is an inflammation of the joint, which is evidenced by a
dropping of one hip in going, the weight being thrown more upon
the sound side than upon the other. This is especially remarkable
on first starting, the lameness soon going off in work, but return-
ing after rest. The case, however, is a rare one, and its descrip-
tion need not, therefore, occupy much of our space. When it does
Iiappen, it is very apt to lead to a wasting of the deep muscles of
the haunch, which nothing but compulsory work will restore to a
healthy condition. The only treatment necessary in the early
stage of strain of the hip joint is rest and cooling diet, &c. ; but,
after six weeks or two months, a gradual return to work is indis-
pensable to effect a cure.

Strains of the stifle, independently of blows, are rare; but
the latter often are inflicted upon this joint in hunting, leaving
little evidence externally, so that it is almost always doubtful
whether the injury is the result of a blow or strain. The symptoms
are a swelling and tenderness of the joint, which can be ascer-
tained by a careful examination ; and on trotting the horse, there
is manifested a difficulty, or stiff"ness in drawing forward the hind
leg under the belly. The treatment must be by bleeding and
physicking in the early stage, together with hot fomentations to the
part, continued every hour until the heat subsides. After a few
days, if the joint is still painful, a large blister should be applied,
or, what is still better, a seton should be inserted in the skin
adjacent.

The hock itself is liable to strain, independently of the pecu-
liar aocident known as "curb." When it occurs, there is some
heat ol the part, with more or less lameness, and neither spavin,
thoroughpin, nor curb to account for them. The injury is seldom
severe, and may be relieved by fomentations for a day or two,
followed by cold lotions, as presented at page 320, for strain of the
back sinews.

CURB.

The lower part of the posterior surface of the os calcis
is firmly united to the cuboid and external metatarsal bone by two
strong ligamentous bands, called the calcaneo-cuboid and calcaneo-
metatarsal ligaments. The centre of these ligaments is about
seven or eight inches below the point of the hock, and when a soft
but elastic swelling suddenly makes its appearance there, it may

CURB. 323

with certainty be assorted that a " curb" has been thrown oui The
accident occurs somewhat suddenly ; but the swelling aitd i-uflam-
mation do not always show themselves until after a night » rest..
when the part is generally enlarged, hot, and tender. The ^^recise
extent of the strain is of little consequence ; for whatever its
nature, the treatment should be sufficiently active to reduue the
ligaments to their healthy condition. Some horses have naturally the
head of the external small metatarsal bone unusually large, and
the hock so formed that there is an angle between the large meia-
tarsal bone and the tarsus, leaving a prominence, which, however,
is hard and bony, "and not soft and elastic, as is the case with curb.
Such hocks are generally inclined to throw out curbs; but there
are many exceptions, and some of the most suspicious-looking
joints have been known to stand sound for years. Curbs are seldom
thrown out by very old horses, and usually occur between the com-
mencement of breaking-in and the seventh or eighth year, though
they are not unfrequently met with in the younger colt, being occa-
sioned by his gambols over hilly ground. The treatment should
at first be studiously confined to a reduction of the inflammation ;
any attempt to procure absorption till this is effected being inju-
rious in the extreme. If there is much heat in the part, blood
may be taken from the thigh vein, the corn should be removed,
and a dose of physic given as soon as practicable. The curb
should then be kept wet (by means of a bandage lightly applied)
with the lotion recommended at page 316 for capped hocks, and
this should be continued until the inflammation is entirely gone.
During this treatment, in bad cases, a patten shoe should be kept
on, so as to keep the hock as straight as possible, and thus take
the strain off" the ligaments which are affected. After the part
has become cool^ it may be reduced in size, by causing absorption
to be set up ; which is best effected by the application of mercury
and iodine (both of which possess that power), in such a shape as
to cause a blister of the skin. The biniodide of mercurj' has this
double advantage, and there is no application known to surgery
which will act equally well in effecting the absorption of a curb.
It should be applied in the mode recommended at page 300, and
again rubbed on at an interval of about a week, for three or four
times in succession, when it will generally be found that the ab-
sorption of the unnatural swelling is effected ; but the ligaments
remain as weak as before, and nothing but exercise (not too severe,
or it will inflame them again) will strengthen them sufficiently to
prevent a return. Friction with the hand, aided by a slightly
stimulating oil (such as neat's-foot and turpentine mixed, or neat's-
foot and oil of origanum, or, in fact, any stimulating essential oil),
will tend to strengthen the ligaments, by exciting their vessels to
throw out additional fibres ; and in course of time a curb may he

324 THJ HORSE.

considered to be suflSciently restored to render it tolerably safe to
use the horse again in the same way which originally produced it.

DISLOCATION.

By Dislocation is meant the forcible removal of the end of a
bone from the articulating surface which it naturally occupies.
In the horse, from the strength of his ligaments, the accident is
not common ; those that do occur being chiefly in the hip joint,
and in that between the patella and the end of the femur.

Dislocation of the hip joint is known by the rigidity of
the hind leg, which cannot be moved in any direction, and is
carried by the horse when he is compelled to attempt to alter his
position. There is a flatness of the haunch below the hip, but
the cresi of the ilium is still there, and by this the accident
may be diagnosed from fracture of that part. No treatment is of
the slightest avail, as the part cannot be reduced, and the horse
is useless except for stud purposes. The accident is not very
common.

Dislocation of the patella sometimes becomes habitual,
occurring repeatedly in the same horse, apparently from a spas-
modic contraction of the external vastus muscle, which draws the
patella outwards, and out of the trochlea formed for it in the
lower head of the femur. When the cramp goes off, the patella
drops into its place again as soon as the horse moves, and no
treatment is required. Occasionally, however, the dislocation is
more complete, and nothing but manu^il dexterity will replace the
bone in its proper situation. Great pain and uneasiness are
expressed, and the operator must encircle the haunch with his
arms and lay hold of the patella with both hands, while an assist-
ant drags forward the toe, and thus relaxes the muscles which are
inserted in it. By forcibly driving the patella into its place it
may be lifted over the ridge which it has passed, and a snap
announces the reduction.

WOUNDS OF JOINTS.

The knee is the joint most frequently suffering from wound,
being liable to be cut by a fall upon it, if the ground is rough ;
and if the accident takes place when the horse is going at a rapid
pace, the skin, ligaments, and tendons may be worn through by
friction against the plain surface of a smooth turnpike road.
Whether the joint itself is injured, or only the skin, the accident
is called a " broken knee," and for convenience sake it will br»
well to consider both under the present head.

When a broken kneb consists merely in an abrasion of the
gkm, the attention of the groom is solely directed to the restora-
tion of the hair, which will grow again as well as ever, if tho

WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 325

bulbs or roots are not injured. These are situated in the internal
layer of the true skin, and therefore, whenever there is a smooth
red surface displayed, without any diflerence in the texture of its
parts, a confident hope may be expressed that there will be no
blemish. If the skin is penetrated, either the glistening surface
of the tendons or ligaments is apparent, or there is a soft layer of
cellular membrane, generally containing a fatty cell or two in the
middle of the wound of the skin. Even here, by proper treat-
ment, the injury may be repaired so fully, that the space uncovered
by hair cannot be recognised by the ordinary observer, and not
by any one without bending the knee and looking very carefully
at it. The best treatment is to foment the knee well with warm
water, so as to remove every particle of grit or dirt; go on with
this every hour during the first day, and at night apply a bran
poultice to the knee, which should be left on till the next morn-
ing. Then cleanse the wound, and apply a little spermaceti oint-
ment, or lard without salt, and with this keep the wound pliant
until it heals, which if slight it will in a few days. If the skin is
pierced there will generally be a growth above it of red flabby
granulations, which should be carefully kept down to its own
level (not beneath it), by the daily use of blue stone, or if neces-
sary of nitrate of silver. As soon as the wound is perfectly
healed, if the horse can be spared, the whole front of the knee
and skin should be dressed with James' blister, which will bring
off the hair of the adjacent parts, and also encourage the growth
of that injured by the fall. In about three weeks or a month
from its application, the leg will pass muster, for there will be no
difference in the color of the old and new hair as there would
have been without the blister, and the new will also have come
on more quickly and perfectly than it otherwise would.

When the joint itself is opened the case is much more
serious, and there is a risk not only of a serious blemish, which
can seldom be avoided, but of a permanent stiffness of the leg, the
mischief sometimes being sufficient to lead to constitutional fever,
and the local inflammation going on to the destruction of the joint
by anchylosis. The treatment should be directed to cleanse and
then close the joint, the former object being carried out by a
careful ablution with warm water, continued until there is no
doubt of all the dirt and grit having been removed. Then, if
there is only a very small opening in the capsular ligament, it
may be closed by a careful and light touch of a pointed iron
heated to a red heat. Generally, however, it is better to apply
some dry carded cotton to the wound, and a bandage over this,
leaving all on for four or five days, when it may be removed and
reapplied. The horse should be ^led largely and physicked, taking
care to prevent all chance of his lying down by racking him up.
28

326 THE HORSE.

He will suldom attempt to do this, on account of the pain occa-
sioned in bending the knee, hut some animals will disregard this
when tired, and will go down somehow. When the cotton is
reapplied, if there are granulations above the level of the skin,
they must be kept down as recommended in the last paragraph,
and the subsequent treatment by blister may be exactly the same.
By these means a very extensive wound of the knee may be often
gpeedily cured, and the blemish will be comparatively trifling.

The knee is sometimes punctured by a thorn in hunting,
causing great pain and lameness. If it can be felt externally, it
is well t ) cut down upon it and remove it ; but groping in the dark
with the knife among important tendons in front of the knee is
not on any account to be attempted. The knee should be well
fomented, five or six times a day, until the swelling, if there is
any, subsides, and, in process of time, the thorn will either show
its base, or it will gradually free itself from its attachments and lie
beneath the skin, from which position it may be safely extracted
with the knife.

CHAPTER XXI.
DISEASES OF THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

General Remarks — Catarrh — Influenza or Distemper — Bronchitis
— Chronic Cough — Laryngitis — Roaring, Whistling, Etc. —
Pneumonia and Congestion oj the Lungs — Pleurisy — Pleuro-
dynia— Phthisis — Broken Wind — Thick Wind— Spasm of the
Diaphragm — Diseases of the Heart — Diseases of the Blood Ves-
sels in the Chest and Nose.

GENERAL REMARKS.

The IMPORTANCE OF SOUNDNESS in the respiratory apparatus
is so fully recognised, that in common i^arlance it is put before the
organs of locomotion, a popular expression being "sound, wind and
limb." It is true that good wind is useless without legs; but the
diseases of the latter are known to be more under control than
those of the chest, and hence it is, perhaps, that the wind is so
carefully scrutinized by all purchasers of horses. There is, also,
much greater difficulty in ascertaining the condition of the lung^
and their appendages, and the ordinary observer can only judge
of them by an absolute trial ; while the state of the legs may be
seen and felt, and that of the feet can be tolerably well ascertained
by a very short run upon hard ground. So, also, with the a.cute
diseases of these parts; whil'} the legs and feet manifesi the

CATARRH. 327

slightest inflammation going on in them by ( welling and heat, tlic
air-passages may be undergoing slow but suie destruction, without
giving out any sign that can be detected by any one but the prac-
tised veterinarian. In most of the diseases of the chest there is
disturbance of the breathing, even during a state of rest ; but in
some of them, as in roaring, for instance, no such evidence is
afforded, and the disease can only be detected by an examination
during, or immediately after, a severe gallop.

CATAREH, OR COLD.

Catarrh may be considered under two points of view ; either
as an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavities,
accompanied by slight general fever ; or as an ephemeral fever of
three or four days duration, complicated with this condition of the
nose. The latter is, perhaps, the more scientific definition, but
for common purposes it is more convenient to consider it as mainly
consisting in the most prominent symptom. There is invariably
some degree of feverishness, sometimes very considerable, at others
so slight as to be easily passed over. Usually the pulse is accele-
rated to about forty or fifty, the appetite is impaired, and there is
often sore throat, with more or less cough. On examining the
interior of the nostrils, they are more red than natural, at first dry
and swollen, then bedewed with a watery discharge which soon
becomes yellow, thick, and, in bad cases, purulent. The eyes are
generally involved, their conjunctival coat being injected with
blood, and often some slight weeping takes place, but there is
always an expression of sleepiness or dulness, partly owing to the
local condition of the organ, and partly to the general impairment
of the health. The disease is caused in most instances by a chill,
either in the stable or out, but sometimes, even in the mildest form
it appears to be epidemic. The treatment will greatly depend upon
the severity of the seizure ; usually, a bran-mash containing fron»
six drachms to one ounce of powdered nitre in it, at night, for two
or three consecutive periods, will suffice, together with the abstrac-
tion of corn, and, if the bowels are confined, a mild dose of physic
should be given. In more severe cases, when there is cough and
considerable feverishness, a ball composed of the following ingre-
dients may be given every night : —

Take of Nitrate of Potass 2 drachms.

Tartarized Antimony 1 drachm.

Powdered Digitalis ^ drachm.

Camphor Ij drachm.

Linseed meal and boiling water enough to make into a ball.

If the throat is sore, an embrocation of equal parts of oil, tur-
pentine, tincture of cantharides, and hartsh *rn, may be rubbed in
night and morning.

328 THE HORSt,

Should the disease extend to the bronchial tubes, or substance
of the lungs, the treatment for bronchitis or pneumonia must bo
adopted.

The stable should be kept cool, taking care to make up for the
difference in temperature by putting on an extra rug; water should
be allowed ad libitum, and no corn should be given.

Sometimes the discharge becomes chronic, and it is then known
by the name ozena.

INFLUENZA, OR DISTEMPER.
This may be considered to be an epidemic catarrh, but the
symptoms are generally more severe and leave greater prostration
of strength behind them. They also require more careful treat-
ment, which must be specially adapted to the attack, for remedies
which will arrest the disease in one year will totally fail the next
time that the epidemic prevails. The fever of late years has had
a tendency to put on the typhoid type, and bleeding, which for-
merly was often beneficial, is now completely forbidden. The symp-
toms are at first similar to those already described as pertaining to
common catarrh, but after a few days the accompanying fever is
more severe than usual, and does not abate at the customary period.
The appetite is altogether lost, and the appearance of the patient
is characteristic of severe disease rather than of a trifling cold. It
is, however, chiefly from the fact that a number of horses are seized
with similar symptoms, either at the same time or rapidly follow-
ing one another, that the disease is recognised. It usually prevails
in the spring of the year, or in a wet and unhealthy autumn.
Sometimes almost every case runs on to pneumonia, at others the
bronchial mucous membrane alone is attacked ; but in all there is
extreme debility in proportion to the apparent nature of the disease.
The ordinary appearances exhibited in recent epidemics have been
as follows : — The first thing observed is a general slight shivering,
accompanied by a staring coat. The pulse is weak, and slightly
accelerated, but not to any great extent; the mouth feels hot; the
eyes and the nostrils are red; the belly is tucked up; there is no
appetite; cough, to a varying extent, begins to show itself; and
there is generally a heaving of the flanks. The legs and feet are
not cold as in pneumonia, but beyond this they afford no positive
signs The cellular membrane around the eyes, and of the legs,
gene: ally swells about the second day, and often the head and
limbs become quite shapeless from this cause. In the early stage
the bowels are often relaxed, but afterwards they are as frequently
confined. Sore throat is a very common complication, but it is not
by any means an invariable attendant on influenza. It is, however

INFLUAxNZA— BRONCHITIS. 329

somewhat difficult to ascertain its existence, as in any case there
is no appetite for food. The treatment should be conducted on the
principle of husbanding the strength, and, unless urgent symptoms
of inflammation show themselves, the less that is done the better.
If the trachea or larynx is involved only slightly, counter irrita-
tion, by means of a liquid blister, must be tried, without resorting
CO strong internal medicines ; but if serious mischief ensues, the
case must, to a certain extent, be treated as it would be when
3oming on without the complication of influenza, always taking
care to avoid bleeding, and merely acting on the bowels by gentle
aperients, and on the skin and kidneys by the mildest diaphoretic and
diuretic. The following is the ordinary plan of treatment adopted :

Take of Spirit of Nitric Ether ■ 1 ounce.

Laudanum 4 drachms.

Nitrate of Potass 3 drachms.

Water 1 pint.

Mix, and give as a drench night and morning.

By constantly ofi'ering to the horse thin gruel (taking care that
it does not become sour), and no plain water, sufficient nourish-
ment may be given, as his thirst will induce him to drink.

During the stage of convalescence the greatest care must be
taken. At first, as soon as the cough has somewhat subsided, a
mild stomachic ball will be desirable, such as

Take of Extract of Gentian 6 drachms.

Powdered Ginger 2 drachms. Mix.

Afterwards, if the case goes on favorably, and the appetite returns,
the restoration may be left to nature, giving the horse by, degrees
his usual allowance of corn, and adding to his morning and evening
feed one drachm of sulphate of iron in fine powder. It must not be
attempted to give this until the appetite is pretty keen, or the h'^rse
will be disgusted, and will probably refuse his corn altogether.

Should typhoid symptoms be clearly established, the case must
be treated according to the directions hereafter laid down for
typhus fever.

BKONCHITIS.

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining
the bronchi, and almost invariably extending to these parts through
the trachea, from the larynx and nasal passages, which are pri-
marily afi'ected as in ordinary cold. The membrane in the early
stage becomes filled with blood, and as a consequence the diameter
of the tubes is diminished, attended by some difficulty and in-
creased rapidity of breathing. After a time a frothy mucus is
poured out from it, and this still further interferes with respira-
tion, and necessitates a constant cough to get rid of it. These
symptoms are always present, but they will vary greatly in inten
28*

530 THE HOKSE.

fiity, and in the rapidity with which thej progress, from which cir-
cumstances bronchitis is said to be acute or chronic, as the case
may be. In the acute form there are also several variations, and
veterinary writers are in the habit of again subdividing it into
acute and sub-acute, but the two leading divisions are suflBeient
for all practical purposes. It begins with the usual premonitory
appearances of a severe cold, accompanied by a staring coat, and
entire loss of appetite. The breathing is somewhat quicker than
natural, and the pulse is raised to sixty or seventy. The legs re-
main of the usual temperature, and there is a hard dry cough, the
lining membrane of the nostrils being intensely red, and in severe
cases dry and swollen. On auscultation there is a dry rattling
sound, very diiferent from the crepitation of pneumonia, and as
soon as mucus is secreted, succeeded by gurgling, and soap-bubble
sounds, easily distinguished when once heard. If the- attack goes
on favorably, the cough becomes loose, and there is a free dis-
charge of mucus, both from the lungs, as evidenced from the
nature of the cough, and from the nostrils, as shown by the run-
ning from them. On the other hand, the prognosis is unfavorable
when the breathing is very laborious, with the legs extended, and
the cough constant and ineflfectual in affording relief. Should no
relief be afforded, death takes place a week or ten days after the
onset of the disease, from suffocation. The treatment should de-
pend greatly upon the urgency of the inflammation, which only an
experienced eye can judge of If slight, nitre and tartar emetic
internally, and a blister (to one or both sides, according to the
extent of bronchi involved), will suffice, but in very severe cases
blood must be taken at the onset, or it will be impossible to control
the inflammation. Bleeding should be avoided if it is judged
prudent to do so, for of late years the type of diseases has changed
so much in the horse, that he is found to bear loss of blood badly.
Nevertheless, it is not wise to lay down the rule that it is never
desirable. The bowels must be acted on by the ordinary physic
ball, resorting to raking and clysters, if the time cannot be afforded
for the usual laxative preparation. For the special control of the
morbid state of the membrane the following ball will be found
advantageous : —

Take of Dijjitalis h drachm.

Calomel ^ drachm.

Tartar Emetic 60 to 80 grains.

Nitre 2 drachms.

Mix with treacle, and give twice a day.

Should the disease continue after the blister is healed, a large seton
may be put in one or both sides with advantage.

Chronic bronchitis seldom exists except as a sequel to the
acute form, and after adopting the balls recommended for that

CHRONIC COUGH. 331

state, it may be treated by attention to the geu6i*al health, a seton
in tho side, and the exhibition of an expectorant ball twice a day,
composed of the following materials : —

Take of" Gum Ammoniacum ^ ounce.

Powdered Squill 1 drachra.

Castile Soap • . . . 2 drachms.

Mix and make into a ball.

CHRONIC COUGH.

By this term is understood a cough that comes on without
any fever or evidences of the horse having taken cold. It differs
in this respect from chronic bronchitis, which generally supervenes
upon the acute form, and is always attended in the early stage by
feverishness. It appears probable that chronic cough is dependent
upon an unnatural stimulus to the mucous membrane, for it almost
always makes its appearance when much corn is given without due
preparation, and ceases on a return to green food. It is, therefore,
very commonly termed a stomach cough. The symptoms are all
summed up in the presence of a dry cough, which is seldom mani-
fested while in the stable, but comes on whenever the breathing is
hastened by any pace beyond a walk. Two or three coughs are
then given, and the horse perhaps is able to go on with his work,
but after resting for a few minutes, and again starting, it comes on
again, and annoys the rider or driver by its tantalizing promise of
disappearance followed by disappointment. Very often this kind
of cough is caused by the irritation of worms, but any kind of dis-
order of the digestive organs appears to have the power of pro-
ducing it. The usual treatment for chronic bronchitis seems here
to be quite powerless, and the only plan of proceeding likely to be
attended with success, is to look for the cause of the irritation, and
remove it. Sometimes this will be found in a hot stable, the horse
having previously been accustomed to a cool one. Here the altera-
tion of the temperature by ten or fifteen degrees will in a few days
effect a cure, and nothing else is required. Again, it may be that
the corn has been overdone, in which case a gentle dose of physic,
followed by a diminished allowance of corn, and a bran-masL twice
a week, will be successful. If the stomach is much disordered,
green food will be the best stimulus to a healthy condition, or in
its absence a' few warm cordial balls may be tried. The existence
of worms should be ascertained in doubtful cases, ind if they are
present, the proper remedies must be given for their removal.
Linseed oil and spirit of turpentine, which are both excellent worm
remedies, ar? highly recommended in chronic cough, and whether
or not their good effect is due to their antagonism to worms, they
may be regarded as specially useful.

A very successful con bination is the following mixture : —

332 THE ilORSE.

Take of Spirit of Turpentine . . 2 ounce«.

Mucilage of Acacia . . 6 ounces.

Gum Ammoniacum . . . h ounce.

Laudanum 4 ounces.

Water 2 quart?.

Mix, and give half-a-pint as a drench every night : the bottle must be
well shaken before pouring out the dose.

LARYNGITIS, ROARING, WHISTLING, &c.

One of the most coMiMOn diseases among -well-bred horses of
tlie present day, is the existence of some mechanical impediment
to the passage of the air into the lungs, causing the animal to
" make a noise." The exact nature of the sound has little, or no
practical bearing on the cause that produces it ; that is to say, it
cannot be predicated that roaring is produced l3y hryngitis ; nor
that whistling is the result of a palsy of some particular muscle,
but undoubtedly it may safely be asserted that all lesions of the
larynx, by which the shape and area of its opening (rima glottidis)
are altered and diminished, are sure to have a prejudicial effect
upon the wind, and either to produce roaring, whistling, wheezing,
or trumpeting, but which would result it might be difficult to say,
although the precise condition of the larynx were known, which it
cannot be during life. Until recently veterinary surgeons were
puzzled by often finding on examination of a roarer's larynx after
death no visible organic change in the opening, and many were led
to imagine that this part could not be the seat of the disease. On
a careful dissection, however, it is found that a muscle or muscles
whose office it is to dilate the larynx is wasted and flabby (crico-
arytenoideus lateralis and thyro-arytenoideus). The other muscles
are perhaps equally atrophied, but as their office is to close the
opening, their defects are not equally injurious, and at all events
are not shown by producing an unnatural noise. The cause of this
wasting is to be looked for in pressure upon the nerve which sup-
plies these muscles, and which passes through an opening in the
posterior ala of the thyroid cartilage, so that whatever causes a dis-
placement of that part will mechanically affect the nerve. For
these several reasons it will be necessary to examine first of all into
the several kinds of inflammation, &c., to which the larynx is sub-
jsct, and then to investigate as far as we niay, the nature, mode
of detection, and treatment of the several conditions known (o
horsemen by the names of roaring, whistling, &c., which are only
symptoms of one or other of the diseases to which allusion will
presently be made.

By acute LARYNGITIS is meant a more than ordinary inflam-
mation of the larynx, and not that slightly morbid condition in
which the mucous membrane of that organ is always involved in
'* the passage of a cold into the chest." In thp latter state the ear

CHRONIC LARYNGITIS. 333

delects uo uuusual sound, and indeed there is plenly of room for
the air to pass. But in true laryngitis, on placing the ear near the
*hroat, a harsh rasping sound is heard, which is sufficient at once
to show the nature and urgency of the symptoms. The mucous
membrane is swollen, and tinged with blood; the riira glottidis is
almost closed, and the air in passing through it produces the sound
above described, which, however, is sometimes replaced by a stridu-
lous or hissing one. In conjunction with this well-marked symp-
tom there is always a hoarse cough of a peculiar character, and
some considerable fever, with frequent respiration, and a hard, wiry
pulse of seventy to eighty. The treatment must be of the most
active kind, for not only is life threatened, but even if a fatal result
does not take place, there is great danger of permanent organic
mischief to the delicate apparatus of the larynx, generally from the
effusion of lymph into the submucous cellular membrane. A full
bleeding should at once be practised, and repeated at the end of
twelve hours if there is no relief afforded and the pulse still con-
tinues hard. The hair should be cut off the throat, and the tinc-
ture of cantharides brushed on in a pure state until a blister arises,
when the part may be constantly well fomented, to encourage the
discharge. Large doses of tartar emetic, calomel, and digitalis,
must also be given, but their amount and frequency should be left
to an experienced veterinarian, the preliminary bleeding and blis-
tering being done in his absence to save time. It is a case in
which medicine must be pushed as far as can be done with safety,
and this cannot well be left to any one who is not well acquainted
with its effects, and with the powers of the animal economy. G-ruel
is the only food allowed during the acute stage, and there is seldom
time to have recourse to aperient physic until the urgent symp-
toms are abated, when an ordinary dose may be given. During
convalescence the greatest care must be taken to prevent a re-
lapse, by avoiding all excitement either by stimulating food or fast
exercise.

Chronic laryngitis may occur as the result of the acute form
above described, or it may come on gradually, without any violent
inflammation preceding it. In either case the symptoms are simi-
lar in their nature to those met with in the acute form, but less in
degree. The noise made is not nearly so harsh, and can often
hardly be heard on the most careful examination. The peculiai
harsh, grating cough is, however, always present, and by it the
nature of the case may generally be easily made out. The disease
often accompanies strangles, although in nine cases out of ten it
is overlooked by the careless attendant. Very commonly, how-
ever, it makes its ravages in so insidious a manner that no suspi-
cion is felt of its presence, until the horse begins to make a noise,
though he must ir all probability have shown by the cough peculiar

334 THE HORSE.

to the complaint, that it has been working its way for some weeka
at least. Such cases chiefly occur in the training stable, and are
due, according to my belief, to the enormous quantity of oats
which it is now the fashion to give to colts from the earliest period
of their lives, increased to seven and eight feeds a day during the
second year. Continued spirit-drinking has precisely the same
effect upon the human being, and the harsh stridulous t'^ugh of
the confirmed drunkard marks the existence of ulceration of the
larynx, in the only way which he will allow it to be displayed, for
he is not, like the horse, made to exert his powers of running,
whether his wind is good or bad. There is, of course, a consider-
able difference between the two diseases, but there is sufficient
analogy between them to explain why the stimulus of over-corning
should affect the larynx in preference to any other part. It would
be difficult to show the connection between the two in any other
way, beyond the simple fact that roaring has become general in an
exact proportion to the prevalence of the present fashion of feed-
ing. The advocates of the plan will say that though the two have
come in together, yet it is merely a coincidence, and not a conse-
quence the one of the other; but if it can be shown that in man
a similar cause produces a similar effect, the argument is strength-
ened to such a degree as to be almost unanswerable. But what-
ever may be the cause there can be no doubt that the treatment is
most troublesome, and often baffles the skill of the most accom-
plished veterinarian. Blistering is not so useful as counter-irrita-
tion by a seton, which must be inserted in the loose skin beneath
the jaw, as close as possible to the larynx. This alone will do
much towards the cure, but no pains must be spared to assist its
action by a cooling regimen, consisting of bran mashes, and if in
the spring or summer, green food, or in the winter, carrots. Corn
must be entirely forbidden, and the kidneys should be encouraged
to act freely by two or three drachms of nitre given in the mash
twice a day. When the case is very intractable, the nitrate of
silver may be applied to the part itself by means of a sponge fast-
ened to a piece of flexible cane or whalebone. The mouth should
then be kept open with the ordinary balling iron, and the sponge
rapidly passed to the situation of the top of the larynx, and held
there for a second, and then withdrawn. I have succeeded in cur-
ing two obstinate cases of chronic laryngitis by this plan, but some
little risk is incurred, as in one of them imminent syn)ptoms of
suffocation presented themselves, but soon went off. I should not,
therefore, recommend the application excepting in cases where all
other means have failed, and in which there is reason to believe
that the patient is likely to become a permanent roarer or whistler.
The nitrate of silver has great power in producing resolution of
inflammation il mucous surfaces, and in this diseare little or

ROARING. 335

nothing can be effected by general measures. The solution should
be from ten to fifteen grains in the ounce of distilled water.

Roaring is the bugbear of the purchaser at the hammer, and
not without good reason. The most experienced veterinarian or
dealer will often fail to ascertain its existence, in spite of all the
artifices he may call into play. Not the slightest sound is hoard
during a state of quiescence, or even when the horse is trotted or
galloped for the short distance which " the ride" will afford. The
blow on the side given with due artistic effect elicits no grunt, and
yet the animal is a confirmed roarer, and not worth a shilling per-
haps for the purpose to which he is intended to be devoted. On
the other hand, many a sound horse is condemned as a roarer for
giving out the obnoxious grunt; and though there is no doubt
that this sign may be relied on in a great many cases, yet it can-
not be accepted as either negatively or positively a certain proof.
The only real trial is the noiseless gallop on turf or plough, when
the ear can detect the slightest sound, and can distinguish its ex-
act nature, and the precise spot from which it proceeds. Many a
horse will, when he is excited, make a harsh noise in his breathing,
accompanied by a kind of " gluck," proceeding from a spasmodic
flapping of the velum palati; but on galloping him all this goes
off, and he may probably exhibit excellent wind Such cases I
have many times known, and they would be condemned as unsound
by those who have had little experience, or are content with a
careless and inefficient trial. Stallions are particularly prone to
make this kind of noise, and it is extremely difficult to ascertain
their soundness in this respect by any means which can be safely
resorted to. The causes of roaring are of three kinds : 1st, In-
flammation, which has left a thickening or ulceration of the mucous
membrane, or a fungous growth from it ; 2d, Paralysis of the mus-
cles ; and 3d, An alteration of the shape of the cartilages of the
larynx, produced by tight reining.

In roaring produced hy an -ulcerated or thickened condition of
the mucous membrane, or by a fungous growth, the sound elicited
is always the same in proportion to the rapidity of respiration.
None of the ordinary expedients by which the breath is introduced
in a modified stream (such as a full meal, or pressure on the nos-
trils or windpipe), will be of much avail, and the horse roars
sturdily whenever his pace is sufficiently accelerated. If a horse
po affected can be made to grunt by the blow on the side, the
sound will always indicate the disease, for it will be harsh and
rough, and not the natural grunt of the animal. It is usually
supposed that no treatment can be of the slightest avail here ; but
I believe that sometimes the continued application of nitrate of
silver, as recommended at page 334, would be followed by a cer-
taiu amount of amelioration, the extent of which it is impossible

336 THE HORSE.

to guess at without a trial. In any case, when the animal is ren.
dered almost worthless by disease, it is fair to try experiments
which are neither expensive nor cruel ; and from the effect of the
remedy in those cases in which it has been used, I am led to ex-
pect that it may prove beneficial in those of longer standing.
Setons, blisters, and embrocations are all useless, as has been proved
in numberless cases; and beyond the palliation which can be
afforded by employing the horse only at such a pace as his state
will allow, nothing else can be suggested. In some cases the
roarer will be able to do ordinary harness work, which, however,
in hot weather, will try him severely; in others he may be so
slightly affected as to be fit to hunt in a country where, from its
nature, the pace is not very severe ; but by confirmed roarers the
slow work of the cart is all that can be performed without cruelty.
Where parali/sis of the muscles that open the rima glottidis is
the seat of the roaring, no plan has yet been suggested which is
of the slightest avail. In the first place, it is extremely difficult,
and indeed almost impossible, to diagnose the affection, and I know
of no means by which paralysis can be ascertained to exist during
life. Hence, although it is barely possible that by the use of
strychnine the nerve might be stimulated into a restoration of its
functions, yet as the case cannot be ascertained, it is scarcely wise
to give this powerful drug in the hope that it may by chance hit
the right nail on the head. This paralytic condition seems chiefly
to attack carriage horses, and probably arises from the pressure
made by the over-curved larynx upon the laryngeal nerve as it
passes through the opening in the thyroid cartilage. Many vete-
rinary writers have looked to the recurrent branch of the par
vagum to explain the loss of power, but I believe it is rather to
the laryngeal nerve that the mischief is due. It must be remem-
bered that carriage-horses are not only reined up for hours while
doing their daily work out of doors, but they are also often placed
in the same position, or even a more constrained one, by the coach-
man in the stable, in order to improve their necks. One horse of
his pair perhaps has naturally a head better set on than the other,
and he wishes to make nature bend to his wishes by compelling
the other to do that which the shape of his jaw forbids without a
sacrifice. The mouthing tackle is put on in the stable with this
view, and the poor horse is " kept on the bit" for three or four
hours early in the morning, during which time his larynx is pressed
between his narrow jaws into a most unnatural shape. The con-
sequence is either that the nerve is pressed upon, and the muscles
to which it is supplied are paralyzed, as in the condition which we
are now considering, or the cartilages are permanently disfigured,
which is the subject of the next paragraph. When the paralysis

ROARING. 337

is established, I believe no means but the internal use o. strycb
nine are at all likely to be beneficial.

An alteration in the shape of the cartilages, so as to permanently
change their form, is, I believe, the least common of all the causea
of roaring. Prossure for a very long time will be required to
effect this, and far more than suflBces to paralyze the nerve. Cases,
however, are recorded, and the parts Ifave been preserved, so that
there can be no doubt of their occasional occurrence. No treat-
vient can be of the slightest service.

Although roaring, in all its varieties, may be said to be generally
incurable, yet it may be greatly palliated by general attention to
the state of the lungs and stomach, by proper food, and by the
use, while the horse is at work, of a special contrivance, of a
most ingenious nature, published by Mr. Reeve, of Camberwell,
in. the Veterinarian for 1858, but said to have been in use for
many years among the London omnibus and cab men. At all
events, Mr. Reeve deserves the credit of having laid the matter
before the profession, and of explaining the true principle upon
which it acts. He says, in his paper on the subject: " I thought
it possible to so modify the atmospheric supply to the lungs, that,
during exercise, the volume of air, when it arrived at the glottis,
should not exceed that which passed through its opening when the
horse was tranquil, and which (from the fact of the sound being
absent) does not at that time produce roaring. A strap was accord-
ingly made to pass around the nose of the horse, just over the
region of the false nostrils, and buckle beneath the lower jaw
To the inner surface of this strap, and immediately over the false
nostril on each side, was fixed a body resembling in shape the half
of a hen's egg, cut longitudinally. When applied, these bodies
pressed upon the triangular spaces formed by the apex of the nasal
bones and upper jaw, thus closing the false nostrils, and partly
diminishing the channel of the true ones. The result was highly
gratifying ; for the patient, which previously could not travel with-
out stopping every minute to take breath, now travelled, to all
appearance, without inconvenience or noise. At first, the strap
seemed slightly to annoy the horse ; and whenever it became dis-
placed, the roaring would again commence. A slight modification,
however, overcame every difficulty : the strap, instead of being
buckled around and under the jaw, was fastened on each side of
the bit ; and, to prevent its descent, another was carried from its
centre, and fastened to the front of the harness-bridle." Mr
Reeve asserts that the effect was all he could have wished, and
that the horse on which he tried the plan, " which previously had
been entirely useless, now performs his work in a heavy brougham,
and gives great satisfaction. The roaring is stopped, and, with
the usual speed, there appears no impediment to respiration."
29 Y

338 IHE HORSE.

He concludes : " I have paid particular attention to this case, and
am inclined lo think, that when by the compression we have neu-
tralized the action of t!ie false nostrils, the object is effected with-
out the necessity of further narrowing the nasal passage."

Few people would care to drive a roarer, if they could help it,
even with the aid of the nasal compress ; but if necessity compels
such a proceeding, it is well to know how the poor animal may be
used with least annoyance to himself and his master.

HiGHBLOWiNG is a perfectly healthy and natural habit, and
cannot be confounded with roaring by any experienced horsemat.
It is solely confined to the nostrils; and the noise is not produced
in the slightest degree during inspiration, but solely during the
expulsion of the air, which is more forcible and rapid than usual,
and accompanied by a vibratory movement of the nostrils, which
is the seat of the noise. Roaring, on the contrary, continues dur-
ing inspiration, as well as expiration ; and by this simple test the
two may readily be distinguished. Most highblowers have par-
ticularly good wind, of which the celebrated Eclipse is an exam-
ple ; for there is no doubt that he was addicted to the habit.

Whistling (and piping, which is very similar to it), are pro-
duced by the same causes as roaring, in an exaggerated condition..
Thus, a roarer often becomes a whistler as the rima glottidis is
mure and more closed by disease; on the other hand, the whistler
is never converted into a roarer. The noise made is seldom a
decidedly shrill whistle, but it has more resemblance to that sound
than to roaring, and the name may well be retained as descriptive
of it. Whistlers are always in such a state of confirmed disease,
that treatment is out of the question — indeed, they can only bo
put to the very slowest kind of work.

Wheezing is indicative of a contracted condition of the bron-
chial tubes, which is sometimes of a spasmodic nature, and at
others is only brought on during occasional attacks after exposure
to cold. The treatment should be that recommended for chronic
bronchitis, which is the nature of the disease producing these
symptoms.

Trumpeting is not very well defined by veterinary writers, and
[ confess that I have never heard any horse make a noise which
could be compared to the trumpet, or to the note of the elephant
so called.

The question relating to the hereditary nature of roar-
ing is one which demands the most carel'ul examination before a
reliable answer can be given to it. It would be necessary to select
at rnndom a number of roaring sires and dams, and compare their,
stock with that of an equal proportion of sound animals, which
would be a Herculean task, beyond the power of any private indi-
vidual. Nothing short of this could posp'bly settle the dispute;

PNEUMONIA. 339

but, as far as opinion goes, it may be assumed that there are strong
authorities against the hereditary nature of the diseases which pro-
duce roaring. That it is often the result of ordinary inflamma-
tion, which in itself can scarcely be considered hereditary, is plain
enough ; and that it is also produced by mismanagement in tight
reining is also admitted, which latter kind can scarcely be supposed
to be handed down from sire tc sou; but that it is safer, when
practicable, to avoid parents with any disease whatever, is patent
to all

PNEUMONIA AND CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS.

The theoretical definition of pneumonia is that it con-
sists of inflammation of the parenchyma of the lungs, independently
both of the mucous lining to the air passages, and of the serous
covering of the whole mass. The mucous membrane ceases ab-
ruptly at the terminations of the bronchial subdivisions, and
consequently the air-cells are not lined with a continuation from
it. Hence there is an extensive cellulo-fibrous area, which may
be the subject of inflammation, without implicating the mucous
surface. Until within the last fifteen or twenty years, it was com-
monly supposed that the air-cells were all lined by mucous mem-
brane, and that the parenchyma was confined to an almost infini-
tesimally thin structure, tilling up its interstices; but the microscope
Las revealed the true structure of the lungs, and has shown that
there is a well-founded distinction between bronchitis and pneu-
monia, upon the ground of anatomy, as well as observation. Still,
it cannot be denied that the one seldom exists to any great extent,
or for any long period, without involving the adjacent tissue ; and
broncho-pneumonia, as well as pleuro-pneumonia, are as common
as the pure disease.

Pneumonia, or peripneumony, must be examined, with a
view, first, to its intensity, whether acute or sub-acute; and
secondly, as to its effects, which may be of little consequence, or
they may be so serious as to completely destroy the subsequent
usefulness of the patient. It is not, therefore, alone necessary to
provide against death by the treatment adopted, but due care must
also be taken that the tissue of the lungs is not disorganized by a
deposition of lymph, or of matter, so as to lead, in the one case, to
a conaoUdation of the air-cells, and, in the other, to the formation

340 THE HORSE.

of a laige abcess, and consequent destruction of substance. The
former is a very common sequel of pneumonia ; and probably there
are few attacks of it without being followed by a greater or less
degree of hepatization, by which term the deposit of lymph ig
known, from its causing the lungs to assume the texture of liver
(Vj-ap). In very severe cases, gangrene of the lungs is induced;
but as death almost always speedily follows this condition, it is not
necessary to consider it, excepting as bearing upon the fatal result.

The cause of pneumonia may be over-exertion, as in the hunting-
field, especially in an unprepared horse ; or it may come on as a
primary disease after exposure to cold; or it may follow upon
bronchitis when neglected and allowed to run on without check.
In the two first cases it appears to be produced by the great con-
gestion of blood which takes place in the fine network of vessels of
which the lungs are in great part composed. The blood in the
one case is collected by the increased necessity for its aeration with
a failing circulation, as in over-exhaustion, or in the other it 'm
forced inwards upon the vital organs by the chill which the skin
has received. The capillaries are then roused to act beyond their
strength, and an inflammatory condition is established as a repara-
tory effort of nature, which may possibly stop short as soon as the
object is accomplished, but more frequently goes on beyond this,
and an attack of pneumonia sets in with more or less intensity,
according to circumstances. For these reasons, when the lungs
are evidently congested, no pains should be spared to relieve them
by causing the skin to act, before the aid of nature is invoked,
since it can never be certain that she will stop short at the proper
point.

Congestion op the lungs is too often neglected and allowed
to go on to inflammation. Veterinary surgeons, indeed, are sel-
dom called in before this stage has run its course and inflammation
is established. It is true that every hunting man endeavors to
ascertain all the particulars relating to it, because he is constantly
in fear of having to treat it, and he would gladly benefit by the
advice and experience of those more competent to treat it than
himself But the great mass of horsemasters are wholly ignorant
of its action, and I shall therefore endeavor to lay down instruc-
tions which may be beneficial to those who are so unlucky as to
h:ive a horse with congested lungs, either caused by over-exertion
or by a chill, or by a combination of the two, as most frequently
happens.

Wien a fat " dealer's horse," that is, one made up for sale and
not for use, is ridden in a sharp burst across country, his lungs are
most unfortunately tried, for he is not only loaded with blood con-
taining an excess of stimulating materials (or in a state of plethora,
as it is called), bu» his heart and blood-vesnels are not prepared by

PNEUMONIA. 341

pievious exercise to carry on tlie circulation when unusual demands
upon them are made. The consequence is that, as soon as he has
gone half a dozen miles, he not only tires, but, if pressed, his gal-
lant spirit carries him on until the blood collects and stagnates in
his lungs, from a defect in the circulating apparatus, and he be-
comes absolutely choked from a want of that decarbonization which
is necessary to his very existence. Air is taken freely into his
lungs, but the circulation almost ceases in them, and in spite of
his hurried breathing, as shown by his panting sides, he is almost
as completely suffocated as if a cord was tied round his neck. On
examining his eyes and nostrils they are seen to be turgid and
purple, the vessels being filled with carbonized blood, while the
heart beats rapidly but feebly, and the countenance is expressive
of anxiety and distress. In this state many a horseman finds his
steed every winter, and a pretty dilemma he is in. The question
of treatment is a serious one, even to the most experienced in such
matters, but one thing is quite clear, that the more urgent the
case the more danger there is in having recourse to the lancet.
Bleeding to the extent of a few pounds will sometimes relieve a
trifling case of exhaustion, but in a really severe one it will take
away the only chance which remains. The best plan is to givo the
animal plenty of air, turn his head to the wind, and if any kind
of fermented liquor can be obtained, give him a little at once
Neat spirits are apt to cause increased distress from spasm of th#-
larynx, but it is even better to risk this than to let the exhaustion
continue. If, therefore, the horse is incapable of walking to the
nearest farm-house or inn, the better plan is to leave him with a
light covering on him of some kind, and at once proceed to pro-
cure a quart of ale or wine, or spirits and water, whichever can be
obtained the most easily. One or other of these, slightly warmed
and spiced, if possible, should be poured down his throat, which
can readily be done, as he has no power to resist, and then in a
few minutes he may generally be induced to move quietly on to-
wards the nearest stable. Here he must remain all night if the
attack is a bad one, or if he recovers soon he may be walked
quietly hom'3. When he reaches his stable he may be treated
according to the directions given at page 188, and in the evening
or the next morning early, if the pulse rises and is hard and jerk-
ing, he may be bled with advantage, but rarely should this be done
for some hours after the first attack. Congestion is essentially
produced by debility, and although an abstraction of blood relieves
the vessels of a part of their load, it increases their weakness in
a still greater degree, and they are less able to do their work,
diminished though it may be, than they were before. Hundreds
of over-worked horses have been killed by the abuse of the lancet
29*

342 THE HORSE.

iu the hunting-field, but the principle on which their treatment
should be conducted is better understood now than formerly.

When congestion shows itself as the result of a chili, the
following symptoms are displayed : — First and foremost there is
rapid and laborious breathing, the horse standing with his legs
wide apart, his head thrust straight forward, and his flanks heav-
ing. The skin is generally dry, but if there is any sweat it is a
cold one. The legs are iqy cold, and also the ears. The whites of
the eyes and lining of the nostrils are of a purplish hue, but not
very deep in colour The pulse is slightly accelerated (from forty
to fifty), but not hard and incompressible ; and lastly, the attack
is of recent duration. These si^ns, however, are not to be fully
relied on as marking congestion rather than inflammation, without
having recourse to an examination of the lungs by means of the
ear. Placing it against the side of the chest, in inflammation
there would be certain marked sounds, presently to be described,
whilst in the state we are now considering they are wholly absent,
and all that is heard is the usual respiratory murmur slightly
increased in intensity. It is of the utmost importance to make
out exactly the nature of the case, for the treatment should be
very different in congestion and inflammation. If in the former
condition the blood can only be drawn into the skin, relief is at
once afforded and all danger is at an end; but in the latter,
though some slight advantage would be gained, the progress of
the disease would not be materially checked. To produce this
determination of blood to the skin without loss of time, is some-
times very difficult; but by the application of hot water and
blankets it may generally be accomplished. Two men, supplied
with a tub of very hot water and plenty of clothing, should be
rapid in their movements, and proceed as follows : — Have an
assistant ready to strip the patient when ordered, then, dipping
a blanket in the water, it is taken out and partially wrung, leaving
as much water in its meshes as it can hold without dropping ; as
soon as it is cool enough for the human hand to bear its pressure
it should be gently, but quickly, laid upon the horse's back, and
the rug, which has just come ofi", while still warm, placed over
it, with two or three more over all, the number depending upon
the temperature of the air. Another smaller rug may in the same
way be wetted and applied to the neck, covering it with two or
three hoods, but taking care to avoid pressure upon the windpipe.
The legs also should be wrapped in flannel bandages, made as hot
as possible before the fire, but dry. In the course of half an hour,
if the skin of the parts uncovered does not become warm, and
show evidences of sweating coming on, another rug must be
dipped in the same way, and substituted quickly for the first.

PNEUMONIA. 343

(Jsually, however, the desired effect is produced within twenty
minutes, and then great care and some little tact are required to
manage the operation. If the sweating is allowed to go on
beyond a certain point exhaustion is produced, attended by almost
as much danger as inflammation ; while on the other hand, in
attempting to moderate the action of the skin, risk is incurred of a
chill, and thus upsetting all the benefit which might otherwise
have been derived. But by throwing open the doors to the
external air, which may freely be admitted as soon as the skin
acts, and by reducing the number of additional rugs, the amount
of sweat given off may be kept within due bounds, and in the
course of two or three hours the previously wetted rug or blanket
may be removed, and a dry, warm one substituted for it, but the
assistants must be quick and handy in effecting the change.
Many a case of inflammation of the lungs, kidneys, or bowels might
be stopped in limine by the adoption of this plan ; but the misfor-
tune is that it requires all the skill and tact of the veterinary surgeon,
first of all to diagnose the case, and afterwards to manage its treat-
ment. Still, if a master will undertake the superintendence of
the operation himself, and is accustomed to disease, there is little
risk of failure.

The symptoms of acute pneumonia are a quick and dis-
tressed respiration, averaging about sixty inspirations in the
minute. Pulse quick (from seventy to eighty-five) ; hard, often
small, but always compressible. Nostrils distended, and the
lining membrane red (except in the last stage, when suffocation is
imminent). Cough short, and evidently giving pain, which occa-
sions it to be checked as much as possible. Legs and ears gene-
rally cold, often icy. Feet wide apart ; evidently with an instinc-
tive desire to dilate the chest as much as possible. On puttmg
the ear to the chest, if the attack is very recent, there will be
merely a greatly increased respiratory murmur; but wh'.n fully
developed there may be heard a crepitant rattling, whicu is com-
pared to the crackling of a dried bladder; but I confess that I
could never make out the similarity between the two sounds. In
the later stages, this is succeeded by an absence of ad sound,
owing to the consolidation of the lungs, or by mucous rattles
depending upou the secretion of mucus. On tapping the exterior
of the chest with the ends of the fingers (percussion), the sound
given out is dull in proportion to the extent of mischief, the effect
of pneumonia being to convert the spongy texture of the lungs
into a solid substance like liver. The treatment will greatly
depend upon the stage of the disease, the age and constitution of
the horse, and the nature of the prevailing epidemic, if there is
one. In modern days bleeding is very badly borne, either by

344 THE HORSE.

man or horse, neverthel. ss few cases of genuine pneumonia will be
Baved without it. Sufficient blood must be taken to make a decid-
ed impression on the circulation, without which the inflammation will
not be mastered. The quantity necessary for this cannot be fixed,
bacause the effect will vary so materially, that the abstraction of
three or four quarts of blood in one case will do more than double
or treble that quantity in another. A large orifice must be made
in the vein, and it must not be closed until the lining membrane
of the nose or the white of the eye is seen to have become con-
siderably paler. It may possibly even then be necessary to repeat
the operation six hours afterwards, or next day, according to the
symptoms. The rule should be followed of taking enough but
not a drop too much, for blood removed from the circulation takes
a long time to replace. With regard to medicine, tartar emetic is
the only drug which seems to have much influence over pneu-
monia, and it must be given every six hours in drachm doses,
with from half a drachm to a drachm of powdered digitalis, or
white hellebore, to keep down the pulse, and two or three
drachms of nitre, to increase the action of the kidneys. Unless
the bowels are confined no aperient should be given, and if neces-
sary only the mildest dose should be used. The diet should con-
sist of bran mashes, gruel, and a little hay, or green food if the
season of the year allows. A cool airy stable and warm clothing
are indispensable in this disease. When the first violence of the
attack has subsided, a large blister on the side of the chest will
afford great relief, and when it ceases to act, if the disease is not
entirely cured a second may be put on the other side.

Sub-acute pneumonia differs in no respect from the acute form,
excepting in degree, and the symptoms and treatment will vary
only in proportion.

The terminations of pneumonia may be death, or resolution
(by which is to be understood a disappearance of the symptoms
without leaving any mischief behind), or hepatization, or abcess.
The last-named sequel may be very serious in extent, but if an
opening is made by nature for the discharge of its contents into
the bronchial tubes the horse may recover, and his wind may be
sufiiciently good for any purposes but the racecourse or the hunt-
ing field. Hepatization is always attended with thick wind, but
in other respects the health may be good, and the horse may be
suited to ordinary work. In process of time some of the lymph is
absorbpd, and a considerable improvement takes place, but it never
entirely disappears, and a horse which has once suffered from
pneumonia attended by hepatization remains permanently unsound

PLEURISY— PLEURODYNIA. 345

PLEURISY.

This disease is characterized by a very peculiar respiration,
the expirations being much longer than the inspirations, owing to
the pain which is given by the action of the muscles necessary fur
the latter, while the former, if the chest is allowed quietly to fall,
is almost painless. Nevertheless, the breathing is quicker on the
whole than natural, being from forty to fifty per minute. The
pulse is quick, small, and incompressible. Nostrils and eyes of a
natural color, and the former are not dilated. The countenance is
anxious, and the legs are rather drawn together than extended, as
in bronchitis and pneumonia, and they are not colder than usual.
There is a short hurried cough, with great restlessness, and the
sides are always painful on pressure ; but this symptom by itself is
not to be relied on, as it is present in pleurodynia, which will be
presently described.

The treatment should consist of copious bleeding, followed by a
mild purgative, and the same ball as recommended for pneumonia,
with the addition of half a drachm of calomel. Blisters are not
desirable to be applied to the sides of the thorax, as there is so
little space between the two surfaces of the pleura and the skin
that they are apt to do harm by immediately irritating the former,
rather than to act beneficially by counter-irritation of the skin. A
large rowel, may, however, be placed in the breast with advantage.

Htdrothorax, or water in the cavity of the chest, is one of
the sequels of chronic pleurisy, the serum thrown out being the
means by which a serous membrane relieves itself. It can be
detected by the entire absence of respiratory murmur, and by the
dullness on percussion. No treatment is of any avail but tapping^
which may be readily and safely performed (if the diagnosis is
correct) by passing a trocar between the eighth and ninth ribs,
near their cartilages. If, however, an error has been committed,
the lung is wounded, and death will probably ensue.

PLEURODYNIA.

Between this disease and the last there is some simi
larity in the symptoms ; but in their nature, and in the treatment
required, they are widely separated. It is, therefore, necessary
that they should not be confounded, for in the one case blood-
letting and other active measures may be unnecessarily adopted,
and in the other a fatal result will most probably occur for want

346 THE HORSE.

of ttem. In pleuritis there is a quick pulse, with general consti-
tutional disturbance, which will serve to distinguish it from pleuro-
dynia, besides which, it is rarely that we meet with the former
without some other affection of the lungs co-existing. When,
therefore, a horse is evidently suffering from acute pain in the
walls of the thorax, unaccompanied by cough, hurried breathing,
quick pulse, or fever, it may safely be diagnosed that the nature
of the attack is a rheumatism of the intercostal muscles (pleuro-
dynia), and not pleurisy. In treating it, bleeding and tartar emetic
must be carefully avoided, and hot mustard and vinegar rubbed
into the sides will be the most likely remedy to afford relief.

PHTHISIS.

When a horse has long been subject to a chronic cough,
and, without losing appetite, wastes away rapidly, it may be assumed
that he is a victim to phthisis, and especially if he is narrow-
chested and has long shown signs of short wind. On examining
the chest by the ear, it will be found to give out sounds of various
kinds, depending upon the exact state of the lungs; but in most
cases there will be great dulness on percussion, owing to the
deposit of tubercles, in which the disease consists. In a confirmed
case no treatment will avail, and the poor animal had better be
destroyed. When the attack is slight, the progress of the disease
may be stayed by counteracting inflammation in the ordinary way,
avoiding loss of blood when possible. Haemorrhage, from the
breaking down of the substance of the lung, by which a large
blood-vessel is opened, is a common result of phthisis, and will be
alluded to under the head of diseases of the vessels of the lungs,
at the end of this chapter.

BROKEN WIND.

A broken-winded horse can be detected at once by any
horseman possessed of experience, from the peculiar and forcible
double expiration. Inspiration is performed as usual, then comes
a rapid but not violent act of expiration, followed by a forcible
repetition of the same, in which all the muscles of respiration,
auxiliary and ordinary, are called into play. This is, of course,
most marked when the horse has been gallopped, but even when
he is at rest the double expiration is manifest at almost any ordi-
nary distance from the observer. The disease almost (if not quite)
invariably consists in emphysema, or entrance of the air into
unnatural cells, which is retained there, as the urine is in the
bladder, from the valvular nature of the openings, and cannot be
entirely expelled, nor in the slightest degree, without calling into
play all the muscles of the chest. The presence of unchanged air
Ls a constant source of irritation to the lungs, and although «uffi-

BROKEN WIND— THICK WIND. 347

cieiit may be expired easily enough to carry on their funi rions
while the body is at rest, yet instinctively there is a desire to get
rid of the surplus, and hence the two acts of respiration. Imme-
diately after this second act the muscles relax, and the flank falls
in, and this it is which catches the eye in so remarkable a mannOT
On examination after death, the lungs are found to remain en-
larged, and do not collapse as in the healthy condition. They are
distended with air; and this is especially the case when the em-
physema is of the kind called interlobular, in which the air has
escaped into the cellular membrane. In the most common kind,
however, the cells are broken down, several being united together,
while the enlargement pressing upon the tube which has opened
into them diminishes its capacity, and prevents the ready escape
of air. This is the vesicular emphysema of pathologists. The
former is generally suddenly produced by a severe gallop after a
full meal, while the latter is a slow growth and often occurs at
grass, as a consequence of neglected chronic cough, the constant
muscular efforts appearing gradually to dilate the cells.

The treatment can only be palliative, as there is no recognised
cure for the disease, though M. Hew, of Chaumont, has lately pub-
lished a report of ten cases in which treatment by arsenic given
with green food or straw, and in some cases bleeding, was perfectly
successful. The arsenic was given to the extent of fifteen grains
daily, and at the end of a fortnight the symptoms of broken wind
were completely removed; but as the horses were not subsequently
watched, it is impossible to say whether the cure was permanent
It is known, however, that one of them relapsed after three months,
but speedily yielded to a repetition of the treatment. It may cer-
tainly be worth while to try the experiment of the effect of arsenic
where a broken-winded horse is valuable in other respects. The
medicine is not expensive, and the length of time necessary for the
treatment is not very great. Broken -winded horses should be care-
fully dieted, and even then confined to slow work. The food should
be in small compass, consisting chiefly of wheat-straw chaff, with a
proper quantity of oats, and beans may be added if the animal is
not very young. The water should never be given within an hour
of going out of the stable, but it is better to leave a constant sup-
ply, when too much will never be taken. Carrots are peculiarly
suited to this disease, and a diet of bran mixed with carrots, sliced,
has sometimes been known to relieve a broken-winded horse most
materially.

THICK WIND.

Thick wind is the horseman's term for any defective respira-
tion, unaccompanied by a noise, or by the signs of emphysema just
alluded to. It usually follows pneumonia, but it may arise from

348 THE HORSE.

chronic bronchitis, occasioning a thickening of the mucous mem
brane lining the bronchial tubes, and thus lessening their diameter,
or it may accompany phthisis when the deposit of tubercles is ex-
♦^^ensive. No treatment will be of any service except such as will
aid the play of the lungs mechanically, by avoiding overloading
the stomach, as mentioned in the last section.

SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM.

Some horses, when at all distressed by the severity of their
gallops, communicate to the rider a most unpleasant sensation, as
if some internal part was giving a sudden blow or flap. This is
not only a ^sensation, but a reality, for the diaphragm being na-
turally weak, or overstrained at some previous period, acts spas •
modically in drawing in the air. If the horse thus aflfected is rid-
den onwards afterwards, he will be placed in danger of suffocation
and death, either from rupture of the diaphragm, or from its cessa-
tion to act, or from its permanently contracting and refusing to
give way during expiration. There is no cure for the weakness
which tends to produce the spasm, and all that can be done is to
avoid using the horse aff'ected with it at any very fast pace, and
over a distance of ground. Urgent symptoms may be relieved by
a cordial-drench, such as the following : —

Take of Laudanum 6 drachms.

Ether 1^ ounce-
Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia . . 3 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger 3 drachms.

Ale 1 pint. Mix.

Or if there is any difficulty in giving a drench, a ball may be
made up and given —

Take of Carbonate of Ammonia .... 1 drachm.

Camphor J drachm.

Powdered Ginger 1 drachm.

Linseed meal and boiling water suflScient to make into a ball.

Either of the above may be repeated at the end of three hours,
if relief is not aff"orded. Increased strength may be given to the
diaphragm by regular slow work, and the daily mixture of a drachm
of powdered sulphate of iron with the feed of corn.

DISEASES OF THE HEART.

The horse is subject to inflammation of the substance of the
heart (carditis) of a rheumatic nature, and of the fibro-serous cover-
ing (pericarditis), but the symptoms are so obscure that no one but
the professional veterinarian will be likely to make them out.
Dropsy of the heart is a common disease in worn-out horses, and
hypertrophy, as well as fatty degeneration, are often met with
among well-conditioned animals.

DISEASES OF BLOOD-VESSELS, 349

DISEASES OF THE BLOv. D-VESSELS OF THE CHEST
AND NOSE.

The horse is very subject to hemorrhage from the nose,
coming on during violent exertion, and many a race has been lost
from this cause. Fat over-fed horses are the most likely to suffer
from hemorrhage; but most people are aware of the risk in-
curred in over-riding or driving them, and for this reason they
are not so often subject to this accident (for such it is rather than
a disease) as they otherwise would be. It is unnecessary to de-
scribe its symptoms, as the gush of blood renders it but too appa-
rent, and the only point necessary to inquire into is, whether the
lungs or the nasal cavities are the seat of the rupture of the vessel.
In the former case the blood comes from both nostrils, and is
frothy ; while in the latter it generally proceeds from one only,
and is perfectly fluid. The treatment should consist in cooling the
horse down by a dose of physic and a somewhat lower diet; but if
the bleeding is very persistent, and returns again and again, a
saturated solution of alum in water may be syringed up the nostril
daily, or, if this fails, an infusion of matico may be tried, which is
far more likely to succeed. It is made by pouring half a pint of
boiling water on a drachm of matico-leaves, and letting it stand till
cool, when it should be strained, and is fit for use.

Hemorrhage from the lungs is a far more serious affair,
and its control requires active remedies if they are to be of any
service. It may arise from the existence of an abscess n the
lung of a phthisical nature, which implicates some considt. rable
vessel; or it may be caused by the bursting of an aneurism, which
is a dilatation of a large artery, and generally occurs near the heart.
The treatment can seldom do more than prolong the life of the
patient for a short time, and it is scarcely worth while to entei
upon it. Bleeding from the jugular vein will arrest the internal
haemorrhage, and must often be resorted to in the first instance,
and there are internal medicines which will assist it, such as digi-
talis and matico ; but, as before remarked, this only postpones the
fatal termination.

350 THE HORSE.

CHAPTER XXII.
DISEA£,ES OF THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

General remarks — Diseases of the Mouth and Throat — Gastritis —
Stomach Staggers — Dyspepsia — Bots — Iriflammation of the
Bowels — Colic — Diarrhxa and Dysentery — Strangulation and
Ruptuie — Calculi in the Bowels — Worms — Disease of the
Liver — of the Kidneys — of the Bladder — of the Organs of
Generation.

GTtNERAL REMARKS.

Though not oftejs producing what in horse-dealing is con-
eidered unsoundness, yet diseases of the abdominal viscera con-
stantly lead to death, and frequently to such a debilitated state of
the body, that the sufferer is rendered useless. Fortunately for
the purchaser, they almost always give external evidence of their
presence, for there is not only emaciation, but also a staring coat
and a flabby state of the muscles, which is quite the reverse of the
wiry feel communicated to the hand in those instances where the
horse is " poor" from over-work in proportion to his food. In the
latter case, time and good living only are required to restore the
natural plumpness ; but in the former, the wasting will either go
on until death puts an end to the poor diseased animal, or he
will remain in a debilitated and wasted condition, utterly unfit for
hard work.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH AND THROAT.

Several parts about the mouth are liable to inflammation,
which would be of little consequence in itself, but that it inter-
feres with the feeding, and this for the time starves the horse,
and renders him unfit for his work, causing him to "quid" or
return his food into the manger without swallowing it. Such are
lampas. vivos or enlarged glands, barbs or paps, gigs, bladders,
and flaps, — all which are names given to the enlargements of the
salivary ducts, — and carious teeth, or inflammation of their fangs.
TJesides these, the horse is also subject to sore throat, and stran-
gles, which are accompanied by constitutional disturbance, and
not only occasion " quidding," if there is any slight appetite, but
they are also generally accompanied by a loss of that function.

Sore throat. — When the throat inflames, as is evidenced by
fulness and hardness of this part, and there is difiiculty of swal-
lowing, the skin covering it should immediately be severely sweated,
or the larynx will be involved and irreparable injury done. The
tincture of csntharides dL'"ted with an equal part of spirit of tui.

-tie
S r= I

50 . ■ Pes

CO- ^

M2 «

STRANGLES-LAMPAS. 351

pontitie and a little oil, may be rubbed in with a piece of sponge,
until it produces irritation of the skin, which in a few hours will
be followed by a discharge from the part. Six or eight drachms
of nitre may also be dissolved in the water which the horse drinks,
with some difficulty, but still, as he is thirsty, he will take it.
Sometimes eating gives less pain than drinking, and then the
nitre may be given with a bran mash instead of the water.

Strangles. — Between the third and fifth year of the colt's life
he is generally seized with an acute swelling of the soft parts
between the branches of the lower jaw, accompanied by more or
less sore throat, cough and feverishness. These go on increasing
for some days, and then an abscess shows itself, and finally bursts.
The salivary glands are often involved, but the matter forms in
the cellular membrane external to them. The treatment should
be addressed to the control of constitutional symptoms by the
mildest measures, such as bran mashes with nitre in them, abstrac-
tion of corn, hay tea, &c. At the same time the swelling should
be poulticed for one night, or thoroughly fomented two or three
times, and then blistered with the tincture of cantharides. As
sooB as the matter can plainly be felt, it may be let out with a
lancet; but it is very doubtful whether it is not the best plan to
permit the abscess to break. The bowels should be gently moved,
by giving a pint, or somewhat less, according to age, of castor oil ;
and afterwards two or three drachms of nitre, with half a drachm
of lartar emetic, may be mixed with the mash twice a day, on
which food alone the colt should be fed, in addition to gruel, and
a little grass or clover if these are to be had, or if not, a few steamed
carrots. The disease has a tendency to get well naturally, but if
it is not kept within moderate bounds it is very apt to lay the
foundation of roaring or whistling. Any chronic swelling which
is left behind, may be removed by rubbing in a weak ointment of
biniodide of mercury (one scruple or half drachm to the ounce;
see page 300).

Lampas is an active inflammation of the ridges, or "bars," in
the hoof of the mouth, generally occurring in the young horse
while he is shedding his teeth, or putting up the tushes. Some-
times, however, it comes on, independently of this cause, from
over-feeding with corn after a run at grass. The mucous mem-
brane of the roof of the mouth swells so much that it projects
below the level of the nippers, and is so tender that all hard and
dry food is refused. The treatment is extremely simple, consist-
ing in the scarification of the part with a sharp knife or lancet,
after which the swelling generally subsides, and is gone in a day
or two; but should it obstinately continue, as will sometimes
happen, a stick of lunar caustic must be gently rubbed or,er the
part every day until a cure is completed. This is far better than

352 THE HORSE.

the red-hot iron, which was formerly so constantly used, with
good eflfect it is true, and not accompanied by any cruelty, as the
mucous membrane is nearly insensible, but the caustic is more
rapid and effectual in stimulating the vessels to a healthy action,
and on that score should be pi'eferred. If the lampas is owing to
the cutting of a grinder, relief will be afforded by a crucial inci-
sion across the protruding gum.

Barbs, paps, &c. — The swelling at the mouth of the ducts
may generally be relieved by a dose of physic and green food, but
should it continue, a piece of lunar caustic may be held for a
moment against the opening of the duct every second day, and
after two or three applications the thickening will certainly
disappear.

Where vives, or chronically enlarged submaxillary glands, are
met with, the application of the ointment of biniodide of mercury,
according to the directions given at page 300, will almost certainly
cause their reduction to a natural state.

GASTRITIS.

GrASTRiTis (acutc inflammation of the stomach) is extremely
rare in the horse as an idiopathic disease ; but it sometimes occurs
from eating vegetable poisons as food, or from the wilful introduc-
tion of arsenic into this organ, or, lastly, from licking off corrosive
external applications, which have been used for mange. The symp-
toms from poisoning will a good deal depend upon the article
which has been taken, but in almost all cases in which vegetable
poisons have been swallowed, there is a strange sort of drowsiness,
so that the horse does not lie down and go to sleep, but props him-
self against a wall or tree with his head hanging almost to the
ground. As the drowsiness increases he often falls down in his
attempt to rest himself more completely, and when on the ground
hit breathing is loud and hard, and his sleep is so unnaturally
sound that he can scarcely be roused from it. At length con-
vulsions occur and death soon takes place. This is the ordinary
course of poisoning with yew, which is sometimes picked up with
the grass after the clippings have dried, for in its fresh state the
taste is too bitter for the palate, and the horse rejects the mouthful
of grass in which it is involved. May-weed and water parsley will
also produce nearly similar symptoms. The treatment in each
case should be by rousing the horse mechanically, and at the same
time giving him six or eight drachms of aromatic spirit of ammonia,
in a pint or two of good ale, with a little ginger in it. This may
be repeated every two hours, and the horse should be perpetually
walked about until the narcotic symptoms are completely gone off,
when a sound sleep will restore him to his natural state.

Arsenic, when given in large doses, with an intention to destroy

STOMACH STAGGEKS. 353

life, produces intense pain and thirst ; — the former, evidenced by an
eager gaze at the flanks, pawing of the ground, or rolling ; and
sometimes by each of these in succession. The saliva is secreted
in increased quantities, and flows from the mouth, as the throat is
generally too sore to allow of its being swallowed. The breath
soon becomes hot and fetid, and purging then comes on of a bloody
mucus, which soon carries oflF the patient by exhaustion, if death
does not take place from the immediate eff'ects of the poison on the
stomach and brain. Treatment is seldom of any avail, the most
likely remedies being large bleedings, blisters to the sides of the
chest, and plenty of thin gruel to sheathe the inflamed surface
of the mucous membrane, which is deprived of its epithelial
scales.

Corrosive sublimate is sometimes employed as a wash in
mange, or to destroy lice, when it may be licked off", and will occa-
sion nearly the same symptoms as arsenic. The treatm&nt consists
in a similar use of thin starch or gruel ; or, if the poison has
recently been given wilfully, of large quantities of white of egg.

STOMACH STAGGERS.
The exact nature of this disease has never been clearly
made out, and it is now so rare, that there is little chance of its
being satisfactorily explained. The symptoms would chiefly lead
one to suppose the brain to be implicated ; but there is so close a
sympathy between that organ and the stomach, that we can easily
account in that way for the cerebral manifestations. A theory has
been propounded, that it is seated in the par vagum, or pneumo-
gastric nerve; and as all the parts with which that nerve is con-
nected are aff"ected, there is some ground for the hypothesis ; but
it is not supported by the demonstration of anatomy, simply, per-
haps, because of the difficulty in the way of prosecuting the
pathology of the nerves. The first onset of the disease is marked
by great heaviness of the eyes, soon going on to drowsiness ; the
head dropping into the manger, even while feeding is in progress.
It generally makes its appearance after a long fast ; and it is sup-
posed by some writers to be owing to the demands made by the
stomach on the brain, when in an exhausted condition for want of
its usual supplies. This theory is supported by the fact that, in
the present day, when every horsemaster knows the danger of
working his horses without feeding them at intervals of five, or at
most six hours, the stomach staggers are almost unknown. Even
when the disease shows itself at grass, it is almost always mani-
30* 7.

354 THE HORSE.

fcsted directly after the srse is first turned out, when he gorges
himself with the much-coveted food, which has long been withheld,
and his brain is affected in a manner similar to that which follows a
long fast from every kind of food. In a short time, if the affection
jf the brain is not relieved, that organ becomes still more severely
implicated, and convulsions or paralysis put an end to the attack.
During the course of the disease, the breathing is affected, and
there is generally an almost total cessation of the secretions of bile
and urine, which may either be the cause or the effect of the con-
dition of the brain. With this state of uncertainty as to the
essence of the disease, it is somewhat empirical to lay down any
rules for its treatment; and, as I before remarked, it is now so
rare, that they are scarcely necessary. If care be taken to feed
the horse properly, he will never suffer from stomach staggers in
the stable ; and at grass, the attack is seldom observed until he
is beyond the reach of any remedies. Still, it may be as well to
observe, that the usual plan of proceeding has been to take away
blood, so as to relieve the brain, and to stimulate ihe stomach
to get rid of its load, by the use of warm aperients, such as the
following : —

Take of Barbadoes Aloes 4 to 6 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger 3 drachms.

Dissolve the aloes in a pint of hot water, then add the tincture, and when
nearly cool give as a drench.

DYSPEPSIA.

Every domestic animal suffers in health if he is constantly
fed on the same articles, and man himself, perhaps, more than
they do. Partridges are relished by him early in September, but
toujours perdrix would disgust the most inveterate lover of that
article of food. Dogs are too often made to suffer from being fed
on the same meal, flavored with similar flesh or broth, from one
month to another. It is well known that cattle and sheep must
change their pasture, or they soon lose condition ; and yet horses
are expected to go on eating oats and hay for years together with-
out injury to health; and at the same time they arc often expo.sed
to the close air of a confined stable, and to an irregular amount of
exercisei. We cannot, therefore, wonder that the master .is often
told that some one or other of his horses is " a little off his feed ;"
nor should we b3 surprised that the constant repetition of the
panacea for this, " a dose of physic," should at length permanently
establish the condition which at first it would always alleviate.
It is a source of wonder that the appetite continues so good as it

DYSPEPSIA— BOTS. 355

does, in the majority of horses, which are kept in the stable on
the same kind of food, always from July to May, and often
through the other months also. The use of a few small bundles
of vetches, lucerne, or clover in the spring, is supposed to be
quite sufficient to restore tone to the stomach, and undoubtedly
they are better than no change at all ; but at other seasons of the
year something may be done towards the preTcntion of dyspepsia,
by varying the quality of the hay, and by the use of a few carrots
once or twice a week. In many stables, one rick of hay is made
to serve throughout the whole or a great part of the year, which
is a very bad plan, as a change in this important article of food is
as much required as a change of pasture when the animal is at
grass. When attention is paid to this circumstance, the appetite
will seldom fail in horses of a good constitution, if they are regu-
larly worked ; but without it, resort must occasionally be had to a
dose of physic. It is from a neglect of this precaution that so many
horses take to eat their litter, in preference to their hay ; for if the
same animal was placed in a straw-yard, without hay, for a month,
and then allowed access to both, there would be little doubt that he
would prefer the latter. Some horses are naturally so voracious,
that they are always obliged to be supplied with less than they
desire, and they seldom suffer from loss of appetite ; but delicate
feeders require the greatest care in their management. When the
stoixiach suffers in this way, it is always desirable to try what a
complete change of food will do before resorting to medicine ; and,
if it can be obtained, green food of some kind should be chosen,
or if not, carrots, or even steamed potatoes. In place of hay,
sound wheat or barley straw may be cut into chaff, and mixed
with the carrots and corn; and to this a little malt-dust may be
added, once or twice a week, so as to alter the flavor. By con-
tinually changing the food in this way, the most dyspeptic
stomach may often be restored to its proper tone, without doing
harm with one hand while the other is doing good, as is too often
the case with medicine. The use of the fashionable "■ horse-
feeds" of the present day will serve the same purpose; and if
the slight changes I have mentioned do not answer, Thorley's or
Henri's food may be tried with great probability of success.

BOTS.

The larv^ of the oesh-us equi, a species of gadfly, are ofteD
found in large numbers, attached by a pair of hooks with which
they are provided, to the cardiac extremity of the stomach ; they
are very rarely met with in the true digestive portion of this
organ, but sometimes in the duodenum or jejunum in small numbers.
A group of these larvae, which are pop ilarly called bots, are repre-
sented on the next page, but sometimes nearly all the cardiac ex-

y56 THE HOHSE.

tremity of the stomach is occupied with them, tK ntersticos beir.g
occupied by little projections which are caused by those that have
let go their hold, and have been expelled with the food. Several
of these papillae are shown on the engraving, which delineates also
the appearance of the bots themselves, so that no one can fail to
recognise them when he sees them. This is important, for it often

4P

FlO. 18.— OROUr MIf B0T8 ATTACHED TO THE STOMACH.

happens that a meddlesome groom when he sees them expelled
from or hanging to the verge of the anus, as they often do for a
short time, thinks it necessary to use strong medicine ; whereas in
the first place he does no good, for none is known wh-ich will kill
the larva without danger to the horse, and in the second, if he will
only have a little patience, every hot will come away in the natural
course of things, and until the horse is turned out to grass, during
the season when the oestrus deposits its eggs, he will never have
another in his stomach.

The cestrus equi comfjs out from the pupa state in ihe middle
and latter part of summer, varying according to the season, and
the female soon finds the proper nidus for her eggs in the hair of
the nearest horse turned out to grass. She manages to glue them
to the sides of the hair so firmly that no ordinary friction will get
rid of them, and her instinct teaches her to select those parts
within reach of the horse's tongue^ such as the hair of the fore
legs and sides. Here they remain until the heat of the sun hatches
them, when, being no larger in diameter than a small pin, each
larva is licked off and carried down the gullet to the stomach, to
the thick epithelium of which it soon attaches itself by its hooks.
Here it remains until the next spring, having attained the size

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 357

which is represented in the engraving during the course of the
first two months of its life, and then it fulfils its allotted career,
by letting go and being carried out with the dung. On reaching
the outer air it soon assumes the chrysalis condition, and in three
or four weeks bursts its covering to become the perfect insect.

From this history it will be evident that no preventive
measures will keep off the attacks of the fly when the horse is at
grass, and, indeed, in those districts where they abound, they will
deposit their ova in the hair of the stabled horse if he is allowed
to stand still for a few minutes. The eggs are, however, easily
recognised in any horse but a chestnut, to which color they closely
assimilate, and as they are never deposited in large numbers on
the stabled horse they may readily be removed by the groom.
Unlike other parasites, they seem to do little or no harm, on
account of the insensible nature of the part of the stomach to
which they are attached, and, moreover, their presence is seldom
discovered until the season of their migration, when interference
is uncalled for. On all accounts, therefore, it is unnecessary to
enter into the question, whether it is possible to expel them; and
even if by chance one comes away prematurely it will be wise to
avoid interfering by attempting to cause the expulsion of those left
behind.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.
( Peritonitis and Enteritis. )

A REFERENCE to the cut of the abdomen and its contents, oppo-
site page 350, will explain that there are two divisions of the
abdominal serous sac, one of which lines the walls of the cavity,
and the other covers the viscera which lie in it. In human medi-
cine, when the former is inflamed, the disease is termed peritonttts .,
and when the latter is the subject of inflammatory action it is
called enteritis. But though in theory this distinction is made, in
practice it is found that the one seldom exists without the other
being developed to a greater or less extent. Veterinary writers
have generally taken the nomenclature adopted in human ana-
tomy and pathology, but in regard to the inflammations of the
bowels they define peritonitis as inflammation of the peritoneal or
serous coat, and enteritis as inflammation of the muscular coat.
My own belief is, that during life it is impossible by any known
symptoms to distinguish the exact locale of any inflammation of
the bowels but that of their mucous lining, which will presently
be described, and that wherever the actual serous covering of the
bowels is involved the muscular fibres beneath it will be implicated,
but that the serious and fatal symptoms manifested in such cases
are not dependent upon the latter, but are due entirely to the
lesions of the serous coat. I have examined numberless fatal

358 THE HORSE

cases of supposed enteritis, and have uniformly found signs of
inflammation of the serous investment, sometimes implicating the
muscular fibres beneath, and often extending to the peritoneal
lining of the walls of the abdomen, but I have never yet seen
marks of inflammation in the muscular tissue without their serous
covering being afi"ected to a much greater extent. I believe there
fore that the distinction is erroneously founded, and that, theoreti
cally, the same definition should be made of the two diseases as is in
use by human pathologists, though practically this is of little im-
portance. There is no well made out inflammation of muscular
tissue (except that of the heart) in which the symptoms are so
urgent and so rapidly followed by a fatal issue as in the latter stages
of the disease described by Mr. Percivall under the head enteritis,
as follows: — "The next stage borders on delirium. The eye
acquires a wild, haggard, and unnatural stare — the pupil dilates —
his heedless and dreadful throes render approach to him quite
perilous, he is an object not only of compassion but of apprehen-
sion, and seems fast hurrying to his end — when all at once, in the
midst of agonizing torments he stands quiet, as though every pain
had left him and he were going to i-ecover. His breathing becomes
tranquillized — his pulse sunk beyond all perception — his body
bedewed with a cold clammy sweat — he is in a tremor from head
to foot, and about the legs and ears has even a dead-like feel. The
mouth feels deadly chill — the lips drop pendulous, and the eye
seems unconscious of objects. In fine, death, not recovery, is at
hand. Mortification has seized the inflamed bowel — pain can no
longer be felt in that which a few minutes ago was the seat of
most exquisite sufl"ering. He again becomes convulsed, and in a
few more struggles less violent than the former be expires."
Analogy would lead any careful pathologist to suppose that such
symptoms as these are due to some lesion of a serous and not a
muscular tissue, and, as I before remarked, I have satisfied myself
that such is really the case. I have seen lymph, pus, and seruny
efi'u.sed in some case? of enteritis, and mortification extending to u
large surface of the peritoneal coat in others, but I have never
examined a single case without one or the other of these morbid
results. It may be said that so long as the symptoms are correctly
described their exact seat is of no consequence ; but in this
instance it is probable that the ordinary definition of enteritis as an
inflammation of the muscular coat may lead to a timid practice in
its treatment, which would be attended with the worst results. I
have no fault to find with the usual descriptions of the twa
diseases, or with their ordinary treatment, but I protest against
the definition which is given of them.

An examination of thf cause of inflammation of the bowels
is the only means by whici the one form can be distinguished

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 359

from the other. If it has been brought about from exposure to
cold, or from over-stimulating medicines given for colic, the proba-
bility is that the serous covering of the intestines themselves is
chiefly involved ; while if it has followed castration it may gener-
ally be concluded that the peritoneal lining of the abdominal
muscles has taken on inflammatory action by an immediate exten-
sion from the serous lining of the inguinal canal, which is con-
tinuous with it. In each case, however, the symptoms are as
nearly as may be the same, and without knowing the previous
history I believe no one could distinguish the one disease from the
other — nor should the treatment vary in any respect.

