UC-NRLF $B bT Ifll EXERCISES IN AGRICULTURE DADISMAN LYONS AND CARNAHAN AGBiC. DEPL Mr-p '-v LIBRARY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Berkeley. Cat. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/exercisesinagricOOdadirich LIBRARY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Berkeley. Cal, EXERCISES IN AGRICULTURE BY S. H. DADISMAN DIRECTOR OF PRACTICE TEACHING AGRICULTURE, IOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS, AMES, IOWA i i » » •■•»', LYONS & CARNAHAN CHICAGO NEW YORK ^«^- ^t-'" COPYRIGHT. 1916 LYONS & CARNAHAN ^7- PREFACE The exercises contained in this book have been tried in high schools by the author. They are recommended for the laboratory work in a one-year course in agriculture. There should be two laboratory periods each week for this work if possible. The value of having each pupil do the individual exercises cannot be over-emphasized. Seeing and noting the results, is beheving, in laboratory work. These exercises should accompany the regular class work. The exercises selected are simple and practical, and require but httle equipment. Many such exercises have been tried out by the author, in his practice teaching work in agriculture. All those that have been found too difficult for the practice teacher to perform have been eliminated, so that the ones here given can be taught by the average high school teacher. The teacher can select from this list the ones that are best suited to the local conditions. Every exercise in this book can be performed in the average high school with a limited amount of equipment. The equipment should be sufficient, however, for the size of the class. No pupil can perform exercises without the needed equipment any more than a mechanic can do his work without tools. The suggestions for this work came from various sources, such as the Ames School Circular No. 2, from which the suggestions on corn were taken; and the Farm Crops and Poultry Departments Score Card, Iowa State College. The larger part of the material was gathered by the students in the practice teaching class in agriculture. The author wishes to express his thanks to these students for their help. S. H. D. 3 3G9J33 1 -r SUGGESTIONS 1. All exercises should be recorded as soon as they are performed. 2. The drawings, while not intended to show artistic display, should be neatly and accurately made. 3. Use a hard pencil in making drawings, and ink the draw- ings in after they have been corrected by the teacher. 4. Label all parts that can be shown in the drawing. 5. Make the drawings large. Where more than one draw- ing is on a page, make them in comparative sizes. 6. The notes should be brief and written in ink. 7. Textbooks and bulletins on agriculture should be con- sulted before the notes are written, in case of doubt. 8. A general textbook on agriculture should be used in the class work. 9. Such books as there may be in the school library on the special topics treated herein, will be found very helpful for reference in connection with the laboratory work outlined. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL Minimum List of Apparatus and Material for High School Agriculture Recommended by the Department of Public Instruction State of Iowa, 1915, for a Class of Ten Pupils The following apparatus will serve a class of 10 pupils. It should be ordered in advance. 1 laboratory table for class room, 6 x 3 ft., or larger. 1 case for storing apparatus (may be made to order at slight expense, if necessary). 1 Harvard trip scale. 1 set brass weights, in block, 1 g. to 500 g. 1 set iron weights, J oz. to 2 lb. 1 set fractional weights, German silver, 1 mg. to 500 mg. 1 spring balance, 25 lb., J lb. divisions. 1 set five soil sieves, wood frame, 20-40-60-80-100. 2 thermometers, chemical, 10 degrees to 110 degrees, C. and F., engraved stem. 1 Babcock milk tester, 8 bottles complete. Extra equipment for same : 4 milk bottles, 2 cream bottles (50%), 2 skim milk bottles (1-100). 4 acid measures, 4 pipettes (combined) 4 brushes. 1 lactometer (Quevenne's combined with thermometer). 1 hydrometer jar, 15 x 2 in. 1 soil auger, 40 x 1| in. 5 5 Universal soil tubes, 12 in., brass, interchangeable bottom. 1 pruning saw, flat steel back, 18 J in. 2 hand pruners. 10 grafting knives, non-folding, 6f in. 5 alcohol lamps, 8 oz. 5 tripod magnifiers. 2 glass tubes, 2 in. in diameter, 36 in. or more long. ^ lb. soft glass tubing, ^ in. ^ lb. glass rod, ^ in. 6 ft. rubber tubing, ^ in. 12 rubber stoppers, 2-hole. (2 No. 8; 3 No. 7; 3 No. 6; 2No. 4;2No. 2.) 12 wide-mouth bottles, 8 oz. 12 wide-mouth bottles, 2, 4, and 6 oz., assorted. 48 vials, straight walls, 3 in. long, with corks and labels. 1 gross assorted corks. 2 graduates, 100 cc. each. , 72 test tubes, 6 x f in. 5 test tube brushes. 1 test tube rack, 16 tubes, 8 drying pins. 10 evaporating dishes, 3 in. diameter. 1 package filter paper, 15 cm. diameter. 2 vials litmus paper, 100 strips each, blue. 2 vials litmus paper, 100 strips each, red. 1 set liquid measures, J pt. to 1 gallon, tin. 1 set dry measures, 1 qt. to | bu., wood. 2 ring stands, rectangular base, 18 in. rod, 3 rings each. 10 student-lamp chimneys. 1 tape measure, 50 feet. 5 tape measures, 5 ft. plain linen without case. 6 12 flower pots, 4 in., with saucers, 6 in. 1 insect mount, 4 x 5 in. 20 earthen saucers. 10 garden trowels. 1 quart formaUn preservative, 40%. 1 pound grafting wax. 1 pound hydrochloric acid. 1 pound nitric acid. Fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, ,and other chemicals, to suit the needs of the work as planned by the instructor. Soil samples from Department of Soils, State College of Agriculture. Samples of seeds of grasses. Type samples of grains. Head or sheaf of each grain. 1 compound microscope, 2 eye-pieces, 2 objectives, double nose-pieces. (Spencer 66D, Bausch and Lomb BH4, or equivalent.) 12 microscope slides, blank, 75 mm. x 25 mm. I oz. cover glasses. No. 2 round, 18 mm. diameter. (Where schools can afford it, it is strongly recommended that a Torsion Balance, for testing cream and determining the amount of moisture in butter, be added to the list above.) Suggestions To the above list should be added samples of the differ- ent grains and seeds of the common weeds found in the community. These can usually be secured from the agri- cultural experiment stations. The weed seed furnished by the United States Department of Agriculture may be secured 7 by addressing Seed Laboratory, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C. When sending for them it is also necessary to send $1.75 to Mackall Bros. 9th and H Street, N. E., Washington, D. C, to pay for the trays and vials used in packing the collection. The University of Nebraska has a free catalog of agri- cultural saimples of type seeds, grasses, etc., all nicely mounted for sale. Samples of soil, local weed seed, and grains can be gath- ered and stored for use in the early fall. The manual train- ing department can make the trays for testing corn. CONTENTS Plant Studies Exercise Na ^^^e 1. Estimating the Stand of Corn 13 2. Machinery Used in Connection with the Corn Crop 16 3. A Study of the Corn Stalk 17 4. A Study of the Com Kernel 18 5. Studying Butts and Tips ' 20 6. Selecting Seed Com 20 7. Testing Seed Com 21 8. Scoring Single Ears of Corn 23 9. Scoring Ten-Ear Samples of Corn "... 26 10. Judging Contest 29 11. Weight of Ear, and Number of Grains in Bushel 31 12. A Study of Corn Enemies 31 13. Germination Test for Small Grains 32 14. Parity Test for Small Grains 33 15. Drawings of the Oat Head 34 16. Drawings of Wheat or Barley Head 35 17. A Study of the Small Grains 37 18. Treating Oats for Loqge Smut 38 19. Scoring Grains 38 20. Score Card for Wheat 40 21. Purity Test of Legumes 41 22. Germination Test of Legume Seeds 42 23. Drawings of the Legumes 43 24. Purity Test of Non-Legumes . 46 25. Germination of Non-Legume Seeds 46 26. Drawings of the Non-Legumes 47 Animal Studies 27. A Study of the Different Types of Horses 52 28. Use of a Score Card 53 29. Feeding 56 30. A Study of a Dairy Barn 57 9 Animal Studies — Continued Exercise No. Page 31. Scoring a Dairy Cow 59 32. BabcockTest 61 33. Physical Properties of Milk . 63 34. Comparative Cost of Different Cuts of Beef 64 35. Scoring Beef Cattle 68 36. Cuts of Pork 69 37. Cuts of Mutton 72 38. Poultry House 75 39. Types and Breeds of Chickens 76 40. A General Purpose Fowl 77 . 41. Poultry Score Card 79 42. Formation of an Egg 80 43. Parts of an Egg 80 44. The Effect of Feed on the Color of Eggs 81 45. Candling Eggs . 82 46. Effect of Temperature on Eggs 83 47. Scoring Eggs 84 48. Caring for and Marketing Eggs 85 49. Picture Book 86 Soil and Plant Growth 50. Composition of Soil 87 51. Testing Soils 87 52. Size of Soil Particles . . . ! 88 53. Percolation of Water 90 54. Water Entering Tile Drain 91 55. Sun's Heat on Dry and Wet Soils 92 56. Rise of Water in Soil 93 57. Rate of Percolation 94 58. Plowing-Under Organic Matter 95 59. Freezing and Thawing 96 60. Soil Drainage 97 61. Oxygen and Germination 98 62. Effect of Light upon Germination and Plant Growth 98 63. Amount of Air Needed by Roots 99 64. Moisture Required for Germination 100 65. Effect of Temperature on Germination 100 66. Depth for Planting Seeds 101 67. Root Growth 102 68. Amount of Water Used for Plant Growth 103 10 Farm Mechanics Exercise No. Page 69. Farm Drainage 104 70. Making Concrete 105 71. Farm Machinery 107 72. Drawing Plans of Farm Buildings 108 73. Rope Knots 110 Horticulture; Pomology 74. Laying Out an Orchard 110 75. Grafting Wax 113 76. Bridge Grafting 114 77. Pruning 115 78. Bordeaux Mixture 115 79. Lime Sulphur Spray Solution 116 80. Study of Different Varieties of Apples 116 81. Scoring Apples 118 Garden 82. Study of the Irish Potato 119 83. Scoring Potatoes 121 84. Drawing of Potato * 123 85. Hot Bed 125 86. Plat of a Garden 126 87. Record of Garden 127 Forestry 88. Forest Trees . . '. 130 89. Forest Map * 132 Miscellaneous 90. A Study of Weeds 133 91. Identification of Weed Seed 134 92. Birds 135 93. Collecting Insects T ! 