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LIBRARY

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THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

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NATURAL HISTORY

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Vol. IV, No. 1

JUNE, 1937

20 Cents

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EUOLUnON

A JOURNAL OF NATURE

NATURE'S UPSTART: HOMO SAPIENS — William K. Gregory

THE CONFUSION OF TONGUES — Oscar Riddle

AN EVOLUTIONARY TIME SCALE — A. M. Woodbury

MAMMOTHS AND MASTODONS — Allan Broms

A LESSON IN VARIATION — Ralph C. Benedict

EVOLUTION REMAINS DARWINIAN — Henshaw Ward

EARLY VIEWS ON FOSSILS — F. M. Carpenter

Where Nature Exposes the Secrets of Her Billion Year Past

(See page seven)

Courtesy United States Department of the Interior

Page Two

EVOLUTION

June, 1937

Scientific Advisory Board

Science Editor

Anton J. Carlson
Henry E. Crampton

EUOLUTION

Allan Broms
Contributing Editors

Wm. King Gregory

Edwin Tenney Brewster

Paul B, Mann

A Journal of Nature

Pauline H. Dederer

Oscar Riddle

Carroll Lane Fenton

For Popular Education in Natural Science

Lucy Orenstein

Managing Editor

To Develop the Open Mmd

Henshaw Ward

L. E. Katterfeld

Horace Elmer Wood, U.

THREE OF EVOLUTION'S most ardent supporters
whose names appeared on the editorial masthead, have
died since the last issue appeared: Dr. Martin Dewe\',
former President of the .American Dental .Association.
Maynard Shipley. President of the Science League of
.America, and Dr. Elihu Thomson, Research Ph\'sicist of
the General Electric Company. All three were valiant
champions of popular enlightenment. Let their memories
encourage us to carry through to ultimate triumphant
success the cause they served so well.

WE ARE PROUD TO ANNOUNCE that Dr. Oscar
Riddle of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Station
for Experimental Evolution, joins the Scientific .Advisory
Board of EVOLUTION. We think our readers will agree
that "The Confusion of Tongues" is a real classic in this
struggle for Science Freedom.

Miss Lucy Orenstein. a hiolog)' teacher in E\'ander
Childs High School. New York City, becomes one of our
contributing editors. She has an intense personal interest
in evolution, and knows how to convey this interest to
beginning students. Her first contribution to our columns
is this month's "Question Box."

WHAT'S IN A NAME?

SOME WELL .MEANING FRIENDS have advised
that it would be easier to make a commercial success of
this journal if we changed EVOLUTION to some 'less
offensive" name. If we were ever to make this change,
the logical time was with this first issue after suspension.

It is true that some who now refuse might subscribe
for EVOLUTION under some other name, and advertisers
might be induced to pay for space. But if we yielded to
this commercial pressure to change the name, the pressure
would become even greater to leave out the subject matter
too. to become merely another journal dealing with nature's
■"'beauties" and "marvels" and sidestepping all such "con-
troversial" subjects as evolution and its implications. The
problem would not be solved short of surrender.

No. there is already an ample parade of pussyfooting
in this land, without our joining the procession. We be-
lieve that there is real need for a popular journal that re-
fuses this compromise with error, that will not equivocate
b\- withholding facts or misusing words to hide their real
meaning. It is not our purpose to discover some camou-
flage that will enable us to exist while leaving superstition
to flourish, but to eliminate it from the human mind by
helping to spread the light of science.

We have full sympathy with the lone biolog\' teacher,
who has to manage the subject under the nose of some ig-
norant politician-principal and harrassed by a funda-
mentalist school board. But it would be an ill service to
this teacher if we acted as though evolution is something

sinister, something to be ashamed of, that must not be
mentioned. In the long run we shall serve even this
teacher best by coming out boldly with the fact of
evolution. If we stand up, others also will find courage to
make the stand. So we'll hold the banner high.

In a way, the ver\' suggestion to change the nam.e of
EVOLUTION proves the need for this journal. Some pro-
fessors, sheltered in cloistered college halls, may think that •
"every intelligent person accepts evolution" and popular
education isn't needed, but they are wrong. We hope to
carry on until the humblest teacher in the most backward
school district has complete freedom to convey to inquir-
ing )outh the full meaning of all that science learns re-
garding Man's place in Nature.

In this endeavor we invite not merelv the sufferance
but the active co-operation of every reader. — L.E.K.

A PERSONAL WORD

AS I'VE MET A .^LAJ0R1T\• of our 7,700 EVOLU-
TION subscribers face to face I'll address you personally.

First I wish to express appreciation for the courtesy
with which you received me, the confidence you showed in
me, a stranger who came to your door, and the patience
with which you have awaited the appearance of EVO-
LUTION. 1 hope _\ou will deem it worth while.

During the five years since the last issue of EVOLU-
TION appeared I have canvassed for it in practically
every city of over 100,000 in the United States and a great
many smaller communities, all the larger colleges and
universities, and hundreds of high schools in 43 States and
in Canada. In securing over four thousand subscribers
personally I probably talked about EVOLUTION with
over 20,000 persons, traveled 30,000 miles by bus and
train, walked at least 12,000 miles and rode an equal
distance by street buses and cars. And I am more con-
vinced that there is a need and a real field for EVOLU-
TION than I was before I started.

.Although I did not succeed in finding an "angel" for
this enterprise, 1 now feel that through this field-work a
sufficient foundation has been laid to justify resuming pub-
lication. Nearly a thousand new subscribers have prom-
ised to remit after receipt of the first number; several
hundred have told me that they would try to secure
additional subscribers; others pledged donations for the
Library and Sustaining Fund; manv teachers will offer
E\'0LUT10N for sale to students; over a hundred editors
have promised reviews of this issue in their journals; a
large number of eminent research scientists, writers and ^
teachers have promised material for articles; literally
thousands now understand what EVOLUTION hopes to
do. wish it well, and will further its work. — L.E.K.

EVOLUTION. June. 1937. Vol. IV, No. I. CWhole No. 20) Published monthly except July and August by EVOLUTION PUB-
LISHING CORPORATION, 7T Albemarle Ave., Hempstead. N. Y., Single Subscription .$2.00 a year; additional subscriptions
$1.00 each ; Single copy 20c ; bundles of 10 or more, 10c per copy.

June. 1937

EVOLUTION

Page Three

Nature's Upstart: Homo Sapiens

By WILLIAM KING GREGORY

Curator of Department of Comparative Anatomy. American Museum of Natural Historv
Professor of Vertebrate Paleontology. Columbia University

LEFTSIDE

IF Homo sapiens had not had an aggravated superiority
complex he would never have applied the adjective
sapiens to himself in the face of overwhelming evidence
that he deserves rather to be called Homo inflatus. The
daily course of the sun as well as the rising and setting of
the stars suggested that man's home the earth was the
center around which the rest of the universe turned. Hence
it was but a short step to the idea that man himself was cor-
respondingly important in the cosmic plan.

in the m>thology of the Greeks the gods were so in-
tensely interested in the affairs of men that they took
sides with the opposing heroes and heaven was more dis-
turbed by the disputes following the stealing of one woman
than it would normall>- have
been by the sacking of ten BASE

cities. Not e\'en Zeus himself
disdained the charms of the
daughters of men and from
such crossings of gods and men
sprang various lines of half
divine kings. .As to the ancient
Teutonic deities, one hesitates
to dwell upon their all too
human frailties; but to people
beyond the pale of the magic
swastika it is apparent that
though some of these good
old German gods and god-
desses were not exactl\- all
that they should be, thev
were regarded as ideal com-
panions for the spirits of
warrior heroes. The unregen-
erate Homo sapiens, especially
in the allegedl\' civilized

countries, has usually imagin- PREPRIMATE

ed his race to be the hero of (TRet-SHRtwi

the drama of creation.

TOP

MAN

Deflation of Homo Sapiens

For his soul's good, how-
e\er, I deem it my duty to
puncture the bubble of Homo
sapiens. For it is only after
we are all properlv deflated
and made to realize what mis-
erable sinners we are that we
can find the way of redemp-
tion from the follies of an-
thropocentrism.

At this period in the his-
tory of science it is assured-
ly unnecessary to review the
evidence tending to show that
the earth, far from being in
any scientific sense the center
of the universe, is not even
the center of the solar system.

From Science S3 :41 & 69
Jan. 17 & 24. 1936

<==-^

GENERALIZED REPTILE

{ SPHtNOOON )

TAILED AMPHIBIAN

(NtWT)

*> PRIMITIVE FISH V

(SHARK)

RISE OF THE HUMAN BRAIN

From fish (o man the forebrain iiicrea.ses in size and
comple.\it.v. In lower forms it functions chiefly with the
smelling nerves. In mummals the upper part of the fore-
hrain, dillerentiated as the neopallium or new brain, assumes
control and. fn-eatl.v infolded, largely conceals the older parts
of the liraiii.

The foiins figured here all live today. Although not
ancestral their brains represent a progressive series.

But in spite of the collapse of the geocentric system of as-
tronom}-, the anthropocentric view of cosmology has man-
aged to survive in many quarters. Vet in addressing
a scientific audience it is not necessary even to summarize
the evidence that man was not created specially and
apart from other living things but that he like them arose
b\- evolution from earlier and lower forms of animal life.

If this be granted as a general proposition, we are in
a position to outline a number of conclusions with regard
to the evolution of man, which, if accepted, tend on the
one hand to clarify his relations to the rest of nature and
on the other hand to explain, at least in some measure,
his general pattern of behavior.