The symptoms of peritoneal inflammation vary in intensity,
and in the rapidity of their development, but they usually show
themselves in the following order : — At first there is simple loss of
appetite, dulness of eye, and a general uneasiness, which are soon
followed by a slight rigor or shivering. The pulse becomes rapid,
but small and wiry, and the horse becomes very restless, pawing
his litter, and looking back at his sides in a wistful and anxious
manner. In the next stage all these signs are aggravated; the
hind legs are used to strike at but not touch the belly ; and the
horse lies down, rolls on his back and struggles violently. The
pulse becomes quicker and harder, but is still small. The belly is
acutely tender and hard to the touch, the bowels are costive, and
the horse is constantly turning round, moaning, and regarding his
flanks with the most anxious expression of countenance. Next
comes on the stage so g:aphically described by Mr. Percivall in
the passage which I have quoted, the whole duration of the attack
being from twelve to forty eight hours in acute cases, and extend-
ing to three or four days in those which are denominated sub-
acute.

In the treatment of this disease, as in all those implicating serous
membrane, blood must be taken largely, and in a full stream, the
quantity usually required to make a suitable impression being
from six to nine quarts. The belly should be fomented with very
hot water, by two men holding against it a doubled blanket, dipped
in that fluid, which should be constantly changed, to keep up the
temperature. The bowels should be back-raked, and the follow-
ing drench should be given every six hours till it operates, which
should be hastened by injections of warm water.

Take of Linseed oil 1 pint.

Laudanum 2 ounces.

If the first bleeding does not give relief in six or eight hours, it
must be repeated to the extent of three or four quarts, and at the
same time some liquid blister may be rubbed into the skin of the
abdomen, continuing the fomentations, at short intervals, under

360 THE HORSE.

that part, which will hasten its operation. The diet should be con-
fined to thin gruel or bran mashes, and no hay should be allowed
until the severity of the attack has abated.

To DISTINGUISH this disease from colic is of the highest import-
ance, and for this purpose it will be necessary to describe the
symptoms of the latter disease, so as to compare the two together

COLIC.

In this disease there is spasm of the muscular coat of the
intestines, generally confined to the caecum and colon. Various
names have been given to its different forms, such as the fret, the
gripes, spasmodic colic, flatulent colic, &c., but they all display the
above feature, and are only modifications of it, depending upon
tho cause which has produced it. In spasmodic colic, the bowels
are not unnaturally distended, but in flatulent colic their distension
by gas brings on the spasm, the muscular fibres being stretched to
so great an extent as to cause them to contract irregularly and
with a morbid action. Sometimes, when th^ bowels are very cos-
tive, irritation is established as an effort of nature to procure the
dislodgment of the impacted faecal matters, and thus a third cause
of the disease is discovered. The exact nature and cause are
always to be ascertained from the history of the case, and its
symptoms, and as the treatment will especially be conducted with
a view to a removal of the cause, they are of the highest import-
ance. The symptoms in all cases of colic, by which it may be
distinguished from the last-described disease, are as follows : In
both acute pain is manifested by stamping, looking at the flanks,
and rolling; but in enteritis the pain is constant, while in colic,
there are intervals of rest, when the horse seems quite easy, and
often begins to feed. In both the poor animal strikes at his belly ;
but in the former he takes great care not to touch the skin, while
in the latter (colic) he will often bring the blood by his desperate
efforts to get rid of his annoyance. In enteritis the belly is hot
and exquisitely tender to the touch, but in colic it is not unnatur-
ally warm, and gradual pressure with a broad surface, such as the
whole hand, always is readily borne, and generally affords relief.
The pulse also is little affected in colic; and, lastly, the attack is
very much more sudden than in peritoneal inflammation.

Such are the general signs by which a case of colic may be
distinguished from inflammation of the bowels, but beyond this it
is necessary to investigate whether it is pure spasmodic colic, or
produced by flatulence, or by an obstructica in the bowels.

COLIC. 361

In spasmodic colic all. the above symptoms are displayed, with-
out any great distension of the abdomen ; and if the history of the
case is gone into, it will be found that after coming in heated the
horse has been allowed to drink cold water, or has been exposed
in an exhausted state to a draught of air.

In flatulent colic the abdomen is enormously distended ; the
attack is not so sudden, and the pain is not so intense, being rather
to be considered, in the average of cases, as a high degree of un-
easiness, occasionally amounting to a sharp pang, than giving the
idea of agony. In aggravated attacks, the distension is Bo enor-
mous as to leave no doubt of the nature of the exciting cause.
Here also the spasms are often brought on by drinking fold water
while the horse is in a heated and exhausted state.

Where there is a stoppage in the bowels to cause the
spasm, on questioning the groom, it will be found that the dung
for some days has been hard and in small lumps, with occasional
patches of mucus upon it. In other respects 'i.here is little to dis-
tinguish this variety from the last.

The treatment must in all cases be conducted on a totally diflFer-
ent plan to that necessary when inflammation is present. Bleeding
will be of no avail, at all events in the early stages, and before the
disease has gone on, as it sometimes will, into an inflammatory
condition. On the other hand, stimulating drugs, which would be
fatal in enteritis, will here generally succeed in causing a return
of healthy muscular action. The disease is indeed similar in its
essential features to cramp in the muscles of the human leg or
arm, the only difi^rence being that it does not as speedily dis-
appear, because it is impossible to get at the muscular coat of th'^
intestines, and apply the stimulus of friction.

• As SOON AS A CASE IS CLEARLY MADE OUT TO BE OP A SPAS-
MODIC NATURE, one or other of the following drenches should be
given, the choice being made in proportion to the intensity of the
symptoms : —

1 . Sulphuric Ether 1 ounce.

Laudanum . 2 ounces

Compound decoction of Aloes 5 ounces

Mix and give every half hour until relief is afforded.

2. Spirit of Turpentine 4 ounces.

Linseed Oil 12 ounces.

Laudanum Ij ounce.

Mix and give every hour till the pain ceases.

8. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia 1§^ ounce.

Laudanum 2 ounces.

Tincture of Ginger 1 J ounce.

Hot Ale 1 quart.

Mix and give every hour.
31

dt)Z THE HORSE.

Hot water should also be applied to the abdomen, as described
under the head of Enteritis, and if an enema pump is at hand,
large quantities of water, at a temperature of 100* Fahrenheit,
should be injected per anum, until in fact the bowel will hold no
more without a dangerous amount of force.

In flatulent colic the same remedies may be employed, but
the turpentine mixture is here especially beneficial. The use of
warm water injections will often bring away large volumes of wind,
which at once affords relief, and the attack is cured. Sometimes,
however, the distension goes on increasing, and the only chance
of recovery consists in a puncture of the caecum, as it lies high in
the right flank, where, according :o French veterinary writers it
may often be opened when greatly distended, without dividing the
serous covering. The operation, however, should only be per-
formed by an experienced hand, as it is one of great danger, and
a knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned is required to
select the most available situation.

The treatment op impaction must be completely a pos-
teriori, for all anterior proceedings with aperient medicines will
only aggravate the spasms. Injection of gallons of warm water
or of gruel containing a quart of castor oil and half a pint of spirit
of turpentine, will sometimes succeed in producing a passage, and
at the same time the spasm may be relieved by the exhibition at
the mouth of one ounce of laudanum and the same quantity of
sulphuric ether. If there is any tenderness of the abdomen, or
the pulse has a tendency to quicken, it will be better to resort to
bleeding, which alone will sometimes cause the peristaltic action
to be restored in a healthy manner. The case, however, requires
great patience and judgment, and as no great good can often be
effected, it is highly necessary to avoid doing harm, which can
hardly be avoided if the remedies employed are not at once suc-
cessful.

When the urgent symptoms of colic in any of its forms are
relieved, great care must be exercised that a relapse does not take
place from the use of improper food. The water should be care-
fully chilled, and a warm bran mash should be given, containing in it
half a feed of bruised oats. Nothing but these at moderate inter-
vals, in the shape of food or drink, should be allowed for a day
or two, and then the horse may gradually return to his customary
treatment, avoiding, of course, everything whicl may appear to
have contributed to the development of colic.

DIARRHOEA AND DYSENTERY.

A distinction is attempted to be made between these two dis-
eases,— the former name being confined to an inflammation of the
mucous membrane of the small iatestines, while the latter is said

DIARRHCEA AND DYSENTERY. 363

to reside in the large. It is very difficult, however, if not impos-
sible, to distinguish the one from the other by the symptoms dur-
ing life, and in ordinary practice they may be considered as one
disease, the treatment depending in great measure on the exciting
cause. This in most cases is to be found in the use of too violent
" physic," or in not resting the horse after it has begun to act
until some hours after it has completely " set." Sometimes it
depends on the cells of the colon having long been loaded with
faeces, which causes, at length, their mucous lining to inflame, the
consequent secretion having a tendency to loosen them and pro-
cure their dismissal, either by solution or by the forcible contrac-
tion of the muscular coat. This last disease is known by the name
of " molten grease" to old-fashioned farriers, the clear mucus which
envelopes the lumps of faeces being supposed to be derived from
the internal fat that is generally plentifully developed in the highly
fed horses that are especially subject to the attack. For practical
purposes, therefore, we may consider the different forms under the
head of superpurgation, diarrhoea, and dysentery, meaning by the
last name that condition which is brought about by and attended
with a discharge of lumps of hard faecal matter enveloped in
mucus.

Superpurgation is sometimes so severe as to place a delicate
horse in great danger. When the action of the bowels has gone
on for three or four days consecutively, and there is no disposition
to " set," the eyes become staring and glassy, the pulse is feeble,
and the heart flutters in the most distressing manner ; the mouth
has a peculiarly offensive smell, the tongue being pale and covered
with a white fur having a brown centre. The abdomen is gene-
rally tucked tightly up, but in the later stages large volumes of
gas are evolved, and it becomes tumid.

The treatment should consist in the exhibition of rice, boiled
till quite soft, and if not taken voluntarily, it should be given as a
drench, mixed into a thin liquid form with warm water. If the
case is severe, one or two ounces of laudanum may be added to a
quart of rice milk, and given every time the bowels act with vio-
lence. Or a thin gruel may be made with wheat meal, and tho
laudanum be mixed with that instead of the rice. A perseverance
in these remedies will almost invariably produce the desired effect,
if they have not been deferred until the horse is very much ex-
hausted, when a pint of port wine may be substituted for the
laudanum with advantage.

In diarrhcea resulting from cold, or over-exertion, the treat,
ment should be exactly like that prescribed for superpurgation,
but it will sometimes be b icessary to givj chalk in addition to the
remedies there alluded to The rice or flour-milk may be admin-

364 THE HORSE.

istereJ us food, and iLo following drench given by itself every
time there is a discharge of liquid faeces : —

Tako of Powdered Opium 1 drachm.

Tincture of Catechu ^ ounce.

Chalk Mixture 1 pint.

Mix and give as a drench.

During the action of these remedies the body must be kept
warm by proper clothing, and the legs should be encased in flan-
nel bandages, previously made hot at the fire, and renewed as thev
become cold.

In dysentery (or molten grease) it is often necessary to take
a little blood away, if there is evidence of great inflammation in
the amount of mucus surrounding the faeces, and when aperient
medicine does not at once put a stop to the cause of irritation by
bringing the lumps away from the cells of the colon. Back-raking,
and injections of two ounces of laudanum and a pint of castor oil
with gruel, should be adopted in the first instance, but they will
seldom be fully efficient without the aid of linseed oil given by the
mouth. A pint of this, with half a pint of good castor oil, will
generally produce a copious discharge of lumps, and then the irri-
tation ceases without requiring any further interference.

Whenever there is diarrhoea or dysentery present to any extent,
rice-water should be the sole drink.

STRANGULAT?ION AND RUPTURE.

Mechanical violence is done to the stomach and bowels in
various ways, but in every case the symptoms will be those of
severe inflammation of the serous coat, speedily followed by death,
if not relieved when relief is possible. Sometimes the stomach is
ruptured from over-distension — at others the small intestines have
been known to share the same fate, but the majority of cases are
due to strangulation of a particular portion of the bowels, by being
tied or pressed upon by some surrounding band. This may hap-
pen either from a loop of bowel being forced through an opening
in the mesentery or mesocolon, or from a band of organized lymph,
the result of previous inflammation — or from one portion of the
bowel? forcing itself into another, like the inverted finger of a
glove, and the included portion being firmly contracted upon by
the exterior bowel, so as to produce dangerous pressure (intussus-
ception), or, lastly, from a portion or knuckle of intestine forcing
its way through an opening in the walls of the abdomen, and then
called hernia or rupture, which being pressed upon by the edges
of the opening becomes strangulated, and if not relieved inflames,
and then mortifies. None of these cases are amenable to treat-
ment (and indeed they cannot often be discovered with certainty
during life, the symptoms resembling those of enteritis), except

CALCULI IN THE BOWELS. 36?)

Btrangulated hernia, which should be reduced either by the pres-
sure of the hands, or by the aid of an operation with the knife —
which will be described under the chapter which treats of the seve-
ral operations. Whenever inflammation of the bowels is attended
with obstinate constipation, the walls of the abdomen should be
carefully examined, and especially the inguinal canal, scrotum, and
navel, at which points in most cases the hernia makes its appear-
ance. A swelling at any other part may, however, contain a
knuckle of intestine, which has found its way through the abdo-
minal parietes in consequence of a natural opening existing there,
or of one having been made by some accidental puncture with a
spike of wood or iron. The swelling is generally round, or nearly
so, and gives a drum-like sound on being tapped with the fingers.
It feels hard to the touch in consequence of the contents being
constricted, but it gives no sensation of solidity, and may be gene-
rally detected by these signs. None but an educated hand can,
however, be relied on to distinguish a ventral hernia from any
other tumor. When it occurs at the scrotum or navel the case is
clear enough.

CALCULI IN THE BOWELS.

A STOPPAGE IN THE BOWELS Sometimes obstinately persists, in
spite of all kinds of remedies, and, death taking place, it is found
on examination that a large calculus has blocked up the area of
the canal. Sometimes one of these calculi is found in the stomach,
but this is extremely rare. On making a section they are found
to consist of concentric layers of bran, chaff", and other hard par-
ticles of the food, mixed generally with some small proportion of
earthy matter, and arranged around some foreign body, such as a
piece of stone from the corn, or the head of a nail. Treatment ia
out of the question, as it is impossible to discover the calculus
during life, and even if it could be ascertained to exist, no remedy
is known for it. Those who are curious about the composition of
these calculi, will be pleased with the following letter by Mr. Buck-
land, surgeon to the 1st Life Guards, in reply to an inquiry made
in The Fidel as to the composition of a calculus found in a horse
belonging to a- correspondent : —

" Mr. C. Pemberton Carter having, in his interesting leister, re-
quested me to throw some light upon this subject, I have great
pleasure in giving what little information I am able to aff"ord, with
apologies for delay, as Aldershot camp is by no means a favorable
spot for scientific investigations or literary pursuits. As regards
the actual composition of calculi such as he has sent, we learn
from the catalogue of the museum of the Royal College of Sur-
geons that they are composed for the most part of the phosphate
of magnesia and ammonia, with small quantities of phosphate nf
31 *

366 THE HORSE.

lime. They also contain an animal and extractive matter^ to which
the brown color of the calculus is owing. They also contain mu-
riates of soda, and various alkaline salts derived from .ne intestinal
juices. The animal matter resembles that of all other concretions,
and separates in concentric laminae when the calculus is dissolved
in an acid. In more impure varieties, grains of sand, portions of
hay, straw, &c., are frequently found imbedded in the calculus,
and there is one specimen in the museum which contains an entire
layer of vegetable hairs. Mr. Carter remarks that ' his impression
is that the calculus is made up of bran' (chemically speaking).
He is not far wrong, for we read in the College catalogue, ' Most
authorities agree that these calculi are formed from phosphate of
magnesia, contained in wheat, oats, liay, &c., and this opinion de-
rives confirmation from the circumstance that they occur most fre-
quently in millers' and brewers' horses, whi A are fed upon grains,
bran, and substances known to contain a much larger proportion
of magnesian salts than other vegetable matters.' Mr. Carter has
detected minute portions of wheat, oats, and hay in the calculus,
which therefore may be said to consist of two substances, viz., the
vegetable and the mineral. So much, then, for the composition
of the calculus; now for its mechanical structure. Most decidedly
it may be compared to an onion, layer being packed over layer, so
as in section to present a ringed appearance. We may also liken
it to other objects. It has lately struck me to examine the struc-
ture of a common cricket-ball, which combines hardness, light-
ness, and elasticity in such an admirable way. Upon making a
section, I found the cricket-ball to be composed of layers, one over
the other, round a central nucleus. The layers are composed of
leather, alternated with a vegetable fibre, the nucleus being a bit
of cork. The calculus in the horse is formed in a similar way.
The nucleus in Mr. Carter's specimen is a bit of flint; in a capital
instance I have in my own collection, of a common shot, about
No, 5 size, which has been crushed by the horse's teeth, and sub-
sequently swallowed; in another instance, of a chair nail of brass;
in another of a single oat-seed ; in another of a minute bit of
cinder, and so on, as it seems to be absolutely necessary that these
calculi should have a commencement — a starting-point. Where
is the school-boy who can make a gigantic snowball without be-
ginning with a small lump of snow or a stone, as a nucleus upon
which he builds all the rest ?

" Mr. Carter seems to wonder at the weight of the specimen, 5
lbs.; this is by no means a large size; in the museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons we have a very fine collection of cal-
culi, the largest, taken from the intestines of a horse, weighs no
less than 17 lbs , and is about the size and shape of an ordinary
ekit/le-ball. In the case where this is contained he will see many

CALCULI IN THE BOWELS— WQ RMS. 367

Other specimens, cut in sections to show the nuclei ; he will ob-
serve that calculi also form in the intestines of the camel and of
the elephant, and even in the wild horse, for there is a good speci-
men from the intestines of a Japatese wild horse. Stones, not
true calculi, are sometimes found in animals, which have been
actually swallowed by them, and have not been chemically formed
in this walking laboratory. There is a case containing several
pebbles — thirty in number — found in the stomach of a cow at
Barton-under-Needwood, Burton-on-Trent. These stones belong
to the geological formation of the neighborhood ; it is curious to
see how they have been acted on by the action of the stomach, for
they are highly glazed and polished. I have seen specimens of
gravel pebbles which I took from the gizzard of an ostrich, which
are as highly polished as an agate marble. The bird swallowed
the stones to assist its digestion; the cow out of a morbid appe-
tite. I know of a somewhat similar instance that lately happened :
A young lady was taken ill, and died of very strange symptoms ;
it was subsequently ascertained that the stomach was quite filled
with human hair, which had moulded itself into the shape of the
' interior of that organ. The poor girl had naturally very long and
beautiful hair, and she had an unfortunate habit of catching the
loose hairs with her lips and swallowing them ; in time they felted
together, became a solid mass, and killed her — a warning to other
young ladies which should not be neglected. In the lower animals
we frequently find rolled balls of hair from the creatures licking
themselves. I have seen one at Bristol from a lioness ; it is formed
of hairs licked with her rough tongue from her cubs. Curious
concretions are found in goats, &c., called ' bezoar' stones ; they
were formerly supposed to have medicinal virtues : of this at an-
other time. F. T. Buckland."

WORMS

Intestinal worms in the horse are chiefly of two species, both
belonging to the genus ascaris. Bots, as inhabiting the stomach,
have already been described with that organ; and, moreover, they
should never be confounded with what are called properly and
scientifically, "worms." Of these, the larger species resembles
the common earthworm in all respects but color, which is a pinkish
white. It inhabits the small intestines, though it is sometimes,
but very rarely, found in the stomach. The symptoms are a rough,
etaring, hollow coat — a craving appetite — more or less emaciation —
the passage of mucus with the faeces, and very often a small por-
tion of this remains outside the anus, and dries there. That part
generally itches, and in the attempt to rub it the tail is denuded
uf hair ; but this may arise from vermin in it, or from mere irri-
tation of the anus from other causes. When these se-veral symp-

368 THE HORSE.

toms are combined, it may with some degree of certainty be sup-
posed that there are worms in the intestines, but before proceeding
to dislodge them, it is always the wisest plan to obtain proof posi-
tive of their existence, by giving an ordinary dose of physic, when,
on watching the evacuations, one or more worms may generally be
discovered if they are present. When the case is clearly made
Dut the plan of treatment is as follows : —

Take of Tartar Emetic 1 drachm.

Powdered Ginger ^ drachm.

Linseed Meal sufficient to make into a ball with boiling water.

One should be given every morning for a week, then a dose oi
physic J linseed oil being the most proper. Let the stomach rest
a week; give another course of balls and dose of physic, aftei
which let the horse have a drachm of sulphate of iron (powdered)
twice a day with his feed of corn.

There is no medicine which is so effectual for removing worms
in the horse as tartar emetic, and none which is so entirely innocu-
ous to the stomach. Calomel and spirit of turpentine were formerly
in use as vermifuges, but they are both dangerous drugs; the
former, if given for any length of time, causing great derangement
of the stomach and liver; and the latter often producing consi-
derable inflammation after a single dose, if sufficiently large to
cause the expulsion of the worm-s. Linseed oil given in half-pint
doses every morning is also an excellent vermifuge, but not equal
to the tartar emetic. If this quantity does not relax the bowels
it may be increased until they are rendered slightly more loose
than usual, but avoiding anything like purgation.

The smaller species of intestinal worm chiefly inhabits the rec-
tum, but is occasionally found in the colon and caecum. It pro-
duces great irritation and uneasiness, but has not the same preju-
dicial effect on the health as the larger parasite. It is about one
to two inches in length, and somewhat smaller in diameter than a
crow quill. These worms are commonly distinguished as ascarides^
but both this species and the round worm belong to the genus
atcaris. The term thread worm is more correctly applied, as they
are not unlike sections of stout thread or cotton. The only symp-
tom by which their presence can be made out is the rubbing of
the tail, when if, on examination, no vermin or eruption is found
in the dock, it may be presumed that worms exist in the rectum
The remedy for these worms is by the injection every morning for
a week of a pint of linseed oil, containing two drachms of spirit of
turpentine. This will either kill or bring away the worms, with
the exception of a few which are driven by it higher up into the

DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND KIDNEYS. 300

colon, but by waiting a week or ten days (during which time they
will have re-entered the rectum) and then repeating the process,
they may generally be entirely expelled. The sulphate of iroa
must be given here, as before described.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.

The liver op the horse is less liable to disease than that <)t
any other domestic animal, and the symptoms of its occurrence
are so obscure that it is seldom until a post-mortem examination
that a discovery is made of its existence. This unerring guide,
however, informs us that the liver is sometimes unnaturally en-
larged and hard, at others softened, and in others again the sub-
ject of cancerous deposits. It is also attacked by inflammation,
of which the symptoms are feverishness; rapid pulse, not hard and
generally fuller than usual ; appetite bad ; restlessness, and the
patient often looking round to his right side with an anxious ex-
pression, not indicative of severe pain. Slight tenderness of the
right side; but this not easily made out satisfactorily. Bowels
generally confined, but there is sometimes diarrhoea. Very fre-
quently the whites of the eyes show a tinge of yellow, but any-
thing like jaundice is unknown. The treatment must consi<;t in
the use of calomel and opium, with mild purging, thus : —

Take of Calomel,

Powdered Opium, of each one drachm.

Linseed Meal and boiling water enough to make into a ball,
which should be given night and morning. Every other dav
a pint of Linseed Oil should be administered.

The diet should if possible be confined to green food, which will do
more good than medicine ; indeed, in fine weather, a run at grass
during the day should be preferred to all other remedies, taking
care to shelter the horse at night in an airy loose-box.

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS.

These organs are particularly prone to disease, and are subject
to inflammation ; to diabetes, or profuse staling ; to haematuria, or
a discharge of blood, and to torpidity, or inaction.

Inflammation op the kidneys {nephritis') is generally pro-
duced by an exposure of the loins to wet and cold, as in carriage-
horses standing about in the rain during the winter season. Some-
times it follows violent muscular exertion, and is then said to be
caused by a strain in the back, but in these cases there is probably
an exposure to cold in a state of exhaustion, or by the rupture of
a branch of the renal artery or vein, as the inflammation of one
organ can scarcely be produced by the strain of another. The
fymptoms are a constant desire to void the urine, which is of a
var^ dark color — often almost black. Great pain, as evidenced bv
2a

370 THE HORSE.

the expressioQ of countenance and by groans, as well as by fre(iaeut
wistful looks at the loins. On pressing these parts there is some
tenderness, but not excessive, as in rheumatism. The pulse is
quick, hard, and full. The attitude of the hind quarters is pecu-
liar, the horse standing in a straddling position with his back
arched, and refusing to move without absolute compulsion. It is
sometimes difficult to distinguish nephritis from inflammation of
the neck of the bladder, but by attending to the state of the urine,
which is dark brown or black in the former case, and nearly of a
natural color in the latter, the one may be diagnosed from the
other. To make matters still more clear, the oiled hand may be
passed into the rectum, when in nephritis the bladder will be found
contracted and empty (the urine being so pungent as to irritate
that organ), while in inflammation or spasm of its neck, it will be
distended, often to a large size. The treatment to be adopted must
be active, as the disease runs a very rapid course, and speedily ends
in death if neglected. A large quantity of blood must at once be
taken. The skin must be acted on energetically, so as to draw the
blood to its surface, and if a Turkish bath (see page 215) is at
hand, it will be highly beneficial. If not, the application of hot
water, as recommended at page 342, may be tried, and in many
cases it has acted like a charm. Failing the means for carrying
out either of these remedies, the loins should be rubbed with an
embrocation consisting of olive oil, liquid ammoniae and laudanum
in equal parts, but cantharides and turpentine must be carefully
avoided, as likely t*o be absorbed, when they would add fuel to the
fire. A fresh sheepskin should be warmed with hot (not boiling)
water, and applied over the back, and the liniment should be
rubbed in profusely every hour, restoring the skin to its place im-
mediately afterwards. Mustard is sometimes used instead of am-
monia, and as it' is always at hand, it may form a good substitute,
but it is not nearly so powerful an irritant to the skin as the latter,
especial .y when evaporation is prevented by the sheepskin, or by
a piece of any waterproof article. A mild aperient may be given,
linseed oil being the best form, but if the bowels continue ob-
stinate, and it is necessary to repeat it, eight or ten drops of croton
oil may be added to a pint of the oil, great care being taken to
assist its action by raking and injection, the latter being also use-
ful as a fomentation to the kidneys. The diet should consist of
scalded linseed and bran mashes, no water being allowed without
containing sufficient linseed tea to make it slightly glutinous, but
not so much so as to nauseate the patient. If the symptoms are
not greatly abated in six or eight hours, the bleeding must be re-
peated, for upon this remedy the chief dependence must be placed.
A mild and soothing drench, composed of half an ounce of car-
bonate of soda, dissolved in six ounces of linseed tea, may be giveii

DISEASES OF THE KIL5EYS. 371

ivery six hours, but little reliance can be placed upon it. The
inflammation either abates after the bleeding, or the horse dies in
a verj few hours.

Diabetes of late years has been much more frequent than was
formerly the case, and especially among race-horses and hunters,
probably owi ig to the enormous quantities of corn which they are
allowed in the present day. But whatever may be the cause, the
si/mptoms are clear enough, the horse constantly staling and pass-
ing large quantities of urine each time. The treatment should be
conducted on the principle that the cause should if possible be
ascertained and removed. Mowburnt hay will often bring on dia-
betes, and new oats have a similar tendency in delicate horses. In
any case it is wise to make a total change in the food as far as it
can possibly be done. Green meat will often check it at once, and
a bran-mash containing a few carrots has a similar chance of doing
good. With these alterations in the quality of the food attention
should also be paid to the quantity of the corn, which should be
reduced if more than a peck a day has been given, and beans should
be substituted for a part of the oats. Half a drachm of the sul-
phate of iron (powdered) should be mixed with each feed (that is,
four times a day), and the horse should be well clothed and his legs
warmly bandaged in a cool and airy (but not cold and draughty)
loose box. By attention to these directions the attack may gener-
ally be subdued in a few days, but there is always a great tendency
to its return. Should it persist in spite of the adoption of the
measures already recommended, the following ball may be tried : —

Take of Gallic Acid \ drachm.

Opium 1 drachm.

Treacle and Linseed Meal enough to make into a ball, which should be
given twice a day.

Hjematurea, like diabetes, is easily recognised by the presence
of blood in greater or less quantities passed with the urine. It is
not, however, of the bright red color natural to pure blood, but it
is more or less dingy, and sometimes of a smoky-brown color, as
occurs in inflammation. Bloody urine, however, may often be
passed without any sign of that condition, and therefore unaccom-
panied by pain, or any other urgent symptom. The causes are
exceedingly various. Sometimes a parasitic worm {Strongylus
gigas) has been discovered, after death from hgematurea, in the
kidney, and was apparently the cause of the mischief At others,
this organ has been found disorganized by cancer or melanosis —
and again a sharp calculus has been known to bring on consider-
able bleeding, and this last cause is by no means unfrequent. The
symptoms are the existence of bloody urine unaccompanied by pain
or irritation, marking the absence of nephritis. As to treatment,
little can be done in severe cases, and mild ones only require rest,

di'^ THE HORSE.

a dos3 of physic, and perhaps the abst. action of three or four
quarts of blood. Green food should be given, and the diet should
be attended to as for diabetes. If the urine is scanty, yet evidently
there is no inflammation, two or three drachms of nitre may be
given with the mash at night, but this remedy should be employed
with great caution.

Inaction op the kidneys is so common in every stable that
the groom seldom thinks it necessary even to inform his master of
its occurrence. An ounce of nitre is mixed and given with a bran-
mash as a matter of course, and sometimes more violent diuretics
are resorted to, such as powdered resin and turpentine. Very
often the kidneys are only inactive because the horse has not been
regularly watered, and in those stables where an unlimited supply
is allowed this condition is comparatively rare. There is no harm
in resorting to nitre occasionally, but if it is often found necessary
to employ this drug, the health is sure to suffer, and an alteration
in the diet should be tried in preference. At all events, if it in
given, the horse should be allowed to drink as much and as often
as he likes, without which the stimulus to the kidneys will be
doubly prejudicial, from being in too concentrated a form.

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER.

The bladder is subject to inflammation of its coats or neck-
to spasm — and to the formation of calculi.

Inflammation or the bladder (cystitis) is not very common
excepting when it is produced by irritants of a mechanical or chemi-
cal nature. Thus, when the kidneys secrete a highly irritating
urine, the bladder suffers in its passage, and we have the two
organs inflamed at the same time. Again, when cantharides have
been given with a view to stimulate exhausted nature, or when
they are absorbed from the surface of the skin, as sometimes hap-
pens in blistering, the bladder is liable to become inflamed. The
s>/mj)toms are — a quick pulse — pain in the hind-quarter, evinced
by the looks of the animal in that direction — and constant strain-
ing to pass the urine, which is thick and mixed with mucus, or
in aggravated cases with purulent matter. The treatment to be
adopted if the case is severe will consist in venesection, back-rak-
ing, and purgation with linseed or castor oil, avoiding aloes, which
have a tendency to irritate the bladder. Linseed tea should be
given as the solo drink, and scalded linseed mixed with a bran-
mash as food. The following ball may also be given, and repeated
if necessary : —

Take of Powdered Opium 1 drachm.

Tartar emetic li drachm.

To b2 made up into a ball with Linseed Meal and boiling water, and
given every six hours.

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER, ETC. 37S

Retention of urine may be due either to inflammation of the
ueck of the bladder, occasioning a spasmodic closure of that part,
or there may be spasm unattended by inflammation and solely due
to the irritation of some ofl"ending substance, such as a calculus,
or a small dose of cantharides. The treatment in either case must
be directed to the spasmodic constriction, which is generally under
the control of large doses of opium and camphor, that is, from
one drachm to two drachms of each, repeated every five or six
hours. If the symptoms are urgent, bleeding may also be resorted
to, and when the bladder is felt to be greatly distended, no time
should be lost in evacuating it by means of the catheter, which
operation, however, should only be intrusted to a regular practi-
tioner accustomed to its use.

Calculi in the bladder are formed of several earthy salts, and
present various forms and appearances, which may be comprised
under four divisions. 1st. The mulberry calculus, so named from
its resemblance to a mulberry, possessing generally a nucleus. 2d.
A very soft kind resembling fuller's earth in appearance, and being
'ihiefly composed of phosphate of lime and mucus. 3d. Calculi
of a white or yellowish color, rough externally and easily friable.
And 4th. Those which are composed of regular layers, and which
are harder than the second and third varieties.

The mulberry calculus, from its extremely rough surface, occa-
sions more irritation than other forms, but during life it is impos-
sible to ascertain the exact chemical nature of the calculus which
may be ascertained to exist. These calculi sometimes attain an
immense size, weighing several pounds. The sT/mptoms are a dif-
ficulty of voiding the urine, which generally comes away in jerks
after great straining and groaning. The horse remains with his
legs extended for some time afterwards, and evidently indicates
that he feels as if his bladder was not relieved. Often there is
muco-purulent matter mixed with the urine, which is rendered
thick and glutinous thereby, but this only happens in cases of long
standing. The treatment must be either palliative or curative. If
the former, it should consist in the adoption of the means employed
for subduing irritation and inflammation of the bladder which
have been already described. The cxire can only be efi"ected by
removing the stone. This requires the performance of a difficult
and dangerous operation (lithotomy), the details of which can be
only useful to the professed veterinary surgeon, and I shall there-
fore omit them here.

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
Balanitis, or inflammation of the glans penis {fidXavoq, glans").
is very common in the horse, being brought on by the decomposi-
tion of the natural secretions, -nhen they have been allowed tc
3? ^

374 THE HORSE.

collect for any length of time. At first there is meiely c. slight
discharge of pus, but in process of time foul sores break out, and
very oft«n fungous growths spring from them, which block up the
passage through the opening of the sheath, and cause considerable
swelling and inconvenience. These are quite distinct from warts,
which occur in this part just as they do in other situations. The
treatment re(iuires some skill and experience, because mild reme-
dies are of no use, and severe ones are not unattended with danger.
The parts must first of all be well cleansed by syringing, or if the
end of the penis can be laid hold of, by washing with a sponge.
The following wash may then be applied, and it should be repeated
every day : —

Take of solution of CKloride of Zinc 2 drachms.

Water 1 pint. Mix.

If the morbid growths are very extensive, nothing but amputa-
tion of the penis or the use of corrosive sublimate will remove
them. Severe haemorrhage sometimes follows both of these mea-
sures, but it seldom goes on to a dangerous extent. Still it is
scarcely advisable for any one but a professional man to undertake
the operation.

In the mare the vagina is sometimes inflamed, attended with
a copious yellow discharge. An injection of the wash mentioned
ill the last paragraph will generally soon set the matter right. At
first it should be used only of half the strength, gradually increas-
ing it. until the full quantity of chloride of zinc is employed.

Inversion of the uterus sometimes follows parturition, but
it is very rare in the mare. The uterus should be at once replaced,
using as little force as possible, and taking care before the hand
is withdrawn, that it really is turned back again from its inverted
position.

Nymphomania occurs sometimes in mares at the time of being
*' in use," and goes on to such an extent as to render them abso-
lutely regardless of pain, for the time being, though not to make them
lose their consciousness. They will kick and squeal till they be-
come white with sweat, and no restraint will prevent them from
trying to continue their violent attempts to destroy everything
behind them. These symptoms are especially developed in the
presence of other animals of the same species, whether mares or
geldings ; but the near proximity of an entire horse will be still
worse. If placed in a loose box, without any restraint whatever,
they generally become more calm, and when the state is developed,
such a plan should always be adopted. It is chiefly among highly-
fed and lightly-worked mares that the disease is manifested ; and
a dose of physic with starvation in a loose box, away from any
Other horse, will very soon put i)-\ end to it in almost every instance.

MAD STAGGERS— EPILEPSY. 375

CHAPTER XXIII.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Phrenitis, or Mad Staggers — Epilepsy and Convulsions — Megrims
— Rabies, Hydrophobia, or Madness — Tetanus, or Lock-jaw —
Apoplexy and Paralysis — String Halt — Coup de Soleil, or Sun
stroke.

PHRENITIS, OR MAD STAGGERS.
Phrenitis seldom occurs, except in over-fed and lightly-worked
horses, nor among them is it by any means a common dis-
ease. The early symptoms are generally those of an ordinary
cold ; there is heaviness of the eyes, with a redness of the con-
junctiva, and want of appetite. After a day or two occupied by
these premonitory signs, which will seldom serve to put even the
most experienced observer on his guard, the horse becomes sud-
denly delirious, attempting to bite and strike every one who comes
near him, regardless of the ordinary influences of love and fear.
He plunges in his stall, attempts to get free from his halter rein, and
very often succeeds in doing so, when he will stop at nothing to
gain still further liberty. If unchecked he soon dashes himself to
pieces, and death puts an end to his struggles. The only treat-
ment which is of the slightest use is bleeding till the horse abso-
lutely falls, or till he becomes quite quiet and tractable, if the case
is only a mild one. Immediately afterwards a large dose of tartar
emetic (two or three drachms) should be given, followed in an
hour or two by a strong physic ball ; or, if the case is a very bad
one, by a drench, containing half a pint of castor oil and six or
eight drops of croton oil. Clysters and back-raking will of course
be required, to obviate the risk of hard accumulations in the
bowels, but where there is great violence, they cannot always be
employed and the case must take its chance in these respects.
The diet should be confined to a few mouthfuls of hay or grass,
with a plentiful supply of water.

EPILEPSY AND CONVULSIONS.

These diseases, or symptoms of disease, are not often met

with in the adult, but in the foal they sometimes occur, and are

not unattended with danger. The young thing will perhaps gallop

after its dam round and round its paddock, and then all at once stop,

376 THE HORSE.

stagger, and fall to the ground, where it lies, struggling with more
or less violence, for a few minutes or longer, and then raises its
head, stares about it, gets up, and is apparently as well as ever.
It is generally in the hot days of summer that these attacks occur,
and it appears highly probable that the direct rays of the sun
playing on the head have something to do with it. Death seldom
takes place during the first attack, but sometimes after two or
three repetitions the convulsions go on increasing, and the foal
becomes comatose and dies. A mild dose of linseed oil is the only
remedy which can safely be resorted to, and as it is supposed that
worms will sometimes produce these convulsive attacks, it is on that
account to be selected. Epilepsy is so very rarely met with in
the adult and of its causes and treatment so little is known, that
I shall not trotible my readers with any account of them.

MEGRIMS.

This term is used to conceal our ignorance of the exact nature
of several disordered conditions of the brain and heart. In fact, any
kind of fit, not attended with convulsions, and only lasting a short
time, is called by this name. The cause may be a fatty condition of
the heart, by which sudden faintness and sometimes death are pro-
duced, or it may consist in congestion of the vessels of the brain,
arising from over work on a hot day, or from the pressure of the
collar, or from disease of the valves of the heart. Attacks reputed
to be megrims have been traced to each of these causes, and as in
every case, the horse, while apparently in good health, staggers
and falls, and after lying still for a minutes (during which there
is seldom an opportunity of examining the state of the circulation)
rises as well as before, there is no chance of distinguishing the one
from the other. The most usual symptoms are the following : — The
horse is perhaps trotting along, when all at once he begins shaking
his head as if the bridle chafed his ears, which are drawn
back close to the poll. The driver gets down to examine these
facts, and observes the eyelids quivering, and the nostrils affected
with a trembling kind of spasm. Sometimes the rest will allow
of the attack going off, but most frequently, the head is drawn to
one side, the legs of that half of the body seem to be paralyzed,
and the horse making a segment of a circle goes down, lies a few
minutes on the ground, and then rises as if nothing had happened
beyond a light sweating, and disturbance of the respiration. Treat-
ment can be of little avail, however, unless a correct diagnosis is
made, for remedies which would be suited to congestion would be
prejudicial to a diseased heart. If the attack has happened while

HYDROPHOBIA. 377

lu harness, the collar should always be carefully inspected, and if
at all tight it should be replaced by a deeper one. A diseased
state of the vahes of the heart ought to be discoverable by
auscultation, but it requires a practised ear to do this, and the
directions for ascertaining its presence are beyond the scope of this
book. The only plan which can safely be adopted, is to take the
subject of megrims quietly home to his stable, and carefully ex-
amine into the condition of all his functions with a view to im-
prove the action of any organ which appears to be out of order,
whatever it may be. If all seems to be going on well — if the appe-
tite is good, and the heart acts with regularity and with due force,
while the brain seems clear, and the eye is not either dull or suf-
fused with blood — nothing should be attempted, but the horse
being subject to a second attack, as proved by manifold experience,
should be put to work in which no great danger can be appre-
hended from them. He is not safe in any kind of carriage, for it can
never be known where the fall will take place ; and as a saddle-
horse he is still more objectionable, and should therefore be put to
some commercial purpose, in executing which, if he falls, the only
injury he can effect is to property, and not to human life.

RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA OR MADNESS.
One reason only can be given for describing this disease,
which is wholly beyond the reach of art; but as the horse attacked
by it is most dangerous, the sooner he is destroyed the better ; and
for this reason, every person who is likely to have any control over
him, should be aware of the symptoms. As far as is known at
present, Rabies is not idiopathically developed in the horse, but
must follow the bite of a rabid individual belonging to one or other
of the genera canis and felis. The dog, being constantly about our
stables, is the usual cause of the development of the disease, and
it may supervene upon the absorption of the salivary virus without
any malicious bite, as has happened according to more than one
carefully recorded case. The lips of the horse are liable to be
ulcerated from the action of the bit, and there is reason to believe
that in the early stages of rabies these parts have been licked by a
dog, the saliva has been absorbed, and the inoculation has taken
place just as it would do from any other wound. It is difficult to
prove that this is the true explanation of those cases where no bite
has been known to have occurred, but as the moutb has in each
instance been shown to have been abraded, there is some reason
for accepting it as such. To proceed, however, to the symptoms^
Mr. Youatt, who has had great opportunities for examining rabies,
both in the dog and horse, describes the earliest as consisting in
" a spasmodic movement of the upper lip, particularly of the angles
oftl.3 lip. Close following on this, or contemporaneous with it,
32*

878 THE HORSE.

are the depressed and anxious countenance, and iu^uiiing gaze,
suddenly, however, lighted up, and becoming fierce and menacing
from some unknown cause, or at the approach of a stranger. From
time to time different parts of the frame, the eyes, the jaws, par-
ticular limbs, will be convulsed. The eye will occasionally wander
after some imaginary object, and the horse will snap again and
again at that which has no real existence. Then will come the
irrepressible desire to bite the attendants or the animals within its
reach. To this will succeed the demolition of the rack, the manger,
and the whole furniture of the stable, accompanied by the peculiar
dread of water, which has already been described. Towards the
close of the disease there is generally paralysis, usually confined to
the loins and the hinder extremities, or involving those organs
which derive their nervous influence from this portion of the spinal
cord ; hence the distressing tenesmus which is occasionally seen."
How paralysis can produce tenesmus is not very clear, but of the
very general existence of this symptom there can be no doubt. The
dread of water, as well as of draughts of cold air, is also clearly
made out to exist in this disease (as in human rabies), and the
term hydrophobia will serve to distinguish it better than in the
dog, where it is as clearly absent. Whenever, therefore, these
symptoms follow upon the bite of a dog, unless the latter is un-
questionably in good health, rabies may be suspected, and the bare
suspicion ought always to lead to the use of the bullet, which is
the safest way of killing a violent horse. There is only one disease
(j)hrenitis) with which it can be confounded, and in that the
absence of all consciousness and, in milder cases, of fear, so that
no moral control whatever can be exercised, marks its nature, and
clearly distinguishes it from rabies, the victim to which is con-
scious to the last, and though savage and violent in the extreme,
is aware of the power of man, and to some extent under his
influence.

TETANUS— LOCK-JAW.

Tetanus, one form of which is known as lock-jaw, has its seat
apparently in the nervous system, but, like many other diseases of
the same class, the traces it leaves behind are extremely uncertain,
and are displayed more on the secondary organs, through which it
is manifested, than on those which we believe to be at the root of the
mischief. Thus the muscles, which have been long kept in a state
of spasm, show the rccirks of this condition in their softened and
apparently rotten condition. They in fact have had no interval
of rest, during which nutrition could go on, and have lost much
of the peculiarity of structure which enables them to contract.
The stomach often shows marks of inflammation, but as all sorts
of violeot remedies are employed, this may be due to them rather
than t; idiopathic disease. The lungs also are generally congested.

LOCK-JAW. 379

Dut here, like the state of the muscles, it may be a secu jdary effect
of the long-continued exertions of the latter, which nothing but
the absence of all important lesions of the brain and spinal cord
would induce the pathologist to pay the slightest attention to.

Tetanus may be either idiopathic or symptomatic, but the
former condition is somewhat rare. It almost always follows some
operation, or a severe injury in which a nerve has been implicated,
the most frequent causes being the piercing of the sole by a nail,
or a prick in shoeing, or the operations of docking, nicking, castra-
tion, &c.

The symptoms are a permanent rigidity of certain voluntary
muscles, and especially of the lower jaw (whence the popular
name, lock-jaw). The mouth is kept rigidly shut, the masseter
muscles feeling as hard as a deal board. One or both sides of the
neck are rigid, in the former case the head being turned to one
side, and in the latter stretched out as if carved in marble. The
nostrils are dilated ; the eyes retracted, with the haws thrust for-
ward over them; the ears erect and stiff, and the countenance as
if horror-struck. At first the extremities are seldom involved,
but as the disease progresses their control is first lost, and then
they become rigid, like the neck and head. The patient is scarcely
able to stand, and plants his feet widely apart to prop himself up,
while at last the tail also becomes a fixture. The pulse varies a
good deal, in some cases being quick, small, and hard, and in
others slow and labored. The bowels are generally costive, and
the urine scanty; but this last symptom is not so well marked as
the state of the bowels alluded to. The treatment should be of a
two-fold nature, partly palliative and partly curative. Since the
introduction into use of chloroform we have possessed a drug which
invariably enables us to remove the spasm for a time, and if it
does nothing more, it gives room for other remedies to act and
relieve the patient from the horrible tortures which are occasioned
by the spasm, wliile it also allows the muscular and nervous powers
to be recruited. When, therefore, a case of tetanus occurs in a
horse of any value, an apparatus for applying chloroform (described
under the chapter on Operations) should be procured, and the
animal at once placed under its influence. This done, the whole
length of the spine should be blistered with tincture of cantharides,
and an active aperient should be given, consisting, if practicable,
of a pint of castor oil, and six or eight drops of croton oil. This
may be pumped down the throat by the usual syringe and tube,
if the front teeth can be separated; but if this cannot be done,
some solid cathartic must be selected, though there is often as
much difficulty in forcing a ball down as in passing an elastic tube.
Failing in either of these, two drachms of calomel, and the same
quantity of tartar emetic shoul' be slightly damped, and placed in

380 THE HORSE.

the moulh as far back as possible, in the h ^e that they may be
gradually swallowed; the bowels should bu raked, and copious
injections of castor oil and turpentine, mixed with several quarts
of gruel, should be thrown up. If these remedies fail, nature must
be left to her own resources, and they will sometimes be found
equal to the task, for many cases have recovered after having been
given up as beyond the reach of our art. Opium, henbane,
digitalis, hellebore, and a host of other drugs have been tried,
sometimes with, and sometimes without success, and perhaps it is
worth while, after the bowels have been well relieved, to give a
full dose of one or other of these powerful remedies, such as two
drachms of solid opium ; but I confess that I think little reliance
is to be placed on them, and I prefer the adoption of chloroform
every six hours, continued for about two or three hours and gra-
dually withdrawn, leaving the cure to the action of the blister and
purgatives.

APOPLEXY AND PARALYSIS.

Usually these are only different degrees of the same disease^
but there are exceptions in which the latter is produced by some
chronic affection of the spinal cord or brain. As a rule both de-
pend upon pressure made on the brain by an overloaded state of
the vessels, commonly known as congestion, or by extravasation
of blood, in which it escapes from them.

Apoplexy, known among writers of the old school as sleepy
staggers, is not often met with in the present day, owing to the
improvement in the management of our stables, and specially to
their better ventilation. It is marked by great sleepiness, from
which the horse can be with difficulty roused, soon going on to
absolute unconsciousness, attended by a slow snoring respiration,
and speedily followed by death. The only treatment likely to be
successful is copious bleeding, purgation, and blisters to the head
and neck.

Paralysis is marked by a loss of power over the muscles of a
part, and may be confined to one limb or organ or extend to more.
It is a si/mptom of pressure on, or disorganization of, some part of
the nervous system, and must be considered as such, and nut as a
disease of the affected muscles. Thus it requires a knowledge of
anatomy to trace it to its seat, without which its treatment would
be conducted on false principles. By far the most common form
of paralysis is hemiplegia, or paralysis of the muscles of the hinder
extremities and loins, generally arising from an injury to the spine.
Sometimes the body of a vertebra is broken, and t. e parts being
separated, their edges press upon the spinal cord and produce the
disease. At others the vessels within the canal have received a

PARALYSIS — STRING HALT. 381

shock, and the serous membrane secretes (or allows to ooze out)
a bloody fluid which presses upon the cord, and produces the same
effect but in a more gradual manner. In India, a disease known
there as Kumree causes paralysis of the hinder extremities, and la
due to inflammation of the membranes, which secrete a bloody
fierum. In this country, however, paraplegia is very rare except-
ing as the result of accident.

When a horse falls in hunting, and never moves his hind
legs afterwards, but lies with his fore legs in the position to get
up, groaning and expressing great pain and distress, it may be
concluded that he has fractured or dislocated his spine and that
the case is hopeless. Sometimes, however, after lying for a few
seconds, he slowly and with diflBculty rises and is led to a stable,
but after two or three hours lies down and cannot be got up again.
Here there will be some difficulty in ascertaining whether the mis-
chief is confined to a strain of the muscles or is situated within
the vertebral canal. If the former is the case the pain is extreme,
and generally there will be some quivering or slight spasm of one
or more of the muscles of the hinder extremity, which feel natu-
rally firm, while in paralysis they feel soft and are as quiet as they
would be after death. By attention to these signs the two cases
may be distinguished, but when the case is made out to be true
paralysis the treatment is not likely (even if successful in preserv-
ing life) to bring about a useful restoration to healthy action. In
valuable horses an attempt may be made by bleeding, physicking
and blistering, to produce an absorption of the effused serum or
blood, but the recovered animal is seldom worth the outlay, and
too often as soon as he is put to any kind of work is subject to a
relapse. The most humane and certainly the most economical
plan is to put him out of his misery at once by a pistol ball or
knife, but if it is determined to try what can be done towards
effecting a cure, no better means can be adopted than those I have
alluded to.

STRING HALT.
This is a peculiar snatching up of the hind leg, and is
supposed to depend upon some obscure disease of the sciatic nerve.
It however is very doubtful whether this explanation is well
founded, and there is evidence that in some cases the hock itself
has been affected. The extensor pedis seems to be the muscle
most iseverely implicated, though not the only one which is thrown
into spasmodic action. No treatment is of the slightesx avail.
Horses with string halt are able to do any kind of work, but it is
considered to be a form of unsoundness.

382 THE HOKSE.

[SUNSTROKE— COUP DE SOLEIL.

This disease of late years has become of so frequent ocout-
rence, that although not mentioned by previous veterinary writers, it
demands a notice from us. The chief symptoms are exhaustion
and stupidity, the animal usually falling to the ground and being
anable to go further.

To PREVENT IT, allow the horse at short intervals a few mouth-
fuls of water, and fosten a wet sponge over the forehead. The
sun-shades now used by extensive owners of horses, will go very
far in lessening the occurrence of this affection.

The following treatment, when attended to at once, in the majonty
of cases will prove effectual.

Fir&t. Remove the horse from the harness to a cool shady
place. Second. Give two ounces of sulphuric ether ; 20 drops of the
tincture of aconite root and a bottle of ale or porter as a drench to
sustain the vital powers, and to act as a powerful stimulant in
equalizing the circulation throughout the body ; whilst. Thirdly.
Chopped ice is to be placed in a coarse towel, cloth or bag, and
laid between the ears and over the forehead, secured in any way
the ingenuity of the person in charge may suggest. If the legs
be cold, bandages will be of advantage. Do not put the horse to
work again until he is completely restored. Dumbness is the
usual result of sun-stroke — a species of coma — for which there ia
no cure. Horses so affected are of little use in warm weather, but
are useful in winter.

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 383

CHAPTER XXIV.

DISEASES AND INJURIES OP CERTAIN SPECIAL ORGANS.

Diseases of the Ear — Iriflammation of the Eye — Cataract — Amau
rosis — Buck-eye — Surfeit — Hidebound — Mange — Ltce — Mai-
lenders and Sallenders — Warbles, Si fasts and Harness-Galls —
Grubs — Bites and Stings of Insects — Swelled Legs — Chapped
Heels — Grease and Scratches — Warts — Corns — Sander ack —
False Quarter — Ouittor — Thrush — Canker — Laminitis — Seedy
Toe — Contraction of the Foot — Navicular Disease — Accidents
to the Legs and Feet.

DISEASES OF THE EAR.

Deafness is sometimes met with in the horse, but I know of no
symptoms by which its precise nature can be made out ; and with-
out ascertaining the seat of the disease, it is useless to attempt to
treat it.

Sometimes from a blow on the external ear inflammation is
set up, and an abscess forms ; but all that is necessary is to open it,
so that the matter can readily flow out as fast as it forms, without
which precaution it will not readily heal.

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE.

This important organ is subject to three forms of inflamma-
tion, to opacity of the lens, and to paralysis of the nerve, called
amaurosis.

Simple inflammation is the most common of all the diseases
to which the horse's eye is subject, and it precedes most of the
others. It is always the result of any injury of this part, or of
cold; and it shows itself :" there is a tendency to inflammation
of this organ, whenever the horse is in a state of plethora. The
symptoms are an intolerance of light, so that the eye is kept half
closed, by which it looks smaller than the other; a gummy secre-
tion glues the lids together at the angles ; the eyelids are slightly
swollen, showing a distended state of their veins; and there is
more or less watering or overflowing of tears. When the lids are
separated, their internal surface looks more red than natural, and
the white of the eye is covered with a net-work of nnc red ves-
sels. After the second day the transparent cornea loses its clear-
ness, and becomes muddy, sometimes over the whole surface, and
at others in specks. If the disease is allowed to go on unchecked,
the cornea is involved, and the lining membrane of the aqueous
humor follows ; a secretion of pus takes place into the chamber,
or the cornea ulcerates, and the contents of the eye escape The

884 THE HORSE.

treatment should be a copious bleeding from the jugular vein, fol-
lowed by a ball, such as —

Take of Common Physic Ball 2 drachms.

Tartar Emetic 1 drachm.

Mix and give every six hours.

This not only acts on the intestines, but it keeps up a constant
nausea, and so tends to lower the action of the heart. The eye
should be bathed with warm water frequently; and, if the mischief
be severe, a seton should at once be put into the skin covering the
upper jaw, about two inches below the eye. On the next day, if
" the white" still looks red, the bleeding must be repeated; and,
if the bowels are much moved, the tartar emetic may be continued
without the aloes, while if they are obstinate, the dose of the lat-
ter may be increased. When the acute symptoms have somewhat
diminished, a camel's-hair brush may be dipped in wine of opium,
and the eye gently touched with it daily, which will generally com-
plete the cure. The diet must be low, corn being forbidden en-
tirely, and the stable should be kept very cool and airy.

Purulent ophthalmia is confined to the conjunctiva, and it
may be recognised by the profuse discharge of purulent fluid
which takes place. The eyelids are much swollen, and the white
of the eye is covered with a pufiy red membrane, which rises up
above the level of the cornea, sometimes in fungoid excrescences.
This form of inflammation is generally epidemic, and sometimes
runs through a stable without a single exception. The treatment
should be, at first, similar to that recommended for simple inflam-
mation ; but when it reaches the chronic stage, a more powerful
stimulus is required to restore the vessels to a healthy condition.
A wash composed as follows, must therefore be applied : —

Take of Nitrate of Silver 6 grs.

Distilled Water 1 oz.

Mix, and drop a little into the eye from a quill dailj'.

Iritis, or inflammation of the iris, generally known as specific
ophthalmia, is the most formidable of all the diseases to which the
eye is subject, and, if not checked, rapidly disorganizes it; while
it also, even when running an unusually favorable course, is very
apt to produce opacity of the lens or its capsule (cataract). This
pest of the stable is, undoubtedly, often brought on by over stimu-
lation, first of the whole body, through the food, and secondly, of
the eyes themselves, through the foul emanations from the accu-

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 385

mulated urine and dung. But these would produce no sueh effect
in a horse, unless he were predisposed to ophthalmia; and we find
that cattle and sheep are often fed to an enormous degree of obe-
sity, in far closer and worse ventilated stalls, without any prejudi-
cial effect upon their eyes. It may, then, be assumed, that these
organs in a horse have a tendency to put on inflammation ; but
though these wor.ds are true they explain nothing of the real cause,
and only serve to conceal our ignorance of it. There is another
question bearing upon this subject, which is of the highest import-
ance. Is the stock of blind horses more liable to blindness than
that of sound ones ? This has been discussed so often, that it is
scarcely possible to throw any fresh light upon it, chiefly because
it is so difficult to rely upon the facts adduced pro and con. Blind-
ness is often the result of accident, and such cases are believed to be
exceptional, and not at all likely to hand down the disease ; but, on
the contrary, I am inclined to believe that many of them show a
marked tendency to its development; for an accident never destroys
both eyes, and when one follows the other, it is a pretty sure sign that
there is a tendency to ophthalmia. On the whole, it may, I think, be
assumed, that the tendency to specific ophthalmia is handed down
from generation to generation, and, consequently, that the ofi'spring
of a horse who has gone blind from that cause is peculiarly prone
to it. Its symptoms appear very rapidly, the eye having been
quite right over night, looks contracted and almost closed next
morning, and on inspecting it closely " the white" looks of a deep
red, the cornea looks muddy, and the colored part of the eye (the
iris) has lost its bright color, and often shows one or two white specks
upon it (these must not be confounded with specks on the cornea).
As the disease advances, the intolerance of light is very great, the
cornea and iris become gradually more muddy, and either lymph
IS thrown out on the latter in the shape of white patches, or pus
is secreted and fills the chamber of the aqueous humor, in part or
wholly. If the treatment is sufiiciently energetic, these signs
abate, the pus or lymph is absorbed, and the eye recovers its trans-
parency ; but there are generally some traces left behind. Bleed-
ing (either from the jugular or the angular veins of the face),
moderate purging, and a seton, are the remedies best calculated to
effect this -object, conjoined with an airy stable and a light diet.
Unfortunately, however, iritis is almost sure to return on the
restoration of the usual food, and exposure to the elements ; and
hence it is of the utmost consequence in purchasing a horse to
examine his eyes for the marks left behind by it. If the case is
hopeless, it becomes a question whether or not it will be wise to
put an end to the inflammation by destroying the affected eye, for
it is well known that if it goes on for any length of time the other,
Bound eye, becomes affected. The only difficulty consists in fcel-
33 2p

S86 THE HORSE.

ing assured thai there is really no chance of recovery ; for when
once the eye is finally condemned, the sooner it is opened and its
contents evacuated, the sooner will the horse return to his work, and
the more chance has the other eye of escaping. The operation is
very simple, and merely requires a sharp-pointed knife to be passed
into the anterior chamber from one edge of the cornea, and driven
back till it cuts into the lens, when it is to be brought out on the
other side of the cornea, and the whole of the humors will escape
on making pressure upon the upper eyelid.

In injuries of the eye, fomentation with warm water should
be carried on for half an hour, and then omitted for three or four
hours; after which it may be repeated again and again, at similar
intervals. Great care should be taken to remove any extraneous
bodies, such as particles of dust, &c.

Cataract, or opacity of the lens, is very commonly the result
of iritis, its capsule having been coated with a layer of white lymph,
deposited by the inflamed vessels ; but it also sometimes makes its
appearance without being preceded by any of the signs of inflam-
mation. In the former case, the early symptoms are those of iritis ;
but in the latter, the opacity often goes on increasing, without the
owner of the horse, or his groom, having his attention drawn to
the eyes, until he finds that he is nearly blind. This progress is
generally marked by the development of an unusual timidity ; the
previously-bold animal is alarmed at objects advancing on the road,
and covered carts and wagons, of which he formerly took no notice,
occasion him to shy in the most timid manner. On examining his
eyes carefully, instead of the beautifully clear pupil, with the re-
flection of tapetum lucidum shining through it, there is seen either
a mass of dull white, generally more opaque in the centre, or an
appearance of mottled, semi-transparent soap, or, lastly, one or two
distinct white spots, not quite circular, but with irregular edges.
In confirmed cataract, the white pupil can been seen at any dis-
tance; but in the very early stage, only a practised eye can detect
the opacity, which, however, is so manifest to him that he wonders
it is not visible to every one else. The reason of this difilculty of
detecting the alteration of structure seems to be, that inexperienced
examiners look at the eye in such a manner that they are confused
by the reflection on it of their own faces, hiding all beneath. If,
however, they will turn their heads a little more on one side, this
will disappear, and they cannot fail to perceive the disease. When
cataract is clearly proved to exist, all idea of treatment may be
abandoned, as nothing but an operation can procure a removal of
the opacity ; and that would leave the horse in a more useless con-
dition than before, since he could see nothing clearly, and would
only be subject to continual alarms. In the human being, the
operation is pp -formed with great success, because the lens which

AMAUROSIS— BUCK EYE. 387

is sacrificed can be replaced externally by means of convex glasses :
but in the horse, nothing of the kind can be done. Hence, it is
useless to dream of effecting any improvement in this disease ; and
if both eyes are the subject of cataract, the horse is incurably
blind. But supposing there is a cataract in one eye only, is the
other sure to go blind, or may a reasonable hope be entertained of
its remaining sound ? Here the history of the iisease must be
examined before any opinion can be formed. If the opacity fol-
lowed an accident, there is no reason for concluding that the other
eye will become diseased ; but if it came on idiopathically, either
preceded by inflammation or otherwise, there is great risk of a
repetition in the sound eye. Nevertheless, instances are common
enough of one eye going blind from cataract, while the other re-
mains sound to the end of life ; and those are still more frequent
in which the one sound eye continues so for six or seven years.

AMAUROSIS.

This is a palsy of the nervous expansion called the retina,
produced by some disease, either functional or organic, of the optic
nerve, which is generally beyond the reach of our senses, in ex-
amining it after death. The symptoms are a full dilatation of the
pupil, so that the iris is shrunk to a thin band around it, and is so
insensible to the stimulus of light, in confirmed cases, that, even
when the eye is exposed to the direct rays of the sun, it does not
contract. In the early stages, this insensibility is only partial ; and
though there is such complete blindness that the horse cannot dis-
tinguish the nature of surrounding objects, yet the pupil contracts
slightly, and the inexperienced examiner might pass the eye as a
sound one. The unnaturally large pupil, however, should always
create suspicion; and when, on closing the lids and re-opening
them in a strong light, there is little or no variation in its size, the
nature of the disease is at once made apparent. The treatment of
amaurosis must depend upon the extent to which it has gone, and
its duration. If recent, bleeding and a seton in close proximity
to the diseased organ will be the most likely to restore it. Some-
times the disease depends upon a disordered condition of the std-
mach, and then a run at grass will be the most likely means to
restore both the affected organs to a sound state. Generally, how-
ever, an amaurotic eye in the horse may be considered as a hope-
less case.

BUCK EYE.

A BUCK EYE is, strictly, rather a congenital malformation than a
disease ; but practically, in reference to the utility of the animal,
it matters little. It depends upon an excess of convexity in the
cornea, by which the focus of the eye is shortened too much, the
image being thus rendered indistinct as it falls on the retina. No
treatment can be of the slightest use.

THE HORSE.

SURFEIT.

An eruption of the skin, which shows itself in the form of
numerous small scabs, matting the hair, and chiefly met with on
the loins and quarters, is known by this name. Doubtless, it has
been supposed to arise from an excess of food, causing indigestion j
but it often comes on in horses which, apparently, are quite free
from that disorder. The most common cause appears to be, sweat-
ing the horse when he is in a gross or plethoric condition, and then
exposing him to a chill. Colts are very subject to surfeit while
being broken, as are horses fresh from grass during the summer,
when they are usually over-fat, and require great care in reducing
this plethoric condition. The usual course of the eruption is for
the scabs to dry and gradually loosen, when the hair of the part is
slightly thinned by being pulled out in dressing, a fresh crop of
pustules forming, and, to the casual observer, keeping up the ap-
pearance of a permanent state of the original scabs. Surfeit is
not confined to gross horses, as it sometimes makes its appearance
in those which are low in condition, exhibiting the same appear-
ance to the eye ; but, on examination, the secretion from the skin
will be found to be thinner, and of a more purulent nature. The
treatment must greatly depend upon the state of the general health.
If the horse is very gross, it may be desirable to take a little blood
away ; but this will seldom be necessary, and never is desirable.
Physic seems to do little immediate good; and, indeed, it is very
doubtful whether any treatment is of much service, excepting such
as will gradually bring the horse into working condition. The
disease, in most cases, has its origin in obstruction of the seba-
ceous and perspiratory, pores ; and until these are restored to their
proper functions, by gradually exercising them, little good can be
done. Unfortunately, the very means which will accomplish this
object are apt to increase the disease for a time ; but still this
must be put up with, as a matter in which no choice can be made
Regular exercise and grooming must be fully attended to, using
the whisp only in dressing the skin, when the eruption shows
itself, and carefully avoiding the brush and currycomb. By acting
on the kidneys, more good will be done than by purging physic,
which seems to be of little or no service in any case but when the
etomach is greatly out of order. An ounce of nitre may be given
with a mash twice a week, or the following balls may be ad
minist<5red : —

Take of Nitre,

Sulphur, of each . . . .... . 3 drachms.

Sulphuret of Antimony 2 drachms.

Linseed Meal and Water enough to form twj balls.

HIDEBOUND— MANGE. 389

HIDEBOUND.

This is esseiVTIALLT a disorder of the skin produced by sym-
pathy with the stomach. It rarely occurs in any horse but one
sadly out of health from a deficiency either in the quantity or
quality of the food. Sometimes it comes on in the latter stages of
consumption or dysentery, without any previous mismanagement;
but in the vast majority of cases the cause may be laid to the
food. The skin of a horse in health feels supple, and on his sides
it may readily be gathered up by the hand into a large fold, but
in hidebound it is as if it were glued to the ribs, and were also too
tight for the carcase which it invests. The name, indeed, is
expressive of this state, and the disease can scarcely be mistaken
when once seen, or rather felt. Coincident with this condition of
the skin, there is also, generally, either a distended state of the
abdomen from flatulence, or a contracted and " tucked up" appear-
ance from diarrhoea. The treatment should be addressed to the
digestive organs, the state of which must be carefully examined,
and if possible rectified. A pint of linseed, scalded, and mixed
with a bran mash every night, or scalded malt given in equal
quantities with the corn ; or in the spring time, vetches, clover, or
lucerne, will do more than any medicine ; but when there is a
deficient appetite, or the bowels or stomach, or either of them,
are evidently much weakened and disordered, a stomachic ball
once or twice a week will do good. The remedies appropriate to
these several conditions will be found under their respective heads
at pages 354, and 363, 364.

MANGE.

Mange corresponds with the itch of the human subject in
being produced by a parasitic insect, which is an acarus, but of a
different species to that of man, and of a much larger size, so as to
be readily visible to the naked eye. It is generally produced by
contact with horses previously affected with the same disease, but
it appears highly probable that a poor, half-starved animal, allowed
to accumulate all kinds of dirt on his skin, will develop the para-
site, though how this is done is not clearly made out. The whole
subject of parasites is wrapped in mystery, which modern researches
appear likely to fathom, but hitherto little progress "has been made
except in the history of the metamorphoses of the tape-worm,
from the analogy of which some idea may be formed of the prob-
able modes of production of other parasites. When caused by
contagion, as certainly happens in the vast majority of cases, the
first symptoms noticed will be an excessive itching of the skin,
which is soon followed by a bareness of the hair in patches, partly
caused by constant friction. The disease usually shows itself on
33*

390 THE HORSE.

the side of the neck, just at the edges of the mane, and on the
insides cf the quarters near the root of the tail. From these
parts the eruption extends along the back and down the sides,
seldom involving the extremities excepting in very confirmed
cases. After a time the hair almost entirely falls off, leaving the
Bkin at first bare and smooth, with a few small red pimples scat-
tered over it, each of whieh contains an acarus, and these are con-
nected by furrows, along which the acari have worked their way
to their present habitation. In process of time the pimples
increase in number and size, and from them a matter exudes
which hardens into a scab, beneath which, on examination,
several acari may readily be ^en, moving their legs like mites in
a cheese, to which they are closely allied. At first the mangy
horse may keep his health, but after a time the constant irritation
makes him feverish ; he loses flesh, and becomes a most miserable
object; but such cases of neglect are happily rare in the prepent
day. The treatment must be addressed to the destruction o^ the
life of the acarus, which, as in the human subject, is rapidly
destroyed by sulphur, turpentine, arsenic, hellebore, and corrosive
sublimate. Some of these drugs are, however, objectionable,
from being poisonous to the horse, as well as to the parasite which
preys upon him, and they are, therefore, not to be employed
without great and urgent necessity, in consequence of the failure
of milder remedies. The following recipes may be relied on as
perfectly efficacious, the former being sufficient in mild cases, and
the latter being strong enough in any.

1. Take of Common Sulphur 6 oz.

Sperm or Train Oil .... 1 pint.
Spirit of Turpentine .... 3 oz.
Mix and rub well into the skin with a flannel, or in preference with a
painter's brush.

2. Take of Compound Sulphur Ointment . . 8 oz.

Train or Sperm Oil 1 pint.

Spirit of Turpentine 3 oz.

Mix and use as above.

One or other of the above dressings should be well rubbed in
every third day for at least three or four weeks in bad cases, ,'ind
two in trifling ones, when the inflammation resulting from the
acari and also from the application may be allowed to subside in
the tape that all the parasites are killed, in which cas« the erup-
tion disappears, but the hair does not always come on again aa
thickly as ever. All the stable fittings around the stall or box in
which the horse has been standing should be thoroughly washed
over with a solution of corrosive sublimate, made as follows : —

MANGE-LICE— MALLEXDERS, ETC. 391

Taie of Corrosive Sublimate 1 oz.

Methylated Spirit of Wine . . . 6 oz.

Water 1 gallon.

Dissolve the sublimate in the spirit by rubbing in a mortar, then mix with
the water, and use with a brush, stirring it up continually to prevent its
settling.

The clothing should be destroyed, as it is scarcely possible to
cleanse it completely from the parasites ; but if it is determined to
risk a return of the disease, it should be thoroughly washed, and
when dry, saturated with spirit of turpentine.

When the health has suffered from the irritation of mange, a
few tonic balls may be required, but generally the removal of the
cause will be sufficient.

LiCE.

In former days lice were not uncommon in the horse, but
they are now comparatively rare. Still they are occasionally met
with, and their presence is readily ascertained, being of a consi-
derable size, and easily seen with the naked eye. They may be
destroyed by rubbing into the roots of the hair white precipitate,
in powder, taking care to avoid sweating the horse or wetting his
skin for some days afterwards.

MALLENDEES AND SALLENDERS.
These eruptions are both of the same nature, differing only
in the locality where they are displayed. The former shows itself
in the flexure at the back of the knee, and the latter at the bend
of the hock. The symptoms are shown in the appearance of a foul
scurf mixed with a few thin scabs, the skin underneath being stiff
and unyielding. They are generally brought on by washing the
legs and leaving them undried. The treatment required is merely
the applicatio'i of the following ointment, which should be well
rubbed in every night : —

Take of Cerate of Snperacetate of Lead . 2 oz.

Creosote 10 drops. Mix.

If the skin continues to be very hard and stiff, a little glycerine
should be brushed on two or three times a week.

WARBLES, SITFASTS, AND HARNESS GALLS.
"When the saddle has galled the skin beneath it, the in

392 THE HORSE.

flammatlon resulting is called a "warble," and if this is neglected,
so as tj cause a troublesome sore, the term "sitfast" is applied.
The effect produced is similar to a harness gall, and there is not
the slightest necessity for inventing names to distinguish each stage
of cruelty in the rider, for if attention is paid to the warble no sit-
fast will ever mske its appearance. Prevention is better than cure,
and it .may almost always be effected by the adoption of the plan
of always keeping the saddle on (after loosing the girths) for a
quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. Sometimes, however, in
spite of this precaution, the skin of the back swells, and when s
heavy man has been riding for six or eight hours on a horse unac-
customed to his weight, the cuticle will perhaps peel off, bringing
the hair with it. When the swelling is considerable it should be
well fomented for an hour, and then bathed with a lotion composed
of one drachm of tincture of arnica in half a pint of water. The
saddle should never be re-applied until the skin is quite cool and
free from all inflammation, even if considerable inconvenience is
thereby suffered. The same treatment will also apply to harness
galls. Oiling the inside of the collar will often prevent the shoulder
from buffering excoriation.

GRUBS.
The larva op some beetle, but of what species I do not
know, is occasionally met with in the horse, causing a small lump,
about the size of a raisin, and usually on the back. This obsti-
nately continues for months, if its nature is not understood, in
spite of all ordinary applications. At last a white larva or grub,
with a black head, and very similar in everything but size to the
maggot found in the nut, makes its appearance, and either escapes
to fall on the ground and become a chrysalis, or else it is squeezed
out by the groom, which is easily done as soon as the head is visi-
ble. When discovered previously, an opening may be made with
the point of a penknife, and then the larva may be gradually
squeezed out. avoiding too much haste in the operation, which will
only retard the process.

BITES AND STINGS OF INSECTS.

Horses are iiable to be stung by hornets, wasps, and bees.
If there are only one or two stings made, no interference is neces-
sary ; but sometimes a larger number of poisonous punctures have
been effected, and then the best treatment is the application of
spirit of turpentine and laudanum in equal proportions.

The bites op the gadfly are so. troublesome in their effects
that it is sometimes desirable to prevent them if possible. This is
effected by making a strong infusion of the green bark of the elder,
and washing the fla'^ks, &c., with it before going out.

SWELLED LEGS. 383

SWELLED LEGS.

The skin of the legs and the cellular membrane be-
neath it are liable to two kinds of swelling, one of which is of an
inflammatory character, while the other is solely due to a deposit of
serum (oedema), owing to the non-performance of their oflSce by
the kidneys. Both kinds are much more frequent in the hind legs
than the fore, but especially the former.

Inflammatory swelled leg, sometimes called weed, is gene-
rally accompanied by a certain amount of feverishness, and comes
on suddenly, almost always showing itself on the inside of the hind
leg, which is hot and extremely tender. It is not a very common
disease, and merely requires the ordinary low treatment, by purging
physic, and, if necessary, bleeding. Should it continue for more
than two or three days after these are tried, an ounce of nitre may
be given every night in a bran mash.

Ordinary swelling op the legs, or cedema, occurs in every
degree, from a slight "filling," to which many horses are always
subject, whether they work or stand in the stable, to an enlarge-
ment extending up to the stifles and elbows, sometimes rendering
the legs almost as round and as hard as mill-posts. When horses
are first brought in from grass their legs almost always fill more or
less, and until they are regularly seasoned to their work there is
seldom that clean condition of the suspensory ligaments and back
sinews which one likes to see even before the daily exercise is given.
The oedema appears to depend partly upon a deficient action of the
kidneys, but chiefly on the vessels of the legs not acting sufficiently
without constant walking exercise, such as is natural to the horse
when at liberty, and which he takes at grass. Half an hour's walk-
ing will generally produce absorption completely, so that a daily
remedy is forthcoming; but as a rule, whenever there is this ten-
dency to " filling" of the legs, the cellular membrane is not the
only tissue in fault, but the tendons and joints are also liable to
inflammation. The treatment will greatly depend on the exact
cause. If the swelling is only due to the change from grass to
the confinement of a warm stable, time alone is wanted, taking care
not to overwork the horse in the mean time. Bandages will always
assist in keeping down the swelling; but they should not be used
without necessity, as when once the horse becomes accustomed to
them his legs can hardly be kept fine without their aid. If weak-
ness is the cause, a drachm of sulphate of iron given in the corn
twice a day will often strengthen the system, and with it the legs.
Diuretics may be adopted as an occasional aid to the kidneys, but
they should be of the mildest kind, such as nitre, or they will do
more harm, by weakening the body generally, than good by their
stimulus to the kidnej^ Indeed, they are often the sole cause of

394 ^ THE HORSE,

the legs filling, for some grooms use them so continually > frhethei
they are wanted or not, that the kidneys become diseased and refuse
to act, which is a sure forerunner of oedema. Where swelling of
the legs is confirmed, bandages must be regularly applied as recom-
mended at page 196.

CHAPPED HEELS.

"When a horse suffers from cedema of the legs, he is par-
ticularly prone to an eruption of a watery nature in the cleft
between the heels and behind the lesser pastern. Those also
whose legs are washed and not dried are still more prone to it,
especially if the hair is white. The skin cracks, and, in bad cases,
is so inflamed and swollen that the leg cannot be bent without great
pain, and often there is a bleeding from the cracks, caused by the
action of the limb, but only to a sufficient extent to show that blood
has escaped. The treatment must be local as well as general if the
eruption is not entirely due to mismanagement. In any case, the
part should be dressed with cerate of acetate of lead, a little of
which should be rubbed in every night. Next morning some gly-
cerine should be brushed on an hour at least before the exercise,
and renewed before the daily work is commenced. This will pre-
vent all risk of the skin cracking, while the ointment will act bene-
ficially on the vessels of the part. In addition to these applica-
tions, the general health should be attended to if in fault, and
tonics or diuretics should be given, as the case may require.

GREASE.

The eruption known as grease is sometimes only an aggra-
vated form of chapped heels, and is often preceded by them. At
others the appearance of the disease is ushered in by constitutional
symptoms, such as feverishness, cedema of the limbs and hide-
bound. The first local symptom is a slight swelling of the skin
01 the heels and adjacent parts, which soon cracks, and from the
fissures there exudes an offensive discharge which looks greasy, but
is really watery, being of a serous nature. It inflames every part
that it touches, and has a tendency to cause a spread of the eruption
in all directions, but chiefly downwards. The legs go on swelling to
a frightful extent, and are thereby rendered so stifi" and sore that
great lameness is produced. If this stage is neglected the whole
surface ulcerates, and a fungous growth makes its appearance,
chiefly from the original cracks. The discharge becomes purulent
and has a most foul smell, and the leg can with difiiculty be bent
at all. Finally, the fungous excrescences cover the whole of the
diseased skin, being of a bright red color, and slightly resembling
grapes in form, from which circumstances this stage has been

GREASE, OR SCRATCHES. 395

called " the grapes." It is now very rare to meet with grease in
any of its forms except in the cart-stable, where the hairy legs of
its inmates render them peculiarly prone to its attacks, from the
time required to dry them when wet. They are so difficult to clean
without water that the carters may well be excused for using it,
but if they do they ought carefully to dry the legs afterwards.
The treatment when grease is established, must be founded upon
the same principle as in chapped heels. The skin must be kept
supple, and at the same time stimulated to a healthy action. For
the former purpose glycerine is most valuable, being far more effi-
cacious than any greasy dressing, such as we were obliged to employ
before the discovery of this substance. In all the stages of grease,
this latter agent may be employed, and as it is readily soluble in
water it can be washed oflF and renewed as often as it may be desired.
The discharge is so foul and irritating that it ought to be thoroughly
removed at least once in twenty-four hours, and one of the chief
advantages of the use of glycerine is that it so greatly assists this
cleansing process from its solubility in water. In addition to this
emollient plan, some stimulus must be selected, and none answers
so well (in all stages but the very earliest) as chloride of zinc.
When, therefore, the heels are in that state that it is almost doubt-
ful whether the disease is the mere chap or absolute grease, the
treatment recommended for the former may be tried, but should
this fail, the groom should at once proceed to cut the hair of the
skin which is diseased as short as possible. Then let him take
some soap and warm water and gently wash the parts with a sponge
till the skin is perfectly clean and free from scab or scurf, taking
care to remove every particle of soap by well rinsing it. Next dry
the leg, and then with a small paint-brush rub gently into the in-
flamed parts enough of the following lotion to damp them, but not
to wet them thoroughly : —

Take of Chloride of Zinc 30 grs.

Water 1 pint. Mix.

A quarter of an hour afterwards apply a little glycerine over the
whole, and keep the parts sufficiently supple with it. If there is
much discharge the cleansing may be repeated night and morning,
followed by the chloride of zinc, but in most cases once a day will
be sufficiently often. If the ulcerated or inflamed skin does not
put on a healthy appearance in a few days, the lotion may be in-
creased in strength, using forty, fifty, or sixty grains to the pint,
as required; but the remedy will be found to be almost a specific, ex-
cept for the grapy form, if properly proportioned in strength. When
the fungoid growths are very extensive, nothing but their removal^
either by the knife or by the actual or potential cautery, will suffice.
The least painful plan is to slice them off to a level with the skin

396 THE HORSE.

and then just touch the bleeding surface with a hot iron, which
will have the double good effect of stopping the bleeding and in-
ducing a healthy action. The glycerine may then be applied, ana
next day the leg may be treated in the same way as for ordinary
grease described above. When the disease is of long standing,
local' applications may cure it for a time, but either it will return,
or there will be some other organ attacked, unless the unhealthy
state of the blood is attended to. It must be remembered that
during the existence of grease this vital fluid is called upon to
supply the materials for the secretion which is constantly going on.
Now if on the cessation of the demand for them the blood still
goes on obtaining its supplies from the digestive organs, it becomes
overloaded, a state of plethora is established, which Nature attempts
to relieve in some one or other of her established modes by setting
up disease. To avoid such a result arsenic may be given internally,
for this medicine has a special power in counteracting this ten-
dency. How it acts has never yet been made out, but that it does
exert such a power is thoroughly ascertained, and if the doses are
not too large it is unattended by any injlirious effect. Indeed for a
time it seems to act as as a tonic. The arsenic should be given in
solution and with the food, so as to procure its absorption into the
blood without weakening the stomach. A wine-glassful of liquor
arsenicalis (1^ oz.) should be poured over the corn twice a day,
and continued for a couple of months, when it may be discontinued
with a fair hope of its having had the desired effect. Should the
skin, however, look inflamed, a second course of it may be given,
and it will be found that if it is given with the corn it will not be
followed by any injurious consequences.

WAETS.

Warts are, generally, only to be considered as eyesores; for,
unless they appear on th© penis, they are not injurious to health;
nor do they interfere with work unless they happen to appear on
the shoulders beneath the collar in a harness horse, which is very
rare indeed. They are, doubtless, very unsightly, and, for this
reason, it is often desired to remove them, which may be done by
first picking off the rough outer surface, so as to make them bleed,
and then rubbing in, with a stiff brush, some yellow orpiment,
wetted with a little water. This will cause considerable inflam-
mation, and in a few days the wart will drop off, leaving a healthj
sore, which soon heals. Sometimes the whole wart does not come
away on the first application, in which case a second must be
made. When the glans penis is completely covered with warts,

WARTS AND CORNS. 397

the best plan is to amputate it, as it requires the greatest caution
and tact to remove them by arsenic or any other caustic without
destroying, also, as much ol the penis as is taken away by the
knife..