136 94. Mounting Insects 138 Farm Management 95. A Farm Layout 138 96. Stock Account 141 97. Crop Account 143 98. Farm Account 147 99. A Country Yard 152 100. Layout of a Farmstead 155 11 EXERCISES IN AGRICULTURE Exercise No. 1 ESTIMATING THE STAND OF CORN Object : To determine the per cent of the stand of corn in a field. Material : Cornfield and yard stick or rule for measuring. Method : Take a trip to the field where the corn is grow- ing. The students should work in pairs. If the corn is planted in check rows, each group of two students should select a part of the field ten hills each way on which a fairly representative crop is growing. One of the students should measure the ground covered by the I. A ^ u'u ^ A 4. ' u ^ 3230233023 hundred hills, to determine what oo'^*^^22^*^rt part of an acre it is, measuring from 3223032333 the first to the eleventh hill both in 3122332123 determining length and in determin- 1333302133 ing width. The other pupil should 0233212333 count the stand of corn in each hill, 3322323011 T ^11 ^i^i3303133320 making a record hke that shown 1 .,!_ mT ^ e 1 1 Sample Form Filled herewith. The per cent of stand should then be determined. For the purpose of this com- putation, consider that there should be three stalks to each hill. (This figure will vary from 4 to 2 in fields of more or 13 less productive capacity.) Find out how many stalks there would be to the acre in a perfect stand. Then find out how many stalks there are to the acre based upon the number of stalks counted in the hundred hills, and what per cent of a perfect stand this is. Make this test in four places in the field, and average the four percentages. If the corn is not planted in check rows, but in drills, select a part of the field 10 rows wide and 35 feet long. Instead of counting by hills count by 3^foot lengths in the row, assuming that a perfect stand has three stalks to every 3^ feet in the row. Proceed as described above for check rows. Make four tests and average them. After returning to the schoolhouse determine the per cent of stand for the field by averaging the separate per cents found by all the groups of students. 1. How many suckers in the plot? Do they bear corn? 2. How many stalks have corn smut? How many stalks are injured by insects? 3. How many stalks have two ears? One? None?..... 4. How many seed ears in the plot? 5. Measure the distance between the hills; also between the rows 6. Measure the height of the ears ffom the ground to the shank 7. Measure the stalk from the ground to the tip of the tassel — 8. Based on your answer to question 3, how many ears would there be in an acre? 14 9. Weigh several ears, to determine the average weight per ear. How many bushels to the acre? (76 lb. to the bushel).- 10. Was the corn crop well cared for? 11. Make a Ust of the weeds found in the field. 12. What was the color of the soil? What kind of soil was it? Conclusion: In what ways do you think that the stand and the yield of the corn could be improved? 15 Exercise No. 2 MACfflNERY USED IN CONNECTION WITH CORN CROP Object: To learn the most economical kinds of machin- ery used in raising and harvesting the corn crop. Material: A hardware store where practically all kinds of farm machinery are kept. Method: Visit the hardware store with a note book in hand. After the good and bad points of the machinery have been explained, make a record of all the good points of the different kinds of machinery used in the cultivation and harvesting of the corn crop. After the class discussion, this exercise should be written in the laboratory note book. The notes should begin with the fall plowing and should discuss the best kind of machinery to use in connection with the corn crop until the corn is harvested and in the corn crib. Conclusion : The economic value of the best machinery. 16 Exercise No. 3 A STUDY OF THE CORN STALK Object: To become familiar with the different parts of the stalk of corn and of the rooting system. Material : Stalks of corn showing rooting system. These should be green, with as much of the root on them as it is possible to get. Method : Draw in detail the mature corn stalk including the rooting system. Label each part. Also draw a poor stalk and label it to show the contrast. Label one stalk of com desirable and the other undesirable. Conclusion: How could the poor stalk have been improved? 17 Exercise No. 4 A STUDY OF THE CORN KERNEL Object: To become familiar with the different parts of the kernel of corn. Material : Good and poor kernels of corn for comparison, and a hand lens. The corn should be soaked in warm water for an hour before being used for this exercise. Method : Draw an outline of the kernel as it lies on the desk, germ side up. The drawing should be made 3| inches long. Carefully remove the tip cap of the kernel with a knife. Locate the tip cap in the drawing, and label it. (a) Carefully remove the hull with a knife, in one piece if possible. Label the hull in the drawing. (b) Scrape off the mealy layer (aleurone) which con- stitutes the second covering of the kernel. It is usually much thicker than the hull. Make a shady line next to the hull for the aleurone layer, and label it. (c) Carefully remove the germ (embryo), which is found in the center of the front of the kernel and toward the tip. It extends from J to f of the length of the kernel. The germ is rich in fat and oil. The embryo stem points toward the crown and the embryo root points toward the tip of the kernel. Both of these are parts of the embryo. Show this in the drawing. (d) Break the remainder of the kernel (the endosperm) into two parts, lengthwise. Scrape the white starchy portion off the horny starch portion. The white starchy portion occupies the crown end of the kernel above the germ and it also surrounds the germ toward the tip. See if you 18 can separate these into parts, the crown starch and the tip starch. Show these parts in the drawing, and label them. (e) Lay a kernel on the desk germ side up and cut it into two equal parts. Make an enlarged drawing of the cut surface labeling each part. (f) Cut a kernel flatwise. With a drop of iodine test it for starch. The iodine will turn blue the portion that contains the starch. Draw and label to show where the starch is located. Conclusion : Which part of the corn do we try to develop? Why? 19 Exercise No. 5 STUDYING BUTTS AND TIPS Object: To learn to recognize an ear of corn with good butt and good tip. Material: Several samples of butts and tips of corn. Method: After becoming famihar with good butts and tips and poor butts and tips, make careful drawings to illus- trate each. Be sure that the drawings are labeled. Make drawings from the butts and tips studied in class. Conclusion : State what constitutes a good butt and a good tip. Exercise No. 6 SELECTING SEED CORN Object : To learn how and when to select good seed corn. Material : A field of corn. Method: After the desirable points of a good seed ear have been studied in class go into a corn field and let each member of the class select five good seed ears, if enough can be found. These ears should be marked so that the pupils can easily find them. Each stalk and ear selected should be discussed and reasons given for its selection. It should be 20 remembered that a good seed ear is on a stalk of the proper size and shape with the grains mature enough to insure their growth. The class can then decide whether or not it is a desirable seed ear. A stalk bearing a good seed ear should be brought to the class room for future study. Conclusion : A brief description of a good seed ear and of the stalk on which it grew, telhng how and when to select seed corn. A Pile of Good Ears Exercise No. 7 TESTING SEED CORN Object: To learn how to test seed corn. Material : Seed corn on the ear, germinating box, and the rag doll tester. 21 f ' '' ^ -r ' s I 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 f 1 1 1 r 1 1 li 1" 1 , 1 1' / 1 f,A.,,,~ ,, 1 1 \ %»»^*^«^ii^«^^^^^ Method : Make a box 20 inches square on the inside and 3 inches deep. Divide it into 2-inch squares by sawing into the top \ inch and running strings through the cuts made by the saw. Label it A, B, C, D, etc., one way, and 1, 2, 3, etc., the other way. Label the ears of corn to correspond; that is, Al, A2, Bl, B2, CI, etc. Fill the box with saw-dust or sand and place the kernels in it according to the way the ears are numbered. Six kernels should be taken from each ear, two from the middle, two from near the tip, and two from near the butt. These kernels should not be taken from the same place on the ear. After the kernels have been placed in the box, the box should be covered with a cloth. It should be watered so that the corn will start to grow. To prepare the rag doll tester: Take a strip of muslin about 5 feet long and 9 inches wide. Draw a heavy line lengthwise through the middle of the strip. Draw lines about 3 inches apart at right angles to the first line, dividing the strip into squares. Number the squares and the rows the Germinating Box Rag Doll Tester 22 same as in the box tester. Select the kernels in the same way and lay them in the squares, germ side up and the tips pointing outward. Roll the muslin up and soak it in warm water for about 8 hours. Then drain the tester and put it away. Examine the tester in about 3 days. After the testers have been left for about 5 or 6 days take the corn kernels out and find what per cent germinated strong, what per cent weak, and what per cent are dead. GERMINATION TEST No. OF Ear Strong Weak Dead Both of these methods should be used unless it is thought that the rag doll is the only one that will be used in the community. Conclusion : The per cent of the kernels that germinated was The samples tested showed.. % strong, - % weak, ....