Homo sapiens, like other
animals, is a sort of living
solar engine, which, unlike the
plants, is unable to appropriate
for himself the life-giving en-
ergy of the sun but must
take that energy, in the form
of food, from plants or
other animals or both. Hence.
b\' the primary law of his
nature, he tends to take what
he wants when he wants it
and, as we shall see later, it
is owing only to the beneficial
restraints of various social sys-
tems that man learns to re-
sist even in part these deep-
seated urges to pluck and
eat or to kill and eat. Since
neolithic times man has by co-
operative effort deliberately
multiplied his food supplies
by the raising of food plants
and by the breeding of ru-
minant animals. Before such a
cooperative stage was attain-
ed, the human animal had to
depend more directly upon
his individual equipment as
a vertebrate, as a mammal
and as an offshoot of the an-
thropoid division of the order
of Primates. Even now the
most advanced normal ex-
amples o f Homo sapiens
could hardl}' carry on the
daily business of life without
benefit of a long series of
"basic patents" which man
has inherited from earlier
\ertebrates, to some of which
we must refer e\en if very
briefly.

The earliest chorda tes were
alread)- adjusted to the force
of gra\itation b\' a dorso-

ANTHROPOID APE

(SORILLA)

PRIMITIVE ANTHROPOID
(eiSBON)

LOWLV MAMMAL

(OPOSSUM!

Page Four

EVOLUTION

June, 1937

ventral asymmetry, the neural tube being abo\e the noto-
chord and gut. Like modern tlsh they were also adjusted
lor forward progression through the water by means of a
bilaterallv s\mmetrical arrangement of the muscle-segments
on either side of the midline.

Among other fundamental adjustments of the basal
\ertebrate type which are retained by man is the back-
bone itself; this is a jointed axis in which the individual
\ertebrae comprise checker-like centra formed around the
notochord and arches spanning the nerve chord. The func-
tions of the column were complex but may be summariz-
ed as follows; first, each segment served as a fulcrum or
pivot upon which those in front of and behind it turned;
secondly, the arches and processes served as levers for
turning the body in the directions of the tendons of the
axial muscles. The vertebrae also served as pivots for the
ribs, to which were attached the muscle segments of the
llanks and back.

Progression through the water in the earlier vertebrate
forms was and is today largely by means of lateral undu-
lations of the body as a whole, the fins being at first merely
keel-like outgrowths of the body wall. The legs of quad-
rupeds were merely fieshy outgrowths of the lateral
muscles, supported internally by bones secreted in the
spaces between the muscle masses. There is strong e\i-
dence for the view that the hands and feet of the four-
footed or tetrapod vertebrates were formed by modifica-
tion of the stout pectoral and pelvic paddles of the lobe-
finned fishes. In any case, by the time of the Coal
.Measures the five-rayed appendage had already appeared.
Thus the foundations of the decimal system may be said
to have been provided by the first amphibians of the Car-
boniferous .Age, some 250,000,000 years ago.

The limbs are bent levers and act like springs and
throwing sticks. .At first the limbs were short and sharpl\-
crooked outward at the elbows and knees, but by the time
of the more advanced mammal-like reptiles the body was
raised well off the ground and the trackv\'ay began to
narrow. Very early in the Tertiary period, when mam-
mals became dominant land forms, the ancestors of the
Primates are shown by fossils to have been tree-climbing
forms with grasping hands and feet. This was the be-
ginning of our prehensile hands, but did we also at one
time have prehensile feet? Space is lacking here to discuss
this question but it may be said that the convergence of
evidence from paleontology, comparative anatomy and
embryology afl^ords strong support for the view that the
peculiar foot of man has been derived from a primitive
anthropoid type with a di\ergent big toe. This change
took place chiefl\' by the drawing of the big toe towards
the others and by the marked lessening in length of the
second to the fifth digits inclusive. In brief, there is very
convincing evidence that the early Primates ancestral to
man were forestliving arboreal animals, and that the im-
mediate ancestors of man, probably through the disap-
pearance of the forest in certain areas in central .Asia, had
to accustom themselves at first to life on the ground in a
more open countr\'. It is difficult to escape the conclusion
that man owes the general ground-plan of his foot to his
long-extinct anthropoid ancestors but that he owes to his
more immediate prehuman ancestors those special modi-
fications of his feet which fit them for his upright posture.

With the assumption of the upright gait new- stresses
were put upon the backbone, which responded b\' greatly
widening the sacral vertebrae, by forming the so-called
lumbar cur\e and by remodelling the hip bone so as to in-

crease the width of the area for the gluteal and iliacus
muscles and at the same time to bring the center of gravity
of the thorax more directly above the transverse line
connecting the sockets of the opposite femora.

The resultant freeing of the forelimbs from strictly
locomotive duties has often been noted, but what is not
generally realized is the fact that this great advance in
their use as hands is already in full swing among the
anthropoid apes, in which it is likewise associated with the
ability to examine things closelv with both eyes at once.

If space permitted, we might profitably review these
matters in much greater detail and we might also follow
the e\olution of the jaws from their origin as « pair of
enlarged gill-bars in the earliest true fishes to their sub-
sequent modification through the varied use of the sheath-
ing bones surrounding the primary or inner jaws, .And
from this point, which is fully represented in the air-breath-
ing, lobe-finned fishes, in the ancestral amphibians and
early reptiles, we could trace the profound transformation .
of the jaws and teeth during the period of the e\olution
of the mammal-like reptiles and the emergence of the
lower mammals, and finally of man. But as I have des-
cribed these things in many previous communications to
scientific societies, I merely refer to them here in passing,
as I desire to touch upon some of the social results of all
these changes during the long road of ascent from fish
to man.

The Penalty of Being Homo Sapiens

\\ hen the ancestors of man left the forests and were
changed into primiti\e men their brains rapidly grew much
larger than those of their more backward relatives, the
known anthropoid apes. But increased brain power was
h}' no means an unmixed blessing, for though on the one
hand it was indeed necessary for permanent advance in
the mental world, its possession subjected the owners to a
multitude of evils undreamed of in the relatively peaceful
and unintelligent world of the anthropoid apes.

We do not have to commit ourselves in advance to
an)- particular theory of the relations between mind and
matter, but since we must admit from the evidence as-
sembled by comparative neurologists that there has been
a progressive evolution of the nervous system, we must
further assume that psychic side of nervous activity has
likewise become more complex. The evidence at hand in-
dicates that in the relativelv simple ner\-ous system of
the shark the responses to sensory stimuli occur with a
minimum of complexities and delays, whereas in the highly
complex brain of the higher mammals the neopallium or
new brain forms a most elaborate detour which is im-
posed on top of and between the more direct pathways of
the primitive vertebrate brain. Such is the speed of nerve
currents, however, that the slight delay in response is far
overshadowed in importance by the superior initial ad-
vantages of the new method. For no matter what may be
the physical basis of memory, it is at least certain that
mammals have a peculiarly good memory for whatever
classes of events happen to be of interest to them.

Thus each new stimulus, giving rise to a specific desire
for action of some sort, is confronted with the memories ^
(pf what happened the last time when a similar impulse was
not restrained. The animal soon remembers the best
way to respond so as to attain his immediate objective.
Thus w-e have the basis of learning, that is. of progressive-
ly improved adjustments to familiar situations.

(Continued on Page 6)

June. 1937

EVOLUTION

Page Five

The Confusion Of Tongues

By OSCAR RIDDLE
Carnegie Imtttution of li'ashingtou. Station for Experimental Evolution, Co! J Spring Harbor.

JpvL RING the past fifteen >ears several states ha\e passed
*— ' laws which prohibit the teaching of evolution in their
public schools. This prohibition, and a strong sentiment
of similar nature elsewhere, implies several most serious
things. We know the importance of the textbook, and we
may first note that this sentiment has written itself into
some text-books vxidelv used in both high school and col-
lege. These books put not emphasis
but a wet blanket on one or all as-
pects of the evolution principle; and
they often succeed in leaving only a
pale ghost of our science in the stu-
dent's hands. I submit as evidence
some excerpts from an elementar\' text-
book published in 1934 and alread\' in-
troduced into more than 131 normal
schools and colleges in at least thirtv-
seven of our states and territories. A
chapter of this book is entitled: "The
process of evolution cannot yet be
satisfactorily explained." The final
section of this chapter is dedicated
solely to the proposition that what it
calls "the doctrine of evolution is quite
compatible with a religious faith." Of
course to the untrained pupil this can
only mean that it is quite compatible
with whatever view of religion, or of
the supernatural, he or she happens to
have at the moment. I quote from
four paragraphs the following illum-
inating lines:

"The reader should remember that e\en Darwin him-
self did not believe acceptance of the evolutionary idea to
be incompatible with a religious faith . . . Why should the
full blown rose, the birds in the trees, the beasts in the field
and the stately oaks standing in the forest not be considered
as much a part of God's world as the subjects of which the
Bible treats?" There follow four lines from the Psalmist,
and then this: "If this conception of the universe were kept
in mind it would obviate much strife and confusion. The
scientist can make no distinction between the natural and
the so-called supernatural. What man can study, ex-
perience, and learn about through his senses is the natural:
the supernatural is that part of the universe which he has
not yet been able to understand (sic) or for which his
powers of comprehension are too limited. There is no
difference between the two. The difference comes only in
man himself. ... So, then, since evolution neither denies
the existence of God nor disclaims His directive influence
over natural processes, it cannot be said," etc., etc. Then,
"Finally, it must be remembered that the theory of evo-
lution does not attempt to say when, why, or by whom
life was first produced upon the earth. The honest scientist
when pressed for an answer will say that he does not know."