CORNS.
These troublesome results of bad shoeing, or subsequent
neglect of the feet, make their appearance in the sole of the foot,
in the angle formed between the crust and the bar (see fig. 20 (E),
Chap. XXVI.). Where the foot is properly prepared for the shoe,
and the smith seats the heel of the crust and the bar on a
level surface, no corn will make its appearance in a healthy foot ;
but if a corn has previously existed, or if the shoe is allowed to
press upon the sole at E ("see fig. 20, Chap. XXVI.), the delicate
blood-vessels of the sensible sole are ruptured, and, instead of se-
creting a sound horn, capable of bearing the slight strain upon it
which is required, a fungoid growth is formed, presenting a reddish
appearance, and exquisitely sensitive. This morbid substance
does not at all resemble the hard corn of the human subject, which
is a thickened secretion of cuticle, but it bears some comparison
with the soft corns that form so often between the toes, and give
so much trouble in their removal. It is, in fact, a new growth of
a semi-fungoid character, partly made up of granulations and
partly of horny matter, the two being closely united. The corn
may arise from improper pressure made on this part of the sensible
sole, either directly from the shoe, or indirectly by pressing a thin
brittle crust inwards upon it. Generally, however, it is met with
at the inner heel, from the shoe being overgrown by that part of
the foot when kept on too long. The outer nails do not allow it
to work in the contrary direction, and if there is a clip on the
outer quarter this is rendered still mqre improbable. If, there-
fore, shoeing is properly managed, corns may always be prevented,
and we shall see in the directions for shoeing, at Chap. XXVI.,
how this is to be managed. At present I have to consider how
they are to be relieved or cured when they are already established.
The ordinary mode op treating corns is simply to cut
them out, leaving the bar and heel of the crust full, and thus
taking all pressure off them. This enables the horse to do his work
for about ten days, but then the shoe must be removed, and the
paring-out repeated, a process which weaken^ the already weak
crust by making additional nail-holes in it. The shoe at the same
time is generally " sprung," that is, it is so bent or filed that the
heel does not fully bear upon it ; but this does not last many
hours, and is of little real utility. The plan answers well enough
for the purposes of fraudulent sellers, as the horse runs sound for
about ten days ; and when he fails, and on taking off his shoe he
34

398 THE HORSE.

is discovered to have a corn, it is impossible to prove that it ex«
isted at the time of sale by any evidence but that of the smith
who shod him previously to it. Excepting, therefore, in very
slight and recent cases, in which it will sometimes be followed by
success, this plan'of treatment is only palliative, and what is worse,
it tends to increase the weakness of the foot and consequent ten
dency to the disease.

For the curative plan we must do something more than
merely take the pressure off the sole ; the bar and heel of the
crust must also be relieved, and the. sensible sole must be stimu-
lated, by a proper application, to secrete healthy horn, as w.ell as
by pressure on the frog. If the horse is to be rested, this can be
done easily enough by taking off his shoes, but he may be kept at
work by putting on a bar-shoe, and cutting down the bar and crust,
so as to throw all the pressure off them upon the frog. A double
purpose is effected in this way. First, the sensible sole is relieved
of the constant pressure which the crust bears upon it laterally ;
and, secondly, the jar on the frog, communicated through the shoe,
from the ground, induces a healthy action in the foot, and the sole,
has a greater tendency to secrete healthy horn. There is no doubt
in my mind that all horses would work much better, and keep their
feet in much sounder condition, if their frogs could be brought into
use, without being guarded as they are by the ordinary shoe. This
part is intended by nature to take upon itself great pressure ; and
if it has not its natural stimulus it becomes weak itself, and, more-
over, it does not stimulate the surrounding parts to a healthy action,
as it ought to do. The bar-shoe is inconvenient for many purposes,
and, therefore, it is not generally applied ; but as a curative agent
these objections are to be dispensed with, and then it will be found
to be extremely valuable, not only in relieving the diseased part (the
corn) but in giving a healthy action to its seat, the sole. The smith
should, therefore, pare down the crust at the heel, so that when the
bar-shoe is applied it will allow a penny-piece to be insinuated be-
tween the two surfaces. With this the horse does his work com-
fortably on the road ; and in process of time, that is, in two or three
months, the heel grows up, and takes its own share of pressure, or
a part of it, becoming gradually accustomed to the amount which it
will have to bear when the bar-shoe is discontinued. In the mean
time a little of the following lotion may be applied daily to the
situation of the corn by means of a feather.

Take of Chloride of Zinc 1 drachm.

Water 6 oz.

Glycerine 2 oz. Mix.

In every case, the bar-shoe must be continued until the heel of tho
crust and the bar grow down strongly; and then a common shoe
may be applied.

8ANDCRACK— FALSE QUARTE^l. 399

SANDCRACK

In the anaiomioal description op the poot, at page 291,
it will be seen that the crust is composed of fibres, running paral-
lei to each other in a direction from the coronet to the ground sur-
face. These fibres are glued together firmly in a sound and strong
hoof; but, in a weak one, it sometimes happens that the gelatinous
matter is not in sufficient quantity, and then the fibres separate,
and leave a crack of greater or less extent, according to circum-
stances. This, called a sandcrack, happens at the thinnest part,
which is the inner quarter in the fore foot, and the toe in the hind.
To cure it, the foot must be rested, or at least that part of it where
the crack occurs, which in the fore foot may be efi'ected by the use
of a bar-shoe, throwing the pressure entirely on the frog, as recom-
mended in the last section on corns, and taking care that the crust
behind the crack is not in contact with the shoe. By adopting
this plan, I have succeeded in curing sand-cracks during moderate
work ; but if it happens in the hind foot, complete rest must be
given, as the toe cannot be relieved by any possible contrivance".
The next thing to be done is to open the crack slightly, so that
any grit getting into it shall not cause its further expansion ; and
in doing this, if there is any little cellular cavity, it should be ex-
posed. If the crack extends to the coronet, which it rarely does,
nothing can be done until it has grown out for at least half an
inch from that part, when the point of a hot iron may be applied
to the angle of the crack for a second, so as -to keep out water,
which has the efi'ect of causing the fibres to split by the capillary
attraction which is exercised. The burn should be very slight,
and should not be carried deeply into the substance of the horn.
A fine nail should then be driven from below through the crust,
the shoe being removed ; and when brought out at the usual place,
should be left projecting. The shoe should be put on, and the
innermost nail also left projecting. These two should then be
firmly bound together by fine wire, so as to bring the edges of the
crack together ; and the foot should be left in this state for at least
a month or five weeks, when the shoe may be taken ofi", and the
operation repeated. This is far better than binding wire or twine
round the whole foot, as it acts more completely on the crack,
without confining the growth of the remainder of the foot. Of
course, after the wire is twisted on, the nails must be clenched, and
there will be a greater projection than usual; but this is of no im-
portance whatever. In cracks of the hind foot the nails in each
quarter will keep the two sides from separating, but the horse can.
not be worked.

FALSE QUARTER.

When, prom an accident, the coronary substance is perma-
nently injured, it ceases to secrete sound horn, and a stripe of tho

100 THE HORSE.

crust, defective in strength, runs all the way down from the coro-
net to the plantar edge. This generally happens at the inner
quarter, and is owing to the horse treading on his coronet; but it
may also occur on the outside, either from the tread of another
horse, or from some kind of external violence. The result is simi-
lar to that of a sandcrack ; there is no strength in the aflFected heel,
and lameness is produced. The treatment is very much the same
as for sandcrack. In the first place, the pressure must be taken
ofi" the quarter, and a bar-shoe applied, so as to convey the weight
on the frog, as described under the head of Sandcrack. The heel
of the affected quarter should be lowered, and thus further injury
will be prevented. The next thing to be done is to stimulate the
coronet to a healthy action by blistering it, which must be done
two or three times, taking care that the blister is not of too violent
a nature, and that the skin heals before a second is applied. By
these means, a cure may sometimes be effected ; but it takes a con-
siderable time, and until the quarter is reproduced in full strength,
or nearly so, the bar-shoe should be continued. By its use, any
horse with a sound frog can travel very well on the road, even if
the quarter is entirely and permanently separated from the toe by
inefficient horn ; and without it, the chance of a cure is not to be
reckoned on.

QUITTOR.

By this term is understood a chronic abscess of the foot,
the matter always forming sinuses, from the difficulty which nature
has to overcome in finding a way for it to reach the surface.
Generally, the mischief is occasioned by an overreach, or a bruise
of the sole, or by the inflammation resulting from a neglected
thrush, or, lastly, from a nail-prick. From any of these causes,
inflammation of the delicate investment of the coffin-bone is set up,
pus is secreted, and, in working its way to the surface, it burrows
between the horn and the bone, and forms one or more sinuses, or
pipes, as these fistulous tubes are called by the farrier. A quittor
is recognised by the eye and nose detecting an opening in the
horn, from which a foul discharge proceeds ; and on introducing a
probe, it will generally pass freely in two or three directions, some-
times giving a grating sensation to the finger, showing that thQ
bone is denuded, and most probably carious. There is generally
a considerable increase of temperature in the foot, and always
more or less lameness, with, in most cases, swelling of the bulbous
heels and coronet. On examining the sole carefully, some part
will either show a diff"erence of color from the adjacent horn, or
there will be a yielding on pressure, owing to its being undermined.
The treatment must be conducted on the same principle as for
fistulous sores. In the first place, a dependent opening must be

QFITl •^R- THRUSH. 401

tormed, go that no matter shall be confined, but it shall be. allowed
to come away as fast as it forms. This can only be done by prob-
ing; and if the original opening is in the coronet, the probe must
be passed down as low as possible, and then the sole should be
pared away till the end can be reached. In tolerably recent quit-
tors, this plan alone will allow the sinus to heal ; but in old ones,
the internal surface has become callous, and no granulations are
thrown out. Here an injection should be thrown in every day
with a syringe, a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc being that
generally recommended ; but I have found the chloride answer
still better, using one drachm of the salt to a jpint of water at first,
and going on up to two drachms. By injecting this daily, and in-
troducing a piece of lint, wetted with it, into the superior opening,
leaving the lower one free, I have cured many bad quittors, even
when there was evidence of caries of the coffin-joint. The disease
requires a careful adjustment of the remedies to its extent and
nature, and a theoretical description of it is of little use.

THRUSH.

Any offensive discharge from the frog is called by this
name, although the cause and treatment may be as different as
possible. It varies greatly in the fore and hind feet; and, indeed,
it must never be forgotten that, in every case, the cause which
has produced the discharge must be clearly made out before anj
plan of treatment can be carried out with any prospect of success
Sometimes thrush is merely the result of the decomposition of the
horny frog, from the foot being constantly kept wet with urine,
which is most common in the hind foot. Here the surface becomes
soft, and is gradually dissolved; while the cleft, from its retaining
the moisture, is increased in size. This state is often brought on
by the too frequent use of cowdung-stopping in horses with soft
frogs; and, instead of doing good by his treatment of the foot, the
groom is really destroying it by encouraging the decomposition of
the healthy defence which Nature has given to it. For this kind
of thrush, very little treatment is required, if the cause which
produced it is withdrawn. Still it is not always easy to keep the
frog dry, and stop the decomposition, without the application of
some astringent ; and if the mere use of dry litter, and the appli-
cation of tar ointment, do not seem to harden the frog at once, it
may be touched with a wash composed of ten grains of bluestone
to the ounce of water. This will soon dry it ; or, if it fails by any
chance, the chloride of zinc may be used in the same way, by
dissolving five grains in an ounce of water.

The second kind of thrush is that in which from a gross
habit of body there is a simple inflammation of the sensible frog,
and instead of sound horn being secreted, a spongy substance is
84 * 2 c

402 THE HORSE.

deposited, wliich breaks ..way in places, and the frog looks ragged
and uneven, with a greasy surface, smells very foul, and feeh Iiot
to the touch. Here the treatment must be general as well as local.
A dose of physic should be given, the food should be of a less
stimulating quality, and care should be taken that regular exercise
is allowed every day. The stable should be kept cool, and of
course attention should be paid to cleanliness both of the foot and
the litter. As to local remedies, they must not be of the stimu-
lating kind, which will suit the thrush from decomposition, or that
presently to be described. The foot should be placed in a bran
poultice, and kept in it for some days, till the united action of the
local and general treatment have reduced the inflammation. After
a few days it will be well to dress the frog with tar ointment, or
the poultice will do more harm than good, by causing the decom-
position of its horny covering, and indeed it is seldom that this
wet application should be employed for more than a week. After
this time has elapsed, all the good to be derived from it has been
accomplished, and the subsequent treatment may generally be
effected by attention to the health, and dressing the frog with tar
ointment. Sometimes it may be necessary to employ a shght
stimulus, and then the solution of chloride of zinc will be found to
be the best.

The third kind op thrush occurs in contracted feet, and is
due to the same cause, namely, chronic inflammation of the sensi-
ble frog, produced by overwork, aided in many cases by neglect in
shoeing. There is a tendency to the secretion of unsound horn
over the whole foot, sometimes too thick and hard, and at other.'^
of a cellular structure, without sufficient strength to bear the pressure
of the road. The horny frog generally looks shrunken and withered ;
and in its cleft there is a foul discharge, on wiping which out a
soft spongy matter may be seen at the bottom, which is the sensible
frog itself, but in a diseased condition. In bad cases, the sides of
the horny frog have separated, and even the toe is sometimes defi
cient of its covering; but generally the horn has only disappeared
in patches, and there are ragged portions remaining. The disease
here is of too chronic a nature to be easily cured, and if there is
much disorganization of the laminae it will be almost impossible to
effect a perfect cure. The first thing to be done is to clear away
all the r3.gged portions of horn, so as to be able to reach the sensi
ble frog. S« me tow is then to be smeared with the following oinU
ment : —

Take of Ointment of Nitrate of Mercury .... 1 drachm.

Zinc Ointment 1 oz.

Creosote 4 drops. Mix.

and pressed into the cleft of the frog, where it can best be retained

THRUSH— CANKER— LAMINI. IS 403

l.y a bar-shoe lightly tacked on, and in this case taking its bearing
on the heels and not on the frog. Sometimes a wash answers
better than a greasy application, and then a strong solution of the
chloride of zinc may be employed, about six grains to the ounce
of water. Tow dipped in this may be applied in the same way as
with the ointment, and either one or the other should be re-ap-
pliod every day. As the new horn grows, it must be kept supple
by tar ointment, and until it is fully developed the bar-shoe should
be kept on, applying some degree of pressure by means of the tow,
which should be stuffed in so as to compress the frog, beginning
with very light pressure, and, as the horn increases in substance,
augmenting it in proportion. By attention to these directions a
thrush of this kind may be cured, if the foot is not damaged
throughout, and even the frog may be restored to a comparative
state of health.

CANKER.
Canker is generally an extension of the third form of thrush,
the ulceration spreading to the sensible sole, and afterwards to the
coflSn-bone itself. At first the ulcerated surface is concealed by the
old horn, but gradually this breaks away, and then the extent of
the mischief may be seen. A part or the whole of the sole and the
frog may be in a state of ulceration, generally depending upon the
time during which the disease has been in existence, and the care
which has been taken of it, or the reverse. The only treatment tc
be adopted is the careful removal of every loose piece of horn, so
as to expose the unsound surface to the action of remedies, and at
the same time to avoid poisoning it by the decomposing horn, which
has a most irritating effect. The sulphate of copper, and chloride
of zinc, are the best applications, and they must be used in full
strength. These cases, however, require an experienced eye to
enable the prescriber to judge of the proper amount of caustic re-
quired; and beyond suggesting the kind of remedy required, no
good can be done by written prescriptions. If it is impossible to
obtain the advice of a veterinarian, it will be better to begin by
using a mild caustic, and then increase the strength as it is found
to be wanted. Pitch ointment forms the best greasy application to
the adjacent sound surfaces to protect them from the irritation of
the discharge.

LAMINITIS.
{Founder or Fever of the Feet.)

The term la»[initis is now familiar with every one at all ac-
customed to horses, though it has not long been introduced into
the vocabulary of the professional man. The disease, however,
has been recognised for many years under the terms "founder"
and " fe^er of the feet." It consists in an inflammation (which

404 THE HORSE.

may be acute or chronic) of the parts bv tween the crust dr wall
and the pedal Vone, including the lamitiae, whence the name by
which it is now distinguished. These parts are supplied with a
profusion of blood-vessels (see page 294), and when inflammation
is set up in them, the progress which it makes is rapid, and the
constitutional disturbance is unusually great, owing probably to
the want of space for the swelling which accompanies all inflamma-
tions, and especially of vascular substances. The causes are either,
1st. Localization of fever, whence the name " fever in the feet."
2d. The mechanical irritation of hard roads upon feet not accus-
tomed to them ; and 3d. Long confinement in a standing position
on board ship. When it is recollected that in our system of shoe-
ing, the laminas are made to support the whole weight of the body
in consequence of the shoe being in contact with the crust only, it
can only occasion surprise that this disease is not more frequent.
Nature framed the horse's foot so that an elastic pad should inter-
pose between its back parts and the ground, intending that the
edge of the crust should take its share, but not all of the weight.
The laminae are therefore called upon to do far more than their
structure is designed for, and when there is the slightest weakness
or tendency to inflammation, they are sure to suflfer. Acute lami-
nitis is not very often met with, because horsemen are aware of
the risks they run, and take their measures accordingly; but the
chronic form is common enough, and hundreds of horses are more
or less lam ; from this cause. Too often it is not suspected until
irreparable mischief is done, the elasticity of the laminae being de-
stroyed, and the foot having assumed a shape which utterly unfits
it for bearing the pressure of the shoe upon hard roads. When
the disease has been going on for a long time, the elastic substances
between the laminj© and the pedal bone, as well as the fine horny
lamellae between them and the crust, lose the property of extension,
and the horn of the crust is secreted by nature of a more spongy
character, and much thicker in substance, than in health. On
making a section of such a foot, the arrangement of parts will be
such as is here delineated in fig. 19, hi whi3h 1 is the os suffraginis,
2, the OS coronae, and 3, the pedal bone, with its anterior surface
separated from that of the crust (7) by a wide space occupied by
spongy matter. Here the toe of the pedal bone projects into the
sole and renders it convex, instead of being concave, and correspond-
ing with the lower surface of the pedal bone.

The laminae and elastic substances between them and their
contiguous structures no longer suspend the pedal bone to the
crust, but the weight falls partly upon the sole by means of the
toe of the pedal bone, and partly on the frog, which descends so
low that in spite of the thickness of the shoe it touches the ground

LAMINITIS.

405

1. Os suffraginis.

2. Os coroDae.

3. Pedal bone.

4. Navicular bone.

5. Frog.

6. Sole.

7. Wall or crust greatly thickened.

This descent of tlie frog is a very
marked feature in laminitis, and
whenever it is apparent that dis-
ease may be suspected.

But to produce such a
marked alteration op form
as is here delineated and de-
scribed takes a long time, and
even then it is only in a few
cases that the disease reaches to
this stage. It will, therefore, be
necessary to trace its progress from
the commenceriient, and the effects
which are exhibited as it goes on.

When acute laminitis sets
IN, there is a considerable amount
of fever, indicated by a rapid
pulse, usually full and hard, and
hurried respiration. There is a
general look of restlessness from
pain, the horse stamping gently
with his feet, and constantly
lying down and then getting up again. When, as usually happens,
the fore feet only are affected, the hind feet are brought under the
body to bear as much weight as possible, and the fore feet are so
carried forwards that the heels support the legs rather than the
toes. On examining the feet, there is great reluctance to allow
one to be picked up, on account of the necessity which is thrown
upon the other of taking the whole weight of the fore quarter.
The coronet and hoof feel very hot, and, when wetted, may be seen
to steam very perceptibly. If this state of things is not speedily
stopped, the laminae cease to secrete horn, and the connection be-
tween them and the hoof ceases, causing the latter to separate, and
the sensible parts to be exposed, covered with a thin scaly horn.
This has happened in many cases which have afterwards secreted
new hoofs; but the horn is not so strong and useful as before, and a
horse with such feet is not fit for hard work on the road. If proper
treatment is adopted, the inflammation either subi^ides entirely,
leaving no mischief behind it, or there is a chronic inflammation
left which induces the alterations of structure which have been
alluded to. The treatment should be by first removing the shoes,
and then, after paring down the sole so as to allow of the expansion
of the sensible parts, a large quantity of blood is taken from the
toe, making cure that a vessel of sufficient size is opened to produce
a strong shock on .he heart and arteries, as well as to relieve the
local affection. If the blood does not flow freely, the foot may be

406 THE HOKSE.

placed in a pail of warm water, but when the operation /s properly
performed there is never any difficulty in obtaining any quantity
of blood which may be required. Next tack the shoes on lightly
again, and then give ? smart dose of physic, or else, what is per-
haps a better plan, give the following: —

Take of Barbadoes Vloes

Tartar En.etic, of each 1 drachoi.

Powdered Digitalis ^ drachm.

Syrup enough to form a ball,

which should be given every six hours, until the bowels act, when
the other materials may be continued without the aloes. The feet
should be kept constantly wet and cool by tying a piece of felt or
flannel around each pastern, and allowing it to fall over the hoof,
when it is to be continually wetted. If the inflammation is not .
abated next day, the bleeding may be repeated, and it will be well
also to act on the kidneys by adding two or three drachms of nitrp
to the tartar emetic and digitalis.

Chronic laminitis is generally first shown by a slight soreness
or lameness, generally appearing in both fore feet, and, therefore,
being often overlooked by casual observers. In coming in from
work the coronets feel warmer than natural ; but this goes off" dur-
ing the night, and, for a time, no great fears are entertained of the
feet recovering their former condition, the blame being, perhaps,
laid upon the shoe. In a month or two, however, the smith (who
has, perhaps, been ordered to take off' the shoes two or three times,
by which the injury is increased) finds that his nails do not hold,
and the quarters break away; while the action of the horse be-
comes more shambling every day, and he cannot make a sound trot
on any hard road, especially with a weight on his back. In many
cases a horse with chronic laminitis can run in hand sound enough
for an ordinary observer; but when the extra weight of a rider is
placed on him the feet cannot bear the pain, and the gait is sham-
bling in the extreme. Such animals have a strong propensity to
save their toes, and prefer (if their shoulders will allow it) bring-
ing their heels to the ground first, so that, although their action is
excessively low and shambling, they seldom fall. An experienced
horseman at once detects this peculiar style of going, and con-
demns its possessor for laminitis. Indeed, it may be assumed as a
rule. th;it wherever the heel is put carefully down upon the ground
with loui action^ the foot is the subject of laminitis to some extent.
When the heel is naturally brought to the ground first, the knee
is well bent, and the foot is raised high in the air; but in process
of time work tells on it. the laminae become inflamed, and then the
action is reduced in height, and the feet are moved in the manner
peculiar to foundered horses, including those which before they
were foundered perhaps exhi >ited " toe action," or, at all events,

LAMINITIS. 407

a level fall of the foot. This state of disease ought to be well
studied, and compared with the remarks on sound action at page
82 et seq., which it will serve to illustrate and explain. The foot
itself is changed in form, and the toe and sole have more or less
altered their relations, as explained already. Sometimes there is
a large space or cavity between the outer surface and the inner,
shown at 7, fig. 19, page 405. This hollow in the crust is more or
less cellular, and the disease is called a " seedy toe," but for what
reason I am at a loss to know. The sole, moreover, is always either
flatter than natural or ahsolutely convex, and its horn is brittle and
spongy, constituting what is termed the " pumiced foot." The
frog is generally large and spongy; and on placing a straight-edge
across the shoe, from heel to heel, it is found to touch that part,
or nearly so, indicating that the relations between it and the crust,
as well as the sole, are altogether changed from a natural state.
The laminfB are no longer slings for the foot, but the whole pres-
sure is taken by the parts lying beneath the pedal or coffin bone
and the navicular bone. Such being the si/mptoms, the next thing
is to consider what can be done. If the disease is of long stand-
ing, little hope can be given of a perfect recovery. The shape of
the external parts may be partially restored, but the internal deli-
cate structures no longer have the power of performing their offices ;
and the elastic action of the horse suffering from the effects
of laminitis can seldom be restored on hard ground. After proper
treatment, he may, and generally does, go on turf well ; but either
on hard ground or on plough (on the latter of which, though soft
enough for the laminse, the sole has to bear considerable pressure)
he is dreadfully sore and lame. This is shown after all inflamma-
tion has ceased, the foot being as cool as possible, and sometimes
exhibiting very slight evidences of previous mischief.

In treating such cases, if there is no heat or other sign of in-
flammation, bleeding and similar lowering measures will be of no
avail. They may be required soon enough, it is true, for a foun-
dered foot is always in danger of inflammation when battered;
but until symptoms of this kind of mischief are exhibited it is
better to avoid all depletory measures. At the same time, every-
thing which will tend to keep off increased action should be
avoided ; the horse should be fed on the least heating food which
will serve the purpose for which he is intended, and his stable
should be kept as cool as possible. Beans ought never to be
allowed to the possessor of feet with the slightest suspici)n of
founder; and no more oats should be used than are necessary for
the condition required. For horses at slow work, bran mashes
and nitre, with small doses occasionally of physic, will serve to
keep down the tendency to inflammation, and by their use, joined
to cold applications after worh (they are of no use at other time.s\

408 THE HORSE.

and a cool stable, the horse may be enabled to do moderately fast
work. If the frog is not very prominent, a leather sole, put on
in the usual way, will save the jar, and in some measure supply
the place of the natural elastic tissue, destroyed in this disease.
Usually, however, it only i^dds to the mischief by increasing the
pressure on the frog, and then the leather must be introduced
between the foot and the shoe, but cut to the same shape as the
latter, so as not at all *o bear on the frog. Many horses with slight
traces of laminitis can work for years with leather applied in this
way, and it may be s.sid to be the most useful mode of treating
this disease when exhibited in a mild form. Sometimes by throw-
ing a horse by for six months, taking off his shoes, and blistering
his coronets two or three times, a great deal of good may be done,
but he must be put to stand on tan or sawdust during the whole
time, and never allowed to go on hard ground, even for half a mile
at a walking pace. By this plan, and by very careful and gradual
increase of exercise at the end of that time, I have succeeded in
restoring an elastic condition of the foot; but I have never known
one so patched up bear hard work, and I should never advise the
risk incurred by submitting him to it. Hunting and racing, or,
indeed, any kind of work on soft ground, will do no harm ; but
battering on the roads, especially without leather, applied as above
described, is sure to bring back the inflammation.

THE SEEDY TOE.
This term is so generally employed among horsemen, that
though the state which it describes is one of the ordinary con-
sequences of laminitis, I prefer to give it a distinct section. I
have already described its nature in the preceding page, and have
only now to allude to its treatment. This may generally be so
conducted as to restore the shape of the foot, if the inflammation
has not lowered the toe of the pedal bone, as shown at fig. 1 ; for
if this has taken place, although it is perhaps possible to get rid
of the cavities in the horn, the relative positions of the bony parts
cannot be changed. When, however, as is often the case, a
moderately small hollow has be-en formed between the layers of
the wall, and the foot retains a tolerably healthy shape, by cutting
away all the external horny walls, exposing the parts in contact
with the laminae, and resting the horse in a loose box, the secret-
ing surface will form a new wall, without any spongy texture, in
the course of three or four months, if the coronary band is con-
stantly stimulated by external applications. To effect this, the
horse should be put to stand on red deal sawdust, without shoes;
and his' coronets, after being gently stimulated by a mild liquid
blister, jihould be iept dressed with tar ointment, which should
also be applied to he exterior of the horn. It is seldom, how-

CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT— NAVICULAR DISEASE. 409

ever, that a foot which has been thus treated is sufficiently sound
to bear hard work.

CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT.

This reputed disease has been long the bugbear of the horse-
master ; but it is now discovered to be a complete mistake. Some
of the most contracted feet in point of width are particularly free
from all risk of disease, and on the other hand many open ones
are as liable to it. The donkey, whose heels are shaped exactly
like those of the contracted horse's foot, is so seldom lame, that
few can recall having seen one in that condition, and, therefore,
reasoning from analogy, one would be led to doubt that this shape
renders the horse prone to lameness. At the same time it is quite
true that in the disease which will next be investigated, the frog
withers and contracts, and the heels are thereby drawn in ; but
here the contraction is a consequence and not a cause of disease,
and certainly cannot be considered as a disease in itself. Bad
shoeing will do much to cause either laminitis or navicular disease,
and it will certainly produce corns and inverted heels, but it will
not waste the frog, or induce that condition of the foot where the
sole is arched so high that the frog does not touch the ground
when the shoe is off. Such a state of things can only be brought
on either by thrush or navicular disease, and is never the result
of the mechanical mismanagement of the foot, to which what used
to be called contraction was generally attributed. All sorts of
plans have been suggested for expanding the heels and for allow-
ing them to expand ; but the real truth is that so long as the frog is
sound and the parts above it, allowing the proper amount of pres-
sure to be communicated to the sole, bars and heel of the crust,
these latter divisions of the foot have no room to contract, and of
a certainty they never do.

NAVICULAR DISEASE.

This formidable disease, called also the navicular joint
lameness, and navicidarfJintis, is the chief danger to be appre-
hended from a good-looking strong foot, just as the open flat one
is prone to laminitis, and is rarely subject to disease in the navicu-
lar joint. The reason of this immunity on the one hand, and the
contrary on the other, is this. The open foot, with a large spongy
frog, exposes the navicular bone and the parts in contact with it
to constant pressure in the stable, so that these parts are always
prepared for work. On the other hand, ilr e concave sole and well-
formed frog are raised from the ground by our unfortunate mode
of shoeing, and when the T^hole foot is exposed to injury from bat-
tering, and in addition tl: ; tendon which plays over tht. navicular
35

410 THE HORSE.

bone presses it against the os coronje, the unprepared state in
which this part is allowed to remain is sure to produce inflamma-
tion, if the work is carried ftir enough. Thus in each case the
weak part suffers, but occasionally, though very rarely, the foot
with an arched sole contracts laminitis, and the flat one is attacked
by navicular disease ; the exceptions, however, are so few that
they may be thrown out of the calculation, and from the shape of
the foot alone it may almost invariably be pronounced, when a
horse is known to be subject to chronic lameness, whether its seat
is in the laminae or in the navicular joint.

When a foot is examined after death which is known to
have been the subject of navicular disease, the parts implicated
are invariably either the navicular bone, or the soft parts in con-
tact with it, or often all together. Most frequently on dividing
the tendon of the flexor perforans and turning it down so as to
expose the back of the joint between the navicular and coronal
bones, that part will be greatly thickened and inflamed, the tendon
being often adherent to it. In the healthy condition there ought
to be no adhesion of the fibres of the tendon to any part of the
navicular bone but its postero-inferior edge, to which the tendon
is fixed by some few fibres, the bulk passing on to be inserted in
the OS pedis. The posterior face of the navicular bone should be
beautifully smooth, and lined by synovial membrane which forms
a lubricating sac for it to play upon, and thus take off the friction
between the tendon and the bone. Such is nature's provision
againdt mischief in this delicate part of the machinery of the foot,
which she keeps in order by the constant supply of synovia or
joint oil. But when the sac is not stimulated to a healthy action
by the pressure of the frog below it in doors and out, synovia is
no longer secreted in proper quantity, and as soon as the horse is
put to hard work inflammation takes place for want of it. The
result is some one of the consequences of inflamed joints. Either
ulceration takes place in the postero-inferior surface, where the
tendou glides over it, sometimes ending in caries of the bone itself;
or adhesion takes place without ulceration of the tendon with the
surface of the bone, or there are small exostoses thrown out, or
lastly there is simple inflammation without either adhesion or
ulceration, and in this stage the disease is amenable to treatment
without leaving any trace behind.

The syni^toms of navicular disease are the same, whether the
mischief has extended to ulceration or not; but the history will
guide us in ascertaining how far it has gone. Of course they vary
in degree, for there may be only a slight extent of ulceration, or a
high degree of simple inflammation ; but in the former case the
lameness will not b3 so marked as in the latter, though the prospect
of recovery will br much less There is always more or less lame-

NAVICULAR DISEASE. 411

uess; but, in consequence of its affecting both feet, it is uot so
marked to the careless observer as in some much more trivial cases
where only one is diseased. The distinguishing sign, though not
absolutely infallible, is the pointing of the toe, and a peculiar
rounding forward of the fetlock joint, so as to relieve the navicular
bone of any weight. In laminitis, the object of the sufferer is to
relieve all pressure as much as possible, by bringing the hind legs
under the body, and by bearing the weight of the fore quarter on
the heels. Here, the reverse of the latter attitude is observed —
the heels are not allowed to take any pressure, and the toes alone
are placed at all firmly on the ground. This is marked in the
stable by the pointing of the toe (in each foot alternately, if both
are diseased, but in the one only, if they are not both affected).
Out of doors, the toes dig into the ground, the heel never being
brought firmly down, and frequent stumbles mark the difference
between this species of lameness and laminitis. The subject of
navicular disease generally walks sound ; but the moment he is
trotted, he goes as if his legs were tied together, his stride being
shortened in a remarkable manner, but without exhibiting the pe-
culiar fumbling gait of the foundered animal. As in his case, soft
ground suits him, and he has no fear of plough, because his sole
is hard and unyielding. Many tolerably confirmed cases of navicu-
lar disease may, therefore, be hunted, except when the ground is
hard, supposing, of course, that they are kept off the road ; but no
nlan of management will enable them to bear tie jars incidental to
harness-work or hacking. When one foot only is the subject of na-
vicular disease, it often happens that it is smaller altogether than the
other ; but it is somewhat difficult to say whether this is a cause
or a consequence of inflammation. One thing is quite clear, that
many horses are met with, still perfectly free from lameness, in
which there is a difference of size in their fore feet ; but whether
or no these are afterwards invariably the subjects of navicular dis-
ease, it is almost impossible to ascertain. It is, however, the gene-
ral opinion, founded on experience, that when this variation exists,
navicular disease is extremely likely to attack the smaller foot, if
it is not already there; and for this reason, horses with such feet
are generally avoided by the intending purchaser.

The treatvient of navicular disease, as before remarked, is only
successful in the early stage, before either ulceration or adhesion
has taken place. If a horse with strong concave soles suddenly
becomes lame, points his toe, and shows other signs that his navicu-
lar bone is inflamed, he should be treated in the usual way suited
to inflammation, and at the same time liberty should be given to
the vaasular tissues to expand, by reducing the substance of the
horn. Bleeding at the toe has the double good effect of abstract-
ing blood, and at the 'I'rme time weakening the sole, so as to alloTn

112 THE HORSE.

of the expansion which is desired. The operation ihould, there-
fore, at once be performed; at the same time, the whole sole may
be reduced in thickness, and the heels lowered in proportion. The
foot should then (after the shoe is tacked fin) be placed in a cold
bran poultice, which will soften the horn ; and the system should
be reduced by the exhibition of the medicines recommended undei
Laminitis, at page 406. Next day, if the pulse continues high,
more blood may be taken ; but, in ordinary cases, it is better at
oiiccto insert a seton in the frog (see Operations, Chap. XXV.),
and trust to this for relieving the chronic inflammation remaining,
by its counter-irrit&tion. But when the disease itself is mastered,
there is still a good deal to be done to prevent the injurious efi'ects
which are so apt to follow. The horse contracts a habit of step-
ping on his toes, to prevent hurting his navicular structures ; and
hence the frog is not used, the heels of the crust and the bars are
not strained, and there being no stimulus to the soft parte which
secrete them, they waste and contract in size. If the human hand
is allowed to lie idle, the palm and the insides of the fingers are
covered with a delicate cuticle, which afi"ords so poor a protection
to the cutis, that, on using it with any kind of hard work, it actu-
ally separates, and leaves an exposed surface, which speedily in-
flames. But by gradually exposing the same hand to pressure, a
thickened and tougher cuticle is secreted ; and this will bear any
moderate amount of pressure or friction without injury. Never-
theless, even the hand so prepared must be continually stimulated
by work, or the skin returns to its original delicate state, and is
then exposed to the same risk of injury as before. So it is with
the horse's foot, even in a state of health ; but this is far more
marked after an attack of disease. The tendency then is to pro-
duce the natural horny growths of a smaller substance than before;
and if the secreting surfaces are not stimulated by pressure, they
become doubly idle, and the frog, as well as the adjacent parts be-
neath the navicular bone, shows a wasted and shrivelled appearance.
To avoid the risk of these ill consequences, the horse should be
placed, for two or three hours daily, on a bed of wet clay, which
will allow the shoe to sink into it, but will yet be tenacious enough
to make firm and steady pressure on the frog, while its low tem-
perature will keep down inflammation. No plan is of so much ser-
vice in producing what is called expansion of the heels and growth
of the frog as this ; not, as is commonly supposed, from the clay
mechanically pressing the heels (mt, but from the stimulus of its
pressure causing the soft parts to secrete more horn, and of a
sounder quality than before.

Should these remedies fail in restoring the foot affected
mth. navicular disease to a healthy state, recourse can only be had
to the operation of neurotomy, which is perfectly efficacious in re-

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEWS AND FEET. 413

Uioving the lameness; and if there is no ulceration, ar.d merely an
adhesion of the tendon to the bone, it will, by caus'ng the horse to
step more on his heels, effect an absolute improvement in the shape
of the foot, and hence it has sometimes been considered to have
produced a cure. Where, however, there is caries of the bone,
or even ulceration of the synovial membrane, the disease progresses
even faster than before the operation, and in process of time the
joint becomes mechanically unfit to perform its duties.

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND PEET.

These parts are subject to a variety of accidents, trifling
perhaps in the cause which produces them, but serious in theii
effects, from the lameness which ensues. The chief of these are
ordinary cutting, speedy cutting, and pricks, of the foot either
from putting the sole down upon a nail or a piece of glass, or driv-
ing a nail improperly in shoeing. Bruises and over-reaches also
come under this head.

Ordinary cutting may occur either before or behind, the lat-
ter being the more common. It is often met with in poor horses,
where the flesh is so reduced in substance that the legs are brought
nearer together than in a proper condition. Here all that is re-
quired is patience, till the legs are restored to their proper relative
position, taking care in the mean time that there is no permanent
injury done. Usually the inside of one or both feet strikes the
the fetlock joint of the other leg in passing it, but sometimes the
blow is given higher up, and it may occur anywhere on the cannon
bone except just below the knee, when it is called " speedy cut-
ting," which will be separately considered. Sometimes this blow
on the side of the cannon bone is either the cause or the effect of
a splint, the blow of the foot having a tendency to produce exos-
tosis (See Splints, page 298). But if a splint is thrown out on a
part of the cannon bone which comes in the way of the natural
action, the horse whose foot previously passed clear of that part
of the other leg will hit it, and not only give pain, but cause a
considerable access of inflammation in the previous enlargement.
In the treatment, therefore, of cutting, it is necessary to prevent
the habit being continued from the swelling produced either by a
splint or by previous blows. A horse perhaps, either from weak-
ness or bad shoeing, hits his leg and produces considerable swell-
ing and soreness. Here, unless the swelling is reduced or pro-
tected, there is no chance of preventing the cutting, because there
is«, projection of the swollen soft parts right in the way of the
other foot. No alteration of the shoeing, and no increase of
strength or flesh, will be of service until the inflammation is re-
duced, and the sore, if any exists, is healed, and this can only be
done either by rest or by protecting the leg with a boot. The
35*

414 TUE HORSE.

latter is the better plan, and wherever a horse cuts, it is. in my
opinion, advisable to let him wear a boot for some weeks, until the
skin is quite sound again and reduced to its proper thickness. A
piece of an old rug folded round the leg so as slightly to overlap,
and then tied with a tape and turned down over the fetlock joint,
is quite sufficient to serve this temporary purpose, and being soft
it is well calculated to protect a swollen joint ; but if it is worn
for any length of time, the pressure of the tape and the friction
of the grit from the road wear away the hair, and cause an un-
sightly appearance, which is sometimes permanent. If, therefore,
the cutting is not rectified completely in the course of a month or
six weeks, a leather or india rubber boot should be nicely adapted
to the joint and buckled round it, the flat surface of the strap not
having so injurious an effect as the tape of the cloth boot. When
the cutting takes place above the joint, a pad must be adapted to
its inside, and fastened round the cannon bone by two or three
buckles, according to the height at which the injury takes place.

Such is the best mode of guarding against the injury done
by cutting, but we must also consider how it can be entirely pre-
vented. In the first place it should be carefully ascertained by
what part of the foot or shoe the blow is given. Most commonly
it will be found, by chalking the inside of the foot, that a small
patch is rubbed clear of chalk, about half an inch above the mid-
dle of the quarter, and corresponding with the hindermost nail
hole, especially when four inside nails are used. When this is the
hitting point, if great care is taken to avoid driving in a nail there,
the tendency to cut can never be increased as it often is by a raised
clench, and at the same time the rasp may safely be used to reduce
the thickness of the hoof at least the eighth of an inch, or often
much more. The crust is usually here about three-eighths of an
inch thick, and very often it is so sound that it will bear to be
rasped down till there is only one-eighth left, provided it has not to
hear the pressure of a nail near it, and that the reduction is not
carried up too near to the coronet. In the hind foot the quarter
is fully half an inch thick, and it therefore will bear reduction
better even than the fore foot. Sometimes the blow i.i given by
the shoe itself, which is fixed on so as to overlap the crust, and
then the remedy is simple enough, for this ought never to occur,
and can easily be prevented by any smith. But supposing, in spite
of these precautions, the cutting still continues after the horse is
restored to his natural strength and flesh, can anything be done
by shoeing ? In most cases this question may be answered in the
affirmative, by the use of what is called a feather-edged shoe. By
its aid the heels are both raised, not the inner one only (which is
entirely useless and even prejudicial, for then the ground surface
of the shoe is not a true pliae), but both heels, the inner one be-

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET. 415

ing narrow, and having no nail holes beyond the two near the toe,
80 that there is no danger of the web projecting; nor is there any
nail hole required, with the fear of a clench rising, or of the crust
being weakened so as to prevent its being thinned to a proper de-
gree. By thus raising the heels (in the hind foot especially), the
fetlock is less bent, and as in horses that cut there is almost always
a tendency in their fetlock joints to bend inwards as well as back-
Awards, this diminution of the angle will not only straighten the leg
in a forward direction, but will also increase the distance between
the joints, which is the object to be desired. In the fore foot the
obliquity in this direction is not so frequent, and then the high
heel will be of no use ; indeed, it is only when the toes are much
turned out that this plan of shoeing the fore foot is ever successful.
When cutting occurs before, unless there is this turn out, it is bet-
ter to put the shoes on in a perfectly level manner, and trust to the
reduction of the thickness of the quarter, and the absence of the
third nail. If, with these precautions, the horse, when in good
condition, still strikes his fore legs, it will be better to put up with
the constant use of a boot. Generally, however, if the inflammation
is first subdued, and the foot is shod in a perfectly true and level
manner, taking care to rasp away the particular part which strikes
the other leg, it will be found that the cutting is avoided.

Speedy cutting is more dangerous than ordinary cutting, be-
cause the pain given by the blow is generally more severe, and is
often so great that the horse falls as if he were shot. On exam-
ining the leg of a confirmed speedy cutter there is always appa-
rent a small scab or bruise on the inside of the cannon bone, im-
mediately below the knee ; but in slight cases rest may have been
used to allow the skin to heal, and then no mark may possibly be
left. A careful examination will, however, generally detect a small
bare place, partially concealed by the growth of the adjacent hair.
In bad cases the periosteum is swollen, and there is a considerable
enlargement of the surface of the bone. In the management of
slight cases of this kind of cutting, the action should be examined
while the hoof is covered with chalk, and the latter should be
treated in the same way as already described. If, however, this fails,
as it generally does in this form of cutting, there is no remedy but
to put on a regular speedy-cut boot, in which there is a pad buckled
on the inside of the leg, and reaching from the knee to the fetlock.
It must be of this length, because otherwise it cannot be kept in
its place, as the leg allows it to slip down until it reaches the
larger circumference presented by the joint. Where there is pain
and swelling caused by the contusion, it must be treated in the
ordinary way, by the application of cold water and tincture of
arnica, a wine-glassful of the latter in two quarts of water.

Pricks in shoeing occur from the want of skill in the smith.

416 " THE HORSE.

who drives the nail too near the laniinge, and sometimes even abso-
lutely wounds them. It may be that the nail in its passage
upwards is not within an eighth of an inch of these delicate parts,
and the horse may not have flinched during the driving of it, but
when he is put to work the nail opposes a hard unyielding line to
the soft parts, inflammation is established, and possibly even matter
is formed which may end in quittor. When, on the day after
shoeing, a horse which was previously sound, goes lame, and the
foot is hot to the touch, it may generally be assumed that a nail
or nails have been driven too near to the quick, unless there is
evidence of laminitis from other causes. On tapping the crust with
a hammer, the horse will flinch at some particular spot, and there
is the nail which is in fault. Sometimes there is little inflamma-
tion as yet set up, but the pressure of the nail is sufficient to cause
lameness, and in either case the shoe should be taken oiF. Then,
if there is reason to suppose that matter has formed, the opening
from which the nail came out should be enlarged, and the matter
allowed to escape. If, however, the foot has been merely " bound,"
it may be either left to nature, with a shoe lightly tacked on, and
a wet "swab" round the coronet, or it may be placed in a bran
poultice, which is the safest plan.

When a nail is picked up on the road, the prognosis
will depend upon the part which it has penetrated. If it has
entered deeply into the toe of the frog, the probability is that the
navicular joint has been wounded, or probably the tendon of the
flexor at its in.sertion into the pedal bone, either of which are very
serious accidents. If the wound is further back, there is less risk
of permanent injury, as the bulbous heels or cushion of the frog
will bear a considerable amount of injury without permanent
mischief. In any case the treatment should consist in cutting
away the horn round the opening, so as to allow of a free escape
of matter if it forms. At the same time inflammation should be
kept under by cold " swabs" to the coronet, or by putting the whole
foot into a bran poultice.

Over-reaches, when slight, may be treated by the application
of friar's balsam, or tincture of arnica in full strength, which will
have a tendency to dry them up and prevent suppuration. If,
however, the heel is very much bruised, a poultice must be applied,
but even then a little tincture of arnica should be sprinkled on it.
When the bruise is so severe that a slough or core comes away,
the wound may be dressed with a piece of lint, dipped in a solution
of nitrate of silver, eight grains to the ounce of distilled water,
and o\er this a bran poultice. In most cases, however, it is better
to foment the part well and then apply the tincture of arnica neat.

A bruise on a thin sole will sometimes cause matter to form,
in which case the horn must be cut away, and the case treated as

FEVERS. -1:17

for quittor. Before matter forms, the horn should be reduced, and
the foot she uld be placed in a cold bran poultice.

CHAPTER XXV.

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES.

Fevers — Anasarca — Glanders — Farcy.

FEVERS.

The horse is very rarely subject to fever as a disease of itself,
independently of inflammation, under which head I have already
described catarrhal fever, both of the simple kind and when epi-
demic, and known as influenza. Indeed, all the important inflam-
mations of the body are attended with fever; but in them the
local afiiections are evidently more serious than the general disturb-
ance of the system, which we call by the name of fever. By many
veterinarians it is doubted whether fever ever shows itself in the
horse without, inflammation ; but occasionally it may be observed
under the form of simple fever, presenting all the symptoms
which accompany ordinary inflammation, but without any such
complication, and more rarely of the typhoid form, which now
sometimes attends influenza and other epidemics.

Simple fever shows itself by dulness and reluctance to move,
a staring coat, and cold legs and feet, with increased warmth of
the body. The pulse is quick, soft, and variable — breathing a little
accelerated, but not much — appetite entirely lost — bowels confined,
and urine scanty. These symptoms continue for two or three
days, and then either go on into the typhoid form, or they are
complicated by inflammation in some organ of the body. The
treatment merely consists in giving a mild dose of physic, followed
by a febrifuge drink, such as the following : —

Take of Spirit of Nitrous Ether 1 oz.

Nitre 3 to 5 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger 2 drachms.

Camphor Mixture 6 oz.

Mix, and give twice a day.

Typhoid fever sometimes appears as an epidemic, occurring.'
either as a sequel to influenza, or in its pure form, without any
2d

418 THE HORSE.

complication. The latter condition is, liowever, extremely rare.
In its early stage, it can scarcely be recognised or distinguished
from simple fever; but in the course of two or three days the
strength is so much reduced, the breath is so fetid, and the mouth
is loaded with such a black discharge from the tongue and gums,
that the nature of the disease is clearly manifested. The pulse is
very low. the languor increases, and there is often more or less
delirium. The course of the disease is extremely rapid, and in
five or six days a strong horse will sink beneath its powers, refusing
food, and dying without any attempt to rally. The treatment
should be of the most generous kind, as soon as the bowels have
been gently moved, which should be effected, if possible, by injec-
tion. Then give a ball two or three times a day, comjtosed thus : —

Take of Carbonate of Ammonia . . . . 5 to ) drachm.

Powdered Gin<:er 1 dra< hm.

Powdered Yellow Bark .... 3 drachms.

Syrup enough to make into a ball.

This should be washed down with a quart of ale caudle, and hay
tea should be allowed as the drink ad libitum; or, if there is
diarrhoea, rice-water may be used in the same way. Few ca?es,
however, will recover, in spite of every exertion and careful treat-
ment on the part of the attendant.

ANASARCA.

Anasarca, or xMOOR-ill, occurs chiefly among h.rses turned
out in marshes or low commons, and may readily be known by the
general swelling of the body, increasing by gravitation in the legs
during the standing posture, but showing itself chiefly in the lower
side of the body in the early morning, when the horse has been
lying down all night. The disease is now rare, but it occasionally
appears under the circumstances above described. The treatment
must be by acting on the kidneys, the following being a useful
recipe for the purpose : —

Take of Nitre 4 drachms.

Powdered Resin 3 drachms.

Ginger I drachm.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 1^ oz.

Warm Water . . 2 pints.

Mix and give as a drench every night.

GLANDERS.

This FRiGHrruL constitutional disease appears to consist

in the generation of some poisonous matter in the blood, which

nature attempts to throw off by establishing a discharge in the

nostrils. It is perfectly incurable, and therefore it is only neces-

GLANDERS. 419

eary to study its symptoms, with a view to distinguish it from
ozena, with which alone it is liable to be confounded. Its chronic
character and insidious onset will serve to distinguish it from
catarrh and strangles*

At its commencement, it seems to be confined to the internal
lining of the nostrils, which is not reddened, as in chronic catarrh
(ozena), but presents a leaden or purple colour, sometimes of a deep
shade, but at first generally very light and pale. This is accom-
panied by a thin acrid discharge, transparent, and without odor.
Grenerally, one nostril only is affected, which in this country is
more frequently the left, and in France the right; but why this
should be so has never yet been even conjectured with any appear-
ance of probability. This state of things usually only lasts for a
few weeks, but it may go on for an indefinite time, and is recog-
nised as the first stage ; during which the health does not suffer,
and the horse can, and often does, go on with his ordinary work.
It may be distinguished from ozena by the purple color of the lin-
ing membrane, and by the transparency and freedom from smell
of the discharge.

In the second stage, the discharge increases in quantity, and
though still watery and transparent, it is slightly sticky, indicating
the presence of mucus. The lymphatic glands below the jaw en-
large, and become adherent to the hone, feeling hard to the touch,
and almost like exostosis. Here the permanent character of the
discharge and the adherence of the glands to the bone are the
diagnostic signs from ozena.

In the third stage, the discharge increases rapidly, and be-
comes yellow and opaque — in fact, it is pure pus. If the nose is
carefully examined, its lining membrane will be seen to present
one or more sores, with depressed centres and ragged edges, and
surrounded by small varicose vessels leading to them from all
directions. In proportion to the extent of the local mischief, con-
stitutional disturbance is displayed. The appetite fails — the horse
loses flesh and spirits — the coat is turned the wrong way — the
skin is hidebound, and the legs fill slightly during the day, but go
down at night — the nose is, at last, frightfully ulcerated, the sores
spreading to the larynx — ulcers break out on the body — and the
horse finally dies, worn to a skeleton.

When the diagnosis of the disease is confirmed, as it is undoubt-
edly highly contagious, both to other horses and to man himself,
the patient ought to be destroyed. By the use of green food, his
life may be prolonged for a time, and a certain amount of work
may be got out of him ; but the risk of contagion is too great to
be incurred, and no man who regards his own welfare, and that
of his neighbors, should keep a glandered horse.

420 THE HORSE.

FARCY.

This disease appears to depend upon the development of the
same poison as in glanders ; but the attempt at elimination is made
in the skin, instead of the mucous membrane lining the nose. A
horse inoculated with glanders may exhibit farcy, and vice versd ;
BO that the essence of the disease is the same, but its seat is a
different tissue.

Farcy usually shows itself first by one or two small hard knots
in the skin, called " farcy buds." These soon soften, and contain
a small quantity of pus ; but as this is rapidly absorbed, the lym-
phatics which convey it into the circulation inflame; and at a
short distance another bud is formed, and then another, and
another. These buds are usually met with in the thin skin cover-
ing the inside of the thighs and arms, or the neck and lips. They
vary from the size of a shilling to that of a half-crown ; and as
they increase in numbers, the skin becomes oedematous. In pro-
cess of time, the general system suffers, as in glanders, and the
horse dies, a miserable, worn-out object. No treatment can be
relied on to cure the disease; and as it is equally contagious with
glanders, every farcied horse ought at once to be destroyed. The
hard nature of the buds, and the thickened lymphatics extending
like cords between, clearly make known the nature of the disease,

SHOEING. 421

CHAPTER XXVI.

The art of shoeing appears to have been unknown to the ancients,
although the need of it was greatly felt, especially in the rough
campaigning and long marches constantly recurring in those warlike
times. In several campaigns the cavalry was rendered worthless
and was disbanded on account of the bad condition of their horses'
feet, and the animals themselves were relieved from duty until
their hoofs were restored. The value of a horse depended more
upon the soundness and strength of his hoof than upon any other
qualification, and various methods of rendering it harder and more
serviceable were proposed by Xenophon and other early writers.
But while acknowledging the importance of a sound, vigorous hoof,
and striving to harden and preserve it, it does not seem to have
occurred to them to protect it by fastening to it by nails, a band
or shoe of iron, although Beckman states that horse shoes and
nails have been found in the graves of some German and Vandal
tribes of unknown antiquity in the northern part of Germany.
To William the Conqueror tradition ascribes the introduction of the
practice of shoeing into England, whence it has remained until the
present time.

When the delicacy of organization of the foot of the horse is
considered, its extreme sensitiveness and wonderful adaptability for
the purpose of locomotion, the enormous wear and tear incident
upon constant use in the service of man, its liability to abuse and
injury, and the consequent suffering of the dumb animal and pecuni-
ary loss to the owner, it is surprising that there has been so little real
improvement in the art. While the past half century has been
60 fruitful of results in almost every other branch of industry, it
has witnessed few or none in this. This is due in great measure
to the indifference of the artisan to whom the care of the horse's
foot is committted, who, ignorant of the nature and structure
of the living member before him, so recklessly handles and
mutilates it, in much the same manner as his ancestors years
before him.

The feet of most of the horses of the present day, and especially
those used for drafty purposes and heavy work in our large cities,
are in bad condition, and more subjects are brought to the knack-
36

422 THE HORSE.

er's yard from this cause than all others combined. A healthy,
vigorous foot is the exception even among horses used for lighter
work. Brittle, shelly hoofs, ridged and dished, indicating internal
derangement, withered frogs with the centre arch or stay entirely
absorbed, high heels bound up by hard, unyielding crust, all these
deformities and many others are chargeable in some degree to bad
shoeing. Sometimes injuries are attributed to the blacksmith that
are due to accident or brutality of the driver, but in as far as our
system of shoeing interferes with 'the natural functions of the foot,
it will induce disease.

The question then presents itself. Why not teach the mechanic
the design of the structure, to the repair of which his lifetime is
devoted ? You may command him to treat your horse as you direct,
but you must convince his judgment, if you expect obedience at all
times ; as well dictate to a physician what medicines he shall give
your child at some stages of disease, and depend on him at others ;
he will treat the case in his own way, or not at all; the head, heart
and hand must accord to make perfect work.

Our public schools have been a great power in the advancement
of the mechanical arts ; much of the labor-saving machinery now
building up great wealth in the country, is the fruit of the philo-
sophical truths there disseminated, and the improved social condi-
tion of the laboring classes is due to their influence. We have
schools of science, and colleges for the instruction of students in
the treatment and cure of horses, yet we expect those whose daily
business is to perform important surgical operations upon a deli-
cately organized member, to be reasonably successful, without
having learned the alphabet of their profession. There are among
them, individuals, intelligent and ingenious, who would be glad
of an opportunity of testing the validity of their practice by an
appeal to the condition of the hidden springs, levers, pulleys,
cushions, and powers comprising the mechanism of the feet and legs
explained by those who have made such their lifelong study. Many
of these have, by long experience, discovered for themselves a fair
system of shoeing, and are successful in the treatment and preven-
tion of injury, but, ignorant of physiology, are unable to transmit
their knowledge to others with sufficient reason to establish its
truth.

To such fully educated to thein profession, we must look for im-
provement in the art, and we hope that the day is not far distant
when America may be able to boast of her veterinary colleges and
Bchools for farriers, as of her other institutions of learning.

A small proportion of the pecuniary loss annually sustained in
our large cities alone, would support such an institution, the good
results of which wuld be incalculable. But while all thinking
men admit the benents which must result from its establishment,

:'^:iiijfififT\p^:& ," )

SHOEING. 423

it is too customary to regard the idea as visionary and impracticable,
and maintain that the craft would not avail themselves of its advan-
tages.

At first, doubtless, only the most intelligent would do so, but
these, applying the theoretical knowledge received there to the
commonest details and .every-day experience of the smithy, would
convince the most unreasoning that labor, when directed by skill
and judgment, is more saving of money, strength, and material,
than when unenlightened and unreasoning; and soon public
opinion would force their more ignorant brethren to follow their
example. A great painter was once asked how he mixed his colors.
" With brains, sir," was the apt reply. When this is the rule
and not the exception, we may indeed look for decided improve-
ment in the art, the dumb animal be relieved of much suffering,
and the community from unnecessary loss.

Veterinarians may propose theories, but lack the practical expe-
rience and opportunity of observation which the workmen alone
can have, while the number of the latter who have combined scien-
tific education with a thorough knowledge of the details of their
profession, has been too small to stamp any decided character
upon it.

With but very few exceptions the entire literature of shoeing is
European, and to these writers the American public is indebted
for all knowledge outside of that which an inquiring mind will
gather from individual observation.

If horse owners would resort to the books for physiological facts,
study their own horses, and use their own judgment, they would in
most cases discover the best style of shoeing for their particular
use.

Countries and sections differ greatly in the fashion of horse-shoes,
and the manner of fitting them to the foot, but the general princi-
ples are the same.

W^e do not pretend to advocate any particular form of shoe, nail,
or system of shoeing as an ultimatum of success, but wish to draw
the attention of horse owners to the importance of the subject, that
they may judge for themselves, the practice best suited to their
own animals, and may arrive at a more accurate conception and a
better appreciation of the hazard of a sole dependence on the gene-
ral ignorance of blacksmiths.

A careful study of the construction of the foot, as explained in
this work, will show the necessity of great caution and intelligence
in its treatment; more than is usually displayed by our mechanics.
This will be better understood by a reference to tlie member itself
by dissection, which is practicable to most farmers, as they may
frequently obtain specimens in their vicinity, and are possessed of
the facilities for examination.

424 THE HORSE.

Sever the foot at the upper joint of the paste-' n bone, trace the
veins, arteries and tendons, as suggested by the description ; note
the principal resistant parts aflFected by locomotion, the position of
the coronary bone and its inclination within the hoof (not as fre-
quently engraved entirely without or above it, and vertical when
at rest), the navicular bone and joint, the tendons and sheath, with
the action of each, the elastic property of the fatty heels, the
tough, springy frog, its shape and position, the structure of the
coffin bone, sole, crust and bars, and their mutual relations. Let
the examination be careful, and guided by reflection, with due
regard to each particular hoof, fore and hind, near and oflF, and
condition of health. Form no hasty conclusions from partial in-
vestigations, and study for practical benefit, not for a show of wis-
dom. A wooden vice, butcher's saw, chisel, knives and nijpers,
are about all the instruments necessary, and after becoming ac-
quainted with the natural tone of the crust, the operation may be
facilitated by the use of warm water to soften the horn.

If this has excited an interest in the subject, let the student ex-
periment with the shoeing of his own horses, young and old ; having
the entire control and supervision of their working, driving, stabling,
pasturing and shoeing, he must learn something, if but his own
ignorance. If resident of a country of light sandy soil, and the
nature of the work will allow, the hind feet, if not all, might be
left unshod to illustrate natural development; we have seen such
with hard glossy hoofs, that could travel over turnpike roads with
a light load, without breaking the crust or flinching on the frog.

The detail of horse-shoeing has been subjected to such advers
teachings by different authors (many of whom have but repeated
palpable errors of their predecessors without attempt at originality),
that it would be impossible to produce positive rules that will not
meet with opposition, but the indications of disease, may be related
without assigning their particular cause, of which there is much
difference of opinion and uncertainty.

The conditions of a good, sound foot as apparent, are a smooth,
glossy, resilient crust, almost circular were it continued around at
the bars, but fuller on the outside quarter, which difference is sel-
dom seen on a foot that has been shod a dozen times ; a concave
Bole not too dry and h;s»d ; a full frog elastic throughout, with its
centre or frog stay complete ; heels sufficiently low and free from
crust to bear their share of the springiness of action, and full and
well developed to allow freedom to the bones and tendons in their
movements. In horses the general rule is that dark hoofs are
harder than light ones. The internal organization is in conformity
with th^ external, the healthy state has been already described
under the heads of bones, muscles, &c. In disease, we find within
a concave, furrowed crust, the elastic process or bed of the saum

SHOEING.

425

Fig. 20.— a

rORE FOOT PREPARED FOR THE SHOE.

A. The heel of the crust.

B. The toe.

C C. The quarters of the crust.
DD. The bars as they should be left witl
frog between them.

E E. The angles between the heels and barB.

•where corns appear.
F F. The concave surface.
G G. The bulbous heels.
H. Cleft.

Pi)rm, and a dished coffin bone ; under a convex sole a coffin bone
turned up in front by absorption and flattened like the boof, spongy
and deficient in bony matter, tbe sensible sole diminished and the
horny sole increased in substance ; in long-.standing cases of con-
tracted heels, the interior organizations are alike reduced. Which-
ever may be the primary change, internal or external, or whether
either be a result of bad shoeing, no satisfactory solution has ye*
been given. Veterinarians wrangle over their favorite theories,
charge one another with causing the diseases they profess to pre-
vent, and are so completely antagonistic in their doctrines, that
the public cannot be confident of truth, in implicit reliance upon
Ihe assertions of any.

In comparing the horse's foot with the human, we must be care-
ful not to fall into error ; their relations to the body are the same,
but to understand the comparative structures, we must imagine
ourselves upon all four^ resting upon the finger and to& nails, our

426 THE HORSE.

wrist and heel corresponding 'to tlie knee and hock-joints of the
horse, though the bones are of different rehitive lengths and shape.
The crust of the hoof is secreted in much the same manner as our
nails, and growing downwards, or towards the extremities, slides
over a laminated and highly sensitive bed, which, when injured,
produces intense pain, on account of the unyielding nature of the
crust, and the swelling consequent to inflammation. We may then
realize the suffering produced by the prick of a horse-shoe nail,
under a horn so much thicker thiin our finger o^ toe nails.

As qualifications of resistance, and ease to superincumbent
structures, we have, of the human foot, the main arch of the soles
(which must be taken together to establish their completeness).
and the transverse arch of the ball of the foot, displayed when the
toes are brought to the ground. Of the horse there is the arch
of the sole, and those formed by the heels and frog. The sole and
coffin bone of the mule are more concave than those of the horse.

As propellers and levers, we find the same action from heel to
toe, as the body moves forward in progression. The horse having
two sets of levers, one for the fore part of the body and one for
the hind, all working in connection, must make exactly the same
length of step with each foot to avoid interference. From this
fact, we account for a frequent cause of forging and stumbling.
"Both horse and man accustom the motion of the body to the length
of step ; if we then attempt to walk in a pair of shoes so much
shorter than usual, as to cramp the toes and shorten the foot, we
will be unable to carry the body as far with each motion from heel
to toe, to correspond with our ordinary forward spring of the body ;
the tendency, therefore (until we learn better), is to a short, quick,
stumbling gait. Now, take a horse whose hoofs have been slowly
growing in length for a month, every motion of his body trained to
accord, pull off his shoes, which will be found (owing to the for-
ward growth of the hoof) farther from the heels than when first
applied, pare away the crust down to the sole, cut out a big notch
at the toe for a clip, set the new shoe back within the front of the
foot (more on the fore feet, as they are supposed to grow fasteO.
then rasp off the outer part of the toe back to the shoes, and clench
the nails as tight as possible. This is a common mode of shoeing;
his shoes are too small for him ; he swings into a trot with the
usual body motion, but the feet, all shortened, fail their part,
while the fore feet, diminished more th m the hind, are not thrown
out quite as far, and the horse, unaccustomed to the change, dwells
too long on them to escape a blow from behind. Weariness and
laziness will also cause forging, by a tardy movement in front, and
stumbling, by a failure to raise the toe sufiiciently to avoid scrub-
bing the ground when thrown forward.

It is too common, especr'ally in cities, among draught-horses, to

SHOEINa.

427

use up the lower part of the crust too fast for its gro^vh. If the
human finger-nail be pierced with a fine needle in the manner of
a horse-shoe nail driven through the crust of a hoof, it will be ob-
served that the hole will remain, until the growth of the nail has
carried it beyond the flesh ; that is, the fibres of horn once sepa-
rated will never unite. Horses used for heavy work are shod with
heavy shoes, thick toe and quarter clips, high calks and steel toes
and either because of the severe strain on the stones, the weight oi
the shoes and nails, the leverage of calks and toes, waste of crust to
accommodate clips, or of all combined, they require shoeing about
once in three weeks, and frequently oftener. At each shoeing, a
little more crust and sole is taken off" of the ground surface, a few
more holes made (or nails driven into old ones, enlarging the aper-
ture by working about and bending under the clenching iron).
The surface of the crust is again rasped, diminishing the thick-
ness, new furrows made to accommodate the clenches, and the horn
burned and softened by a hot shoe each time. The blacksmith
will insist that all these operations are necessary, but the fact is,
he is using up material too fast, and we leave it to horse owners
to judge by experiment, how these operations may be modified.
The French method of bringing the points of the nails out low
down on the surface of the hoof, appears rational, as it destroys
the vitality of the crust to a less degree than our custom, and
leaves a greater proportion of sound foot to bear the shocks.

Our practice has been, after removing the old shoes (with care
not to enlarge the old holes by dragging crooked nails through
them), to pare off" the crust and bars well down to the outer edge
of the sole, without taking a shaving from the sole, frog, or inside

of the bars. If the crust has
not been broken by wear,
this leaves the foot as near
its natural shape as possi-
ble, and a shoe must be
made to fit it. For road-
sters, a narrow, light shoe
is fitted to the crust in
length and width, then
made perfectly level, with-
out twist or pritchell burs
at the nail holes, and while
^■'o^'^''- sufficiently hot, slightly

touched to the crust, to mark any inequalities that may have been
left after paring. Six nails are used, three on each side, dividing
the space fron* about an inch from the centre of the toe, to the
centre of the quarters. The nail holes are set well back from the
outside edge, and made straight through the iron; the nails are

428 THE HORSE.

email, smoothed off with the hammer, and ilightly he\ /lied on one
side of the point; the position of the holes in the shoe brings
the nails out low down on the surface of the crust, but care must
be taken to start them in the centre of the holes, that the foot
may not be cramped or forced out of its natural shape. The pro-
jecting nail points are filed close to the hoof, that they may be
broken off without twisting the nail, or enlarging the hole in the
crust; the nails are then driven up, and the clenches turned over
and hammered down.

No rasp has been used, no crust wasted by mutilation for clips,
and but little injury by nail holes; if the nails be of good iron,
they are sufficient in number, and the light clenches on a sound
foot, will hold the shoe perfectly tight, and will not cause abrasion
of the legs in travelling.

The foot presents what we might call a beautiful fit, the tender
part of the frog is protected by the thickness of the shoe, while as
it is renewed from within, the outside will be worn off by friction,
and nature will keep it exactly low enough to obtain its necessary
exercise ; moreover, by driving the nails straight through the mid-
dle of the hole in the shoe, the foot will be free from that dis-
agreeable, cramped feeling, we have imagined a horse to experience,
when the nails are started at either side of the hole in the iron,
forcing the more yielding fibres of horn to its centre.

There have been many forms of shoes recommended by different
authors, but few of which are used in this country. The French
shoe has a convex ground surface, and the foot is fashioned to it,
by leaving the quarters full, and the crust sloped off" "towards the
toe and heels. Why the bearing should be taken off the heels we
cannot imagine, and forcing the quarters to bear an undue amount
of concussion would apparently induce quarter crack, but having
had no experience with this shoe we may be wrong in our
conclusions.

Another fashion imitates an old shoe worn off at the toe, which
is certainly an advantage to roadsters, as it would be to us, if we
could buy new shoes to fit our feet exactly like the old ones. Some
writers advocate nailing the shoe only upon the outside quarter, or
with but two nails on the inside, toward the toe, with the idea of
allowing unimpeded expansion of the crust when the foot strikes
the ground. Inasmuch as nails injure the crust, the practice of using
as few as possible is wi.se, but we have been unable to discover any
expansion of the anterior half of the ground surface in hoofs that
have never been shod. A careful examination will convince any one
that there is no mechanical necessity for such spreading, and from
the nature of the organization of the foot, it is simply impossible; all
the spring needful to the front of the crust is gained by the elasticity
of its fibres. The line of bearing of the lower part of the fore leg,

SHOEING. 429

is directed behind the centre of the foot, and the yielding points
of the framework are the pastern, coronary and navicular joints ;
as the upper part of the coronary bone works backward and down-
ward, it, with the action of the tendon, sHghtly spreads the heels
laterally, and the whole crust partakes of the movement, diminish-
ing in effect towards the toe ; were the foot completely inelastic, the
motion might be detected at the quarters, but the wiole of a healthy
foot is of a yielding nature ; the fatty heels, in particular, may be
compressed like cork, while the frog resembles a piece of india-
rubber, and there is a spring in every fibre of the crust. These
conditions so far distribute motion, that there is practically none
in the ground surface of the crust forward of the centre.

From the fact of this style of shoe allowing free expansion, its
advocates proclaim it a preventive of contracted heels (which, un-
fortunately, is so prevalent among shod horses); but if, as we sup-
pose, there be no spreading of the front part of the crust by pressure,
a shoe nailed only at, and forward of the quarters, will not interfere
with any natural movement of the heels.

This disease (contracted heels), which has been described on
page 409, appears to be an absorption or waste of a portion of
the frog and fatty heels, accompanied by an undue secretion ot
crust at the posterior part of the foot, encroaching upon the pro-
vince of the softer tissue of the heels.

Many reasons have been assigned for this disturbance of the
natural nutrition of the different parts, all or none of which may
be correct, for no theory has yet been so clearly demonstrated and
proven, as to leave the causes and nature of the disease beyond a
doubt, but we have never known any tendency to contraction, in
horses that have been shod in such manner as to allow the frog a
fair amount of exercise, indicated by its position.

An india-rubber shoe intended to be used as a cushion between
the iron and the foot, has been designed, patented and tried, within
the last two or three years, but we believe has failed to give gene-
ral satisfaction. The rubber mashes out in a short time by con-
cussion, and leaves a loose shoe. G-ood sole leather is much more
durable.

Until recently, the whole process of making the shoe was per-
formed by hand, but now in the United States, the greater bulk is
made by machinery, and at one immense establishment.

The manufactory of Messrs. Burden & Sons, at Troy, New York
state, with its six forging machines, turns out six shoes per second,
and in four years made twenty-five thousand tons ; or calculating
one and a half pounds to the shoe, thirty-seven million shoes.
These shoes are of the very best iron, warranted to bend double
cold, and to wear as long as any made by hand ; the iron used in

430 THE HORSE.

i.heir manufacture bearing a tensile strain of se\enty-e ght thousand
pounds to the square inch.

The power of the factory is gained by a large stream of water,
with a head of seventy-two feet, acting on an overshot wheel sixty
feet in diameter, with buckets twenty-two feet long and six feet
four inches deep, the whole wheel weighing over three hundred
tons. Connected with the establishment is a horse-shoe museum,
comprising many hundred specimens of shoes of all ages and all
countries, collected together at much expense with a view to im-
provement upon the old types. There are now three different
patterns manufactured, and they will furnish any other pattern
desired, if ordered in suflScient quantities. The cost of the shoe to
the blacksmith, is about a cent and a half per pound above the
price of the iron.

Independent of the immense curtailment of expense, the advan-
tage of' machinery directed by one master mind over the old sys-
tem, or rather want of system of individual effort and incongruous
labor, is great; and it should be the aim of the manufacturer,
as self-interest will dictate, to study and experiment to attain the
viost desirable pattern, in width of web, seating, fullering, position
of nail holes, and quality of iron, and the mechanics will necessarily
adopt his improvements.

In short, it should be an aim in shoeing a horse, as in man, to
make a fit as neat and easy, and of as light material as would be
adapted to its use, and experience has proven, that heavy shoes
with high calks and toes, are not necessary for successful hauling
over our city cobble stones, or hard roadways.

In this article we have given no positive directions for shoeing,
judging the art in its present state too imperfect to satisfy this
progressive age, but have sought rather to stimulate inquiry and
experiment, that may lead to improvement in the system.

ADMINISTRATION OF CHLOROFORM, 431

CHAPTER XXVLI.

OPERATIONS.

Administration of Chloroform — Methods of confining the Horse —
Bleeding — Firing — Setons and Rowels — Blistering — Castration
— Docking and Nicking — Unnerving — Reduction of Hernia —
Administration of Physic — Clysters — Back-Raking.
ADMINISTRATION OF CHLOROFORM.

The use op chloroform to procure insensibility to pain is a
great aid to the operator on the horse, who without it acts under
great difficulties, owing to the nervous twitch which the poor ani-
mal gives at each touch of the knife. Under chloroform, however,
he lies as if dead j and as long as its effects continue, the most
elaborate dissection may be conducted with comparative ease.
There is some little danger of overdoing this powerful agent, but
the risk is not so great as is generally supposed, and with ordinary
care it is more than one thousand to one that no injurious effects
are produced.

The best and most simple apparatus for the purpose of
administering chloroform is a common wire muzzle, to the upper
edge of which a strip of leather six inches deep is stitched, and
so arranged that it may be buckled round the upper part of the
jaws. This insures- that all the air inspired shall pass through the
wires, and by covering them with a cap of very loose flannel, in
which a few holes are cut to facilitate respiration, the muzzle may
be made ready for use. The horse is first cast, after which the
above apparatus is put on and buckled round the jaw, when on
sprinkling the chloroform over the cap of flannel, it may be applied
or removed in an instant, and the amount of anaesthesia regulated
accordingly. Without some guard such as the wire affords, the
chloroform runs over the nostrils and lips, and blisters them to a
serious extent; but when it is used, such an accident can only
occur from over-saturating the flannel. The necessary quantity of
this powerful agent must be employed; but when once it is found
that a prick of a pin or other pointed instrument is borne without
shrinking, the flannel may be withdrawn, and the operation quickly
commenced, taking care to have an assistant ready to put it on
again if the horse shows signs of returning sensibility to pain.
Six or eight ounces of chloroform must be provided, as the quantity
required ia rather uncertain, the average dose being about three
or four ounces.

If casting is objected to, either from the absence of hobbles,
or from fear of injury to the horse, a soft bed of straw should be

432 THE HORSE.

provided, and a strong halter must be put over the muzzle 'vvith
two cords, one of which should be held by a man on each side
These will serve to guide the horse in falling ; but it is extremely
diflScult to make sure of his going down where he is wanted to lie;
and there is also considerable time lost in securing him after he is
down, which the safety of the operator imperatively requires.
The eflfect of the chloroform must therefore be kept up for a much
longer time than if it is given after the horse is cast and secured.

METHODS OF CONFINING THE HORSE.

There are various plans adopted by veterinary surgeons to
bind the horse's limbs, so that he cannot injure himself or them
when undergoing an operation. Even when chloroform is em-
ployed, some coercion of this kind must generally be adopted, as
directed in the last section ; for if it is given in the standing posi-
tion, the horse is very apt to injure himself in falling, which is
often accompanied by powerful convulsive motions, and moreover
he cannot with certainty be placed in a suitable position. The
plan adopted by Mr. Rarey is seldom suitable, because it can only
be employed on subjects previously taught to go down without
resistance, for the severe struggle which the untaught horse makes
before he submits is calculated to produce injurious constitutional
disturbance, and, moreover, it would sadly increase any of the
various diseases of the limbs for which operations are so often per-
formed. Sometimes, however, it might advantageously be intro-
duced into veterinary surgery, as for instance in castration, when
the colt will not suffer his hind legs to be touched, but even then
it will be necessary to throw him two or three times, or he will be
in such a state of arterial excitement that inflammation will be
likely to follow. The usual methods of confinement are : 1st.
The hobbles. 2d. The side line. 3d. The trevis, or break. 4th.
The twitch and barnacles.

Hobbles consist of four broad padded leather straps, provided
with strong buckles, and long enough to encircle the pasterns. To
each of these an iron ring is stitched, and to one of them a strong
soft rope, six yards in length, is securely attached. Provided with
four, or, if possible, five assistants, the operator buckles the hob-
ble with the rope attached to the near fore leg, and the remaining
three to the other legs. Then passing the rope through their rings,
and through the first also, it is held by three assistants, the nearest
of whom stands about a yard from the horse, so as to pull upwards
as well as away from him ; a fourth assistant holds him by the
head to keep him quiet, and to be ready to fall on it as soon as he
is down, and the fifth stands at his quarters, ready to push him
over on his off side. This place is sometimes occupied by the
operator himself when h is short of hands. Casting should never

METHODS OF CONFINING THE HORSE. 433

be attempted on any hard surface, a thick bed of sliaw being ne-
cessary to prevent injury from the heavy fall which takes place.
The hind legs should be brought as far forward as possible before
beginning to pull the rope, and when the men do this they should
do it " with a will," but without jerking, so as to take the horse
off his guard, when he will resist much less stoutly than if he is
allowed more time. As soon as the legs are drawn up together,
the man at the quarters is quite safe from injury, and he may lean
forcibly against that part, and force the horse over to the off side,
upon which he falls : the assistant at the head keeping that part
down, no further struggling takes place, and he is secured by pass-
ing the end of the rope under the hobble rings between the fore
and hind legs, and securing it with a hitch. Something more,
however, is necessary to be done before any of the usual operations
can be performed, as all of the legs are at liberty to a certain
extent and the scrotum cannot be reached in safety. The ful-
lowing further precautions must therefore be taken, varying ac-
cording to the part to be operated on.

For CASTRATION the horse should be cast on his near side, with
a web halter in the usual place of a collar. The rope of the halter
is then passed through the ring of the hobble on the off hind leg,
and using it as a pulley the foot is drawn forcibly forward beyond
the arm and firmly secured to the webbing round the neck, and
bringing it back again it may be passed round the thigh above the
hock (which should be guarded from friction by a soft cloth or
leather), and again secured to the webbing. By these precautions
the scrotum is completely exposed, and the hind legs cannot be
stirred beyond the slight spasmodic twitch which extends to the
whole body.

To PERFORM ANY OPERATION ON THE FORE LEG, it must be

taken out of its hobble, and drawn forward upon the straw by a
webbing attached to its pastern, where it must be held by an assist-
ant, the horse having little or no power over it in this position.

The HIND LEG IS SECURED in the same way as for castration,
unless the fetlock is to be fired, when webbing must be applied to
the thigh above the hock only. With most horses, however, firing
can be performed without casting, by buckling up the fore leg, or
by having it held by a competent assistant.

When the horse is to be released, the hobbles are quietly un-
buckled in succession, beginning with the undermost hind leg.

Several improved hobbles have been invented, but they are
suited rather for the veterinary surgeon than for the ordinary
horsemaster, who will only require them for castration and minor
operations.

The side line is sometimes used for securing one hind leg
thus :■ — the long rop and single hobble only are required, the lat-
o7 2 E

434 THE HORSE.

ter being buckled to the bind pastern, which is to be secured. The
rope is then passed over the withers and brought back round the
bosom and shoulder of the same side as the leg to which it is
secured, and then passed inside the first part of the rope. By
pulling at the end of this cord the hind leg is drawn up to the
shoulder, and secured there with a hitch, but the plan is not nearly
so safe as casting.

The trevis or break consists of four strong posts driven into
the ground, at the corners of a space six feet long by three feet
wide. They are strongly braced together by wooden stays, three
feet six inches from the ground on three sides, the fourth being
left open for the horse to enter, after which this also is made good
by a padded bar passed through stout iron rings fixed at three feet
from the ground to the uprights. By means of this framework, to
which sundry rings are bolted, the body of the horse is first
securely confined by two broad bands under the belly and two
above the shoulders and croup. Thus he can neither rear nor kick
to any extent sufl&cient to free himself, and all that is necessary is
to lay hold of any limb selected for operation, and confine it to one
of the uprights, or to some other convenient point. This is the
best plan to be adopted for firing and other operations on the legs,
and if the belly-bands are wide, strong, and secure, chloroform may
be administered in it, without the horse going down.

The twitch is a short stick of strong ash, about the size of a
mopstick, with a hole pierced near the end, through which is passed
a piece of strong but small cord, and tied in a loop large enough
to admit the open hand freely. This is passed over the upper lip
close to the nostrils, and then, by twisting the stick, compression
is made to a painful extent, which will keep horses quiet for any
slight operation. Sometimes it is placed on the ear in preference,
but in either case the eflPect is dependent on the pain produced.

Barnacles consist in the application of pressure by means of
the handles of a pair of pincers enclosing the muzzle, and held
firmly by an assistant. They are, however, not so useful as the
twitch.

BLEEDING.