% dead. No corn should be planted unless it germinates 100%. Exercise No. 8 SCORING SINGLE EARS OF CORN Object: To be able to make use of a score card in judg- mg corn. Material: Ten single-ear samples of corn and a score card like the model. Method: Score the ten ears selected according to the score card. Be able to give reasons for the points placed on the score card. When in doubt, consult the teacher. When the ears are scored, at the end of the period, record the teacher's total scores and compare them with your totals. See form on page 26. SCORE CARD FOR CORN (Single Ears) Variety Standard Length Sample Number Standard Circumference. Characteristics of Good Perfect Score Numbers of Ears Corn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I. Variety type 10 5 15 10 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 10 5 II. Purity of kernels III. Maturity and soundness . IV. The ear: (a) Length (b) Circumference (c) Shape (d) Butt (e) Tip V. The kernels: (a) Size and shape (b) Uniformity (c) Spacingbetweenrows and between kernels . (d) Size and condition of germ ' VI. Size of cob Total 100 24 Explanation Uniformity of Type. The ear should conform to the general type of the variety in respect to (1) colop of corn; (2) color of cob; (3) width, thickness, depth, and shape of kernels; (4) indentation of kernels; (5) arrangement and spacing of rows; and (6) size and shape of the ear as a whole and also of the butt and tip. When the variety is not known the perfect score should be recorded. Purity of Kernels. Kernels should be free from mixture. Deduct one-half point for each kernel showing opposite color, and if in competition, ten or more mixed kernels shall bar the ear. Maturity and Soundness. The ear shall be well matured, dry and firm when twisted, and of good weight for size and condition. Sappiness, mouldi- ness at the crowns of the kernels and at the cob, looseness of corn on cob, chaffiness, extreme starchiness, badly shrunken kernel tips, bUstered or shriv- eled kernel backs, adherence of tip caps to cob, and of considerable chafif to the tips of the kernel are indications of immaturity. The Ear: (a) Length. The standard length varies with the section of the state and the variety. The average measurement which will apply to different sections is 9 to 10 inches. Deduct at the rate of one point for each quarter inch short of the standard length. (b) Circumference. Measure the circumference one-third the distance from butt to tip. The standard circumference is 7 to 7|- inches. For each- one-quarter inch variation from the standard, deduct one point from the full score. (c) Shape. In general a well shaped ear should (1) be nearly cylindrical; (2) have straight rows running directly from butt to tip; (3) be full and strong in the middle portion; (4) not be flattened throughout any part of its length. (d) Butt. The butt should carry out the circumference of ear uniformly, and not be pinched, enlarged, expanded, or flattened. It should be well rounded out with straight rows of regular kernels, having nearly the same depth, width, thickness, and shape as the body kernels. The corn should be uniformly arranged around a medium sized, cup-shaped cavity. (e) Tip. The tip should be covered to the end of the cob with kernels arranged in straight rows and having nearly the same size and shape as the body kernels. Shallow, narrow, irregular, glistening, and shot-shaped kernels are objectionable. The Kernel: (a) Size and Shape. Size of kernels includes depth, width, and thickness. Depth varies with chmate and variety. For average conditions a medium depth ordinarily produces the largest yield of mature corn. Width, thickness, and shape vary with varieties. In general, kernels should be keystone-shaped, with plump and well developed tips. Kernels of 25 this shape have sufficient room for germ development and increase the shelling percentage. Pointed, shoe-peg, and rectangular kernels should be discriminated against. In thickness the kernels should number about six to the inch in the row. (b) Uniformity. Odd shaped and irregular kernels throughout the body of the ear are objectionable. Kernels should be uniform in depth, width, thickness, and shape. (c) Space Between Rows and Between Kernels. Large open spacea between rows either at the crowns or tips of kernels, or between the kernels in the same row, are objectionable. There should be only sufficient space to permit satisfactory drying of the ear. (d) Size and Condition of Germ. The germ should be long, wide, and thick. Cut through the kernel from tip to crown parallel to the edges to get an idea of the thickness of the germ. The germ should be smooth and bright, not shriveled, blistered, shrunken, mouldy, or discolored. The embryo proper should show a fresh, oily, and live appearance and be whitish in color. Cut a longitudinal section parallel to the width of the kernel so as to expose the embryo to view. Size of Cob. Size of cob varies with the variety and the locaUty in which the com is grown. For average conditions a medium-sized cob is most desirable. Placing 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Pupil's placing Teacher's placing. Pupil's No. of points off. . Teacher's No. of pts. off. . Pupil's Grade Exercise No. 9 SCORING TEN-EAR SAMPLES OF CORN Object : To learn to score ten-ear samples of corn. Material : Ten-ear samples of corn and score cards. Method: These samples should be placed on the table 26 and two kernels taken from each ear and placed in front of the ears from which they were taken. Scoring can then be done according to the score card that is given. SCORE CARD FOR CORN (Ten-Ear Samples) Variety Standard length Sample number Standard circumference Perfect Score Numbers of Samples Characteristics of Good Corn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I. Uniformityof variety type. . . II. Purity of kernels 10 5 15 10 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 10 5 III. Maturity and soundness IV. The ears: (a) Length (b) Circumference (c) Shape (d) Butt . (e) Tip V. The kernels: (a) Size and shape (b) Uniformity (c) Spacing between rows and between kernels (d) Size and condition of eerms VI. Size of cobs . . Total 100 Explanation Uniformity of Variety Type. The ears should conform to the general type of the variety in respect to (1) color of corn; (2) color of cob; (one ear with a cob of distinctly opposite color will be sufficient reason to bar the sample if in competition) ; (3) Width, thickness, depth and shape of kernels; (4) inden- tation of kernels; (5) arrangement and spacing of rows; and (6) size and shape of the ears as a whole and also of the butts and tips. 27 V Purity of Kernels. Kernels should be free from mixture with corn of opposite color. Deduct one-eighth point for each kernel distinctly showing opposite color. Maturity and Soundness. Ears should be well matured, dry, firm when twisted, and of good weight for size ond condition. Sappiness, mouldi- ness at the crowns of the kernel and at the cob, looseness of corn on cob, chaffiness, extreme starchiness, badly shrunken kernel tips, bhstered or shriv- eled kernel backs, adherence of tip caps to cob, and of considerable chaff to the tips are indications of immaturity. Deduct one-eighth to one point for each ear showing deficiency in any of the above points . The Ears: (a) Length. The standard length varies with the section of the state and with the variety. Average measurements are 9 to 10 inches. Add together the deficiencies in length of the different ears and deduct one- fourth point for each one-fourth inch in the total. (b) Circumference. Measure the circumference one-third the distance from butt to tip. The standard circumference is 7 to 7^ inches. Add the deficiencies in circumference of all ears varying from the standard circum- ference and deduct one-eighth point for each one-fourth inch. (c) Shape. In general, well shaped ears should (1) be nearly cyHndrical; (2) have straight rows running directly from butt to tip; (3) be full and strong in the middle portion; and (4) not be flattened throughout any part of their length. Deduct from one-eighth to one point for each ear deficient in shape. (d) Butts. The butts should carry out the circumference of the ears uniformly and not be pinched, enlarged, expanded, or flattened. They should be well rounded out with straight rows of regular kernels, having nearly the same depth, width, thickness, and shape as the body kernels. Deduct one- eighth to one-haK point for each ear with a deficient butt. (e) Tips. The tips should be covered to the end of the cobs with kernels arranged in straight rows and having nearly the same size and shape as the body kernels. Shallow, narrow, irregular, ghstening, and shot-shaped kernels are objectionable. Deduct one-eighth to one-half point for each ear with an inferior tip. The Kernels: (a) Size and Shape. Size of kernels includes depth, width, and thickness. Width, thickness, and shape vary with varieties. In general, kernels should be keystone-shaped with plump and well-developed tips. Pointed, shoe-peg, and rectangular kernels should be discriminated against. In thickness the kernels should number about six to the inch in the row. For each ear showing kernels deficient in size and shape deduct from one-eighth to one point. (b) Uniformity. The kernels from the different ears should be uniform in depth, width,»thickness, and shape in order to supply as much uniform corn as 28 possible. The individual kernels on each ear should also be uniform. Deduct one-eighth to one-half point for each ear with kernels differing from the pre- vailing type. (c) Space Between Rows. Large open spaces between rows either at the crowns or the tips of the kernels, or between kernels in the same row, are objectionable. There should be only sufficient space to permit satisfactory drying of the ears. Deduct one-eighth to one-half point for each ear not showing proper spacing. (d) Size and Condition of Germs. The germ should be long, wide, and thick. Cut through the kernels from tip to crown parallel to the edges to get an idea of the thickness of the germs. The germs should be smooth and bright, not shriveled, blistered, shrunken, mouldy, or discolored. The embryos proper should show a fresh, oily, and live appearance, and be a yellowish white in color. Deduct one-eighth to one point for each ear showing deficient germs. Size of Cobs. Size of cobs will vary with the variety and the locality in which the corn is grown. Large cobs are objectionable because they indicate late maturity, slow drying and reduction in the proportion of shell corn to the cob. Small cobs are undesirable, being associated with low yield. The cob should be of a medium size. Exercise No. 10 JUDGING CONTEST Object: To become familiar with different samples of corn, so as to be able to select the best samples. Material: As many ten-ear samples as can be conven- iently placed on the judging table. These samples should be placed first, second, third, etc. Be able to give reasons for placing them as you do. Conclusion: A written statement giving the reasons why they are so placed. Select ears for the following points. Make such observa- tions as will enable you to give actual score on the points enumerated. (a) Best shank of ear. (b) Best uniformity in size and indentation of kernels throughout the length of the ear. (c) Best length and shape of kernels. (d) Best example of color, luster, and condition of hull combined. (e) Poorest shape. (f) Poorest shank-scar. (g) Least uniformity of kernels. (h) Poorest length and shape of kernels. (i) Poorest condition of hull. (j) Which is the best sample, all points considered? (k) Which is the poorest sample, all points considered? 