Why any text-book whose purpose is to outline and

guide in the study of Fife-science should contain a single

word on the subject discussed at such length in this book is

beyond comprehension. Your zoologist who loves, teaches

From The Teaching Biologist. V : 2, Nov. 1935

Dr. OSCAR RIDDLE

and builds his science vet)' well knows that his task is to
facilitate an advantageous encounter between the student
and the useful and vitall>- significant phenomena and prin-
ciples of biology. As a true scientist he will not rob his
teaching of that special and incomparable discipline which
onlv the sciences can give — his student will have to wrestle
\\ ith the facts and principles he finds. If, and when, aston-
ishment at the inclusion of such mater-
ial in a text-book is sufticientlv over-
come, the biologist who knows that his
science to-day is not where Darwin left
it will swear that he had not believed
it possible — outside of theological dis-
cussions— to find words for a few ex-
traneous paragraphs that would so
defraud our science.

If one could subtract the emas-
culated biology taught from such texts
in 1937 from the total for 1933, how
would the amount of zoology taught
now compare with that in 1903? Some
of the zoological text-books of thirty
years ago ma}- have been drv; but
they were not rotten.

Our effort is to learn wh)- biologi-
cal science has not obtained and
maintained its proper place in our
schools, and whv great biologic truth
is so little possessed by our people.
We have yet to search the motivation
of those several instances of state laws
which prohibit the teaching of evolu-
tion. It was traditional religion that thus invoked the heavy
hand of legislation. Efsewhere, without invoking the law
but with its extended and varied influence, traditional re-
ligion is now effecting a wide-spread repression of the teach-
ing of this central principle of biologv in our public schools.
It sometimes forces the resignation of able zoologists even
from college positions; and in high schools and late
primarv grades there are probably to-day few places
where straightforward teaching of the unmitigated evolu-
tion principle can be done except at the peril of the teacher.
.An eviscerated straw-man is set up in place of the reality
for the younger students of denominational and parochial
schools everywhere. Man\- millions of our present and
future citizens are robbed of a biological outlook, or they
get one that is warped and unrecognizable, through direct
responsibility of the church.

Biologists in nearly all countries, and particularly in
our own. have tried a compromise with religious creeds.
That compromise has failed. Most youth of 1935, like
those of 1839. leave our schools without having opportunity
to learn that the worthy facts concerning man's origin and
destinv come not from religious traditions but from bio-
logical investigations made within the time of men now
living. That compromise now robs most modern youth of
opportunity to learn what is known concerning his or
her place in nature. In what is said here [ am not
concerned with the question whether religion is important;
nor whether one or another of the creeds of the earth has

Page Six

EVOLUTION

June, 1937

or has not sutficientl\ "adjusted" its teachings to modern
knowledge: nor whether one or another of them is good,
bad or quite indifferent. But whatever the answer to those
questions the present restrictive influence of organized re-
ligion on the teaching of the best of biology is intolerable.
For moribund traditional beliefs to continue to exercise
such influence over the educational program of a country
is a confession and declaration either of the apathy, the
cowardice, the impotence or the intellectual bankruptcy
of enlightened leadership in that country.

it is here that we meet "the confusion of tongues. '
A hundred \'ears of a germ of truth, or seventy-six years
since its bloom in publication, has catalyzed a very wide-
ranging body of facts relating worthily to the nature,
origin and destiny of man. However, b}' man\ this
prime accomplishment of our science is either rejected
outright, or its essentials are first thoroughly eviscerated
and the husks then accorded an obscure corner in the attics
of tradition. The tongues of the traditionalists are heard
not merely from pulpits, but they echo also withm our
schools — the onl\' possible home of science — and there they
now curb or tie the tongues of biologic truth.

This confusion is partly sustained by the words of
great authorities in one or another branch of learning.
Today, as at Oxford in 1860, a professor can easily be
had to support a bishop against a really good and far-
reaching biological advance, where this impinges on tra-
ditional beliefs. The public can not fix relative values to
the words of different scientific men. But the biologist
knows that when physicists and astronomers speak about
life, they speak as laymen — and frequently their words are
unconsciously filled with tradition, which they also ac-
quired as laymen. In addition to these volunteer voices
from quite outside life-science, we are all aware that some
high authorities in biological science persistently ignore
the greater biologic accomplishment, and on some points
they too still speak with tongues of a day that is gone. We

ma_\- as well have it out with them.

In conclusion, no one need espouse intellectual sterility
because many and important mysteries still attach to the
living world. The task of serious biological analysis — the '
thrust of obser\ation and experiment against assumption
and tradition — was begun only yesterday; and, very un-
fortunately and quite inexcusably, it is not until an un-
seen to-morrow that even 1 per cent of mankind will
become conscious of as much as 10 per cent, of the quite
important m\steries which a sharp attack has already
swept away. The issue to-day is on the question whether
our educational facilities and practice will permit eager
youth to examine the results of man's scientific efforts to
learn man's own nature and man's place in nature; whether
ignorance of manv- fundamental and now satisfactorily ap-
praised biological phenomena shall continue to foster diver-
gent and irreconcilable thought among great biological
human populations which must live together; whether the
case and the course of ci\ilization is to be guided by know-
ledge or b\- the dead hands of the past; whether the bio-
logical investigator of either yesterday or today may be
permitted to give his best results to the world or whether
he is to be more and more insulated by his own progress;
whether, indeed, present man-in-the-mass has evolved sufTic-
ientl}' to prefer light to twilight, truth to tradition. Certain-
ly until this issue has been definitely decided every zoologist
will feel sure that mankind is worthy of much more than his
\'ery best efforts; he, along with all other enlightened
men, must find, recognize and overcome those forces which
now obstruct the release of his best prizes to present gen-
erations of man.

Excerpt, vice presidential address, Section Zoological Sciences,
A.A.A.S.. St. Louis. Jan. 1. 26. Printed in Science. 83 : 41 &
69. Jan. 17 & 24, 103G.

CORRECTION
The credit lines on pages S and 5 got mixed. Dr. Gregory's
arliole is from The Teaching Biologist. Dr. Riddle's from Science.
.Vly own fault. L.E.K.

NATURE'S IPSTART: HOMO SAPIENS

Continued from Page 4

Up to the time that the ancestors of man began to
become human, the newer type of response may have been
almost as uniformly beneficial and successful as it seems
to be in other mammals. But at this point the devil ap-
pears in the story to wreak havoc on the happiness of
simple humans. This devil is nothing more nor less than
the habit of unintelligent and uncritical yielding to sug-
gestion, that is, to arbitrary association of ideas. The
"conditional response" of Pavlow on a lower plane fore-
shadows the \ast brood of taboos, phobias, blessings and
curses and all the practices of magic and superstition on
the plane of social relations. For exam.ple, among man}'
primitive peoples, sickness is not the result of some purely
physical or physiological disturbance but is sent by the
gods as a penalty for the violation of taboos, perhaps by
another member of the family. The way to cure the sick-
ness, therefore, is to pay a witch-doctor to find the culprit
whose sin has brought the sickness and punish the culprit.

The invention of speech, in which a given sound or a
series of sounds is arbitrarily associated with a certain idea,
led to verbalized thinking and enormously facilitated the
establishment of habits of reaction based on fictitious
taboos and rewards. .As a result of this situation the pro-
gress of humanity in discovering the causes of disease and
curing it was delayed for ages and is still delayed among
the less intelligent of all lands.

.■\nother factor which has contributed greatly to the
bedevilment of Homo sapiens is his almost incurable
pride and egocentrism joined to a pathetic gullibility.
Egocentrism and selfishness are natural in the descend-
ant of a long line of vertebrates which are designed by
nature to pluck or kill and eat without any regard to
propert}' rights. The gullibility follows from the easily
imposed habit of acting in masses under the suggestion
of leaders. .Also the tendency to believe the oft-repeated
printed word.

In short it seems that a large part of the agony of
mankind could have been spared if man had been at the
same time less egocentric and less credulous.
The Emancipation of Homo Sapiens

In spite of man's tragic subservience to mass manipula-
tion, one must admit that during historic times there has
been definite improvement in some individuals and in some
communities and even in a few states. The main hope
for Homo sapiens seems to lie in the principle enunciated
by Lincoln, namely, "thst you can fool some of the people
ail the time and all of the people some of the time but p
\'ou can not fool all the people all the time". It is the
tough-minded residue, as well as those who can learn .by
experience, who slowly sift the wheat from the chaff, hold
fast to that which is good and press forward steadily to
a more rational world; there justice and gentleness shall
ameliorate the hard fact that Homo sapiens is the descend-
ant of a long line of aggressive vertebrates.

June. 1937

EVOLUTION

Page Seven

An Evolutionary Time Scale

By A. M. WOODBURV

Professor of Biology. University of Utah

THE ordinarv visitor to Zion and Brvce Canyons of
southern Ltah and to the Grand Canyon of Arizona
little realizes the wealth of scientific information to be found
in the geological historv of the region and its significance in
the interpretation of evolution. The time scale in evolu-
tion depends for its interpretation largely upon the relative
positions of the different rock layers of the earth. Here,
the sedimentary rock layers, spread out in horizontal
fashion one above the other, produce a total depth of
about three miles. These layers have been relatively but
little disturbed so that they clearly show their relationships
to one another.

The edges of these rock layers are so exposed to view
that they can be traced readily. The bottom-most mile
of these rock layers is exposed in the Grand Canyon
(Evolution Vol. 3, No. 4. p. 10, May, 1932). The second
mile of such layers may be found exposed between the
brink of the Grand Canyon and the top of Zion Canyon.
The third mile extends up the face of the higher plateaus
to the top of Bryce Canyon (See Chart).