In the early part op the present century bleeding was
resorted to on every appearance of the slightest inflammation, and
often without the slightest necessity. Many horses were regularly
bled " every spring and fall," to prevent mischief, as was supposed ;
but at last it always happened to every horse which lived long
enough, that the more frequently blood was taken the more the
operation was required, and when it was absolutely wanted to lower
the heart's action, such a quantity of blood must be taken that
the system was reduced to a dangerous degree. Stallions werp

BLEEDING. 435

constantly submitted to this treatment, and mares as long as they
were worked, so that in course of time it has happened to the
horse, as it has also to man himself, that the horrible abuse of the
lancet for two or three consecutive generations has completely
changed the type of the diseases to which they are both subject.
Inflammation does not now follow the same course that it used to
do, but is of a much milder type, and the attendant fever is in
clined to assume a typhoid character, if lowering measures aro
pushed to any great extent. An attempt has been made to account
for this change in human diseases by the alteration in the habits
of the present generation, which are certainly more temperate than
those of the previous one ; but in the case of the horse the reverse
holds good, for he is now stimulated by more corn than ever. The
only point, as far as I can make out, in which the horse and his
master have been similarly maltreated, is in the abuse of the lan-
cet, which undoubtedly may account for the change in the type
of their diseases to which I have alluded, and it is, therefore, rea-
sonable to refer it to this cause. But though this powerful agent
has been thus abused, we must not be deterred from having re-
course to it when severe inflammation occurs in the horse. Some-
times there is no time to wait for the effects of a slower remedy,
even if there is one which will be sufficiently powerful to control
the heart's action. The only sensible plan in such case is to choose
the lesser of the two evils, and to save life, or the integrity of the
organ attacked, as the case may be, by abstracting blood, always
remembering that this is to be avoided as long as it is safe to do
so, but that when it is decided on, a sufficient quantity must be
taken to produce a sensible effect, without which there is no at-
tendant good to counterbalance the evil.

Bleeding is either performed in the jugular vein, when the
whole system is to be affected ; or when a part of the body only is
inflamed, it may be desirable to abstract blood locally, as for in-
stance from the toe or from the plate vein, in inflammation of the
foot, and in ophthalmia from the vein which lies on the face just
below the eye.

The instruments used are either the lancet or the fleam, the
former being the safer of the two, but requiring some practice to
manage it properly. In bleeding frdm the jugular vein a string
is sometimes tied round the neck below the part to be opened,
which is four or five inches below the fork in the vein in the upper
part of he neck. The skilled operator, however, makes pressure
with his left hand answer the purpose of causing the vein to rise,
and during this state either uses the lancet with his right or the
fleam with the aid afforded by the blow of a short stick, called a
" blood stick." When the blood begins to flow, the edge of the
bucket which catches it is pressed against the same part, and as

436 THE HORSE.

long as this is continued a full stream will run intil faintnesa
occurs. After sufl&cient blood has been taken, the two lips of the
wound are raised between the fingers, and a small common pin
passed through both, when the point is cut oif and some tow is
twisted round, by which the edges are kept together and the pin
is retained in position. In a couple of days the pin may be with-
drawn without disturbing the tow, and the wound will heal with
little or no deformity. Sometimes the blood continues to flow
beneath the skin after it is pinned, and a swelling takes place in
consequence, which is called ecchymosis. When this happens,
cold water should be freely applied and the head kept up by rack-
ing to the manger.

The quantity of blood necessary to be taken will vary accord-
ing to circumstances, and can scarcely be fixed from the appearance
of the blood drawn, but a repetition of the operation may be de-
cided on if the clot of the blood, after standing, is very concave
at the top (cupped), or if it is very yellow (buff"ed), and especially
if both these signs are present. In inflammation of a severe char-
acter less than six quarts of blood will seldom lower the pulse
sufficiently to be of much service, and sometimes seven or eight
quarts even must be taken from a large plethoric animal.

Inflammation of the vein will sometimes supervene upon
bleeding, the symptovis being a slight swelling appearing in the
evening, or the next day, with a little oozing from the wound.
These are soon followed by a hard cord-like enlargement of the
vein, which feels hot to the touch, and the parts at the angle of
the jaw swell considerably. The consequence generally is that the
vein is obliterated, occasioning some disturbance to the circulation,
especially when the head is held down, as it is at grass. The
treatment consists in cold applications as long as there is heat, the
lotion recommended at page 316 being generally useful. When
the heat has subsided, and the vein remains enlarged, the binio-
dide of mercury will procure the absorption of the new deposit, by
rubbing it in as recommended at page 300.

FIRING.
The purpose for which the heated iron is employed is twofold ;
first, to produce immediate counter-irritation, by which the pre-
vious inflammation is reduced ; and secondly, to cause the forma-
tion of a tight compress over the part, which lasts for some months.
It is the fashion to deny the existence of the latter efl'ect of this
operation j but every practical man must be aware that it follows

FIKING. 437

upon tiring to a greater or less extent, at cording to circumstancea,
but always lasting for a few months, until the skin stretches to its
previous condition. The blemish which it leaves, and the pain
which it occasions, both during and after the application of the
irons, should cause it to be avoided when any equally useful substi-
tute can be employed ; but, unfortunately, there are many cases
where it stands without a rival, as being at once the safest and the
most efficient remedy which can be adopted. Blisters and setons
can be made to cause the same amount of counter-irritation j but
the inflammation accompanying the former often extends beneath
the skin, and increases the mischief it was intended to relieve ;
while the latter has no efl'ect whatever in producing pressure upon
the parts beneath. The pain of firing can be relieved entirely at
the time of the operation by chloroform; but the subsequent
smarting is quite as bad, and this is beyond the reach of any
anaesthetic. Independently, however, of the interests of the master,
it is also to the advantage of the horse to get thoroughly cured ;
for if he is not, he will either work on in misery, or he will be con-
signed to the knacker's yard ; and, therefore, the adoption of the
most efficacious plan of treatment, even if somewhat the most pain-
ful, is the best for both.

Firing may be performed standing, by the use of the side
line for the hind leg, or by fixing up one fore leg when the other
is to be operated on. There is, however, nothing like the break or
trevis, where more than a slight extent of surface is to be lined.
The firing-iron should have a smooth edge, about the thickness of
a worn shilling ; and it should be heated to the point when it shows
a dull red in the dark. When the disease for which the irons are
used is slight, the skin should not be penetrated ; but in bad cases,
where the mischief is great, and particularly when it is wanted to
have a good permanent bandage, the cauterization must be deeper ;
but this requires some practical knowledge to decide. The hair
of the part should be cut very closely with the scissors, or shaved ;
then, having secured the leg, the iron is to be steadily but rapidly
passed in parallel lines over the skin, making just the proper pres-
sure which is required to burn to the requisite depth. A light
brown mark should be left, which shows that the proper efl'ect has
been produced ; and the color should be uniform, unless it is de-
sired to penetrate deeper at certain parts, which is sometimes
practised with advantage. The lines are sometimes made in a
slanting direction round the leg, and at others straight up and
«^own ; but it is useless to describe the details of this operation,
■which can only be learned by watching its performance by another
band. Badly done firing is always an eyesore ; but when the lines
are evenly drawn, and they have healed without any sloughs,
Ciaused by irregular or excessive pressure, they show that a master-
37*

438 THE HORSE.

hand has been at work, and that the poor beast has been treated
scientifically. In very severe diseases, a blister is sometimes ap-
plied over the part, immediately after the firing; but this can
seldom be required, and as it aggravates the pain tenfold, it should
be avoided, if possible. On the following day,- a little neat's-foot
oil should be gently rubbed, or brushed with a feather, over the
leg; and this should be repeated daily, until the swelling which
comes on has nearly subsided. Less than three months' rest
should never be allowed for the operation to have its full eff'ect, as,
if the horse is put to work before that time has elapsed, the dis-
ease will almost certainly return. Indeed, it is far better to allow
double this time, especially if the horse is wanted for fast work.

SETONS AND BOWELS.

Setons are pieces of tape or lamp cotton, passed through and
beneath the skin, leaving the two ends hanging out, either tied
together or with a knot upon each. The latter is the safer plan,
as the loop is always liable to "be caught on a hook or other pro-
jecting body. The needle with which the passage is effected has
a spear point, slightly turned up, and an eye at the other end (see
fig. 22), through which the tape or cotton is threaded. The

FlO. 22. — SKTON HEEDLE8 ONE QUARTER SIZE.

ordinary one is about nine or ten inches long, and by its means a
tape or piece of lamp cotton, smeared with blister cerate, may be
passed through a long track of the cellular membrane, by pinching
up the skin into a fold, and piercing this close to the body with
the needle, which is then to be carried straight through. On
drawing the tape out of the eye, it must be tied in a large knot at
each end, which will prevent its slipping out. In three or four
days, a profuse discharge will come on, and it must ke kept up, if
necessary, by repeated applications of blister cerate, or digestive
ointment, as may be necessary. The ends should be sponged
occasionally, to remove the accumulated matter.

A SMALLER CURVED NEEDLE, about five or six inches long (see
lower figure, 22) is used for introducing a seton into the frog, or
beneath the eye. For the former operation, a twitch is first
applied, and the foot is then buckled up to the arm, as described
at page 167. ^he needle then, armed with the tape, greased with

ROWELS — BLISTERING, 439

blistei cerate, and a little oil to lubricate the surface, is thrust in
at the heel and out at the cleft of the frog, taking care not to go
deep enough to wound the tendon as it passes over the navicular
hone. The needle is then forcibly drawn through, and the tape
knotted, as already described. The openings must be kept clean
by sponging daily ; and in three or four weeks the tape will have
nearly worked its way out, when it may be withdrawn.

Rowels are now seldom employed, being very unmanageable
plans for causing counter-irritation. An incision, about an inch
long, is made in the skin, selecting a part where it is loosely at-
tached, and into this a blunt instrument, called a " cornet," is
pushed, and worked about in all directions, until the skin is sepa
rated from the subjacent parts for a circle with a diameter of from
two to three inches. Into this a piece of thick leather of that
diameter, with a hole in the middle, is inserted, previously having
smeared it with blister cerate ; and the part is then left to nature.
In a few days, a discharge of matter domes on, which must be
washed off occasionally; and in the course of time, the leather, if
allowed, would find its way out by ulceration. Before, however,
tVis takes place, it is generally removed.

BLISTERING.

When it is decided to blister any part, the hair should be
(Hit off as closely as possible ; the ointment is then rubbed in with
the hand for ten minutes, leaving a good quantity smeared on the
surface. If the legs are to be blistered, the heels should be pro-
tected by lard. Considerable itching is caused after the first two
or three days, and many horses, if allowed, gnaw the part to such
an extent as to cause a serious blemish. It is therefore necessary
to keep the head away, which is done by putting a " cradle" on
the neck. The irritation of loose straw is very aggravating, and
the stall or box should either be bedded with tan, or sawdust, or
with used litter, so damp as to lie smoothly. It is generally the
practice to put the blistered horse on a bare floor; but he will often
do great harm to his legs and feet (which are of course unsound,
or they would not be treated in this way), by constantly stamping
from the pain occasioned while the blister is beginning to rise.
When the legs are stiff and sore from the swelling, he stands still
enough, but at first there is nothing of this kind to keep him quiet.
James's blister, which is very mild, and useful for trifling diseases
of the legs, or for bringing on the hair after " broken knee," can
generally be used without a cradle ; but even with it, horses will
Bometimes gnaw themselves, and it is better not to run any risk.
At the end of a week, some neat's-foot oil should be applied every
morning, with a feather or soft brush, to keep the scabs as supple

440 THE HORSE.

aS possible. The various formulas for blisters will be given in the
list of materia medica.

CASTEATION.

For removing the testicles several methods of operation
have been proposed ; but hitherto none has been tried which is so
Buccessful as the old plan, in which the division of the cord is per-
formed by a heated iron with a sharp edge. In human surgery
the spermatic artery is tied, and all danger of hemorrhage is over,
because the small amount of bleeding which takes place from the
artery of the cord is of no consequence, as it cannot enter the cavity
of the peritoneum. In the horse, on the other hand, the inguinal
canal communicates with that cavity, and if the ligature is used,
there is a double danger of inflammation — first, from efi"ased blood,
and secondly, from the irritation of the ends of the ligature. This
plan, therefore, is now generally abandoned, though some few prac-
titioners still adhere to it, and the choice rests between two methods
of removal by cautery, namely, the actual and potential, — the
former giving more pain at the moment when the heated iron is
applied, but the latter being really far more severe, as the caustic
is a long time in effecting a complete death of the nerve and other
sensitive parts. Torsion of the vessels has been also tried, but it
is often followed by haemorrhage, and, moreover, the pain which
is caused during the twisting of the artery is apparently quite as
great as is given by the heated iron. We are all inclined to fancy
that fire occasions more agony than it really does, but those who
have in their own persons been unfortunately able to compare the
effects of the two kinds of cautery, have uniformly admitted that
the actual is less severe than the potential, if the two are used so
as to produce the same amount of cauterization.

The best period for performing the operation on the
foal is just before weaning, provided the weather is mild. If, how-
ever, his neck is very light, and the withers low, its postponement
till the following spring will give a better chance for the develop-
ment of these parts. The cold of winter and heat of summer are
both prejudicial, and the months of April, May, September, or
October should always be selected.

No preparation is required in the "sucker," but after wean-
ing the system always requires cooling by a dose of physic and
light food before castration can safely be performed. Horses which
have been in training, or other kind of work attended with high
feeding, require at least three weeks' or a month's rest and lower-
ing, by removing corn, mashing, &c., together with a couple of
doses of physic, before they arc fit to be castrated.

For the ordinary method op operating, a pair of clams
should be provided, lined at the surfaces where the compression

CASTRATION.

441

is made, with thick layers of vulcanized india-rubber. This ma-
terial gives a very firm hold without bruising the cord, and causing
thereby inflammation A large scalpel and a couple of irons will
complete the list of instruments, over and above the apparatus
necessary for casting the horse (see Casting, page 433). The horse
being properly secured according to the directions there given, and
a twitch being put on the lip in case he should struggle much, the

Fig. 23. — clams lined with vulcanized india-rubber.

operator, kneeling on the left side, grasps the testicle so as to make
the skin of the scrotum covering it quite tense. A longitudinal
incision, about three inches long, is then made down to the testicle,
which, if care has been taken that there is no rupture, may be
rapidly done — a wound of its surface not being of the slightest con-
sequence, and giving far less pain than the slow niggling dissection
of its coverings, which is sometimes practised to avoid it. The
testicle can now be cleared of its coverings, and the hand laying
hold of it gently, the operator raises it from its bed, and slips the
clams on each side the cord, at once making the proper pressure
with them, which should be sufficient to prevent all risk of the
part enclosed slipping from between its jaws. G-reat care should
be taken that the whole of the testicle, including the epididimis,
is external to the clams ; and as soon as this is satisfactorily ascer-
tained, the cord may be divided with the ordinary firing-iron at a
red heat. To make sure that no haemorrhage shall occur, some
operators sear the artery separately with a pointed iron ; but if the
division is slowly made with the heated iron, and avoiding any
drag upon the cord, no such accident will be at all likely to follow,
though very rarely it will happen in spite of every care. The
clams may now be removed, and the other testicle treated in the
same way; after which the hobbles are cautiously removed, and the
patient is placed in a roomy loose box, where he can take sufficient
exercise to insure the gravitation of the discharge, but no more.

The French Plan, by means of caustic, requires two pieces
of wood, each about six inches long and an inch square, with a
notch or ileck at each end, to hold the twine by which they are
tied together, and a groove in the two opposite surfaces, to hold
the caustic. This is composed of one part of corrosive sublimate
and four of flour, made into a past? with water, and it is intro-

442 THE HORSE.

duced while moist into the grooves, whicl. it should corapletelj' fill.
The horse is then secured as before, the cord is exposed, the piecea
of wood are adjusted on each side, and firmly held together with
pincers by an assistant, while the operator binds their ends together
with waxed string. The testicle may now be removed with the
knife, if the string has been tied sufficiently tight; but unless the
operator has had some experience, it is safer to let it remain on till
it comes away by the ulceration of the cord. This is the uncovered
operation, the covered one being performed with the same instru-
ments, as follows. The scrotum is grasped, and opened, taking
care to avoid wounding the tunica vaginalis reflexa, or outer serous
investment, but cutting down to it through the skin, dartos muscle,
and cellular membrane. These are to be carefully dissected back,
until the cord can be isolated without wounding its serous invest-
ment (tunica vaginalis), which is so thin that it is easy to ascertain
with certainty the nature of its contents by examination with the
fingers. If there is no hernia, the caustic can at once be applied
to its outside in the same way as before ; and if there is, it must
be pushed back into the cavity of the abdomen, by a little careful
manipulation.

Some veterinary surgeons operate in a similar way to one
or other of the two last described plans, with the omission of the
caustic, which they maintain is wholly unnecessary, for there must
be sufficient pressure to cause a sloughing of the cord. There is
certainly some truth in this argument, but if the pressure has not
been sufficient to cause the sloughs, the caustic will assure that
essential process, and thus it renders the operation safer, though
it somewhat increases the subsequent local inflammation. The
plan without caustic is almost precisely the same, as far as safety is
concerned, as that formerly adopted by country farriers, called
" twitching," in which two pieces of wood were applied on each
side the base of the scrotum, and tied firmly at each end. The
pain, however, occasioned by the pressure on so large a surface
of skin is intense, and the operation is on that account indefensible,
besides which it is not nearly so successful as either the ordinary
English or French operations.

DOCKING AND NICKING.
These operations on the tail are subject to the fashion
of the day, the former being used for the purpose of shortening
its length, which is inconvenient to the rider or driver in dirty
weather, and the latter for altering its carriage, when this is too
low for the taste of the owner. Nicking, is, however, very seldom
practised in the present day, and never to the extent which was
the fashion fifty years ago.

DOCKING AND NICKING.

443

Docking is very rapidly performed by the aid of the docking-
knife, which is made on the principle of the guillotine. As the
tail is removed at one sudden and forcible chop, the horse need
not be confined in any way beyond fixing up his foro leg, unless he

Fig. 25— DOOKINO-KNIPE.

is a very violent animal, when he must be placed in the break (see
page 435). The exact length of the dock to be left being fixed
upon, the hair is cut off close below, and the remainder tied back
to the root of the tail. The situation of the joint, which may be
ascertained from its greater prominence, is then marked, by care-
fully removing the hair with the scissors, and then laying it in the
rounded groove of the wooden frame in which the knife plays, so
that the edge of the latter shall exactly correspond with the part
to be cut, the handles are suddenly and forcibly brought together,
and the end is removed at one blow. A pointed iron should have
beet, previously heated, and then raising the tail to a level with
the back, the arteries are first seared, which a very slight touch
will effect, and then the point is pushed into the sheath of the
tendons lying at the top of the stump, so as to cause them to
adhere in that position; and effect a handsome carriage of the tail.
Lastly, a little resin is melted over the end of the stump with the
iron now pretty nearly cooled, and the operation is concluded by
untying the hair.

Nicking was formerly carried to such an extent that the poor
horse could not lower his tail, but was always obliged to carry it
over his back. Several deep cross-cuts were made in the under-
side after being docked, and then a cord was fastened to the hair,
and being carried over a pulley attached to the ceiling, the tail
was kept drawn up over the back by a weight at its end. The
horse could lie down by raising the weight, but by no possible
means could he lower his tail, and in course of time the wounds
healed by granulation filling up their spaces, and the nicking was
completed. When a horse now carries his dock too low, a sub-

444 THE HORSE.

cutaneous incision of the flexor tendons is made, which is generally
sufficient, but if not the pulley is adopted for a few days. Some-
times the tail is carried on one side, and then a similar operation
by subcutaneous division of the tendons on the side to which the
tail is carried will have the desired effect, always taking care in
each case to keep the knife clear of a joint.

UNNERVING.
The nerves distributed to the foot are sometimes divided for
navicular disease, as they lie on each side of the bone above the
fetlock joint. No one, however, should attempt this operation
without having previously seen it performed, as it requires con-
siderable dexterity for its due execution. I have described such
operations as may be wanted in the parts of the country where a
veterinary surgeon cannot always be reached, but unnerving is but
seldom required, and I shall therefore omit any detailed account
of it.

REDUCTION OF HERNIA.

Hernia is sometimes strangulated; that is to say, the protrud-
ing portion of bowel is confined in its situation by such pressure
on its neck as to cause danger of mortification. Under such cir-
cumstances, if it is found to be impossible to return the bowel by
careful manipulation, an operation must be performed. This con-
sists in carefully dissecting through the coverings of the bowel,
and when it is exposed, a long and narrow guarded knife (Bistouri
cacM) is passed by the side of the intestine through the opening
into the abdomen, and then making the blade prominent it is with-
drawn, and the fibres causing the pressure are divided. This
usually allows of the bowel being passed back again into the
abdomen, when the operation is completed by bringing the parts
together with one or two stitches.

When hernia occurs in the colt either at the navel or
scrotum, it is often desired to eSect a cure by returning the bowel
and causing the opening to close by adhesive inflammation. If
the colt is uncut, the performance of the covered operation on the
French plan (see page 443) will generally succeed, great care
being of course necessary to return the intestine before the clams
are applied. In umbilical hernia a similar plan has been tried,
but the adhesion is too superflcial to be of much use ; and the only
successful method is the passage of one or two skewers through
the opposite edges of the opening, and then winding some waxed
twine round them, with a moderate degree of force. This should
not be sufficient to cause mortification, or the opening will only be
increased in size, and the bowel will protrude without any covering
of skin; but it should be just sufficient to cause adhesive inflam-

ADMINISTRATION OF PHYSIC. 445

mation ; experience in such matters alone enabling the operator to
hit upon the right amount.

In all operations for hernia chloroform is of great assist-
ance, as it prevents the risk of a protrusion of the bowel while the
knife is being used, which will otherwise sometimes happen during
the struggles of the horse.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF PHYSIC.

Medicine may be given to the horse either in the solid form
as a ball, or liquid, and then called a drench, or as a dry powder,
when in small compass and with little taste, mixed with the corn-
er mash. Sometimes also a small quantity of a tasteless liquid,
such as liquor arsenicalis, may be given with the food.

In GIVING A BALL, place a halter on the head with a knot, so
that the jaws may be widely opened. Then turn the horse round
in the stall and back him up to the manger, lay hold of the tongue
and draw it out of the mouth, grasp it with the left hand, which
must also hold the halter-cord so short that the strain is partly
taken off the tongue, and then holding the ball in the right hand
with the fingers enclosing it like a cone, and, the arm bare, it
should be rapidly carried to the back of the mouth a,nd deposited
there, holding the head up till it is seen to pass down the gullet.
Cautious grooms use a balling iron, which gags the mouth and
protects the arm, but a handy man will have less difficulty in intro-
ducing his hand than in inserting the gag, unless the horse is a
determined biter, when it may be absolutely nece.ssary. In that
case the gag is insinuated with as much ease as a bit in a flat
direction, and the handle being suddenly depressed, the mouth
gapes and the teeth cannot be brought together. Then holding
its handle together with the halter in the left hand, the right
easily introduces the ball into the pharynx.

In GIVING A DRENCH, two persons are necessary, the operator
standing at the right shoulder, while the assistant is ready to steady
the head and aid him on the left. The operator raises the head
with his left hand beneath the jaw, and with his right he forces
the lip of the horn into the side of the mouth, and, raising the
small end, pours the contents in. If the horse is violent, a twitch
must be placed on the nose, and held by the assistant. The horn
must not be passed far into the mouth, or any unnecessary violence
used, for fear of producing a cough ; in which case, the hand must
be instantly lowered. A neglect of this precaution will probably
cause some of the liquid to pass into the larynx.

CLYSTERS

Are most valuable agents, if properly administered. The
best syringe for the purpose is Read's, by which any quantity may
38

446 THE HORSE.

be thrown up ; and in colic, some gallons of warm water are some-
times required to produce the desired effect. For an ordinary
opening clyster, a handful or two of common salt may be dissolved
in five or six quarts of warm water.

BACK-EAKING

Is EFFECTED by passing the greased hand and arm into the
rectum, and withdrawing any hardened faeces which may have
accumulated there. When the quantity of these is great, the hand
must be passed several times, until it cannot reach any more.
Whenever physic is given to an unprepared horse, as is sometimes
necessary in severe disease, this precaution should never be
neglected. Mr. Gramgee, of Edinburgh, is of opinion that this
operation is more safely and easily performed by the aid of instru-
ments, supporting his views by the assertion that the introduction
of the hand gives unnecessary pain. On one or two occasions I
have certainly seen a shoulder of mutton at the end of a human
arm, and this would perhaps cause some little difficulty ; but no
hand of average size is nearly so large as the mass of dung usually
passed; and those who are not above doing a dirty job token duty
requires it, well know by experience that the hand and arm may be
passed to the shoulder without giving any pain whatsoever. In^
gtruments are useful when they cannot be dispensed with, but they
are always liable to cause laceration.

ALTERATIVES. 447

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE PRINCIPAL MEDICINES, AND THE DOSES IN WHICH THEY
CAN SAFELY BE ADMINISTERED : —

Alteratives — Anesthetics — Anodynes — Antacids — Anthelmintics
— Aperients — Astringents — Blisters — Caustics — Charges —
Clysters — Cordials — Demulcents — Diaphoretics — Digestives
Diuretics — Embrocations — Emulsiofis — Expectorants — Feb-
rifuges— Lotions — Narcotics — Refrigerants — Sedatives — Stim-
ulajits — Stomachics — Styptics — Tonics — Vermifuges, or Worm
Medicines.

(The Formulae enclosed in [ ] are by the American Editor )

ALTERATIVES.

This term is not very scientific, but it is in very general
use, and easily explains its own meaning, though the modus operandi
of the drugs employed to carry it out is not so clear. The object ia
to replace unhealthy action by a healthy one, without resorting to
any of the distinctly-defined remedies, such as tonics, stomachics,
&c. As a general rule, this class of remedies produce their effect
by acting slowly but steadily on the depuratory organs, as the liver,
kidneys, and skin. The following may be found useful : —

1. In Disordered States of the Skin —

Emetic Tartar . . . . . 5 ounces.

Powdered Ginger ... .3 ounces.

Opium ...... 1 ounce.

Syrup enough to form 16 balls : one to be given every night.

5J. Simply Cooling —

Barbadoes Aloes . . . . I ounee.

Castile Soap 1^ ounce.

Ginger | ounce.

Syrup enough to form 6 balls : one to be given every morning. Or,

S. Barbadoes Aloes . . . • Ij drachm.

Emetic Tartar 2 drachms.

Castile Soap . . . . .2 drachms. Mix

(. Alterative Ball for General Use —

Black Sulphuret of Antimony . . 2 to 4 drachms.

Sulphur 2 drachms.

Nitre 2 drachms.

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball.

448 THE HORSE.

5. For Generally Defective Secretions —

Flowers of Sulphur .... 6 ounces.

Emetic Tartar 5 to 8 drachms.

Corrosive Sublimate . . . .10 grains.
Linseed meal mixed with hot water, enough to form 6 balls, one of
which may be given two or three times a week.

6. In Debility of Stomach —

Calomel 1 scruple.

Aloes 1 drachm.

Cascarilla Bark, 'i

Gentian Root, > of each in powder . 1 drachm.

Ginger, j

Castile Soap 3 drachms.

Syrup enough to make a ball, which may be given twice a week, or
every other night.

ANESTHETICS.

Anesthetics (a, not, privative; atadrjffiq, sensation) produce
insensibility to all external impressions, and therefore to pain.
They resemble narcotics in their action, and, when taken into the
stomach, may be considered purely as such. The most certain and
safe way of administering them is by inhalation, and chloroform
is the drug now universally employed. The modus operandi, of the
various kinds has never yet been satisfactorily explained ; and
when the comparison is made, as it often is, to the action of intox-
icating fluids, we are no nearer to it than before. With alcoholic
fluids, however, the disorder of the mental functions is greater in
proportion to the insensi"biiity to pain ; and if they are taken in
sufficient quantities to produce the latter efiect, they are dangerous
to life itself The action of anaesthetics on the horse is very sim-
ilar to that on man.

ANODYNES,

Sometimes called Narcotics, when taken into the stomach,
pass at once into the blood, and there act in a special manner on
the nervous centres. At first they exalt the nervous force ; but
they soon depress it, the second stage coming on the sooner accord-
ing to the increase of the dose. They are given either to soothe
the general nervous system, or to stop diarrhoea; or sometimes to
relieve spasm, as in colic or tetanus. Opium is the chief anodyne
used in veterinary medicine, and it may be employed in very large
ioses : —

7. Anodyne Drench for Colic —

Linseed Oil 1 pint.

Oil of Turpentine . . . . 1 to 2 ounces.

Laudanum 1 to 2 ounces.

Mix, and give every hour till relief is afforded.

ANODYNES — ANTACIDS — ANTHELMINTICS. 449

8. AwoDYNE Ball for Colic (only useful in mild cases) —

Powdered Opium . . . . ^ to 2 drachms.

Castile Soap 2 drachms.

Camphor 2 drachms.

Ginger U drachm.

Make into a ball with Liquorice powder and Treacle, and give every
hour while the pain lasts. It should be kept in a bottle or bladder.

9. Anodyne Ball (ordinary) —

Opium ^ to 1 drachm.

Castile Soap 2 to 4 drachms.

Ginger 1 to 2 drachms.

Powdered Aniseed . . . . ^ to 1 ounce.

Oil of Caraway Seeds . . . i drachm.
Synip enough to form a ball, to be dissolved in half a pint of warm ale,
and given as a drench.

10. Anodyne Drench in Supekpurgation, or Ordinary Diarkhiea-

Gum Arabic . . . . .2 ounces.
Boiling Water 1 pint.

Dissolve, and then add —

Oil of Peppermint . . . .25 drops.

Laudanum . . . . . ^^ to 1 ounce.

Mix, and give night and morning, if necessary.

11. In Chronic Diarrhcea —

Powdered Chalk and Gum Arabic, each 1 ounce.
Laudanum . . . . . ^ ounce.

Peppermint Water . . . .10 ounces.
Mix, and give night and morning.

ANTACIDS.
As THE TERM IMPLIES, these remedies are used to neutralize
acids, whether taken into the stomach to an improper extent, or
formed therein as products of diseases. They are often classed as
alteratives when used for the latter purpose. They include the
alkalies and alkaline earths, but are not much used in veterinary
medicine.

ANTHELMINTICS.

Drugs which are used to destroy worms receive this name in
medical literature when the author is wedded to the Greek lan-
guage. The admirers of Latin call them vermifuges, and in Eng-
lish they receive the humble name of worm medicines. Their
action is partly by producing a disagreeable or fatal impression on
the worm itself, and partly by irritating the mucous lining of the
bowels, and thus causing them to expel their contents. Failing the
remedy recommended at page 511, the following may be useful :

12. Worm Bali, (recommended by Mr. Gamgee) —

Asafoetida 2 drachms.

Calomel ...... 1^ drachm.

Powdered Savin 1? drachm.

Oil of Male Fern 30 drops

2f

450 THE HORSE.

Treacle enough to make a ball, which should be given at night, and
followed by a purge next morning.

13. Mild Drench for Worms —

Linseed Oil ... . .1 pint.

Spirit of Turpentine 2 drachms.

Mix and give every morning.

Antispasmodics are medicines which are intended to counteract
excessive muscular action, called sjja.s??i, or, in the limbs, cramp.
This deranged condition depends upon a variety of causes, which
are generally of an irritating nature ; and its successful treatment
will often depend upon the employment of remedies calculated to
remove the cause, rather than directly to relieve the effect. It there-
fore follows that, in many cases, the medicines most successful in
removing spasm will be derived from widely separated divisions of
the inaterla medica, such as aperients, anodynes, alteratives, stim-
ulants and tonics. It is useless to attempt to give many formulas
for their exhibition; but there are one or two medicines which
exercise a peculiar control over spasm, and I shall give them with-
out attempting to analyze their mode of operation.

14. In Colic—

Spirit of Turpentine .... 3^ ounces.

Laudanum Ij ounce.

Baibadoes Aloes 1 ounce.

Powder the Aloes, and dissolve in warm water ; then add the other
ingredients, and give as a drench.

15. Clyster in Colic —

Spirit of Turpentine .... 6 ounces.

Aloes 2 drachms.

Dissolve in three quarts of warm water, and stir the turpentine well
into it.

16. Antispasmodic Drench —

Gin 4 to 6 ounces.

Tincture of Capsicum .... 2 drachms

Laudanum ...... 3 drachms.

Warm Water U pint.

Mix and give as a drench, when there is no inflammation.

APERIENTS.

(Physic Balls and Drenches.)

Aperients, or purges, are those medicines which quicken or
increase the evacuations from the bowels, varying, however, a good
deal in their mode of operation. Some act merely by exciting the
muscular coat of the bowels to contract ; others cause an immense
watery discharge, which, as it were, washes out the bowels; whilst
a third set combine the action of the two. The various purges
also act upon different parts of the canal, some stimulating the

APERIENTS. 451

small intestines, whilst others pass through them without affecting
them, and only act upon the large bowels; and others, again, act
upon the whole canal. There is a third point of difference in
purges, depending upon their influencing the liver in addition,
which mercurial purgatives certainly do, as well as rhubarb and
some others, and which effect is partly due to their absorption into
the circulation, so that they may be made to act, by injecting into
the veins, as strongly as by actual swallowing, and their subse-
quent passage into the bowels. Purgatives are likewise classed,
according to the degree of their effect, into laxatives acting mildly,
and drastic purges, or cathartics, acting very severely.

17. Ordinary Physic Balls —

Barbadoes Aloes . . . . 3 to 8 drachms.

Hard Soap . . . . .4 drachms.

Ginger ...... 1 di-achm.

Dissolve in as small a quantity of boiling water as will suffice ; then
slowly evaporate to the proper consistence, by which means griping is
avoided.

18. A Warmer Physic Ball —

Barbadoes Aloes . , . . 3 to 8 drachms
Carbonate of Soda . . . . ^ drachm.
Aromatic Powder .... 1 drachm
Oil of Caraway . . . .12 drops.

Dissolve as above, and then 'add the oil.

19. Gently Laxative Ball —

Barbadoes Aloes . . . . 3 to 5 drachms.
Rhubarb Powder . . . . 1 to 2 drachms

Ginger 2 drachms.

Oil of Caraway . . . .15 drops.

Mix, and form into a ball, as in No. 1.

20. Stomachic Laxative Balls, fob Washy Horses —

Barbadoes Aloes . ... 3 drachms.

Rhubarb 2 drachms.

Ginger 1 drachm.

Cascarilla Powder . . . .1 drachm.
Oil of Caraway . . . .15 drops.

Carbonate of Soda . . . . ^ drachm.
Dissolve the Aloes as in No. 1, and then add the other ingredients.

21. Purging Balls, with Calomel —

Barbadoes Aloes ' . . . . 3 to 6 drachms

Calomel ^ to I drachm.

Rhubarb 1 to 2 drachms.

Ginger ^ to 1 drachm.

Castile Soap 2 drachms.

Mix as in No. 1 .

22. Laxative Drench —

Barbadoes Aloes . , . . 8 to 4 drachms.

Canella Alba 1 to 2 drachms.

Salt of Tartar 1 drachm.

Mint Water 8 ounces. Mix.

452 THE HORSE.

23. Another Laxative Drench —

Castor Oil 3 to 6 ounces.

Barbadoes Aloes . . . . 3 to 5 drachms.

Carbonate of Soda . . . . 2 drachms.

Mint Water 8 ounces.

Mix, by dissolving the Aloes in the Mint Water by the aid of heat, and
then adding the other ingredients.

24. A Mild Opening Drench —

Castor Oil 4 ounces.

Epsom Salts 3 to 5 ounces.

Gruel . . . ... .2 pints. Mix.

25. A VERT Mild Laxative —

Castor Oil 4 ounces.

Linseed Oil 4 ounces.

Warm Water or Gruel . . .1 pint. Mix

26. Used in the Staggers —

Barbadoes Aloes . . . . 4 to 6 drachms.

Common Salt 6 ounces.

Flour of Mustard .... 1 ounce.

Water 2 pints. Mix.

27. A Gently Cooling Drench in Slight Attacks of Cold —

Epsom Salts 6 to 8 ounces.

Whey 2 pints. Mix.

28. PoBGATivB Clyster —

Common Salt 4 to 8 ounces.

Warm Water 8 to 16 pints.

ASTRINGENTS.

iFor Diarrhoea and Dysentery.)

Astringents appear to produce contraction on all living ani-
mal tissues with which they come in contact, whether in the
interior or on the exterior of the body ; and whether immediately
applied or by absorption into the circulation. But great doubt
exists as to the exact mode in which they act ; and, as in many
other cases, we are obliged to content ourselves with their effects,
and to prescribe them empirically. They are divided into astrin-
gents administered by the mouth, and those applied locally to
external ulcerated or wounded surfaces.

29 For Bloody Urine —

Powdered Catechu ... . ^ ounce.

Alum I ounce.

Cascarilla Bark in powder . . I to 2 drachms.

Liquorice Powder and Treacle enough to form a ball, to be given twice
a day.
30. Fob Diabetes—

Opium . . ' . . . . ^ drachm.
Ginger powdered . . . . 2 drachms.
Oak Bark powdered .... 1 ounce.
Alum, as much as the tea will dissolve.
Chamomile Tea .... 1 pint.

Mix for a drench.

ASTRINGENTS — BLISTERS, OR VESICANTS.

453

31. External Astringent Powders for Ulcerate o Surfaces —
Powdered Alum . . . . 4 ounces.
Armenian Bole ... .1 ounce.

32.

White Vitriol
Oxide of Zinc

33. Astringent Lotion —

Goulard Extract
Water . . .

34. Sulphate of Copper .
Water ....

35. Astringent Ointment for Sore Heels-

Acetate of Lead

Lard ....

36. Another for the Same —

Nitrate of Silver powdered
Goulard Extract
Lard ....

Mix, and use a very small portion every night,

4 ounces.

1 ounce. Mix.

2 to 3 drachms.
^ pint.

1 to 2 drachms
^ pint. Mix

I drachm.

1 ounce. Mis.

J drachm.
1 drachm
1 ounce.

BLISTERS, OR VESICANTS.

Blisters are applications which inflame the skin, and produce
a secretion of serum between the cutis and cuticle, by which the
latter is raised in the form of small bladders ; but in consequence
of the presence of the hair, these are very imperfectly seen in the
horse. They consist of two kinds — one, used for the sake of coun-
ter-irritation, by which the original disease is lessened, in conse-
quence of the establishment of this irritation at a short distance
from it; the other, commonly called "sweating" in veterinary sur-
gery, by which a discharge is obtained from the vessels of the part
itself, which are in that way relieved and unloaded. There is also
a subsequent process of absorption in consequence of the peculiar
stimulus applied.

37. Mild Blister Ointment (Counteb-Irbitant) —

Hog's Lard 4 ounces.

Venice Turpentine .... 1 ounce.
Powdered Cantharides . . .6 drachms.
Mix, and spread.

38. Stronger Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant) —

Spirit of Turpentine .... 1 ounce.

Sulphuric Acid, by measure . . 2 drachms.
Mix carefully in an open place, and add —

Hog's Lard 4 ounces.

Powdered Cantharides . . .1 ounce.
Mix, and spread.

i54 THE HOKSE.

39. Vert Strong Blister (Counteb-Ieritant) —

Strong Mercurial Ointment . . 4 ounces.

Oil of Origanum . . • • ^ ounce.

Finely-powdered Euphorbium . . 3 drachms.

Powdered Cantharides . . . i^ ounce.
Mix, and spread.

40. Rapidly Acting Blister (Counter-Irritant) —

Best Flour of Mustai-d . . .8 ounces.
Made into a paste with water ; then add —

Oil of Turpentine . . . . 2 ounces.

Strong Liquor of Ammonia . . 1 ounce.
This is to be well rubbed into the chest, belly, or back, in cases of
acute inflammation.

41. Sweating Blister —

Strong Mercurial Ointment . . 2 ounces.
Oil of Origanum .... 2 drachms.
Corrosive Sublimate . . .2 drachms.

Cantharides powdered . . .3 drachms.
Mix, and rub in with the hand.

42. Strong Sweating Blister, for Splints, Ring-Bones, Spa-v^ns,

&c.—

Biniodide of Mercury . . . 1 to li drachm.

Lard 1 ounce.

To be well rubbed into the legs, after cutting the hair short ; and followed
by the daily use of Arnica, in the shape of a wash, as follows, which is to
be painted on with a brush : —

Tincture of Arnica .... 1 ounce.
Water 12 to 15 ounces.

Mix.

43. Liquid Sweating Blisters —

Cantharides 1 ounce.

Spirit of Turpentine . . .2 ounces.

Methylated Spirit of Wine . . 1 pint.

Mix, and digest for a fortnight ; then strain.

44. Powdered Cantharides . . .1 ounce.
Commercial Pyroligneous Acid . 1 pint

Mix, and digest for a fortnight : then strain.

CAUSTICS, OR CAUTERIES.
( To destroy Proud Mesh in Wounds.')

Caustics are substances which burn away the h'ving tissues of
the body, by the decomposition of their elements. They are of
two kinds, viz. : First, the actual cautery, consisting in the appli«
cation of the burning iron, and called firing; and, secondly, the
potential cautery, by means of the powers of mineral caustics, such
as potassa fusa, lunar caustic, corrosive sublimate, &c.

Firing is described in the chapter on Operations, at page 438.

The following are the ordinary chemical applications used as
potential cauteries : —

CAUSTICS, OR CAUTERIES — CHARGES. 455

45 Fused Potass, difficult to manapje, because it runs about in all
directions, and little used in veterinary medicine.

46. Lunar Caustic, or Nitrate of Silver, very valuable to the veterinary

surgeon, and constantly used to apply to profuse granulations.

47. Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful, but not so strong as

Lunar Caustic. It may be well rubbed into all high granulations,
as in broken knees, and similar growths.

48. Corrosive Sublimate in powder, which acts most energetically

upon warty growths, but should be used with great care and dis-
cretion, it may safely be applied to small surfaces, but not with-
out a regular practitioner to large ones. It should be washed off

after remaining on a few minutes. For the mode of applying it in
castration, see page 442.

49. Yellow Orpiment is not so strong as Corrosive Sublimate, and may

be used with more freedom. It will generally remove warty
growths, by picking off their heads and rubbing it in.

50. Muriate of Antimony, called Butter of Antimony ; a strong but

rather unmanageable caustic, and used either by itself or mixed
with more or less water.

51. Chloride of Zinc is a most powerful caustic. * It may be used in

old sinuses in solution — 7 drachms in a pint of water.

Milder Caustics : —

52. Verdigris, either in powder or mixed with Lard as an ointment, in

the proportion of 1 to 3.

53. Red Precipitate, ditto, ditto.

54. Burnt Alum, used dry.

55. Powdered White Sugar.

Mild Liquid Caustics : —

56. Solution of Nitrate of Silver, 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of dis-

tilled water.

57. Solution of Blue Vitriol, of about double the above strength.

58. Chloride of Zinc, 1 to 3 grains to the ounce of water.

CHAEGES

Are ADHESIVE PLASTERS which are spread while hot on the legs,
and at once covered with short tow, so as to form a strong and un-
yielding support while the horse is at grass.

59. Obdinaby Charges—

Burgundy Pitch .... 4 ounces.

Barbadoes Tar 6 ounces.

Beeswax 2 ounces.

Red Lead 4 ounces.

The three first are to be melted together, and afterwards the Lead is to
be added. The mixture is to be kept constantly stirred until sufficiently
cold to be applied. If too .stiff (which will depend upon the weather), it
may be softened by the addition of a little Lard or Oil.

456 ^ THE HOKSE.

60. Arnica Charge —

Canada Balsam 2 ouncse.

Powdered Arnica Leaves . . . . h ounce.
The Balsam to be melted and worked up with the leaves, adding Spirits
of Turpentine if necessary. When thoroughly mixed, to be well rubbed
into the whole leg, in a thin layer, and to be covered over with the Charge
No. 59, which will set on its outside and act as a bandage, while the Ar-
nica is a restorative to the Aveakened vessels. This is an excellent appli-
cation.

CLYSTERS, OR ENEMATA.

Clysters are intended either to relieve obstruction or spasm of
the bowels, and are of great service when properly applied. They
may be made of warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will
be required in colic. They should be thrown up with the proper
syringe, provided with valves and a flexible tube.

For the turpentine clyster in colic, see Antispasmodics.

Aperient clysters, see Aperients.

61. Anodyne Clyster in Diarrhcea —

Starch, made as for washing ... 1 quart.

Powdered Opium 2 drachms.

The Opium is to be boiled in water, and added to the starch.

CORDIALS

Are ivTEDiciNES which act as temporary stimulants to the whole
system, and especially to the stomach. They augment the strength
and spirits when depressed, as after over-exertion in work.

62. Cordial Balls —

Powdered Caraway Seeds ... 6 drachms.

Ginger 2 drachms.

Oil of Cloves 20 drops.

Treacle enough to make into a ball.

63. Powdered Aniseed .... 6 drachms.
Powdered Cardamoms .... 2 drachms.

Powdered Cas^a 1 drachm.

Oil of Caraway 20 drops.

Mix with treacle into a ball.

64. Cordial Drench —

A quart of good ale warmed, and with plenty of grated
ginger.

65. Cordial and Expectorant —

Powdered Aniseed .... J ounce.

Powdered Squill 1 drachm.

Powdered Myrrh 1^ drachm.

Balsam of Peru, enough to form a ball.

66. Liquorice Powder .... J ounce.
Gum Ammoniacum .... 3 drachms.
Balsam of Tolu . . • . . . li drachm.
Powdered Squill 1 drachm.

Linseed meal and boiling water, enough to form into a mass.

DEMULCENTS — DIAPHORETICS— DIGESTIVES. 457

DEMULCENTS

Ake used for the purpose of soothing irritations of the bowels,
kidneys, or bladder, in the two last cases by their effect upon the
secretion of urine.

67. Demulcent Drench —

Gum Arabic ^ ounce.

Water 1 pint.

Dissolve and give as a drench night and morning, or mixed with a mash.

68. Linseed 4 ounces.

Water 1 quart.

Simmer till a strong and thick decoction is obtained, and give as above

69. Marshmallow Drench —

Marshmallows A double hand-
Water 1 quart, [ful.

Simmer, as in No. 68, and use in the same way.

DIAPHOEETICS

Have a special action on the skin, increasing the perspiration
Hometimes to an enormous extent.

70. Ordinary Diaphoretic Drench —

Solution of Acetate of Ammonia . . 3 to 4 ounceB.

Laudanum 1 ounce.

Mix, and give at night. Or,

71. Solution of Acetate of Ammonia . . 2 ounces.
Spirit of Nitric -iEther .... 2 ounces.

Mix, and give as above. .

72. In Hide-bound —

Emetic Tartar IJ drachm.

Camphor ^ drachm.

Ginger 2 drachms.

Opium ^ drachm.

Oil of Caraway 15 drops.

Linseed meal and boiling water, to form a ball, which is to be given
twice or thrice a week.

73. In Hide-bound (but not so efficacious) —

Antimonial Powder .... 2 drachms.

Ginger 1 drachm.

Powdered Caraways .... 6 drachms.

Oil of Aniseed 20 drops.

Mix as above.

These remedies require moderate exercise in clothing to bring
oat their effects, after which the horse should be whisped till quite
dry.

DIGESTIVES.
Digestives are applications which promote suppuration, and the
healing of wounds or ulcers.
39

458 THE HORSE.

74. Digestive Ointment —

Bed Precipitate 2 ounces.

Venice Turpentine .... 3 ounces.

Beeswax 1 ounce.

Hog's Lard 4 ounces.

Melt the three last ingredients over a slow fire, and when nearly cold
stir in the powder.

DroEETICS.

Diuretics are medicines which promote the secretion and dis-
charge of urine, the effect being produced in a different manner by
different medicines; some acting directly upon the kidneys by
sympathy with the stomach, while others are taken up by the
blood-vessels, and in their elimination from the blood cause an
extra secretion of the urine. In either case their effect is to
diminish the watery part of the blood, and thus promote the absorp-
tion of fluid effused into any of the cavities, or into the cellular
membrane in the various forms of dropsy.

75. Stimulating Diuretic Ball —

Powdered Resin .... 3 drachms.

Sal Prunelle 3 drachms.

Castile Soap 3 drachms.

Oil of Juniper 1 drachm. Mix.

76. A MORE Cooling Diuretic Ball —

Powdered Nitre . . . . ^ to 1 ounce.

Camphor 1 drachm.

Juniper berries . . ... .1 drachm.

Soap ...... 3 drachms.

Mix, adding linseed meal enough to form a ball.

77. Diuretic Powder for a Mash —

Nitre ^ to | ounce.

Resin I to f ounce. Mix.

78. Another more Active Powdbb —

Nitre 6 drachms.

Camphor H drachm. Mix.

EMBEOCATIONS.

Embrocations, or Liniments, are stimulating or sedative
external applications, intended to reduce the pain and inflamma-
tion of internal parts when rubbed into the skin with the hand.

79. Mustard Embrocation —

Best Flour of Mustard . . .6 ounces.
Li(|uor of Ammonia . . . .1^ ounce.
Oil of. Turpentine . . . . U ounce.
Mix with sufficient water to form a thin paste.

EMBROCATIONS — EMULSIONS — EXPECTORANTS. 459

i ounce.

J ounce.
1 ounce.

Mix

2 ounces.

f ounce.
2 drachms
1 ounce.

'Mix.

2 ounces'.

1 ounce.

^ ounce.
1 ounce.

Mix.

^ to 1 drachm.

i drachm.

2 ounces. Mix

80. Stimulating Embrocation —

Camphor ....
Oil of Turpentine
Spirit of Wine .

81. Sweating Embrocation for Windgalls

Strong Mercurial Ointment
Camphor ....
Oil of Kosemary
Oil of Turpentine

82. Another, but Stronger —

Strong Mercurial Ointment
Oil of Bay
Oil of Origanum
Powdered Cantharides

83. A MOST Active Sweating Embrocation

Biniodide of Mercury
Powdered Arnica Leaves .
Soap Liniment .

. EMULSIONS.

When oily matters have their globules broken down by
friction with mucilaginous substances, such as gum arabic or yelk
of egg, they are called emulsions, and are specially useful in sooth-
ing irritation of the mucous membrane, of the trachea, and bronchi

84. Simple Emuxsion —

Linseed Oil 2 ounces.

Honey 3 ounces.

Soft Water 1 pint.

Subcarbon>,te of Potass .... 1 drachm.
Dissolve the honey and potass in the water ; then add the linseed oil by
degrees in a large mortar, when it should assume a milky appearance.
It may be given night and morning.

85. Another more active Emulsion —

Simple Emulsion, No. 84 ... 7 ounces.

Camphdr 1 drachm.

Opium in Powder J drachm.

Oil of Aniseed 30 drops.

Rub the three last ingredients together in a mortar with some white
sugar ; then add the emulsion by degrees.

EXPECTORANTS.

Expectorants excite or promote a discharge of mucus from
the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes, thereby relieving in-
flammation and allaying cough.

86. Expectorant Ball in Ordinary Cough without Inflam*

MATION —

Gum Ammoniacum .... J ounce.

Powdered Squill 1 drachm.

Castile Soap 2 drachms.

Honey enough to form a ball.

460 THE HORSE.

87. In Old Standing CorroH (Stomach) —

Asafcetida 3 drachms.

Galbanum 1 drachm.

Carbonate of Ammonia . . . ^ drachm.

Ginger 1^ drachm.

Honey enough to form a ball.

88. A Steong Expectorant Bali, —

Emetic Tartar ^ drachm.

Calomel 15 grains.

Digitalis ^ drachm.

Powdered Squills I drachm.

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball, which is not to be re-
peated without great care.

FEBRIFUGES

{Fiver Balls and Powders),

Generally called fever medicines, are given to allay the arte-
rial and nervous excitements which accompany febrile action.
They do this partly by their agency on the heart and arteries
through the nervous system, and partly by increasing the secre-
tions of the skin and kidneys.

89. Fevee Ball —

Nitre 4 drachms.

Camphor U drachm.

Calomel and Opium, of each . 1 scruple.

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. Or,

90. Emetic Tartar 1 J to 2 drachms.

Compound Powder of Tragacanth . 2 drachms.

Linseed meal as above. Or,

91. Nitre 3 drachms.

Camphor 2 drachms.

Mix as above.

92. Cooling Powder for Mabh —

Nitre 6 drs. to 1 onnce.

May be given in a bran mash.

93. Cooling Drench —

Nitre I ounce.

Sweet Spirit of Nitre . . -2 ounces.
Tincture of Digitalis . . .2 drachms.
Whey 1 pint.

LOTIONS, OR WASHES

Consist in liquids applied tc the external parts, either to cool
chem or to produce a healthy action in the vessels.

LOTIONS, OR WASHES, ETC. 461

94. Cooling Solution for External Inflammation —

Goulard Extract .... 1 ounce.

Vinegar 2 ounces.

Spirits of Wine, or Gin . . .3 ounces.

Water IJ pint.

Mix, and apply with a calico bandage.

95. Another, useful for Inflamed Legs, ob for Galled Shoul-

ders OR Back —

Sal Ammoniac 1 ounce.

Vinegar ...... 4 ounces.

Spirits of Wine .... 2 ounces.

Tincture of Arnica .... 2 draclims.

Water ^ pint. Mix.

96. Lotion for Foul Ulcers —

Sulphate of Copper .... 1 ounce.

Nitric Acid . . . . . ^ ounce.

Water 8 to 12 ounces.

Mix.

97. Lotion for the Ete8 —

Sulphate of Zinc . . . . '•^9 to 25 grains.

Water 6 ounces. Mix.

98. Vert Strong One, and only to be dropped in —

Nitrate of Silver . . . . 5 to 8 grains.

Distilled Water .... 1 ounce.

Mix, and use with a camel-hair brash.

NARCOTICS.

A DISTINCTION is Sometimes made between anodynes and narcot-
ics, but in veterinary medicine there is no necessity for separating
them. (See Anodynes.)

REFEIGERANTS

Lower the animal heat by contact with the skin, the ordinary
ones being cold air, cold water, ice, and evaporative lotions. (See
Lotions.)

SEDATIVES

Depress the action of the circulatory and nervous systems, with-
out affecting the mental functions. They are very powerful in their
effects ; and digitalis, which is the drug commonly used for this
purpose, has a special quality known by the name of cumulative —
that is to say, if repeated small doses are given at intervals for a
certain time, an effect is produced almost equal to that which would
follow the exhibition of the whole quantity at once. Besides digi-
talis, aconite is also sometimes used to lower the action of the heart,
and by many it is supposed to be equal in potency to that drug,
without the danger which always attends its use.
39*

462 THE HORSE.

STIMULANTS.

Br THIS TERM is understood those substances which excite the
action of the whole nervous and vascular systems. Almost all
medicines are stimulants to some part or other, as, for instance,
aperients, which stimulate the lining of the bowels, but to the
general system are lowering. On the other hand, stimulants, so
called -par excellence^ excite and raise the action of the brain and
heart.

99. Old Ale 1 quart.

Carbonate of Ammonia . . . ^ to 2 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger . ... 4 drachms.
Mix, and give as a drench.

For other stimulants, see Cordials.

STOMACHICS.

Stomachics are medicines given to improve the tone of the
Btomach when impaired by bad management or disease.

100. Stomach Ball —

Powdered Gentian . . . . ^ ounce.
Powdered Ginger . . . .1^ drachm.
Carbonate of Soda .... 1 drachm.
Treacle to form a ball. Or,

101. Cascarilla, powderei^ . . .1 ounce.
Myrrh . . . . . • I5 drachm.
Castile Soap 1 drachm.

Mix, with syrup or treacle, into a ball. Or,

102. Powdered Colombo . . . . ^ to 1 ounce.
Powdered Cassia .... 1 drachm.
Powdered Rhubarb .... 2 drachms.

Mix as in No. 2.

STYPTICS.

Styptics are remedies which have a tendency to stop the flow
of blood either from internal or external surfaces. They are used
either by the mouth, or to the part itself in the shape of lotions,
etc. ; or the actual cautery, which is always the best in external
bleeding, may be employed. Sometimes, however, the part cannot
be reached with the heated iron, and is yet within the in^uence of
an injection, as in bleeding from the nostrils, for which the fol-
lowing may be employed :

103. Matico Leaves J ounce.

Boiling Water 1 pint.

Infuse, and when cold strain and inject into the nostrils.

For internal styptics, see Astringents.

TONICS. 463

TONICS

Augment the vigor of the whole body permanently, while stimu-
lants only act for a short time. They are chiefly useful after low
fever.

104. Tonic Ball—

Sulphate of Iron , . . . ^ ounce.
Extract of Camomile . . .1 ounce.

Mix, and form into a ball. Or,

105. Arsenic 10 grains.

Ginger 1 drachm.

Powdered Aniseed .... 1 ounce.
Compound Powder of Tragacanth . 2 drachms.

Syrup enough to form a balL It is a very powerful tonic.

VERMIFUGES, OR WORM MEDICINES,
Are described under the head of Anthelmintics, which see.

CHAPTER XXIX.

ON soundness; and on the purchase and sale of horses.

The elastic conscience of a horsedealer has become a
byword ; but I confess that my experience does not lead me to con-
clude that the class is more open to charges of unfair dealing than
many others whose proceedings have lately been exposed in the
Bankruptcy and Nisi Prius law courts. Few intending purchasers
of a horse will be content with anything less than what they believe
to be absolute perfection in him ; and if the seller tells the truth
about the animal he has to dispose of, his chance of a sale would be
a poor one. The dealer is, therefore, placed in the dilemma of being
compelled either to give his horse a character which he does not
deserve, or to forego all chance of a sale ; and hence it is not sur-
prising that he draws rather extensively upon his imagination.
According to my experience, however, amateurs are not exempt
from this failing; and if I were compelled to purchase a horse from
character alone, I should far prefer relying upon that given by a re-
spectable dealer. The latter class are, no doubt, more skilled in
hiding defects and disease, and therefore it requires a more prac-
ticnl knowledge of the horse to detect their artifices where they are
sufficiently shortsighted to adopt them. On the whole, however, it
may generally be concluded that unless a gentleman has had an ex-
tensive experience in purchasing horses, he will do well to place
himself in the hands of a dealer, telling him exactly what he ivants,
and not pretending a knowledge which he does not possess.

464 THE HORSE.

In all large towns there are men of some character and standing
who may be selected for this purpose; and in London, Dublin,
Edinburgh, Birmingham, Liverpool, Cheltenham, and Leamington,
there are repositories, where horses are sold by auction on stated
days. These auction-marts save the vendor from all responsibility,
whether pecuniary or moral, unless a warranty is given, either of
soundness or freedom from vice, and then the stipulation only lasts
for forty-eight hours. If the horse is returned within that time,
accompanied by a certificate of unsoundness or vice, the auctioneer
must take him back, and return the purchase-money, unless he is
prepared to dispute the evidence which is forwarded to him.
Under ordinary warranties there is no limitation of the time to
which they shall extend, and a horse warranted sound may be re-
turned at any subsequent time if the purchaser can prove that he
was unsound at the time of sale. But the lapse of several weeks
or months without doing so is generally considered to be a strong
argument that the purchaser did not consider the animal to be un-
sound until he gave notice to the vendor ; and this is stroug pre-
sumptive evidence that the unsoundness did not exist.

The definition of unsoundness is, " the existence of dis-
ease or alteration of structure which does or will impair the horse's
natural usefulness." Vice also may be defined, on a similar prin-
ciple, as '" the prevalence of a habit which interferes with the
horse's natural usefulness." But these definitions must be taken
with some modifications, for there is not one horse in a hundred
which does not possess some disease or vice likely to impair his
general usefulness to some slight extent ; indeed, the proportion of
strictly sound horses may be considered to be much smaller even
than this. A bad feeder is so generally from a disordered state of
stomach, and such a horse cannot stand work like one which will
consume double the quantity of corn, yet he would not be consid-
ered unsound ; nor would a horse be returnable as vicious if he
showed the usual symptoms of being " fresh," though they might
impair his usefulness in carrying a timid rider. But subject to
such modifications, the above definitions may be accepted as suf-
ficient to make intelligible the terms, Unsoundness and Vice.

The following diseases and accidents are generally consid-
ered not to render their possessors unsound : —

Bog spavin, in a slight degree only.

A broken knee, unless the joint is injured so as to impair its
functions, is not considered to be unsoundness.

Capped hocks and elbows do not produce any lameness, nor
do they in any way interfere with the action of the joints to which
they are adjacent.

Contraction op the foot is no evidence of disease, and, taken
by itself, is not sufficient to prove it to be unsound.

ON SOUNDNESS. 466

Crib-biting was decided, in the cases of Brocnnmhunj v. Hay-
cock and Scolrfield v Rohh, not to be unsoundness; but. BaroD
Parker ruled in the hitter that it came witliin the meaning of the
word " vice." Undoubtedly this is a habit which is generally at-
tended by impaired digestion, and, as such, it comes strictly within
the definition given above ; but the law is as I have stated it.

CuRBY HOCKS, though experience may tell us they are likely to'
be attended by curbs, are decided not to be unsoundness. In
Brown V. Bikingfon, the attention of the vendor was directed to
the hocks by the purchaser before the sale, as likely to spring curbs ;
but in the action on the warranty it was held by Lord Abinger that
" a defect in the formation of the horse, which had not occasioned
lameness at the time of sale, though it might render the animal
more liable to be lame at some future time, was no breach of war-
ranty;" and the Court of Exchequer confirmed this view of the
law, by refusing a rule for a new trial.

Cutting, on the same principle, is no breach of warranty, unless
the horse is lame from it at the time of sale.

A SPLINT is not, in itself, evidence of unsoundness ; but if it is
so situated as necessarily to interfere with the suspensory ligament
or tendons, or if it has already produced lameness, it is to be
accepted as a mark of unsoundness.

Thoroughpin, when existing to a moderate extent, is not suf-
ficient to render the horse unsound; but this will always be a ques-
tion of opinion, and a horse with thoroughpin is, therefore, not to
be warranted with safety.

Thrush, occurring from mismanagement only, and not from any
defect in the horse, is clearly not to be considered as unsoundness.

Soreness of the joints from work, as it soon goes off after a
short rest, is not accepted as unsoundness.

WiNDGALLS are also only evidences of work, and do not usually
cause lameness. When this coexists, it is sufficient to produce
unsoundness, without resorting to the windgalls.

The following list comprises the diseases and injuries which
have been settled as sufficient to entitle the purchaser to return a
horse warranted sound : —

Bog spavin, when it is so severe as clearly to interfere with the
action of the joint; and BLOOD SPAVIN, as marking an aggi-avated
form of the same disease.

Breaking down, even though the horse is restored so as to run
without lameness.

Broken wind.

Cataract, in any degree.

Corns, unless very trifling; but they should be discovered within
a few days of the sale, or it may be alleged that they have been
produced by subsequent mismanagement.
2g

466 THE HORSE.

CoTJGn, as long as it lasts. A horse with chronic cough is
clearly returnable.

Curbs constitute unsoundness ; but they must be shown to exist
at the time of purchase, for a horse may throw one out immediately
after he is transferred to the purchaser.

Diseases of the organic kind in any of the internal viscera.

Farcy.

Founder, or laminitis, whether it produces lameness or not,
if it manifestly has existed, is to be accepted as unsoundness ; for
when there is evidence of its previous occurrence, the laminae are
injured so much as inevitably to lead to lameness when the horse is
put to work.

Grease, and Glanders.

Manoe. ^

Megrims, when the attack comes on subsequently to the sale,
and can be shown to have occurred before it.

A NERVED horse is unsound from the existence of the disease
for which the operation has been performed, as well as from the
division of the nerves.

Ophthalmia, if it can be proved to have previously existed,
and conies on soon after the purchase, is to be received as unsound-
ness. So, also, when any of the evidences of its previous presence
can be detected, and are proved by a veterinary surgeon, the horse
is returnable.

Ossification of any of the structures adjacent to the joints is
unsoundness, and hence ossification of the lateral cartilages will be
considered so, without doubt.

Pumiced foot, as evidence of laminitis.

QUIDDING.
QUITOR.

Ringbones, and Sidebones, whether large or small, are un-
doubtedly sufficient to constitute a horse unsound.

EoAiiiNG, whistling, &c., as evidence of contraction of the rima
glottidis, and therefore interfering with respiration.

Ruptures op all kinds.

Spavin (bone), although it may not have occasioned lameness,
if it is clearly the disease so named.

Stringhalt has been decided to be unsoundness ( Thompson v.
Patterson).

Thick wind, as marking some impediment to respiration.

Thrush, when it is in one of its severe forms, and not caused
by mismanagement.

Thickening of the back sinews, or suspensory ligament,
when existing to any extent easily appreciable, is to be received as
a proof of unsoundness.

Retlrnable Vices are comprehended in the following list:—

ON SOUNDNESS, 467

Biting, when carried to any unusual extent.

Bolting or running away.

Crib-biting.

Kicking, when more than usual.

Restiveness, or refusal to pi-oceed in the desired direction.

Bearing.

Shying, when marked.

Weaving in the stable.

When a horse is purchased with the conditions that he ia
warranted sound, or free from vice, or quiet to ride and drive, the
warranty must either be in writing, or given in the presence of a
disinterested third person. The form of warranty is as follows, and
it is better that it should be on the same paper as the stamped
receipt, though this is not absolutely necessary if it is shown that
the receipt is properly given.

Date.

Beceived of A. B. C. fifty pounds for a bay gelding, by Small-
hopes, warranted five years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet to
ride and drive.

501. X. Y. Z.

Any one or more of these points may be omitted, or the horse may
simply be warranted " a good hack," in which case he must fairly
answer that description. The terms " has been hunted," or " has
carried a lady," are not to be trusted, as it is only necessary to
prove in defence that the horse has seen hounds, and had a woman
on his back.

Whether the horse under examination is to be war-
ranted or not, the intending purchaser should never omit to look
over every point where unsoundness is likely to occur. To do this
effectually it should be done regularly, by which there is less chance
of passing over any serious defect. The usual mode of proceeding
is as follows. Under no circumstances, if it can possibly be avoided,
should the horse be looked at immediately after having been out of
doors ; and if he is of necessity brought to the purchaser, let him
be put in the stable and quietly rested for one or two hours at the
least, by which time the effects of most of the " coping " tricks
will have gone off.

Before the horse passes the stable-door, stop him with
his head just inside, and in that position carefully examine his eyes.
The light is exactly suited to this, and the sensibility of the iris
may be well judged of Any specks or opacities are also here
readily seen. Then let him be led to a level surface, and then pro-
ceed to look over every part, beginning with that nearest the one
already inspected, namely, the mouth. Then "cough" him by
tightly grasping the larynx, by which some idea may be formed of

468 THE HORSE.

the state of his respiratory organs, after which the usual nianceuvrt
with the stick may be practised if there is no opportunity of ex-
amining into his freedom from roaring in the saddle. When these
points are satisflictorily disposed of, look to the position of the fore
legs, that is, whether they are turned in or out, and if the latter
feel the elbows, and see if they are confined or "tied," that is too
close to the ribs, also look for marks of cutting and speedy cutting.
Pass the hand down the back sinews and suspensory ligaments, ex-
amine the knees for any marks, and then carefully feel the coronets
and heels for any marks of exostosis or ossification. Lastly, take a
good look at the front of the foot, and then lifting it inspect the
frog, heels and sole. This will complete the front half of the body,
after which the form of the middle and loins should be regarded,
and then, lifting the tail, the openness or otherwise of the space
round the anus will give some idea of the strength of constitution,
while the resistance afforded by the dock will be a sign of the mus-
cular strength of the back. Then look carefully at the hocks, ex-
amine the spavin and curb places, and finish the whole by passing
the hand down the hind cannon bones to the fetlocks, and feel
them in the same order as in the fore legs. Now let the horse rest
a minute if his groom will let him, with his head quite at liberty,
and you will be able to judge of his ordinary habit of standing,
when unexcited. At the conclusion of this careful examination
while at rest, the action must be as minutely investigated, by first
having the horse walked with a loose rein, and then trotted in the
same way slowly, when .if he is sound he will put his feet down
regularly and firmly. Grooms, when they want to conceal defects,
will not let the head be loose, nor will they trot slowly, but bustle
the horse along with their hands as close as possible to the mouth,
so as to prevent any nodding of the head as much as they can. A
very good judge will be perhaps able to select a pleasant pack or
harness horse by seeing him thus run, and afterwards ridden, but a
far better test is to ride or drive him yourself, when his freedom
from vice, or disease, may be ascertained, as well as his manners,
and the ease of his various paces. No trouble should be spared to
get this real trial, which is worth ten per cent, on the purchase-
money, for many a horse which looks to go well does not feel so, and
it is well worth that sum to be saved the trouble attending upon the
possession of a horse which does not suit. When, however, after
such a careful examination by a competent judge, and subsequent
trial in the saddle or in harness, the horse is found to be really
likely to answer all the purposes for which he is wanted, a few
pounds should never prevent his being obtained.

"4!#j^vf'

I ill If

WHAT TO DO BEFORE

yETEEi:N^ARY SURGEO:^ COMES.

GEORGE FLEMING, F.R.C.V.S.,

AUTHOR OF

' TEXT BOOK OP VETERINARY OBSTETRICS," " PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING," " ANIMAL
PLAGUES," "rabies AND HYDROPHOBIA," "HORSESHOES AND HORSE-
SHOEING," ETC., EDITOR OP THE VETERINARY JOURNAL.

(469)

WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE VETERINARY SURGEON
COMES.

Those who own or have much to do with animals of various
kinds, know only too well at times how seriously accidents or dis-
ease may diminish the value of these, and cause much incon-
venience ; and this loss and inconvenience are all the greater in
proportion to the worth of these creatures, either as food producers,
servants, companions, or pets. For the treatment of casualties and
maladies, when they are at all of a grave kind, the services of the
veterinary surgeon are necessary, if permanent impairment, pro-
tracted recovery, or even death, is to be averted. With the great
advance which has been made of late years in veterinary medicine
and surgery, owners of animals have benefited to a corresponding
extent, while the animals themselves have had their sufferings
abridged and diminished very considerably.

But it is obvious that accidents may occur, or diseases that run
their course very rapidly may set in, which demand immediate at-
tention to prevent serious or irreparable consequences ; and as
veterinary aid may not be immediately forthcoming, in the interests
of humanity, not less than in their own, the owners of animals
should not be altogether ignorant of what is necessary to be done
in such emergencies. But while insisting upon their possessing
suflScient knowledge to enable them to give such assistance as may
for the time being obviate danger, we are far from advising them
to dispense with the skill and advice of a competent veterinary sur-
geon whenever the case appears to demand his services. Of course,
it is difficult to say when these services may or may not be neces-
sary, as what might seem a very trivial accident or ailment may
prove to be of the gravest kind. It is, therefore, advisable in
accident or disease, after rendering all the help the amateur is
capable of, to consult the veterinary surgeon in good time, and not
delay until it is too late and his knowledge unavailing. Great
numbers of valuable animals are annually lost, not only through
the carelessness or ignorance of their owners or attendants, but also
through unjustifiable delay in sending for the veterinary surgeon,
or dispensing with his services altogether from motives of economy.
More especially is this the case with regard to such creatures as the

(471)

472 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

sheep and pig, which are usually left to the mercy of shepherds
and uneducated persons, who, however worthy they may be in other
respects, yet know nothing or next to nothing of medicine or sur-
gery, and are consequently far more likely to do harm than good by
their interference, particularly in the matter of disease.

It will therefore be understood that the following hints are not
meant to enable non-veterinary people to " doctor " animals, but
merely to put them in a position to act usefully in emergencies, be-
fore the veterinary surgeon comes.

Wounds. — Animals, and especially horses, are very often
wounded, and the seriousness of the wound will depend not only
upon its extent and character, but also upon the part in which it is
made, and especially on the amount of bleeding that takes place.
With regard to character, wounds are incised, lacerated, contused,
and punctured.

Incised tvounds are clean cut by some sharp body, and the parts
are merely cut through, not torn or bruised ; they are made by
glass, knife, scythe, or any other keen-edged instrument or body,
and do not often contain foreign matters, as dirt, grit, &c. If clean,
and not extensive, and the bleeding slight, they may not require
anything done to them until the veterinary surgeon arrives, except
keeping them clean. If there is bleeding, cold water may be ap-
plied, and the edges of the wound brought as near to each other
as possible by means of a bandage, by pins passed through the lips
of the wound at intervals of an inch or so, and twine twisted round
them, or by stitches with a strong needle and thick thread. Should
the bleeding be profuse, steps must be actively taken to check it
until proper aid is procured. Pressure must be made by plugging
the wound with tow, cotton-wool, lint, or a handkerchief, if there
be space ; if the wound be in a limb, then bandaging the part
tightly with a handkerchief may check the hemorrhage for the
time; if it does not, then severe pressure should be made on the
course of the large vessels above the wound, by making a bandage
or handkerchief into a firm roll, placing it over the vessels — which
are always on the inside of the limb — and securing it there by
another bandage. The animal should be kept quiet.

Lacerated wounds are generally more serious than incised wounds,
as the parts are torn and jagged. They are produced by hooks,
nails, b.tes, kicks, sharp prominences, stakes in fields, &c. There
is seldom so much bleeding as in incised wounds, the vessels being
torn instead of cut. They are serious from their extent, the parts
injured, and the after consequences. In the region of the belly
they may be extremely dangerous, especially if the skin and mus-
cles are so torn that the intestines protrude, or the cavity of the
abdomen be opened. Remove any foreign matters from the wound

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES, 473

by the fingers, washing with cold or tepid water, and treat as an
incised wound, by either bandage, pin?, or stitches. Tears of the
abdominal muscles should be treated by stitches, if possible ; and
if the bowels protrude, the veterinary surgeon should be sent for
without delay. Until he arrives the intestines should be cleaned
in warm water, if soiled, placed on a cloth, gently returned, and
retained by a wide bandage fastened round the body. Sometimes
the muscles of the belly are lacerated without the skin being torn,
and the intestines make a large swelling beneath the skin. In this
case also the wide bandage is most useful. Should there be bleed-
ing, apply cold water or plug the wound. If the chest is opened,
the body bandage is also to be resorted to, to prevent admission of
air. In parts where the skin is fine and thin, as the eyelids and
nostrils, the edges of the wound should be brought into apposition
as soon as possible, so as to obtain adhesion quickly. Fine pins or
stitches, or glue or pitch plasters, will effect this.

Contused wounds are the most frequent of any among the larger
animals, and they are serious from the fact that the parts wounded
are also much bruised and torn, so that their vitality is more or
less impaired, and sloughing is apt to ensue, abscesses to form, &c.
They are produced by falls, kicks, blows, collisions, bites, &c. Very
serious contused wounds are those which occur to joints, as the
knees and hocks, and especially when the joints are opened.

For contused wounds generally warm water fomentations are
best : at any rate, until all grit and foreign matter is removed.
Poultices are good supplementary agents, particularly for joints.
When the contusions to limbs or joints are severe, the animal should
be moved as little as possible. Some contusions and wounds are
so serious when inflicted, that there is extreme depression and
symptoms of collapse, manifested by cold sweats, trembling, un-
steady gait, and coldness of limbs and surface of body. A quart
of oatmeal gruel with two or three ounces of brandy, to a horse or
ox, and a tablespoonful or so of brandy-and-water to a dog, will be
beneficial under these circumstances. Rubbing the body and keep-
ing it warm will assist in restoring strength.

Punctured loounds are produced by sharp-pointed objects, and
most important parts and organs may be penetrated without scarcely
any external indication of the mischief done. If there is bleeding,
plug the wound or apply pressure outside until the veterinary sur-
geon crmes. Very otten the sole of the horse's foot is wounded by
sharp flints, nails, &c. The gravity of the wound will depend upon
its depth and situation. A nail penetrating the sole deeply towards
the point of the frog is a serious accident. Remove the nail care-
fully by pulling it straight and steadily out, have the shoe taken
oflf, all the horn removed from around the wound, keep the foot in

474 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

a bucket of hot water for an hour or two, then immerse it in a
large warm bran poultice. If the foot can be poulticed with a
high-heeled shoe fastened on it, so much the better.

Punctured wounds of the feet caused by the farrier driving the
nails too near or into the quick in shoeing, are not uncommon.
Tapping around the foot with a hammer, or pinching it with pin-
cers, will reveal the part where the injury has been inflicted. The
shoe must be taken off", the horn removed all round the puncture,
and the wound well opened out, to allow any matter that has formed
to escape. Then immerse the foot in hot water, and afterwards
poultice.

Bleeding from the sole or frog, the result of wound, is easily
checked by pressure with tow, lint, or a handkerchief, maintained
against the wounded part by means of two pieces of hoop iron or
tough wood laid across each other between the shoe and the foot.

Fractures. — It is a somewhat popular notion that broken bones
in animals, and especially those of the limbs, do not mend readily;
and it consequently happens that horses and other creatures are im-
mediately destroyed, when, in many cases, with proper care and
treatment, they might recover and be as valuable as ever. When
the bones of the head and jaws are fractured, unless there are grave
complications indeed, there is little danger, and a skillful veterinary
surgeon can in the great majority of cases make a complete cure,
provided he is present in good time. Until he arrives, little can be
done beyond keeping the animal quiet. If the lower jaw is broken,
it may be supported against the upper one and bones of the face by
a bandage, and stiff" pieces of leather or pasteboard placed length-
ways. Broken ribs are supported by a wide bandage round the
chest. Sometimes the tail is broken in horses and cattle, and in
this accident a leather or pasteboard splint, or a starch bandage
(made by soaking a bandage in ordinary domestic starch, and
wrapping it round the part while still moist), will suffice as a tem-
porary measure. It not unfrequently happens with the horse, that
in heavy falls the pelvis is fractured, so that when the animal rises
it drags or strikes the toe or toes of the hind feet to such an extent
that it cannot travel any distance ; the fetlocks double over, the
limbs give way, and repeated falls are the consequence. To get the
horse home to his stable, it is necessary to prevent this striking and
doubling of the limb or limbs, by passing a rope or band round the
pastern and pulling the foot forward in progression. If there is
intense lameness and inability to walk, the animal should cither be
allowed to remain at the nearest stable, or conveyed home in a bul-
lock wagon.

Fractures of the limbs are serious, according to the nature of the
fracture and the bone fractured. Fractures are simple, compound,

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 475

and comminuted. A simple fracture is merely the bone broken into
two portions ; it is compound when the broken bones lacerate the
soft parts around them ; and comminuted when the bone is reduced
to a number of pieces. A simple fracture is the least serious, and
provided the broken ends can be maintained in apposition, and no
important parts — as joints — are involved, recovery takes place more
readily in animals, perhaps, than in man. A compound fracture ia
sometimes hopeless, when the soft parts torn are of importance ;
and a comminuted fracture is generally a hopeless one.

As a rule, no animal should be destroyed for fracture — especially
if it be a valuable animal — until it has been seen by a veterinary
surgeon ; as 1 have known horses, dogs, cows, goats, and sheep,
killed from a leg being broken when a cure could have been
effected.

Until the veterinary surgeon comes the animal should be kept as
quiet as possible, and the broken bone fixed by means of a bandage
round it, above which wooden, pasteboard, stiff leather, or gutta-
percha splints should be fastened. Gutta-percha makes an excel-
lent splint, as when steeped in warm water it is softened, and can
then be moulded to the shape of the part. To prevent movement,
the greater portion of the limb should be enveloped in bandages.
If the fracture is compound, the bone should be " set," i. e.,
straightened, so that the broken parts meet; then the wound
should be treated with cold water, if there is bleeding, after which
a linen bandage or handkerchief must be tied round it, then
splints. With small animals — as the dog, sheep, goat, pig, and
cat — a starch bandage, or Burgundy pitch melted and spread on
a bandage, answers very well. Horses sometimes receive a kick
from another horse on the inside of the thigh-bone, above the hock,
where the bone is only covered by the skin, and displacement or
fracture does not take place at the time — the bone being only
cracked. In some cases there is lameness ; in other cases it is so
slight that the horse is kept at work, and many days may elapse
before disunion occurs. I have known a horse perform hard work for
seventeen days after receiving the kick, before the leg became com-
pletely broken.) When, therefore, a horse receives an injury of
this kind, every precaution should be taken, and he ought not to
be allowed to lie down for three weeks or a month. If the bone
has been really cracked, in the course of a few days a hard swelling
will appear at the seat of contusion — the new matter thrown out to
repair the fracture.

In all fractures of limb-bones there is great and sudden lameness,
and if manipulation be made, crepitation, or grating of the broken
pieces of bone on each other, will generally be felt. Cold water
continually applied to a fractured limb greatly alleviates pain.

476 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

Dislocations. — Dislocations in animals are not infrequent, and
some of them are extremely serious, while others are not so.
When they occur in the joints of tlie limbs, there is great
lameness and more or less deformity. They may occur in various
situations ; indeed, there are no joints which may not be dis-
located, though some are much more exposed to this accident than
others.

The prompt reduction of a dislocation is above all things neces-
sary, and it should be effected, if possible, without delay. Exten-
sion— pulling the dislocated bones apart, with perhaps side pressure
at the same time — is to be made, and then a bandage should be
wrapped round the joint, if it belong to a limb. Cold water should
then be applied, and the animal kept at rest.

Sometimes dislocation of the stifle occurs in young or weakly
horses — the stifle-bone (patella) slipping off to the outside of the
joint, producing a peculiar kind of lameness. The hind leg is
more or less thrust backwards, and the horse cannot bring it for-
ward— consequently he drags it stiffly behind him. No dislocation
is so easily reduced, 'ihe leg is to be pulled well forward by
means of a rope round the pastern, and the stifle-bone, which pro-
jects outwards, is then smartly pushed forward : it makes a clicking
noise when it gets in its natural place.

Dislocation of the lower jaw sometimes occurs in the dog,
through opening the mouth too wide when giving the animal
medicine. The creature cannot close its mouth, and the lower jaw
is rather protruded. To reduce this dislocation, place a round
piece of wood — a thick pencil or roller, according to the size of the
dog — across the mouth, and well back. Then endeavor to close the
mouth in front, pushing biek the lower jaw at the same time,
when it will enter the joint with a jerk. It is best to do this, and,
indeed, all operations on the dog's mouth, with gloves on the hands.
The wood in some instances may be dispensed with, the lower jaw
being press-^d firmly downward and backward.

Sprains. — Sprains are not, as a rule, so serious as the majority
of fractures, and there is not the same urgency with regard to them,
though when very severe they may be mistaken for fractures.
More especially is this the case with sprain of the muscles and
ligaments of the horse's back, which if very intense might be con-
founded with broken back. But in the latter paralysis is more or
less complete, and the hind legs are colder than the fire ones,
while sensation is generally lost. Pricking the legs with a pin
will prove the absence of sensation. Broken back is hopeless,
while sprained back may quite recover. If the accident has
occurred away from home, and the horse cannot travel, he ought to'
be carried in a bullock or low flat cart. Slings will probably be

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 477

necessary when lie reaches the stable, and these, with the necessary
attention, must be furnished by the veterinary surgeon.

Sprains of tendons or ligaments in the limbs vary in intensity
and gravity, and cause more or less lameness. Pain on manipula-
tion, and increased temperature, with swelling, and a characteristic
mode of progression, mark the seat of injury for those accustomed
to horses. Until the veterinary surgeon arrives, hot fomentations
or cold water applications may be resorted to. If tendons or liga-
ments at the back part of a limb are injured — indeed, in every
instance in which a horse cannot put his heel to the ground — a
high-heeled or patten shoe should be put on the foot. This is
generally half the cure, as it relieves the part which is sprained.