30 Exercise No. U WEIGHT OF EAR, AND NUMBER OF GRAINS IN BUSHEL Object: To determine the weight of an ear, and the number of grains in a bushel of corn. Material : A number of average ears of corn and a pair of scales that is accurate. Method : Weigh ten average ears of corn, one at a time, each member of the class using a different sample of ten ears. Count the grains by counting the rows and the number of kernels in a row. These multiplied together will give the number of kernels in the ear. Verify the weight by weighing the ten ears together. How many ears in a bushel? How many kernels? What effect does it have on the number of kernels and the number of ears in a bushel if the ears are large? The averages are to be made from the samples of the entire class. Compare a weighed bushel with a measured bushel. Conclusion : The average bushel of corn contains ears and has kernels. The aver- age weight of an ear is Exercise No. 12 A STUDY OF CORN ENEMIES Object: To learn to recognize some of the most import- ant enemies of the corn crop. Material : A good hand lens, samples of corn smut, corn root worm, corn root aphis, corn ear worm, chinch bug, white grub, and other cut worms in their different stages. 31 Method : Make a careful study of each in the laboratory. Conclusion : Make careful drawings of the more import- ant ones and write short descriptions of the others. Tell how each may be controlled. Exercise No. 13 GERMINATION TEST FOR SMALL GRAINS Object: To find out what per cent of the common small grains will grow. Material: Wheat, oats, rye, and barley kernels, blotting paper, and aluminum plate. 1 2 Method: Count l— Wheat 2.— Oat out 100 grains of each of the following: Wheat, oats, rye, and barley 32 3. — Rye 4. — Barley Wet four pieces of blotting paper, each about 4x8 inches in size. Place 100 grains of wheat in one piece of paper, fold it to 4x4 inches, and -lay it in the plate. Place each of the other grains in a separate paper and keep all in a moist place for three days. Then open the blotting paper and see what per cent of each has started to grow. Count those with a vigorous growth as strong; those just starting or of poor growth, as weak; those that have not started, as dead. If the class is not too large, let each pupil count two samples. Conclusion : What per cent of wheat was strong? weak? dead? Which samples were good enough to plant? What per cent of oats was strong? weak? dead? total? What per cent of rye was strong? weak? dead? total? What per cent of barley was strong? weak? dead? total? Exercise No. 14 PURITY TEST FOR SMALL GRAINS Object : To find the per cent of pure seed. Material: Samples of average wheat, oats, rye, and barley, and a pair of accurate scales. Method : Measure out a half pound of each of the four grains. Carefully pick out all the weed seed, dirt, and other impurities. Weigh the pure seed. 33 Conclusion: The pure seed was % of the sample. The losses from impurities were as follows : Wheat % weeds and dirt, or lb. per bu. Oats % weeds and dirt, or lb. per bu. Rye % weeds and dirt, or lb. per bu. Barley % weeds and dirt, or lb. per bu. Exercise No. 15 DRAWINGS OF THE OAT HEAD Object: To become familiar with the head of the oat plant. Material: Heads of the oat plant. Method : Make a detail study of the oat head in laboratory. (a) Make a drawing to show panicle, awn, rachis, whorl, and spikelet. (b) Draw an oat spikelet showing the outer glumes, outer hulls, awn, and undeveloped flower. (c) What is the difference between an oat grain and an oat kernel? Oat Head Oat Spikelet 34 Conclusion : What parts of the oat head should we strive to improve? - Why? In what way does the size or maturity of the grain influ- ence the number of bushels produced per acre? The points of difference. Exercise No. 16 DRAWINGS OF WHEAT OR BARLEY HEAD Object: To become familiar with the different parts of the wheat or barley head. Material : Heads of wheat or barley. Method: Make a detailed study of the head in the laboratory. (a) Draw a wheat or barley spikelet showing (1) beard, (2) grains, (3) rachis. 35 (b) Draw a wheat or barley spikelet showing (1) outer glume, (2) flowering glume, (3) awn. Rye Barley Wheat Wheat Head Spikelet Spikelet Spikelet Conclusion : In what way does the wheat or barley head differ from the oat head? - How does the size or shape of the head influence the yield? 36 Exercise No. 17 A STUDY OF THE SMALL GRAINS Object : To become familiar with the sizes and shapes of the kernels of common small grains. Material: Samples of wheat, rye, barley, and oat kernels. Method: Make drawings of the kernels of (a) wheat; (b) rye; (c) barley; (d) oats. Show 1st, grain; 2d, crease; 3d, hardiness; 4th, comparative size. (Make the drawing of the wheat kernel at least an inch in diameter.) 37 Exercise No. 18 TREATING OATS FOR LOOSE SMUT Object : To learn how to treat oats for loose smut. Material: A peck of oats and 5 cc. of formalin. (The proportion to use is one pint of formahn to 40 gallons of water.) Method : Add the 5 cc. of formalin solution to 1600 cc. of water. Pour the oats into a box and sprinkle them thor- oughly with a quart of the solution. Stir the mixture with your hand or a stick until every kernel is thoroughly moist- ened. Cover with a gunny sack for five hours. Then remove the sack and spread the oats out until dry. Forma- lin is also used for treating potato scab. Conclusion: What were the precautions in treating the oats with the formalin solution? The reasons for this treatment — Exercise No. 19 SCORING GRAINS ' Object: To be able to use a score card in judging seed. Material for Next Two Exercises: Samples of oats, wheat, and barley and three score cards. Method : Score each sample according to the special score card for that grain, as given in this exercise and the next. 38 SCORE CARD FOR OATS Use 100 grains for sample. Perfect Score Number of Sample I. Uniformity of type 15 15 30 20 20 II. Freedom from foreign matter III. Soundness IV. Proportion of kernel to hull V. Weight per bushel — Total 100 Explanation Uniformity op Type. The grain should be characteristic of the variety as shown by the size, shape, and color, and should also be uniform in these respects. Color refers to the natural hue, as white or yellow, hence discolor- ation of grains due to weathering should not be discriminated against under the heading uniformity. Differences in size, shape, and color of the grains usually indicate a mixture of varieties, and the sample should be cut according to the percentage mixture. When the variety characteristics are not known or considered, the sample should be scored only on uniformity of grains and not on variety characteristics. Deduct one point from the perfect score for each per cent of non-uniform grains in the sample. Freedom from Foreign Matter. Foreign matter includes everything in the sample that is not oats. This material may be classed under three general headings: (1) Weed seeds; (2) foreign grains; (3) inert material. Ordinarily, deduct one point from the perfect score for each four per cent of foreign matter. Soundness. The grain should have a bright, lustrous appearance, and should show strong vitality. It should not be damp, stained, weathered, discolored, immature, musty, mouldy, smutted, hulled, badly broken, or sprouted. The general rule is to deduct one point for each two per cent of unsound grains. Proportion of Kernel to Hull. The plumper the kernel and the thinner and shorter the hull, the higher the proportion of kernel to hull. Large, plump, and well-developed kernels provide an increased amount of material for germination. The proportion of kernel depends on (1) maturity; (2) de- velopment; (3) variety; (4) section in which grown. To determine the pro- 39 portion of kernel to hull, weigh 100 representative grains. Then hull them and weigh the kernels. For each per cent which the weight of kernel lacks of being 70% of the whole, a deduction of two points should be made, and for each per cent above 70, one point should be added to the total score. Weight per Bushel. Characteristics which indicate heavy weight per bushel are: (1) Medium-sized grains; (2) plump kernels; (3) thin, close- fitting, short hulls without awns. The weight of a bushel should be 32 lb. For each pound short of the standard, deduct one and one-half points from the perfect score. For each pound above the standard, add three-fourths of a point to the total score. Exercise No. 20 SCORE CARD FOR WHEAT Use 100 grains for sample. CJnARAPTKRTSTTrS CiV CrOOD WhEAT Perfect Score Number of Sample I. Uniformity of type 15 20 30 20 15 11. Freedom from foreign matter III. Soundness IV. Weight per bushel V. Hardness Total 100 Explanation Uniformity of Type. Spring wheat grains are shorter, stubbier, and usually have more angular grooves than those of the hard winter varieties. The grains should be characteristic of the variety, as shown by the size, shape, and color, and should also be uniform in these respects. Color refers to the natural hue, as white, light red, or amber; hence discoloration of grains due to weathering should not be discriminated against under the heading uniform- ity. Deduct one point from the perfect score for each four per cent of non- uniform grains in the sample. Freedom from Foreign Matter. Foreign matter includes every thing in the sample that is not wheat: (1) Weed seeds; (2) foreign grains; (3) inert 40 material. Ordinarily, deduct one point from the perfect score for each three per cent of foreign matter. Soundness. The grain should be relatively large and plump, should have a bright, lustrous appearance, and should show strong vitahty. It should not be damp, bleached, weathered, discolored, musty, decayed, sprouted, stack- or bin-burnt, shriveled, shrunken, broken, smutted, or insect injured. The general rule is to deduct one point for each two per cent of unsound grains. Weight per Bushel. Plump, well-developed grains of medium size indicate a high weight per bushel; whereas shriveled and shrunken kernels indicate a low weight grain. Conditions of unsoundness, as mustiness, mouldiness, dampness, sprouted kernels, and results of exposure to inclement weather will lower the weight. Standard weight per bu. — 60 lb. Ordinarily the greater the weight per bushel, the more desirable the grain for seed. For each pound short of the standard deduct one and one-half points from the total score. For each pound above the standard add three-fourths of a point to the total score. Hardness. The degree of hardness depends upon (1) variety; (2) section in which grown; (3) growing conditions. Usually the more favorable the growing conditions the plumper and more starchy the grain. To get an idea of the hardness, several representative grains should be cut in cross-section. The dark red and flinty appearing grains are the most desirable, as they have a higher gluten content and produce an excellent quality of flour when milled. Exercise No. 21 PURITY TEST OF LEGUMES Object : To determine the per cent of pure seed in a given sample. Material : Samples of about 100 seeds each of alfalfa, red, white, and sweet clover, and a hand lens. Method : From the sample of each legume seed count out the pure seeds. A hand lens can be used to identify the seeds when in doubt. Estimate the per cent of pure seed, of weed seed, and of dirt. Write the names of all the weed seed found in the sample. 