The extremely old rocks exposed in the bottom of
the Grand Canyon are the foundation upon which the
horizontal stratified sedimentary layers rest. It is obvious
that the lower rocks must have been in position before the
succeeding lasers could have been deposited on top. These
sedimentar>- layers deposited through the action of wind
or water thus show a successive series in time, the older
layers below and the younger ones above. This does not
imply it to be a continuous series. A layer once deposited,
may have been exposed to erosion and part of it worn
away before the next layer covered it. Such lapses of
time are referred to as unconformities and there are at
least ten major and many minor ones in these three miles
of rocks. Some of them represent lapses of time long

enough for whole mountain ranges to be worn down and
planed off bv erosion.

The Permian rocks (Kaibab limestone) at the top of
the Grand Canyon are covered by the Triassic rocks 3500
feet thick in the region below Zion Canyon. These are
covered b\ the Jurassic rocks 3050 feet thick in the Zion

Courtesy United States Department of the Interior
BBYCE CANYON
Compare with Zion Canyon, pictured on our front page

Region. These rocks are in turn buried by those of the
Upper Cretaceous, 2000 to 3000 feet thick, which reach up
to the bottom of Bryce Canyon. The topmost layer,
which is of Eocene age and buries all the others, is a
non-marine water-deposited limestone about 1300 feet
thick known as the Pink Cliffs. This is the layer in which
the indescribably esthetic carvings of
Bryce Canyon are cut.

The fossils of algae, primitive as
well as higher invertebrates, fishes and
the fossil footprints of amphibians
found in the Grand Canyon are older
and more primitive than fossils found
higher up in the series. Fossil remains
or footprints are found in the layers
of the late Triassic or Jurassic rocks.
The writer has taken fossil petrified
trees from the earl\' Triassic. ganoid
fishes from the later Triassic and has
seen many reptile tracks in rocks of
the same age. Near Kanab in southern
Utah, on top of a projecting ledge
where the softer shale from above had
worn away, a series of dinosaur tracks
were exposed to view. They were as
plain and unmistakable as the cow's

DI.\GR.\MM.\TIC PROFILE

Columnar Section sliowing stratigraphic

rela(ion.s of IJryce, Zion and

Grand Canyons

Page Eight

EVOLUTION

June, 1937

footprints which the cowboys follow on the range today.
The dinosaurs of a half-billion years ago left their tracks
on the muddy bottom lands. The next flood covered them
with mud and thus preserved them in the rocks through
the long intervening ages. .\X one point, the tracks of three
different animals were found crossing each other- — we called
it "Dinosaur Junction."

Other fossils have been found in the higher layers, but
the record in that region stops at the Eocene in the be-
ginning of Cenozoic ( late life) time. Since the Pink Cliff
limestone was laid down, the entire region has been up-
lifted from near sea-le\el to its present elevation. During
the period of uplift, streams of water have been at work
wearing away this sedimentary material, cutting washes,
gorges and canyons, and leaving the edges of the layers
exposed to view. The Colorado River has cut deepest,
having reached the bottom of this three-miles of sediment-
ary material. Even though there is only a mile or more
of the material left at the Grand Canyon to show, it is
believed that a good deal of the upper material once ex-
tended over it and was stripped away before the canyon
as we know it now was carved.

Zion Canyon, cut b\' the Virgin River, a tributary of
the Colorado, is three-fourths of a mile deep at its mouth.
But this is only a small part of the stream's work.

for it is practically certain that much of the upper mile
of rock layers formerly extended over Zion Canyon and
was removed b}' the processes of erosion before the present
can\on came into being. Bryce Can\on has been cut
about 1,300 feet deep through the topmost la\er by means
of temporary streams produced by storms without the
aid of a permanent stream of water.

The time scale revealed by the region, although not
complete, indicates a tremendous period for the history of
the earth. There are three phases which must be taken
into consideration: 1st, time enough for the accumulation
of sediments to a depth of three miles (15,000 to 16,000
feetj by the natural processes of sedimentation, involving
all of the principal types of deposit, limestone, shale, sand-
stone, and conglomerate; 2nd, the lost periods of time
that elapsed during the unconformities: and 3rd, time
enough to car\e the present can\ons and wear down
through the three mile series.

When viewed in the light of recent calculations of
earth age by the use of radium, there is little doubt that
the histor\' of this southern Utah -northern .Arizona region
must be read in terms of hundreds of millions, perhaps
billions, of \ears — time enough for the development of
the evolutionarj- changes in living things that biologists
recognize to ha\e occurred.

Mammoihs and Mastodons

Br .ALLAN BROMS

■pVERYONE knows that mammoths and mastodons are
•■-' some sorts of elephants, now extinct, and probably thinks
them of enormous size, much bigger than living elephants,
though this is not true. The name "mammoth" is assumed
to have been given because the animal was of mammoth
size, but the truth is just the other way round, we call
things mammoth after this animal. Actually, the name
comes from the Tartar word "mamantu" meaning ground-
dweller, for the Siberian peasants found bones and even
flesh, but no living animals, and so concluded that these
must be giant moles who dug their way underground with
their ivory tusks, but promptly died when the>- accident-
ally saw the sunlight. So this name was modified and
adopted for scientific use. The name "mastodon" means
"nipple-toothed", describing its distinctive teeth. .Mam-
moths and mastodons are very different, the mammoth be-
ing a true elephant, with elephant teeth, while the masto-
don is just a cousin. 'Sou can always tell them apart b_\-
looking in their mouths. .A mastodon tooth looks like a
mountain range of serrated peaks, while a mammoth
tooth has a flattened surface crossed by narrow ridges of
hard enamel which stand out from the softer cement and
dentine which wear away faster in use, the surface being
thus kept rough for grinding. Besides, a mastodon tooth
has several roots, a mammoth tooth but one.

Also, had you seen them in the flesh, you could easily
have told them apart. The mammoth was short, tall at
the shoulders, low at the hips, his back sloping sharply
rearwards. Besides he was narrow when you got a front
view. The mastodon was of longer build, not tall either
fore or aft, but very wide and broad-backed.

We know just how they looked because we have
fine fossil records of them, not only bones, but flesh and
hide and hair, and let's not forget, pictures drawn by

primitive man who hunted and was hunted by them. But
there are no live mammoths or mastodons, nor have there
been for thousands of years. A hundred years ago, it
was quite reasonable for President Jefferson, himself a
scientist, to look for the finding of live mastodons in the
then unexplored Northwest, for the fossil bones looked
\ery fresh, but now- that we have explored and not found
them, the question is settled, there are no living mam-
moths or mastodons. But we must discuss them separate-
ly, for the mastodon lived last in North .America, while
the mammoth lived in .Asia and Europe too.

The first mastodon bones were found near Albany,
N. Y. in 1705. .A few years later Cotton Mather wrote
that they were the bones of a giant, quoting that "there
were giants on the earth in those days". In Europe too,
the first remains of mammoths and mastodons were hailed
as of giants and of saints, a more reasonable theory being
that they were Hannibal's elephants used in invading
Rome. The next mastodon finds also came from New
lork, for in both 1799 and 1802, C. W. Peale found fairly
complete skeletons. Soon they came thick and fast, from
other states as well, one deposit just south of St. Louis
yielding hundreds of individuals. Then in 1845, just fifty
miles north of New '\'ork City, six miles west of Newburgh,
the practically complete Warren skeleton was found with
the bones in place just as the mastodon had mired itself
in a swamp. It was carefully removed, the parts wired
together and then exhibited, first as a travelling show, then ^^
in a small Boston museum and now finally, after correct
remounting, at the .American Museum of Natural History.
.Miring in swamps and quick sands seems to have been a
common death for mastodons. At least that is how most
of them are preserved to us.

The mammoth li\ed here too, but the best fossils are

June, 1937

EVOLUTION

Page Nine

MRELtPHAS JEFFERSONII ARCHIDI5K0DON IMPERSTOR

MAMMONTEUS PRIMIQENIU5

ELEPHA5 INOICUS

LOXODONTA AFRICANA

MASTODON AMERICANU5

from Siberia and Alaska, for there the\- are found frozen
into ice tiiat has not melted for thousands of \-ears. In
these natural refrigerators they have been kept quite in-
tact, so fresh that dogs eat their flesh. We know that they
had a heavy covering of hair and wool fitting them to
survive through the long, intense cold of the ice Age.
So we call this species the W'ooly Mammoth to distinguish
it from others of even larger size that roamed farther
south here in North .America, namely the jeffersonian
Mammoth and the Imperial Elephant, giant of them all.
The mastodon also had a hairy covering, for a golden
brown sample has been found. The Wooly Mammoth
however stuck closer to the cold edge of the melting ice
sheet and northern Siberia is today full of fossil ivory, so
full that regular prices are quoted on it in the markets
of the world. One of the refrigerated carcasses was found
in 1799 in the ice along the Lena River and what remains
after the dogs got done with it, is mounted in the museum
at Leningrad. .Another, found in 1900 at Beresovka,
Siberia, was largel)- saved. It had fallen into a deep pit
or crevasse, probablv during a blinding blizzard, had
broken several bones, and being too crippled to struggle
out. had died in the position of climbing. Even the con-
tents of the stomach were preserved, showing that it lived
on grasses and birch leaves.