A word of caution is necessary, however, with regard to sprains.
In all cases of lameness, unless there is exceedingly conclusive
evidence to the contrary, the foot should be suspected as the seat of
lameness, and especially the shoeing as a cause.

Burns and Scalds. — All the domestic animals are liable to
be burned or scalded : the larger from their dwellings taking fire,
or their being employed in certain works; and the smaller, to
scalding by hot water accidentally spilt upon them in the kitchen.
The seriousness of these accidents usually depends upon the extent
of surface and depth involved, and the parts implicated. As a rule,
severe burns or scalds either lead to a fatal result or damage the
animal so much as to render the expense and trouble of treatment
inadvisable. The severity of these accidents cannot, however, be
ascertained with certainty until the arrival of the veterinary sur-
geon. In the meantime, the injured parts should be excluded from
the air as quickly as possible, some soothing application being pre-
viously applied. If at hand, in the case of burns or scalds which
are not very severe, white lead paint is a good application. Baking
soda (bicarbonate of soda) is generally kept in every house, and is
a very good remedy ; it may be made up into a paste with water,
and laid over the injured part ; or it may be merely sprinkled as a dry
powder over it. The well-known '• Carron oil" (equal parts oi'
lime water and linseed oil), solution of alum (two ounces to the
pint of water), Goulard water, and other applications, have all been
commended.

After dressing with either of them, the parts should be covered
thickly with cotton-wool or flour. When the pain is very severe,
bathing with oil of turpentine allays it, and an after application oi
resin ointment is beneficial.

Bites and Stings. — Ordinary bites may be treated as lacerated
or contused wounds, the part being well cleansed. Poisonous bites,
more particularly, require thorough cleansing, and the most prompt
treatment, to avert serious or fatal consequences. Active suction

478 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

by the mouth, causing a strona; jot of water to play upon them,
and squeezing them -well, should at ones be resorted to. The cir-
culation in the part should be retarded wherever possible, by
making pressure on the larger ve-sels passing from it by means of
the fingers or a handkerchief and pad, as recommended for stop-
ping bleeding. It may be absolutely necessary to cauterize the
wounds, and to effect this there is seldom anything more convenient
than a red-hot iron, in the form of a skewer, nail, or any other iron
object in shape like the auinial's teeth or flings. If any caustic —
as nitrate of silver, sulphate of copper, nitric acid — is at hand,
then it may be eniployed instead ; but the destruction of the poison
must be thorough. Snake-bite should be treated in a similar way,
but if symptoms of depression or collapse appear, then stimulants
must be quickly administered. Brandy will do; but spirits of
ammonia (liquor ammonia) is best. The doses may be small, but
given frequently. The injection of the liquor ammonia into the
veins often affords the only chance of saving life.

Animals are sometimes most seriously stung by wasps, bees, or
hornets, and death not infrequently ensues. Lime-water sponged
over the surface, a strong lather of carbolic acid soap in which a
little additional carbolic acid has been dissolved, a solution of car-
bolic acid (one ounce to the quart of water), or a solution of liquor
ammonia (two ounces to the quart of water), are good applications.
To dimini.sh the general irritation give laudanum (tincture of
opium), half a teaspoonful to a dog. a tablespoonful to a calf, and
one or two ounces to a horse or cow.

Rabid Dogs. — A few words as to rabid or mad dogs, and the
measures to be adopted with regard to them. Every person who
keeps a dog, and even those who do not, should know something
of rabies, and how its evil consequences may be averted. In the
first place, a mad dog is not afraid of water, but will drink it and
swim in it, and even lap its own urine. Therefore the water test
is a fallacious one. Secondly, a mad dog docs not always froth at
the mouth, though sometimes saliva hangs from it. Thirdly, a
dog in this condition is not always furious. Fourthly, the appetite
is not always lost, but it is generally so depraved that the creature
swallows all kinds of substances. The earliest symptoms are —
changed manner ; moroseuess; desire to retire into out-of-the-way
places ; restlessness ; tendency to lick cold substances — as iron or
stone — and to gnaw and swallow wood, carpets, rugs, &c. ; desire
to bite and fight with other dogs; seeking to escape from home,
and returning after a time dirty, fatigued, and strange in manner;
altered bark and howl; squinting of the eyes; readiness to snap,
even at those to whom it was most attached ; insensibility to pain,
as while being beaten ; worrying other creatures. In some cases

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 479

the lower jaw drops, the mouth gapes, and the dog looks as if
something were in its throat. These are the most marked symp-
toms, and whenever they are exhibited by a dog it should be at
once safely secured until the arrival of the veterinary surgeon.
We have just enumerated the measures to be promptly had re-
course to when a person or animal has been bitten by a dog — no
matter what its condition may be.

It is a great mistake to at once destroy a dog which has bitten
any one, as its state of health cannot then be ascertained. The
most judicious course is to have the animal securely tied up where
it cannot do injury, and keep it under the observation of the
veterinary surgeon for a few days ; this will decide whether rabies
is present or absent. A stupid notion is entertained by some
people, that if a healthy dog inflict a bite, the person or animal
wounded will incur great peril sboii^l it afterwards become rabid.
This notion has no foundation whatever in iact, and should be got
rid of, as it frequently causes much anxiety and distress.

Choking. — Choking often occurs with animals, and in some
cases death rapidly ensues if relief is not afforded. In the larger
animals it is generally caused by roots, apples, dry fodder — as chaff",
bran, chopped hay, &c., or foreign substances. In the smaller
animals — dog and cat — it is usually a bone. Sometimes it is due
to grooms giving a bail, either through this being too large, too
hard, or improperly placed at the back of the mouth.

The symptoms differ somewhat, according to the situation and
nature of the obstruction. "When the latter is solid, and lodged at
the upper part of the throat or the neck, the animal exhibits much
distress: eyes prominent and staring; difficult breathing ; saliva
flowing from the mouth ; strenuous attempts to swallow ; bending
the nose in towards the chest, then spasmodically curving the neck
and extending the head; champing the jaws together ; coughing
violently, shrieking, and even expelling dung and urine; stamping
and pawing with the feet; when attempts are made to drink water,
the fluid returns by the nostrils; and there is profuse cold sweating.
In cattle there is great and rapid distension of the stomach, which
may very soon produce asphyxia; and when the substance gets
over the top of the windpipe in horses or cattle, death may result
in a few minutes.

AYhen the obstruction is lodged in the neck portion of the gullet,
there is less difficulty in discovering it than when it is at the back
of the mouth or in the chest portion ; as, if at all large, it can be
seen as well as felt in the furrow and along the windpipe.

When it is lodged in the part of the gullet which passes through
the chest, then the symptoms are not generally so urgent. But
the animal cannot swallow, and food and water are expelled through

480 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

the mouth and nostrils in cattle, though only by the nostrils in the
horse.

With dry, chopped, or ground food, the symptoms are similar,
except that if it is lodged in the neck portion of the gullet, instead
of a hard defined mass being felt the swelling will be soft and
somewhat doughy.

Small animals cough, attempt persistently to vomit, and stringy
saliva flows from the mouth.

In urgent cases of choking there may be danger in waiting for
the Veterinary surgeon, and it may be necessary to attempt to give
relief. A rapid examination should be made at the side of the
neck along the throat, in order to discover if the obstruction is
situated there. If it is not, then an examination must be made
of the back part of the mouth. This requires tact and care, as
well as skill, unfortunately, with the larger animals, and amateurs
do not always possess this. The head should be raised and the
nose extended, the mouth kept widely open by some means, the
tongue carefully and steadily pulled out by the left hand, while
the right hand is passed back into the throat. Should it be able
to reach and seize the obstructive body by one or more fingers,
this ought to be drawn forward out of the mouth. Should its
seizure be difficult, an assistant must make firm upward pressure
on each side of the neck, towards the back of the lower jaw. If
this does not succeed, and when the abdomen swells so much as to
threaten suffocation, it has been recommended to fasten a gag in
the mouth — a smooth round piece of wood, about two inches in
diameter, tied by means of a cord at each end across the mouth
around the top of the head, behind the ears or horns. In many
cases nothing more is required to be done, the obstacle passing
down the throat. When the animal begins to scream for breath,
or stagger about, or has fallen from sufiocatirn, then not a moment
is to be lost in opening the windpipe. This, though requiring skill
to do it properly, nevertheless in such a death-or-life case must be
attempted by the amateur. An ordin:iry pen or pocket-knife must
be pushed into the front of the neck, about six or eight inches
below the lower jaw, and an incision three inches long made into
the windpipe from above to below. Into this incision two fingers
should be pushed and then separated, so as to open a wide aperture
into which the air can pass. This aperture must be kept open
until the arrival of the veterinary surgeon, who can then insert a
proper tube, and set about the removal of the obstacle. When the
obstacle is lower, and the symptoms not extremely urgent, occa-
sional small quantities of water, gruel, or linseed oil should be ad-
ministered, and if it can be felt in the region of the neck it may
he pushed gently up and down until it is well moistened, when it

i

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 481

■will probably pass on into the stomach. Should this not succeed,
then gentle force from above must be resorted to if there is distress,
and the veterinary surgeon has not yet appeared. There is a
special instrument — the probang — which should be kept in every
cattle establishment; but if this is not at hand, then a long piece
of rather thick new rope — one end being teased out a little and
tied back to make it wider and softer — must serve as a makeshift
probang. The rope at this extremity, and for some distance, must
be well oiled or greased, and the animal's nose and head being
raised in a line with the neck, the tongue is pulled out, the wide
end of the rope passed steadily and gently along to the back of the
mouth, into and down the gullet, where it may be seen at the left
side of the neck. When the obstruction is reached, firm and con-
tinuous pressure has to be exerted upon it, a few seconds at a time,
until it begins to move ; then it is pushed into the stomach. When
this is accomplished, the probang is carefully withdraw^ and a
quantity of gruel, and perhaps a stimulant as well, given. When
the obstacle is finely divided food, the probang may do harm by
pressing it into a firm mass. It is then better to administer oil,
gruel, or water, and trust to external manipulation.

In cattle, when the abdomen is so extremely distended as to
threaten suffocation, a knife should be plunged into the right side
near the spine, and in front of the haunch-bone. With small
animals care is necessary in handling them, in order to avoid being
injured. In a form of madness in the dog — " dumb madness" —
the mouth gapes as if there were a bone lodged at the back part
of the throat; and people have lost their life from hydrophobia,
through putting their fingers into the mouth in search of the sup-
posed bone, and getting wounded. Gloves should therefore always
be worn in these cases. The bone or foreign substance may be
seized with the finger, forceps, or pliers, the jaws being held apart
by an assistant.

The cat should be wrapped in a towel before any attempt is
made to examine its throat.

In the case of the horse or cow, sloppy food should be given for
some days after choking, especially if much force and manipulation
have been required to give relief

Bleeding from thu Nose, Mouth, Stomach, and Lungs. —
Bleeding from the nose and lungs, though not very frequent in
animals, yet when it does occur generally causes considerable alarm,
and in some cases with good reason, particularly when blood comes
from the lungs or stomach.

Bleeding from the nose is the result of injury to the bones of
the face — as from a blow — or to the lining membrane of the nose;
as well as to severe coughing, sneezing, over-exertion — particularly
31

482 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

in harness wbile wearing a tight collar, and the animal is out of
condition. It BKiy also be due to disease — as in glanders, when
we have ulceration ; or to leeches getting up the nose while the
animal is drinking from a pond or stream. The blood comes away
by drops, sometimes in a very thin stream, and usually from only
one nostril; there is no foaming or cough, though the animal may
occasionally sneeze. It is rare that any bad eifects follow bleeding
from the nose when uncomplicated with disease. If it is due to
leeches, then these must be reached and picked oflF.

Sponging the face and nose with cold water, and throwing it up
the nostril, will usually check bleeding. If it persists, however,
the horse's head should be tied up high to the hay rack, a beam,
or the branch of a tree ; and if it continues very severe the nostril
should be plugged with a sponge, handkerchief, or bundle of tow.
As the horse breathes only through the nostrils — not by the mouth
as well, like the ox, dog, pig, or sheep — both nostrils must not be
plugged at the same time. An examination should be made by a
veterinary surgeon, to ascertain the amount of injury or disease.

Bleeding from the mouth is commonly due to injury or leeches,
and the blood is bright red in color. Allowing the animal to rinse
its mouth in cold water, or washing it out with a solution of alum
in water, will check or stop the hemorrhage.

Bleeding from the stomach is symptomatic of serious disorder —
as of disease or poisoning — and demands the attention of the veter-
inary surgeon. The blood will be discharged from both nostrils in
the horse, but chiefly from the mouth in other animals. It is black
in color, has a sourish smell, and is more or less in clots. Attempts
at vomiting are usually observed in stomach hemorrhage. The
cause shciuld be discovered, if possible, and if poisoning is sus-
pected or ascertained, the poison will be of a corrosive nature, and
have caused ulceration of the interior of the stomach. In such
circumstances, linseed or olive oil, starch, or flour gruel, or a quan-
tity of beaten-up eggs, should be administered. If these do not
combine with the poison, and so render it inert, they will, at any
rate, act as a protection against the further action of the substance,
and more or less soothe the ulcerated surface. If there is pain,
opium' — either in the form of powder or watery solution — should
be given mixed with the gruel, oil, or eggs. The acetate of lead
in solution is also useful.

Bleeding from the lungs is distinguished from that from the nos-
trils, mouth, or stomach, by the animal coughing very much, and
the blood — which passes from the nostrils in the horse, mouth and
nostrils in other animals — being bright red and foamy. There is
usually distress in breathing. It is ordinarily brought on by severe
exertion or coughing, though it may also be a result of disease — as

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 483

acute congestion of the lungs or disease of the heart. The horse
must be kept perfectly quiet, and cold water, acidulated with vin-
egar or sulphuric acid, given in plenty to drink. The stable or
loose box should be well ventilated and cool, and the body warmly
clothed. If the limbs are cold, then rub them well, and bandage
them. If the bleeding is due to congestion of the lungs — as it is
after severe exertion, and especially when the animal is not in con-
dition— then a strong dose of brandy-and-water should be given.
A dose of opium should also be administered, if it is at hand.

Palpitation of the Heart. — The horse, dog, and cow are
liable to attacks of palpitation of the heart, but especially the first-
mentioned animal. If there is no actual disease of the heart, pal-
pitation— though alarming — is not of much moment, though at the
time it may inconvenience or distress the animal. The excessive
convulsive beating or thumping of the heart may be due, when
disease is not present, to fear, or nervousness, or ovei'-exertion when
out of condition or weakly. The beating or palpitation is so loud
that it can be distinctly heard as a series of dull, thumping, inter-
mittent sounds, commencing abruptly, and continuing for a variable
period, the body jerking at the same time as the thump. When
this palpitation begins during severe exertion, as in galloping, the
animal should be stopped, and kept quiet, with the head to the
wind, until the sounds have diminished and the jerking of the body
has ceased Or it may be walked quietly home, receiving some ale
and gruel, if convenient, and the journey happens to be a long one.
As debility is generally present, and perhaps the heart may be dis-
eased, the veterinary surgeon should be consulted.

Acute Congestion of the Lungs. — Acute congestion of the
lungs is most frequent in horses, and if not promptly removed it
may quickly cause death, or lead to inflammation of the lungs —
pneumonia. Various causes will produce this congestion, but per-
haps the commonest is severe exertion when out of condition, or
bringing in a heated and exhausted horse from a cold atmosphere
to a hot and badly-ventilated stable.

When it occurs during exertion, the animal looks distressed;
the nostrils are widely dilated, the breathing is greatly hurried and
labored, the nose thrust out, the eyes staring and red, the gait un-
steady, the ears and limbs cold, the body bedewed with a clammy
perspiration, and the heart's beats — felt behind the elbow — are
irregular and disordered. If movement is continued the animal
will soon fall.

The horse should be pulled up before becoming so distressed —
the wheezing, hurried, and labored breathing, slackening speed,
heaviness in hand, and staggering gait, are warnings — girths slack-
ened, or saddle altogether removed^ or if in harness, the collar,

484 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

and everything else ■whicli may impede respiration or fidget the
horse.

The head should be turned to the -wind, the ears and legs well
rubbed, as well as the surface of the body, if wisps or cloths can
be procured, and a good dose of alcohol (whisky or brandy), one
or two wine-glassfuls, and water administered ; or if this cannot be
procured, then warm gruel with a quantity of ginger or pepper in
it must be given. Acute congestion of the lungs, when occurring
in the stable, presents the same symptoms : great distress of coun-
tenance, widely-dilated nostrils and very hurried breathing, cold
legs and ears, &c. Remove from the hot stable to a cool place, or
throw open the doors and windows ; give a stimulant as above, and
repeat it in half an hour or so, if the veterinary surgeon has not
arrived. Rub the legs, ears, and body well, then clothe and band-
age to keep up the surface temperature. If relief is not soon af-
forded, and skilled aid has not yet been available, horse rugs soaked
in hot water and wrung out should be wrapped round the body,
and these again covered with dry rugs. If the amateur can prac-
tise phlebotomy with safety, the horse should be bled from the
jugular vein to the extent of six or eight quarts. Spirits of am-
monia, in doses of half an ounce in a quart of tepid water, and
frequently repeated, is an excellent medicine. Mustard poultices
should be applied to the sides and front of the chest, if the hot-
water rugs have not been employed.

Pleurisy. — Pleurisy generally commences suddenly, like con-
gestion of the lungs, and the symptoms are not very unlike those
observed in that condition. Only the ribs are, as it were, fixed,
the sides of the chest do not move, and the breathing is mainly
carried on by the muscles of the belly — inspiration being short and
catching, while the air is expelled slowly and carefully. Turning
the horse round suddenly — he is unwilling to be moved — will cause
him to grunt; there is usually a short, painful cough, and if press-
ure be applied by the ends of the fingers between the ribs, over the
inflamed part, the animal winces, grunts, and tries to evade it.
There is often much uneasiness, though it is rare that he seeks to
lie down. Until the arrival of the veterinary surgeon the treat-
ment should be the same as for congestion of the lungs, hot-water
rugs or mustard poultices to the sides of the chest being all-im-
portant.

Inflammation of the Feet. — Inflammation of the feet, or
laminitis, is a very serious condition in the horse, and demands
careful and active treatment at its very commencement or congest-
ive stage, if grave consequences are to be averted. It is most fre-
quently induced by long or rapid journeys on hard roads during
hot weather, or in animals not in training ; improper shoeing, and

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 485

injuries; though it not unfrcquently appears as a sequel of such
diseases as influenza, iuflamuiation of the lungs or bowels, feeding
on certain kinds of food, standing too long in the stable, and over-
feeding. It is a most painful disease, and when acute the symp-
toms are most marked. The fore-feet are most frequently involved,
and in addition to signs of general fever — hurried breathing, dila-
ted nf)strils, anxious countenance, hard quick pulse, perspiring —
there is great disinclination to move, even when force is employed,
the animal swaying his body backwards and forwards ratjier than
lift the feet off the ground.' These are placed well out in front, so
as to throw the weight on the heels, while the hind legs are brought
more under the body. When compelled to move, the hind limbs
have to sustain nearly all the weight ; the horse appears greatly dis-
tressed, and groans, and the hoofs are very hot. If both fore-feet
are involved, it is all but impossible to make the horse stand on
one of them ; but if only one is affected, then this is often rested
and placed in front. When the hoofs of the inflamed feet are
tapped with a hammer, the greatest distress is exhibited. Should
the hind feet be affected — which is not so common — they are placed
well beneath the body, but the front ones are brought back close to
them, so as to sustain a larger share of the weight.

If there is only congestion — that is, the disease has only com-
menced— compelling the animal to take long-continued but gentle
walking exercise on soft ground, may soon effect a recovery, and
more especially if the shoes are taken off, during the intervals of
rest cold water being applied to the hoofs, or the feet immersed in
cold poultices. A strong dose of physic should also be given soon,
if the animal is in gross condition. If it is apprehended that the
congestive stage has passed and the inflammatory one is present,
then exercise should not be resorted to, but the margin of the hoof
should be rasped down when the shoes are removed, so as to make
it level with the sole, and poultices applied. It will be all the
better if the horse can be induced to lie down on a good bed of
sawdust or tan. Considering the serious character of this disease,
no time should be lost in sending for the veterinary surgeon.

Sunstroke. — During very hot weather, animals exposed to the
sun and compelled to undergo severe exertion are liable to sun-
stroke or heat apoplexy. The attack may be quite sudden — the
first intimation of it being the horse, or whatever animal it chances
to be, falling to the ground as if shot. At other times, if it be a
horse in harness, signs of giddiness and stupor are manifested ; the
animal shows an indisposition to go on so freely as usual, hangs
heavy in hand, does not care for the whip, and staggers If not
relieved he stops, props out his limbs, drops his head, appears to
be only half conscious, the breathing is hurried, panting, and noisy,

486 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

the eyes staring and bloodshot, and the body perhaps covered with
perspiration. Then the creature falls quite unconscious, struggles
perhaps, or lies perfectly still; the breathing is stertorous, and
death may ensue more or less rapidly in the midst of profound
coma.

Debility, bad and tight^fitting harness, keeping in hot, insufl5ci-
ently-ventilated stables, insufficient exercise, unsuitable food, and
plethora, are all predisposing causes, and should be guarded against
during hot, sultry weather, if animals must be travelled, or cannot
be kept cool.

When attacked, remove into a cool, shady place, if possible;
whether possible or not, cold water should be applied freely to the
head and neck. To the head and spine it should more particularly
be applied in a full stream, and an ice-bag will be found most bene-
ficial if placed against the head. The limbs should be well hand-
rubbed, and it may be necessary to apply turpentine or ammonia
liniment to them by friction, and mustard to the head and sides of
the neck when torpor is extreme.

Recovery in bad cases is slow, and should the animal rally in a
short time it must not be immediately worked or travelled.

Fits. — Animals often fall down in what are called " fits," and
cause alarm Horses, when in harness, and even in the saddle, are
liable to attacks of epilepsy, during which they may be seized with
partial convulsions without falling, or they may fall and be violently
convulsed while lying on the, ground. In such circumstances but
little can be done, except allowing the animal to have plenty of
air, preventing it injuring itself while struggling, dashing cold
water against the head and spine, and keeping it quiet for some
time after recovery.

Small animals are very liable to fits, especially dogs. During
the attack they whine or yell, struggle convulsively, foam at the
mouth, roll their eyes about, and gnash their teeth, &c.

The cause or causes of fits are often very obscure, and the
veterinary surgeon must be left to ascertain them and suggest
measures for their prevention.

Fainting. — Fainting, or syncope, is comparatively rare among
animals. During the attack they lie perfectly still, the pulse is not
much altered, the breathing is tranquil, and there are scarcely any
symptoms of a departure from ordinary health, except the state of
unconsciousness, from which the creature cannot be aroused.
Plenty of fresh air, sponging of the face, nostrils, and mouth with
cold water, pulling the tongue well forward, and, if the animal
wears harness, removing all those portions which may impede the
respiration or circulation, are the chief indications. The cause of
fainting should bt ascertained by the veterinary surgeon.

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 487

Stomach Staggers. — The stomach derangement which gives
rise to staggering and other symptoms^due to disturbance in the
circuhition or nervous system — usually arises from inordinate eat-
ing causing paralysis of the stomach and functions of digestion —
as when horses get to the corn-bin during the night; from con-
suming various articles of food to which they have not been
accustomed — as unripe or indigestible vegetation ; or from the con-
sumption of food containing some noxious principle.

There is first sluggishness and sleepiness — drowsiness being often
manifested during eating, the eyelids being more or less closed, and
the eyes dull. The belly is more or less distended, the head hangs
heavy, or is listlessly laid on the ground if the animal is lying, or
on the manger if standing. It ceases to masticate while food is
yet in the mouth, and when compelled to move, the gait is stagger-
ing, and the animal stupidly bores forward against any obstacle,
instead of trying to avoid it. In the ox, the rumen may be so
extremely distended as to threaten suffocation. If not relieved,
violent symptoms supervene. The movements become wild and
disordered, and almost incessant during the paroxysms, and the
animal daslies itself about, heedless of the pain and injury it may
inflict upon itself, and rendering approach to it very dangerous
during the delirium.

A very strong purgative should be at once administered, com-
bined with a stimulant — as alcohol. If copious enemas can be given
before the arrival of the medical attendant, so much the better.
Abundant afi"usion of cold water to the head, or the application of
the ice-bag, must also be resorted to. In the ox, when the rumen is
greatly distended, it should be punctured to allow the gas to escape.

Colic. — There are two kinds of colic — spasmodic, and flatulent
or tympanitic. In the first there is spasm of the small intestine,
without any external manifestation, except symptoms of pain;
whereas in the second, in addition to the pain, the belly is greatly
distended, and this distension is due to the generation of gas from
indigestion, or to the animal (if a horse) swallowing air, as in crib-
biting or wind-sucking.

In spasmodic colic the attack is sudden, the horse all at once
exhibiting uneasiness in pawing, stamping with the hind feet, or
striking with them at the belly, looking round anxiously towards
the flank, crouching, switching the tail, throwing himself down,
groaning, rolling over on his back, and, if the pain is very acute,
appearing distressed, and perspiring. In a few minutes the spasm
passes off, the horse or ox appears easy for a longer or shorter
period, when there is a relapse, and similar symptoms are again
exhibited. Neither the breathing nor the pulse is disturbed, except
during the spasm.

488 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

The dog yells and moans during the attack, moves uneasily from
place to place, and when it passes off, lies down and curls itself up
until another spasm comes on.

Rubbing the belly well, applying warmth to it by means of a
hot blanket or hot water, or a stimulating liniment, exercise at a
slow or fast pace, the exhibition of a stimulant, as alcohol, or an
anodyne, as laudanum, usually relieves the animal. It may be
necessary to administer a mild castor oil or linseed oil purgative,
when the spasm depends upon some irritation in the intestine, and
to give enemas.

In tympanitic or flatulent colic the symptoms are similar, and
there is more or less distension of the belly, with, perhaps, nausea
and labored breathing, as well as stupor when the distension is
great.

If the tympany is due to crib-biting or wind-sucking, rubbing
the belly very hard, and giving exercise, will often afford relief.
If it does not, or if the attack proceeds from indigestion, then a
strong stimulant dose must be given, with an oil or other purga-
tive— the treatment being something the same as in spasmodic
colic.

In attacks of colic — whether spasmodic or flatulent — if the
symptoms do not disappear in the course of an hour or two, the
veterinary surgeon should be sent for, as serious consequences may
follow.

Inflammation op the Bowels — Inflammation of the bowels
may supervene on colic, or arise immediately from some other
cause. The symptoms are not unlike those of colic, except that
the pain is persistent, the animal has no remissions, but it lies down
more carefully, the face is more anxious and distressed-looking, the
body is more or less covered with perspiration, the breathing and
pulse are hurried, ears and legs cold, eyes anxious or dull, and the
belly tender on pressure. The veterinary surgeon should be at
once sent for, and until he arrives very hot water must be applied
to the belly. This is best done by fastening a large horse-blanket,
doubled, round the body, close to the skin, and pouring the hot
water on the outside of it by means of a small vessel — as a cup. A
pint or so of linseed or olive oil should be given, with flour gruel,
and opium (one or two drachms of the powder), and enemas of
warm water.

Poisoning. — Animals arc poisoned cither accidentally, malici-
ously, or through the injudicious administration of poisonous sub-
stances by amateurs and empirics. Ihe majority of poisons are
vegetable or mineral, very few are of animal origin.

The symptoms produced by many poisons closely resemble those
manifested during the existence of some diseases, and it is there-

< VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 489

fore often very difficult even for a highly skilled person to decide
whether an animal is suffering from the effects of poison or is labor-
ing under a particular disease.

In order to counteract the effects of a poison, not only must it
be known that the suffering animal has been poisoned, but the
nature of the poison, and consequently its antidote, must also be
known. Considering that poisons act in many different ways, and
affect different organs or tissues in the body, and that almost every
one of them requires a different kind of antidote, it will be seen
that a great amount of knowledge is required, and that in a col-
lection of brief notes like the present it would be impossible to
describe everything relating to toxicology.

When poisoning is suspected, the veterinary surgeon should at
once be sent for, and the message should convey information as to
the kind of poison suspected, and the symptoms. Until he ap-
pears, everything ought to be done to neutralize the injurious
effects and alleviate the symptoms.

Some poisons produce diarrhoea and dysentery, with great pain.
To ameliorate these symptoms, and, if possible, prevent further
local action, it is best to give quantities of milk, flour, or starch
gruel, thick and viscid, eggs beaten up, or thick broths or soups ;
while to allay the pain large doses of opium powder, or watery
infusion of opium, should be administered. These articles do well
for many mineral, as well as some acrid and irritant vegetable
poisons. If acids are the cause of poisoning, alkalies — as the car-
bonate of potash or soda — should be given in large quantities of
water, in addition to milk or flour gruel ; and when it is the caustic
alkalies — as soda, potash, or ammonia, then weak acids, as vinegar
and water, should be administered with the above-mentioned de-
mulcents.

In poisoning by strychnia, which is not at all uncommon, the
symptoms are very marked, there being most painful spasms of all
the muscles at intervals, which bend the body backwards . and
stiffen the limbs, while the animal is quite conscious. An infusion
of tobacco is the best and most convenient remedy. Warm baths,
and the administration of chloral, or inhalation of chloroform, are
also useful.

Phosphorus paste is not infrequently accidentally swallowed by
animals — as dogs and cats — being used for killing rats. There is
vomiting, and the vomit is dark, and has a luminous appearance in
the dark, and it, as well as the breath and faeces, has the peculiar
odor of phosphorus. There is great constitutional derangement
and thirst. With this poison, all oily fluids, as well as broth and
soup, shjauld not be administered, but, instead, large quantities of
solution of potash, magnesia, or soda.

490 WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE

When there is much prostration or collapse, stimulants should
be given and external warmth applied.

Parturition. — The females of the domestic animals do not
require the same arrangements and care as the period of parturi-
tion draws near, or when that act has commenced, as does woman.
As a rule, they bring forth their young without assistance,*and if
properly fed and sheltered need but little attention otherwise. The
larger animals, and especially the cow, are liable to expel their
young before, the full period of pregnancy has been reached, and this
so-called abortion is sometimes a serious misfortune, particularly
when it occurs in a place where there are many pregnant cows ; as
when the accident happens to one, it may extend to all, or nearly
all When abortion takes place at a comparatively early period,
the effects are not very damaging to the animal, but every precau-
tion should at once be adopted to prevent its neighbors from abor-
ting. With this object,4^hey should all, if possible, be immediately
moved from the shed in which the accident has occurred — no con-
tact or approach being allowed between them and the patient, nor
should people or utensils, or anything else, be allowed to pass be-
tween the infected shed and the yet unaffected cows. The acci-
dent should be treated as if it were a highly infectious disease ;
disinfectants must be freely employed, the foetus and all the mem-
branes and discharges must be disinfected and buried, and injec-
tions of some mild disinfectant — as a weak solution of Condy's
fluid, or carbolic, should be made into the vagina of the cow which
has aborted. The same procedure should be adopted in the case
of sheep. If many animals abort, the veterinary surgeon should
be sent for to ascertain the cause, as well as to report upon the
general health of those animals which are not yet involved.

If there is any unusual delay in an animal bringing forth its
young, there is something amiss with it; or the young creature is
not in a proper position, or is defective or distorted in shape.

No time should be lost in sending for the veterinary surgeon
when this delay takes place. Nothing is more pernicious or dan-
gerous than waiting too long, or allowing unskilled persons to inter-
fere ; as the strength of the parent may be exhausted, and the life
of the progeny sacrificed, by undue delay ; or irreparable damage,
or even a fatal result, may follow injudicious meddling or rough
interference. More particularly is this the case with the mare —
an animal which must foal quickly, which is most difficult to aid
when there is any obstacle, and which readily succumbs when aid
is too long deferred, or when it is improperly attempted to be ren-
dered. The natural presentation — in the larger animals at least —
is with the fore limbs, the feet coming first, and the nose between
the arms. When the water-bag has appeared and burst, and after

VETERINARY SURGEON COMES. 491

some time there are no signs of the young creature, then diiEculty
in birth should be apprehended, and skilled assistance should be
sent for. Until it arrives, the parent should be kept quiet, and
gruel, or other light sustaining food, offered from time to time, to
keep up her strength. If the amateur has sufficient knowledge
and confidence, an examination might be made, the hand and arm
being smeared with oil ; but on no account should forcible attempts
to extract the young creature be resorted to. If the head or one
or both fore-legs be doubled back, then the indication is to bring
them forward into the passage; if the hind-quarters present, and
the hocks only are in the passage, then the buttocks should be
pushed forward, so that the legs can be extended, and the feet
carried outwards. Beyond these directions we cannot go, as there
is perhaps no more difiicult section of the veterinary surgeon's art
than that pertaining to the delivery of animals in parturition; and
we have before us hundreds of instances of valuable mares, cows,
sows, and bitches, which were tortured and lost through amateur
efforts to extract the young. Only too often this interference ren-
ders what would be an easily remedied mal-presentation by the
veterinary surgeon, one altogether beyond hope.

And even when birth has taken place the danger is not over.
The membranes (afterbirth) must come away soon after the young
creature, and when they are retained too long serious consequences
may ensue. Their removal also requires the intervention of the
veterinary surgeon, though the injection of warm water, and gentle
traction at the portion which is accessible, may enable the owner of
the animal to effect their displacement.

The cow is specially liable, after giving birth, to what is known
as " dropping after calving " (parturient apoplexy) : a serious con-
dition, which, in the great majority of cases, runs a rapidly fatal
course. The symptoms appear within from one to four or five
days after calving, and the earliest is the diminution in the quan-
tity of milk ; the animal then appears to be dull, does not eat or
ruminate, becomes uneasy, and stamps with the hind feet; soon
the breathing is quickened ; staggering is observed, and she falls,
and rapidly lapses into a deep coma, after throwing her head about
wildly. Cows which are " deep milkers " should always be watched
for this disease, and whenever the earliest symptoms appear a good
dose of purgative medicine should be given, combined with a stimu-
lant— as alcohol, or spirits of ammonia — and cold water applied in
a full stream to the head. Medicine must be given promptly, for
in a short time the power of swallowing is lost.

Contagious Diseases. — Contagious diseases are generally so
serious when they appear among animals, and the ravages of some
of them are so great, that every one who keeps such animals

492 "WHAT TO DO BEFORE, ETC.

should possess some knowledge of the earliest symptoms of these
catching disorders, not necessarily that the diseases may be sub-
mitted to medical treatment — for some of them are not allowed by
Government to be treated, while others are incurable — but that
steps may be taken to prevent their spreading. Whenever any
suspicious symptoms of disease appear, therefore, the animal should
be carefully isolated — at least from others of the same species — and
the veterinary surgeon sent for.

Pi -3
< 3

o

I I

THE

PERCHERON HOESE.

THE

PERCIIERON HOUSE.

The Percheron Horse, a native of tlie department of Perche,
in the north-western part of France, is thus described by Mr.
Charles Du Huys, in a recent official report to the government :
" He is in height from 14^ to IG hands ; of a sanguine tempera-
ment, mixed in variable proportions with the musculo-ljmphatic ;
his color is almost always gray, and is, among the characteristic
features, that which first strikes the eye. He has style, although
the head is rather large and long ; nostrils well open and well
dilated ; eye large and expressive ; forehead broad ; ear fine ; neck
rather short but well filled out ; withers high ; shoulder pretty
long and sloping ; breast rather flat but high and deep ; a well-
rounded body ; back rather long ; the croup horizontal and mus-
cular ; tail attached high; short and strong joints, and the ten-
don generally weak ; a foot always excellent, although rather flat
in the low countries and natural meadows ; a gray coat; fine skin ;
silky and abundant mane. Such are the most general characteris-
tics of the old Percheron race. These are the points which are
still noticed upon what remain of some old horses, preserved from
the transformation which commenced long ago ; for at the present
moment everything is much changed. Since the time of the for-
eign crossings the foot has become flatter, the head overcharged,
the tendon still weaker, the back longer, the shoulder has lost its
direction and the croup has become shorter. The race has changed
suddenly to fill new wants which have unexpectedly sprung up."
From the same authority we quote : " The Percheron shows a very
great analogy by his coat, conformation, character of race, mild
disposition, and endurance, to the Arab, of which he seems to be
the son, notwithstanding certain difi"erences, the result of time, cli-
mate, and region in which he is bred and in which he lives. I have
Baid that the Percheron exhibits in common with the Arab numer-
ous marks of a common parentage and relationship; these marks are
very obvious. A Percheron, a true Percheron, for some still exist

495

496 THE HORSE.

(as the famous Toulouse of M. Cheradame of Eeouch^; and the
renowned Jean-le-Blane of M. Viard, of Villers, near Sap, in the
department of the Orne, etc., etc.,) placed alongside of an Arab,
presents, notwithstanding his heavier and grosser form, analogies
with him so striking that we are easily induced to believe them un-
doubted relations. The Percheron of the primitive type has a gray
coat like the Arab ; and like him, an abundant and silky mane, a
fine skin, and a large, prominent, and expressive eye ; a broad fore-
head, dilated nostrils and a full and deep chest, although the girth
with him as with the Arab, is always lacking in fulness ; more bony
and leaner limbs, and less covered with hair than those of the draft
horse families. He has not, it is true, the fine haunch and fine
form of the shoulder, nor that swan-like neck which distinguishes
the Arab ; but it is not to be forgotten that for ages he has been
employed for draft purposes, and these habits have imparted to
his bony frame an anatomical structure, a combination of levers
adapted to the work he is called upon to perform. He has not,
I again acknowledge, such a fine skin as the Arab, nor his
prettily rounded oval and small foot, but we must remember the
fact that he lives under a cold climate upon elevated plains, where
nature gives him for a covering a thicker and warmer coat, and
that he has for ages been stepping upon a moist, clayey s.oil.

In all that remains in him, we recognise a heavy Arab, modified
and remodelled by climate and peculiar circumstances. He has
remained mild and laborious, like his sire; he is brought up like
him, in the midst of the family, and, like him, he possesses in a
very high degree the faculty of easy acclimation. He acquires
this in the midst of the numerous migrations he accomplishes in
Perche, the counterpart of those that the type horse makes upon
the sands of the desert. A final comparison, which, as yet, has
not been sufficiently noticed, is, that like the Arab, he has no
need of being mutilated in order to be trained, managed, and kept
without danger. In a word, the Percheron, notwithstanding the
ages which separate them, presents an affinity as close as possible
with the primitive horse, which is the Arab."

Du Iluys mentions in support of his theory of the Arabian
origin of the Percheron, the historical fact of the defeat of the
Saracens near Tours, by Charles Martel, in the fourth century,
assuming the probability that many horses of the invaders, were
apportioned among the people of that section of France, and as the
males were entire, the eastern and native blood would naturally be
commingled in subsequent generations.

He also says, " The Abb6 Fact, in a letter addressed to the
Congress of Mortagne, July 16th, 1843, and in his great work
upon La Perche, cites in this connection a Lord of Montdoubleau,
Geoffroy IV., and llotrou, Count of La Perche, as having brought

THE PERCHERON HORSE. 497

back from Palestine several stallions which were put to mares, and
the progeny most carefully preserved.

" The small number of the sires, their incomparable beauty, and
manifest superiority, must have led to the in-and-in breeding so
much deprecated by most breeders; but the qualities of the sires
became indelibly fixed upon their progeny

" The Lord of Moutdoubleau was, it is said, the most zealous of
the advocates and breeders of the new blood, and, being the most
zealous, was the most successful ; hence it is that the Moutdoubleau
Btock is to this day the best in Perche. The Count Roger of
Bellesme, imported both Arabian and Spanish horses, as did
Goroze, the Lord of Saint Cerney, Courville, and Courseroult; these
are historical facts which have their importance. Like chronicles,
it is true, exist for other provinces — for Limousin, for Navarre, for
Auvergne (the land of noble horses), also for Brittany and
Maine ; but in the latter not the least sign of Eastern blood is
perceptible. The fact is, the crusaders from all the French
provinces naturally brought back with them more or less of the
Eastern blood, which they had learned to appreciate on the plains
of Palestine — but the truth is, it has not been preserved elsewhere;
and that we in La Perche, after so many centuries, should be so
fortunate as to be able to show the traces of it, should stimulate
us to its careful preservation. The historical data, these induc-
tions, incomplete as they may be, lead to the belief that for
antiquity the Percheron yields to no other of our French races,
and that the soil which has nourished and preserved it, must be
one of the best in France for horse-breeding. Under the feudal
rule it is not probable that the Percheron as a race had the
characteristics it now possesses. It must have been lighter, but
still possessing within itself the character it now presents.

" The essential point is to prove that there was, at that period, a
native race; and if the extraordinary life formerly led there — if
the aspect of the country, which must have been always fertile —
if the historical inductions do not prove it, the universal tradition
of the whole country should not leave us in any doubt in respect
to the fact. Let us then take no account of the silence of
historians. This silence is no proof of the non-existence of the
Percheron. Most of these writers were gentlemen of the eques-
trian order; they prized the saddle-horse, while they ignored the
equally useful breeds of all work."

Allowing due weight to Mr. Du Huys' arguments of historical
induction, national tradition, and similarity of color, disposition,
and form, it is hardly fair to presume that the true Percheron is
the primitive Arab modified by climate, food, and education.
History is the most important element in establishing the periods
of the formation of races; and inasmuch as history has been unti]
32

498 THE HORSE.

recently silent with regard to the existence »f the Poroheron
type of horses, we are entitled to suppose that a breed as distinct
in its character from others as is the Percheron, has but lately
attained its present development. Mr. Du Huys' conclusions are
evidently labored ; he seems content with the idea that as the
Arabian is as near perfection as any horse can be, and the
Percheron is as near perfection as any horse ought to be, there-
fore the Arabian and the Percheron are of the same family. He
entirely ignores the well-known fact, that the color of the Arabian,
within the knowledge of naturalists, has never been confined to
gray, but for ages the race has shown the bay and gray and their
derivatives clear-bay, brown-bay, sorrel, white, pure gray, mottle-
gray, blue-gray, brown and dark chestnut, indicating the mixed
blood of primitive stocks.

He forgets that the Percheron does not possess that nervous
ambition, which is so patent in the horse, largely derived fr(im the
oriental strain, that we naturally associate this temperament with
the idea of blood, or warm-blooded as we term it.

It is much easier to believe that the base of the Percheron
breed has been something of a different character from the
Eastern type, the impression of which upon the present stock is a
matter of history.

A gray race of horses in France can be traced back to the
eleventh century, when the influence of the martial barons of that
period was manifested over Europe in the power of their cavalry.
In the succeeding century as the use of heavy armor became more
common, we find a disposition to increase the weight and strength
of war-horses, which was effected by crossing with the Flanders
or Flemish stock.

About this time very large horses were imported into England
from Lorabardy, and as the French Counts were intimately
connected with the Norman rulers of Britain, it is probable tha't
they made use of the same blood for improving their own stock
of chargers. The origin or history of these Flemish and Lombardy
horses, we cannot with any degree of certainty ascertain, but
know that they were of rather coarse organizations, or what Du
Huys calls the musculo-lymphatic temperament.

According to tradition, the Norman horse of France had been
prior to this period largely infused with Spanish blood, a stock
which owed its best qualities to the Saracen invasion, with its
consequent introduction of the Arabian and Barbary strains.

This is the well known historical account of the Norman Horse,
which haa for a long time been one of the celebrated races of
Europe.

A feral race of gray horstw. stout and pony built, for ages
roamed through the Pyrenean forests in Gascony, and in the

THE PERCHERON HORSE. 499

Cham|,,!icne province ; these also may have been used in the for-
mation of tiie Norman, as they have been known to reassume (by
judicious crossing and liberal nourishment and attention through
a few generations), the normal characteristic of the primitive
white stock, large proportions.

Here then is a race made up of the primitive long-haired white
stock, intermingled with several artificial races modified in differ-
ent countries by climate, food, and education, but largely indebted
to the x\rab and Barb influences for nobility, constitution, ambi-
tion, and synnnetry, which we may term blooded qualities, and to
the cold-blooded stock of Germany for size and power.

In Pqrche, adjoining the home of the Norman, we find a horse
similar in color (white and the mixture of white and bay, the dap-
ple) and weight, but finer and nobler, with more constitutional
vigor, precocity, and activity ; in short, showing more blood.

Is it likely, as Du Huys supposes, that these two neighbors have
been distinct races for eight hundred years, or is it easier to be-
lieve that the Percheron is of comparatively recent formation ;
that he owes his cleaner limbs and finer physique to later infu-
sions of Eastern blood than that which the Saracens brought into
France ?

Du Huys writes under the head of " Modifications of the Per-
cheron race." " The Percheron race comes from the Arab, but it
is necessary to know the causes which have separated it from the
primitive type. How has it been modified ? How has it lost the
Arabian character in which it must have been at first clothed ? A
large number of the French races have been even more pro-
foundly modified, and have become abject, miserable, puny, and
misshapen. All equine races have been changed by the effects of
climate, by the extinction of the feudal system, and by the inau-
guration of peaceful habits, which have made an agricultural and
draft horse, of the horse primitively used for the saddle and for
war. The Percherons must have been especially modified by con-
tact with the breed of Brittany, where their striking character-
istics are now met with in a large number of individuals.

However, it has been vigorously attempted to offset the intru-
sion of the heavy horse by the continued use of the Arabian
horse. Indeed we see towards 1760, under the administration of
the Marquis of Brigges, manager of the stud stables of Piu, all the
large number of fine Arabian, Barb, and Eastern stallions that
this establishment owned, were put at the disposition of the Count
of Mallart, for use at his mare stables of Cdesme near Bellesme.

The arrival of the Danish and English stallions at the stud
stables of Piu, put an unfortunate end to the influence of the
Arab horse in Perehe, and it will now be many a long year before
the Eastern blood will be seen as before. It is only towards 1820,

500 THE HORSE.

still at the same chateau of Cd^sme, with the grandsons ot those
old admirers of the Arabians, that we find again two Arab horses
from the stud stables of Piu, Godolphin and Gallipoli.

These two valuable stock getters, both gray, again gave tone
and ardor to the Percheron race, and transformed definitely into
gray horses the stock of the entire country, which had, it was said,
become less uniform, and of all colors.

The Brittany horses have been strongly attracted towards Perche
by the immense outlet offered by the public service, since the in-
rrease of the roads, to the Percherons. Mixtures between the
;,wo races must have been frequent. And when a good Brittany
horse was there met with, he must have been made use of, and the
old native type has gradually tended to disappear, and its traces
become more and more rare. This mixture of Percheron and
Brittany blood, too well marked to be questioned, arises from
several causes."

Lieut. Col. Chas. Hamilton Smith, President of the Devon and
Cornwall Hist. Society, gives the following points in history,
jvhich have a bearing upon the origin of the ]*ercheron gray as
well as the Norman, and also furnishes some useful hints in rela-
tion to the improvement of breeds which are worthy of attention,
especially the use of large mares in the formation of large stocks.

" It has been remarked that the Romans paid only a tardy and
imperfect attention to breeding horses, and we have observed also
that the stature of these animals, with the exception of the races
before named, was below the present ordinary size. The Norman
pirates carried in their ships the small hardy breed of Scandina-
via, still in perfection in Iceland ; all the riding nations from the
east and north, Huns, Bulgarians, Goths, and Magyars had small
horses ; those of the Ardennes, of many parts of France, of the
Camargue, of Switzerland, the Pyrenees and Britain were still
smaller ; the Netherland Menaphian alone appear to have reached
a full stature. It was, therefore, in the first centuries after the
Moslem invasion of Spain, France, and Calabria, when art and
science began to revive, and the great empire of the Franks could
and did provide wide-spreading precautions against invaders,
among which the most pressing were those that were calculated
to resist the conquests of Islam.

AYith the newly introduced stirrup, they could more properly
adopt heavy defensive armor, and in order to give the Christian
chivalry a fair chance of success, that which would increase the
stature of their war-horses became an object of importance. Ac-
cordingly about this period, we begin to observe in the West,
places for breeding and institutions of horse-fairs.

The Moorish and Spanish Vandal (Andalusian) breeds gradually

THE PERCHERON HORSE. 501

passed (he Pyrenees, captured in forays, received as presents, or
introduced by Jews, who were then great horse dealers.

The race of the Frankish Netherlands carried to the south,
and the largest mares that could be found in Lonibardy, were
crossed by the southern varieties in breeding places called Uaras,
modified after a name which was derived from some nation on the
Danube, where Garas and Guida denoted both sexes of that
animal.

It was then that the nobility and chivalry of Europe, leading
almost a nomad life, in quest of war and adventures, began to pay
large prices for tall, fleet and strong horses; the Christian kings
of Oviedo and Leon were often pressed to sell or procure war-
horses.

We find a Pope John applying to the King of Gallicia for
" several of the best Mauriscos, which are called in Spain, Al-
faraces." These Alfaras or Andalus, were a cross breed of Arab
blood upon the black Vandal and other Gothic races, themselves
crossed with Roman and the ancient Spanish Calpe studs; which
last retained the name of Ginetas, because they were smaller and
fit only for light-armed chivalry.

African and Barbary blood by crossing with the Gothic, like-
wise rose in stature, and spread in Navarre to the Garonne.

These two formed the first well-bred horses in Christian Europe,
and the gray being most accessible, probably in consequence
of a farther cross with the Gallician Mountain Race, was soon
noticed in France by the names of Ferrant, Auferrant and Blanc-
ferrant, as they were of diff"erent shades of color."

However the Percheron may have originated, it is at present a
race which has been so carefully bred as to become a type (capa-
ble of transmitting its character to posterity) superior to the Nor-
man in speed, precocity, beauty, endurance, and probably intelli-
gence,— all most important points for a breeder to seek.

To the Norman, German, and Canadian blood, our horses have
been for many years especially indebted for strength and weight ;
but as the Percheron possesses the good qualities of all these, and
others which are also desirable, it is evident that our stock may be
etill more improved by careful crossing with th's race.

A number of stallions and mares have been already imported
into this country, and wherever we have known of their intro-
duction their popularity has been substantial proof of their fitness.

One of the best bred stallions that we have seen, was imported
by John J. Parker, Esq of Chester County, Pennsylvania, — a
beautiful dapple gray, with remarkable action for his weight.

Probably many farmers expecting to raise from scanty low-bred
marcs, colts as fine as the Percheron sire, will, from the result of

502 THE HORSE.

their own ignorance of nature's laws, condemn the use of very
large stallions.

Experience has shown that the small Arab horse, .crossed with
a mare of fair size and good physical development, will produce
horses larger than either parent, provided the colts are generously
fed and well cared for until maturity ; there being apparently a
tendency in the Arabian blood to reassume an aboriginal condition,
which it had lost through influences bearing upon it for ages un-
favorable to great development of structure.

In the formation of such a race as the Percheron, the Eastern
blood has imparted a limited amount of nerve-power to the cold
lymphatic temperament of the North ; that is, the cross does not
contain as much of vigor as the Eastern element, but is modified
by the mixture, hence it cannot bear much deterioration.

We must, therefore, remember that in using large stallions of
this character with mares deficient in nerve and physical power,
we supply too little stamina for the increased structural develop-
ment of the progeny, the dam having barely sufficient for its own
scanty organism, and the sire none to spare.

A long-continued course of such breeding will inevitably pro-
duce long-legged horses with weak lungs and insufficient consti-
tution, devoid o^ beauty, and a disgrace to the breeder. Such a
stock can only be improved by more Eastern blood.

But by selecting mares of good size, and pretty well-bred (of
which we have plenty), carefully attending to results, and making
available " good hits " with a view to permanent improvement,
these Percheron horses will undoubtedly be a great acquisition to
our country, and their importation should be encouraged.

The war now devastating France, which will probably change
the geographical features of the country, will also have its effect
upon the equine race of that section of Europe. German stock
will be left in Perche, and Percheron stock will be carried to Ger-
many. What particular characteristics will be developed in the
future generations of the horses of La Perche must be left to the
eccentricities of humaaitj.

SHOET HISTORY

OF THE

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

BY

HENRY T. COATES.

(503)

A SHORT HISTOEY

AMEEICAN TEOTTmG HOESE.

America naturally inherits tliat love for the horse and rural
life which distinguishes the mother country ; but with us the
trotter holds the first place in the popular estimation, while the
running turf is patronized mainly by the wealthiest portion of the
community. Indeed, we may justly claim the trotting horse as an
American production; for though this gait is natural to the horse,
and trotting matches have occasionally taken place in England and
France, and though in Kussia the efforts of the famous Count Orloff
have resulted in establishing a breed of trotting horses which have
fine action and some speed, it is only in this country that the trot-
ting gait has been brought to perfection.

The advocates of the" Darwinian theory can reasonably point to
the trotting horse as an illustration of the doctrine of evolution;
for though he is not a distinct breed or strain of horses, or de-
scended from any one family, he is certainly a wonderful instance
of what may be done by cultivating certain gaits or peculiarities, and
by a careful selection of only the best animals for breeding purposes.
His very existence in this country hardly dates back of the present
century, as in the early periods of our history all the imported
horses were used exclusively for running purposes, and the ante-
revolutionary races were all of that character. At first, as in all
new countries, the roads were very rough and stony — poor at all
times, and in bad weather utterly impassable for light carriages ;
the distances between settlements were often long and the roads
lonesome, and the saddle horse was the only medium of communi-
cation, excepting when the heavy, lumbering stages jolted slowly
along the few turnpike roads running between the largest towns.
The old weather-beaten stone steps still remaining at the gateway
of many old-fashioned country houses, although now unused and
mossy, testify to the equestrian habits of the colonial era, when the
saddle horse was used by both sexes.

(505)

506 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

When, In May, 1788, the gray horse Messenger dashed down the
gangway of a ship from England, lying at the foot of Market street
wharf, in Philadelphia, the history of the American trotting horse
began. Messenger was a thoroughbred English horse, foaled in
1780, and was imported, as were many other English thorough-
breds, on account of his value as a running horse, and for the
improvement of thoroughbreds in this country. Like Maecenas
of classic renown he was " descended from regal ancestors," for
being by Mambrino, the son of Engineer, he could trace his pedigree
through the famous Flying Childers directly back to the Darley
Arabian, and on his dam's side he could boast of Matchem, Regulus,
Cade, and the Godolphin Arabian. He had run in England with
moderate success, winning eight out of the thirteen races for which
he started.

He was a handsome gray, 15| hands high, with "a large bony
head, rather short, straight neck, with windpipe and nostrils nearly
twice as large as ordinary ; low withers, shoulders somewhat up-
right, but deep and strong ; powerful loin and quarters ; hocks and
knees unusually large, and below them limbs of medium size, but
flat and clean, and, whether at rest or in motion, always in a per-
fect position."

A groom who saw him taken off the ship was accustomed to
relate that " the three other horses that accompanied him on a long
voyage had become so reduced and weak that they had to be
helped and supported down the gangplank ; but when it came to
Messenger's turn to land, he, with a loud neigh, charged down,
with a negro on each side holding him back, and dashed off up the
street on a stiff trot, carrying the negroes along, in spite of all their
efforts to bring him to a stand-still."

The first two seasons after his arrival he was kept at Neshaminy
Bridge, near Bristol, in Bucks county, Pa. Mr. Henry Astor then
purchased him, and took him to Long Island. Two years later
Mr. C. W. Van Ptanst purchased an interest in him, and for the
remainder of his life he was kept in various parts of the State of
New York, with the exception of one year at Cooper's Point, New
Jersey, opposite Philadelphia. He died of colic, at Oyster Bay,
Long Island, January 28th, 1808, and such was the estimation in
which he was held, that at his funeral military honors were paid,
and a volley of musketry was fired over his grave. His immediate
descendants were trained for the running turf, and Potomac, Fair
Rachel, Sir Solomon, Sir Harry, Bright Phoebus, Miller's Damsel
(dam of American Eclipsej, and Ilanibletonian were among the
fastest horses of their day. Had it not been that a few years after
his arrival the Pennsylvania Legislature passed a law prohibiting
racing, thus compelling those owning fine horses to keep them for

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 507

road purposes, in all probability his progeny would have been
trained to gallop instead of trot.

About this time, the country roads growing better and road
wagons being made lighter, trotting came into fashion, and the
wonderful trotting speed of this family was discovered. He
"builded better than he knew" who brought the grand old
gray into this country, and it is estimated that his importation
has added at least one hundred millious of dollars to the wealth
of the country. A very large proportion of the horses now on
the trotting turf contain the blood of old Messenger in their
veins, and the celebrated Hambletonian, the most fashionable
stallion of recent times, boasted of four separate strains of this blood.
Other stallions have had an influence in producing the trotting
horse. The mixture of the blood of the famous Diomed, the winner
of the first Derby ever run in England, with that of Messenger,
produced the wonderful Dexter, while the names of the imported
Bellfounder, Trustee, Duroc, American Eclipse, and his famous
competitor in the great four-mile race. Sir Henry, are to be found
in many of the pedigrees of the flyers now on the turf. The noted
Canadian horses, old pacer Pilot, Surrey, St. Lawrence and Koyal
George, and the imported Arabians, Grand Bashaw and Zilcaadi,
have also had considerable influence on the trotting -stock. And
thus the English thoroughbred, the courser of the desert, the
Barb, the Norman French stock of Canada, the Morgan horse
from Vermont, and even the Indian pony of the far western
prairies, have contributed qualities the best and noblest in each
to produce the noble animal we admire. But all combined might
not have succeeded in producing the American trotting horse had
not Messenger the great been imported.

The records of the rise of the trotting turf in this country are
few and meagre j the earliest notices of any trotting matches being
found in the American Farmer, edited by the Hon. John S.
Skinner, published in 1819.

The first sporting paper published in America was a monthly
magazine, called the American Turf Register, also edited by Mr.
Skinner, published in Baltimore, September 1, 1829. This journal
was almost entirely devoted to the thoroughbred running horse and
racing ; and, during the first two or three years of its existence,
trotting was scarcely mentioned in its pages.

Porter's Spirit of the Times, of December 20, 1856, states:
" The first time ever a horse trotted in public for a stake was in
1818, and that was a match against time for $1000. The match
was proposed at a jockey club dinner, where trotting had come
under discussion, and the bet was that no horse could be produced
that could trot a mile in 3 minutes. It was accepted by Major

508 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

Wm. Jones, of Long Island, and Col. Bond, of Maryland, but
the odds on time were immense. The horse named at the post
was Boston Blue, who won cleverly, and gained great renown. He
subsequently was purchased by Thomas Cooper, the tragedian, who
drove him on several occasions between New York and Philadel-
phia, thereby enabling him to perform his engagements iu either
city on alternate nights." Boston Blue was taken to England,
where he trotted 8 miles in 28 m. 55 s., winning a hundred sover-
eigns. He also trotted several shorter races, making about 3 m.
time. He was a rat-tailed, iron-gray gelding, 16 hands high, and
nothing was known of his pedigree.

Six years later the Albany pony improved on his predecessor's
record and trotted a mile on the Jamaica turnpike, near New York,
in 2 m. 40 s.

In 1825 the New York Trotting Club was organized, and estab-
lished a trotting course on Long Island.

In 1828 the Hunting Park Association was established in Phila-
delphia— "for the encouragement of the breed of fine horses, espe-
cially that most valuable one known as the trotter." Its course,
known as the Hunting Park, was located about four miles north of
the city, and a correspondent of the English Sporting Magazine,
writing of the trotting horses at this course in 1829, mentions
the following as being the most famous :

" Topgallant, by Hambletonian, he by Messenger, trotted 12
miles in harness iu 38 minutes ; and 3 miles, under saddle, in 8 m.
31 s. He is now nineteen years old, and can trot a mile with one
hundred and fifty pounds in 2 m. 45 s.

" Betsey Baker, by Mambrino, he by Messenger, beat Topgal-
lant three miles, under saddle, cai-rying one hundred and fifty
pounds, in 8 m. IG s. This mare, when sound, could trot twenty
miles within the hour.

"Trouble, by Hambletonian, a horse of good bottom, trotted two
miles in 5 m. 25 s.

" Sir Peter, by Hambletonian, trotted three miles, in harness, in
Sm. 10 s.

" "Whalebone, by Hambletonian, trotted three miles in 8 m. 18 s.
These two. Sir Peter and Whalebone, can be matched cither against
Rattler or Tom Thumb, now in England, for any amount.

"Screwdriver, by Mount Holly, he by Messenger, in a race
with Betsey Baker, trotted two three-mile heats in 8 m. 2 s., and
8 m. 10 s."

Indeed, so famous was Screwdriver, that when he died a Phila-
delphia paper gave him the following first-class obituary: '-The
emperor of horses is no more. Screwdriver is dead. He died sud-
denly on Sunday, October 19, 1828, in his training stable, at Phila-

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 509

delphia. This is the noble animal that trotted and won at Philadel-
phia the silver cup and $oQ0, on the 15th of May last, beating
Betsey Baker and Topgallant. On the 7th inst. he won the
$300 purse on Long Island, and was intended for the S300 purse
to be trotted for on Tuesday, the 21st inst., at Philadelphia. He
was considered the best trotter ever kuown in this or any other
country, of a fine figure and excellent temper. He was the prop-
erty of J. P. Brown, of this city."

la those days most of the races were at long distances — two,
three or four mile heats were the most frequent — and speed was
not, as now, cultivated to the exclusion of that other and more
useful qualification of the driving horse, endurance; and upon that
solid foundation, then and there laid, rests the beautiful superstruc-
ture which we now admire. In 1829, when in his twenty-second
year, in a four-mile race against Whalebone, over the Hunting Park
Course, Topgallant, a grandson of Messenger, trotted four heats of
four miles each in II m. 16 s., 11 m. 6 s., 11 ni. 17 s., and 12 m.
15 s., the whole sixteen miles being trotted in 45 m. 44 s. The
second heat was declared " dead," and the third heat was won by
Whalebone. Hiram Woodi'uff, in his work on " The Trotting
Horse of America," the acknowledged standard authority, says of
old Topgallant: " He was the most remarkable instance of extra-
ordinary trotting power and endurance, when at a great age, that
ever came under my notice. * * * He was a dark bay horse, 15
hands 3 inches high, plain and raw-boned, but with rather a fine
head and neck, and an eye expressive of much courage. He was
spavined in both hind legs, and his tail was slim at the root. His
spirit was very high ; and yet he was so reliable that he would
hardly ever break, and his bottom was of the finest and toughest
quality. He was live-oak as well as hickory, for the best of his
races were made after he was twenty years old.'

Up to 1830 there had been but little interest taken in trotting,
but now it was fast becoming thoroughly established as a popular
pastime. Plank roads too were being laid out in all directions, and
"two forty on a plank road" became the familiar slang term to
denote anything fost, and applicable alike to the equine and human
species. Old Topgallant, Whalebone and Swcetbriar were the
public favorites, while Sally Miller, Chancellor, Columbus, Dred,
Collector, and a host of new aspirants were fast edging their way
to public favor. In 1833, Paul Pry, a gray gelding nine years old,
was backed to trot 171 miles within the hour, over the Long
Island Course, which he did with ease, trotting 18 miles and 36
yards over in 58 m. 52 s. This race is especially noteworthy as
being one of the first mounts of Hiram Woodruff", to whose patient
care, wonderful insight into the nature of the horse, and unsur-

510 A SHORT HISTORY OP THE

passed skill in driving, the American trotting horse is greatly
indebted for the proud position he now holds.

In 1834, at Trenton, N. J., Edwin Forrest, who had been
about a year on the turf, trotted a mile in 2 m. 36 s., and Columbus
in 2 m. 37 s., and the Turf Kegister of March, 1834, copies from a
Philadelphia paper the following comments on the race : " The
improvement of the trotting horse is engaging the attention of
some of the best sporting characters in the country. We believe
our State boasts of the best trotters in the Union. New York is
nearly as good as our own. It is, in our opinion, a sport which
should be encouraged." On May 9th, of the same year, Edwin
Forrest beat Sally Miller, on Long Island, in the then unprece-
dented time of 2 m. 31 J s., 2 m. 33 s., and soon after challenged any
horse in the world to contend with him at four-mile heats, for any
sum from $5000 to 810,000, without finding a taker. In 1836,
appeared two horses whose names frequently appear in the annals of
trotting, Awful, a tall, wiry, bloodlike looking bay, and Dutchman,
whose time for three miles stood for thirty years at the head of the
record, and has only once been beaten. Dutchman was a coarse
brown horse, 15 hands 3 inches high, very powerful and of uncom-
mon resolution and endurance. He had formerly worked in the
lead of a team which carted bricks in Mr. Jeffries' brick yard at
Philadelphia, and did his full share of the heavy work. He might
have remained in obscurity all his life if an important election had
not occurred, and Mr. Jeffries' regular carriage horse falling lame
Dutchman was pressed into the service of carrying the free and
independent voters to the polls. He performed so well, albeit the
loads were heavy, that Mr. Jeffries concluded that he would make
a trotter, and he left the brick yard forever. Transferred to the
turf, he soon took his place at its head, which he held for seven
years against such competitors as Awful, llattlcr, Eifle, and the
renowned Lady Suffolk. In 1836 he trotted four mile heats
under the saddle, in 11 m. 19 s. and 10 m. 51s. ; the time of
the second heat has only once been beaten. His three-mile race
with Hattler over the Beacon Course, in 1838, shows the severity
of the contests of those days, and an endurance of which we are
afraid few of the flyers of to-day can boast. The first heat Rattler
won by half a length in 7 m. 54i s., the second Dutchman won
in 7 m. 50 s., the third heat was dead in 8 m. 2 s., and the fourth
Dutchman won in 8 m. 24 i s. Hiram Woodruff, who drove Dutch-
man, says of this race : " Just such a race as this it has never been
my fortune to see since, and nobody had seen such a one before.
For eleven miles the horses were never clear of each other j and,
when Dutchman left Kattler in the twelfth, it was by inches only.
Moreover, there were but two breaks in this race, and each horse

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 511

made but one in his twelve miles. That was trotting;; and though
both the horses afterwards acquired more speed, they never ex-
hibited more obstinate game or more thorough bottom than in this
race." Rattler was soon afterwards taken to England, and was by
all odds the best trotter ever taken there.

Dutchman's greatest performance took place over the Beacon
Course, on the 1st of August, 1839. On the afternoon of that day
he trotted, with Hiram Woodruff in the saddle, three miles in 7 m.
32 s. His driver, Hiram Woodruff, says of this race : " I am posi-
tive that, if he had been called on to do so, he could have trotted
the three miles in 7 m. 27 s., or better. This is no light opinion of
mine, taken up years afterwards on inadequate grounds, and when
those who might be opposed to it had gone from among us. It
was the judgment of those who saw him in the feat, observed him
all through, and noticed how he finished. * * * The truth is,
that he was a most extraordinary horse. There have been many'
trotters that could go as fast for a little way ; but the beauty of
Dutchman was, that he could go flist, and go all day."

The last race but one which Dutchman ever trotted took place
at the Beacon Course, in 1843, and is so graphically described by
Hiram Woodruff in his " Trotting Horse of America," that we
cannot resist the temptation to quote it entire.

" In a week or ten days thereafter, we went three-mile heats in
harness, over the Beacon Course, and it was a tremendous race of
four heats. The first was won by Dutchman. The second was
stoutly contested, but Americus won it. The third heat was very
hotly contested, and resulted in a dead heat between the old horse
and Americus. Lady Suffolk was now ruled out for not winning
a heat in three, and the betting was heavy, Dutchman having the
call.

" The long summer day had drawn rapidly to a close. At
the same time the heavens were overcast; and with fading gleams
of dim, yellow light, the sun sank into great banks of clouds.
They mounted higher and higher, and seemed to lie like a load
upon the weary earth. The heat was intense; and not a breath of
air was stirring to break the ominous repose. With the last flicker
of day, the swift scud began to fly overhead, and the solid-seeming
clouds to tower up and come on like moving mountains. It was
dark when we get into our sulkies ; and, soon after the start, the
storm burst upon us with a fury that I have never since seen
equalled. The wind blew a hurricane, and the pelting rain fell in
torrents, as though the sluices of the skies had opened all at once.
Nothing could have overpowered the mighty rush of the wind and
the furious splash of the rain but the dread, tremendous rattle of
the thunder. It seemed to be discharged right over our heads,

512 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

and only a few yards above us. Nothing could have penetrated
the thick, profound gloom of that darkness but the painiul blue
blaze of the forked lightning. I could not see, in the short inter-
vals between the flashes, the faintest trace of the horse before me ;
and then, in the twinkling of an eye, as though the darkness was
torn away like a veil by the hand of the Almighty, the whole
course, the surrounding country, to the minutest and most distant
thing, would be revealed. The spires of the churches and houses
of Newark, eight miles off, we could see more plainly than in broad
daylight ; and we noticed, that, as the horses faced the howling
elements, their ears lay back flat upon their necks. Between these
flashes of piercing, all-pervading light and the succeeding claps of
thunder, the suspense and strain upon the mind was terrible. We
knew that it was coming so as to shake the very pillars of the earth,
but we rode on ; and, until it had rattled over our heads, we were
silent. Then, in the blank darkness, as we went on side by side,
we would exchange cautions. Neither could see the other, nor
hear the wheels nor the stride of the horses, by reason of the wind
and rain.

" ' Look out, Hiram,' Spicer would say, ' or we shall be into
each other.'

'' A few strides farther on, and I would sing out, ' Take care,
George ; you must be close to me.'

" Now, the noise of the wheels and the tramp of the horses could
not be heard in the roar of the wind and the patter of the rain,
and yet our voices could be and were. For a mile and a half, in
the very centre, as it were, of this Titanic war of the skyey
elements, we went side by side. Then Dutchman lost ground.
The track was clayey, and he, having on flat shoes, began to slip
and slide at every stride. Americus gradually drew away from
him ; and, when 1 reached the stand at the end of the second mile,
I stopped. I have seen a great many summer storms in my time,
and have been out in not a few of them, but, of all that I remember,
none quite equalled, in terrific fury and awful grandeur, that which
burst over the Beacon Course just as we began that heat. Spicer
says the same."

After being beaten three-mHe heats by the pacer Oneida Chief
and Lady Sufiblk, at Baltimore, Dutchman was withdrawn from
the turf, and died in 1847, full of years and honors.

Ptipton was a very handsome bay horse, about fifteen hands high,
with four white legs and a blaze in the face, high strung and
possessing unusual spirit and determination. Like Dutchman his
pedigree was unknown, but like hioi also his performances prove
that there must have been good blood in his veins. He was Hiram
Woodruft's pride, and in his hands often contended with Lady

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 513

Suffolk, Americus, Don Juan and Washington, and generally came
off victorious. On May 31, 1842, on the Hunting Park Course,
two-mile heats, he defeated Lady Suffolk in the quick time of 5m.
7s., 5m 15s., 5m. 17s. Suffolk won the second heat, and Ripton
was first in the last heat by six inches only.

On October 20, 1848, Trustee, a son of imported Trustee, out
of Fanny Pullen, a celebrated trotting mare, in a match against
time over the Union Course, Long Island, trotted twenty miles in
59 ni. 35} s. without breaking once, coming in on the last mile
apparently as fresh as when he started, and trotting the last mile
in 2 m. 51 J s., the fastest of the race. This has since been sur-
passed by Controller, Captain McGowan and John Stewart; but
Trustee's performance was many years in advance of the others,
and was undoubtedly a great one.

But the brightest star of the trotting firmament, and the great
favorite of the sporting fraternity at this time, was the old gray
mare Lady Suffolk. She was foaled in 1833, and was by En-
gineer 2d, a grandson of Messenger, and was closely inbred to the
gray on her dam's side. She was a gray, about fifteen hands one
inch high, with a bloodlike head, deep in the chest and long in the
body, good muscular shoulders and legs of iron. Her career at
first was not successful, and gave but little promise of her after
brilliancy. The Lady's first public appearance was on a very cold
day in February, 1838, at Babylon, N. Y., where she trotted for a
purse of eleven dollars, and won it after three heats, the fastest of
which was in three minutes. In her next race, June 20th, at the
Beacon Course, she was beaten in poor time ; but two days after-
wards, at the same place, she won a trot of two-mile heats, under
the saddle, beating Lady Victory, a horse of some local fame, in
5 m. 15 s. and 5 m. 17 s. She was then beaten by Battler,
Awful, and Napoleon, all of them races of two-mile heats; and
October 17th, she beat Polly Smallfry and Madame Royal, two-
mile heats, in 5 m. 18 s. and 5 m. 20 s. Rattler then beat her
three-mile heats, and the famous Dutchman beat her two races,
two-mile and mile heats respectively. In 1839 she trotted twelve
races, eight of which were two-mil^ heats, and one of four- mile
heats, winning six and losing six. In 1840 she first lost two races
of two-miles heats and three-miles heats respectively to the mighty
Dutchman, and then in less than a week after these two severe
races, she beat Celeste and Napoleon, at the Centreville Course,
two-mile heats. June 30th, she beat Bonaparte easily, at the Cen-
treville, four-mile heats, in 11 m. 15 s. and 11 m. 58 s. She then
lay by until September 21st, when she beat Aaron Burr, two-mile
heats, at the Beacon Course, and three days later she added to her
growing fame by beating Dutchman, two-mile heats, under saddle,
33

514 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

at the Eeacon Course, in 4 m. 59 s. and 5 ni. Sis. Owing to an
accident, she did no more work that 5'car. She opened the season
of 1841 by beating Confidence and ^Vashington, two-mile hents, at
the Centreville Course, but the former a few days later turned the
tables upon her. At Philadelphia, May 6th, she beat Dutchman,
two-mile heats, in harness, in 5 m. 12j s , 5 m. IIH s , and 5 m.
21 s., and two days afterwards beat him, three-uiile heats, under
saddle, in 7 m. 40 5 s. and 7 m. 56 s. Aaron Burr then beat her
three-mile heats at the Beacon Course, June 13th. On July 5th, at
the Beacon, she beat Eipton, under saddle, mile heats, in 2 m 35 s.
and 2 m. 27j s., and on the 22d of the same mouth, at the same
course, she beat Awful, two mile heats, in harness, in three heats,
in 5 m. 26} s., 5 m. 28 s., and 5 m. 21s. Five dnys after, at the
same course, she distanced Oneida Chief, the pacer, two-mile heats,
under saddle, in 5 m. 5 s., with very great ease. She finished her
work this year by suffering defeat from Americus in a five-mile race
to wagon. The next two years she was generally unsuccessful,
which was attributed universally to the obstinacy and incompetency
of her owner and driver, David Bryant.

In 1844 the Lady was very successful, beating Americus, Ripton,
Washington, Columbus, Duchess, Pizarro, and losing but two races.
In 1845, she won four races, three from Americus and one from
Moscow, and lost four times : twice to Americus, once to Duchess,
and once to Moscow. In 1846 she only won two out of her five
races, but in 1847, when she was in her fourteenth year, she bore
away the palm fi'om all her competitors, winning nine times, and
against such horses as Moscow, Lady Sutton, Eipton, and the
pacers, James K. Polk and Roanoke, and lost but once. These
performances were at three, two, and one-mile heats, under saddle,
in harness, and to sulkies, doing three miles in 7 m. 56 s. and
8 m. 6] s., two miles in 5 m. 3 s., 5 m. 10 s., and 5 m. 12 s., one
mile in 2 m. 33} s. In 1848 she trotted only six races, having
met with an accident in the middle of the season, when she was
winning races hoof over hoof; but, in 1849, she came out fresh and
fine alter her accident, and trotted nineteen races, and came out con-
queror in twelve of them, beating Gray Eagle, Mac, and Lady Sutton
each twice; Pelham, five times; Trustee, the famous twenty-miler,
four times; Long Island Black Hawk, Gray Trouble, Ploughboy,
and others. In her race with Mac and Gray Trouble, at Boston,
June 14th, to saddle, she won the second heat in 2 m. 26 s., which
for a short time was at the head of the record. In 1850 she beat
Lady Moscow six times, at one, two, and three miles ; Jack Rossiter,
thrice ; Hector, once; and in harness, once her old adversary, James
K. Polk, to wagon. She was beaten four times by Lady Moscow,
at two and three miles, and twice, at two miles, by Jack Rossiter,

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 515

coming off victorious from both in each match of three events. In
1851 she was only moderately successful. In 1852 she trotted
twelve races, and won but once, and in 1853 she appeared twice,
but was defeated in both races. She died at Bridgeport, Yt.,
on March 7th, 1855. Trotting indiscriminately races of five,
four, three, two and one-mile heats, in season and out of season,
wretchedly managed and driven, no distance seemed too long for
her, nor any exertion too great. An honester, gamer, tougher
beast never trod the earth; nothing ever daunted her noble spirit;
she never flinched or sulked, and would come up at the judge's
signal for the last heat with the same determination to do or die as
at the first, and had she been more judiciously handled, would have
won far more victories than stand to her credit. She was six-
teen years on the turf, and trotted in one hundred and sixty-one
races, winning eighty-eight, and winning for her owner in purses
alone $35,000, at a time when large purses were the exception.

In the decade ending in 1853, the principal horses on the turf
were Dutchman, Confidence, Eipton, Lady Suffolk, Americus,
Moscow, Long Island Black Hawk, Lady Jane, Duchess, Lady
Moscow, Lady Sutton, Lady Brooks, Lady Franklin, Lady Litch-
field, Lady Collins, Jack Rossiter, St. Lawrence, Bcppo, Washing-
ton, Independence, Pelham, Zachary Taylor, Mac, and Tacony.
It is curious to note the aristocratic names of the performers, the
term Lady being almost synonymous with mare.

The following lively sketches from Murray's " Lands of the
Slave and the Free" give a fair idea of the condition of the
American Trotting Turf as it then appeared to English eyes. If
the gallant Captain could revisit our shores now he would find a
vast improvement, not only in the time record, but in all the sur-
roundings as well.

Description op a Long Island Trotting-Match. — " The
race-course is a two-mile distance, perfectly level, on a smooth and
stoneless road, and forming a complete circle. Light trotting-
wagons are driving about in the centre, taking it ea^j at sixteen
miles an hour ; outside are groups of ' rowdies' making their books,
and looking out for greenhorns, an article not so readily found at
Long Island as at Epsom. The race is to be ' under the saddle/
and the long list of competitors which had been announced has
dwindled down to the old and far-famed Lady Suffolk and the
young and unfamed Tacony. A stir among the 'rowdies' is seen,
followed by the appearance of Lady Suffolk. I gazed in wonder as
I saw her — a small pony-looking animal, moving her legs as though
they were in splints, and as if six miles an hour were far beyond
her powers. Soon after Tacony came forward, the picture of a
good bony post-horse, destitute of any beauty, but looking full of

516 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

good stuff. The riders have no distinctive dress; a pair of Wel-
lington boots are pulled on outside the trousers ; sharp spurs are on
the heels — rough-and-ready looking prads these. The winning post
is opposite the stand ; the umpire is there with a deal board in his
hand ; a whack on the side of the stand, ' summons to horse ;' and
another, ' summons to start.' The start is from the distance-post,
so as to let the horses get into the full swing of their pace by the
time they reach the winning-post, when, if they are fairly up to-
gether, the cry *off' is given; if it be not given they try again.
When speaking of the time in which the mile is completed, the fact
of its commencing at full speed should always be borne in mind.
Sometimes false starts are made by one party, on purpose to try and
irritate the temper of the adversary's horse; and, in the same way,
if a man feels he has full command of his own horse, he will yell
like a wild Indian, as he nears his adversary, to make him ' break
up,' or go into a gallop ; and, as they are all trained to speed more
by voice than by spur, he very often succeeds, and of course the
adversary loses much ground by pulling up into a trot again. On
the present occasion there was no i'alse start; the echo of the
second whack was still in the ear as they reached the winning-post
neck-and-ueck. 'Off' was the word, and away they went. It
certainly was marvellous to see how dear old Lady Suffolk and her
stiff legs flew round the course; one might have foncicd she had
been fed on lightning, so quick did she move them, but with won-
derfully short steps. Tack, on the contrary, looked as if he had
been dieted on India-rubber balls. Every time he raised a hind-
leg it seemed to shoot to his own length ahead of himself; if he
could have made his steps as quick as the old Lady, he might have
done a mile in a minute nearly. Presently Tacony breaks up, and
ere he pulls into a trot a long gap is left ; shouts of ' Lady Suffolk !
Lady Suffolk wins !' rend the air; a few seconds more and the
giant strides of Tacony lesuen the gap at every step ; they reach the
distance-post neck-and-neck : ' Tacony wins !' is the cry; and true
enough it is, by a length. Young blood beats old blood ; India-
rubber balls ' whip' lightning. Time, 5 m. The usual excitement
and disputes follow; the usual time elapses, whack number one is
heard — all ready — whack number two ; on they come ; snafile-
bridles — pulling at their horses' mouths as though they would pull
the bit right through to the tips of their tails. ' Off!' is the cry;
away they go again. Tacony breaks up; again a gap, which huge
strides speedily close up again — Tacony wins. Time, 5 m. 5 s."
In another part of his travels in America, the same gentleman
alludes to another locality: — "The race-course at Philadelphia is a
road on a perfect level, and a circle of one mile ; every stone is
carefully removed, and it looks as smooth and clean as a swept

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 517

floor. The stand commands a perfect view of the course, but its
neglected appearance shows clearly that trotting-matches here are
not as fashionable as they used to be, though far better attended
than at New York. Upon the present occasion the excitement was
intense ; you could detect it even in the increased vigor with which
the smoking and spitting were carried on. An antagonist had been
found bold enough to measure speed with ' Mac' — the great Mac,
who, while ' whipping creation,' was also said never to have let out
his full speed. He was thoroughbred, about 15 J hands, and
lighter built than my rawboned friend Tacony, and he had lately
been sold for 1600?. So sure did people, apparently, feel of Mac's
easy victory, that even betting was out of the question. Unlike
the Long Island affair, the riders appeared in jockey attire, and the
whole thing was far better got up. Ladies, however, had long
ceased to grace such scenes. Various false starts were made, all
on the part of Mac, who, trusting to the bottom of blood, apparently
endeavored to ruffle Tacony's temper, and weary him out a little.
How futile were the efforts the sequel plainly showed. At length
a start was effected and away they went, Tacony with his hind legs
as far apart as the centre arch of Westminster Bridge, and with
strides that would almost clear the Bridgewater canal. Mac's rider
soon found that in trying to ginger Tacony's temper he had pep-
pered his own horse's, for he broke .up into a gallop twice. Old
Tacony and his rider had evidently got intimate since I had seen
them at New York, and they now thoroughly understood each
other. On he went with giant strides; Mac fought bravely for the
van, but could not get his nose beyond Tacony's saddle-girth at the
winning-post. Time, 2 m. 25 ^ s. Then followed the usual race-
course accompaniments of cheers, squabbles, growling, laughing,
betting, drinking, &c. The public were not convinced; Mac was
still the favorite ; the champion chaplet was not thus hastily to be
plucked from his hitherto victorious brow. Half an hour's rest
brought them again to the starticg-post, when Mac repeated his
old tactics, and with similar bad success. Nothing could ruffle
Tacony, or produce one false step ; he flew round the course, every
stride like the ricochet of a 32-lb. shot. His adversary briike up
again and again, losing both his temper and his place, and barely
saved his distance as the gallant Tacony, his rider with a slack rein
and patting him on the neck, reached the winning-post. Time,
2 m. 252- s. The shouts were long and loud; such time had never
been made before by fair trotting, and Tacony evidently could have
done it in two if not three seconds less. The fastest pacing ever
accomplished before was 2 m. 17? s. ; and the fastest trotting, 2 m.
26 s. The triumph was complete, Tacony nobly won the victorious
garland ; and as long as he and his rider go together, it will take,

518 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

if not a rum 'un to look at, at all events a d — 1 to go, ere he be
forced to resign his championship."