41 Conclusion: Pure seed weed seed dirt What is the result when impure seed is sown? - Exercise No. 22 GERMINATION TEST OF LEGUME SEEDS Object: To find out what per cent of the legume seed will grow. Material: Alfalfa, red, white, and sweet clover seed, soy beans, vetch, cowpeas, plate, and blotting paper. (Use as many of these samples as time will permit.) Method: Count out 50 or 100 seeds of each sample. Take a piece of blotting paper 4x8 inches. Place the sample counted in the blotting paper after the paper is thoroughly wet. Leave it in a warm place for three days. Count the number of seeds that have made a vigorous growth, as strong; those just starting, as weak; and those that have not started, as dead. Conclusion: % was strong. % was weak. % was dead. Was the seed good enough to sow? 42 Exercise No. 23 DRAWINGS OF THE LEGUMES Object : To study in detail the legume plants. Material: Samples of alfalfa, red, alsike, crimson, sweet, and white clover, vetch, soy beans, and peanuts with both tops and roots. Method: Make a careful drawing of each legume that can be secured, showing the stem, flower, and rooting system with nodules on the roots. Each drawing should cover one fourth of a page. Label each drawing in detail so as to bring out the characteristics of the plant. 43 Alfalfa Red Clover Sweet Clover White Clover Form of Flower of A Legume 44 45 Exercise No. 24 PURITY TEST OF NON-LEGUMES Object: To find the per cent of pure seed in a given sample. Material : Samples of about 100 seeds each of timothy, red top, blue grass, orchard grass, and any other grass seed that is commonly grown, and a hand lens. Method: From each sample count out the pure seeds. Estimate the per cent of pure seed, of weed seed, and of dirt. Write the name of all the weed seed found in the samples. Conclusion : Pure seed weed seed. dirt What is the result when impure seed is sown? Which samples of seeds are good enough to sow? Exercise No. 25 GERMINATION OF NON-LEGUME SEEDS Object: To find what per cent of non-legume seed will grow. Material: Timothy, red top, blue grass, and orchard grass seed, a plate, and blotting paper. Method: Count out 50 or 100 seeds from each sample. Take a piece of blotting paper 4x8 inches, place the selected seeds on blotting paper which has been thoroughly wet. Leave it in a warm place for three days. Count the seeds that made a vigorous growth as strong; those just starting as weak; and those that have not started as dead. 46 Conclusion: % was strong. % was weak. % was dead. Was the seed good enough to sow? What effect does poor seed have on the amount of seed to sow? Exercise No. 26 DRAWINGS OF NON-LEGUME PLANTS Object : To study in detail non-legume plants. . Material : Samples of both top and roots of non-legume plants such as timothy, red top, blue grass, orchard grass, and any other common grasses. Method: Make a careful drawing of each,* showing the stem, flower, and rooting system. Each drawing should cover a page. Label each drawing in detail so as to bring out the characteristics of that particular grass, as timothy to show the bulb at the base of the stalk. Conclusion: Make a comparison of the grasses showing how they differ. 47 48 49 50 61 Exercise No. 27 A STUDY OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF HORSES Object: To learn to locate the parts of a horse and to learn the difference between the draft horse and the road horse. Material : A horse of the draft type, a horse of the road type, and a chart showing divisions and parts of the horse. Method: Draw an outline of a horse. Go over the outline carefully, labeling, the parts with their correct names as shown by the chart. With the outline in hand locate and name the parts of each horse. Note the points that make the draft type different from the road type. 52 Conclusion : Name the points of the draft horse that are different from those of the road horse, giving reasons for their being different. Exercise No. 28 USE OF A SCORE CARD Object: To learn the comparative values of the different parts of a horse and to compare two different specimens. Material: Two horses of the draft breed previously studied in class work. Score cards. Method : Score the better individual and write up a com- parison of the two horses. Go over the two carefully, point- ing out the differences and correcting scores. 53 SCORE CARD FOR A DRAFT HORSE ScAT.F, OF Points for Draft Horse Perfect Score Student's Score Corrected Score General Appearance: 22 points. Age Height Weight; 1750 lb. or more, subtracting one point from total score for every 25 lb. under weight Form; broad, massive, low set, pro- portioned, ribs long and well sprung; fllank low 6 6 4 6 4 4 2 4 2 2 2 12 Quality; bone clean; tendons distinct; skin and hair fine Temperament; energetic, good disposi- tion Set of Legs; legs straight and set squarely under the body Head and Neck: 10 points. Head and Ears; head lean and medium size; ears medium size, alert, well carried : • Eyes; full, bright, clear, large Neck; muscled, crest high, throat-latch clean, windpipe large FoREQUARTERs: 22 poiuts. Shoulders; sloping, smooth, extending into back, withers fine Arm and Forearm; weU muscled, arm short, forearm long and wide Knees; wide clean cut, straight, deep, strongly supported Cannons; short, wide, tendons large and weU set back Pasterns and Feet; pasterns sloping, lengthy, strong; feet large, even size, straight, dark colored, sole concave, frog large, elastic, heel wide. (Watch for side bones) 54 SCORE CARD FOR A DRAFT HORSE —Continued Scale of Points for Draft Horse Perfect Score Student's Score Corrected Score Body: 8 points. Chest ; deep, wide, large girth 4 2 2 2 2 6 12 2 6 8 Back; short, broad, heavily muscled Loin; wide, short, thick Hindquarters: 30 points. Hips; smooth, wide Croup; long, wide, muscular, tail attached high Thighs and Quarters; heavily muscled, quarters deep, thick No spavins . Cannons; short, wide, with tendons set far back . Pasterns and Feet; pasterns sloping, strong, lengthy; feet large, even size, straight, dark color, sole con- cave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide Action: Walk; smooth, quick, long, balanced; trot rapid, straight, regular Total -. 100 '- 55 Exercise No. 29 FEEDING Object: To become acquainted with the commercial feeds which it is proper to combine with native food stuffs, and to learn how to work out a suitable ration for a horse. Material: Samples of different feeds, both commercial and native, iri bottles, and as many in bulk as can be secured. (Have these samples in small pans.) Method: Examine the feeds. Discuss these feeds as to their use in horse feeding, using a good table showing the per cent of digestible nutriment in each. Work out a ration for a 1000-pound horse at work. Show how to determine the amount of each feed to use from the nutritive ratio. Work out a ration for a 1600-pound horse doing medium work. Conclusion: Explain an economical ration for a 1000- pound horse. Explain an economical ration for a 1600-pound horse. 56 Exercise No. 30 A STUDY OF A DAIRY BARN Object: To study a dairy barn and the method of han- dling milk. Material : A dairy barn. Method: A trip should be taken to one of the dairy barns in the community. A careful study should be made of the arrangement of the barn, sanitary conditions inside and around the barn, also the method of handling and caring for the milk. Conclusion: Make a brief statement of the arrange- ment and sanitary conditions of the barn, and some sugges- tions for improvements. 57 A Modern Dairy Barn 58 Exercise No. 31 SCORING A DAIRY COW Object: To become familiar with the conformation of the dairy cow. Method: After the different terms have been explained score the cow according to the following score card : Breed Estimated Age_ Estimated Weight. SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY COW ; Name of Cow Date of Birth Corrected Weight. Scale of Points Perfect Score Student's Score Corrected Score General Appearance : 18 points. Size; medium to large, according to breed 2 4 4 4 4 1 3 1 1 1 Form; symmetrical, spare throughout, wedge shaped Health; apparently vigorous and thriftj'^ QuaUty; hair fine, soft, skin mellow, loose, medium thickness, veins prominent on udder and face; secretions yellow and abundant; bone clean, fine Temperament; mild disposition, much nerve energy, incUned to convert food into milk, lean appearance when in milk Head: 7 points. Muzzle; moist, clean cut; mouth large; lips strong, nostrils large, open Eyes; large, protruding, bright, mild. . . Face; lean, medium length, showing facial veins Forehead; broad, dishing Ears; size medium; texture fine; secre- tions abundant / 59 SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY COW— Continued Scale of Points FoREQUARTERS : 7 pomts. Neck; length medium, refined; throat clean; dewlap light Withers; lean, thin, sharp Shoulders; light, obUque Legs; straight, short, wide apart; shank fine Body: 26 points. Chest; deep, broad, and roomy Barrel; deep, long, capacious; ribs broad, long, wide apart; paunch large, well held up Back; lean, straight, open vertebrae, strong Loin; broad and strong ^ Crops; spare and A-shaped Hindquarters: 12 points. Hips; far apart, level with pin bones. . Rump; long, wide, level, pelvis roomy. . Pin Bones; high, wide apart Thigh; thin, long, spare Legs; straight, wide apart; shank fine Tail; set on level with back, long, slim; hair fine Mammary System: 30 points. Udder; long, attached high, full be- hind; extended far in front and full, flexible; quarters even, free from fleshiness, not cleft between teats Teats; large, cyUndrical, evenly placed Mammary Veins; large, long, tortuous, extending well forward; milk wells large Total ' 60 Perfect Score 2 2 2 1 10 10 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 