There are manv guesses \x h\ the mammoth and
mastodon, despite their numbers, became extinct. Their
intelligence and strength should have saved them. One
recent guess (you can guess the source) held that thev
were too big to get into Noah's .Ark and so were drowned.
.Another is that since elephant skins lack oil glands, moist-
ure could freeze in the hair of the Woolv Mammoth and
Mastodon, killing them off. But thev survived through the
Ice .-Xge and died when the weather became warm. .Also,
their southern relatives, the Jeffersonian Mammoth and
the Imperial Elephant, died out. Maybe some contagious
disease wiped out the tribe, we do not really know.

But though we do not know wh_y they disappeared,
we do know something about how they began, for fossil
remains have been found oi their ancestors, mostlv in Asia

and Africa. They started in Egypt with the little Moe-
ritherium about two feet tall who lived some tens of
millions of years ago in the Eocene Epoch along the River
Nile, spending much of his time in it. He had quite an
ordinar}- mouth, without trunk, but w-ith two upper and
two lower tusks or long canine teeth. The nearest living
relative is the Sea Cow or Manatee. From the very
ordinary Moeritherium evolved many strange mastodons
and elephants. .All had the rooting habit, like our pigs who
also develop tusks in their wild state. ,At first both the
lower and upper jaws and tusks grew longer. Then there
had to be some wav of reaching bevond them for getting
food back to where the mouth was. So the nose and
upper lip extended into a long flexible tube with a sen-
sitive and very deft tip to feel and handle things with.
Slowly through the millions of years this evolution went
on. the tusks and jaws and trunk getting longer. In several
the lower tusks become spoon-shaped or spade-shaped for
digging and scooping. Walter Granger recently showed
me one such spade from Mongolia fully a foot wide. A
spoon from Nebraska was four feet long. But other species
began to lose their long lower jaws and tusks, among them
Stegodon. whose teeth are a compromise between those of
mammoths and mastodons. Occasionally old mastodon
hulls hark hack to such four-tusked ancestors by showing
tusk remnants in their lower jaws.

With long, heavy upper tusks and trunk, the recent
elephants had to have strong, short necks, so the skull
changed in shape and bracing to give better leverage. To
uphold the ponderous beast itself, the legs became mas-
sive pillars, set straight up and down for soliditv, sup-
ported by compact, tough, padded feet. For centuries the
ancients debated whether an elephant had leg joints, he
stood so sturdil>- stiflf-legged. With powerful limbs, an
overwhelming might, and an ever urging wanderlust, which
mav be just the curiosity of intelligence, he traveled the
world over, invaded new conditions, which made him over
to fit them b\- natural selection, and then generation by
generation died to leave the fossil record b\^ which we now
decipher his storv'.

PRESSURE FROM THE PULPIT
RecentI}' a quotation from Hendrik Willem Van-
Loon's "Story of .Mankind," written on a blackboard in
Beech Grove school, Indianapolis, sent Rev. \'erdi .Allen,
Baptist preacher, on a rampage with the war cry: "Our
people don't want pupils taught the Darwinian theory but
the Genesis record."

Principal Mann is reported to have side-stepped him
neatly with "Mere citing of the opinion of others does
not imply belief in them". While State Superintendent
.Murray pussyfooted as follows: "The theory of evolution
should not be advocated, and frankly I doubt if it is ad-
vocated in any school in Indiana." No comment needed.

Help us to offset this pressure from the pulpit bv send-
ing EN'OLUTION to every public and school library in

Indiana that will accept it. Five hundred dollars will do
it. Send a check to help Enlighten Indiana.

SYMPOSIUM ON EARLY MAN
-AN INTERN.ATIONAL SYMPOSIUM on Early Man
was held .March 1 7th to 20th under the auspices of the
Philadelphia .Academy of Science. Manv world-renowned
anthropologists, archeologists, geologists and anatomists
contributed to a summation of present knowledge regard-
ing ancient man. We hope to present some of this inter-
esting material to our readers in an earl>- issue.

Of course, in such a gathering of scientists the fact
of evolution is taken for granted, and the fundamentalist
viewpoint of special creation is no longer considered, or
even mentioned. Does this mean anything to our funda-
mentalist friends and the school boards that thev control?

Page Ten

EVOLUTION

Jur

1937

A Lesson In Variation

By RALPH C. BENEDICT

Professor of Botany, Brooklyn College

THIS article outlines a possible laboratory lesson through
which the most fundamental factor of evolution
may be presented objectively. It has been used a number
of years in fourth year high school biology. The facts
of morphological resemblances among related forms, geo-
graphic distribution, geologic succession of types, embryo-
logical and ontogenetic development, plant breeding, etc.,
are valuable and important as circumstantial evidence,
hut an understanding of the basic problem of evolution
must be sought in a study of variation as a process.

If occasional 1\' in reproduction parents produce off-
spring which differ from the parent type, and not merely
by the re-shuffling of characteristics already possessed by
collateral forms, we are brought face to face with the
elemental fact upon which any real understanding of evo-
lution must be based.

Variation is one of the numerous words which have
a number of different meanings. The word is not used
here in the common interpretation as referring to the
range of differences between the individuals of a larger
species population. The meaning can be sharply delimit-
ed to the desired application by the question: Will evolu-
tion take place if offspring always repeat the exact char-
acteristics of their parents? Why must variation occur
as a process in reproduction if new forms are to evolve?

Is there any evidence of such variation? The Boston
fern series furnish excellent material for class study. They
are relatively' common, and easy to obtain. The range

of variation between the different varieties is wide, the
differences well marked, and the material is large enough
so that the difference can be seen easily. The method of
reproduction is entirely vegetative, thus eliminating the
possibility of complication through hybridization.

The mode b\ which variation must have taken place
in these fern types can be pointed out easily, and is illus-
trated in figure 1. This shows a parent plant of the wild
sword fern from which the Boston fern was derived, in
association with three offspring which have arisen along
a lateral stolon. Such stolons are common in Boston fern
varieties, and the methods of vegetative propagation along
stolons can usually be demonstrated by digging up a little
surface dirt around a well-established pot plant.

While in general the offspring are practically identi-
cal with their parent, a number of times, in the florists'

Courtesy Brooklyn Botanic Garden.
FIGURE 1. Vegetable reproduction of Wild Sword Fern.
The three bud plants are all like the parent. In variation
one or more would be different.

FIGIIRK 2. Leaf of Boston Fern (left) with leaves of
the seven primary sports. In each case, the original mutation
took place in vegetative reproduction (see Fig. 1)

cultivation of millions of Boston fern plants, an occasional
bud plant has arisen which, while still in physical connec-
tion with its parent plant, has shown distinct differences
from the parent. Figure 2 shows the leaves of a typical
Boston fern together with seven such departures or varia-
tions. Beginning with the first plant, each of these varia-
tions reproduced only its own type, maintaining the differ-
ence from the parent Boston fern, and thus representing
that kind of variation which is inherited, or mutation.

This does not establish what the process of variation
is; it merely makes obvious the fact of its occurrence, and
it is evident also, that whatever happened must have taken
place somewhere along the stolon or reproductive branch
from which the different buds arose.

The third figure, showing representative pinnae of the
same leaves shown in figure 2, makes clearer just what
types of differences have resulted from the variation pro-
cess in the Boston fern. These differences parallel to some
extent the characteristics vk'hich distinguish recognized fern

June, 1937

EVOLUTION

Page Eleven

species. When, in addition, consideration is given to the
extreme modifications developed through secondary and
further variation in this same group of ferns, resulting -n
scores and scores of well distinguished varieties, a new
understanding should attach to the meaning of \ariation
as a process and its underlxing significance in evolution.

FIGURE 3. Piniiae of Boston Fern and seven primary
mutations, arranged as in Figure 2.

Dozens of new forms ha\e appeared in the Brooklyn
Botanic Garden during the years of experimental culture.
Four kinds of variation are represented among these prim-
ary sports of the Boston fern ( I ) increase in division, from
once to twice pinnate; (2) dwarfing: (^) increase in ruf-
llmg; and (4) cresting.

The second and third leaves represent increased leaf
division. The third leaf is from the ".\nna Foster" variety,
the earliest of all the Boston fern sports. The "Pierson"
fern is shown in the second leaf and pinnae. From this
form alone, scores of secondary, tertiar\' and higher degree
sports have developed, resulting in various degrees of leaf
division — up to five pinnate, — and other modifications.

The fourth and fifth leaves and pinnae represent
dwarf types, "Scott's" fern (of Brooklyn origin) and the
Giatras fern. In addition to their smaller size, each
offers other differences in outline, marginal characters, and
configuration of the pinnae, and in the habit of growth.

The sixth and seventh leaves and pinnae present in-
tensification of the ruffling or waving of the pinnae, horti-
culturally known as crisping. The larger leaf (6) is called
the 'Harris" fern; the other the "Roosevelt". Lastly, there
is a crested or "fishtail" type of variation, which occurs
not infrequentl\ in wild native species. In the Boston fern
series this variety first appeared in Louisiana, and takes
its name from the town of its origin, "Gretna ".

That evolution must have occurred by means of in-
herited \ariations will he accepted as axiomatic. The
student who has examined material of the kinds present-
ed here will form a clearer conception of what is meant
by variation, and a better understanding of the relation
of this process to evolution.

From Torreya 30 : 145-152. Brooklyn Botanic Garden

Evoluiion Remains Darwinian

Rv HENSHAW WARD

A recent editorial in the New Vork
Times entitled Darwin Fifty
"> ears After," contained these two sen-
tences; "Research conducted within the
last decade has shown that almost im-
perceptible mutations are the ones that
count in evolution, and that by selection
their direction and preservation are de-
termined. So we come back to Darwin's
own Darwinism." The Times is not an
authority on biology, but it indicates the
Trend of recent conservative thought, lis
editorial is proof that the greatest hind-
rance to popular acceptance of Darwinism is disappearing.