The clever Englishman is too enthusiastic in his estimate of
Tacony. He was indeed a good horse, but capable judges of their
respective merits esteem Mac the better of the two. The latter's
day was indeed a short one, but his triumphs were neither few nor
far between, and were achieved over the most famous trotters of
that day. Flora Temple alone excepted. Hiram WoodruiF in his
" Trotting Horse of America" says, " They were very close together
when in condition, but Mac had a little the best of the roan, in my
judgment, until he was injured by over-driving and got ' the
thumps.' "

One of the stoutest and best branches of the trotting family is
the Bashaw, which takes its name from Grand Bashaw, who was
imported from Tripoli in 1820, and stood in Bucks county, near
Philadelphia. His son. Young Bashaw, out of Fancy, a daughter
of old Messenger, is the real founder of the family which can boast
of Andrew Jackson, and his sons, Kemble Jackson and Long Island
Black Hawk, Lantern, Awful, John H., Cozette, Henry Clay,
George M. Patchen, and Hopeful. Of these, Kemble Jackson was
a famous trotter, and had he lived would undoubtedly have taken
high rank as a long-distance trotter. He was a chestnut stallion,
with a white hind foot and very game. He commenced his career
on the Centreville Course December 12, 1850, where he was de-
feated by Washington in straight heats over a heavy track. The
next year, in April, he beat the Nelson colt in a three-mile race,
but in the fall was defeated by Black Harry, three-mile heats, to
wagon. In 1852 he trotted but one race, again three-mile heats,
and was defeated by O'ljlcnis. In 1853 he was again defeated,
and this time by Mountain IMaid. In all these races his defeats
were caused by his habit of tlirowing down his head between his
knees, and breaking when he apparently had the race at his
mercy, so Hiram Woodruff, who now took him in hand, invented
the well-known Kemble Jackson rein to cure him of this habit.
On the 1st of June, at the Union Course, he was matched to
trot three-mile heats to wagon, wagon and driver to weigh 395
pounds, against O'Blcnis, Boston Girl, Pet, lola, and Honest
John. This race attracted great attention, and there was an
immense attendance of people to witness it. The contest was
mainly between the popular favorites, Kemble Jackson and
O'Blcnis. The latter was by Abdallah, from whom he inherited
all the fine characteristics of the Messenger stock. All the horses
came on the ground in good condition, and were well started for
the first trial. Kemble Jackson and O'Blenis immediately drew
ahead of the others, — Kemble Jackson on the lead, which he

, dHH M

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 519

maintaiced for three miles, winnino; the first heat ia 8 m. 3 s.
Though Kemble Jacksou had won the first heat, O'Blenis was still
the favorite, as almost every cue expected to see the son of Andrew
Jackson make one of his characteristic breaks when pushed by
O'Blenis; but thanks to the efficacy of the newly-invented roin and
the careful handling' of the master reiusman, Hiram Woodruff, to
the amazement of the spectators he did not make a single break,
and won the second heat and the race easily in 8 m. 4| s. ; and though
the time has been frequently beaten, this is generally considered
one of the best three-mile races ever witnessed on Long Island.
His death, which occurred from a rupture a few weeks after this
event, was a great loss to the turf.

Scarcely had the star of Lady Suffolk set behind the horizon
when another star arose whose glory was to eclipse even that of the
gallant gray mare. Flora Temple was foaled in 1845 in Oneida
Co., N. Y., and made her debut in the summer of 1850, and from
that time to her forced retirement in 18GI, her career was one of
almost uninterrupted victory. During her career on the turf she
trotted one hundred and eleven races, winning ninety three, and
earning for her owners in purses and stakes the sum of $113,000.
She was a blood bay, by One-Eyed Kentucky Hunter out of
Madame Temple, who was got by a spotted horse said to be an
Arabian. She was 14j hands high, with black legs, mane and
tail, and had a peculiarly quick and nervous gait. When she was
but an hour old her breeder, Mr. Tracy, cut off her tail with his
jack-knife so short that she was for some time afterwards known as
the '• stump-tailed filly." Mr. Tracy kept her until she was four
years old, when, finding her willful and unserviceable, he disposed of
her to Mr. William H. Congdon, of Smyrna, Chenango county, for
the sum of tliirtern dollars. Mr. Coogdon shortly afterwards dis-
posed of her to Kelly & Richardson for $68. After passing through
several hands, part of the time working in a livery stable, she was
sold to Mr. George E. Perrin, of New York, for $350, in whose
hands the flighty young mare became a true stepper. Her first
regular appearance on the turf was at the Union Course, L. I.,
September *J, 1850, where, a mere outsider, to the astonishment of
the turf habitues, she defeated Whitehall and three others, for the
magnificent purse of $50, in 2 m. 55 s., 2 m. 52 s., and 2 m. 49 s.,
after Whitehall had won the first heat in 2 m. 52 s. The next year,
owing to an accident, she was not in training, and in 1852 she
trotted but two races, both of which she won ; but in 1853 she
entered in earnest upon her wonderful career, trotting twenty-one
races and winning seventeen of them. Her first race that year was
at the old Hunting Park Course, Philadelphia, where she was
beaten by Black Douglas, a horse of some local celebrity, but afterr

520 A SHORT HISTORY OP THE

wards beat him twice without much difficulty. She also beat
Highland Maid twice, Green Mountain Maid three times, Tacony
seven times, Rhode Island three times, and Lady Brooks and
Lady Vernon each once. She suffered defeat from Tacony, and
once each from Black Douglas and Green Mountain INLnid. The
next year she defeated Mac, Lody Brooks, Jack Waters, and
Green Mountain Maid, and was beaten but once — by Green
Mountain Maid. In 1855, after being defeated in her opening
race by the gray mare Sontag, and then vainly endeavoring to
trot twenty miles against time, she won six races right off the reel,
defeating Lancet, Sontag, Lady Franklin, Chicago Jack, Miller's
Damsel, Frank Forrester, and Hero the pacer. The next two
years were principally distingTiished by her contests with the slashing
black gelding Lancet, in which she carried off most of the honors,
although she also found time to meet and conquer Tacony, Chicago
Jack, Rose of Washington, Ethan Allen, and others, and reduced
her record to 2 m. 24^ s. In 1858 she was sold to Mr. William
McDonald, a wealthy gentleman of Baltimore, for $8000, and
during the year scored thirteen victories without a single defeat.
Her first race in 1859 was with Ethan Allen, at the Fashion
Course, to wagon. Ethan Allen was a beautiful horse, fast and
game, with fiiultless trotting action, but withal not a good weight
puller. With a running mate to take the weight of the wagon off
of him he could trot like a flash of light, but by himself his fastest
time is 2 m. 25^ s. At the stud he was a success, and his sons
and grandsons have done much to add to the fame of the Morgan
family. On this occasion Flora beat him in the quick time
of 2 m. 25 s., 2 m. 27 J s., and 2 m. 27h s. On June IG, she met
the bay mare Princess, who had come from California with a great
reputation, especially as a long-distance trotter, but Flora beat her,
at the Eclipse Course, three-mile heats, to wagon, in 7 m. 54 s.,
and 7 m. 59] s. In their second encninter at the same place,
twelve days later. Princess won in straight heats, in 5 m. 2 s. and
5 m. 5 s., and many astute turfmen thought that the little bay
mare had met her mistress; but their third time of meeting Flora
won in the quick time for those days of 2 m. 23j s., 2 m. 22 s.,
and 2 m. 231 s., and in the fourth encounter — a race of two-mile
heats — she likewise beat her, in the marvellous time of 4 m 5O2 s.
and 5 m. 5 s. These defeats settled the question of supremacy,
and conquered the spirit of the California mare, and, though they
afterwards went on a hippodroming tour through the country.
Princess never won anotluT race from her. But Flora's greatest
glory was to come. On October 15, 1859, at Kalamazoo, Michigan,
in a race with Princess and Honest Anse, she electrified the whole
country by trotting the third heat in 2 m. 19| s., which for eight

AMERICAN TROTTlNCx HORSE. 521

years stood at the head of the record, until the mighty Dexter
surpassed it at Buffalo in 1867.

After this great exploit Flora went to Cleveland, where she beat
Princess with great ease and in poor time ; and at Cuyahoga Falls,
on the 28th of October, she did the same for Ike Cooke. After
the crushing defeats of poor Princess, few imagined that any horse
would be so bold as to challenge the little bay mare's premiership.
But now the Jcrsoy stallion George M. Patchen threw down the
gauntlet, and at the Union Course, November 21, they met in the
first of those memorable contests, the recital of which even now causes
the cheeks of the old turfman to burn with excitement, George M.
Patchen was four years her junior, being foaled in 1849, and was very
well bred, his sire being Cassius M. Clay, and his dam by a son of
Imported Trustee out of a daughter of American Eclipse. He was
a powerful brown horse, above 16 hands high, with great strength
and much bone. He was coarse about the head, and heavy in the
carcass ; but, though he was what might be called a plain horse,
his pi)ints were uncommonly strong and good, and his action capital.
He had defeated such horses as Lancet, Brown Dick, Lady Wood-
ruff, Miller's Damsel, and Pilot, and was no mean opponent even
for the little bay mare ; but to make the match more open, she was
to go in harness while he went under the saddle. The mare won
the first two heats, in 2m. 28 s. and 2m. 23 s., with the stallion close
up in each. In the third, Flora was first over the score, in 2 m. 24 s.,
but it was given to Patchen, because of her crossing him and run-
ning. Darkness coming on, the race was postponed, and never
trotted out. On June 6, 1850, Flora and Patchen met for the
second time, Hiram Woodruff thus describes the race : " It came
off on the 6th of June, over the Union Course. The start was
even ; but Flora soon made a skip, and the stallion got the lead ;
but the mare caught, and, g'ling on with uncommon resolution,
headed him, and led a length at the quarter in H5 s. On the
straight work, she drew away a little more; but the stallion now
made a great burst of speed, and she broke. At the half-mile, in

1 m. 11 s., he had a lead of a length, and soon increased it to two
lengths ; but, upon the turn, the mare squared herself, drew up to
him, and came in to the stretch with him. The struggle home was
one of the fastest and closest things that ever were seen. They
came on neck-and-neck at an amazing rate; and within three
strides of home it seemed to be a dead heat. McMann, at the
very last, struck Flora sharply with the whip, let go of her head,
and with one desperate effort she was first, by a throat-latch, in

2 m. 21 s., the best time that we had then seen on the Island.
The last half-mile had been trotted in Im. 10 s., and was a neck-
and-neck race nearly "all the way. In the second heat, Flora was

522 A SHORT HISTORY OP THE

two lengths ahead at the quarter-pole ; and Patchen breakiug on
the back-stretch, her lead was three lengths at the half-mile. On
the lower turn he closed the daylight; and another very hard,
close struggle up the home-stretch ended in his defeat by only a
neck in 2 m. 2-i s. Tallman made an appeal after this heat, alleging
that McMann had driven foul, by swerving out, and compelling him
to go to the extreme outside. The judges disagreed; but the ma-
jority overruled the objection. In the third heat they g it off woU
together. On the turn she led slightly, being on the inside, and at
the quarter, in 3G s., she led him nearly a length. He now m ide
a wonderful effort, and trotted one of the best quarters that I have
ever seen. He was nearly a length behind at the quarter-pole, in
36 s.; at the half-mile pole, in 1 m. 10 s., he led. Therefore, he
trotted this, the second quarter in the third heat, in better than
34 s On the lower turn, he led two lengths. But the mare now
gathered herself up for one of her rushes, and closed with him.
Up the stretch it was again close and hot. But she had a little
the best of it, and at the very last pinch he broke. She won in
2 m. 21} s. I consider this the best race that Flora Temple ever
made ; and as the stallion was so little behind her that the diiTcr-
ence could not be appreciated by timing, it shows what a remarkable
and excellent horse he also was." On the 12th of June, they
trotted two-mile heats in harness, at the Union Course, and Patchen
won in two straight heats, in 4 m. 581 s. and 4 m. 57 i s. Two
matches were then made, to be trotted at Suffolk Park, Philadelphia,
the first, mile heats, three in five ; the second, two-mile heats. The
first of them was trotted on the 4th of July, and Flora won in
2 m. 22} s., 2 m. 21| s., and 2m. 371 s. On the 10th of July, they
trotted the two-mile heat. Patchen won the first heat, in 4 m. 51 } s.,
and would have won the second but for the outrageous interference
of a mob, who threw clubs and hats in his face when he had the race
well in hand, and frightened him. He was then withdrawn, and
Flora declared the winner. At the Union Course, August 2, they
met again. Patchen won the first heat in 2 m. 23} s., which is
his best record, and Flora the last three, in 2 m. 22} s., 2 m. 23} s.,
and 2 m. 25^ s. At Saugus, Mass., August 28, she beat him again,
and at the Centrcville Course, September 24, she beat him two-mile
heats, in 4 m. 551 s. and 5 m. After the failure of Flora to beat
Dutchman's time, they started out upon a hippodromiug tour
upon much the same principles as those which controlled in her
campaign with Princess, and with the same results : Flora taking
all the honors, and the gate-money being equally divided between
them. After the last of these exhibition trots at Corning, Octo-
ber 31, Patchen was sent to the stud, and though he alttrwards
came out and fought the famous series of battles with General

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 523

Butler, he never met Flora again, and died May, 1864, leaving
a reputation of which his numerous descendants may well be
proud.

Her reputation was now so well established that it was difficult
for the mare to find any horse bold enough to contend with her ;
but at length a new antagonist put in an appearance in John Mor-
gan, but in two races at the Centreville Course in June, 18G1, mile
heats and two-mile heats, he was beaten in the mile race in 2 m.
24f s., 2 m. 26 s., and 2 m. 28J s., and in the two-mile race in
4 m. 55 J s. and 4 m. 52 i s. Flora's owner, Mr. McDonald,
sympathizing with the rebellion, soon after these races she was
confiscated by the government, and her trotting days were ended.
She was sold in 1864 to Mr. A. Welch, the princely owner of
Leamington and Alarm, for $8000, and at his beautiful farm at
Chestnut Hill roamed the meadows in her well-earned leisure. Her
first foal was a filly by Rysdyk, son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian,
called Kitty Temple, who has never shown any great speed. Her
second foal was the stallion Prince Imperial, by William Welch, a
handsome, wiry little horse, full of courage and vim. Her third
and last foal was a filly by Imported Leamington. Flora Temple
died December 21, 1877, and was buried in the lawn at Chestnut
Hill. While I write there is on the desk before me her fore-leg
and hoof, stuffed and mounted by Krider in his most artistic style,
and though she was over thirty-two years old at the time of her
death, and had been on the turf for eleven years, trotting as few
horses ever trotted, there is not a single break or crack in the neat,
deerlike hoof; it is as sound and true as when she was foaled.

During the first years of the great Rebellion the turf languished
well nigh unto death — " Inter arma leges silent" — and few cared
for the mimic contests of the turf, when on the great battle-fields
of Virginia and Pennsylvania the flite of the nation was being
decided amid the clash of arms and the thunder of cannon. The
sporting papers yielded to the changed state of affairs, and the
editorials of the " Spirit of the Times" now breathed forth threat-
enings and slaughter, and paid but little attention to aught but the
stirring news of the day. Even their correspondence was dated
from the camps on the Potomac or Rappahannock, and now told only
of marches and countermarches and the details of army life. In
the Fall of 1862 the turf revived somewhat in the immediate
neighborhood of New York, and Lady Emma and Jilt, and General
Butler and Rockingham, trotted several notable races, and George
Wilkes, the first of Hambletonian's sons to show to the world the
merits of that greatest family of trotters, made his first appearance,
defeating Ethan Allen in three straight heats, in 2 m. 24| s.,
2 m. 25| s., and 2 m. 31 s. George Wilkes is a dark brown stal-

524 A SHORT HISTORY OP THE

lion, 15 hands high, got by Eysdyk's Hambletonian out of a Clay
mare called Dolly" Spanker, and great as were his performances, he
would in all probability have attained still greater distinction on the
turf had he been more judiciously handled and not trotted such
severe races before his powers had fully matured. He is now
standing in Kentucky, and is perhaps the most promising of all the
Hambletonian stallions except Volunteer. In 1863, General But-
ler, George Wilkes, George M. Patchen, Silas Rich, California
Damsel, and Shark, another son of Hambletonian, were all on the
turf, and had it been any other than a war year would have won
even greater glory than fell to their share.

In the history of all nations there are certain epochs or cycles
which are so resplendent with the deeds of some statesman or gen-
eral or monarch, that they serve as mile stones along the pathway
of the ages and landmarks by which we count the progress of
events ; so in the history of the turf there have been periods when
the pre-eminence of certain horses was so marked that to mention the
years in which they flourished is but to recall their names. From
1838 to 1852 had been the era of Lndy Suffolk and her famous
contemporaries. Flora Temple had flourished from that date until
the breaking out of the war, and now was to commence what might
be called the age of the Hambletpnians, for descendants of Rysdyk's
Hambletonian, the old hero of Chester, were now making that name
on the turf which they have held to the present day. The war
clouds were now breaking away ; it could plainly be seen that the
days of the Confederacy were numbered ; business was prosperous,
and the number of wealthy men interested in driving horses had
wonderfully increased. The turf was now to enter upon a career
of prosper ity, and every large city all over the Union was to have
its trotting course.

The 4th of May, 1804, will ever be a red-letter day in the
memory of all turfmen, for that day witnessed the first public
appearance of Dexter the inconiparable. He was foaled in Orange
County, New York, in 1858. His sire was Rysdyk's Hamble-
tonian, and his dam was a daughter of American Star. He is 15
hands I2 inches high, and is a rich brown in color, with four white
legs, and a blaze in the face.

It was on the Fashion Course, where he beat Stonewall Jackson,
of New York, General Grant, and Lady Collins. Two days after
he beat the last named again on the Union Course. On the
13th of JMay he defeated Doty's mare to wagon on the Union
Course, and five days afterwards, at the Fashion Course, he beat
Shark and Lady Shannon, and jogged out the third heat in 2 m.
30 s. On the 3d of June he trotted mile heats to wagon, at the
Fashion, against Shark and Hambletonian, but he hit his knee in

AMERICAN TROTTINO HORSE. 525

scoring and had to be withdrawn. He did not trot any more that
year, but on June 2, 1865, he came out and defeated General Butler
at the Fashion Course, trotting the third heat in 2 m. 24} s. Ten
days afterwards he was pitted against the mighty Lady Thorne, who
had a few dnys previously trotted in 2 m. 24} s., but the lady beat
him in four heats, the best of which was 2 m. 24 s. This was the
only time Lady Thorne ever beat him. June 26th, Dexter
defeated Stonewall Jackson, of Hartford, three-mile heats, to
saddle, and then beat General Butler, to saddle, and Butler
and George Wilkes, in harness, in straight heats, in both races.
He was then backed to trot against time and beat 2 m 19 s., and
won easily in the first trial, in 2 m. 18^ s. He then defeated Gen-
eral Butler on the Fashion Course, to wagons, in 2 m. 271^ s. and 2
m. 29 s. On the 27th of October the horses met again, two-mile
heats, to wagons. Butler had a two-mile record to wagon of 4 m.
56 J s., and was considered a fit antagonist for the young champion.
Dexter, however, won easily in two straight heats, in 5 m. f s. and

4 m. 56J s., and closed his second senson in a blaze of glory.

He commenced the season of 1866 by defeating General Butler
and Commodore Vanderbilt, in two races at the Union Course, the
California stallion, George M. Patchen, Jr., also being in the first of
them. He had now become so famous that there was a general
desire all over the country to see him, and a hippodroming cam-
paign, with the California stallion, was arranged, in which Dexter
invariably won. In 1867 he defeated Goldsmith Maid once and
Lady Thorne three times, and then, despairing of finding any one
to make him extend himself, a match was arranged on the Fashion
Course between him and Ethan Allen and running mate. The team,
contrary to general expectation, won in three straight heats, in 2 m.
15 s., 2 m. 16 s., and 2 m. 19 s. Dexter's real time, though, of
course, not a matter of record, was 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 17 s., and
2 m. 21 s. Mr. Charles J. Foster, in an admirable essay in
Wallace's Monthly, says of this race : " This, though a losing one,
was the best performance Dexter ever made upon the course. To
trot mile after mile at such a rate, against winning opponents,
runner and trotter on the outside, and never to flinch an inch,
manifests the most admirable resolution. He never broke, and
was not forced out at the end of the heats. I never saw another
trotter that could, in my estimation, have stood the pinch. I have
seen some very fast ones that would have gone all to pieces when
collared in the second heat, as Dexter was." Eight days after this
severe race he defeated Lady Thorne, two-mile heats, to wagon, in

5 m. 1 s. and 5 m. 9 s. ; and on July 4th, he met with his second
defeat from Ethan Allen and running mate, over the half-mile
track at Morristown, N. J. On July 10, at Trenton, N. J., he and

526 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

Lady Thorne met for the last time, and with the usual result.
On the IGth, he beat Brown George and running mate at Albany,
and trotted the second and third heats in 2 m. 20 V s. He beat
them again at Providence, July 26. And on the 30th, he beat
them again at the Riverside half-mile course, Boston. In this
race he made 2 m. 21f s., 2 m. 19 s., and 2 m. 21 J s. After that,
at Buffalo, he beat his Boston time by trotting a mile in 2 m. 17^ s.
The course was then over a mile in length, and much slower than
it now is. He was now purchased by Mr. Bonner, and retired from
the turf. Mr. Charles J. Foster, in the essay already quoted, says of
him : " During his career of less than four seasons Dexter won forty-
nine races. The great majority of them were mile heats, three in
five, in harness. He also won at three-mile heats and at two-mile
heats, in harness, and to wagon he was never defeated. He lost a
race to Shark through hitting himself. Lady Thorne defeated him
once when he was not seasoned, and was oiF as well. He beat her
five times in much better races. General Butler beat him once in
a poor race, under saddle, when he was all ofi^. Ethan Allen, with
running mate, beat him twice. Dexter made the best mile under
saddle, the best mile in harness, and the best mile to wagon that
had been made. His two miles to wagon, second heat, was perhaps
his greatest performance. He had lots of speed left at the end of
it, and could have gone another mile without pulling up at a tre-
mendous rate. It is manifest to those who carefully consider the
breeding, the form, the wonderful exploits, and the rare character-
istics of this famous horse, that he never had an equal."

After Dexter's retirement came the ladies' era, when the three
great mares, Lady Thorne, Goldsmith Maid, and American Girl
contended for the mastery.

Of this brilliant coterie Lady Thorne, the big, one-eyed, thorough-
bred mare from Kentucky, was easily the first. Standing full IGi-
hands high, with a good head and neck, deep shoulders, remark-
able withers, long-bodied and leggy, she was one of the most blood-
like and thoroughbred trotters that ever stepped the turf. She had
lost an eye accidentally, and had an enlarged ankle behind from
her kicking propensities when breaking, and was unusually fiery
and high spirited. Her breeding was right royal. Her sire wa*
Mambrino Chief, and her dam a daughter of the thoroughbred
Gano, a son of the fiimous American Eclipse. Her career was
worthy of such high lineage, and as she stole around the course
with that low, long, sweeping stride of hers, woe betide those con-
tending with her; for, though not seeming to be g(»ing so fast,
she nearly always found herself well in front at the close of each
heat. She was on the turf- eleven years, and trotted sixty-six
races, of which she won fifty-one, and received in purses and

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 527

stakes $G1,125, and enjoys the distinction of being the only horse
that ever in fair contest lowered the colors of the mighty Dexter.
Lady Thorne was foaled in 185G, and trotted her maiden race, when
three years old, under the name of Ashland Maid ; but, owing to
the breaking out of the war and other circumstances, her turf career
did not fairly commence until 18G3, when she was brought to the
east and her name changed to Lady Thorne. In 1865 she beat
Dexter at the Union Course, L. I., taking first, second, and fourth
heats, in 2 m. 24 s., 2 m. 2GJ s., and 2 m. 26J s. respectively, and
the world knew that the big one-eyed mare was a trotter. She
also beat that year Frank Vernon, Stonewall Jackson, George
Wilkes, and Lady Emma, and did not lose a single race. In the
nest- two years she trotted numerous races against Dexter, George
Wilkes, Mountain Boy, Lucy, Lady Emma, Bruno, Old Put, with
moderate success; but in 18G8 she came out in fine form, beating
Lucy, General Butler and George Wilkes, and two others, at the
Fashion Course, May 22, in 2 m. 24^ s., 2 m. 23 s., and 2 m. 25 s.
She trotted eleven other races that year, reducing her record to
2 m. 21 s., and defeating Mountain Boy, Lucy, George Wilkes,
General Butler, Holla Golddust, Rhode Island, George Palmer.
She lost but one race. Mountain Boy beating her at Point Breeze,
Philadelphia, September 16. In 1869 she showed still greater
speed. She beat Goldsmith Maid in July, in three heats, time,
2 m. 21f s., 2 m. 20J s., and 2 m. 21^ s.j in August she beat her
and American Girl in 2 m. 20f s., 2 m. 20} s., and 2 m. 20} s.j
on September 9, 1869, at Point Breeze Park, near Philadelphia,
she defeated them again in 2 m. 21| s., 2 m. 19} s., and 2 m. 23} s.,
when a greater number of people were assembled than on any pre-
vious occasion, ten thousand dullars being taken at the gates for
admission, while a couple of thousand jumped the fence to witness
this great race. An old friend says the people began to come in
the morning and came all day. Every vestige of space in the
club house and grand stand, and upon the roofs of the same,
was filled. A fourth time, October 1, she was victorious over
the same two mares, George Palmer being also in the race, in 2 m,
20} fe., 2 m. 20} s., and 2 m. 20 s.; aud'on October 8, at Narra-
gansett Park, she won her best race and made her fastest time, de-
feating George Palmer, Goldsmith Maid, Lucy, and American Girl,
winning the first, second and fourth heats iu 2 m. 191 s., 2 m. 18} s.,
and*2 m. 21 s., George Palmer taking the third heat in 2 m. 19} s.
George Palmer was a little, lightly built bay gelding, by a horse
called Lame Bogus, of whom very little is known. He belonged to
Mr. Erastus Corning of Albany, the son of the famous railroad
king, and, had he appeared in any other period than that of the
three mighty mares, might have achieved much greater fame. It

528 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

is remarkable that Lady Thorne beat Goldsmith Maid every time she
met her, and never lost a single heat to her. In 1870, she trotted
but two races at the Fashion Course. July 4, she met and defeated
Goldsmith Maid, American Girl, George Wilkes, George Palmer,
and Lucy, in three straight heats, in 2 m. 23^- s., 2 m. 23 s., 2 m,
24i s., and three weeks afterwards, at Prospect Park, she beat
Goldsmith Maid, in 2 m. Idl s., 2 m. 20i s., and 2 m. 19i s. She
■was to meet her again at Buffalo, but slipped while being put on
the cars at Rochester, and injured her near hip so badly that she
was never able to trot again, and was sent to the Fashion Stud
Farm at Trenton, N. J.

That she attained the limits of her speed is not probable. At
the time of her accident she could easily beat all the flyers of the
turf, including Goldsmith Maid, American Gi 1, and Lucy ; and
though the former afterwards showed a vast improvement upon
her old form, it is not unreasonable to conclude that Lady
Thorne would have done the same, as there is but a year's dif-
ference in their ages, and she was a very well preserved mare for
her years.

In his reminiscences of trotters, published in the Spirit of the
Times. Dan Mace, who knew her so well, says of her : " You can
put it down as an absolute certainty that Lady Thorne could trot a
mile in 2 m. 10 s., in harness, in 2 m. 15 s., to wagon. I will not
say how much faster than this the old mare could trot. I never
saw her trot a full mile at her best but once, and there are two
other men living, besides myself, who can tell how fast that was,
but I shall never tell, and it is probable that they will not. It
was so fast that it would not be credited by the public, and so we
agreed that we would never mention the time. But I will say this
much : it was a faster gait for the whole mile than I ever saw kept
up by any other horse for a single quarter."

Be that as it may, her retirement left Goldsmith Maid the
mistress of the turf, which position she held until her retirement
in 1877.

Goldsmith Maid was foaled in May, 1857, and is by Alexander's
Abdallah, a son of llysdyk's Hambletonian, out of a mare by old
Abdallah, and she is consequently very closely in-bred to the famous
rat-tail sire. She is a blood bay, and stands 151 hands high.
She was so wild and ungovernable when young that she was not
trained until she was eight years old. In September, 18G5, at
Goshen, N. Y., she trotted her first race against Uncle Sam,
Mountain Boy, and Wild Irishman, and won in three straight
heats, in 2 m. 39 s., 2 m. 36 s., and 2 m. 39 s. She then beat
Sorrel Bill, at Poughkeepsie, making a record of 2 m. 31 s., and
was beaten by General Butler, at Copake, N. Y., in fast time. In

7?': . «

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 529

1866 slie trotted eight races, winning all but one, and in 1867, five
races, losing two, once to Dexter and once to Crazy Jane. In 1868
she won eight times, and reduced her record to 2 ui. 22'} s. In the
fall of this year she was sold to Messrs. Doble & Jackman, and
henceforth Budd Doble handled the reins over her. She began
the season of 1869 badly by losing five times to American Girl,
a very powerful big bay mare by a son of Cassius M. Clay, out
of a Virginia mare of unknown pedigree, who was trotting very
strongly that year, and gave promise of taking up the sceptre
which Dexter had voluntarily laid down. She beat Lucy at
Boston, and trotted in 2 m. 20} s. She beat George Palmer
on the Fashion Course. She met American Girl at Suflblk
Park, Philadelphia, and beat her in three straight heats, all
better than 2 m. 20 s. That was the first time any horse beat
2 m. 20 s. in all the heats of a race. Goldsmith Maid won eight
races that year, and beat all those that had beaten her, save Lady
Thorne, who was then ' in her prime, and who won five races from
her. In 1S70 Goldsmith Maid won eleven times. She did not
beat 2 m. 20 s. that year, but she trotted in 2 m. 24} s. to wagon.
In 1871 Goldsmith Maid continued her brilliant career. At Fleet-
wood Park, Baltimore, Prospect Park, Brooklyn, Boston and
Buffalo she beat all her competitors, including American Girl and
Lucy. At the latter place she again won all the heats in better
than 2 m. 20 s. Here she failed in an effort to beat Dexter's
time — 2 m. 17t s., for an extra purse. But she soon after trotted
in 2 m. 17 s. at Milwaukee, and Dexter's brilliant record was at
last eclipsed. Goldsmith Maid continued on the great Western
route, and reached as flir as Omaha and Council Bluffs, away up
the Missouri Eiver. In 1872, after one trot at Philadelphia, the
little mare went to Boston, and trotted on the Mystic Course in
2 m. 16| s. Afterwards, at Prospect Park, she put in all the heats
in better than 2 m. 20 s. ; and at Cleveland she did it for the fourth
time. The little mare was now taken across the continent, and at
Sacramento, in a little more than a month after her last previous
race on this side of the Rocky Mountains, she trotted in 2 m. 17 1 s.
She afterwards trotted at San Francisco, and returning to Sacra-
mento, beat Occident very easily. In 1873 she did not trot any
especially fast heat. In 187-4 Goldsmith Maid trotted seventeen
times, with increase of speed, and did not lose a single race.
At Saginaw, JMichigan, she went in 2 m. 16 s. At Springfield,
Mass., she again made 2 m. 16 s., and all the heats were better
than 2 m. 20 s. Three times that year she beat 2 m. 20 s. in all
the heats. At Rochester she trotted a second heat in 2 m. 14| s.
And at Mystic Park, Boston, September 14, for a special purse,
in which she was required to beat her Rochester time, she trotted
34

530 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

in 2 m. 14 s. In 1875 she trotted only six races, and was beaten
once by Lula, who had trotted a mile in 2 ni. 15 s. at Buffalo the
week previous, at Eochcster, but beat her at Utica the following
week. Lula is a very celebrated bay mare, foaled in 18C-4. Her
sire was Alexander's Norman and her dam was a daughter of the
thoroughbred horse, imported Ilooten. Her speed and endurance
are simply wonderful, but she is very high strung and excitable, and
though that most brilliant and patient horseman Charley Green
handled the reins over her, her disposition is so peculiar that she
never afterwards was able to surpass or even equal the glory she
obtained by her victory over Groldsmith Maid. In 1876 Gold-
smith Maid trotted seven races, losing but that memorable race at
Cleveland, described elsewhere. Besides this she trotted against
her own record seven times, and though flailing to reduce it, she
trotted at Belmont Park, Philadelphia, June 23, in 2 m. 14 s. In
1877 she trotted several races in California, against Earns and
others, and at Chico, Cal., May 19, over a rough track, she
defeated Ptarus, in 2 m. 19^- s., 2 m. 14^ s., and 2 m. 17 s. She
was entered in the Grand Circuit in trials for speed, and at
the close of the season was retired to the Fashion Stock Farm, at
Trenton, N. J., where she now roams the extensive paddock, hale
and hearty, with a fine colt by General Washington, the son of
General Knox and Lady Thorne, at her side. "With such a royal
breeding, the youngster should prove a prodigy of speed, and
a treasure to the breeding interests of the country. During
her career Goldsmith Maid travelled on the cars over 130,000
miles, and earned for her owners over $325,000 in stakes and
purses.

The year 1875 is a notable one in the annals of the trotting turf.
The combined series of trotting meetings which was inaugurated
in 18G6 by the trotting associations of Cleveland and Ptochester,
at which meetings the purses given amounted to $15,050, had in-
creased in number and importance, until it extended from the
shores of Lake Erie almost to the Atlantic Ocean, and now em-
braced the associations of Cleveland, Buffalo, Piochcster, Utica,
Poughkeepsie, Hartford, and Springfield, and the purses offered at
these meetings aggregated the enormous sum of $245,000. Among
the horses whose fleet hoofs trod these tracks that season were
Goldsmith Mnid, American Girl, Lula, Smuggler, Hopeful, Rarus,
Lucille Golddust, Judge Fullerton, Great Eastern, Lady IMaud,
Nettie, St. Julien, Huntress, John IL, Cozette, Sensation, Bodine,
May Queen, Scotland, Grafton, Kansas Chief, Belle Brassficld,
]\Iazo-Manie, Bella, Joker, liittle Fred, Clementine, Music, Amy,
Mollie Morris, and Thomas Jefferson. No more brilliant collec-
tion of trotters ever gathered together in any one season. There

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE, 531

were, of course, other trotting meetings in different parts of the
country, but the Septilateral, as the Grand Circuit was called, sur-
passed all the other meetings in glory.

Thomas Jefferson is a handsome black stallion over fifteen and
a quarter hands high, foaled 1863. His sire was the prominent
son of Ivoyal George, known as Toronto Chief, a trotter in his day
who secured a saddle record of 2 m. 241 s., and a wagon record of
two miles (wagon and driver weighing 300 pounds) in 5 m. 21 s.
His dam, the renowned ten-mile trotter Gipsey Queen, was a mare
of wonderful endurance allied to great speed, and, true to the laws
of inheritance, she stamped her own great powers and level brain
upon her now famous sou, in whom the trotting gait has been in-
tensified and improved by the cross with Toronto Chief. Her
record of 2 m. 44 s. to wagon, July 31, 1S58, over Garden City
Track at Chicago, three miles to harness in 8 m. 17 s. (the first
mile in 2 m. 46 s., the second in 2 m. 44 s., the third in 2 m. 47 s. ),
and ten miles to harness in 28 m. 39 s., with a repeat race one
week after (beaten only by a length) in 28 m. 11 s., is sufficient to
entitle her to a place in the history of our American trotters as one
of the " gamest" mares ever known.

Thomas Jefferson, " The black whirlwind of the East," as he is
frequently called, is, without doubt, the highest type of the
" American trotter." His handsome form, high quality of finish,
great and lasting game, and willingness to trot for his life at the
close of a heat, have warmly endeared him to every lover of a
good horse. He is one of the purest gaited, and the nearest
approach to the finest bred Arabians, of any of the trotting stal-
lions that have appeared on the American turf — in beauty, style,
and action, being immeasurably superior to the much talked of
" Grant" Arabians. Docility of disposition is a leading trait among
his produce ; in many instances their owners have refused to allow
them to be used on the turf or handled therefor — their many good
qualities making them special favorites for gentlemen's road use.

His career as a trotter commenced when he was two years old,
when he secured a public record of 3 m. 24 s., in a class for those
six years old and under. As a three-year old, in May, 1866, he
defeated a daughter of Hambletonian (out of a Star mare) in a class
for those four years old and under, winning at his ease in 2 m. 572-
s. This season closing July 15, 1866, the horse went on a pleasure
trip down to Boston with an eye to business as well. He went
from Providence to Boston alone, unaccckmpanied by an attendant,
standing between the trotting geldings Honest Abe and Old Put.
He won several races that year, and finished with a record of 2 m.
45 s. In 1867 his owner challenged the most famous two colts of
that day — Gift, by Mambrino Pilot, and Strideaway, son of the

532 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

world-renowned pacing mare Pocahontas (whose pacinff feat o£
2 ni. 17i s. to wagon has never been beaten). The driver of
Gift saw Jefferson trot a half-mile over Narragansett Park in 1 m.
16f s., and declined the challenge. Jefferson won several races
the same year, and reduced his record to 2 m. 42 J s. In 1868, -at
Norwalk, Conn., in an exhibition of stallions five years old and
under, he outtrottod them all, but was awarded only second money
on account of size, a stallion by Eureka taking first premium. In
1870 he won nine hotly contested races, and reduced his record to
2 m. 29| s. In 1871 he won five hard-fought races, defeating such,
prominent trotters as Eoden's Prince, Medoc, Shepherd F. Knapp,
George Wilkes, and Major Allen, closing the season with a record,
of 2 m. 255 s. From 1871 to 1874 he was mainly kept in the stud,
trotting only a few races each fall season. In 1874 he served fifty-
three mares, and was withdrawn from the stud only twenty-seven
days before the famous stallion race of August 4 at Buffalo, where
he defeated the leading champions of the day, Smu'ggler, Mambrino
Gilt, Joe Brown, and Pilot Temple, in a six-heat race, winning the
last three heats in 2 m. 23} s., 2 m. 20^ s., ajid 2 m. 282 s. On
May 27, 1875, at Point Breeze Park, he won the last three of a
five-heat race, time 2 m. 25 J s., 2 m. 24 s., 2 m. 25? s., 2 m. 25}
a., and 2 m. 2G1 s., beating St. James, Sensation, and Young Bruno,
the former taking the first two heats. One week later he again met
and defeated Sensation at Prospect Park in three straight heats, in 2
m. 2G| s., 2 m. 24 s., and 2 m. 23 s. September 14, 1875, he,
won the stallion race at Boston, defeating Commonwealth, Defiance,
Parkis Abdallah, Ned Wallace, and William H. Allen. On Mon.
day of the next week, on a comparatively bad day and heavy fc-rack,
he defeated Comee, Bella (Maud), Molsey, and John H., in 2 m.
24J s., 2 m. 23 s., 2 m. 24? s., and 2 m. 24 s. (Comee taking the
first heat). Jefferson's time in the last heat as ofiicially announced
for the last half was 1 m. 10 J s. In 1871, in a race at Prospect
Park, he trotted the last half of a mile in 1 m. 9| s. The follow^
ing week, at Narragansett, he trotted the last half of the third mile
outside of two horses in 1 m. 9? s. At Poughkeepsie, in 1875, he
trotted three-quarters of a mile in 1 m. 45} s. ; at Boston, in the
stallion race, the last three-quarters of the third mile, outside of two
horses, in 1 m. 45 s., on a bad day and a heavy track. In 1876,
at the American Centennial Exhibition, he received the highest
award of merit. The following week he defeated Barney Kelly at
Waverly, N. J. In trotting condition he weighs 940 pounds, in
stud condition 1050 pounds. Four of his get are now in the 2 m.
30 s. class, while fourteen of them have records better than 3 m.
In 1879, at Connecticut State Fair, his get were awarded the first
premiums in the suckling, yearling, two-years old, and three-years

1^

k

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 533

old classes, while Jefferson himself was awarded the first sweepstake
premium as a trotting sire.

The Centennial year is noted for the wonderful achievements of
Goldsmith Maid and Smuggler. The former, in her nineteenth
year, trotted against time in 2 m. 14 s., her jirevious record, and
won six of the seven races she trotted that year, losing but one
race — that at Cleveland, won by Smuggler. The latter won for
himself a mighty name, as the only horse able to tear the laurels
from the brow of the peerless Queen of the Trotting Turf, and
secured the best record ever made by a trotting stallion.

Smuggler is a brown stallion, standing 15 hands 3 inches high,
with a blazed face. He was foaled near Columbus, 0., in ISGG, and
was got by Blanco, a son of Iron's Cadmus, the sire of the famous
pacing mare Pocahontas, and his dam was a bay pacing mare brought
from West Virginia. The dam of Blanco was by Blind Tuckahoe,
a son of Herod's Tuckahoe. He consequently inherits a good share
of pacing blood mixed with thoroughbred, and when he was taken
to Kansas by his owner, in 1872, he was a confirmed pacer. He
was there placed in the hands of Mr. Charles Marvin, and under
his tuition developed into a most promising trotter. In an inter-
view with Mr. Cyrus Lukens, the well-known writer on horse sub-
jects, at Belmont Park, just before he ran with Judge Fullerton,
Mr. Marvin, when asked what special mode of training he had
followed to change this natural gaited pacing horse into the
wonderful trotter, replied : " At whatever gait Smuggler goes
he always is fast, but to keep him steady at a fast trotting
gait, it is necessary for him to have perfect confidence in Jus
driver." He also said that he had developed Smuggler's great rate
of speed, and had shown Col. Russell fast miles low down in the
twenties, before this gentleman had purchased the horse. He then
had returned to his home in Kansas. Some time after this Col.
Russell entered Smuggler in the great National Stallion Race, to
take place August 4, 1874, at Buffalo, and commenced fitting him
for it. About one month before the race, it became evident to the
owner that it would be necessary to secure the services of Marvin
to drive the horse. He arrived about two weeks before the race,
" when," said he, " I found that the horse had forgotten me, and
when we started into the race I doubted my ability to win that day
with Smuggler; I had not had enough time to regain his con-
fidence. But we passed the summer together, and I knew before
the notable stallion race, won by Smuggler at Mystic Park, near
Boston, September 14, 1874, that we could win, as well as I did
after it was over, because I then had the confidence of the horse,
and had him well conditioned. It would never have done to beat
nor abuse this horse. My success with him has been chiefly owing

534 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

to my patience and perseverance in waiting for him to come to the
great speed tliat I knew he had, at whatever gait he might be
going." In July, 1873, he showed a trial of a mile over the Olathe
track in 2 m. 19| s., a performance which excited great sensation
in trotting circles. He was then taken to New York, and at the
Prospect Park Course was given a public trial of three heats, in
2 m. 191 s., 2 m. 21J s., and 2 m. 21 s., trotting the last half of
the third mile in 1 m. 9 s.

His first appearance in a race was at Buffalo, August 5, 1874,
in a purse of $10,000, free for all stallions, where he was pitted
against Thomas Jefferson, Mambriuo Gift, and several others of the
most noted trotting stallions of the continent. He won the first
and second heats in 2 m. 22} s. and 2 m. 20 J s., wonderful time
for a " green" horse, but becoming tired and discouraged by the
excessive scoring, was last in the third heat and distanced in the
fourth. Mambrino Gift won the third heat, but Jefferson lasting the
longest won the last three heats and the race. On September 14,
of the same year, he won the champion stallion race at Mystic
Park, Boston, in three straight heats, in 2 m. 23 s., 2 m. 23 s., and
2 m. 20 s., which was then the best stallion record, defeating Phil
Sheridan, Henry W. Genet, Commonwealth, Mambrino Gift, and
Vermont Abdallah. In 1876 at Belmont Park, Philadelphia, July
15, he beat Judge Fullerton, in 2 m. 17^ s., 2 m. 18 s., 2 m. 17 s.,
and 2 m. 20 s. ; the second heat being a dead heat between them.

This splendid achievement elevated him to the highest pinnacle
of fame as the champion stallion of the world, and with the laurels
of this victory fresh on his brow, he entered the Circuit in the
free-for-all purse at Cleveland, 0., July 27. As this race is one of
the most famous in trotting annals, we copy the following graphic
description from the graceful pen of Hamilton Busbcy, which ap-
peared in the Turf, Field and Farm of August 4, 1870 :

"When the bell rang for the opcn-to-alj horses to appear, a buzz
of expectation was heard on all sides. It was known that Lula
would not respond to the call, she having made an exhibition the
previous day, besides she was not in the bloom of condition ; but
Lucille Golddust was there to battle for the Babylon stable, and
she was a mare of tried speed and bottom. The knowledge that
Lula would not start steadied the quaking nerves of Doble, and
he ceased to plead for a special purse and permission to withdraw.
He thought that Goldsmith JMaid would have a comparatively easy
time in capturing first money, and his confidence made the old
mare the favorite over the field. Smuggler was deemed an uncer-
tain liorse, and there was no eagerness to invest in pools on hiui.
But the stallion was cheered almost as warmly as the Maid when
he jogged slowly past the stand. Lucille Golddust, J udge Fullerton

AMERICAN TROTTING UORSE. 535

and Bodine wero also received with applause. The great drivers
of the couutry were behind the great horses of the country. Budd
Doble pulled the lines over Goldsmith Maid ; Charley Green stead-
ied Lucille Golddust; Pete Johnson controlled Bodine ; Charley
Marvin watched over the fortunes of Smu^-glcr; and Dan Mace
was up behind Judge Fullerton, having come from New York for
the express purpose of driving him iu the race. Twice the horses
came for the word, and twice they failed to get it. They were
then ordered to score with Lucille Golddust, and succeeded in get-
ting off. The Maid had the best of the start, and, quickly taking
the pole from Judge Fullerton, gayly carried herself iu the lead.
It was where she was accustomed to be, and so she trotted iu the
best of spirits. Fullerton did not act well, and he brought up the
rear rank the entire length of the course. Alrmg the back-stretch
Smuggler began to close a gap, terrific as the pace was. After
passing the half mile he drew dangerously near the Maid, but it
was noticed that he faltered a little. The cause was not then
understood, but it was made plain when the patrol judge galloped
up to the stand with a shoe in his hand which had been cast from
the near fore foot. Around the turn the stallion pressed after the
mare, and down the stretch he drove her at the top of her speed,
the thousands giving vent to their enthusiasm by cheering and
clapping hands. Smuggler had his nose at the Maid's tail when
she went under the wire, in 2 m. 15 'r s. Bodine was a good third,
his time being about 2 m. 17 s., and Lucille Golddust was fourth,
Fullerton just inside of the flag. Smuggler's performance was an
extraordinary one. He trotted for something like three-eighths of
a mile with his equilibrium destroyed by the sudden withdrawal
from an extreme lever point of a shoe weighing twenty-five ounces.
Only once before had he cast a shoe in rapid work without break-
ing, and that was in his exercise at Belmont Park. Keen judges
are forced to admit that the stallion Wi)uld have won the first heat
in 2 m. 15 s. had no accident befallen him on Thursday. Prior to
this season Smuggler carried a thirty-two ounce shoe on each of
his fore feet, but now he seems to be steady under the reduced
weight. The scoring iu the second heat was a little more trouble-
some than that in the first heat. Smuggler left his feet several
times, and it looked as if he was going to disappoint his owner and
trainer. On the fourth attempt the horses gut away, the IMaid in
the lead. The stallion made one of his characteristic bad breaks
around the turn, and all hope of his winning the heat was lost.
Bodine and Fullerton also were unsteady. Lucille Golddust did
good work, and she was second to the Maid whju the latter went
over the score in 2 m. 17i s. Smuggler finished fifth, Marvin only
trying to save his distance. Goldsmith Maid was distresed, but

536 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

her friends were confident that her speed and steadiness would
carry her safely through. It was almost dollars to cents that she
would win. The word was given to a good send oif in the third
heat. The Maid had the pole, which advantage she did not sur-
render, although she went into the air around the turn. 8he was
quickly caught, and Doble drove her carefully along the back-
stretch, followed by Fuller ton, who seemed to be content with the
position of body-guard to her queenship. After passing the half-
mile, Marvin urged Smuggler into a quicker pace, and the stallion
was observed to pass Lucille Golddust, tlien Fullerton, and to swing
into the home-stretch hard on the Maid's wheel. Doble used all
his art to keep his mare gning, but Marvin siit behind a locomotive
and could not be shaken oif. The stallion got on even terms with
the Maid, and then drew ahead of her in the midst of the most
tumultuous applause, beating her under the wire three-quarters of
a length. The scene which followed is indescribable. An elec-
trical wave swept over the vast assembly, and men swung their
hats and shouted themselves hoarse, while the ladies snapped fans
and parasols and bursted their kid gloves in the endeavor to get rid
of the storm of emotion. The police vainly tried to keep the
quarter-stretch clear. The multitude poured through the gates,
and Smuggler returned to the stand through a narrow lane of
humanity which closed as he advanced. Doble was ashy pale, and
the "great mare which had scored so many victories stood with
trembling flanks and head down. Her attitude seemed to say, 'I
have done my best, but am forced to resign the crown.' The
judges hung out the time, 2 m. IGl s., and got no further in the
announcement than that Smuggler had won the heat. The shouts
of the thousands of frenzied people drowned all else. During the
intermission the stallion was the object of the closest scrutiny. Sp
great was the press that it was difficult to obtain breathing room.
He appeared i'resh, and ate eagerly of the small bunch of hay
which was presented to him by his trainer after he had cooled out.
It was manifest that the last work had not destroyed his appetite.
The betting now changed. It was seen that the Maid was tired,
and her eiiger backers of an hour ago were anxious to hedge. In
the second score of the fourth heat the judges observed that Smug-
gler was in his stride, although behind, and so gave the word. In
his anxiety to secure the pole Doble forced Goldsmith Maid into a
run, and as Lucille Golddust quickly followed her, the stallion
found his progress barred unless he pulled out and around them.
Marvin decided to trail, and he kept in close pursuit of the two
mares even after he had rounded into the home-stretch. Green
would not give way with Lucille, and Doble pulled the Maid back
just far en(jugh to keep Marvin from slipping through with the

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 537

stallion. The pocket was complete, and thought to be secure. . A
smile of triumph lighted Doble's face, and the crowd settled sullenly
down to the belief that the race was over. Marvin was denounced
as a fool for placing himself at a disadvantage, and imagination
pictured just beyond the wire the crown of Goldsmith Maid with
new laurel woven into it. But look ! By the ghosts of the de-
parted ! Marvin has determined upon a bold experiment. He
falls back, and to the right, with the ir fcention of getting out
around the pocket. Too late, too late ! is the hoarse whisper.
Why, man, you have but one hundred and fifty yards in which to
straighten your horse and head the Maid, whose burst of speed has
been held in reserve for just such an occasion as this ! Her gait
is 2 m. 14 s., and you — well, you are simply mad ! The uncounted
thousands held their breath. The stallion does not leave his feet,
although pulled to a forty-five angle to the right, and the moment
that his head is clear and the path open, he dashes forward with
the speed of the staghouud. It is more like flying than trotting,
Doble hurries his mare into a break, but he cannot stop the dark
shadow which flits by him. Smuggler goes over the score a winner
of the heat by a neck, and the roar which comes from the grand
stand and the quarter-stretch is simply deafening. As Marvin
comes back with Smuggler to weigh, the ovation is even greater
than that which he received in the preceding heat. Nothing like
the burst of speed he had shown had ever before been seen on the
track, and it may be that it will never be seen again. Marvin had
two reasons for going into the pocket. In the first place, he
thought that Green would pull out when the pinch came and let
him through, and in the second place, he erroneously supposed that
Doble would push the Maid down the stretch and leave him room
to get out that way. It was bad judgment to get into the pocket,
since, had the Maid won the heat, the race would have been over;
but it must be admitted that jMarvin acted not without a show of
reason. In riding at the gait he was riding, a man does not have
any extra time to mature his plans. The heat was literally won
from the fire. It was only the weight of a hair which turned the
scales from defeat to victory. Doble was more deeply moved by
the unexpected result of the heat than by anything else which hap-
pened in the race. His smile of triumph was turned in one brief
instant to an expression of despair. The time of the heat was
2 m. 19 1 s. Smuggler again cooled out well, nibbling eagerly at
his bunch of hay, while the crowd massed around him. The Maid
was more tired than ever, while Lucille Golddust showed no signs
of distress. When the horses responded to the bell for the fifth
heat it was evident that a combination had been formed against
Smuggler. All worked against him. Lucille Golddust and Bodine

538 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

worried liiui by repeated scorings, aud when they excited him into
a break and he grabbed the unfortunate shoe from the near fore
foot, the hope began to rise that the star of the stallion had set.
The shoe was put on, the delay giving the IMaid time to get her
second wind, wlicn the scoring again commenced. Smuggler was
repeatedly forced to a break, and for the third time in the race he
grabbed oif the near fore shoe. Misfortunes seemed to be gather-
ing thickly around him, and the partisans of the Maid wore the
old jaunty air of confidence. Before replacing the shoe, Colonel
Russell had it shortened at the heel. It was a new shoe, and one
adopted by Marvin against the judgment of Piussell. The shell of
the foot was pretty badly splintered by the triple accident, but the
stallion was not rendered lame. As much as an hour was wasted
by the scoring and the shoeing of Smuggler, which brought all the
horses to the post looking fresh. Smuggler had the worst of it,
as he was the only one which had not enjoyed an unbroken rest.
Finally the word was given for the fifth heat. Fullerton went to
the front like a flash of light, trotting without skip to the quarter
pole in 33 s. Smuggler overhauled him near the half-mile, and
from there home was never headed. The Maid worked up to
second position down the home-stretch, the stallion winning the
heat in 2 m. 171^ s., and the hardest-fought race ever seen in the
world. The evening shadows had now thickened, and as the great
crowd had shouted itself weak and hoarse, it passed slowly through
the gates and drove in a subdued manner home."

In the following week, at Buffalo, he was so badly used up from
the effects of his bruising race at Cleveland, that he was in no con-
dition to trot, and was defeated by the Maid in the fastest three
consecutive heats ever trotted; time, 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 15i^ s., and
2 m. 15 s. At Piochester the Maid failed to put in an appearance,
and Smuggler won in three straight heats, 2 m. 15| s., 2 m. 18 s.,
and 2 m. 19 i s. On August 24, at Poughkeepsie, he was distanced
in the first heat; and on September 1 , at Hartford, he trotted against
Goldsmith Maid, Judge Fullerton, and Bodine, aud won the first two
heats in 2 m. 15} s. and 2 m. 17 s. In the second heat he was very
far behind at the start, and the judges were much blamed in con-
sequence. Notwithstanding this, he closed up the gap, and made
a dead heat with the IMaid in 2 m. 1G| s. Goldsmith Maid then
took the last three and the race in 2 m. 171 s., 2 m. 18 s., and
2 m. 19 s., Smuggler pushing her closely in them all. At Spring-
field he trotted in the same company, but did not win a single
heat. Later in the season he trotted two races against the mam-
moth trotter Great Eastern, but acting badly, he lost them both.
He was then sent to the stud, where he bids fair to become a great

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 539

Earus then took up the crown which Goldsmith Maid had laid
down, and right regally he wore it. He is a long-striding, ungainly-
looking bay gelding, sixteen hands high, with a blaze lace and
white ankles. The old adage, "blood will tell," does not hold
good in his case, for the pedigree of his sire is entirely unknown,
although his owner, Mr. R. B. Conklin, and Mr. George Wilkes,
the editor and pnjprietor of the Spirit of the Times, have used
every endeavor to trace it. All that is known is that Conklin's
Abdallah, for so the sire of Rarus is called, before his purchase
by Mr. Conklin, performed the ignoble duty of drawing a fish-cart
for a fish-dealer in Fulton Market, New York. Conklin's Abdallah
is the sire of seme twenty other horses besides Rarus, but the best
of them are only fair roadsters. The dam of Rarus was by Tele-
graph, her dam being a Black Hawk mare, and it is probable that
she is the source of his wonderful speed.

Rarus first appeared on the turf at the Suffolk County Fair, at
Riverhead, in the fi\\\ of 1871, where he won the four-year old
stakes in three straight heats, the best of which was in 2 m. 42 J s.
In 1874 he trotted six races, winning four of them, and obtaining a
record of 2 m. 28 1 s. The next year he was kept busily at work.
He commenced the season at Grand Rapids, Mich., June 9, where
Mollie Morris beat him. Gen. Grant and Molsey being also in the race.
On the 17th Lady Mac beat him at South Bend, Indiana. On July
7, at Detroit, Grafton defeated him in straight heats. Two weeks
later, at Sandusky, the entrees for the Grand Circuit having closed,
he was allowed to go to the front, and scored his first win, beating
a field of three in slow time. He then entered the Grand Circuit in
the 2 m. 27 s. class at Cleveland, July 30, winning a red-hot race
from the little Mollie Morris (who won the first two heats), Carrie
(who took the third), and four others, in 2 m. 23 J s., 2 m. 25 J s.,
2 m. 24 J- s., 2 m. 24^ s._, 2 m. 23J s., 2 m. 26^ s.; but at Buffalo,
the following week, Mollie Morris reversed the verdict, beating him
in three straight heats. At Rochester, Utica, and Hartford he won
easily, reducing his record to 2 m. 20f s. After this he trotted six
races, but seemed to be somewhat off, winning but two of them,
being beaten by Lady Maud twice, and by Kansas Chief and Sensa-
tion each once. In 1876 he had his own way in the 2 m. 20 s.
class of the Septilateral Circuit, excepting at Cleveland, where May
Queen beat him, winning the six remaining races in the easiest
manner, without reducing his record, though it was evident he
could trot low down in the " teens" whenever he chose to do so, and
at Fleetwood Park, N. Y., October 26, he won a fast race, trotting
the fillh heat in 2 m. 20 s., and closed the season with this record
against him. Late in the fall he was taken to California, and his
first races in 1877 were against the peerless Goldsmith Maid, who

540 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

was also wintering there, and although she beat him five times out of
six, he lapped her out in 2 m. 14^ s. at Chico, and beat her at San
Francisco, May 26, when she was out of condition, lowering his record
to 2 m. 19i s. He also won races from Sam Purdy and Bodine.
After the race with Goldsmith Maid he came East, and won every
race he started in. At Cleveland, Buffalo, Rochester, Utica, Hart-
ford, Long Branch, New York, Cleveland again, Columbus, and
Cincinnati, it was the same story. He always won, and from such
horses as Hopeful, Great Eastern, Lucille Golddust, Cozette, and
Albemarle. His record was now 2 m. 16 s., and it was conceded
that there was not a horse on the turf that could make him extend
himself; and so, in 1878, he was confined to special speed purses
generally, to beat Goldsmith Maid's famous record of 2 m. 14 s.
At East Saginaw, Mich., he trotted a mile in 2 m. 14} s., without
a break or skip. At Cincinnati, July 4, he made the fastest per-
formance over a half-mile track, 2 m. 17 s. At Cleveland he trotted
in 2 m. 14^ s., 2 m. 15 s., and 2 m. 14 s., and at Buffalo, August
3, 1878, he eclipsed all previous records and trotted a mile in 2 m.
13^ s. This great event is admirably described by an eye witness,
Mr. Hamilton Busbey of the Turf, Field and Farm.

" The last event on the card was the fight of Earus against old
Father Time. The track was fast, although a trifle hard. Bets
were freely made that 2 m. 14 s. would be beaten. The first trial
was not encouraging. Barus went to the quarter in 35J s.,to the
half in 1 m. 9| s., to the third quarter in 1 m. 43 s., and came
home in 2 m. 17 s. In the second trial he went to the quarter in
33j s., and made a very bad break. Splan pulled up and jogged
around in 2 m. 50 s. As he approached the wire he nodded for
the word, and Mr. Hamlin shouted 'Go.' The horse left his feet
on the turn, and Splan again pulled up. It began to look badly for
those who had backed the horse against time. Rarus was halted
and sponged, and then the discovery was made that he was hitched
too short. The buckles were changed and he was ready for a new
trial. Puring the pause a crowd gathered in front of the judges'
stand and clamored for a decision. They insisted that those who
had backed time in the second heat had won. The judges declined
to express any opinion in the matter, but quietly wrote 2 m. 50 s.
under 2 m. 17 s. on the blackboard, and turned it outward. Splan
then came to the wire the fourth time for the word. Rarus went
off levol, and when he pas.«cd the quarter in 3'.ih s., and moved
steadily forward, the hope took rofit that he would eclipse all former
efforts. He was at the half-mile pole in 1 m. 5| s., a winning pace,
but the question was, could he ker^p up the stride. The critical
few shook their heads as if to say the half is too fast for the horse
to finish well. Smoothly, evenly, without the least jar or I'riction,

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 541

the tall and gallant bay strode to the three-quarter pole, which he
reached in 1 m. 38^ s. ' By Jove 1 he will beat the Maid's time/
was the exclamation which came from all sides. There was a
strange fascination in watching the horse and listening to the tick
of the watch. Time is a relentless old fellow, and tolerates no mis-
takes. Every one knew that Karus could not afford to trip or
slacken his pace. In order to beat the long registering hand of the
watch to the fourteenth second mark after two circuits of the dial,
it was necessary for him to preserve a stroke and to show a courage
which no horse before him had ever shown. Grandly, stoutly, he
came forward, Splan sitting well poised in the sulky, and watching
the movement of his ears with his keen black eyes. After passing
the distance stand, the whip was gently laid on the back of the
horse, and as he neared the wire six thousand people rose to their
feet and held their breath. Under the wire Earus shot, and the
hands of the watches stopped short — 2 m. 13 s. ; no, 2 m. 13? s.,
say the judges, and cheer after cheer rolls over the track. The
horse and driver received a perfect ovation when they returned to
weigh, and it was with diflSculty that Splan could make his way
through the crowd and up into the judges' stand. When he reached
the steps, he cleared them at three bounds, and, after hand-shaking,
was led to the rail and presented with a handsome basket of flowers
by President Bush. No words were spoken. It would have been
useless to have attempted speech-making in the presence of the
crowd which filled the quarter-stretch, and which made the ground
shake with its shouts. The scene is indescribable. While Splan
was blushing and bowing his acknowledgments to the applauding
thousands, Karus was being unharnessed, and he looked on with
dazed eye, quivering nostril and trembling flank. He had made a
new mark in the annals of the turf, had wiped out the record of
Goldsmith Maid, which had headed the list for so many years, and
modesty well became him in the hour of his brilliant success. It
was a proud day for Buff'alo Park, and those who were present will
never forget the uproar caused by the beating of 2 m. 14 s. Had
Splan not gone to the half quite so fast, it is contended by a good
many that be would have marked below 2 m. 13 s., and I incline
to the correctness of this view."

At Rochester and Utica he did not perform up to his reputation,
but at Hartford, August 23, in the famous duel with Edwin
Forrest, he trotted in 2 m. 15 s., 2 m. 13 i s., and 2 m. 13| s., the
fastest three heats on record. The fame of this exploit extended
over the country, and henceforth the Rarus days were the big days
of all the meetings at which he appeared during 1878 and 1879,
and with little effort he could earn from two to three thousand dol-
lars a week from the opening of the trotting season to its close.

542 A SHORT HISTORY 0¥ THE

His last race was at Utica, AugiTst 28, 1879, where he beat Hope-
ful easily in 2 m. 171- s., 2 m. 16'. s., aud 2 m. 10 s. After some
negotiations, Mr. Kobert Bonner, who already had in his stable
Dexter, Joe Elliott, and Edwin Forrest, purchased him for $36,000,
and withdrew him from the turf forever.

Many good judges consider Edwin Forrest the fastest trotting
horse in the world, not excepting the mighty Rarus. He is a rich
bay gelding, 16 hands high, was foaled in Cass county, Missouri,
in 1871. His sire was a horse called Ned Forrest, Jr., aud his
dam a granddaughter of the thoroughbred Leviathan. Taken to
Kentucky when young, he trotted his first race there in 1875. In
1877 he won two races at Madison, Ind., beating Pruteine, Kitty
Bates, and Andy Meshon, while in a race which he lost at Lexing-
ton, Ky., he attained a record of 2 m. 25|^ s. In 1878 he passed
into the hands of Gus Glidden, and entered the Michigan Circuit
in the spring, but being kept for the Grand Circuit he was not
allowed to win for fear of lowering his record. At Toledo, however,
the entries to the Grand Circuit being completed, he was given his
head and won in straight heats, the fastest of which was 2 m. 23 s.

When the bell rang for the 2 m. 24 s. class at Cleveland, July
24, 1878, and Trampoline, Darby, Edward, Dick Moore, Alley, and
Edwin Forrest answered the summons, the spectators knew that
there would be a good race, but few expected that Edwin Forrest,
after breaking and losing the first heat to Edward, would win the
last three heats in the quick time of 2 m. 19i s., 2 m. 29^ s., and
2 m. 18j s., tlie last heat being won in a jog. At Buffalo he won
from the same field in 2 m. 20 s., 2 m. 262 s., and 2 m. 20| s.,
and at Rochester he won again in quick time. In all those races
his superiority over his opponents was so evident that at Utica a con-
spiracy was formed by the owners aud drivers of the various horses
in the race, Forrest's driver being one of them, to make him a
great favorite in the betting, and then pull him so as to lose the
race. This disgraceful job succeeded only too well, and the speedy
Edward was the winner; and though the National Association
months afterwards ferreted out and punished the originators and
abetters of the iraud, it will be years before the turf recovers from
the wounds it then received at the hands of its professing friends.
In the fourth heat of that race he came from the rear at the last
with a burst of speed that amazed all beholders, and caused Charley
Green to make a dead rush for his owner aud secure the refusal of
him at $16,000, within five minutes.

The real purchaser was Mr. Robert Bonner, of New York. Not
wishing to endanger the reputation of the horse until he should
become familiarized with his new driver. Green did not start him
until the last day of Hartford Meeting. When, after Rarus had

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 543

trotted his first trial in the Special Speed Purse, in 2 m. 15 s., the
starters proclaimed that Mr. Green had a horse ihat he thought
could go in about 2 m. 10 s.. and Edwin Forrest was brought out,
few thought that the statement was more than an empty boast.
Charley Green drove him, and at the second attempt nodded for
the word. The horse struck out gamely, and was at the quarter in
34 s. — half a second better than llarus had jus-t done. Down the
back-strotch he went like the wind, and passed the half in 1 m. 64^ s.
He slowed up from this flying pace on the turn, and came by the
three-quarter pole in 1 m. 401- s. (third quarter in 34 s.), and came
down under the wire in 2 m. 14^ s. — half a second better than
Rarus had done. When this was announced the excitement was
intense, for 2 m. 14^ s. was all Goldsmith Maid could do at Hart-
ford, two years previous. Karus was now put on his mettle, and
trotted the second trial in 2 m. 13^ s. (last quarter in 32^ s.). But
Green thought he could beat that, and that Forrest -was the horse
that could do it. On the second trial he was sent off, and he went
to the quarter in 83? s., without a skip. Then it seemed as if he
had not been half trying. Such trotting was never seen before. He
fairly flew, and it looked as though 2 m. 10 s. would be made; but
the pace was too fast, and he broke badly when about eight lengths
ii-om the half-mile pole, losing several lengths, but Green caught him
skillfully, and he was soon under full headway, reaching the half-
mile pole in 1 m. 5i s. (second quarter in 31 1 s.). Before he reached
the middle of the third quarter he again went in the air, and though
he soon recovered. Green had lost hope of surpassing his first effort
and did not hurry him. The three-quarter pule was passed in 1 m.
40 i s., and he was coming down the home-stretch at a fair gait, when
a friend who had run up to that place motioned to Green to go on,
as there was still hope. From that point Forrest was sent along,
and came under the wire, amid loud cheering, in 2 m. 16 s.

Since he became an inmate of Mr. Bonner's stable his progress
has been truly wonderful. In the month of July of the present
year (1870) Mr. Robert Bonner drove him to wagon on his three-
quarter mile track near Tarry town, N. Y., a mile in 2 m. 15 i s.,
and a week later Mr. A. A. Bonner drove him a mile in harness in
2 m. 131 s. On August 9, Mr. John Murphy, the favorite pupil
of old Hiram Woodruff', drove him a mile in the marvellous time
of 2 m. irj s. Although these trials were witnessed by several
reliable persons, and the time made can be depended upon as en-
tirely accurate, not having been made in a public race, neither they
nor the trial at Hartford can go upon the record, and as Mr. Bonner
never permits any of his horses to trot in public for a sum of money,
but keeps them solely for his own driving, it is not likely that the
world will ever know how great a horse Edwin Forrest really is.

544 A SHORT HISTORY OP THE

The little gray gelding Hopeful, the pride of Dan Mace's heart,
is a very fast horse. He was foaled in Maine in 18GG, and
was sired by Godfrey's Patchen, a son of Flora Temple's famous
competitor, and his dam was a gray mare by the Bridham horse,
who is supposed to have been aa immediate descendant of Wiu-
throp Messenger. He first appeared on the turf at Springfield,
August 25, 1873, but only finished fourth in a field of five. He
then essayed his fortunes in four races, winning two of them and a
record of 2 m. 25 s. In 1874 he trotted seven races, winning five,
being beaten only by Bodine, ths fast son of Volunteer, and lowered
his record to 2 m. 21 s. At Fleetwood Park, May 22, 1875,
Kansas Chief beat him. He now lay by until August 5, when he
appeared at Poughkeepsie in the 2 m. 18 s. class, defeating Lady
Maud, Judge Fullerton, who took the first heat, Huntress and two
others, in 2 m. 21 s., 2 m. 22f s., 2 m. 28 s., and 2 m. 28 s. At
Hampden Park, three weeks later, he beat Lady Maud and Kansas
Chief in 2 m. 28 s., 2 m. 24 s., and 2 m. 20 s., and on the last day
of that month, at Hartford, he beat I^ady Maud, ].ucille Golddust,
and Henry, in 2 m. 18} s., 2 m. 22i s., and 2 m. 23ir s., Lady
Maud taking the third and fourth in 2 m. 19 s. and 2 m. 20]- s.,
and at the same place, September 3, he defeated American Girl in
three straight heats in 2 m. 171 s., 2 m. 18} s., and 2 m. 18} s.
Great as the achievement was, Dan Mace, in his " Experience with
Trotters," published in the Spirit of the Times, says, " On that day
Hopeful could have trotted a mile in 2 m. 12 s., although his best
time was only 2 m. 17} s. I never let loose of his head, never asked
him to go, and never wanted him to go ; and in no place in that
mile did he go as fast as he could. ... I don't think there is a
horse alive that can out-trot him now; not a horse on the turf that
can outspeed him." In 1876, owing to a foot difiiculty, he was
unable to trot, but, June, 1877, at Fleetwood Park, he started in
the Free-for-all Purse, with Judge Fullerton, Albemarle, and Ade-
laide, and astonished his owner, driver, and everybody else, by his
performance, winning the first heat in 2 m. 18^ s., by three-quar-
ters of a second the fastest mile ever trotted on the track, and
taking the race handily without a skip, in three heats — time, 2 m.
18 J s., 2 m. 20 s., and 2 m. 21 s. At Boston, July 5, he beat
Great Eastern in 2 m. 22 s., 2 m. 20J s., 2 m. 18^- s., and 2 m.
19^ s., Great Eastern taking the second heat. He next appeared
in the Grand Circuit at Springfield, Mass., July 13, where he beat
Judge Fullerton for the Free-for-all Purse, then back to Boston,
where, July 23, he met the great Smuggler and defeated him in
straight heats, the fastest of which was 2 m. 192 s. He did not
start at Cleveland, Buffalo, or Bochester, but at Utica, August 17,
he suffered defeat from Lucille Golddust, who had to trot in 2 m.

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 545

17i s., 2 m. 18| s., and 2 m. 18f s. to beat him ; but at Poughkeepsie
he regained his laurels, defeating Lucille Golddust and Nettie after
a hard-fought race of five heats. At Hartford, Long Branch, Fleet-
wood Park, and Cleveland, llarus beat him, and he went into win-
ter quarters quite under a cloud. In 1878 he went through the
Michigan Circuit with success, was beaten by Great Eastern at
Toledo in slow time, and entered the Grand Circuit at Cleveland,
July 25, where he beat Proteine, Great Eastern, Nettie, and Cozette
in the wonderful time of 2 m. 17} s., 2 m. 15| s. and 2 m. 15.V s.,
and at Bufialo, Rochester, Utica, and Hartford, he was alike
triumphant, and at Minneapolis, September 6, he attained the
height of his glory by trotting a mile in 2 m. 14f s. At Kansas
City, September 20, he beat Great Eastern in straight heats, and
in the following week at Quincy, 111., he beat him and Scott's
Thomas. At St. Louis, October 3, he trotted against time in 2 m.
15i s., 2 m. 15 s., and 2 m. 15t s. At Chicago, October 10, a
handicap was devised, Hopeful to go in harness against Rarus to
wagon and Great Eastern under the saddle. The little gray geld-
ing won in 2 m. 175 s., 2 m. 17 s., and 2 m. 16 s., and two days
after at the same meeting trotted against time, to wagon, in 2 m.
I65 s., 2 m. 17 s., and 2 m. 17 s., which is the best wagon time on
record. He wound up this memorable year at Albany, N. Y.,
winning the special purse, best time 2 m. 20|^ s. He wintered at
Point Breeze Park, Philadelphia, and came out in fine fettle for
the season of 1879, At Suffolk Park, May 16, he trotted against
time in 2 m. 18 s., wonderful time for so early in the season.
Over the Ambler half-mile track. May 22, he trotted in 2 m. 19f
s., 2 m. 19 s., and 2 m. 22 i s., the three fastest heats ever trotted
over a half-mile track in Pennsylvania. At Belmont the following
week he trotted against time in 2 m. 21 s., 2 m 174 s., and 2 m.
17i s., and then, taking Horace Greeley's famous advice to " go
West," he started for Chicago, stopping at Butler and Bradford,
in the western part of Pennsylvania, at which he trotted in 2 m.
181 s. and 2 m. 19f s. respectively, winning good purses at both
places. At Chicago his good fortune left him, and in his endeavor
to beat Goldsmith Maid's famous record, 2 ni. 18| s. was the best
he could accomplish. From this time until late in the fall he was
out of condition and unable to do anything worthy of his fame.
Rarus beat him easily at Chicago, Cleveland, and Utica in straight
heats. But the gray wns recovering some of his old form, and
an immense crowd assembled at Hartford to see the meeting between
the two flyers; but Rarus was sold to Mr. Bonner just before the
race and did not make his appearance, and in order that the spec-
tators might not be disappointed, a race was improvised with the
wonderful blind pacer Sleepy Tom, who had paced a mile at Chicago,

DO'

546 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

July 25, 1879, ia 2 m. 12J s., faster than any horse ever trotted
or paced before ; but the pacer was of no account that day, and
Hopeful won easily. At Minneapolis, September 5, he beat the
gray pacer Lucy, and at Quincy, 111., he beat her again, the time
at the latter place being 2 m. IG-i s., 2 m. 17J s., 2 m. 17 s., and
2 m. 18i s. At Cedar Rapids he trotted against time, but could
do no better than 2 m. 23^ s., and with this failure he closed his
labors for the season. He is now in his prime, and although a
difficult horse to keep in condition, he is a regular sticker, and if
well next season may reasonably be expected to eclipse all his pre-
vious performances.

" Le roi est niort ! vive le roi !" The news of the withdrawal of
the mighty Rarus from the turf had hardly grown cold, before a
mightier than he dashed from the obscurity in which he had re-
mained for four years, and almost at a single bound gained the proud
position which Rarus had vacated. St. Julien, whose mile in 2 m.
12 J s. stands at the head of the record, is a handsome bay gelding,
15f hands high, with two white feet and a slight star in his fore-
head. His entree into trotting society is interesting. One bright
sunny day in 1873, Mr. James Gralway, who owned a half-mile
track at the beautiful village of Groshen in Orange county, N. Y.,
was attracted by the appearance of a handsome bay colt who spun
around the track at a rapid gait. The track when not wanted for
the regular races was generously thrown open to any of the neigh-
boring farmers or village horsemen who wished to try the mettle of
their horses, and being kept in good condition, was frequented
daily by many who imagined they were the happy possessors of
future Dextcrs or Edwin Forrests. The driver of the colt in ques-
tion was a stranger, old and shabby, and the wagon and harness
were in keeping with the driver's appearance, but the horse's action
was so good and his speed so evident, that Mr. Galway hailed the
stranger and questioned him about the breeding of the colt. This
could not but be satisfictory, for right royal blood coursed through
his veins. He was foaled in 1869, his sire being Volunteer, the
greatest of all the sons of the dead hero of Chester, and his dam
a daughter of Coming's Harry Clay. At Mr. Galway's request
the farmer drove him twice round the track at such a rapid gait that
Mr. Galway, who held the watch on him, quickly consummated
the bargain, and paid the delighted owner the priced asked, $600.
He took him home, but did not train him until the fall of 1874,
when he was placed in the hands of Mr. William Sargent, who
drove him in all his races until he went to California. He
made his debut at Poughkeepsie, August 4, 1875, in the 2 m.
38 s. class. There were twelve starters. Great Eastern, the
Goliath of the turf, won the first heat in 2 m. 30 s., with St.

'AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 547

Julicn a close second. St. Julien then cut loose and won the
three remaining heats and the race in 2 ni. 30 s., 2 m. 261- s.,
and 2 ui. 30| s. Three days later at the same place he started
in the 2 m. 34 s. class, winning the first, second, and fourth
heats in 2 ni. 26J s., 2 m. 30 s., and 2 m. 26| s., Tom Moore,
a young stallion by Jupiter Abdallah, t;iking the second heat
in 2 m. 28 s. He then went to Hampden Park, Springfield,
Mass., where on the first day of the meeting he won the 2 m. 38 s.
purse easily in straight heats, best time 2 m. 28 s. Three days
later at the same place he met Nerea, John W. Hall, Unknown,
Frank Munson, Sir William Wallace, Queen, and Lady Morrison
in the 2 m. 34 s. class, and a desperate struggle ensued. Nerea
was the favorite at two to one over St. Julien, and justified the
partiality of her friends by winning the first heat in 2 m. 23^ s.,
by a head, with St. Julien second and Unknown third. The latter
then won the second heat in precisely the same time, St. Julien
again coming in second. St. Julien now went to the front and
won the three remaining heats and the race in 2 m. 22j s., 2 m.
26J s., and 2 m. 27 s. At Hartford, x\ugust 31, he defeated a
good field in straight heats in 2 m. 28^ s., 2 m. 26} s., and 2 m.
26 J s., and two days later at the same meeting he appeared for the
sixth and last time that year, winning as he pleased from Great
Eastern, Sister, and Goldfiuder in straight heats in 2 m. 25| s ,
2 m. 23| s., and 2 m. 242 s. This was his last engagement that
season. His career had been a brief one, but exceptionally brilliant.
He had met some of the fastest and most promising trotters then
on the turf, and not a single defeat dimmed the glory of his achieve-
ments. His winnings in purses alone in that brief campaign of
less than a month amounted to $8400, and consequently when he
passed into the hands of Mr. Orrin A. Hickok, the skillful Cali-
fornia driver, for the princely sum of $20,000, good judges did not
consider the price extravagant. His career on the Pacific slope
was at first a disappointment to his new owners. He trotted but
one race the next year at San Francisco, September 2, 1876, in a
match for $10,000, defeating Dan Voorhees, who won the first
heat, in 2 m. 26^ s., 2 m. 251- s., 2 m. 30i s., and 2 m. 29| s., by
no means remarkable time for such a phenomenon as he was claimed
to be. He did not trot again that year, nor in 1877, nor in 1878,
and when on the 13th of September, 1879, he appeared as one of
the contestants for the Free-for-all Purse at Sacramento, it was like
a resurrection from the dead. Nutwood won a hard-fought race of
five heats, the best of which was 2 m. 20 s. St. Julien made such
an inglorious showing, being absolutely last in the first two heats
and having the distance flag dropped in his face in the third, that
when at Stockton one week later he defeated Graves and Nutwood

548 A SHORT HISTORY OP THE

in 2 m. 17 s., 0 m. 0 s., 2 m. 18J s., and 2 m. 24 s., the public
could hardly realize that he was at last coming back to his time,
and that the new star was to shine with a brighter light than any
of its predecessoi'S. In this race Graves won the second heat, but
the time was declared no record. The owners of St. Julien felt
assured that he could do better than this, and when Gen. Grant
had returned from his tour round the world, and California was
lavishing her honors upon him, they, too, thought that they would
show the ex-President a faster trotting horse than auy he had seen
in his travels, and accordingly an exhibition was arranged for his
benefit at Oakland Park, San Francisco, October 25, and St.
Julien entered for a purse of $800 conditioned upon his beating
Earu.s' famous record of 2 m. 131^ s. The result is told in the
following abstract from the San Francisco Call of the next day :

" When the horses were called, General Grant and Senator
Sharon accompanied the president of the association, Dr. E. H.
Pardee, to the judges' stand. The great event of the day was the
attempt of St. Julien, with a running mate, to beat the best trotting
record for a purse of $800. The track was in a very favorable
condition for fast time. After a short delay St. Julien passed
through the gate and proceeded leisurely down the track to take a
little preparatory exercise previous to the trial in two dashes to
eclipse 2 m. Vi\ s., the record of Rarus, the king of the trotting
turf. The horse looked wonderfully fit and strong, and moved
with such ease and freedom that those who had seen him make a
mile at Stockton, and do even faster time at San Jose, were con-
fident that he would lower that record, but were too skeptical to
imagine that the name of St. Julien would be flashed last night all
through the land with 2 m. 12| s. to his credit. There was no
betting on the event, but bets were freely oifered at $50 to $25
that, not even in honor of the presence of General Grant, would
the record of Karus be beaten. At the second attempt the bay
gelding, disdaining the aid of the running mate, came down to the
score at a grand swinging gait, and Hickok nodding assent, the
bell sounded and St. Julien sped along on his first trial, and hun-
dreds of watches were set clicking to beat time with his own
miniature weapons. General Grant stood in the corner of the
grand stand nearest the distance pole, and followed with an intense
gaze the fleeting animal as he passed around the lower turn, and
when he reached the quarter mile in 33 s., or at a 2 m. 12 s. gait,
there was a perceptible movement of surprise that was intensified
as the noble horse still increased his stride and reached the half in
1 ni. 5J s., or the second quarter at the rate of 2 m. 9 s. There
was a subdued murmur, and the spectators became seemingly im-
bued with the idea of witnessing a grand performance as St. Julien

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 549

sped on his way and reached the three-quarter pole in 1 m, 40 s.,
or the third quarter at the rate of 2 m. 19 s., but when well into
the home-stretch he again increased his stride, and, urged to his
utmost, he came along with a magnificent stride, and passed under
the wire in the unprecedented time of 2 m. 12f s. without the
slightest skip or break, the last quarter being made at the superb
gait of 2 m. 11 s. to the mile. Of all the spectators of the feat
no one showed himself more interested than General Grant, who
watched every step of the horse, especially on the home-stretch,
puifing his cigar vigorously as the match between horse and time
reached its conclusion, and when the record was pronounced cor-
rect beyond cavil, he shook Dr. Pardee, the president, by the hand,
thus congratulating the managers of the Gulden Gate Association
on the honor achieved by it of having such a grand trial made
successfully on their track, while mentally he might have made use
of the exclamation, ' Carry the news to Bonner.' The declaration
of the record was received with great applause, in which the
General joined heartily, and the gallant horse and his skillful
driver were received with rousing cheers as the latter returned to
dismount and to show by the scales one pound overweight.
General Grant was so delighted with the achievement that he
went round to St. Julien's stables between the heats of the 2 m.
29 s. trot to look the horse over and to congratulate Mr. Ilickok.
St. Julien appeared none the worse for his arduous feat, save that
he had displaced his boot on the off hind leg, and this was mainly
the cause that with another boot that did not fit well he could not
make as good time in the succeeding trial. This was also made
without a skip or break in 33i s. to the quarter, 1 m. 6f s. to the
half, and 2 m. 15^ s. to the mile, amid immense applause."