20 5 100 Student's Score Corrected Score Exercise No. 32 BABCOCK TEST Object: To determine the per cent of butterfat in milk. Material : Babcock Tester, milk testing bottles, pipette, a sample bottle of whole milk, an acid measure, and a bottle of sulphuric acid. Method : After the sample of milk has been well shaken, insert the pipette in it and with the mouth suck the milk up until it has risen above the 17.6 cc. mark. Then quickly place the soft part of the index finger over the end of the pipette. The column of milk can be easily controlled and allowed to flow out until it is on a level with the 17.6 cc. mark. The pipette should always be so held that the 17.6 cc. mark is on a level with the eye. Transfer the milk in the pipette to the bottle, holding the latter in a slanting posi- tion, so that the milk will run down the lower inside of the bottle neck and will not be forced out by the outcoming air. After transferring the milk into the bottle, add to it 17.5 cc. of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83. The milk and the acid should be thoroughly mixed at once. The acid burns up (by moist combustion) every- thing in the milk except the fat. The same precautions should be observed in adding the acid as in inserting the milk, namely, to slant the bottle, and the bottle should be revolved as the acid is poured in, so that all of the milk adhering to the neck of the bottle will be washed down. If the acid is too weak, more than 17.5 cc. is used, and if too strong, less than 17.5 cc. is used. Good acid is colorless, although it may be quite dark and contain undissolved foreign particles. 61 After adding the acid to the milk, the bottles should be placed in the machine and whirled. Care should be taken to have the machine well balanced, that is, for every bottle on one side of the machine there should be a corresponding bottle on the opposite side. The bottles are whirled for five minutes and then filled with hot water up to the base of the neck. Whirling is then continued for two minutes more and hot water is added to bring the fat into the graduated neck to about 9% so that it can be easily read. The whirling is then continued for one minute. BaBCOCK TfiSTER The bottles are ready to read, and in case of whole milk one should read between the extreme points of the fat column. The bottles should be read at the temperature of 120° F. The skimmed milk is tested in the same way as the whole milk, except that the skim milk bottle is used instead of the whole milk bottle. If time permits, cream may be tested for butter fat. It is weighed instead of measured. C2 Nine grams are usually used instead of 18. The correction is made in the reading. Conclusion: The whole milk tested %. The skim milk tested.. %. The cream tested %. Exercise No. 33 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK Object: To become famihar with the physical properties of milk. Material: Samples of whole milk, cream, skim milk, a compound microscope, beakers, a lactometer, and oHve oil. Method: 1. Examine a sample each of cream, whole milk, and skim milk under a compound microscope. (a) Make a detailed drawing of a section of the field. (1) cream; (2) whole milk; (3) skim milk. (b) What is the nature of the distribution of the globular bodies in each field? Can you infer what has caused the changes? 2. Add a few drops of olive oil to a test tube half full of water. After vigorously shaking the test tube, hold it in the hght and observe the change that takes place. (a) What is the proof that oil is lighter than water? Why does cream rise to the surface of the milk when left in a quiet place? 3. By the use of a lactometer determine the comparative weights of water, skim milk and whole milk. Does the heavy or light hquid exert the greater upward pressure (buoyant force) on the lactometer when submerged in it? 63 Conclusion: What things have you learned about the physical properties of milk? Exercise No. 34 COMPARATIVE COSTS OF DIFFERENT CUTS OF BEEF Object: To locate the different cuts of beef, and to learn the value of them. Material : An outline drawing of a beef animal, an outline of the dressed carcass, a table of the prices of each part, compared with the whole beef animal. Method: 1. Make a careful outline drawing of the beef animal. Locate the different cuts on a live animal. Fill in the outline by naming each part that is used for beef. 64 Location of Cuts of Beep 65 2. Make an outline drawing of the beef carcass. Label the parts in the drawing. Number them according to their importance from the butcher's standpoint. Diagram of Beep Carcass Cuts of Beef: Hi^dquarters : Hound, loin, flank. Forequarters : Rib, chuck, plate, and fore shank. Conclusion: What parts should be developed most? Why? 66 COST OF LEAN AND OF TOTAL MEAT IN VARIOUS RETAIL CUTS AT ABOUT RETAIL MARKET PRICES RETAIL CUTS Retail price per pound of cut. Lean, fat and bone combined. Cost per lb. of only the lean and fat meat combined in cut. Steaks: Porterhouse, hip bone Porterhouse, regular Club steak Sirloin, butt-end Sirloin, round-bone Sirloin, double-bone Sirloin, hip-bone Flank steak Round, first cut Round, middle cut Round, last cut Chuck, first cut Chuck, last cut Roasts: Prime ribs, first cut Prime ribs, last cut Chuck, fifth rib Rump Boiling and Stewing Pieces: Round pot roast Shoulder clod Shoulder pot roast Rib ends ; . . . , Brisket Navel Flank stew Fore shank stew Neck . . Soup Bones: Hind shank, middle Hind shank, hock Fore shank, middle cut Fore shank, end $0.25 .25 .20 .20 .20 .20 .20 .16 .15 .15 .15 .12 .12 .26 .16 .15 .12 .10 .10 .10 .08 .08 .07 .07 .07 .06 .05 .05 . .05 .05 $0.29 .27 .23 .21 .21 .23 .24 .16 .15 .16 .16 .14 .13 .23 .19 .17 .13 .10 .10 .12 .09 .09 .08 .07 .07 .07 .06 .26 .09 .30 67 Exercise No. 35 SCORING BEEF CATTLE Object: To learn the value of the different parts of the beef animal from the farmer's standpoint. Material : A beef animal and a score card. Method: Score the animal according to the score card. SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE Scale of Points for Beef Cattle General Appearance: 40 points. Weight, according to age Form; straight, top Hne and underUne, deep, broad, low set, styHsh Quahty; firm handUng; hair fine; pM- able skin ; dense bone ; evenly fleshed Condition; deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially in region of valu- able cuts Head and Neck: 7 points. Muzzle broad; mouth large; jaws wide; nostrils large Eyes; large, clear, placid Face; short, quiet expression Forehead ; broad, full Ears; medium size, fine texture Horns; fine texture, oval, medium size Neck; thick, short; throat clean FOREQUARTERS: 8 poiuts. Shoulder Vein; full Shoulders; covered with flesh, compact on top; smooth Brisket; advanced, breast wide Dewlap; skin not too lose and drooping straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth 68 Perfect Score 10 10 10 10 Points Deficient Student's Score Corrected Score SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE (Continued) Perfect Score Points Deficient Scale of Points for Beef Cattle Student's Score Corrected Score Body: 32 points. Chest; full, deep, wide; girth large; PTOT^Q full 4 8 10 8 2 2 2 1 4 2 2 Ribs; long, arched, thickly fleshed Back * broad straight even % Flank; full, even with underline Hindquarters: 13 points. Hips; smoothly covered ; distance apart in proportion with other parts Rump; long, wide, even; tail-head smooth * not natchv Pin Bones; not prominent ; far apart. . . Thiffhs' full dppT) wide Legs ; straight, short ; shank fine, smooth Total 100 Estimated Weights. Correct Weights Exercise No. 36 CUTS OF PORK Object: To learn the value of the different cuts of pork. Material : Outhne of a dressed hog, and the prices of the different cuts from the butcher's standpoint. Method : Make an outline of the dressed carcass. Write the name of each cut in its proper place. After discussing the value of each cut including weight and price, number the cuts on the outline according to their importance. 69 Location of Cuts of Pork Conclusion: Why is a long neck or long legs on hogs undesirable? What parts do the butchers want developed? Why? Which is the highest priced part of the hog? The lowest priced part? Diagram of Pork Carcass Cuts of the Hog and Prices Retail Cuts Retail Prices Neck $0.18 Feet .10 Shoulder .20 Ham .23 Back: Chops .27 Loin .25 Fat bacon .15 Side, bacon .15 71 Exercise No. 37 CUTS OF MUTTON Object: To learn the value of the different cuts of mutton. Material: Outline of a dressed sheep and the prices of the different cuts from the butcher's standpoint. Method : Make an outline of the dressed carcass. Write the name of each cut in its proper place. After discussing the relative value of each cut, number the cuts on the outline according to their importance. 72 Location of Cuts of Mutton 73 Cuts of THE Sheep, AND Prices Retail Cuts Retail Prices Neck $0.15 Shoulder 18 Back .25 Loin .15 Leg, hind .25 Flank .10 Breast .10 Leg, fore .10 Diagram op Mutton Carcass Conclusion: Why is a long neck or long legs on a sheep undesirable? What parts do the butchers want well devel- oped? Why? 74 Exercise No. 38 POULTRY HOUSE Object ; To become familiar with the poultry house. Material: Bulletins containing drawings of poultry houses. Method: After determining the size and arrangement of a poultry house, draw the plan to a scale. Draw both side and end elevations. Conclusion : The points to be considered in the construc- tion of a poultry house. Some strong points that can be brought out in the drawing. 75 Exercise No. 39 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS Object: To learn to recognize some of the common breeds of chickens. Material: Specimens of as many of the common breeds of chickens as can be secured. Method: Place the specimens before the class so that they can be studied by comparison and contrast. Remem- ber that form determines the breed and color determines the variety. Use the following classification : 1. Egg Breeds: Very hardy; close feathered; excellent foragers; very active; nervous; white ear lobes; good layers; poor sitters; mature early; small; graceful curves, as the Leghorns of medium size; long, sloping backs and a six- pointed comb, as the Minorcas. 