That hindrance was the doubt which some biologists
felt about Natural Selection. The doubters (mostly stu-
dents of genetics) were wont to express themselves thus;
"Though we have no doubt of evolution, we suspect that
Darwin's theory ma)' not be the right explanation." The
suspicion was interpreted b\' many literary and philos-
ophical minds to mean; 'Darwinism is in a bad way."

Even if Darwinism had died, the evolution theory
would not have been disturbed. But the theory can be
much rhore readily accepted by the general public, and
can do its work in education more smoothly, if it does not
have to encounter the perpetual query, "But isn't Darwin-
ism disputed?" During the last few years so many author-
ities have spoken so strongly in support of Darwinism that
even the Times is persuaded.

The most important element of Darwinism is Natural
Selection — the theory that in the hard struggle for existence

Has the Darwinian Theory
of Natural Selection been
discarded by scientific men
as fundamentalists so often
profess to believe? Do the
latest facts disprove the evo-
lutionary theory? Dr. Ward
answers by quoting the opin-
ions of modern scientific
authorities.

the fa\orable variations are preserved in
heredit)-, and that there is thus a gradual
alteration in a species which adapts it
better for successful living. A less im-
portant element of Darwinism, but one
that has loomed large and has seemed
vital to many reasoners, is the theory
that the principal material of evolution
has been the small variations. Critics
of Darwin have been dubious about the
power of Natural Selection, and they
have assumed that Darwin's small vari-
ations have been supplanted bv the large
sporting mutations such as de "Vries described.

The following quotations indicate how general and
thoroughgoing is the sweep of recent biological thought
toward Natural Selection and toward the conviction that
no modern investigation of "mutations" has furnished
anv substitute for Darwin's conception of inheritable vari-
ations, whether small or large.

I. Prof. H. J. Muller is the most natural man to quote
first; — "Data on the actual occurrence of mutations support
Darwin." He knows. His investigations of mutations
by .\-rays are so highy respected that he was chosen by
the Britannica to write the article "Variation". In that
article he declares: "Geneticists are returning to a view
essentially similar to Charles Darwin's — namely, that the
origin of one species from another involves the accumula-
tion of numerous selected small steps of heritable varia-
tion." Since it was the geneticists who used to raise most
doubt about Darwin's conception oY variation, there is

Page Twelve

EVOLUTION

June. 1937

special significance in this judgement of a scholar who is
in the van of recent genetics.

2. The Britannica also secured an entirely- new article
on e\olution, written by Professor Goodrich of Oxford
He argues that "the case against Darwin" has not been
established. He speaks of "the process of natural selection
whereb\' adaptation is brought about" — which is a more
sweeping claim than Darwin made. He says that no hard-
and-fast line can be drawn between "sports" (i.e. large
mutations) and small variations. He specificall)' denies
that De Vries distinction between mutations and small
\ariations is valid.

3. The chief concern of H. G. Wells and his advisers
when the\' wrote the Science of Life was to expound the
views that are considered safest by the specialists. Here
is their decision about Natural Selection: "The broad
propositions of Darwin reemerge from a scrutiny of the
most exacting sort essentially unchanged . . . What has
three quarters of a century done to modifv Darwin's view?
Our answer is 'Practically nothing'."

4. J. B. S. Haldane is a Cambridge geneticist whose
opinion on anv subject in his field carries weight. He
testifies: "No satisfactory cause of evolution other than
the action of natural selection has ever been put forward
.... No facts definitely irreconcilable with Darwinism
have been discovered in the sixty years and more that
have elapsed since the formulation of Darwin's view ....
Darwin's ideas still hold the field today."

5. Sir J. .\rthur Thomson, the veteran maker of a
long list of dependable hooks on biological subjects, is al-
wa\'s most careful to present both sides of a case. Yet
he is not ambiguous about Natural Selection: "What has
happened during the domestication of animals and the
culti\'ation of plants is closely parallel to what has happen-

ed in Wild Nature in the evolution of new species."
(Riddles of Science). This is a neat summary of Darwin's
entire argument, and a complete endorsement of it,

(). In The Coming and Evolution of Life, Professor
Crampton of Barnard College thus expresses his judgment:
"AH of the discoveries up to the present time have thus
corroborated the essential tenets of Darwin's formula of
the dvnamics of evolution — i.e , the natural selection of
congenital characteristics."

7. Professor L. L. Woodruff in his Animal Biology.
says of Darwinism: "The consensus of opinion is that
natural selection in general is the guiding principle under-
1\ ing the establishment of the adapti\e complexes of organ-
isms .... So this is essentially a clarified Darwinism ....
Natural selection still affords the onl}' explanation of that
co-ordinated adaptation which per\ades every form of life."

8. Man.\- an intellectual has expressed his distrust of
Darv\inism in the Nev: Republic during the past decade.
Therefore Julian Huxley's verdict in favor of Darwinism
had special point when it was published in the New
Republic: "Whereas at first onl_\' large mutations, pro-
ducing striking effects, were known, intensive study has
re\ealed that small mutations are more numerous, and also
more important as raw material for evolution . . . Selec-
tion is the main agent which directs and guides that
change. . . . Observation and analytic studies of genetics
can all be reconciled in the fundamentally Darwinian idea
of gradual change, due to the accumulation of small Men-
delian mutations under the influence of natural selection."

Julian Huxley's finding is that "We can all be Dar-
winian again." So we can. There is no longer any need
to be troubled by the factional disagreements of the
specialists. Evolution remains Darwinian.

Amateur Science

ROBIN THE THRUSH
By Pauline Dederer

One sure sign of Spring is the Robin
returning from his southern wintering,
finding plentiful Spring food in the
worms and seeds of man's lawns. His
red breast is sufficiently distinctive to
identify him to everyone, but is ver\
misleading as to his relationships. He
really belongs to the Thrush famil\'
and we all know they have spotted
breasts. Nevertheless, the Robin is a
Thrush, spots or no spots. He may
hide it from himself, but his young-
sters give him awa}'. Watch them as
they hatch and grow up. Look care-
fuUj' at their breasts. They do have
spots on their breasts, a bit faint per-
haps, but still spots, just like an>-
other Thrush. Very probably, the
common ancestor of the Robin and his
relatives was just a spotted Thrush.
The Robin, as it e\olved, lost those
spots, but its youngsters, by way of
summing up the ancestral history in
their individual lives, go through that
old Thrush stage before assuming the
recentl}' acquired red breast. Incident-
ally, the common Bluebird (not the

Blue Jay, who belongs with the
Crows) is also a Thrush, only in his
case the secret is fairh' safe; his
%oungsters do not give him away, they
have no breast spots. But that ab-
sence of spots does not mean a thing,
they are still Thrushes, as we know
from other resemblances, onl>- they
have gotten over their ancestry more
thoroughly than the Robin young.

Question Box

FILTERABLE VIRUSES

By Lucy Orenstein

O. What is meant b\' a "filterable
virus"? I have heard this term used
in connection with certain diseases like
hydrophobia and measles. — .4 Reader.

A. Filterable Viruses are among the
most provoking of organisms because
of their elusiveness. They are ultra-
microscopic, that is, they cannot be
seen even under our most powerful
microscopes. They are also filterable,
that is, they pass right through our
finest filters made of porcelain or
special earth. Such filters will trap
bacteria and protozoa but cannot catch
these viruses. .Any knowledge that we
have of the filterable viruses is know-
ledge of their activities in certain dis-

eases, rather than of their structure or
appearance

It is even questioned whether these
tiny particles are living organisms, al-
though they are generally accepted as
such. .All our knowledge concerning
them is very recent. The latest in-
vestigations suggest the possibility
that filterable viruses may be the
border-line between the non-living and
living worlds.

Not only human diseases are caus-
ed by filterable viruses. A disease of
tobacco known as leaf mosaic disease
has been studied widely by scientists
interested in filterable virus. Foot and
mouth disease in cattle, psittacosis, the
rabbit disease which received so much
attention lately because it is communi-
cable to man, are other examples.
.Among the human diseases believed to
be caused by filterable virus are
measles, smallpox, influenza, hydro-
phobia or rabies, and common colds.

The interest in the subject of filter-
able virus is a two-fold one. There is
its relation to disease, which alone
would tempt scientists to pursue the
subject. There is also the possibility
that an understanding of these elusive
substances or organisms may bring us
closer to an understanding of the very
nature of life itself. It may be that
the ke\- to life's origin lies, right here!

June, 1937

EVOLUTION

Page Thirteen

Early Views On Fossils

By F. M. CARPENTER
Dcpariment of Paleontology, Harvard Vviversity

Fossils ha\e probably been the cause of more curious
speculation than any other earthly objects. Fossil shells,
crinoids, plants, and even bones are common in most parts
of the world and did not escape the notice of the ancient
philosophers and writers. The Egyptians apparently had
no idea of their nature, although they used petrified logs
for the foundations of desert roads. The ancient Greeks,

FOSSIL INSECTS

Ask your t'lindamentalist friend to explain these fossils

howeser, correctl\' recognued them as the remains of once-
living organisms. Xenophanes (6th century B.C.) stated
that sea shells high up in the hills of Malta indicated that
the hills had been periodicallj' submerged under the sea.
Other Greek writers, such as Xanthus. Pythagorus, and
Herodotus, also accepted this explanation of the origin of
the remains of marine shells in inland regions. Theo-
phrastus (300 B.C.j, however. belie\ed that fossil bones
were produced by a plastic force in the earth. During
the early middle ages this view was the accepted one. the
correct idea of Xenophanes and his followers being aban-
doned. This was largely due to the influence of the
Christian Church. If anyone who observed sea shells im-
bedded in rocks forming a mountain range \entured to
express his belief that the mountains consisted of materials
accumulated under the sea after living creatures appeared
on the earth, he was in danger of being punished for
heresy; for according to the Holy Writ, land and sea were
separated on the 3rd day of creation, but life did not begin
until the 5th day. .'Mso. the obvious conclusion from the
evidence of fossils that the material forming the rocks
must have accumulated o\er man\- thousands of years
was contrary to the received interpretation of the amount
of time which had passed since creation. It is not surpris-
ing, therefore, that the favorite mode of avoiding the
difTiculty was simply to deny that the fossils were re-
mains of living creatures, and to regard them as freaks of
nature or "formed stones". Some of the medie\al writers
supposed that the plastic force producing the fossils came
from the stars instead of the earth.