The following brief statistics will show at a glance the wonder-
ful improvement in the speed of the trotting horse :

In 1818 the best mile in harness (Boston Blue), 3 m. 00 s.

In 1824 the best mile under saddle (the Albany Pony), 2 m. 40 s.

In 1834 the best mile under saddle (Edwin Forrest), 2 m. SIJ s.

In 1839 the best mile under saddle (Dutchman), 2 m. 28 s.

In 1849 the best mile under saddle (Lady Suffolk), 2 m. 26 s.

In 1853 the best mile in harness (Highland Maid), 2 m. 27 s.

In 1859 the best mile in harness (Flora Temple), 2 m. 19i s.

In 1867 the best mile in harness (Dexter), 2 m. 17i s.

In 1874 the best mile in harness (Goldsmith Maid), 2 m. 14 s.

In 1878 the best mile in harness (Rarus), 2 m. 13:^ s.

In 1879 the best mile in harness (St. Julien), 2 m. 12J s.

The results of the Grand Circuit of 1879 are still more con-
clusive. At each of the five meetings embraced in it there were
purses given for nine classes of horses; from those who had
never trotted in public better than 2 m. 30 s. to the Free-for-all
and Special Speed Purses. At Cleveland there were thirty-six
heats trotted and paced, and the average time was 2 m. 21|| s. •

550 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

Buffalo had forty-seven heats, with an average 2 m. 21|| s. ; Utiea,
thirty-four, with an average 2 m. 21|§s. ; Hartford, thirty-nine,
with an average of 2 ni. 21|| s. ; Rochester, thirty-nine, with an
average of only 2 m. :£0|| s. The last was the fastest trotting
meeting ever held. In 1879 there were two hundred and seventy-
five trotting horses on the turf, with a record of 2 ni. 30 s., or
better, and of these fourteen had faster records than Flora Temple's
famous one at Kalamazoo, just twenty years ago.

Of late years the rising generation have carried off more
than their share of the laurels. Five years ago Blackwood
proudly boasted of the best three-year-old performance on record,
a mile in public in 2 m. 31 s. ; this year Jewctt reduces the score
to 2 m. 23 J s.; then Allie West's four-year-old record of 2 m.
29 s. was deemed wonderful. Now Trinket lops off nearly ten
seconds, trotting at Louisville, July 10, 1879, in the amazing time,
for a four-year-old, of 2 m. 19| s. Five years ago 2 m. 22|^ s.
was the limit of a five-year-old's ambition ; now Santa Glaus trots
his mile in 2 m. 18 s. Nor are these exceptional cases, for Stein-
way, among the three-year-olds, So-So and William H. among the
four-year-olds, and Von Arnini, Annette, Noontide, Fanny Wither-
spoon, Capoul, and Daisy Hamilton, among the five-year-olds, are
not far behind their brilliant competitors.

When it is considered that by far the greater portion of the
best bred colts are kop', for driving purposes or the stud, and
that very few even of the most promising trotters are kept long on
the turf, the enormous increase in the number of fast horses
America is annually producing is still more marked. But with all
this the demand for fast driving horses has been so great that the
supply is not equal to the demand, and the increase in prices has
been even proportionately greater.

AVhen, in 1858, jMr. William McDonald, of Baltimore, paid
$8000 lor Flora Temple, it was the highest price that had ever
been paid for a trotting horse, and was considered the full value of
the fastest trotter in the world; but now there are scores of horses
whose owners would scornfully refuse an offer of double that sum
for them.

The money invested in horseflesh for road purposes only may be
judged by the amount spent by Mr. Robert Bonner, a gentleman
■who never permits any of his horses to trot for money, but keeps
them solely for his own driving. For Pocahontas Mr. Bonner
gave 835,000 and another horse; Rarus cost him $36,000; for
Dexter he paid $33,0(J0; Edward Everett, $20,000; Startle,
$20,000; Edwin Forrest, $16,000; Lady Stout, $15,000; Grafton,
$15,000; Bruno, $15,000; the Auburn horse, $13,000; Wellesley
Boy, $12,000; Joe Elliott, $10,000; Maud Macy, $10,000; Mam-
briuo Bertie, $10,000; Dick Jamison, $10,000 ; Maybird, $9500;

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 551

Lantern and Light, $9000; Music, $8000; three full sisters to
Dexter, $6500; Molsey, $L-000; Peerless, $5500; Lady Palmer,
$5000 ; Prince Imperial, son of the famous Flora Temple, $5000;
Flatbush Maid, $4000 ; Eric, $4000 ; John Taylor, $3500 ; Lady
Woodruff, $3000; Centennial, $3000; Lucy Cuyler, $3000;
Walton, $3000; the Canada roan mare, $3000; Keen Jim, $2800;
Major Morton, $2500; the Carpenter horse, $2200; the Boston
gray team, $2000 ; Elsie Venner, $2000 ; Ada Duroc, $2000 ; Ella
Sherwood, $1600; Hebe, Grafton's dam, $1500; Carl Burr,
$1200; Malice, $1200; Honest Peter, $1200; dam of the Morse
colt, $1200 ; Uncle Sim, $1000 ; dam of Clara G., $1000 ; Princess,
$1000. The list of itself amounts to $377,700. But in addition
to those mentioned Mr. Bonner has a large number of ftishionably
bred brood mares, and several young mares and geldings of great
speed that he purchased at prices ranging below $1000.

That the trotting turf has been of inestimable benefit to the
great breeding interests of the country cannot be denied. It has
already added millions of dollars to the material wealth of the
country, and if the exportation of American horses to Europe in-
creases as rapidly in the next few years as ifc has done during the
year now fast drawing to a close, the raising of horses will be
among the most important of American industries. But there is
almost always a dark side to every picture.

Up to 1870 there had been no co-operation between the man-
agement of the different trotting courses of the United States. A
course might rule a driver or owner off its track for a p:-^p:' ' :
fraud, but the punishment virtually amounted to nothing, as he
could immediately go to another course on the same footing as the
honestest man there. Is it any wonder that under this want of
system fraud oftentimes ruled with a high hand, and when exposed
laughed at those who had at heart the best interests of the turf?

It became evident that some plan must be devised to check the
growing flood of corruption which threatened to engulf the trotting
turf, and a call was issued to the different trotting associations of
the United States to send delegates to a convention to be held in
New York to promote the best interests of the trotting turf. The
convention met in February, 1870, and formally organized the
" National Association for the Promotion of the Interests of the
American Trotting Turf" Amasa Sprague, the great Rhode Island
manufacturer, was elected president of the association, rules for the
management of all the tracks belonging to the association were
adopted, and a board of appeals constituted, to whom all disputes
and doubtful questions were to be referred. This organization still
exists, and its influence for good has been immense. Nearly all
the principal tracks in the country belong to it and act together in
perfect harmony. And now if any one is ruled off a track the

552 A SHORT HISTORY, ETC.

punishment is no longer a light one, for expulsion from one track
means expulsion from all.

The future of the trotting turf is full of bright omens ; rowdyism
and drunkenness are being banished from our leading courses, and
the races of the Grand Circuit are witnessed by thousands of spec-
tators, few of whom have a dollar in the pool-box, while beauty
and fashion fill the benches so long empty, and the sport is
relished fur its own sake, and not for the gambler's gains. The
clouds of prejudice and suspicion, which so long overhung it, are
drifting rapidly away, and many of our leading scholars and thinkers
are beginning to see that the turf is not as bad as it has been
depicted. In a recent address President Clark, of Amherst College,
makes the following sensible remarks : " With suitable preparation
and management, not only does a healthy horse suffer no distress
from trotting a moderate distance at the top of his speed, but enjoys
it as highly as his driver. The match trotter is peculiarly gifted
with powers of locomotion, and his wonderful mechanism can only
be appreciated when in full operation. To most persons a closely-
contested trot is a beautiful and attractive spectacle, and experience
proves that nothing affords a more delightful or harmless amuse-
ment for the people, provided the surroundings and associations
are of the proper kind. The usual accompaniments of the race-
course— quarrelling, profanity, intoxication, gambling, and public
betting — may and should always be everywhere forbidden and pre-
vented. The morals of the community are of more consequence
than the breeds of horses. There is no more occasion for immor-
ality in connection with a trotting match, than in connection with
an exhibition of skill and swiftness in skating."

But will these bright omens be fulfilled ? Who can tell ? One
thing is certain : the fate of the turf rests not with its enemies, but
its friends. The outrageous Edwin Forrest case at Utica, last year,
inflicted a far deadlier wound than bigoted opposition or rancorous
diatribe could possibly have done, and if the races are to be decided
in the pool-box and not upon the track, if horses are to be pulled in
order to save records, if drivers are allowed to form corrupt com-
binations, and the interests of the owners are treated as naught, the
turf will sink to a lower condition than it was before the National
Association was formed. But if the reform movement which was
then inaugurated is curried on in the spirit in which it was begun;
if fraud, when exposed, is rigorously punished, no matter who may
be the sufi'crer; if the owners and breeders come to tiie front and
the gamblers are sent to the rear, then shall the trotting turf become
a blessing and not a curse, and when hereafter the foreigner visiting
these shores shall ask to see the productions of American genius
and enterprise, he shall behold none more truly characteristic, none
more worthy of his admiration, than the Trotting Horse of America.

TABLES OF PERFORMANCES

EMBRACING THE

RECORDS OF ALL HORSES WHO HAVE TROTTED A
MILE IN PUBLIC IN 2:25, OR BETTER,

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO JANUARY 1, 1880.

TOGETHER WITH

THE BEST PUBLIC PERFOEMANCES AT LONG DISTANCES.

COMPILED BY

HENRY T. COATES.

CORRECTED AND REVISED BY

WALTER T. CHESTER,

Of " The Spirit of the Times,"
AND

CYEUS LUKENS.

(553)

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Budd Doble,
Charles Champlin,
A. J. Feek,
Gerry Walker,
John Splan,
Darius Tallman,
John Crooks,
J. N. Smith,

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Lady Thome,
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May Bird,
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George Wilkes,
Pat Hunt,

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TABLES OF PACING PERFORMANCES

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ALL THE HORSES WHO HATE PACED IN 2;25, OR BETTER,

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THE BEST PUBLIC PERFORMANCES AT
LONG DISTANCES.

COMPILED BY

HENRY T. COATES.

(575)

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TABLES OF BEST PERFORMANCES

ON THE

AMERICAN RUNXII^G TUEF.

BY

S. D. AND L. C. BRUCE,

Of the " Turf, Field and Farm."

(583)

eunni:n'g time table.

FASTEST AND BEST TIME AND MOST CREDITABLE PERFORM-
ANCES ON RECORD AT ALL DISTANCES, TO END OF YEAR 1879.

HALF MILE.

Olitipa (2), by imp. Leamington, 97 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 25, 1874, 0:47|

Pomeroy (2), by Planet, 90 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky , May 23, 1877, . 0:49^^

Harold (2), by imp. Leamington, 110 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 23, 1878, 0:49i

Idalia (2), by imp. Glenelg, 107 lbs. ; Jerome Park, June 8, 1876, 0:49J

Leona (2), by War Dance, 89 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., May 12, 1874, 0:49^
Blue Lodge (2), by Fellowcraft, 97 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., May 10,

1879, 0:49J

Duke of Magenta (2), by Lexington, 110 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 24,

1877, 0:49^

Idalia (2), by imp. Glenelg, 107 lbs. ; Long Branch, July 4, 1876, 0:49^
Sensation (2), by imp. Leamington, 110 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 22,

1879, 0:49|

Kimball (2), by imp. Buckden, 102 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., May

21, 1879, 0:49|

Observanda (2), by Tom Bowling, 97 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., May

21, 1879 0:49|

Grenada (2), by King Alfonso, 107 lbs. ; Long Branch, July 5,

1879, 0:49|

FIVE-EIGHTHS OF A MILE.

Bonnie Wood (3), by Imp. Bonnie Scotland, 102 lbs. ; Saratoga,

July 20, 1878, 1:02|

Grenada (2), by King Alfonso, 110 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 10, 1879, 1:03J
Harold (2), by imp. Leamington 110 lbs.; Long Branch, July

4, 1878, . . . . ; 1:03^

Rachel (2), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 93 lbs.; Long Branch,

July 6, 1878, l:03j

Palmetto (2), by Narragansett, 107 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 10, 1876, 1:03|
Rhadamanthus (4), by imp. Leamington, 100 lbs. ; Saratoga,

July 25, 1876, l:03i

Egypt (aged), by Planet, 120 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 19, 1879, . 1:04"
Aristides (2), by imp. Leamington, 100 lbs. ; Jerome Park, Oct.

7, 1874, 1:04^

Volturno (2), by imp. Billet, 105 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug. 21, 1878, l:04j

(585)

586 RUNNINa TIME TABLE.

THREE-QUARTERS OF A MILE.

First Chance (5), by Baywood, 110 lbs. ; Philadelphia, Pa., Oct.

17, 1876 1:15

Lady Middleton (4), by imp. Hurrah, 101 lbs. ; Saratoga, Augr.

1, 1879, 1:17, 1:15^

First was dead heat with Checkmate.
Bill Bruce (4), by Enquirer, 108 lbs.; Lexington, Ky., May 12,

1876, 1:15§

Connor (2), by Norfolk, 83 lbs. ; Carson, Nev., Oct. 19, 1879, . 1:15|
Rhadamanthus (5), by imp. Leamington, 122 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug.

19, 1877, 1:15^

Florence B. (3), by Tom Bowling, 92 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky, Sept.

20, 1879, l:15f

Madge (3), by imp. Australian, 87 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 21, 1874, 1:15|
Alarm (3), by imp. Eclipse, 90 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 15, 1872, . 1:16
Belle of the Meade (2), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 87 lbs.; Nash-
ville, Tenn., Oct. 9, 1876, 1:16

Enquiress (4) by Enquirer, 107 lbs. ; Detroit, July 5, 1879, . 1:16
Egypt (aged), by Planet; Louisville, May 28, 1879 ; heats, 1:16, 1:17

Milan (2), by Melbourne, Jr., 90 lbs.; Louisville, Ky., May 26, 1877, 1:16
Girofle (2), by imp. Leamington, 105 lbs. ; Prospect Park, Sept.

13, 1879, 1:16J

Spendthrift (2), by imp. Australian, 100 lbs. ; Nashville, Tenn.,

Oct. 8. 1878, 1:161-

Checkmate (4 , by imp. Glen Athol, 115 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug.

15, 1879, 1:16|-

Kimball (2), by imp. Buckden, 100 lbs.; St. Louis, June 13, 1879, 1:16^

Mistake (2j, by Waverley, lOOlbs. ; Louisville, Ky., Sept. 23, 1879, 1:16|
Madge (5), by imp. Australian, 117 lbs. ; Saratoga, N. Y., Aug.

15, 1876, 1:16J

Glendalia (4), by imp. Glenelg, 109 lbs'. ; Louisville, Sept. 24, 1879, 1:16^

Pique (2), by imp. Leamington, 107 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 27, 1877, 1:16|

Tom Bowling (2), by Lexington, 100 lbs.; Long Branch, 1872, . hicf

Bowling Green (2), by Tom Bowling; Louisville, Sept. 24, 1879, l:16f
Duke of Magenta (2), by Lexington, 110 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug.

16, 1877, *1:16|

Spartan (2), by Lexington, 105 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 16, 18*77, . *l:16f
Sly Dance (2), by War Dance, 97 lbs.; Louisville, Sept. 22,

1879, *I:lCf, 1:17J

Bye-and-Bye (2), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 97 lbs.; Louisville,

Sept. 22, 1879 *1:16|

McWhirter (2), by Enquirer, 90 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., Sept. 22,

1876, 1:17

Wallenstein (2), by Waverley, 100 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., May 15,

1879, 1:17

Countess (2), by Kentucky, 97 lbs.; Saratoga, 1873, . . . 1:17J
Beatrice (2), by Kentucky, 97 lbs. ; .Long Branch, . . . 1:17|
Luke Blackburn (2), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 110 lbs. ; Pros-
pect Park, Sept. 6, 1879, 1:17J

Oden (2), by Vauxhall, 110 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug. 7, 1879, . . 1:17|

Idalia (4), by imp. Glenelg, 1 13 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 5, 1878, . 1:18

Spartan (2), by Lexington, 113 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 22, 1877, . 1:19|

* Dead beats.

RUNNING TIME TABLE. 587

ONE MILE.

Ten Broeck (5), by imp. Phaeton, 110 lbs., vs. time; Louisville,

Ky, May 24, 1877, 1:39|

Leander (Searcher), (3), by Enquirer, 90 lbs.; Lexington, Ky.,

May 13, 1875, 1:41|

Redman (4), by War Dance, 103 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., May 13,

1876, '. . . l:42i

Danger (3), by Alarm, 100 lbs.; Baltimore, May 23, 18Y8, . . 1:42^
Mahlstick (3), by Lever, 90 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., "v

Sept. 20 1877 . . . . •„ • • l dead heat, 1:42*
Chas. Gorham (3), by Blarneystone, 87 lbs. ; Lex- f ' ^

ington, Ky., Sept. 20, 1877, .... J
Gray Planet (5), by Planet, 110 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug. 13, 1874,

vs. time, ........... 1:42^

Dan K. (3), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 98 lbs. ; Louisville, Kv.,

May 29, 1877, ' . 1:42J

Goodnight (3), by Enquirer, 101 lbs.; Louisville, Ky., Sept. 23,

1879, . . 1:42J

Katie Pease (4), by Planet, 105 lbs. ; Buffalo, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1 874, 1:42|
Alarm (3), by imp. Eclipse, 90 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 17, 1872, . 1:42^
Glenmore (4), by imp. Glen Athol, 110 lbs.; Detroit, July 4, 18Y9, ]:42|
Virginius (4), by Virgil, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 4, 1877, . . l:42f
Cammie F. (4), by imp. Glenelg, 107 lbs.; Louisville, Sept. 20,

1879, 1:43

Mistake (2), by Waverley, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept. 26, 1879, . 1:43^
Edinburg (4), by Longfellow, 110 lbs ; Lexington, May 11, 1878, 1:43J
Belle of the Meade (2), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 87 lbs. ; Louis-
ville, Sept. 25, 1876, 1:441

Belle of the Meade (2), by imp. Bohnie Scotland, 97 lbs.; Louis-
ville, Ky., Sept. 27, 1876, l:44l

Spendthrift (2), by imp. Australian, 100 lbs. ; Nashville, Oct. 12,

1878, 1:44^

Clara D. (2), by imp. Glenelg, 87 lbs. ; Sacramento, Sept. 27, 1877, 1:44 J
Astral (2), by Asteroid, 86 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., Sept. 12, 1873, 1:44|
Parole (2), by imp. Leamington, 97 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 10, 1875, 1:44|
Aristides (2), by imp. Leamington, 100 lbs. ; Baltimore, Oct. 22,

1874, 1:44|

Susquehanna (2), by imp. Leamington, 97 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug.

8, 1876, 1:45

Charley Howard (3), by Lexington, 118 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 17,

1876, 1:45

Finework (2), by Lexington, 97 lbs.; Baltimore, October, 1874, 1:45
Hamburg (2), by Lexington, 90 lbs. ; Cincinnati, 1869, . . 1:45
Battle Axe (2), by Monday, 100 lbs. ; Saratoga, 1873, . . 1:45^

Spindrift (aged), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 124 lbs. ; Jerome Park,

June 6, 1876, 1:46^

Tom Bowling (2), by Lexington, 105 lbs. ; Long Branch, Aug.

8, 1872, 1:47

MILE HEATS.

Kadi (6), by Lexington, catch weight, about 90 lbs. ; Hartford,
Conn., Sept. 2, 1875; fastest second heat and fastes*. two
heats ever run, . . 1:42^, 1:41^

588 RUNNING TliME TABLE.

L'Argentine (5), by War Dance, 104J lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., Sept.

27, IS'ia (Beatitude won first heatj", . . . i:i2\, 1:42^, 1:45§
Mark L. (3), by Monday, 100 lbs. ; Sacramento, Sept. 19, 1878,

1:43, 1:42|
Himyar (3), by Alarm, 105 lbs.; St. Louis, June 4, 1878, . ]:42|, 1:43^
Camargo (3), by Jack Malone, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., May 20,"

1875, 1:42|, 1:43^

Una (3), by War Dance, 91 lbs.; Prospect Park, June 25,

1879, 1:42}, 1:45

Tom Bowling (3), by Lexington, 100 lbs. ; ran mile heats at

Lexington, Ky., May, 1873, iu 1:43^, l:43i

Thornhill (4), by Woodburn, 103 lbs.; ran first two heats in

1:43, 1:43; Tliad. Stevens (aged), by Langford, 115 lbs.; won

the tiiirii, fourth and fifth in .... 1:43^,1:46^,1:45

Clara D. (3), by imp. Glenelg, 97 lbs.; San Francisco, Sept. 13,

1878, 1:43, 1:43J

Bradcmante (3), by War Dance, 91 lbs.; Saratoga, August 9,

1877, 1:43^, 1:43^

Bramble (3), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 105 lbs.; Nashville, Oct.

7, 1878, 1:43, 1:44

Lena Dunbar (4), by Leinster, 105 lbs.; Sacramento, Sept. 17,

1878, 1:441, 1:42|

Springbok (4), by imp. Australian, 108 lbs. ; Ulica, N. Y., June

25, 1874, 1:45, 1:42|

ONE MILE AND ONE-EIGHTH.

Bob Woolley (3), by imp. Leamington, 90 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky.,

Sept. 6, 1875, . . . ' . 1:54

Janet Murray (4), by Panic, 105 lbs. ; Brighton Beach, July 31,

1879, ' l:54f

Blue Eyes (4), by Enquirer, 110 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., May 28, 1879, 1:55}
Warficld (3), by War Dance, 90 lbs. ; Louisville, Oct. 1, 1878, . 1:56
Jack Hardy (5), by imp. Phaeton, 115 lbs. ; St. Louis, June 4,

1878, 1:56

Fadladeen (aged), by War Dance, 101 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 19,

1874, 1:56

Picolo (3), by Concord, 83 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 15, 1874, . . 1:56
Himyar (4), by Alarm, 110 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept. 20, 1879, . 1:56
Jils Johnson (3), by Longfellow, 95 lbs. ; Lexington, Sept. 11, 1879, 1:56}
Fanny Ludlow (4), by imp. Eclipse, 105 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 10,

1879, 1:56^

Round Dance (3), by War Dance, 83 lbs.; Louisville, Sept. 27,

1879, 1:56^

Konrad (5), by Rebel Morgan, 100 lbs. ; New Orleans, April 26,

1878, 1:56^

Ben Hill (3), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 92 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept.

25, 1879; Victin (3), by Victory, 92 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept. 25,

1879; dead heat, 1:56|

Mollie McGinley (3), by imp. Glen Athol, 95 lbs. ; Brighton

Beach, Sept. 10, 1879, 1:57

Una (3), by War Dance, 91 lbs. ; Prospect Park, Sept. 11, 1879, . 1:57
Susquehanna (3), by imp. Leamington, 107 lbs. ; Saratoga, July

24, 1877, 1:57}

RUNNING TIME TABLE. 589

Experience Oaks (3), by Lexington, 107 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 20,

1872, 1:57}

Bramble (3), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 105 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug.

17, lb78, 1:58

Bramble (4), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 118 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug.

9, 1879, 1:58

Kennesaw (4), by imp. Glengarry, 110 lbs. ; Louisville, May 28,

1878, 1:58^

Essillah (6), by Lever, 115 lbs. ; Nashville, April 29, 1879, . . 1:58^

Gabriel (3), by Alarm, 108 lbs. ; Brighton Beach, Sept. 27, 1879, 1:59

Edinburg (4), by Longfellow, 110 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept. 25, 1878, 1:59
Diamond (4), by imp. Leamington, 115 lbs. ; Ogdensburg, N. Y.,

Sept. 10, 1878, 1:59

Lancewood (3), by imp. Leamington, 112 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug.

13, 1879, 1:59

Belle (3), by Dickens, 113 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 23, 1878, . , 1:59
Rhadamanthus (4j, by imp. Leamington, 118 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug.

15, 1876, 1:59|

Spindrift (aged), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 124 lbs.; Jerome

Park, June 10, 1876, 2:00

Phyllis (4), by imp. Phaeton, 151 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept. 27. 1876, 2:01
Spindrift (aged), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 168 lbs. ; Jerome

Park, June 12, 1875, 2:03}

ONE MILE AND A QUARTER.

Charley Gorham (3), by Blarneystone, 87 lbs. ; Lexington, May

18, 1877, 2:08^

Falsetto (3), by Enquirer, 100 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., May 10, 1879, 2:08f
Grinstead (4), by Gilroy, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 24, 1875, . 2:08^

Frogtown (4), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 104 lbs.; Lexington,

Ky., May 10, 1872, 2:09^

Monitor (3), by imp. Glenelg, 120 lbs. ; Prospect Park, Sept. 9,

1879, 2:10

Parole (5), by imp. Leamington, 121 lbs.; Saratoga, July 20, 1878, 2:10^

Mate (5), by imp. Australian, 116 lbs.; Jerome Park, Oct. 3, 1874, 2:11|
Preakness (7), by Lexington, 128 lbs.; Jerome Park, June 13,

1874, 2:12

ONE MILE AND THREE-EIGHTHS.

Spendthrift (3), by imp. Australian, 123 lbs. ; Jerome Park, June

10, 1879, 2:25|

Gov. Hampton (5), by Planet, 114 lbs. ; Prospect Park, June 21,

1879,. . ' 2:26J-

Bramble (4), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 118 lbs.; Long Branch,

July 10, 1879, 2:27

ONE AND A HALF MILES.

Tom Bowling* (4), by Lexington, 104 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., May

12, 1874, 2:34|

* Tom Bowling was permitted to extend the run to two miles. He ran the first mile in
V.i\%, mile and a liiilf in 2::i't^, one and three-quarter miles in 3:00%, and two miles in
3:27% ; the last two unofficial.

590 RUNNING TIME TABLE.

Parole (4), by imp. Leamington, 97 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 14, 1877, 2:36|
Lord Murphy (3), by Pat Malloy, 100 lbs.; Louisville, May 20,

1879, 2:37

Day Star (3), by Star Davis, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, May 21, 1878, 2:37J^
Aristides (3), by imp. Leamington, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., May

17, 1875, 2:37f

Glenelg (4), by Citadel, 100 lbs.; Long Branch, Aug. 2, 1870, . 2:37|
Shylock (5), by Lexington, 1 14 lbs. ; Jerome Park, Oct. 31, 1874, 2:38
Baden Baden (3), by imp. Australian, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, May

22, 1877, .' 2:38

Vagrant (3), by Virgil, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, May 14, 1877, . . 2:38J
Peru (3), by imp. Glengarry, 97 lbs.; Lexington, Ky., Sept. 11,

1879, 2:38|

Belle of Nelson (3), by Hunter's Lexington, 97 lbs. ; Louisville,

May 23, 1878, 2:39

Imp. Saxon (3), by Beadsman, 110 lbs. ; Belmont Stakes, Jerome

Park, June 13, 1874, 2:39J

Tom Ochiltree (5), by Lexington, 124 lbs. ; Jerome Park, Oct.

13, 1877, 2:43

Zoo Zoo (3), by imp. Australian, 113lbs.; Saratoga, Aug. 21, 1877, 2:43^
Duke of Magenta (3), by Lexington, 118 lbs.; Jerome Park, June

8, 1878, 2:43^

ONE MILE AND FIVE-EIGHTHS.

Ten Broeck (3), bv imp. Phaeton, 90 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., Sept.

9, 1875, . ". 2:49J

Monitor (3), by imp. Glenelg, 98 lbs. ; Prospect Park, Sept. 13,

1879, 2:50^

Springbok (4), by imp. Australian, 114 lbs. ; Jerome Park, June

20, 1874, 2:53

Braderaante (3), by War Dance, 101 lbs.; Lexington, May 17,

1877, 2:53f

Harry Bassett (3), by Lexington, 110 lbs.; Belmont Stakes,

Jerome Park, June 10, 1871, 2:56

Mintzer (5), by imp. Glenelg, 124 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 23, 1879, . 2:58
Kaiie Pease (3), by Planet, 107 lbs. ; Ladies' Stake, Jerome Park,

June 11, 1873, 2:58|-

ONE AND THREE-QUARTER MILES.

One Dime (3), by Wanderer, 100 lbs. ; Lexington, Sept. 12, 1879, 3:05J
Irish King (3), by Longfellow, 100 lbs. ; Stallion Stakes, Louis-
ville, Sept. 25,^1879, 3:05}

Courier (4), by S^tar Davis, 101 lbs. ; Louisville, May 23, 1877, . 3:05^

Reform (3), by imp. Leamington, 83 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 20, 1874, 3:05|
Mate (5), by imp. Australian, 100 lbs.; Long Branch, July 15,

1875, 3:06}

D'Artagnan (3), by Lightning, 110 lbs.; Saratoga, July 24, 1875, 3:00^
Gen. Philips (5), by imp. Glenelg, 112 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug. 5,

1879, 3:06J

Emma C. (3), by Planet, 97 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., Sept. 23, 1875, 3:06f
Frogtown (4), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 104 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky.,

May 16, 1872 3:07

Danicheff (4), by imp. Glenelg, 113 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 9, 1879, 3:07

RUNNING TIME TABLE. 591

Gov. Hampton (5), by Planet, 114 lbs. ; Prospect Park, Sept. 9,

1879, 3:071

Kenny (G), by Curies, 114 lbs. ; Prospect Park, June 25, 1879, . 3:07^

Leveler (3), by Lever, 100 lbs.; Lexington, Sept. 9, 1878, . , 3:07^
Neecy Hale (3), by Lexington, 102 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., Sept.

14, 187G, 3:07f

Catesby (4), by imp. Eclipse, 99 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 15, 1874, . 3:07|

Parole (4), by imp. Leamington, 116 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 11, 1877, 3:08
Kennesaw (4), by imp. Glengarry, 110 lbs. ; St. Louis, June 5,

1878, 3:08

Duke of Magenta (3), by Lexington, 118 lbs.; Saratoga, July 20,

1878, 3:08

Joe Daniels (3), by imp. Australian, 110 lbs.; Travers' Stake,

Saratoga, July 13, 1872, 3:08J

Preakness (7), by Lexington, 125 lbs. ; Baltimore, Oct. 21, 1864, 3:08^

Viceroy (4), by Gilroy, 100 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 9, 1877, . . 3:08^-
Volturno (3), by imp. Billet, 110 lbs.; Brighton Beach, Sept. 16,

1879 3:08^

Attila (3), by imp. Australian, 110 lbs. ; Travers' Stake, Saratoga,

July 25, 1874, 3:'o9j, 3:08|

The first was a dead heat with Acrobat.

Mintzer (5), by imp. Glenelg, 121 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 28, 1879, . 3:09|-

Falselto (3), by Enquirer, 118 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 19, 1879, . 3:09i-

Zoo Zoo (3), by imp. Australian, 118 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 2, 1877, 3:10

TWO MILES.

Ten Broeck (5), by imp. Phaeton, 110 lbs., against time ; Louis-
ville, May 29, 1877, . . . 3:27|^

McWhirter (3), by Enquirer, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, May 28, 1877, 3:30^
Courier (4), by Star Davis, 101 lbs. ; Louisville, May 28, 1877, . 3:31f
Katie Pease* (4), by Planet, 105 lbs. ; Buffalo, Sept. 9, 1874, . 3:32.}
True Blue (4), by Lexington, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 30, 1873, . 3:32^
Jack Frost (4), by Jack Malone, 108 lbs.; Cleveland, 0., July 31,

1874, 3:33*

Glenmore (4), by imp. Glen Athol, 110 lbs. : Detroit, July 5, 1879, 3:33|
Lizzie Lucas (4), by imp. Australian, 105 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug.

21, 1874, 3:33|

Creedmoor (3), by Asteroid, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., Sept. 20,

1876, 3:34

George Graham (3), by Rogers, 100 lbs. ; first heat; Louisville,

Ky., Sept. 25, 1875, 3:34

Lord Murphy (3), by Pat Malloy, 100 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept. 22,

1879, 3:34

King Alfonso (3), by imp. Phaeton, 110 lbs.; Louisville, Ky.,

Sept. 20, 1875, 3:34j

Hegira (4), by imp. Ambassador, 7lJ lbs. ; New Orleans, La.,

Nov. 23, 1850, 3:34J

Littleton (4), by imp. Leamington, 104 lbs.; Lexington, Ky.,

May 23, 1871, 3:34^

Monitor (3), by imp. Glenelg, 107 lbs. ; Baltimore, Oct. 21, 1879, 3:34|
Wilful (3), by imp. Australian, 95 lbs. ; Prospect Park, June 24,

1879, 3:34f

* Katie Pease came in first, but was disqualified and race given to Lizzie Lucas.

592 EUNNIN9 TIME TABLE.

Charley Howard (3), by Lexington, 110 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 10,

187G, 3:35

Vandalite (3), by Vandal, 107 lbs. ; Breckenridge Stake, Balti-
more, Oct. 23, 1874, 3:35

Himyar (4), by Alarm, 110 lbs. ; Louisyille, Sept. 25, 1879, . 3:35

Falsetto (3), by Enquirer, 118 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 14, 1879, . 3:35J

Volturno (3), by imp. Billet, 110 lbs. ; Baltimore, Oct. 25, 1879, . 3:35^
Vandalite (3), by Vandal, 107 lbs.; Dixie Stake, Baltimore, Oct.

20, 1874, 3:35|

Harry Bassett (3), by Lexington, 110 lbs. ; Saratoga, N. Y., Aug.

16, 1871, 3:35|

Vigil (3), by Virgil, 115 lbs. ; Baltimore, Oct. 28, 187G, . . 3:37^-

TWO-MILE HEATS.

Brademante* (3), by War Dance, 87 lbs. ; Jackson, Miss., Nov.

17, 1877 (?), 3:321-, 3:29?

Willie D. (4), by Revolver, 102 lbs. ; Prospect Park, Sept. 11,

1879, 3:34J, 3:35

Lottery (3), by Monday, 100 lbs.; Sacramento, Cal., Sept. 21,

1873, 3:36, 3:35|

Arizona (aged), by Lexington, 111 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky., May

18, 1875, 3:37}, 3:35j

Aureola (4), by War Dance, 101 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., Sept. 18,

1872, 3:37|, 3:35i

London (3), by Lightning, 95 lbs. ; Nashville, Oct. 5, 1872, . 3:36|, 3:37^
Bushwhacker (4), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 105 lbs. ; Baltimore,

Oct. 22, 1878, 3:.;6, 3:36|, 3:38^

Princeton (4), 108 lbs., won second heat by head, Bushwhacker

second; best average three heats.
Belle of Nelson (3), by Hunter's Lexington, 92 lbs.; Cincinnati,

June 1, 1878, 3:371, 3:36j

Mollie Jones (aged), by West Roxbury, 112 lbs.; Galesburg, HI.,

July 4, 1874; Rocket won first heat, . . . 3:3'^, 3:40, 3:37J

Eolus (6), by imp. Leamington, 118 lbs.; Baltimore, May 28,

1874, the fastest third heat, 3:40, 3:39|, 3:36f

Lancaster (4), by Lexington, 104 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., Sept. 12,

1867, 3:351, 3:38^

Jack Sheppard (3), by Jack Malone, 95 lbs.; Nashville, Oct. 12,

1876, 3:35|, 3:42j

Irish King (3), by Longfellow, 95 lbs.; Baltimore, Oct. 21,

1879, 3:37f, 3:37f

Harkaway (5), by Enquirer, 115 lbs.; St. Louis, June 7,

1878, 3:39, 3:35^

TWO MILES AND ONE-EIGHTH.

Aristides (4), by imp. Leamington, 108 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky., May

10, 1876, 3:45J

Mate (6), by imp. Australian, 114 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 31, 1875, 3:4u|

Monmouth (4), by War Dance, 104 lbs. ; Louisville, May 19, 1875, 3:48|

Big Fellow (3), by War Dance, 90 lbs. ; Lexington, May 15, 1874, 3:50

Dave Moore (4), by Longfellow, 110 lbs. ; Lexington, May 16, 1879, 3:50j

* Brademante's time very doubtful.

RUNNING TIME TABLE. 593

Ferida (3), by imp. Glenelg, 95 lbs. ; Prospect Park, Sept. 5, 1879, 3:54
Sprin<;bok (4), by imp. Australian, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 3,

1874, 3:56

Sultana (3), by Lexington, 112 lbs. ; Jerome Park, Oct. 7, 1876, 3:56|

TWO MILES AND A QUARTER.

Preakness (aged), by Lexington, 114 lbs.; Springbok (5), by

imp. Australian, 114 lbs. ; dead heat, 3:56|-

Harry Bassett (4), by Lexington, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, July 16, 1872, 3:59

Wanderer (6), by Lexington, 114 lbs.; Saratoga, Aug. 13, 1874, 4:00^

Kentucky (4), by Lexington, 104 108.; Saratoga, Aug., 1S65, . 4:01^

Fortuna (4), by Enquirer, 107 lbs. ; Louisville, May 23, 1879, . 4:0l|
Bramble (4), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 108 lbs. ; Baltimore, May

24, 1879, . . . . • 4:01f

Mollie McCarty (6), by Monday or Eclipse, 115 lbs ; Chicago,

June 25, 1879, 4:02

Muggins (4), by Jack Malone, 118 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug., 1867, . 4:03

TWO AND A HALF MILES.

Aristides (4), by imp. Leamington, 108 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky.,

May 13, 1876, 4:27J

Katie Pease (4), by Planet, 105 lbs. ; Buffalo, Sept. 10, 1874, . 4:28J

Ballankeel (3), by Asteroid, 90 lbs. ; Baltimore, Oct. 22, 1874, . 4:31j
Helmbold (4), by imp. Australian, 108 lbs. ; Long Branch, July

30, 1870, . , . 4:33j

Tom Ochiltree (5), by Lexington, 129 lbs. ; Jerome Park, June

18, 1877, 4:36|-

Edinburg (5), by Longfellow, 115 lbs.; Cincinnati, June 7, 1879, 4:3.6^

TWO MILES AND FIVE-EIGHTHS.

Ten Broeck (4), by imp. Phaeton, 108 lbs. ; Lexington, Ky.,

Sept. 16, 1876, 4:58j

TWO MILES AND THREE-QUARTERS.

Hubbard (4), by Planet, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, 1873, . . . 4:58|

Kentucky (5), by Lexington, 124 lbs. ; Jerome Park, Oct. 3, 1866, 5:04
Tom Ochiltree (4), by Lexington, 118 lbs.; Jerome Park, June

17, 1876, 5:09i^

THREE MILES.

Ten Broeck (4), by imp. Phaeton, 104 lbs. ; Louisville, Ky.,

Sept. 23, 1876, . , 5:26j

Monarchist (4), by Lexington, 108 lbs. ; at Jerome Park, 1872;

first mile, 1:45, 5:34j

Tom Ochiltree (4), by Lexington, 118 lbs.; Long Branch, July

6, 1876, , 5:35|

THREE-MILE HEATS.

Brown Dick (3), by imp. Margrave, age from May 1, 86 lbs.;
New Orleans, April 10, 1855 ; the best second heat on record,
and second best three-mile-heat race, .... 5:30|, 5:28
38

594 RUNNING TIME TABLE.

MoUie Jackson (4), 101 lbs., by Vandal ; Louisville, Ky., May 25,
18GJ ; Sherrod won the second heat. The last two miles of
the first heat were run in 3:35 ; the last two of the second heat
in 3:36|; the ninth mile in 1:48^. This is the best three
heats and the best third heat on record, . . 5:35^, 5:34|, 5:28f

Norfolk (4), by Lexington, 100 lbs. ; Sacramento, Cal., Sept. 23,

18C5; best average two heats, 5:27^, 5:29^

Vandal (5), by imp. Glencoe, 110 lbs.; Lexington, May 26,

1855, 5:36^,5:33

Whisper (aged), by Planet, 118 lbs. ; St. Louis, June 8, 1878, . 5:39, 5:35^

FOUlt MILES.

Ten Broeck (4), by imp. Phaeton, 104 lbs., vs. Fellowcraft's time

(108 lbs.); Louisville, Ky., Sept. 27, 1876, .... 7:15|
Pellowcraft (4), by imp. Australian, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, Aug. 20,

1874, 7:19^

Lexington (5), by Boston, 103 lbs. ; vs. time ; New Orleans, La.,

April 2, 1855, 7:19f

Lexington (5), by Boston, beating Lecompte, drawn after first

heat, 103f lbs. ; New Orleans, La., April 14, 1855, . . . 7:23|
Janet (G), by Lightning, 115 lbs. ; Louisville, Sept. 27, 1879, . 7:25
Wildidle (5), by imp. Australian, 110 lbs.; San Francisco, Cal.,

Oct. 28, 1875, 7:25J

Idlewild (5), by Lexington, 117 lbs.; over Centreville Course,

L. I., June 25, 1863, 7:26|

Thad Stevens (aged), by Langford, 115 lbs. ; best second heat;

California, Oct. 18, 1873, 7:30

Kentucky (5), by Lexington, 114 lbs. ; Saratoga, 1866, . , 7:31^
Silent Friend (4), by imp. Australian, 104 lbs. ; New Orleans,

April 21, 1873, 7:30j

Kentucky (6), by Lexington, 120 lbs. ; vs. time at Jerome Park,

1867 ; first two miles, 3:36 ; first three, 5:29, .... 7:31|
Abd-el-Kader (4), by Australian, 108 lbs. ; Saratoga, 1869, . 7:31f
Abd-el Koree (3), by imp. Australian, 95 lbs. ; Jerome Park, fall

1871 ; best time for a three-year-old, 7:33

Monarchist (4), by Lexington, 108 lbs. ; Jerome Park, 1872 ; first

two miles, 3:39f ; first three, 5.36, 7:33J

Tom Ochiltree (4), by Lexington, 118 lbs. ; Jerome Park, Oct.

12, 1876, • . 7:36

FOUR-MILE HEATS.

Lecompte (3), by Boston, 86 lbs. ; at New Orleans, April 8, 1854,

beating Lexington and Reube; age from May 1, . . 7:26, 7:38f
Rupee (3), by Voucher, 86 lbs. ; April 10, 1858 ; age from May

1, •. . : . 7:39,7:35

Miss Foot (3), by imp. Consol ; at New Orleans, March 26, 1842,

8:02, 7:35
Fashion (5), by imp. Trustee, 111 lbs.; over Union Course, L. I.,

May 10, 1842, beating Boston, match, .... 7:32|-, 7:45
Morgan Scout (4), 104 lbs. ; by John Morgan, at Lexington, Ky.,

1870 ; best race ever run in Kentucky, . . . 7:32^, 7:43J

RUNNING TIME TABLE. 595

George Martin (5), 114 lbs.; by Garrison Zinganee, beating
Hannah Harris and Reel, March 29, 1843 ; Reel broke down in
first heat, 7:33, 7:43

B.ushwhacker (4), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 105 lbs. ; Baltimore,
Oct. 26, 1878 ; Princeton (4), 108 lbs., won second heat,

7:31, 7:36|:, 8:29

Glenmore (4), by imp. Glen Athol, 108 lbs. ; Baltimore, Oct. 25,
1879; Willie D. won first heat; best average two and three
• heats, best 3d heat, 7:29^, 7:30^, 7:31

Tally-ho (4), by Boston, 104 lbs. ; at Union course, L. I., Oct. 8,
1849; Free Trade won the first heat, Bostona the third, and
Tally-ho the second and fourth, . . 7:33J, 7:43^, 7:52, 8:10^

HURDLE RACES.

Joe Rodes (5), by Virgil, 140 lbs. ; mile heats, over four hurdles ;

St. Louis, June 4, 1878, 1:50|, 1:50^

Judith (4), by imp. Glenelg, 143 lbs. ; mile heats, over four hur-
dles ; Prospect Park, Sept. 11, 1879, .... 1:52,1:52
Lobelia (5), by imp. Bonnie Scotland, 143 lbs. ; mile heats, over

four hurdles; Fashion Course, L. L, Sept. 11, 1869, l:51f, 1:53^

Waller (6), by imp. Hurrah, 162 lbs. ; one and a quarter miles,

over five hurdles; Saratoga, Aug 14, 1878, .... 2:21^
Disturbance (4), by Chillicothe, 136 lbs. ; one and a quarter miles,

over five hurdles; Saratoga, Aug. 22, 1878, . . . . 2:21f
Problem (6), by Pimlico, 158 lbs. ; one and a half miles, over six

hurdles ; Long Branch, July 5, 1879, 2:50

Derby (6), by Eugene, 162 lbs.; one and a half miles, over six

hurdles; Long Branch, July 2, 1878, 2:52

Judith (4), by imp. Glenelg, J40 lbs.; one and three-quarter miles,

over seven hurdles ; Long Branch, Aug. 28, 1879, . . . 3:36J
Tom Leathers, by Camp's Whale, 117 lbs. ; two miles, over eight

hurdles; New Orleans, April 16, 1875, 3:47^

Redman (4), by War Dance, 132 lbs. ; two miles, over eight hur-
dles ; Louisville, Ky., May 19, 1876, 3:48^

Captain Hutchinson (aged), by Voucher, 144 lbs.; two miles,

over eight hurdles; Columbus, 0., July 3, 1875, . . . 3:50
Jonesboro (4), by Lexington, 132 lbs. ; two miles, over eight

hurdles, welter weights; New Orleans, April 11, 1868, . . 3:51J
Milesian, by imp. Mickey Free, 154 lbs. ; two miles, over eight

hurdles, welter weights ; Long Branch, Aug. 3, 1872, . . 3:52^
Cariboo (5), by Lexington, 154 lbs.; two and a quarter miles,

over nine hurdles ; Long Branch, Aug. 28, 1875, . . . 4:33

STEEPLE-CHASES.

Deadhead (6), by Julius, 146 lbs. ; about two and three-quarter

miles, 36 leaps; Saratoga, Aug. 26, 1878, .... 5:33J

Trouble (6), by Ulverston, 154 lbs. ; about two and three-quarter

miles, thirty-six leaps ; Saratoga, Aug. 19, 1876, . . . 5:34f

Duffy (aged), by Hunter's Lexington, 160 lbs. ; about two and

three-quarter miles, thirty-six leaps ; Saratoga, Aug. 5, 1873, 5:48f

ESSAY

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

BY

ELLWOOD HARVEY, M.D.

(597)

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

The trotting gait has been brought to such a degree of excel-
lence in this country, and the breeding, training, and driving of
trotting horses claims so large a share of attention, both in town
and country, that a book on horses would be incomplete if it did
not treat more fully of these subjects than any foreign work could
be expected to do.

This Essay is therefore intended to give some account of the
history of American trotting and of trotters of distinction, together
with a few suggestions on the breeding and training of this class of
horses.

Though trotting has been greatly cultivated here, and enters
more largely into the business and pleasure of Americans than of
any other people, it would be an error to suppose that no attention
has been given to it in any other country, or that the matching of
trotters in races had its origin here. The trot is a natural gait to
the horse, as it is to many other quadrupeds, and wherever horses
are driven in harness their trotting is likely to be improved. A
horseback rider finds the gallop and the canter easier to him, and
horses are chiefly trained to those gaits in countries where light
vehicles and good roads are unknown ; as in Asia, Africa, the
eastern part of Europe, and all of America except the United States
and Canada.

Trotting, as a sport, began in England as early as 1791, in which
year we find an account of a brown mare, eighteen years old, that
trotted on the Essex road 16 miles in 58 minutes. On the 13th of
October, 1799, a trotting match was decided on Sunbury Common,
England, between Mr. Dixon's brown gelding and Mr. Bishop's
gray gelding, each carrying 168 pounds, which was won in 27 m.
10 s. The distance is not stated, but the time shows that it was a
trial of endurance as well as speed. Nearly all of the English
trotting matches of that early period were of great distance. A
Mr. Stevens drove a pair of his own horses tandem, in 1796, from
Windsor to Hampton Court, 16 miles, in less than an hour; and
the celebrated English trotter, Archer, carried 210 lbs. 16 miles

(599)

600 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

in 55 minutes. At about this period a variety of roadsters called
Norfolk trotters came into notice in England, and still maintain a
good reputation there, though none of them have ever attained a
speed that would be considered very fast here. In Russia a breed
of trotters was established by the energy and skill, as a breeder, of
Count Alexis Orloff, in the latter part of the last century. They
are called Orloffs, and are inferior in speed to American trotters.

Trotting as a public amusement began somewhat later in this
country. Porter's Spirit of the Times, of December 20, 1856,
states : " The first time ever a horse trotted in public for a stake
•was in 1818, and that was a match agaiust time for $1000. The
match was proposed at a jockey-club dinner, where trotting had
come under discussion, and the bet was that no horse could be
produced that could trot a mile in 3 minutes. It was accepted by
Maj. Wm. Jones, of Long Island, and Col. Bond, of Maryland, but
the odds on time were immense. The horse named at the post was
Boston Blue, who won cleverly, and gained great renown. He
subsequently was purchased by Thomas Cooper, the tragedian, who
drove him on several occasions between New York and Philadel-
phia, thereby enabling him to perform his engagements in either
city on alternate nights." This performance was more than twenty
years later than the first public trotting in England, where the
sport was then receiving some encouragement; and Boston Blue
was taken to that country, where he trotted 8 miles in 28 m. 55 s.,
•winning a hundred sovereigns. He also trotted several shorter
races, making about 3 m. time. He was a rat-tailed, iron-gray
gelding, IG hands high, and nothing is known of his pedigree.

Trotting received very little attention here until after 1820,
when the descendants of Messenger attracted notice by their speed,
spirit, and endurance — chiefly about Philadelphia and New York.

In 1825 the New York Trotting Club was organized, and estab-
lished a trotting course on Long Island.

In 1828 the Hunting Park Association was established in Phila-
delphia— " for the encouragement of the breed of fine horses, espe-
cially that most valuable one known as the trotter." Its course,
known as the Hunting Park, was located about four miles north of
the city.

Befi)re the era marked by the organization of these two associa-
tions, three minutes was about the shortest time in which any horse
here or in England had trotted a mile. In imitation of the four-
mile running heats then and now common, the first trials of trot-
ting speed were usually for three miles or more ; and effort was not
then directed to the development of the greatest degree of speed
for a single mile. For several years, two and three-mile heats were
trotted at about the rate of 2 m. 40 s. to the mile, and that was

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 601

the speed of the best horses then. The average speed of trotters,
now, 1879, iu races, as estimated by the records in Wallace's
Monthly, is about 2 m. 35 s., though we now have many that can
trot in less than 2 m. 30 s., a few that can do it in 2 m. 20 s , and
still fewer that can trot under 2 m. 16 s. Among the early celeb-
rities were Screwdriver, Betsy Baker, Topgallant, Whalebone,
Shakspeare, Paul Pry, Trouble, and Sir Peter; all grand-colts of
Messenger, except the first named, and he was a great-grand-colt.
As many of the most distinguished trotters of the present day claim
the same lineage, and as the influence of this great progenitor on
the trotting stock of the country was immensely greater than that
of all others together, a history of Messenger and his descendants
would be a pretty full history of the eminent trotting horses of the
world.

Messenger was an English Thorough -bred, foaled in 1780, and
imported, as were many other English Thorough-breds, on account
of his value as a running horse, and for the improvement of
Thorough-breds in this country. He had run successfully in sev-
eral races, and at five years old won the King's Plate. It was
three years after this jierformance, 1788, that he was imported into
Philadelphia by Mr. Benger. He was kept for stud service in
Philadelphia and vicinity for several years, and in the latter part
of his life in the vicinity of New Tork. He died January 28,
1808.

Messenger was a gray, 15 hands 3 inches high, and stoutly built.
His form was not strictly in conformity with the popular notions
of perfection, being upright in the shoulders and low on the
withers, with a short, straight neck and a large, bony head. His
loins and hind quarters were powerfully muscular, his windpipe
and nostrils of unusual size, his hocks and knees very large, and
below them limbs of medium size, but flat and clean; and whether
at rest or in motion, his position and carriage always perfect and
striking. It is said that during the voyage to this country the
three other horses that accompanied him became so reduced iu
flesh and strength that when the vessel lauded at Philadelphia they
had to be helped and supported down the gang-plank ; but when
it came ]Messenger's turn to land, he, with a loud neigh, charged
down the gang-plank, with a colored groom on each side holding
him back, and dashed ofi" up the street at a stiff trot, carrying the
grooms along in spite of their efforts to stop him.

Though his name has been made illustrious chiefly by the per-
formances of his trotting descendants, he was also the sire of some
of the best running horses of his day. The most famous on the.
turf of his immediate thorough-bred descendants were Potomac,
Fair llachel, Miller's Damsel (dam of American Eclipse), Bright

602 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

Phoebus, Hambletonian, Sir Solomon, and Sir Harry. The cele-
brated four-mile racer, Ariel, had Messenger in her pedigree four
times in five generations.

In his day trotting was not much in fashion, as we have shown,
and nothing is known of the trotting speed of this great fountain-
head of trotters, nor were any of his sons or daughters ever trained
to that gait. It was the second generation of his descendants, the
grand-colts of Messenger, and mostly those produced by a cross
with the common stock of the country, that attracted attention by
their trotting speed. This f ict is easily explained. The Thorough-
breds of his get were trained to running, and were not used as road
horses, or some of them would probably have surpassed any of his
half-breed descendants in trotting. But even his own half-breed
celts made no mark as trotters, though some of them became cele-
brated as the sires of trotters. This is somewhat remarkable ; but
we should bear in mind that public attention had not then been
given to that gait, good roads and light vehicles were not so com-
mon, and the next generation being more numerous, the probabili-
ties were greater that this remarkable quality of the family should
not remain undiscovered.

The sons of Messenger to which nearly all the fastest trotters of
the present day trace their pedigree were Plato, Engineer, Com-
mander, "VVhy-Not, Mount Holly, Mambrino, and Hambletonian.

Mambrino, named after the sire of Messenger, was thorough-
bred, a bright bay, 16 hands high, long-bodied, and, like his sire,
upright in the shoulders. He was not only a large but also a
coarse horse. He had a free, rapid, swinging walk, a slashing
trot, and running speed of the first order. He was the sire of
Betsy Baker, one of the first eminent American trotters, of Ab-
dallah, from whom are descended many of the fastest, including
the get of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, who was sired by Abdallah, and
of Mambrino Paymaster, from whom are descended Mambrino
Chief and all his got, including Lady Thorn, Mambrino Pilot, Bay
Chief, &c. This son of INIessengcr stands undoubtedly at the head
of the family as a progenitor of trotters.

Next in celebrity is F^mbletonian, also thorough-bred. He
was a dark bay, 15 hands 1 inch, beautifully moulded, and without
a single weak point. He was the sire of Topgallant, Whalebone,
Sir Peter, Trouble, and Shakspeare; all ranked among the best of
the early American trotters.

Abdullah was a grandson of Messenger, and deserves especial
menticn in this connection because so many trotters of celebrity
are descended through him. He was foaled in 1826, the property
of Mr. John Treadwcll, of Jamaica, L. I. His sire was Mambrino,
and his dam Amazonia, a granddaughter of Messenger. Thus

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 603

Abdallah was closely inbred. He was a bay, and inherited much of
the plainness of his sire; but also inherited the trotting quality of
Messenger in great degree. He was trained at four years old,
and was considered the fastest young horse of his day. In the
spring of 1840 he was s >ld to Mr. John W. Hunt, of Lexington,
Ky. ; but, on account of the great value of his stock, he was
bought back the next year, at a high price, and died in 1852.
Besides being a progenitor, through his son, Kysdyk's Hamble-
tonian, of that numerous and highly-distinguished tamily of trotters
of which Dexter, George Wilkes, and Mountain Boy are the most
eminent representatives, he is equally remarkable for the number
of mares of his get from whom very fist trotters have been bred.
To say that a horse is " out of an Abdallah mare," is pedigree
enough on that side with most horsemen.

Of the other sons of Messenger it is not necessary to speak at
length, though we find many horses of the present day descended
from them, and inheriting the Messenger characteristics. When
the pedigree of any fast trotter can be traced far enough, it rarely
happens that Messenger is not found in it. Many horses that show
good trotting speed, and are considered by their breeders and
owners to be nothing but common stock, are found to be descended
from Messenger, when intelligent investigation reveals their pedi-
grees.

Another imported horse that added something to the trotting
quality of our stock was Bellfo under, a stallion foaled about 1817,
and brought from England to Boston in 1823 by Mr. James Boot.
He was a bay of- fine form, size, and action; and these character-
istics were transmitted to his cults with great uniformity.. Many
of them were very good and stylish carriage horses, with consider-
able speed, but only those infused with Messenger blood were very
fast. Nothing is known of his pedigree, though his appearance
indicated that he was nearly thorough-bred. It was said that he
had trotted in England 2 miles in 6 m. when three years old, and
10 miles in 30 m. at four years old. It was also asserted
that he had trotted 17 J miles in an hour; but these statements,
not being very well authenticated, are deemed apocryphal by
the best horsemen of this day. Many distinguished trotters ara
in part descended from some of the many Thorough-breds that
have been imported from England at various times, and, indeed,
our most celebrated horses have a strong infusion of that blood,
derived from other sources than' Messenger. Conceding the value
of gnod thorough-bred crosses in giving spirit and endurance to
trotting horses, and admitting that Diomed, Whip, Trustee, Glen-
coe, Margrave, and other imported Thorough-breds have eminent
trotters among their descendants, it may be safe to say that all

604. THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

of them together would not have produced a family of trotters
without a cross from Messenger ; and equally safe to assert that
the fame of Messenger would have been no less if any one of the
others had never been foaled. The imported Arabian, Grand
Bashaw, had the luck to have his name perpetuated in a family
of good trotters that originated in Bucks county, Pa., but the
trotting quality all came from Messenger, who stood in that county
two years. The first of the Bashaws that manifested any trotting
quality was Young Bashaw, a son of the Arabian; and he was the
only one of the whole get (if we may coin a word) that was thus
endowed. The explanation is found in the fact that Young
Bashaw's dam was a granddaughter of Messenger.

Of American horses not descended from Messenger that have
contributed to establish the reputation of our trotters, the number
is not large nor the influence very considerable. Sir Henry, the
famous competitor of American Eclipse, and Duroc, both thorough-
breds, and both descended from imported Diomcd, seem to have
transmitted some trotting quality to tlioir descendants,- but it is
very doubtful that either, or both, would have established a fomily
of trotters. Seely's American Star, quite famous as the sire of
modern trotters, combines the blood of both, being sired by Ameri-
can Star, a son' of Duroc, and out of Sally Slouch by Sir Henry;
but his grand-dam was by Messenger. American Eclipse, the
progenitor of many good trotters, had also the blood of Duroc, his
sire ; but as his dam, jMiller's Damsel, was by Messenger, the Duroc
part of the pedigree is seldom thought of. Americas, who beat
Lady Suffolk on the Hunting Park Course in a five-mile match to
wagons in the remarkable time of 13 m. 54 s and 13 m. 58^ s., was
by Red Jacket, a son of Duroc, and not known to have inherited
his trotting from any other source.

Canada has added something to our trotting stock. In Lower
Canada, where the earliest settlers were French, and brought with
them a breed of horses now known in France as Normans, they
have a breed of hardy, spirited, compactly built horses, descended
from the larger French horse, inheriting much of his form and
general appearance, but greatly diminished in size. These Cana-
dian horses are often called Cannucks, and by some are known as
French horses, a designation likely to lend to misapprehension.
They are of all colors, with thick, long manes, heavy tails, and
hairy legs. Their heads are generally very good in size and form,
faces dished, indicating g;imoy dispositions; necks well arched,
often heavy in the crest but carried well up; backs short, rumps
steep, particularly in those that pace; bodies round and roomy,
the ribs sometimes projecting from the backbone nearly horizon-
tally, giving a peculiar flat appearance to the back. Their legs

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 605

ate generally good, but somewhat inclined to spring in the knees ;
feet often narrow and mulish, but very durable. In trotting they
are usually short, quick steppers, with very high knee action, and
are spirited, trappy harness horses, and long-lived. These horses
are often said to be degenerated from their Norman ancestry by
reason of the coldness of the climate, the long winters and scanty
fare. There have been numerous importations from France to
this country of the choicest specimens of Norman horses, and an
impartial comparison shows that the Canadian has gained in spirit
and speed more than enough to compensate for all he has lost in
size.

The best of the Canadians that ever came to the States was,
probably. Pilot, a black pacing and trotting horse whose descend-
ants inherited trotting speed. He was often distinguished as Old
Pacer Pilot. Wallace's American Stud Book says of him : " Foaled
about 1826. Nothing is known of his pedigree. He was called
a Canadian horse, and both trotted and paced ; at the latter gait,
it is said, he went in 2 m. 26 s. with 165 lbs. on his back. He
was bought about 1832 by Major 0. Dubois, from a Yankee peddler
in New Orleans, for $1000. He was afterwards sold to D. Hein-
sohn, of Louisville, Ky., and was kept in that vicinitjj until he
died, about 1855. His stock was very stout and fast." As noth-
ing is known of his pedigree, and as he was in all appearance a
genuine Cannuck, it is likely that he did not owe anything to
Messenger. One of his get, Alexander's Pilot, Jr., out of Nancy
Pope by Havoc, was the sire of many fast trotters, the fastest of
which was John Morgan, out of a mare by Medoc, and he by
American Eclipse. The dam of Mambrino Pilot was also by Pilot,
Jr., and, like John Morgan, was of Messenger descent on the dam's
side. Though the best of the descendants of Old Pilot are part
Messenger, there is none of that blood in Pilot, Jr., and it must be
confessed that Old Pilot sired some very good horses that took the
trotting all from himself.

Another horse of Canadian origin, though not a Cannuck,
deserves notice in this connection. Royal George, called Warrior
before he came to the States, the sire of the fast stallion Toronto
Chief, and several other good trotters, was a native of Canada, and
probably out of a Cannuck mare, but his sire was Black Warrior,
and he by Tippoo, a grandson of Messenger.

Some very good colts have been bred out of Cannucks by good
trotting stallions. Thus the celebrated sons of Rysdyk's Hamble-
tonian, Bruno and the Brother of Bruno, and their full sister.
Brunette, are out of a Canadian mare.

The bay stallion St. Lawrence, the sire of several fast trotters,
was a Canadian, and one of the best of his breed. He died at

606 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

Kalamazoo in 1858. There is one otlier horse deserving especial
notice as a progenitor of trotters, in whose veins no blood of Mes-
senger can be found, though his pedigree is too obscure to warrant
the assertion that none existed there. Black Hawk, often called
Vermont Black Hawk to distinguish him from the equally cele-
brated Long Island Black Hawk, and also called Hill's Black
Hawk, was of Morgan stock on his sire's side ; being a sou of
Sherman, one of the best sons of Justin Morgan, the founder of
the Morgan family. The dam of Black Hawk was raised in New
Brunswick, and nothing is known of her pedigree. Black Hawk
was foaled in 1833, at Greenland, N. H. At four years old he
was taken to Lowell, Mass., where he was used as a carriage horse
for seven years. He then became the property of David Hill, of
Bridport, Vt., where he acquired great fame, begetting more high-
priced colts than any other horse .of his day. He had remarkable
power in propagating his own characteristics, and his stock were
uniformly stylish, spirited harness horses, many of them fast, and
some of them among the fastest. Another history of his pedigree
makes him the son of a Canadian named Paddy ; and still another
declares him a veritable native of Canada, though not a pure
Cannuck. The story, as it was given the writer by Mr. Lucien
Bechard, a Canadian horse-dealer, is as follows : An old Canadian
Frenchman, engaged in smuggling tobacco from the States, bought
there and took home with him a brown mare with foal. In due
time she had a bay colt, that at two years old begot Black Hawk
out of a little gray mare not over 14 hands high. The fortunate
possessor of the black colt was a widow who lived by the Chambly
River, in the Montreal district. At four years old he was sold to
John Harris for $200, and at six years old was sold again to Van
Loiseu, a dealer, for $400. Van Loiseu taught him many tricks,
at learning which he showed great aptitude, and sold him in New
York to a Bostonian for $600. From Boston he got to Lowell, &c.
This story is probably all true of some horse, but the identity is not
established. Black Hawk's colts were never gray, as many of
them would have been if his dam was that color, but many of them
were chestnuts, with white feet and faces, which was the cofar of
Sherman and of Sherman's dam. This fact pretty clearly shows
that neither the " Paddy" story nor the Canadian pedigree is
correct, but that Black Hawk was truly a Morgan. He was a
little under 15 hands, and weighed about 1000 lbs. In 1842 he
won $1000 by trotting five miles over the Cambridge Park Course
in 16 m. In 1843 he won a race of two-mile heats with ease in
5 m. 43 s. and 5 m. 48 s., and several times trotted single miles
in 2 m. 42 s. He was the sire of Ethan Allen, Black Ralph,
Lancet, Belle of Saratoga, Black Hawk Maid, Flying Cloud, and

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE, 607

many others of good repute for speed. His colts were in great
demand, particularly in the West and South, where hundreds were
sold at very high prices. As many of his sons were kept as stal-
lions, his descendants are very numerous ; and he undoubtedly has
done much to improve the stock of American horses.

There is another class of trotters that deserve especial notice.
Some of the fastest are horses that were originally fast pacers and
had their gait changed to trotting. The origin of these pacers is
yet unknown. Mr. J. H. Wallace, the editor of Wallace s Monthly, '
in New York, and the author of the American Trottivg Register,
has traced them back to a breed known in New England during
the earlier periods of our country's history as Narragansett Pacers.
The pacers are often roans and duns to this day, although these
are the least common colors among horses, which is strongly
corroborative of Mr. Wallace's theory that they were originally a
distinct breed, and that the pacing gait is not a mere chance occur-
rence among all the different breeds.

Mr. Wallace has done more to put the breeding of trotters on a
sound basis than any other person whatever, and probably more
than all others together. It is due to him to state that most of
the fjicts of history and pedigree contained in this essay were
derived from his Trotting Register.

These pacers, whatever may have been their origin, not only
pace very fast, as compared with trotters, and trot fast when con-
verted, but they have endurance equal to any others, thorough-breds
not excepted. They cross well with trotters, and when a horse of
pacing descent ou one side inherits the trotting gait from the
other side, the pacing speed often goes into the trotting gait.

It has sometimes happened that the fastest get of trotting sires
have been out of pacing mares of moderate speed. In such a case
the celt seems to breed back to some speedy pacing ancestor. It
is a little puzzling to account for some of such facts. With our
present knowledge on the subject we cannot well understand why a
trotting sire should beget faster colts out of a slow pacer than out
of a fast trotter, but such facts pretty frequently turn up. There
must have been great speed in some of the old-time Narragansett
pacers before trotting speed was cultivated anywhere.

Many horses both trot and pace, and of those that have both
gaits, some go faster in one and some in the other. To teach a
trotter to pace is somewhat difficult, unless the horse naturally
inclines to it, but it may be done sometimes by riding with a severe
curb-bit and spurs. - Of course it requires good horsemanship, as
well as means and appliances, to urge the movement desired, and
to restrain the animal from the steps he is most accustomed to
take. When the saddle was more in use than now, pacing was a

608 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

favorite cait with many riders, but unless the horse can occasionally
change his way of going into a canter, it becomes very tiresome on
a long journey. Though the rider may not be jolted from the
saddle so much as by a trotter, the wabbling twists his back first
one way and then the other most fatiguingly.

Pacing and cantering are pleasant gaits for ladies' hackneys,
and are well enough adapted to short journeys. In harness the
pacer is not graceful. There is a gait, somewhat between a pace
and a trot, and called a single-footed pace, that does pretty well ia^
harness, but very few horses have it.- For taking weight in har-
ness, or on muddy or rough roads, the trot is greatly preferable.

To teach a pacer to trot, various expedients are resorted to.
Fence-rails are put down about as far apart as a trotter steps in a
jog. The pacer is ridden over them, and finds it difficult to lift
his feet over them in that gait, and adopts the trot. When a horse
has become very tired by long pacing he will sometimes ease his
weary muscles by a change of action into a trot ; and this he is
more likely to do if the roads are muddy. From such a beginning
a skillful driver may make the trotting permanent. The modern
method of converting pacers to trotting, and that which supersedes
all others, is putting weights on the toes of the forefeet when the
horse is to be driven.

Pelham was first a very fast pacer, and afterward became a dis-
tinguished trotter. In 1849 he was the first to win a heat in har-
ness in 2 m. 28 s. Cayuga Chief was a pacer in a livery stable, in
Worcester, Mass., and a favorite ladies' hackney. Oue day he
struck a trot, and soon became distinguished. In 1844 he trotted
to a wagon with 220 lbs. in 2 m. 36i s. The black gelding Pilot,
probably a son of the old pacer of the same name, was first a fast
pacer. He surprised his owner by striking a trot, and improved
so rapidly that in a short time he trotted in 2 m. 28^ s. Tip, and
Dart, and Sontag were all pacers that afterwards trotted fast. Old
Pacer Pilot went fast in both gaits, and so did his grandson, Tom
Wonder, the sire of the famous twenty-mile trotter, John Stewart.

In 1843, Sir Walter Scott paced on Beacon Course eighteen
miles in less than an hour without a break or halt. In the same
year, Oneida Chief paced against the best trotters of that time —
Lady Suffolk, Confidence, and Dutchman — and won 'more races
than he lost, making 2 m. 28J s., the best time then on record.
In the following year, Tippecanoe paced at New Orleans in 2 m.
36 s., carrying a very heavy rider; and Unknown paced on
Beacon Course in 2 ni. 23 s., a performance that had never then
been equalled by trotter or pacer. Old Pacer Pilot paced in 2 m.
26 s. with 165 lbs. on his back. In 1850, Roanoke paced under
saddle in 2 m. 21 J s. He was a roan gelding, and nothing is

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 609

known of his pedigree. In 1854, Pocahontas paced three heats
in a race at New Orleans in 2 m. 20 s., 2 m. 25 s., 2 m. 20s. But
in the next year in a race with Hero, the pacer, in a wagon that
weighed with the driver 265 lbs., Pocahontas paced the first mile
in 2 m. 17 s. This was never beaten until 1868, when Billy
Boyce paced at Buffalo faster than any other horse had ever trotted
or paced. la a race with Holla Golddust, a trotter, mile heats, 3
ia 5, to saddle, Boyce paced the second mile in 2 m. 15]- s., and
the third in 2 m. 14} s., pacing the last half of the second mile in

1 m. 5} s., and the first half of the third mile in 1 m. 6 s.
Woodpecker, the trotter, and James K. Polk, the pacer, both

took their speed from the same dam. Hero, the pacer, and com-
petitor of Pocahontas in her wonderful performance, was begotten
by Harris's Hambletonian, the sire of the trotters True John, Grreen
Mountain Maid, John Anderson, and Sontag, a mare that was at
first a natural pacer and afterward trotted very fast. Saltram, the
sire of Highland ]Maid, was a pacer, and his dam, Roxana, was also
a pacer. Highland Maid paced naturally, but was taught to trot,
and went very fast. At six years old she trotted against Flora
Temple, and lost the race by getting tired, being young, and going
into a pace, which was her natural and easiest gait. She won the
first heat in 2 m. 29 s., the second in 2 m. 27 s., but was distanced
in the third. Highland Lass, a daughter of Highland Maid, was a
fast trotter, and died in 1865. Her daughter, Highland Ash,
by Ashland, is also a trotter, tind iu 1868 won the Spirit of the
Times Stake for three-year olds, over ibur thousand dollars, in

2 m. 48 s. Flatbush Maid, one of Mr. Kobert Bonner's pair that
trotted to a road wagon in 2 m. 26 s., was begotten by a chestnut
pacing horse that also trotted. Pocahontas is nearly thorough-
bred, and was begotten by Cadmus, a son of American Eclipse. She,
therefore, takes her wonderful pacing speed from ]Messenger, the sire
of Miller's Damsel, who was the dam of American Eclipse. Her
daughter, Pocahontas, Jr., by Ethan Allen, is a trotter and very
fast.

One of the fastest of converted pacers, Smuggler, is of the
same family, being a son of Blanco that was by the sire of Poca-
hontas. His record is 2 m. 15i s. Other converted pacers of
distinction are Molly Morris, 2 m. 22 s.. Filbert, 2 m. 28 s., Kan-
sas Chief, 2 m. 21 i s., Snowball, 2 m. 23 s., Silversides, 2 m. 23 s.,
John B., 2 m. 27 s., G. T. Pilot, 2 m. 26 s., Dora, 2 m. 29 s., and
Bonesetter, 2 m. 20 s.

These facts, a few of the many that could be cited, show the

close relationship between pacers and trotters. They derive their

speed from the same sources; trotters beget pacers, and pacers

beget trotters j many go fast in one gait, and, after being taught

39

610 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

the other, go equally fast in that; so that they may properly
enough be classed together, and designated by the common title of
American Trotters.

Though trotters are derived from so few sources as to be nearly
all related to all the others, there are certain families that claim
especial notice. The most popular of these is the Hambletonian
family, descendants of a horse of that name that was bred in
Orange county, N. Y., and owned there by William M. Rysdyk
(pronounced Bisedick).

Hambletonian was foaled in 1849, and died March 27, 1 876. He
was the sire of one thousand three hundred and twenty-four foals.
For the last five or six years of his life the fee was one hundred
dollars cash, in advance, and four hundred more when the mare
was known to be with foal. He served 217 mares in ISGl, at $100
to insure, and had 148 foals. In 1865 he served 193 at $300, and
had 128 foals. As $100 was charged that year, and every subse-
quent year, for each mare in advance, his fees in 1865 amounted
to 144,900; in 1866 the fees were $40,500, but in 1867 his
power began to fail. He served 77 mares that year, and begot
only 53 per cent, with foal ; whereas, in former years, the percentage
was about 70. In the following year he was entirely withdrawn
from stud service, but resumed it again in the next, and continued
to serve about 20 each year while he lived. His owner received
for his stud services over $200,000.

Hambletonian begot Dexter in the year when he covered 87
mares; Bruno, when he served 106; Gazelle, Nettie, and Aber-
deen, when he served 193; and Startle when he served 107.
These are among the very fastest of all his get. He was only two
years old and served 6 mares the year when he begot Alexander's
Abdallah, the sire of Goldsmith Maid, Kosalind, Almont, Bel-
mont, and Thorn dale. This was his best son as a trotting sire, and
the next best. Volunteer, was begotten when he was four years old
and served 101 marcs. Happy Medium was one of 111 foals that
were begotten when Hambletonian was 13 years old and covered
158 mares.

Wallkill Chief is one of the sons of Hambletonian that has dis-
tinguished himself in the stud, and he was begotten when his sire
was 15, and served 217 marcs that year and begot 148 foals.

The average number of mares covered was about 88 a year during
the whole time of his stud service ; and the average number covered
in the years when he begot the celebrities mentioned was 121.

In comparing the success of one horse with others in the stud it
should always be remembered that no two have had just the same
opportunities. Hambletonian had a splendid chance. He was in
a locality where several of the best trotting sires of the preceding

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 611

generation had been kept, and had left plenty of trotting-bred
mares. His wonderful procreative power, and his long life, both
tended to increase the number of his fast get by increasing the
whole number of his foals.

Of the 1324 of his foals about 30 have trotted in 2 m. 30 s.,
leaving 1290, or more, that have not attained that distinction.
The reputation once made that sent the price of his service up to
$500 for each foal brought none but good mares to his embrace,
and almost every colt was trained for all that was in it.

With all of these advantages this most popular sire begot more
horses that were not worth what was paid for the begetting of them
than any other horse that ever lived.

This statement detracts nothing from the merit of a good mem-
ber of the family, but it is made to put breeders on their guard
against being entrapped into a losing speculation, in any case, by
the bait of a popular name.

A Hambletonian that is well bred on the dam's side, and is a
good performer on the road or track, is as good as a similar horse
by some other trotting sire, but no better for either trotting or
breeding. Some of the fastest sons of the old horse have failed to
beget trotters, and his daughters are somewhat distinguished as
failures in the stud, though about a dozen out of a probable four
hundred that have been tried have produced foals that have fulfilled
the popular expectation.

That Hambletonian is a name of great significance in the trotting
world is justly true. It is a great family, more distinguished
than any other by the number and quality of its performers. And
it is also equally true that among both horsemen and the public
the Hambletonians are greatly overrated as compared with other
trotting families. The same thing was once true of the Black
Hawks.

Abdallah and Vermont Black Hawk have, both been mentioned
before. They were both the founders of families of trotters, and
were both distinguished. Abdallah blood is a strong element in
several breeds, and his influence as a progenitor was never more
fully appreciated than now.

The Black Hawks suffered an eclipse after years of great popu-
larity, but not because they were inferior so much as because they
had been overrated. They are increasing in favor again.

The Bashaws originated in Bucks county. Pa. A very stylish
horse named Grand Bashaw was brought from Barbary, and among
the mares bred to him was a granddaughter of Messenger. The
produce was a horse called Young Bashaw, and in him the trotting
element derived from Messenger seemed combined with qualities
derived from the Barb that made a fortunate conjunction.

612 THE AMERICAN Tr6tTING HORSE.

Young Bashaw begot trotters, and was really the founder of the
family, though the name came from his sire and the trotting,
through his dam, from Messenger. He was the sire of Black
Bashaw, that begot many trotters of distinction in their day, though
his opportunities in the stud were very small. The descendants of
Black Bashaw show the characteristics of their Barbary ancestor
in style, form, and disposition. They are generally very handsome
and full of spirit. Excitable and resolute beyond most horses,
they are distinguished as gamey road horses, and are also remark-
able for soundness of legs and feet. As track horses they are often
too excitable Black Bashaw, left two sons. Black Dutchman and
Lightning, that have distinguished themselves as sires of trotters,
although they have both had but very indifferent opportunities.

Another son of Young Bashaw that begot trotters was Saladin..
He was a full brother of Charlotte Temple, a trotter of repute in her
day. The Saladins were disposed to go forward in the knees, but
were otherwise sound and lived long.

Andrew Jackson was another son of Young Bashaw. He was
the first stallion that trotted in a public race, and was the sire of
Henry Clay and of Long L«land Black Hawk, both of which be-
came famous as sires. Henry Clay was out of a Canadian mare
named Surry, that was a fast trotter. He was the first of the
Chiys, and died in 1867, 30 years old. His descendants have the
reputation of being very purely gaited trotters and quitters in
races. That they often quit when they seem able to stay to the
end is certainly true, and it is probably also true, as suggested by
H. T. 'Helm, Esq., of Chicago, that they do not lack ability, but
the disposition to keep up their speed to the end of the race. He
says they sulk if anything happens to annoy them.

George M. Patchen was a Clay — a grandson of Henry Clay —
but he never quit. He was uncommonly speedy and lasting in
races for a coarse horse. As a sire, Patchen did not meet the ex-
pectations of breedeis. His get trotted well, but were too liable to
curbs, spavins, and ringbones.

Anierican Girl, a very distinguished trotter, is called a Clay, her
putative sire being Amos's Cassius M. Clay, a grandson of Henry
Clay. Whoever has been acquainted with the get of this horse
must forever duubt that he could beget American Girl out of any
mare that ever was foaled.

Strader's Cassius M. Clay, the sire of several fast trotters, and
Neave's Cassius M. Clay, have done much to perpetuate the fame
of the family. Sayre's Black Harry Clay, a son of Neave's Clay,
is distinguished by the success of his daughters as brood mares.

The Morrills are a branch of the Morgans. Young Morrill, the
most distinguished of the family as a sire, is rich in Morgan blood,

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 613

with a dash of Messenger. The Morgans are trotters only when
crossed with Messenger or other trotting blood. Some of them
have crossed well with fast pacers, as have nearly all other families.
The Morgans were in very great repute at one time. They were
small, stout, handsome, stylish horses, with particularly fine necks
and heads. They were remarkable for soundness and docility, but
not for trotting speed. They have been so crossed with other
strains that the family is about obliterated, but it left a good im-
pression on the stock of New England horses.

Another family of much reputation are the American Stars.
The founder of the family was foaled in 1837, and died in 1861,
the property of Jonas Seely, Orange county. New York. Many of
them incline to bad feet and weak knees, with slender tails, but
they ai-e fast and very gamey. They have acquired their greatest
distinction by the success of the daughters of Seely's Star as brood
mares. Many of these mares that were not themselves remarkable
for speed have produced, by various trotting sires, and particularly
by Hanibletonian, some of our very fastest horses. Whether the
speedy produce of these Star mares will equal their less speedy
dams as breeders seems to be doubtful.

Golddust, a chestnut, foaled about 1855, and owned by L. L.
Dorsey, of Lexington, Ky., was the founder of quite a distinguished
family of trotters. His sire was a Morgan, and his dam is claimed
to be of Arabian and Thorough-bred blood; but there is some
doubt about that in the minds of those who have investigated the
evidence. She was probably of much better trotting blood than
her published pedigree would indicate.