2. General Purpose Breeds : Medium size; hardy; good foragers; fair sitters; good mothers; red ear lobes; brown tinted eggs; good winter layers; mature in 5| to 6| months as : (a) The American Class with yellow skin and shanks as, the Plymouth Rocks with single comb; high set, long backs, and deep body. The Wyandottes with rose comb, graceful curves, short, broad back, deep, round body, and very plump. The Rhode Island Reds with rich red combs, compactly built, and shoe-box shape. (b) The English Class with white skin and shanks as, the Orpingtons which are large and stately; have long, round, deep bodies; full breasts; broad backs; solid color; and good layers. 76 3. Meat Breeds: Large; heavy; loose feathered; feath- ered shanks; quiet; brown eggs; clumsy; good sitters, as the Cochins with single combs; round bodies; very deep, broad and massive; slow maturing; coarse meat; middle and outer toe feathered; persistent sitters; and heavy fluff, as the Brahmas with pea combs; well proportioned; compact bodies; not excesssive fluff; and very large.. Conclusion : How do you recognize each breed? Exercise No. 40 A GENERAL PURPOSE FOWL Object: To learn the points of a good general purpose fowl. Material: A good type of hen or rooster (both, if time permits) of some general purpose breed, a score card, and pictures of prize fowls. Method : Compare the specimen point by point with the ideal fowl, estimate the value of each point and express this on the score card. This work may be done as a class or in groups, the teacher directing the outline. Conclusion: Make out a score card for egg and meat breed to compare with this general purpose breed. 77 78 Exercise No. 41 POULTRY SCORE CARD RHODE ISLAND RED General Appearance Form Compact and symmetrical, no unusual devel- opment on any part of body or fat behind the legs. Quality Comb fine, flesh soft but not fat, skin medium thick and mellow. Temperament Active, vigorous, not lazy. Head and Neck Size of head medium, broad Eyes bright and full Comb and wattles medium size and bright red Neck of medium length, full Body Breast moderately full, but very wide Back wide and fairly long with great depth from back to keel Hindquarters greatly developed with the heaviest part of the body carried back of the hock joint . . Fluff abundant, fine, and close to body Lay bones soft and wide spread Tail set high and well spread Wings held well up and close to the body ?s Well spread and set wide apart at tne hock joint, free from feathers Length medium to short Color of shank, yellow or white Total Perfect Score 12§ 3i 7| 1 li 3 2 25 3 7i li 8 1 Corrected Score 100 79 Exercise No. 42 ^ THE FORMATION OF AN EGG Object: To learn how the egg is formed. Material : A laying hen. Method: Dissect a hen in the class. Study the repro- ductive parts as they are located in the hen. Conclusion: The ovary, ovules, and ovaduct are the names of the reproductive organs. Parts of the ovaduct are the funnel (f hr.); albumen secretion parts, isthmus (f hr.); shell gland (14 to 16 hr.). These numbers indicate the time each part takes in the formation of an egg. Make a drawing of the reproductive parts and properly label each part of it. Exercise No. 43 THE PARTS OF AN EGG Object: To learn to name the parts of an egg and to tell a fertile from an infertile egg. Material : Saucers, fertile and infertile eggs. 80 Method: Break each egg into a saucer, study the' parts and locate them; as shell, outer and inner membrane, white, yolk, spirals or chalaza, air space, and germ. Conclusion: The parts of the egg properly located and labeled. The fertile egg has a band around the germ, while the infertile egg has only a spotted germ in it. Exercise No. 44 THE EFFECT OF FEED ON THE COLOR OF EGGS Object: To learn the effect of feed on the color of eggs. Material : Eggs produced by hens fed on green feed and eggs produced by hens deprived of green feed. Method: Break eggs of each kind in saucers and com- pare those of hens fed green feed with those deprived of green feed. Conclusion: Does the color of eggs depend upon the feed? How do you account for this? 81 Exercise No. 45 CANDLING EGGS Object: To be able to tell the freshness of eggs without breaking them. Material : Some fertile eggs, some infertile eggs known to be bad, some fertile eggs known to have been under a hen from 24 to 60 hours, a dark room, a lamp, and a shoe box. Method: Cut a hole in the box large enough to fit around the lamp chimney as shown in the illustra- tion. Cut a hole about the size of a half dollar in the end of the box opposite to the hght. Hold the egg in front of the hole in the box, and turn it from side to side. Note the appearance of the yolk. The air space in a fresh egg is about the size of a dime; if dry, it may be the size of a quarter. The egg should be clear except a shadow across the yolk. If the egg contains a spot or sticks to one side, break and examine it. As an egg becomes older, the white loses its firm, thick, viscous condition and becomes thinner, and more watery The thinner white allows the yolk to pass more rapidly and the yolk appears through the thinner white to be darker in color. The air space, separated by the shell membrane. Home-Made Candling Outfit becomes larger as the egg becomes older, so the freshness of the egg is told by the yolk and the air space. The fertile egg will show the developing germ, while no germ can be seen in the infertile egg. (For illustrations see Iowa Exten- sion Bulletin No. 25.) Conclusion : How many of the eggs examined were fresh? What was the condition of the other eggs? Explain the use of the germ in the fertile egg. Exercise No. 46 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON EGGS Object: To learn the effect of keeping eggs at different temperatures. Material : Eggs that have been kept at temperatures of 35 and 70 degrees, and fresh eggs. Method : Candle, break, and examine. Conclusion: State the condition of eggs kept at each temperature as compared with fresh eggs. 83 Exercise No. 47 SCORING EGGS SCORE CARD FOR EGGS Disqualifications: Double yolk, cracked and extremely dirty shells, extremely shrunken, spotted or loose contents in any one egg of the dozen. Scale op Points Perfect Score Student's Score Corrected Score 1. Weight.. 20 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 24 to 28 oz. per doz. Cut two points for each oz. over or under weight. 2. Uniformity of size All eggs should be of the same size. 3. Shape Should be typical egg shape, free from ridges, uniformly the same for the entire dozen. 4. Strength and smoothness of shell Shell should be free from wrinkles, cracks, and rough places. 5. Condition of shell. . Free from dirt or stain and free from gloss, showing that the egg is fresh and unwashed. 6. Uniformity of color If white, the eggs should be all pure white and of same shade; if brown the color may be any shade, but imiformly the same for the doz. 7. Quahty: (a) Fullness (Small air cell) (b) Clearness Test with candler. A very small air cell not larger than a dime indi- cates freshness. The egg must appear clear, free from dark colored spots, the white thick, the yolk barely visible. Large air cells or floating yolk are disqualifications. Total 100 84 Exercise No. 48 CARING FOR AND MARKETING EGGS Object: To learn how to care for eggs and to market them. Material: An egg tester and eggs that have been stored for several weeks (a) in a hving room of a house and (b) in a cool cellar; fresh eggs and eggs which have been incubated for different periods; three lots of eggs of a dozen each, one carefully sorted for color and size, one of various colors, and one of uniform color, but of various shapes and sizes. Method: 1. The Effect of Storage. Candle several fresh eggs. Candle others which have been incubated for one, three, and seven days respectively, and several from each of the two sets of stored eggs. Make careful com- parisons. 2. Preparation for Market. Compare the three sets of market eggs. Rank them in the order in which you think they would sell, giving your reasons. Visit a grocery store and note whether the eggs there have been sorted to uniform shapes, sizes, and colors. Conclusion : What difference did you find between fresh and stored eggs? Would you store eggs in a Uving room of your home or in a cool cellar? Give reasons. What changes did you find in eggs due to incubation? Does this help to explain any of the conditions that you found in stored eggs? State briefly how you would prepare eggs for market so as to make them most salable 85 Exercise No. 49 PICTURE BOOK Object: To make a picture book of animals that will show the chief characteristic of the different types and breeds and a comparison of them. Material: An ordinary scrap book, scissors, paste, and papers with good pictm-es of the different types and breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, and chickens. Method : Paste in the book several good pictm*es of the Percheron followed by the Clydesdale, Shire, etc., until there is a complete Ust of all the different types and breeds. At the end of this group paste in one picture of each breed or type to show a comparison. Follow this with good pictures of cattle, sheep, hogs, and chickens arranged in the same manner as those of the horse. At the end of each lot of pictures paste in one of each type and breed to show a com- parison. Conclusion : The book completed. 