This interpretation of fossils persisted without serious
question for about 1.500 years, until Leonardo da \inci
^ advanced the view that fossils were the remains of animals
that once li\'ed on the sea floor. Opposed lo this idea two
new explanations, conforming lo the Christian teachings,
were invented. One supposed that the fossils were placed
in the earth by the Creator to deceive man; the other
claimed that they were the remains of animals killed
during the great Deluge of the time of Noah. This latter

idea became very popular anti resulted in the formation
of the "school of deluvialists". During the 17th century
several additional absurd explanations were offered, in-
cluding that of Martin Lister (1670), who believed that
different kinds of rocks produced different types of fossils;
and that of Whiston who suggested in his "New Theory of
the Earth" that after the fall of man the earth began to
rotate, and on November 18, 2349 B.C., it passed through
the tail of a comet, which caused the formation and de-
position of all fossils!

During the 18th century a series of in\estigators, not-
abl\- Liebnitz, Hooke and (juettard, attacked the deluvia-
lists' explanations as well as the other fantastic ones and
demonstrated the true biological interpretation of fossils;
although of course the dogmatic attitude of the Christian
Church was not changed for more than a century later.
.\t the present time individuals can still be found who
believe that all fossils were formed in the "flood" or were
in\ented to deceive and mislead mankind.

In view of the influence which the biblical story exert-
i-'ti on the interpretation of fossils, it is not surprising
that the medievals tried to associate the fossils with char-
acters mentioned there. At some localities bones or skele-
tons were found which because of their great size were
determined as the remains of some of the giants mentioned
in the Old Testament. One of these, found in Austria in
l(i45. for example, was supposed to be the skeleton of
(^g. (King of Bashan) whose bed is recorded in Deuteron-
(imv as being 18 feet long. AH of these bones were shown
later (^about 1796) b>' Cuvier to be the remains of mam-
moths. A tooth displayed by a Roman Catholic Church
in V'alencia was supposed to have belonged to St. Christ-
opher; and a large bone, regarded as a Saint's arm, was
borne through the streets in reverent triumph whenever
rain was needed. Both the tooth and the arm were sub-
sequently' pro\en to belong to mammoths. Perhaps the
most famous of these cases was the skeleton described by
Scheuchzer from Switzerland. He named the specimen

Ancient I.ifc Mistor.v o£ the Earth : D. Appleton & Co.

HOMO DKLXIVII TESTIS

From an ohi woiiihiit of the original sperimen. still preserved in
the Haarlem Museum

"Homo Deluvii Testis", supposing it to be the remains
of one of the infamous men who brought about the calam-
il\- of the flood. Cuvier later shoWed that the skeleton was
that of a large salamander!

.Most civilized people to-day recognize the real nature
of a fossil; but that knowledge has been gained only after
eighteen centuries of misunderstanding.

Page Fourteen

EVOLUTION

June, 1937

BOOKS

IN QUEST OF GORILLAS— \Vm.
K.~Gregory and H. C. Raven, Dar-
win Press, 1937. 241 pages, $3.50,

Four of the world's great anthro-
pologists are sent by Columbia Uni-
\ersit}- and the .American Museum of
Natural History into the Africa of Du
Chaillu, Livingstone and Stanley to
observe and photograph, hunt and col-
lect that important, but rare and little
known relative of man, the gorilla.
Thev succeeded in bringing back five
adult specimens, carefully embalmed
for detailed anatomic study, and a
live baby, who later grew up in the
bosom of Dr. Raven's family of
children. Besides the learned Dr.
Gregory and his co-author, the experi-
enced explorer. Dr. H. C. Raven, the
partv included the witty Dr. J. H.
McGregor and the athletic Dr. E. T.
Engle. Gregory and Engle had ad-
ditional, secondary errands on this
trip, the former to' study those "living
fossils", the African survivors of the
ancient lung-fishes, the latter to take
photographs and foot impressions of
African natives for study at Columbia.

Ever since Huxley summarized
"Man's Place in Nature" three
quarters of a century ago, anthropolo-
gists have bewailed our lack of detail-
ed knowledge of gorilla anatomy. Such
knowledge should throw much light on
several problems of man's ancestry.
But the two known varieties of this
giant ape live in the depths of the
Congo jungle and the mountains of
Central Africa. Hunting out our poor
relation has always been a real man's
job. An expensive, well-equipped ex-
pedition, months of skillful, patient
hunting, a trip across the entire
African continent were required. Even
with recent facilities for travel the
task was formidable. Then there were
the problems of careful shooting, so as
to make embalming effective, and of
transporting these giants, weighing
around four hundred pounds, through
dense, pathless jungles, down to the
coast and across the sea.

But all that is hut the technical part
of the stor\', which never mars the
racing pages of this absorbing book.
For this is travel in a world of wild
and magnificent scenery, across the
Great Rift Valley and tlie wonderful
Lake Region, up into the mountains,
down into the Congo Basin. This
world teems with life, plant, animal,
human. Every page has its verbal
picture of episode, strangeness, interest
and fun — protectively colored lizards
tl.at disappear when they stop, house-
geckos that walk on the ceiling, queer
mole-like creatures, kittens with fur

patterns between spots and stripes, ant
armies with plodding workers and
belligerent soldiers, ostriches that
"stalk grandly", giant vipers hunted
with a split stick.

Gregory, the dignified Columbia
Professor, turns out to be wholly
human. He is quite at home with the
dancing, laughing, begging natives. He
makes friends with the jungle pygmies.
S>mpatheticall\- he exposes native
foibles. There is the native chief,
dressed in white duck and sun helmet,
who rides a nickel plated bic>-cle be-
fore the crowd, bowing grandl.v at the
admiring applause. And that other
native "gentleman" who laid a board
floor so he could hear the tramping
sound of his white man's shoes. We
read of the death-dealing "Leopard
Society" executing native justice, of a
sable Juno of queenls' poise, of a
daintv 'Venus of quiet voice, of plain-
tive melodies which fade into mem-
ory's "Lost Chords". Even the calm-
1\- efficient Dr. Raven succumbs to the
friendly spell of these simple people
and confesses to negotiating the sale
of a wife (not his own. of course) for
two dollars. Most of the tale is told
by Gregory, who is finel\' gifted with
vivid description. He goes on gorilla
hunts, of course, but largely as ob-
server. Dr. Raven being the ofTicial
hunter. Both contribute to the stories
of the hunt.

B_\- means of booming signal guns
word was sent out to all the villages to
watch for gorillas, and b\' drums the
reports came in. The p\'gmies turned
out to be good trackers. Again and
again the hunters drew close to the
elusive giants, heard their stomachs
rumble, saw the bushes shaking, caught
a glimpse of a hair_\- arm. more rarely
of a peering face. Often some brave
male would rush them, but would stop
before becoming visible and retreat
noiselessl)' after covering the silent
earlier departure of his band. Now
and then gorillas have attacked men.
maiming or killing with their great
strength. However, none of our hunters
ran into danger, except Raven per-
haps, when he remained behind to
finish his hunting after the others had
started home, and came down with
sleeping sickness, two kinds of malaria,
hookworm and ascariasis, all at the
same time. But a missionary doctor
pulled him through, and every one ar-
rived home safely with a precious
cargo of specimens and a tale com-
pletely delightful to read.

— Allan Brovis

THE SOLAR SYSTEM .AND ITS
ORIGIN, — Henrv Norris Russell.
144 pp.— .MacMillan, N. Y. 193r

Though the first formulation by
Swedenborg of the famous Nebular
H\pothesis on the origin of the solar
svstem is now fulK' two centuries old.

the recognition of its fatal flaws dates
only from 1900 when Moulton exam-
ined mathematically its impossible
dynamics. The outstanding difllculty
was that the momentum of revolution
of the planets and satellites was sev-
eral times that warranted by their
masses relative to that of the Sun

The immediate result was Chamber-
lin and Moulton 's Planetesimal Hypo-
thesis, the first of the tidal theories
(later to be modified by Jeans and
Jeffreys) which explain the solar sys-
tem as torn from the Sun by the
gravitational pull of a passing star.

But even at the turn of the centur>-
only the most obvious of the facts to
be explained had been learned. The
planets (including the vast horde of
asteroids) all revolved in one direction
and nearly all m one plane, as did
most of their satellites. That rule ap-
plied also to their known rotations and
that of the Sun. .'Ml this definitely
pointed to a common origin.

Now, howe\er, an array of facts has
been assembled of which our gener-
ation ma.v well be proud. Theory, too.
has made notable advances. But the
net result of this accumulation of facts,
physical, chemical, and mathematical,
has so far only added difllculties which
no theory of origins has consistently'
explained. The very presence of plan-
etary atmospheres, the existence of the
. satellites and particularly of comets,
off'er special difficulties.