Golddust was a trotting sire of superior merit, and under more
favorable conditions might have made a reputation equal to that of
any other horse of his day. He was used chiefly for the mares of
his owner, who believed that all depended on the sire, and nothing,
or not much, on the dam, in the breeding of trotters. His stud of
mares was consequently selected without much regard to their
quality as trotters, and yet Golddust begot some very fast trotters
notwithstanding his adverse opportunities. As his sire was not
distinguished either as a trotter or a sire of trotters, the probabili-
ties are strong that his dam was well up iu trotting blood, and that
Golddust took his trotting quality from her. It is not impossible
that she was bred as represented — by imported Arabian Zilcaadi,
out of a mare by imported Thorough-bred Barefoot. This breeding
would correspond very closely with the pedigree of Young Bashaw,
the founder of the Bashaw family. . But there is the difference of
a strain of Messenger blood in the Bashaw horse. The Golddusts
are handsome and stylish.

A family that rivals the Hambletonians in popularity is com-

614 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

posed of the descendants of Mambrino Chief, a horse that was bred
in New York State and taken to Kentucky by James B. Clay, in
1854, where he died in 1861. His sire was Mambrino Paymaster,
by Mambrino, the best son of Messenger in the trotting line, and
his dam was a very superior mare of unknown blood. His fast de-
scendants are very numerous and very famous. The Mambrino
Chiefs are generally large and often coarse in appearance, but
rangey in style, with long neck and good carriage. They perpetuate
the trotting quality in their get, and are becoming numerous not-
withstanding the poor chance the head of the family had in the
stud. Mambrino Chief's stud career was very obscure while he
remained in New York, and it- seems that he begot very few colts
there, and probably out of indifferent mares. He stood for service
in Kentucky but six or seven years, and as the rebellion began the
year he died, many of his get are supposed to have been taken into
the army and been destroyed or lost sight of. "VVe have no record
of the number of his foals, as in the case of Hambletonian, and can,
therefore, make no comparison of the respective merits of these two
famous horses as sires upon that basis; but a general comparison of
results, with a fair allowance for difference of conditions, makes a
very strong case in favor of Mambrino Chief.

Both the sons and daughters of this horse produce fast trotters,
and the mares are ' in particularly great demand as brood mares.
Some of the best trotters and several successful sires are out of
Mambrino Chief mares. The old horse transmitted his superior
quality down through the generations, his descendants crossing
successfully with all other families.

Mambrino Chief was the sire of the famous Lady Thorn, that
beat Goldsmith Maid in every heat they trotted together, and that
is said to have trotted a mile, in private,- in 2 m. 10 s. a short time
before she was ruinously injured by a fall.

Another family, whose reputation is on the increase, is composed
of the descendants of Gen. Knox, a horse foaled in 1855, in Ver-
mont. At three years old he was taken to Maine, where the most
of the family are, and at seventeen years old he was bought by H.
N. Smith, of New York, for $20,000, who has kept him in the
stud at Fashion Stud Farm, Trenton, New Jersey, until now,
when he .is twenty-four years old. Gen. Knox was by Vermont
Hero, a son of Sherman Black Hawk ; hia dam by Searcher, a son
of Barney Henry.

As a sire of trotters he ranks with Hambletonian and Mambrino
Chief. His get trot fast, and there are a great many fast ones in
proportion to the whole number. Gen. Knox has often been
claimed to be a Morgan, which is a curious error, as he has but
one line of descent from Justin Morgan, the founder of that family,

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. . 615

and inherits but one-thirty-second part of Morgan blood. His trot-
ting quality is inherited almost entirely from Messenger, as is that
of nearly all other trotting horses in this country.

Gen. Knox stood most of his life in Maine, where there are
several other good trotting families with which he was bred, though
it does not appear that he ever had bred to him any mares distin-
guished for speed until he entered the stud at Fashion Stud Farm.
Considering these circumstances it is remarkable that he should
have so very many fast descendants. His sous are very successful
as sires, but his daughters have not produced any trotters that have
appeared in public.

One more family of great distinction remains to be mentioned.
Ethan Allen was a small bay horse, foaled in New York State in
1849. He was very handsome, trotted among the fastest, and
begot trotters. He retained his vigor to a great age, and died on
the Stud Farm of Sprague and Akcrs, Leavenworth, Kansas, in
1876. His sire was the renowned Vermont Black Hawk, and his
dam was believed to be a daughter of Freeman's Messenger. His
most distinguished son, as a stock horse, is Daniel Lambert, out of
an Abdallah mare. Several of his other sons have begotten fast
trotters.

The fame of this family is chiefly perpetuated by the male mem-
bers of it. The daughters of the old horse have not so nearly
failed to produce trotters as the Hambletonians and the Knoxes,
but they are not in any great demand as brood mares. The sons
of the old horse, or some of them, may beget mares that will rival
the Abdallah, the American Star, the Harry Clay, and the Mam-
brino Chief Mares as producers.' This peculiar hereditary trait- —
of the successful progenitors of a family being on one or the other
side of the sexual line — is not permanent, but may change in a
single generation, as in the case of the daughters of Abdallah, and
the daughtei's of Abdallah's son — Hambletonian.

There are many good trotting foal getters in the country that
have not been mentioned here. They are members of the families
described, and often combine the blood of two or more trotting
families; or they are collaterally related and derive their quality
from the same original sources. Most of them are too modern to
have established families yet, and it is not within the scope or
limits of this essay to instruct the reader in facts so much as in
principles.

There is a very prevalent opinion that trotters are chance horses,
and that there is no certainty in breeding for them. So prevalent
was this opinion a few years ago, that then trotters ware chance
horses; no well-directed effort was made to produce the desired
result, by applying the same principles of breeding that had

616 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

been so long acknowledged in tlie breeding of thorough-breds
for ninning races. But when trotting became more popular as
a public amusement, when the value of good trotting horses
for road driving became more fully appreciated, and when the
increased demand ran the prices of even good roadsters into the
thousands, enlightened breeders began to apply to the breeding
of trotters the laws of hereditary descent, that had been discovered
in the breeding of other animals, and with the usual result.

Now there are numerous large breeding establishments in Ken-
tucky, New York, Iowa, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois,
Michigan, and perhaps some other states, in which especial atten-
tion is given to breeding trotters. Beside these breeding studs,
where much care and judgment are used in the matter, there are
thousands of farmers and others who, in breeding horses, always
have in their minds the possibility of drawing a capital prize in
the shape of a fiist trotter, but who have never had an opportunity
to be well informed in regard to the best method of accomplishing
that desirable result.

These farmers and others who only rear one or two colts a year,
each, are in the aggregate the great horse breeders of the country;
and it is to them chiefly that the facts and arguments of this
essay are addressed.

A very slight examination of the pedigrees of distinguished
trotters will show their relationship to each other in so many cases,
that no one can doubt the derivation of their trotting speed from
a common ancestry. A few tabulated pedigrees are given at the end
of this essay, to facilitate the examination of them, and to more fully
impress on the minds of breeders the importance of breeding their
mares to stallions of good families, if they would reasonably expect
success. A horse may trot fast enough to make a public reputation,
and never beget fast colts, because he docs not himself inherit the
quality strongly from his anc<:stors ; for it may be that the quality
comes down to him through a single line of descent, and perhaps
that has been broken by one or niore generations that showed no
speed. In such a case, the horse would be said to have " bred
back" to a speedy ancestor, and though he might beget last colts
with fast mares, the probabilities of their being fast from common
mares would be very small. John Henry, a chestnut stallion, bred
in Salem county, New Jersey, trotted well, and begot many colts;
but the best of them all, l>(;b Johnson, was nothing remarkable.
John Henry had not the trotting quality by a long and continuous
line of hereditary descent, and hence the disappointment of breed-
ers, who depended on his speed alone to give the trotting to his
colts. Similar cases are quite common.

If a mare that cannot trot better than four minutes was by a

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 617

horse of good speed and good pedigree, such as Mambrino Chief
or American Star, the probabilities of her breeding a fast colt by
some other good horse, as by Ilambletonian, would be much greater
than if she had no trotting ancestor in her pedigree. Such a mare,
though not fast herself, might produce a fast colt from a common
horse : or if she did not herself produce anything smart, some of
her descendants in the next generation might show speed. This
is called breeding back, or atavism, and all breeders are familiar
with it.

In choosing a stallion to breed from for speed, the first thing to
be considered is his pedigree. Many breeders will differ from that
opinion, but it is not hastily expressed. The longer the lines of
trotting descent in his pedigree, and the more numerous they are,
the greater will be the probability that his colts will inherit the
desired quality.

Next to pedigi-ee should be considered the speed, bottom, health,
size, style, color, &c. If the pedigree is good and the horse sound,
he will beget fast colts, though he may not himself be fast; but
if he has the speed, too, so much the better. Many diseases are
hereditary, and the stallion should be sound ; it is poor policy to
breed from a horse with contracted feet, spavin, ringbone, sprung
knees, or weak eyes.

In breeding for speed, it should be remembered that size is
important if the colt turns out fast, and still more if he does not.
If he is large enough for taking a carriage with two persons over
common roads at a lively gait, the breeding was not a failure,
though he may not be very fast. The style and color are matters
of taste, about which each breeder will make his own choice. It
is generally admitted that a good horse is always the right color,
but he might sometimes be equally good and a better color. If
the mare has any particular defect, a horse should be chosen that
will correct it in the progeny.

Mhch speculation has been indulged in concerning the relative
influence of the sire and dam on the offspring. By some it has
been asserted that if either parent is more vigorous than the other
by reason of youth, health, or better care, the offspring will most
resemble that parent. This theory is not sustained by facts. In
crossing the horse and the ass some facts of interest are elicited.
The mule takes size from its dam, the mare, but takes its outward
form and its voice from the sire, the ass. The ears are long, the
tail and mane are scantily furnished with hair, and the feet are
narrow. But if the female ass is bred to a horse, the produce,
called a hinny, is quite unlike the mule. It inherits its organiza-
tion by the same law, and has the small size of its dam, the female
ass, with ears, feet, mane, tail, and voice like its sire, the horse.

618 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

Now these statements, though correct in a general sense, need
some qualification. The ears of the mule are not so long as its
sire's iu proportion to the body, the feet arc not so narrow, the.tail
and mane are not so scantily supplied with hair. In all the points
of greatest resemblance to the ass, there is still some resemblance
to the other parent, the mare. In other words, the mule does not
take any part of its conformation from either parent iilone; but
every part is like both parents iu some degree. The same remarks
apply to the hinny. Its mane, tail, ears, and feet are more like a
horse's than a mule's are, but not exactly like a horse's. In every
part of its body it has some resemblance to the ass, its dtnn. The
point established is this : — That the mule and the hinny buth take
their outward form and appearance from their respective sires more
than from their dams ; but neither of them is exactly like either
parent in any respect.

These facts are constant when the two species are bred together,
and the produce is a hybrid ; and we might infer that some cer-
tainty was attainable in the same direction when animiils of the
same species are bred together, as in breeding horses. That is, we
might expect the colt to always inherit its ears, mane, tail, and
feet more from the horse than from the mare. The rule may apply
to some extent, but it is not to be relied on with anything like the
certainty that is observed in breeding the horse and ass together.
Rat-tailed stallions beget rat-tailed colts, and hoof-bound mares
have colts inheriting the same tendency to disease of the feet.

Every part of every offspring partakes of the quality of both
parents in some degree ; and iu the present state of our knowledge,
we can neither control nor foresee the amount of any particular
quality that the olFspring will inherit from either parent.

In a family of children, one may be tall like the father, and have
black hair like the mother; another may be short like the uicther,
with light hair like tlu father; and a third may have stature and
complexion that partake more evenly of the qualities of both
parents. If three more children are to be born to the same
parents, no physiologist can predict their stature nor the color of
their hair. If parents are much alike in all respects, the children
will be much alike ; but the children of the same family will be
much diversified in appearance and character if their parents are
much different from each other in these respects. If parents are
alike in any particular, though different in all other respects, their
children will all inherit that quality strongly which comes from
both parents, and will transmit it to the next generation with
greater certainty than if they had inherited it from only one parent.
Of course these rules may all have exceptions; atavism, or breeding
back, may modify the results.

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 619

If one parent belongs to a particular breed, as a cow to the
DevoDshires, and is bred with another of no particular breed, the
offspring will resemble the full-bred parent more than the other
of common stock, because the form, color, &c., of the full-bred
parent have become fixed by a long line of ancestry in which all
the ancestors had the same qualities. It does not follow that the
full-bred parent gives more than half of the quality to the off-
spring, but only that the other half may resemble some of the
ancestors of common stock that were quite unlike the low-bred
parent. Thus, if a Devonshire cow were bred to a common bull
of a white color, more of the calves would be red than white,
because all the ancestors on the cow's side were red, and a part of
them on the bull's side were probably of the same color. As many
as bred back to the Devonshire side for color would be red ; those
that bred back to the common side for color might be black, or
brindle, or any other color. It is simply a case in which atavism
has an influence, as it always has in all breeding. There is no
law by which a high-bred parent transmits more than half of the
organism of the offspring ; the low-bred parent has an equal influ-
ence in the matter ; but there is more probability that the progeny
will resemble the high-bred parent than the common one. If by
atavism it resembles any ancestor on the well-bred side, it resem-
bles the parent on the same side, for they are all much alike ; but
if it breeds back to the low-bred side, there has been so much
diversity in the ancestors on that side that nothing is certain.

In breeding for trotters these principles must always be con-
sidered. We have no breed of trotters that can be called tho-
rough-bred or full-blooded trotters, in the same sense as we speak
of the thorough-bi-ed race-horse, or of the thorough-bred Durham
or Devonshire cattle ; but we have families of trotters in which
the trotting quality has been transmitted for several generations,
and in»several lines of descent; and, in breeding, the best practice
will be that which most nearly conforms to the principles here
stated. The more trotting quality in the family, the greater the
probability of its being transmitted to the descendants.

In choosing a mare to breed from, the same rules are applicable
as in choosing a stallion. If a breeder chance to have a mare of
good speed and good pedigree, he may expect more from her than
from a common mare if both are put to the same horse. It is
somewhat the fashion to select thorough-bred mares to breed to
trotting stallions, that the spirit and endurance of the thorough-
bred may be combined in the colts with the trotting action; and
trotting mares are put to thorough-bred stallions with the same
object in view. The practice is good, and will improve the breed
of trotters in the long run ; but for immediate resvdts, more trotting

620 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

speed may be expected when trotting mares are bred to trotting
stallions. It should not be disregarded that we already have
trotting families quite equal to thorough-breds in spirit and bot-
tom ; and though these may have been inherited from a thorough-
bred ancestry, that is not a reason why we should breed again to
thorough-breds and risk the loss of the trotting quality.

The effect on offspring of breeding blood relations together,
called breeding in-and-in, is a matter that has received much atten-
tion from breeders and physiologists; and these two classes of
observers have arrived at somewhat different conclusions about it,
the physiologists condemning the practice among human beings,
the breeders approving of it among domestic stock. As the same
laws govern all nature, this difference of opinion must grow out of
an imperfect knowledge of the law, and might be reconciled by a
more comprehensive view of the facts relating to the subject.

When blood-relations intermarry, the children are often imper-
fect, being idiotic, or blind, or scrofulous; or if they escape these
and a host of other ills that in-bred flesh is heir to, they are sel-
dom so healthy and strong in mind and body as their parents were.

This is too well known to admit of a doubt, though, happily,
the evil consequences of such intermarriages are not always notice-
able in such unpleasant forms. On the other hand, many good
horses have been the result of close in-and-in breeding. The evils
of close breeding of blood relations in the human family are
chiefly mental, idiocy and eccentricity of character being the
most frequent results. In the lower animals the mental traits are
so inconspicuous as compared to the physical, that departures from
the healthy mental standard would not be much noticed if the
physical development were good. This is probably a reason why
we see less evil attend the practice among horses.

In the wild state a stallion keeps a herd of mares together by
his superior strength and courage, and drives away all rivals. He
may hold this position for several years, and must have foals by
his own daughters and grand-daughters. This would therefore
seem to not be a great violation of natural law in the case of
horses. In domestication we find it safer to breed mares to their
sires or grand-sires than to their sons or grand-sons. When mares
have been bred to their male descendants deformity has been the
result in several instances within the knowledge of the writer. In
one case a mare was bred to her great-grand-son, and the resulting
filly had a crooked mouth. But it is a noteworthy fact that Gold-
smith Maid was out of a mare that was bred to a son of her half-
brother. In other words, the Maid's sire was a half nephew of
her dam, Mambrino Gift (2 m. 20 s.) was bred in the same way.
Mares have been bred to their sires and grand-sires without any

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. G21

apparent injurious consequences to the offspring. Black Flying Cloud
was by Vermont Black Hawk and out of a daughter of Vermont
Black Hawk. He was a horse of fine size, — much larger than his
sire, — of elegant form and style, and begot horses of great excellence.

We have not yet solved the problem of in-breeding quite satis-
factorily, but one thing is certain: no plan of in-breeding will pro-
duce a good horse out of indifferent parents. The best that can
be done by it is to perpetuate the good qualities already established
in the family. Scrubs in-bred will produce scrubs, and probably
very scrubby scrubs.

In chickens, if in-breeding is continued for several years, the
first noticeable result is their increased productiveness of eggs. The
stock becomes smaller and more delicate with each successive in-
breeding; and all weakly animals are more prolific than stronger
ones, hence the increased number of eggs. When the conditions
of life depress and retard the development of plants or animals,
they become more prolific because their offspring will come into
being under circumstances unfavorable to the continuance of their
existence, and Nature equalizes the chances by producing more of
them. It is in accordance with this law that fat animals and idle
animals are not sure to breed; that families living luxuriously for
a few generations have very few children, while those that ''live
from hand to mouth" are proverbially fruitful — "A fool for luck,
and a poor man for children." The chickens are more prolific for
a few generations, but continue the in-breeding, and they become
so very weakly and small that the experiment will end in a good
out-cross. If it were continued longer in the same direction, the
result would probably be the extinction of the stock.

Taking Messenger as a single source of the trotting quality, and
supposing there was not another horse in the country above medi-
ocrity in that respect, we might expect some of his fillies to inherit
his trotting in great degree. To perpetuate that particular quality
in her offspring, it would be better to breed her to her sire than to
any horse of another stock, though her offspring might lose some-
thing in stamina by the in-breeding. It might be still better to
breed her to any son of Messenger that also, equally with herself,
inherited the trotting quality. In either case her colts would take
the trotting from two directions, and would consequently transmit it
with more certainty to their descendants than if they inher-
ited it from only one side. The trotting quality was a peculiarity
of Messenger, and by in-breeding it was perpetuated ; so would
any other peculiarity have been — any imperfection. If Messenger
had been" lop-eared, that quality could have been perpetuated in the
same way; but as breeders would not choose his lop-eared colts
to breed from, and would choose his perfect colts, the desirable

622 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

qualities of the stock could be, and would be, perpetuated, and the
defects would become extinguished from his family.

The purpose of in-breeding the Messenger family was not, at
first, to produce trotters ; but the result followed without regard
to the intention. Whatever loss of stamina accompanied the
practice was remedied by out-crossing, and the trotting was still
preserved by' careful selection.

Taking this view of the subject, we see how the perpetuation
of any particular quality may be effected by in-breeding, and how,
also, the evils of the practice may be to a great extent avoided.
It should be borne in mind that Messenger was remarkably free
from defects, and had so much strength of constitution that his
descendants from good mares might be in-bred and still give good
constitutions to their offspring. It was because of this excellence
that the in-breeding was practiced ; not for the purpose of re-
producing in the progeny any particular quality, but with a desire
to get as much as possible of the general characteristics of a horse
recognized as greatly superior to all others in the same vicinity.
The same reasons that induced to the practice made it physiologi-
cally safe.

Now let us suppose that another equally good trotting family
had existed at the same time and place, and that instead of breeding
Messenger's descendants together closely they had been crossed with
the other family. The result would have been equal speed, with
equal power of transmitting it to offspring, and better constitutions.

In breeding two trotting families together, if one K^s any defect
the other may correct it, as it is improbable that both will have
the same defect; but by in-breeding any defect of the family will
be pretty surely perpetuated, as the colt will inherit it from both
sides. Now that we have trotters enough to allow of a free selection
without breeding near relations together, there are no reasons why
the practice should be continued, and many why it should not be.

The opinion is quite prevalent among breeders, that every horse
a mare is bred to modifies, not only his own get, but all the colts
she may afterward have by any other horses. Without denying
the facts set forth in the body of this book by Stonehenge, of a
mare that had colts by a horse, and that they resembled the
quagga she was first bred to, I am prepared to assert that no such
eff'ects are commonly noticed when mares are bred to different
stallions. I have looked for such results in various species of ani-
mals— the human included — and could never detect the slightest
resemblance in the offspring of one sire to any other sire the dam
had previously borne offspring to. Practically, the theory is of no
value whatever. Another notion, about equally common, is, that
a mare that has bred a mule will not breed to a horse. It is

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. G23

equally unfounded. Mares are often bred to horses after having
been bred to ^n ass, and nobody ever sees a foal by a horse from
guch a mare look like a mule. I have known several instances of
white women having mulatto children, and afterwards having
children by white men ; and in no instance was the influence of
the negro perceptible on the child of the Caucasian father. If
any man has a good mare that has produced a colt from a scrub
stallion, he need not hesitate, on that account, to breed her to a
good horse, if he has an opportunity.

Breeders often dpsire that a colt shall be a male, or a female ;
but that is always left to chance for the best of reasons. It ia
probably possible, however, to discover the laws governing the
production of sex, and also possible to so control their action as to
attain the desired result. Some chance experiments in breeding
dogs, so long ago as 1845, induced me to a more careful investiga-
tion of the subject. I discovered, that if a slut were kept until
near the last of her heat, before a dog was admitted to her, the
pups would be chiefly males ; but if she were at large, with all
the dogs of the neighborhood, from the beginning of the heat,
they would be mostly females. Further experiments, and on
other species of animals, were prevented by removal to a city ; but
having called public attention to the matter, in lectures on physi-
ology in several states, others have pursued the investigation with
very satisfactory results. Dog-breeders make practical application
of the discovery in hundreds of instances, and a few dairy-men
have found it applicable to cows. The theory is, that if the female
is long in heat before conception, it implies a scarcity of males,
and Nature supplies the deficiency by producing them. I also
noticed that if a cock had many hens, the chicks would be mostly
males. This I had but one opportunity of observing. The single
observation, however, is in conformity with the same law. Apply-
ing the law to horses, it would follow that, other things being
equal, the more mares he served in one season, the more of his
colts would be males. The action of the law would be modified
by the time of the mare's heat when put to him, and by the cir-
cumstance that his sire, his grandsire, and so on, for many genera-
tions, had been used to serving many mares in one season — so that
the power to do so without forcing the action of the law would
have become hereditary. If the mare were served in the begin-
oing of her heat, we might expect a mare foal ; and if in the last
part of the erotic season we might, by the same rule, expect a
horse foal. Of course, the conditions mentioned as affecting the
stallion might modify the result. If a mare were put to a horse
in the last part of her heat, and if the horse had quite recently
served one or more other mares, the conditions would be favorable
on both sides to the production of a male offspring. If the case

624 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

were reversed — if she were in the first part of her season of ex-
citement, and he had not served a mare for a considerable time,
the conditions would favor the begetting of a female.

Man}' horsemen attempt to discern the speed of a horse in his
form, and in his way of going. Various signs are relied on, by
those who know less than they think they do. but there is but one
sign, and it is infallible; it is that the horse goes fast when tried.
A shoulder that slants well backward to the withers is considered
a good point in any horse — but Messenger had upright shoulders,
and so have some very good trotters of to-day. A long back, with
an open flank between the hip and ribs, is thought to allow of a
long stride, and some good trotters have that conformation ; but
many others have short backs, and are ribbed close up to the hips.
Of these two forms, the last is the best, as it indicates that the
animal will keep in good condition on iess food. Flat-sided horses
have trotted fast, but not because they were flat-sided. War Eagle
had that conformation, and though he trotted in the best of com-
pany, he was not an all-day horse. I drove him a year in a
country practice before he trotted in public, and did not consider
the narrow chest and small abdomen any advantage. A steep
rump is a sign that a horse paces ; but with the same form he may
be a trotter; and in either case it has no relation to speed. The
hind legs may be more crooked or more straight than usual, and
the fore legs may be a little sprung forward, or a little set back,
like a calf's; the pasterns may be thick or slender, upright or
oblique; but none of these forms indicate speed, nor the absence
of it. Many fast horses are short in the rump — that is, from the
croup, or highest point, to the root of the tail. This is pretty
common among trotters ; but some that are not fast have the same
shape.

In the way of going, there is as much difference with as little
significance. Some lift their fore-feet very high, with a great
deal of knee action ; others go fast, with a low, long stride. There
is a way of reaching out with the fore-feet, that seems utterly in-
compatible with speed. It is a long, pitching step, such as is seea
in hcrses trotting slowly and loftily in a field when startled. To
go fast the fore-feet should be struck at the ground, as if they
were pulling the horse along, whether the stride be long or short.

If a horse stands with the toes of his fore-feet turned in, he will
paddle in trotting; that is, he will swing his feet out right and
left from a straight line ; and the foot that is most turned in at
the toe in standing will be most swung around like a paddle in a
mush-pot, in trotting. The movement is unsightly and objection-
able, but not absolutely incompatible with speed. If the toes are
turned out in standing, they will be turned in in trotting, and may
strike the opposite knee. This is so common in fast trotters, as tfl

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 625

have received the appellation of speedy-cut. It should not bo
inferred, that cutting the knee is any sign of speed. It only hap-
pens, that a horse with this defect in his way of going, hits his
knee when he goes fast enough to get his foot up that high. It
is a serious objection, but many more fast horses have that action
than the opposite one of paddling.

Nearly every good trotter goes with his hind-feet wide apart,
when he goes fast. There are some exceptions to this rule, but
they are not numerous. Some horses have a short stride, and as
they generally show plenty of knee-action, and step fast, they ap-
pear to go very fast, and so they do sometimes. The Cannucks, from
Canada, generally go in that way ; and all of such steppers are
usually spirited and pleasant road horses, being free-goers. Long-
striders are sometimes rather heavy in a jog-trot; but they get
over the ground faster than they appear to, and on the road will
often pass short-steppers that appear to be going as fast, or faster.
Many of the best are long-striders, and, other things being equal,
the probabilities are greater of a horse going fast in a long stride
than in a short one.

Hiram Woodruff, in his admirable work on " The Trotting
Horse of America," expresses the opinion that short-steppers are
better weight-pullers at speed, and gives reasons — speculative rea-
sons— for the opinion : but his own instances do not sustain the
rule, unless we accept the logic, that as exceptions prove the rule,
the more exceptions the stronger the proof. The truth appears to
be, that the ability to pull weight does not depend much on the
stride. The strongest movers are stout, muscular horses, broad
behind, with the knees and hocks let well down ; that is, with
short cannon bones.

A horse may be lazy, and yet trot fast when called on ; or he
may be very spirited, always willing to do his best, and not be
able to trot in tour minutes. A very strong horse, that can trot
off with a loaded market-wagon behind him at a good gait, and
keep it up for miles, may not be a fast trotter at any weight. Or
a horse may have most excellent bottom — may take two men in a
wagon over common roads sixty miles in a day, and repeat it every
day in the week ; or he may be good for ten miles an hour under
the same circumstances, and not be able to trot a single mile in
four minutes.

Speed, then, does not depend entirely on the form nor on the
way of going, nor on the strength, nor on the spirit of a horse
The value of a fast trotter may depend greatly upon these quali-
ties, but not his speed. Any form, and any style of going, may
do, if he can step fast enough ; and the power to step fast does not
depend on form, spirit, strength, nor stamina — though all of these
40

626 THi?; AMERICAN TROTTING IR"RSE.

do modify the manifestation of that power upon which speed does
depend.

Let us now consider the essential element of speed at any gait,
whether it be running, pacing, or trotting. All the movement is
effected by the contraction of those masses of lean meat called
muscles. The muscles of voluntary motion are each attached to
two bones by its two extremities, and the bones being attached to
each other by a movable joint, when the muscle contracts one oi
both of the bones must move; and, of course the rapidity of the
movement depends on the rapidity of the contraction. An animal
wills the movement of a limb; that will, which originates in the
brain, is transmitted through nerves to the muscles; they contract
and the limb moves. It would seem, then, that if a horse desired
to go fast, and his muscles were large enough and his joints supple,
he must needs do so whenever he tries ; for if the muscles obey
the will, and the will is that they shall contract quickly, the whole
thing would be accompHshed. Speed would then depend on the
size of the muscles, and the willingness of the horse to contract
them rapidly. But the facts are clearly against such a theory ; for
all have noticed that a highly spirited horse that is very strong to
pull a load, may not be able to go fast in any gait.

The truth is, that all power to move, lies not in the brain which
is the seat of the will, nor in the muscles which are the place of
the movement, but between the two, in the spinal cord, which
is the centre of the nervous system, and the generator of the
power. The spinal cord lies in the back bone, filling the canal
or hole that extends through its whole length, and giving off nerves
i'rom every part of it that go to all parts of the body. It is con-
nected to the brain, and appears like a prolongation of it from the
cavity of the skull along the cavity of the spine; but the rational
view of the spinal cord, and the one that is sustained by compara-
tive anatomy, is that which considers it the centre of the nervous
system ; the brain being an extension of it in one direction, and
the nerves an extension of it in another direction, the whole con-
stituting the nervous system.

The brain is the seat of all mental manifestations — of thought,
memory, love, fear, emulation, courage, &c. The disposition and
character depend upon the brain, but it is not necessary to animal
life. The nerves extend to every part of the body; some of them
convey sensations to the brain, as of heat, or cold, or pain; others
of them go to the muscles, and convey to them the power that is
generated in the spinal cord by which they contract. The will
to move is conceived in the brain, and goes to the spinal cord,
which then generates the powpr to move. The power, which for
convenience ol' language we will call nerve force, is sent through
the nerves and expended in the muscles, effecting their contraction

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. G27

and a consequent movement of the bones to which they are
attached. The brain may be compared to a telegraph operator,
the spinal cord to his galvanic battery, and the nerves to the
wires. A chicken with its head off kicks and flutters with strength
enough to fly over a barn, or to run around it. The spinal cord
generates the power for a short time, and would do so longer but
for the loss of blood; but the brain, that gives intelligent direc-
tion to the power, is not there. The battery is sending its elec-
tricity along the wires without the control of the operator.

If enough of the nerve force is sent to the muscles to move the
body a mile in six minutes, it is six minutes in being generated.
If the same amount of nerve force can be generated and sent to
the muscles in three minutes, we might suppose that the body
would be moved the same distance in three minutes ; and herein
would appear to lie all the diflerence of speed. But the amount
of force generated by the nervous centre, and expended by the
muscles, in a given time, does not exactly explain the difference
of speed. One horse may expend as much nerve force in pulling
a load a quarter of a mile in three minutes, as another does in
trotting a whole mile in the same time, and yet not be able to trot
a mile in four minutes. The speed depends on the ability of the
spinal cord to generate and send to the different sets of muscles
concerned in locomotion, the required amounts of nerve force in a
quick succession of discharges ; and on the capability of the nerves
to transmit it to the muscles in large quantity in a short time.
The difference between trotting fast and drawing a heavy load, is
not in the amount of force used, but in the manner of using it.
In one case, the nerve force is sent to a muscle during the whole
time of taking a slow step with a heavy load ; and in the other, it
is all expended in an instant, causing the muscle to contract
quickly, and thereby projecting the horse rapidly forward — the
acquired momentum continuing after the muscle ceases to con-
tract. It is like driving a nail by a succession of blows, that
could not be moved by the same aggregate amount of pressure dif-
fused and continued over the whole time of driving.

The essential quality of speed, at any gait, is therefore a cer-
tain organization of the nervous system, and this is the one thing
needful in every case. This is what we breed for when we breed
for speed ; this is the quality that has been transmitted through
so many generations from Messenger, Pacer Pilot, Pilot, Bellfbunder,
and other progenitors of American trotters. A descendant of
Messenger might have neither his form, size, nor way of going,
but if he had a similar organization of the nervous system, he
would have speed. We cannot detect this peculiarity of organiza-
tion by any outward sign ; we can know of it only by its mani-
festations. We know that it is hereditary, and we also know that

628 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

it may be associated with any form. We therefore must respect
the pedigrees of the horses and mares we breed from ; and the more
of the trotting quality we find in their pedigrees, the more reason
we will have for expecting a fast colt. Form, size, style, and
action are all important matters in the constitution of any horse,
and particularly important in trotters, because they are kept for
use and for pleasure-driving as well as for racing ; but the speed
is not a result of any combination of these qualities. The right
kind of a nervous system will accomplish more if the form and
action are good than if they are bad ; and all the necessary condi-
tions of speed may exist in a horse, and yet be may be valueless
because of an incurably bad temper, or because he inherits a
strong tendency to some disqualifying disease. These matters
every breeder will use his own judgment on. If a mare is good
in all respects except speed, and is bred to a horse of speed, but
of bad organization in other respects, the colt may have all the
good qualities of the dam and the speed of the sire; or may have
the bad qualities of the sire and the want of speed of the dam,
It is impossible to foresee in what proportion the two parents will
transmit their respective qualities to the offspring; so that the
safest rule in breeding, is to have as much of all the qualities we
bre':d for in both parents as is possible. The speed should be in
both families to make its inheritance certain ; but if it is strongly
inherited by one side, we may reasonably expect all of the progeny
to go faster than the parent that is not speedy. Thus a slow mare
bred to a good trotting-foal getter, will always produce faster colts
than she would if bred to a slow stallion like herself.

The condition of parents at the time of conception has a power-
ful influence on the progeny — whether it be mental or physical
condition. Offspring inherit both the congenital and the acquired
qualities of parents, as is well exemplified in the familiar case of
dogs taught to hunt birds, and when they are found, to stand and
wait for a man to shoot them, instead of rushing on to catch them
as the instinctive impulse would prompt. The standing is an
acquired quality, the efi"ect of teaching, and yet it is transmitted
by hereditary descent as certainly as any other quality. A well-
bred setter or pointer pup will stand stanchly at a game bird, when
only four months old, without any teaching. The effect on offspring
of the transient condition of parents, may be seen in every family.
No two children of the same parents are alike, unless they be
twiaa. The reason is plain ; the parents change from year to
year, and the children inherit the changed conditions. The father
may have a lawsuit, and a child may inherit the contentiousness
and obstinacy engendered by it ; he may afterwards be engaged in
active business enterprises, and transmit energy and a clear intel-
lect to another child ; a third may be idiotic, because his father

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 629

was enervated by a debauch. Many causes of change will occur
to each parent in the year or two that elapses between the births
of children, and these changes in the parents modify the constitu-
tions of the children. Twins may be much alike, because there
ia no time for change, commonly, between the times of their con-
ception ; though they may diflfer by resembling different parents,
or by an interval between the times of conception, or even by being
the children of different fathers.

It is not essential to the transmission of acquired qualities, that
they shall have been long acquired; a few days of strength or of
debility, even perhaps a single hour of difference in the parent,
may make a life-long difference to the child. A mental impression^
however short, if only strong enough, may be transmitted. Well-
authenticated cases have been related to me, one of a full-bred
Durham calf that resembled neither parent, but a brindle ox that
strongly impressed the minds of both parents at the time of con-
ception ; and another of a litter of pigs of the white variety, com-
mon in Chester and Delaware counties, and famous everywhere,
that were part of them black, because a black sow from Maryland
was conspicuously present at the time of conception. Several
cases have come within my own knowledge, of mares that pro-
duced foals colored and marked like some stable or field companion,
and entirely unlike both parents in that respect.

It is a popular belief that impressions made on the mind of the
mother during pregnancy, may be transmitted to the offspring ; but
that cannot be true, because there is no connection by nerves
between the mother and child ; and a mental impression could not
be conveyed by the blood. All of such supposed cases were pro-
bably instances in which the impression was made on the mind of
the mother before conception — became a part of herself — and was
then transmitted to her offspring by the same law that any other
quality of a parent is transmitted. This accounts, probably, for
the well-authenticated case, before alluded to, of colts resembling
a quagga that was not their sire. The mare had a distinct recol-
lection of the strange beast associated in her mind, with the
sexual intercourse she had first with him ; and subsequent occa-
sions of a similar kind with horses recalled the mental impression,
and it was transmitted, being, and having been for years, a part
of her mental constitution.

It follows, that in breeding for trotting horses, we should not be
unmindful of the temporary condition of the sire and dam. Mares
are generally worked, and are nearly always in very good condition
for breeding. With stallions, it is usually quite different. They
are kept, as if their use was procreating colts for beef, rather than
speed, spirit, and endurance. They are overfed and underworked;
they are fat and feeble; their muscles and ligaments are not

630 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

strengthened by exercise; their blood is not purified by the
increased secretions that accompany a quickened circulation of
blood ; their courage and endurance are not developed by a
long journey occasionally; their emulation is not stimulated by
racing; and consequently these qualities, all so desirable in the
offspring, are not transmitted in the intensity and power they might
be if a more rational plan were pursued. The health and longevity
of the stallion are endangered by these debilitating causes, and the
best horse might lose reputation as a good trotting-foal getter
in a few years of the enervating management too common every-
where. It is supposed by many, that a horse that serves many
mares has demand enough upon his strength without working.
The truth is, he needs plenty of well-regulated exercise to keep
his strength up, and his health good, that he may safely and pro-
fitably meet the great demand upon his vitality.

It is becoming quite common to test the speed of trotting colts
at three, at two, and even at one year old ; and with proper care, it
may be done safely. The trial should be made after a little pre-
paration, by gradually increased exercise, and the distance should
be short. Curiosity being gratified by a few trials, should be also
satisfied, for colts cannot stand much speeding without danger of
injury.

To teach a young horse to trot well requires judgment and care.
He is to be improved by practice, there is no other way ; and he
should be made to like it, not fear it. He should make his best
effort, willingly, eagerly, and doing so repeatedly, he cannot fail
to improve. Kindness and gentleness are always necessary in the
management of horses, and especially so in the taming and teach-
ing of young horses. No horse should be put to a high rate of
speed until he is first warmed up and breathing freely, and then
he should be rested a little by a slow gait, but not allowed to cool
off before he is called on to do his best.

The young horse does not always know just what is wanted of
him, and it is therefore a good plan to trot him on the same piece
of level road always, and when he comes to it he will expect to
trot. He should never be made tired of it, but always stopped
while he is still anxious to go. The training is as much a mental
as a physical discipline; it must be both. Some horses need the
stimulation of the voice or whip; others will require only to be
held to their m ork. The dull one should be stimulated by emula-
tion— another horse should be trotted or galloped alongside of
him ; and whether the accompanying horse should be kept just
even with him, or a little before or behind, must be ascertained by
trial. An intelligent horse becomes discouraged by being beaten
in a race, and either breaks into a run to catch up, or quits mak-
ing any strong effort. Young horses being more impulsive and

THE AMERICAN TKOTTING HORSE. G^l

less under tlie influence of traiaing and experience, feel the mor-
tification of defeat more than older ones. Some colts are so
anxious to beat, that it is impossible to keep them trotting with a
competitor of equal or greater speed, but if put in double harness
they understand that they cannot get ahead of the other by run-
ning, and will do their very best trotting honestly. All animals,
except men, have more intelligence than they get credit for; and
a great many failures in the management of horses come from
men's over-estimate of themselves, and their failure to appreciate
and properly regard the intelligence of the other animal.

The ground should be smooth, and level, or a little descending.
If rough it throws him out of his step ; and if ascending he may
get to hopping, or hipping, as it is sometimes called — that is, he
does not trot square, but goes in a half gallop with his hind legs,
as an easier way of taking the weight along, while he trots with
his fore legs. Taking too much weight, or being pushed beyond
his speed, may make him do it; and the remedies are, avoidance
of the causes, and driving at a moderate speed until the habit is
forgotten. The common notion that a horse can better trot up hill
than down, is too absurd to merit serious refutation. Whether the
hill be steep or otherwise, long or short, the horse can trot down
it, either under saddle or in harness, easier than he can trot up it.

A high speed for a short distance does not injure even quite
young horses, but keeping them at it until the ligaments that bind
the bones together at the joints are overtaxed, and feel sore the
next day, is the way to stiffen the joints, to cause knuckling of the
hind fetlock joints, and springing of the knees. No horse should
be so tired by a day's work that a night's rest will not make him
fresh again, and this is especially true of young horses. If a
horse is worked moderately at first, and a little more is exacted of
him in each succeeding day, but without violation of the rule just
stated, his powers will gradually increase to meet the increased
demand; but if that rule is violated for days in succession, the
horse's powers daily diminish, and- the experiment will end in
injury to his health and spirit.

In trotting young horses the greatest difficulty is in keeping
them squarely at their work. They will try to go as fast as they
can, and they know that they can run faster than they can trot.
The colt that can naturally trot very fast will have less desire to
run, and being necessarily descended from trotting ancestors, ho
will naturally be more disposed to do his best going in that way.
If possible, he should never be driven "off his feet," but should
be made to understand that he has but one way of going, and that
is trotting.

^ Inexperienced drivers are never satisfied with their horse's trot-
ting until they have driven them out of their gait, and then the^

C32 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

are more dissatisfied than before. Rude snatching and sawing of
the mouth by the bit make matters worse — but the man who
always makes his horse break up, always punishes the horse for
doing it ; and particularly is this true when some other horse is
out-looting his. He then imagines that his horse is not doing as
much as he could if he were disposed to ; the whip is brought
into passionate use, and the bit is cruelly made an instrument of
torture to counteract the effect of the whip. This kind of driving
teaches a young horse that trotting is to always end in a break,
and the break in a painful and alarming punishment. These
unskillful, ungentlemanly drivers find a remedy for the horse's too
much willingness in fatiguing him by a long drive at speed, after
which the poor creature may stick to his trot from sheer exhaus-
tion. A more skillful driver would get all the speed the horse was
capable of while he was fresh and strong, and without injury to his
health or disposition. A high-strung young horse may need to
have the wire-edge taken off sometimes before he will go steadily ;
and it should be done by a long jog-trot, with a few short brushes
of speed occasionally, which will work off his exuberance of spirits
without injury.

No trotter attains his greatest speed before maturity; and the
best of them continue to improve up to fifteen and eighteen years
of age. To do this a horse must have a good constitution — one
that will carry him to a great age without disease, and will stand
the hard work necessary to develop his powers. Breeding from
such horses will therefore improve the stock of the country — not
only in speed, but also in stamina.

IMany breeders have the notion that trotters may be produced
by breeding common farm and road mares to a thorough-bred stal-
lion ; and, in response to that belief, we find stallions of that class
all over the country, with tremendous pedigrees, curly or spavined
hocks, sprung knees, cocked ankles, broken wind, and blind eyes.
They are the "weeds" of racing stables that have gone amiss
from defective constitutions, could not stand training and racing,
or had not speed enough to win anything. Beside the certainty of
propagating their infirmities if they beget foals, these are not the
breed of stallions to beget trotters if they were sound. They and
their ancestors for a hundred and fifty years have been trained and
used to another way of going. There is not one of them that
could be trained to trot a mile in three minutes, and most of them
could never do it in five. And then it should be considered that
thorough-breds are not sufiiciently docile to be safe and useful
harness horses. They are broken to saddle when two years old,
are raced a few months in each year until they are four or five,
and the marcs are then turned into a breeding-stud, where they

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. C33

are never harnessed, ^and the stallions are treated the same way.
This has been the custom since the origin of the breed, and they
are almost as vicious and ynreliable as th'e Mustangs of Texas,
without their soundness ; for the continued practice of racing them
at an immature age has engendered in them more than an average
share of diseases; and they all lack that intelligence and gentleness
that is the natural result of long-continued and intimate compan-
ionship with man. The difference between them and trotters in
intelligence, docility, and affection is much the same as between
fox hounds and setters, and for similar reasons. In the one case
the hound and the horse run by a natural instinct a few times
each year for man's amusement, and during all the remainder of the
year they are under no discipline, receive no education, and are
off with their own kind away from the companionship of man.
With harness horses and setter dogs the case is in all respects dif-
ferent. Both horse and dog are man's constant companion. They
obey him, learn of him, and love him.

To breed good harness horses for road or track, we should use
both stallion and mare of the kind we want in the offspring.
When setters can be improved by breeding to fox hounds, we may
consider the propriety of breeding trotting mares to thorough-bred
stallions.

A few practical rules for the instruction of breeders who may
not be familiar with the subject are here appended.

RULES.

The best time to have a colt foaled — the development of the colt
only being considered — is in the spring, after the cold nights are
done. The mare gives more milk on grass, and the colt thrives best
in the fields. But if it is necessary to use the mare on the road
while brooding a colt, it may be better to have it come in the fall,
but never in very cold weather. The mare and colt are stabled in
the winter, and it can be better left in the stable than the field. It
should be kept in a separate stall when the mare may want to lie
down, or she will probably be compelled to stand all night. A
mare can be worked on a farm at any time while brooding her colt
without much inconvenience by allowing it to accompany her.

The average duration of pregnancy is about eleven months ; but
the time varies from less than ten to more than twelve months.
The variation from the average time is not often more than a week
either way, and horse colts are not carried longer than fillies,
though the popular opinion is that they are.

A mare may be worked moderately up to the hour of foaling,
and again when the colt is a few days old. She may be driven at

G34 THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE.

speed up to the eighth month of gestation, and perhaps later,
without harm.

JMares seldom have any difficulty in foaling, but it is prudent to
attend to the foal, and see that it is assisted to stand up while suck-
ing, if it needs to be, for a few times.

The erotic heat occurs in mares about every twenty-one days,
and usually continues about seven days; but many show it only on
the last day, and some never at all, unless a stallion is brought
near. To secure an opportunity to breed such mares, have them
tried twice every week, and whenever they do show it, send them
to the horse that day, unless it is known that they will show it for
several days. About one-half of the mares taken to the horse
were in heat the day before, but will not take him when tried.

After foaling, a mare will take the horse and breed on the third
and the ninth days; and probably on any day between the third
and ninth. I never knew a mare to refuse on the ninth day after,
though they often do on the tenth. It is better to attend to it a
day or two before the ninth, for fear of detention on that day. It
is said, on good authority, that a brooding mare is more likely to
breed if served at four weeks after foaling than at any other time.
It would, therefore, be prudent to try her to the horse again at
that time if she had been served at the ninth day. Some mares —
a few — will never breed while a colt sucks them.

The surest way to get a mare with foal is to turn her and the
horse together in an enclosure, and allow them to remain together
during the heat. As the horses thus used are usually colts,
unbroken, it has become a common belief that a colt is more potent
than an older horse, but that is not true. The same success
attends coupling a mare with a mature stallion in the same manner.

Various plans are used to insure a catch. The commonest is to
throw a bucketful of cold water on the mare immediately after
copulation ; but the wider the departure from Nature's plan the
worse. Eeason suggests that after copulation she should be allowed
to remain undisturbed for some time, and nothing be done to inter-
fere with her natural inclinations and actions.

When a mare is known to be difficult to impregnate, she should
have several chances in the same heat. It is a common belief, and
may be true, that they are more likely to catch near the last of
the heat.

If the two sexes were at large together, these rules would not be
called for; but where restraint is imposed on them, it becomes
necessary to study their nature and habits, that we may know to
what extent that restraint may be carried, and how much must be
yielded to the demand of the laws that govern their being.

A foal should be allowed to suck the dam until the grass grows

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 635

in the uext spring after it was foaled, if the development of the
colt only is considered. But necessity usually compels weaning at
about the fourth to sixth month of the colt's age. The dam
should be allowed plenty of nutritious food while brooding, both
for her own and the colt's sake; and after weaning, the colt should
be kept thriving, winter and summer. This last is a very important
matter, and often neglected.

Every colt, if weaned, should be fed as much oats in the first
winter as it can digest and appropriate to growth. It should have
comfortable shelter and bedding, be allowed to go out into a field
whenever it wishes to, and should have one or more other colts for
company. It is ruinous to keep a colt in a stable all winter, how-
ever well it may be fed and watered. It must have sunlight and
exercise, or it will not thrive. If allowed the freedom of a field,
it will not get exercise enough without another colt to play with.
It is a mistake to starve a colt with the idea of making it hardy.
If well fed and watered, it will stand any reasonable exposure, and
will take plenty of exercise, which gives size and strength, and
insures future soundness. Over-feeding is bad, and so is confine-
ment ; but starving is worse than either.

Chester, Pa., January, 1880.

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INDEX.

Abdallah. by Mambrino, 602, 603,

611.
Abd el Kader, on the Arab horse, 40 ;

on the influence of the sire and dam

respectively in breeding, 110.
Abdomen, 278, 279.
Abdominal viscera, diseases of the,

350.
Accidents to the legs and feet, 413.
Action, locomotive, of the various

parts, 76.
Administration of chloroform, 431 ; of

physic, 445.
Africa, South, the horses of, 32.
Age, shown by the dental system, 258;

average, 28 ; best to breed from,

109.
Albany Pony. 508.
Ale.Yander's Abdallah, 610.
Ali Bev, his description of the modern

Arab, 33.
Alimentary canal, absorption of fluid

from the, 280.
Alteratives, 447.
Amaurosis, 387.
Amble, the, 95.
American Eclipse (thorough-bred),

604.
American Girl, 526, 612.
American Star (Seeley's), 613.
American trotting horse, history of the,

503 et seq. ; the, 50.
Americus, 511, 604.
Anaesthetics, 448.
Anasarca, 418.
Anchylosis. 298.
Ancient methods of using the horse,

17.
Andrew Jackson, 612.
Anodynes, 448.
Antacids, 449.
Anthelmintics, 449.
Aperients, 460.
Apoplexy, 380.

Apparatus for breaking to harness, 152.
Arab horse, of antiquity, 16; modern,

33.

Archer (an English trotter), 599.
Ariel (thorough-bred), 602.
Arsenic, 352.

Arteries of the foot, the, 295.
Asiatic horses, the, 42.-
Astringents, 452.
Atavism, principles of, 617.
Atmospheric air, changes produced in,

by respiration, 277.
Attitude assumed in standing, 78.
Australian horse, the, 44.

Back and loins, strains of the, 316.

Back-raking, mode of performing,
446.

Baek-sinews, strains of the, 319.

Bail, the hanging, 168; gangway, 170.

Balanitis, 373.

Bandages, 196.

Barb, the, 30.

Barbs, treatment of, 352.

Barnacles, 434.

Bashaw family, the, 518, 611.

Bashaw (Green's). (See Green's Ba-
shaw.)

Bath, the Turkish, 213.

Baucher's method of horse-breaking,
145.

Bellfounder (imp.), 603.

Bengal, the horses of, 43.

Betsey Baker, 508, 602.

Billy Boyce (pacer), 609; pedigree of,
653.

Birmah, the horses of, 44.

Bishoping, 264.

Bit used for horse-breaking, 143.

Bites of insects, 392, 478.

Biting, remedy for the vice of, 206.

Black Dutchman, 612.

Black Flying Cloud, 621.

Black Harry Clay (Sayre's), 612.

Black Hawk (Hill's, also called Ver-
mont), 49, 606, 611.

Black Hawk (Long Island), 612.

Blacking, recipes for harness, 230.

Bladder, the, 284; calculi in, 373; dis-
eases of, 372.

657

658

INDEX.

Bleeding, 434 ; from the nose, 481 ; of
the lungs, 482 ; of the mouth, 482 ;
of the stomach, 482; inflammation
of the vein, when performed, 436.

BlinJne.'!?, 385.

Blink Bonny (English thorough-bred),
62.

Blistering. 439.

Blisters. 453.

Blood, the, 273; circulation of the,
274.

Blood-vessels of the chest and nose,
diseases of the, 349.

Bog-spavin, 313.

Bone, diseases of, 297 ; structure of,
248; fracture of the canna, 310;
strain of the round, 322.

Bone-S])avin, 302.

Bones, number of, composing the skele-
ton,'252.

Bornou, the horses of, 32.

Boston (thorough-bred), 103.

Boston Blue, 508, 600.

Bots, 355.

Bowels, calculi in the, 365 ; inflamma-
tion of the, 357, 488.

Boxes in stables, 157.

Break, or trevis, the, 434.

Breaking, Karey's principles and prac-
tice of, 128 ; for the saddle, ordinary
method, 141 ; Baucher's method; 145 ;
to harness, 151.

Breaking down, 321.

Breathing, physiology of, 277.

Breed of race-horses, object of encour-
aging the, 58.

Breeding, principles of, 99, 018 et seq. ;
rules for, 633.

Bree.ling-back, 617.

British iiorse, the original, 17.

Broken back, 476.

Broken knee, 324.

Broken wind, 346.

Bronchitis, .329.

Brood mare, the, 117; general manage-
ment of, 122.

Buck eye, 387.

Burns, 477.

Bursa} mucosae, anatomy of, 271 ; in-
flammation in, 314.

Butterfly (English thorough-bred), 61.

Calculi, in the bowels, 365; urinary,

373.
Canadian horse, the, 47, 604, 605.
Canker, 403.

Canna bone, fractures of, 310.
Canniicks (see Canadian ho-se), 604.
Canter, the, 89 ; mode of starting into

», 238.

Capped elbow, 316; hock, 315.

Capulet (see Capped Elbow).

Caries, 298 ; of the jaw, 307.

Cart-horse, the Vermont, 55.

Cartilage, 266 ; diseases of, 312,

Cartilages, ossiBcation of the lateral,
301.

Clay family, the, 612.

Casting, 432.

Castration, 440.

Cataract, 386.

Catarrh, 327.

Catch, insuring a, 634.

Catchpit, the, 163.

Caustics, 454.

Cauteries (see Caustics).

Cayuga Chief, 608.

Chapped Heels, 394.

Characteristics, of the horse, 18.

Charges, 455.

Chest, diseases of the blood-vessels of,
349 ; water on the, 345.

Chloroform, administration of, 431.

Choking, 479.

Choking distemper (see Fevers).

Chyle, the, 280.

Circulation of the blood, 275.

Clipping, 189.

Clothes, tearing off the, 204.

Clubs, trotting, establishment of, 508,
600.

Clysters, 445.

Coach-house, 174.

Coat of the thorough-bred, 75.

Coffin-joint, strains of the, 318.

Cold, 327.

Colic, 360; flatulent, 361, 488; spas-
modic, 361, 487.

Color, of the Arab horse, 37 ; of the
thorough-bred, 75.

Colt, breaking of the, 12S.

Conestoga draught-horse, the, 55.

Confining the horse, methods of, 432.

Congestion of the lungs, 339, 483.

Constitutional diseases, 417.

Consumption, 346.

Contagious diseases, 491.

Contraction of the foot, 409; of the
heels, 429.

Convulsions, 375, 376.

Cordials, 456.

Corns, 397.

Coronary frog-band, the, 293.

Coronary substance, anatomy of the,
293.

Corrosive sublimate, treatment of ef-
fects of, 353.

Cough, chronic, 331.

Counter-irritants, 454.

Coup de soleil, 382.

INDEX.

659

Crib-biting, 202.

Cruiser, 128, 131.

Crust of the foot, anatomy of the, 292.

Curb, 322, 323.

Cushion of the frog. 293.

Cuts, stable management of, 222.

Cutting, 246; ordinary, 413; speedy,

415.
Cystitis, 372.

Daniel Lambert, 615.

Deafness, 383.

Delay in parturition, 490.

Demulcents, 457.

Depuration, 281.

De.\ter, career of, 524 ; pedigree of, 643.

Dgelfe, a breed of Arab horse, 33.

Diabetes, 371, 452.

Diaphoretics, 457.

Diaphragm, spasms of the, 348.

Diarrhoea, 362 ; medicines for chronic,

452 ; clyster for, 456.
Digestion, physiology of, 280.
Digestives, 457.
Diomed (imp.), 604.
Dishing, in the trot, 88.
Dislocation, nature of, 324, 476 ; of the

hip-joint, 324 ; of the patella, 324, 476.
Distemper. 328, 329.
Diuretics, 458.
Docking, 443.
Dongola, the horses of, 32.
Door for loose box, 161.
Doors of stables, 161.
Drainage of stables, 163.
Draught-horse, the Conestoga, 55.
Dressing of horses before work, 183 ;

after work, 186.
Duct, the thoracic, 280.
Ducts, the lachrymal, 289.
Duroc (thorough-bred), 604.
Dutchman, career of, 510; race with

Rattler, 511.
Dysentery, 362 ; remedies for, 453.
Dyspepsia, 354.

Ear, the, 289 ; diseases of, 383 ;
scratching the, remedy for, 204.

Early maturity of the thorough-bred,
57.

East, the horses of the, 30.

Eclipse (English thorough-bred), de-
scription of, 27; Percival's descrip-
tion of. 28.

Edwin Forrest (old), 510.

Edwin Forrest (Bonner's). 542.

Egyptian horse, the ancient, 16; the
modern, 32.

Elbow-joint, capped, 316.

Embrocations, 458.

Emulsions, 459.

Enteritis, 357.

Epilepsy, 375.

Erotic heat, duration of, 634.

Eruptions of the skin, 388.

Essentials in the thorough-bred, 60.

Ethan Allen, 49. 520, 615.

Excretion, physiology of, 281.

Exercise, daily, 200.

Exhaustion, after work, 221.

Exostosis, 207 ; of the humerus and
scapula, 305.

Expectorants, 459.

External form as indicated by points,
19; formation of the thorough-breil,
61.

Extremities, the anterior, 254; the
hind, 255 : considered as organs of
support, 255 : of locomotion, 256.

Eye, the, 287; simple inflammation of,
383; purulent ophthalmia, 384 ; iri-
tis, 384; injuries of, 386; cataract,
386 : amaurosis, 387 ; buck-eye, 387 ;
wash for the, 461.

Face, anatomy of the, 254.

Fainting, 486.

False quarter, 399.

Farcy, 420.

Fearnaught (imp.), 53.

Febrifuges, 460.

Feeding, theory and practice of, 177.

Feeling, 290.

Feet, accidents to the, 413; manage-
ment of, 197, 484; dryness of the,
198.

Femur, fracture of the, 310.

Fetlock, strain of the, 318.

Fever balls and powders, 460.

Fevers, 417; simple, 417; typhoid,
417.

Fibre, muscular, 270.

Fibrous tissue, 268; chemical compo-
sition of, 269.

Firing, 436 ; method of performing,
437.

Fisherman (English thorough- bred),
62.

Fistula of the withers. 306.

Fits, 486 ; also see Epilepsy.

Flatbush Maid, 609.

Flatulent colic. 361.

Floors of stables, 161.

Flora Temple, 50 ; history of, 519.

Flying gallop, the, 92.

Foal, the. 125; treatment of the. 125;
weaning of the, 127, 634.

Foaling, best season for, 633.

Foals, rheumatic inflammation pecu-
liar to, 313.

660

INDEX.

Foot, anatomy of the, 290; contraction
of the. 409, 429 ,: fever of the, 403 ;

■ conditions of a good sound, 424.

Fore-quaiters, relative proportions of
the. 21.

Formation, external, of the horse, 61.

Foundations of stables, 157.

Founder, 403.

Fractures, 308, 474; simple, 309, 475;
of the femur, 310 ; of the humerus,
310 ; of the canna bones, 310 ; of the
lower jaw, 310, 474; of the pelvis,
310, 474; of the pasterns, 310; of
the bones of the skull, 310, 474; of
the radius, 310; of the ribs, 310,
474: of the scapula, 310; of the
spine, 310; of the tibia, 310; com-
pound, 475 ; comminuted, 475 ; of the
tail, 474; of the limbs, 474.

Frog, anatomy of the, 293; bleeding
from the wounds of the, 474.

Gad-Fly, bites of the, 392.
Gallop, the flying, 90 ; method of start-
ing to the, 239.
Galls, harness, 391 ; remedy for, 459.
Gangway, bail for stable, 170.
Gastritis, 352.
General Knox, 614, 615; pedigree of,

655.
Generation, female organs of, 2S6;

male organs of, 285 ; theory of, 99,

617.
Generative organs, diseases of the,

373.
George M. Patchen, 612 ; history of,

521 ; pedigree of, 642.
George Palmer, 527.
George Wilkes, 523, 524.
Gland, the kidneys, 284 ; the liver, 283 ;

the pancreas, 284.
Glanders, 418.

Glands, structure of the, 280.
Glencoe (imp.), 603.
(iudolphin Arabian, 31.
Gold.lust, 613.
Guldsmith Maid, history of. 528; race

with Smuggler, 534; inbred, 620;

pedigree of, 647.
Grain shoots, 160.
Granarv. construction of, 160.
Grand Bashaw (imp.), 518, 611.
Grass, turning out to, 225.
Grease (Scratches), 394, 395.
Greek horse, the ancient, 14.
Green's Bashaw, pedigree of, 639.
Grooming, 184.
Grubs, removal of, 392.

Habits in a wild or free state, 18; out-

door bad, 243 ; remedies for bad,
202.

Hacks, preparation of, for work, 220.

Hsematuria, 371.

Haemorrhage, from the lungs, 349;
from the nose, 349.

Halters used for breaking colts, 142.

Hambletonian (Rysdyk's), chai-acter
of, as a stallion, 611", 613, 614; cele-
brated horses begot by him, 610 ;
pedigree of, 637.

Hambletonian (thorough -bred), by
Messenger, 602.

Hand-galloj), the, 90.

Harness, blacking, recipes for, 230;
breaking to, 151 ; care of, 229 ; fit-
tings for, 173; room in stables, 173;
galls, 391.

Hay chamber, 159.

Head, bones of the, 254 ; relative pro-
portions of the, 19.

Health, importance of, in sire and dam,
107, 617 ; upland grass useful in re-
storing, 226.

Heart, diseases of the, 348, 483.

Heels, chapped, 394 ; contracted, 430 ;
remedies for sore, 464.

Height of the thorough- bred, 75.

Henry Clay, 612.

Hepatization of the lungs, 340.

Herbert's description of wild horse of
America, 46.

Hernia, reduction of, 444.

Hero (pacer), 609.

Hidebound, 389.

Highblowing, 338.

Highland Ash, 609; pedigree of, 650.

Highland Lass, 609.

Highland Maid, 609.

Hill's Black Hawk, 606, 611.

Hind quarters, points of the, 25.

Hip-joint, dislocation of the, 324 ;
strain of the. 322.

"Hit," causes of a, 106.

Hobbles, description of, and method of
using, 432.

Hock, capped, 315: strain of the, 322.

Hock-joint, strain of the, 322.

Hogging the mane, 194.

Hoof, anatomy of the, 291 ; develop-
ment of, by secretion, 293.

Hopeful, 544.

Horsemanship, Baucher's method of,
150.

Hounds, riding to, 240.

Hovel, the, for the brood marc, 119.

Hughes, Mr., tames the Arabian stal-
lion Chillaby, 36.

Humerus and scapula, exostosis of,
305; fracture of the, 310.

INDEX.

661

Hunter, preparation of the, 206, 219.
Hunting Park Association, established,

508, 600.
Hurdle races, best performances, 595.
Hydrophobia, 377, 478.
Hydrothorax, a sequel of pleurisy, 345.

Impregnating, difficulty in, 634.

Improvement in trotting time, 549.

Inaction of the kidneys, 372.

In-and-in breeding, 103, 620.

India, horses of, 43.

Indian pony^ the, 46.

Indigestion (dyspepsia), 354.

Inflamed, bursEe mucosae, 314; tendin-
ous sheaths, 314.

Inflammation of the bones, 298 ; of
bursas mucosae, 314; of the bladder,
372 ; of the bowels, 357, 488 ; of the
brain, 375 ; of the bronchi, 329 ; of
the eye, 383; of the kidneys, 369;
of the hirynx, 332 ; of the lungs,
339 ; of the pleura, 345, 484 ; of the
stomach, 352; of the feet, 484; of
the vein after bleeding, 436; rheu-
matic, 311 ; wash for external, 461.

Influenza, 328 ; typhoid, 328.

Injections (see Clysters).

Insects, bites and stings of, 392, 478.

Intestines, the, 282.

Inversion of the uterus, 374.

Iritis, 384.

James K. Polk (pacer), 514, 609.
Jaw, caries of, 307 ; fracture of the

bones of, 310, 474; osteo sarcoma

of, 308.
Jog-trot, the, 236.

John Henry, failure as a stallion, 616.
John Morgan, 623, 605 ; pedigree of,

646.
John Stewart, 608.
Joint, strain of the coffin, 318; strains

of the hip, 322; dislocation of the

hip, 324.
Joints, the, 266 ; wounds of, 324.
Jugular vein, when obliterated, renders

the horse unfit to be turned out, 227.
Jumping, 96.
Justin Morgan, 48.

Kailhan, a breed of Arab horses, 34.

Kemble Jackson, history of, 518 ; pedi-
gree of, 648.

Kemble Jackson bit invented, 518.

Kicking, out of doors, prevention of,
245 ; in the stable, 203, 206.

Kidneys, diseases of the, 369 ; inflam-
mation of the, 369 ; inaction of, 372 ;
situation of the, 284.

Knee-joint, strain of the, 317; punc-
tured, 326; broken, 324; wounds of
the, 324.

Kochlani, a breed of Arab horses, tra-
dition of the, 34.

Lachrymal apparatus, the, 289.

Lacteals, the, 280.

Lady Suffolk, history of, 513 ; race with

Tacony, 515; pedigree of, 644.
Lady Thorn, history of, 526 ; pedigree

of, 645.
Lamina?, the, 294.
Laminitis, 403; acute, 405; chronic,

406, 484.
Lampas, 351.
Lamp for singeing, 193.
Laryngitis, 332.

Lateral cartilages, ossification of, 301.
Leaping, 96.

Leoompte (thorough-bred), 55.
Legs, accidents to, 413 ; swelled, 393 ;

lotion for inflamed, 461.
Lexington (thorough-bred), 54, 55.
Libyan horse, the ancient, 17.
Lice, destruction of, 391.
Ligaments, 268; diseases of, 311;

strain of the waspensory, 318.
Lighting of stables, 165.
Lightning, 612.
Limbs, as agents of locomotion, 256;

as means of support, 255.
Liniments, 457.
Litter, eating the, 205.
Liver, the, 283 ; diseases of the, 369.
Lock-jaw, 378.
Loins, strains of the, 316.
Long Ishxnd Black Hawk, 612.
Loose boxes, 157.
Lotions, 460.

Lower jaw, fractures of the, 310.
Lucy, 527 ; pedigree of, 649.
Lula, 530.
Lungs, congestion of the, 340, 483 ;

inflammation of (pneumonia), 339;

hajmorrhage from the, 349, 482.
Lying down at work, 245.

Mac, 518; race with Tacony, 516.

Madness, 377.

Mad staggers, 375.

Mahomet, the traditional founder of

the Kochlani, 34.
Mallenders, 391.

Mambrino (thorough-bred), 506, 602.
Mambrino Chief, 602, 613, 614.
Mambrino Gift, inbred, 620.
Mambrino Paymaster, by Mambrino,

602, 614.
Mambrino Pilot, pedigree of, 638.

662

INDEX.

Mane, of the race horse, the, 76 ; hog-
ging the, 194.

Manege, paces of the, 96.

Mange, .389.

Mangers for stables, 170; material for,
171.

Mare, management of the brood, 117;
choosing the, for breeding, 619 ; time
of sending to the horse, 123, 633;
the Arab, 40.

Marrow, the, 250.

Marshes, useful in unsoundness of the
feet and legs, 225.

Match, trotting, first on record in Eng-
land, 599 ; first on record in America,
507, 600.

Maturity of the horse, 28.

Maud S., pedigree of, 656.

Medicines, list of the principal, and
recipes for, 447 et seq.

Mef ki, a breed of Arab horse, 33.

Megrims, 376.

Membrane, synovial, inflammation of
the, 313.

Mental development, 29.

Messenger (imp.), description of, 506,
601; influence upon trotting stock,
507, 602 ; character as a stallion, 507 ;
his progeny inbred, 621.

Methods of using the horse, ancient,
17.

Middlepiece of the horse, proportions
of, 23.

Mode of progression in horses, 78.

Modern Arab, the, 33.

Molten grease, 364.

Moor-ill. 419.

Moorish horse, the, 17.

Morgan horse, the, 48, 613.

Morrill family, the, 612.

Morrill (Young), 612; pedigree of,
641.

Moulting, periodical, 29.

Mountain Boy, 527; pedigree of, 651.

Mounting, directions for, 230.

Mouth, age of the horse as shown in
the, 258; diseases of the, 350.

Mucosae, bursiE, 271 ; inflamed, 314.

Muscles, 269; diseases of the, 311;
chronic rheumatism of, 312; rheu-
matic inflammation of, 311.

Mustang horse, the, 46.

Narcotics (see Anodynes).
Narraganset Pacer, the, 52.
National Trotting Association formed,

551.
Navicular disease, 409.
Neck, relative proportions of the, 21.
Nejdi, a breed of Arab horse, 33.

Nephritis. 369.

Nerves, the, 286.

Nervous system, diseases of the, 375.

Neurotomy, for navicular disease, 412.

New York Trotting Club organized,
508, 600.

Nicking, operation for, 143.

Norfolk trotter, the, 89, 600.

North America, wild horse of. 46.

Nose, the, 287 ; diseases of the blood-
vessels of the, 349; hasmorrhage from
the blood-vessels of the, 349, 481.

Numidian horse, the, 17.

Nymphomania, 374.

Ob-iect of encouraging the breed of

race-horses, 58.
Oneida Chief (pacer), 608.
Operations, 431.
Ophthalmia, purulent, 384.
Organs, classification of the various,

248.
Original British horse, the, 17.
Orlofif Trotter, the, 600.
Ossification of the lateral cartilages,

301.
Osteo sarcoma of the jaw, 308.
Out-crossing in breeding, 104, 622.
Over-reaches, stable management of,

222; treatment of, 416.
Ozena, 328.

Pacer, the Narraganset, 52.

Pacers, 607 ; belonging to trotting

families, 608; to teach to trot, 608;

performances of, 575.
Paces, natural and acquired, 76 ; modes

of starting to the various, 235.
Pacing, nature of, 95; close relation-
ship to trotting, 609.
Paddock, the, for brood mares, 118.
Palpitation of the heart, 483.
Pancreas, the, 284.
Paps, 352.
Paralysis, 380 ; from injury of the

spine, 380.
Parturition, 490.
Pastern, fractures of the, 310.
Pasturing, 225.

Patella, dislocation of the, 324.
Paul Pry, 509, 601.
Pedigrees, importance of, in breeding,

617; tables of, 637-656.
Pelham, 608.
Pelvic arch, the, 255.
Pelvis, the, 284; fractures of, 310.
Performances, tables of trotting, 553 ;

pacing, 575; running, 583.
Perichondrium, 267.
Periodical moulting, 29.

INDEX.

663

Periosteum, the, 250.

Peritonitis, 357.

Persian horse, the, 41.

Phrenitis, 375.

Phthisis, 346.

Physic, effects of, 217 ; mode of ad-
ministering, 445.

Physic balls and drenches, 450.

Physiology, of the blood, 273; of di-
gestion,"280 ; of muscle, 269 : of re-
spiration, 277 ; of secretions, 281 ; of
the skeleton, 251.

Pilot (blk. g.), 608.

Pilot, Jr. (Alexander's), 605.

Pilot, Old (pacer), 605.

Piping, 338.

Pleura, the, 272.

Pleurisy, 345, 484.

Pleurodynia, 345.

Plunging, 245.

Pneumonia, 339.

Pocahontas, Jr., 609.

Pocahontas (pacer), 96, 609 ; pedigree
of, 652.

Points of the trotter, 624; of the
horse, 20.

Poisoning, 488.

Poll-evil, 307.

Pregnancy, 633.

Preparation, final, of the hunter, 219;
for work, 206.

Prices paid for trotting horses by Mr.
Bonner, 550.

Pricks, from a nail picked up on the
road, 416; in shoeing, 415.

Princess, 520.

Prioress (thorough-bred), 54.

Progression, mode of, 78.

Proportions of the various points, 26.

Proud-flesh, in wounds, medicines for
destroying, 454.

Puffs, 315.

Purchase of horses, the, 463.

Purges (see Aperients).

Purity of blood in the thorough-bred,
60.

Purulent ophthalmia, 384.

Quarter, points of the fore, 21 ; points

of the hind, 25 ; false, 399.
Quitter, 400.

Rabies, of, 377, 478.

Race-horse, characteristics and shape

of the, 57.
Racing or hunting stable, 175.
Racking, 95.
Racks for stables, 170.
Radius, fracture of the, 310.
Rarey's method of breaking horses, 128.

Rarus, history of, 539.

Rattler, 510.

Rearing, management of, 244.

Reduction of hernia, 444.

Refrigerants, 461.

Reins, management of, 233.

Relationship of pacers to trotters, 609.

Relative influence of sire and dam, 110,
617.

Relative proportions of the horse, 19.

Respiration, 277; effect of, on atmo-
spheric air, 277.

Retention of urine, 373.

Rheumatic inflammation, 311.

Rheumatism, 311.

Ribs, fractured, 310.

Riding, 230 ; to hounds, 240.

Ring bone, 300 ; remedy for, 454.

Ripton, 512.

Roanoke (pacer), 608.

Roaring, 335.

Roman horse, the, 16.

Round worms, 367.

Rowels, 438.

Royal Cieorge, 605.

Running, action in, 96.

Running away, management of, 245.

Running turf, tables of best perform-
ances on, 583 et seq.

Rupture of the bowels, 364.

Rysdyk's Hambletonian, principal sons
of, 610; money received for stud
services of, 610; pedigree of, 637.

Sabi, a breed of Arab horse, 33.

Saddlery, care of. 227.

Saladin, 600.

Sale of horses, the, 463.

Sallenders, 391.

Salt, as food, 180.

Saltram (pacer), 609.

Sand-crack, 399.

Sarcoma, osteo, 308.

Saunterer (English thorough-bred),
64.

Scalds, 477.

Scapula, exostosis of, 305; fractures
of the, 310.

Scratches (see Grease).

Scratching the ear, management of,
204.

Screwdriver, 508, 509.

Scripture, the horse of, 13.

Seat in riding, directions for, 232.

Seclaoni, a breed of Arab horses, 33.

Secretion, physiology of, 281; medi-
cines for defective, 448.

Sedatives, 461.

Seedy toe, 408.

Seoley's American Star, 604, 613.

664

INDEX.

Sensation, nerves of, supplied to the
lips, 290.

Servants' rooms in sta,bles, 174.

Seton needles, description of, 438.

Setons, insertion of. 438.

Shakspeare, 601, 602.

Shaving. 193.

Sheaths, inflamed tendinous, 314.

Sherman, by Justin Morgan, 606.

Shoe, clenches for the, 200 ; removal
of the, 199; dilferent shapes of the,
428.

Shoeing, 421 et seq. ; pricks in, 415.

Shoulder, the, 21; strain of the, 317;
lotion for galled, 461.

Shouldering, the habit of, 245.

Shying, management of, 243.

Sidebone, 300.

Side line, the, 433.

Sinews, strains of the back, 319.

Singeing, 192; lamp for, 193.

Sire and dam, relative influence of,
110, 617; condition of, in breeding,
629.

Sir Henry (thorough-bred), 604.

Sir Peter, 508, 601.

Sir Tatton Sykes (English thorough-
bred), 63, 75.

Sir Walter Scott (pacer). 608.

Sitfasts, 391.

Size, importance of, in the stallion,
617.

Skeleton of the horse, the, 250.

Skin, the organ of touch, 290 ; medi-
cines for disordered state of the, 447.

Skull, fractures of the, 310.

Sleojjy staggers (see Apoplexy), 380.

Smuggler, 609 ; history of, 53.3 ; race
at Cleveland, 534; pedigree of, 640.

Soiling, 223.

Sole, the, 293 ; bruises of the, 416.

Sontag, 609.

Sore-throat, 350 ; catarrhal, 327.

Sovereign (imp.), 103.

Soundness, importance of, in sire and
dam, 107, 617.

Soundness, laws of, 464.

South American horse, the, 45.

Spasm of the diaphragm, 348.

SpasmocTic colic, 361.

Spavin, bog, 313; bone, 302; remedy
for, 454.

Speed, of the Arab horse, 37 ; import-
ance of, in the stallion, 617 ; of the
trotter, 624.

Spinal column, the, 252.

Spinal cord, the source of the power to
move, 626.

Spine, injury of the, causing paralysis,
380 ; fractures of the, 310.

Spleen, the, 283.

Splints, 298 ; remedy for, 454.

Sprains, 477.

St. Julien, description of, 546 ; history
of, 546 ; trot against time, 548.

St. Lawrence, 605.

Stable management, 177; vices, 202.

Stables, 165.

Stafford, tamed by Rarey, 128, 130.

Staggers, mad, 375 ; sleepy, 380 ; stom-
ach, 353, 487 ; remedy for, 452.

Stallion, choosing a, for breeding pur-
poses, 617.

Stalls, 157; iron fittings for, 172.

Standing, attitude assumed in, 78.

Starting the horse in his various paces,
modes of, 235.

Stench traps, 164.

Stifle joint, strain of the, 322.

Stimulants, 462.

Stings of insects, 392, 478.

Stomach, the, 29, 282 ; medicines for
debility of, 448; staggers, 353, 487.

Stomachics, 462.

Stonewall Jackson, 525.

Strains, 316; of the back-sinews, 319;
of the back and loins-, 31.6 ; of the
coffin-ioint, 318; of the hock, 322;
of the" fetlock, 318; of the hip-joint,
322 ; of the knee, 31 7 : of the shoul-
der, 317; of the stifle-joint, 322;
of the suspensory ligaments, 318,
319.

Strangles, -351.

Strangulation of the bowels, 364.

Stride, in trotting, essential elements
of the, 624.

String halt, 381.

Stumbling, 246.

Styptics, 462.

Summering, 222.

Sunstroke, 382, 485.

Superpurgation, 363 ; remedy for, 449.

Surfeit, 388.

Surplice (English thorough-bred), 75.

Suspensory ligaments, strain of the,
318.

Sweating, object of, 208; the ordinary,
210.

Swelled legs, 393.

Syncope, 486.

Synovial membrane, inflammation of
the, 313.

Tacony, 515, 518; races with Lady

Suffolk and Mac, 515, 516.
Tail, the, 255; of the thorough-bred

race-horse, 76.
Tartary, the horses of, 43.
Teeth, the, 267; age of the horse as

665

inilicateil bv, 258; irregularities in
tlie growth of, 265.

Teiniieratiire of stables, 200.

Tendinous sheaths, inflammation of,
314.

Tendons, 268; diseases of the, 311.

Tetanus, 378.

Thick wind, 347.

Tliomas .Jefferson, history of, 531.

Thoracic arch, the, 254 ; organs, dis-
eases of the, 326.

Thorax, the, 272.

Thormanby (English thorough-bred),
58.

Thorns in the leg, 221.

Thorough - bred, characteristics and
shape of the, 67 ; influence upon
trotting stock, 507, 604 ; general
liistorv of the American, 52.

Thonuighpin, .'US ; in the bursa, 315.

Thrciid-worms, 368.

Throat, sore, 350.

Thrush, 401.

Tibia, fractures of the, 310.

Tiies, enamelled, for stables, 172.

Tippecanoe (pacer), 608.

Tissue, fibrous, 268.

Toe, seedy, 408.

Tom Wonder, 608.

Tonics, 463.

Toorkistan, the horses of, 42.

Topgallant, 508, 602.

Touch, the organ of, 290 ; sense of,
necessary to the appreciation of
form, 290,

Training colts to trot, 630.

Training horses, Rarey's method of,128,

Travis, the, of stables, 168.

Trevis, the, or break, 434.

Trimming, 193.

Trinkef, pedigree of, 654.

Trot, the, 86; starting into a, 236;
teaching the colt to, 630.

Trotter, the American, 50, 503 et seq.,
597 et seq. ; the Norfolk, 89, 600 : the
Orloff, 600; breeding of the, 616;
points of a, 624; elements of speed
in, 626; training, 630 et seq.; per-
formances of, 553 et seq.

Trotting, origination of, in England as
a public amusement, 599 ; origina-
tion of, in America as a public amuse-
ment, 507, 600; influence of import-
ed thorough-breds upon the trotting
stock of America, 507, 604; relation-
ship to pacing, 607; improvement in
time in, 549.

Trouble, 508, 602.

True Briton, the founder of the Morgan
stock, 48.

Trumpeting, 338.
Trustee, the twenty-miler, 513.
Tumors, on the tendons, 312.
Turkish bath, the, 213.
Turkish horse, the, 42.
Turning out to grass, 225.
Twitch, the, 434.
Typhoid fever, 417, 418.

Ulcers, lotions for foul, 61 .

Umpire (thorough-bred), 54.

Unknown (pacer), 608.

Unnerving, 444.

Unsoundness, what constitutes it,
463.

Unsoundness of the feet and legs,
marshes useful in, 225.

Urine, bloody. 371; retention of, 373;
bloody, medicines for, 452 ; medi-
cines to increase the flow of, 458.

Uterus, inversion of the, 374.

Vagina, inflammation of the, 374.
Veins, inflammation of, after bleeding,

436.
Venous blood, action of air on,

277.
Ventilating shaft, 167; windows,

162.
Ventilation of stables, 166.
Vermifuges (see Anthelmintics).
Vermont Black , Hawk (Hill's), 606,

611.
Vermont cart-horse, the, 55.
Vertebrae, the, 253.
Vesicants (see Blisters).
Veterinary surgeon, what to do before

he comes, 469 et seq.
Vices, out-door, 243 ; stable, remedies

for, 202.
Viscera, abdominal, diseases of the,

350.
Vives, 352.

Walk, the, 78 ; mode of starting the

horse into a, 235.
Walkill Chief, 610.
AValking, rate of, 86.
Walls of stables, 173.
Warbles, 391.

War Eagle, conformation of, 624.
Warts, removal of. 396.
Washes, 460.

Water, 180; supply of stables, 165.
Water in the chest (Hydrothorax),

345.
AVater pipes for stables, 165.
Weaning the foal, 127, 634.
Weaving. 205.
Weight, distribution of, 76.

666

AVhalebone, 508, 509, COl.

Wheezing, 338.

AVhistling, 338.

Wild Dayrell (English thorough-bred),
75.

Wild Horse of America, Herbert's ac-
count of the, 46.

Wild Tartar horse, the, 43.

Wind, broken, 346 ; thick, .347.

Windows for stables, 162.

Wind-galls, 314; remedy for, 459.

Withers, fistula of the, 306.

Woodpecker, 609.

Work, preparation for, 206 ; treatment

of, after, 220.
Worm medicines, 449.
Worms, intestinal, 367.
Wounds, 472; of the joints, 324;

medicines to destroy proud-flesh in,

454.

Xenophon, his directions for purchas-
ing a horse, 14.

YorNC Bashaw, 518, 612.

Young Morri;i, 612; pedigree of, 641.