Recent theories have tried to include
all this detail of obstinate facts, but
with dubious successes. Jeffreys sub-
stituted a stellar collision for mere
tidal disruption. Nolke borrowed the
planets and comets from a nebula
through which the Sun may have pass-
ed. More recently. Lyttleton, follow-
ing a suggestion b\' Russell, assumed
the original Sun a binary star, dis-
rupted by a third passing star to form
our solar s\stem. Other theories, ap-
parentl\- of little promise, have yet to
be worked out in theoretical detail.

Two thirds of this book is devoted
to the facts which must be explained
and, despite its technical thoroughness,
it is unusual for its clearness. The
last third co\ers the theories of origin
with the same lucidity. There is none
of the usual assumption of scientific
certainty, no effort to make evolution-
ary drama out of the puzzling array
of facts. Yet the fundamental fact,
that some two billion years ago the
Great Event of Planetary Birth took
place,— that fact is amply and con-
vincingly demonstrated by independ- ^
ent, yet singularly consistent, evi-
dences. Altogether', as a summary of
our present knowledge of our solar
system and as a critical evaluation of
all theories of its origin, this small vol-
ume is quite unsurpassed.

— Allan Bronis

June, 1937

EVOLUTION

Page Fifteen

Foiidanieiitalist Follies

FROM COLD TO WARM BLOOD
By E. T. Brewster

Ta\'lor L'nixersity at L'pland,
Indiana, is the sort of institution
that picks its teachers for the "sound-
ness" of their behefs. If. in addition,
they turn out to he competent scho-
lars, that is so much to the good.

The Doctor of Philosophy who
heads the Department of Biology- is.
naturally, no Exolutionist. ^'et. as he
remarks {Chrntian Faith and Life.
February. 1932) "... a student, in
order to be able to hold an\' theory,
must know all theories." and there is
no use. in these da\s. trxing to suppress
information. "Doubtless the theory of
evolution should be presented; nor will
this be dangerous, since its arguments
are so easily met. No one has yet
found a single evidence (.wc'l of any
form of animal life abridging the gulf
between the cold-blooded animals and
the warm-blooded ones."

Oddly enough, it happens that in
the Scientific Monthly for ,Ma>-, 1932
I pp. 421-428) appears a summar\- of
se\enteen years of work b\' Dr. Fran-
cis G. Benedict. Director of the Nutri-
' lion Laboratory of the Carnegie In-
stitution of Washington dealing with
this \ery point. Dr. Benedict stands
among the dozen leading men of the
world in his field, and his long investi-
gation has employed e\ery device of
method and apparatus. E\en the
familiar thermometer has been replac-
ed b\' an elaborate electrical tool:
while the number of separate deter-
minations approaches a thousand.

"in this gap between cold-blooded
and warm-blooded animals." t h e
article concludes "three striking inter-
mediary steps have been noted" — in-
stead of none as set forth at Ta\lor.

First, there is an .\frican python,
studied in great detail. It is. of course,
cold-blooded. That is to say. under
ordinary conditions. l\ing quiet, its
bod\' temperature is slightl\- lower
than the air around it. because, like
other living things, it is all the time
e\aporating water. But an acti\e
snake at once elevates its temperature
sometimes as much as ten degrees
above its environment.

This particular serpent is a lady —
one should perhaps call her a python-
ess— and most fortunatel\' she laid
Nome twenty eggs and incubated them.
'S She ought, according to Indiana
physiology, to have incubated in \ain.
not warming her offspring. .'\s a
matter of fact, l.\ing quiet, with the
air around her at 86. she herself regist-
ered 93. as against "^'S.o for a "warm-
blooded" creature discharging similar
maternal duties.

So an incubating pythoness does
bridge the gulf. .Moreo\er. this fact,
though never before so carefully test-
ed, has been known for at least a
couple of human generations.

Then there are the tortoises. These
'ha\e a much higher heat production
. . . than do the snakes, alligators and
lizards . . . and hence ma>' be consider-
ed to occupy an intermediate stage
between these animals and the warm-
blooded."

Finalls', "the hibernating animals
likewise represent an intermediate
stage . . . Indeed, the body tempera-
ture of a hibernating warm-blooded
animal ma\' easily be the same as that
of the snake, alligator, or fish, for its
temperature will fall with that of the
environment nearly down to the freez-
ing point of water without resulting in
the death of the animal."

Besides these "forms of animal life
abridging the gulf between the cold-
blooded animals and the warm-blood-
ed ones," there is the notorious "duck-
bill plat\pus," which Dr. Benedict has
not yet studied for heat-production
and bod\' temperature, though the
general facts concerning it ha\e like-
wise been known many years.

This strange creature, in addition to
la\ing eggs like some reptiles and in-
cubating them like others, has all sorts
of reptilian features of an anatomical
sort. In fact, with its eggs and its
primitix'e milk apparatus and its beak
in place of teeth and its distinctly
reptilian bones, it is precisely the
"missing link" which the Evolution-
ist needs to connect the hair-covered
mammals with their scaly ancestors.
The important point for us here is
that "the duck-bill" though a true
mammal and warm-blooded, keeps its
blood considerabl\- cooler than less
reptilian members of the class.

Even we men. who carry our heat-
regulating devices about as far as any
creature ever does, by no means al-
wa>s maintain a perfectly constant
blood heat. A human being in a fe\'er
ma\' run a temperature of 10^ or 106
and live to tell the tale. Or he may
cool his blood down to 94 or 95 and
recover. So even we are just the least
bit "cold-blooded." and in our small
wa\' another of those non-existent
bridges to lower things.

Once more, then, as so man\' times
before, a Fundamentalist theorizer en-
counters the Prophet Balaam's old
trouble with his ass. The dumb crit-
ters will speak — and the\' alwa\s say
the wrong thing for Balaam.

Boiiors From Exams

I-iniwciilidcU is the father of bacti-i'ia.

Fuunyiuentals

■■Animals, which move, have limbs aud
muscles ; the earth has no limbs or
muscles, therefore it does not move. It
is angels ■who make Saturn, Jupiter, the
sun. etc., turn round. If the earth re-
■(olves, it must also have an angel in the
oeutre to set it in motion ; but only devils
live there: it would therefore be a devil
who would impart motion to the earth.

The planets, the sun, the fixed stars,
all l)elong to one species — namely, that
of the stars. It seems, therefore, to be
a grievous -wrong to place the earth, which
is a sink of impurity, among these heaven-
ly bodies which are pure and divine
things." — Scipio t'hiavamonti. quoted in
"The Great Astronomers." p. 103.

"It is generally held among scientific
men that it is the action of the sun upon
the earth that causes the latter to re-
volve upon its axis." — J. C. Derfelt in
Fax "Official Organ of the American
Science Foundation." March. 1932. p. 6.

"Then we have Jlendol (sic) who ex-
perimented with flowers and discovered a
rule and tliought it would apply to human
beings but it did not."

Prof. C. II. Briggs. B. E, idem, p, 9.

"The order that is called Phizapod (sic)
. . . have no cilia, but move about by a
queer method called ectoplasm . . ."
—Christian Faith aud Life. May. 1932,

"T»arw-iu with all the fuss and feathers
and bluster and insane ballyhoo that he
could muster, after admitting the muta-
tion of species to be profound ignorance,
has employed every art of lying, dishon-
esty, superstition, flagrant imagination,
misrepresentation, fool guessing, and ig-
norant suppositions in order to junk the
blood of human beings with the blood of
every beast of the field, every reptile of
the marsh and vermin of the sewer, all
the way from monkeys back to the lar-
val ooze of primal seas.

"Any thinking man, who knows what
evolution is, would rather be known as a
horse thief, a pirate or a cowardly bush-
whacker, than to be known as an evolu-
tionist . . . Evolution is a pack of damn-
able lies as black as the soot on the
walls of hell ; too filthy for carrion, too
shameful for dens, too foul for the sewer
and too prostitute for Jezebel or Semir-
amis." — Rev. R. L. Stephens. Anti-athe-
istic Tract I>epot, San Autonio, Texas.

Asexual reproduction is that kind in
which no pleasure or benefit is derived by
either party.

A compound shoreline is one that moves
in and out at the same time.

The chief argument against the nebular
hyimthesis is tliat it would make the sun
revolve around the earth every few min-
utes.

The axis of the earth is an imaginary
line on which the earth takes its daily
routine.

The earthworm has a long elementary
canal.

The Uialto is the business part of
Venus.

The difference between air and water
is that air can be made wetter and water
can not.

Teachers are invited to report "Boners".

Page Si)«t

/NATURE FAKics -

3 Iff''

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We're mailing this issue in envelopes under postage so
EVOLUTION'S resumption will not be overlooked. The
next issue (Sept.) will go under second class entry.

One of the Best Ways

to get people that really need EVOLUTION to read it is to place it in all public libraries. Very
few libraries, working on budgets, will pay for a new journal now. But at least five thousand
libraries will agree to place EVOLUTION in their reading rooms if we send it free for a year.
We haven't the cash to do this, so appeal to our readers for a
Fife Thousand Dollar Library Fund

with the understanding that for every dollar you contribute, some public library will receive
EVOLUTION for one year. A hundred dollar check will cover one hundred libraries. Let's
hear from you to the extent of your ability. Surely this is y

An Eflucational Effort

worthy of your best support. And this will help sustain the EVOLUTION magazine imtil
the individual subscription list grows large enough to carry it.

EVOLUTION

77 Albemarle Ave.

HEMPSTEAD, ]\. Y.

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