86 Exercise No. 50 COMPOSITION OF SOIL Object: To learn the composition of different kinds of soil. Material : A compound microscope, samples of clay, silt, loam, muck, and sand. Method : Observe each of the different kinds of soil under the microscope and note its composition as to (a) size, (b) kind of material, (c) most common form of particles, and (d) color. Conclusion: Make drawings of the comparative sizes of the different soils examined. Exercise No. 51 TESTING SOILS Object: To see if the soils in the community need lime. Material : Soil auger, red and blue litmus paper, muriatic acid, and fields in the community. Method: Make the first test on the school lot. Take the top soil, and the soil six inches, one foot, two feet, and four feet deep. The test is made by taking some of the soil from each depth. A handful is enough for the test, which 87 should be made when the soil is damp or it will need to be dampened. Place the litmus paper in the middle of the soil and squeeze it tightly. Leave it for five minutes. Red lit- mus paper will turn blue if the soil is alkali. Blue litmus paper will turn red, if the soil is sour. If the soil contains enough lime (is not sour) the acid will foam with httle white bubbles. Make the test in as many places as time will permit. They should be made in fields that are to be farmed the coming year so as to see the effect of any treatment that is given them. Conclusion: What was the condition of the soil where the different tests were made? Exercise No. 52 SIZE OF SOIL PARTICLES Object: To show that soils are composed of particles of various sizes. Material: Samples of as many different kinds of soil as can be found. Method: Place a handful each of clay, peat, and muck in a jar one-third filled with water, and shake well. Pour off the water in a few minutes. Slowly evaporate the residue to dryness, meanwhile allowing the muddy water to 88 settle for an hour. Then pour off the clear portion of the solution. Compare the dried residue from each soil, which will essentially be sand, silt, and clay. Note the varying proportion of the residues in the different soils. Study the different types of soil. Compare them as to color, size of particles, consistency, and behavior when wet and when dry. Note the kind and appearance of plants growing on each. Conclusion: Why should the first dried residue be of coarser particles than the second, and the second coarser than the material remaining suspended in the muddy water? Why should soils differ in type, in color, and in size of particles? Why do clays wet readily and sands wet much more slowly? Why do differences occur in temperatures of different soils? Why does grass grow better on clay loams than on sandy loams, and corn better in a sandy region than on clay? 89 Exercise No. 53 PERCOLATION OF WATER Object: To show the percolation, or downward pressure, of water. Material : Lamp chimneys, soils, and cheese cloth. Method : Fill a lamp chimney (closed at the bottom with a piece of cheese cloth tied tightly over it) with some of the soils to be tested. Fill another lamp chimney with another kind of soil. Pour water upon the top of each column of soil and note the percolation of the water through it. Conclusion : Does the water stay in the tubes? In which one does it pass through more quickly? In which one least quickly? Compare various kinds of soil in this respect. Measure the amount of water percolated through each chimney in half an hour. What can you say about the power of sand to hold rain which falls upon it? Its power to take up moisture from below? Why is it well to run a roller over a sandy soil? Why is water more likely to run off the surface of a clay soil than of a sandy soil? What may be done to the sand to make it hold water better? 90 Exercise No. 54 WATER ENTERING A TILE DRAIN Object: To determine how and where water enters the tile drain. Material: A quart tin can, a quantity of fine sand or ojf sandy loam soil. Method: Punch three nail holes in the can, one about three-fourths of an inch from the bottom, the second about the same distance above the first but a little to the right of it; the third hole about three-fourths of an inch above the second and a little to the right of it. Fill the can with soil to within half an inch of the top. Pour water on the soil and notice from which hole the water comes first. Conclusion: From which hole did the water begin to flow first? If the lowest hole then represents the bottom of the tile, the second one the middle of the tile, and the third the top of the tile, where does the water naturally enter the tile? Can you tell why the water enters the joints at the bottom? 91 Exercise No. 55 SUN'S HEAT ON DRY AND WET SOILS Object: To note the effect the sun has on the tempera- ture of a dry soil and a wet soil. Material: Two chalk boxes, dry sand, water, two ther- mometers, and scales. Method: Weigh one of the boxes empty. Fill this box with dry sand, and weigh the box and sand together. De- termine the weight of the sand. Add water to the amount of about 15% of the weight of the sand. Fill the second box with sand. Place each box in the sunlight. Put a ther- mometer two inches deep into each box. Take the tem- perature at the start, at the end of ten. minutes, and in twenty minutes later. Results : Condition Box 1 Box 2 Temperature when started Temperature at end of 10 minutes Temperature at end of 20 minutes Difference between start and 10 minutes Difference between 10 and 20 minutes Conclusion : Which box was the warmer? Would you consider early evening or early morning the better time for watering plants? Why? Exercise No. 56 RISE OF WATER IN SOIL Object: To study the rise of water in soils of different types. Material: Three tall lamp chimneys; pieces of cheese cloth to cover the bottoms of the lamp chimneys; a shallow pan; water; gravel, sandy loam and clay loam soils, both air dried, and a sieve. Method: Tie a piece of cheese cloth over the bottom of each lamp chimney. Fill each lamp chimney with one of . the soils, jarring it so as to settle the soil, making it of uniform density. Stand the chimneys full of soil in the pan of water. Watch the water rise in the chimneys. If it is necessary to use two or more pans, keep the water in them at uniform height. Conclusion: In which chimney does the water rise immediately? In which pan is there apparently a very little rise of water? In which tube does the water reach the top first? Does the water in all the chimneys finally reach the top? What kind of soil carries water up to plants most rapidly if the distance is not too great? What type of soil is best for crops needing a large amount of water, if the water supply or the water table or standing water is not too far below the surface? In what kind of soil will water rise to the greatest height? 93 Exercise No. 57 RATE OF PERCOLATION Object : To show the rate of percolation of water through fine textured and coarse textured soils. Material : A very fine sand, a coarse sand, two funnels or percolators. Method: Place the samples of each of the sands in the different percolators, filling them to a height of about six inches. Invert over each funnel a bottle full of water, arranging the bottles so that an equal head of water will be maintained above the top of the sand in each percolator. As soon as the water is running steadily in each through the sands, place beakers under each percolator and note the time this is done. At the end of a given time, remove the beakers and measure each by the quantity of water that is run through a 100 cc. graduate. Calculate the rate of flow of water in cubic centimeters per second. Conclusion : What is the influence of the size of the soil grains on the amount of percolating water? Is leaching a more important problem on coarse grained or on fine grained soil? -- - -. 94 Exercise No. 58 PLOWING-UNDER ORGANIC MATTER Object : To illustrate the effect of plowing-under organic matter. Material: Two lamp chimneys, a quantity of dry fine soil, some finely cut straw or chaff, some well rotted straw, and some manure. Method : Tie a cloth over the bottom of each chimney. Fill each chimney three-fourths full of soil. In one put an inch of cut straw, pushing it compactly together. In the other put an inch of the rotted straw likewise pushed to- gether. To each add enough fine soil to fill the chimney. Set each chimney in a pan in a half inch of water. Allow them to stand for a few days. Conclusion: Note the rise of the water. Does it pass through the straw as quickly as it does through the rotted material? Why? The straw and rotted material represent material plowed under and lying in the bottom of the furrow. The soil on top represents the furrow slice. In which con- dition do you think a crop would suffer least from dry weather? When should strawy manures be plowed under? When should new ground be broken up? Should spring or fall be chosen for these purposes? Why? 95 Exercise No. 59 FREEZING AND THAWING ' Object : To show the effect of freezing and thawing upon soil structure. Material : Clay soil and a mixing board. Method : Take a big handful of clay, wet it, mix it well, and mould it into a ball with the hands. Prepare a second ball of clay in the same manner, adding the same quantity of water to an equal weight of clay. Expose the second ball of clay to alternate freezing and thawing about ten times. Keep the first ball in a frozen condition. At the end of a week allow both balls to thaw out. Conclusion: Compare their structures. What has hap- pened? Tell the reason. Exercise No. 60 SOIL DRAINAGE Object : To show the effect of drainage on soil. Material: Two empty flower pots, paraffin, and two healthy growing flowers. Method: Number the flower pots 1 and 2. Plug up hole in each with melted paraffin so that no air can pass through. In the bottom of No. 2 put about one inch of pebbles or coarse sand. Fill each pot nearly full with a mixture of good soil and sand, three parts of soil to one part of sand. Place one of the healthy flowers in each pot. The flowers should be of the same size. The soil should be packed around them so that they will grow. Water the flowers until the soil is saturated; then place the pots in a sunny window. Place a thermometer in each pot with the bulb about two inches below the surface of the soil. Make note of the temperature every day for two weeks or until the plants start to grow. Conclusion : When the above conditions exist in the soil of fields, in which field will the water penetrate more easily? In which field will the temperature be higher? After these records have been taken, the plants should be watered and left growing for a month. At the end of this time which has developed the better root system? In which pot do the roots go the deeper? Why? What is the effect of drainage on plant growth? -..: 97 Exercise No. 61 OXYGEN AND GERMINATION Object: To learn whether oxygen is necessary for germi- nation. Material: Beans or peas, two one-pint Mason jars, and saw dust. Method: Soak the seeds 12 to 24 hours. Place a layer of saw-dust an inch deep in each jar and cover with a piece of blotting paper. In one jar place a few seeds and cover loosely. Fill the other jar full and cover tightly so that there will then be but Httle air for each seed. Set both jars in a warm place for several days. Conclusion: Explain the difference in the growth of the two lots of seed. Under what field conditions would seeds get too little air? Exercise No. 62 EFFECT OF LIGHT UPON GERMINATION AND PLANT GROWTH Object: To learn the effect of hght upon germination and growth of plants. Material: Soaked grains of corn, germinated grains 'of corn with shoots two inches long, four flower pots, and soil. Method: Plant the corn that has been soaked over two nights in two of the pots and transplant one or more seed- 98 lings in each of the other two pots. Set all in a warm place near together. Cover pots containing one of each kind of corn with'^large tin cans so as to exclude the light but not the air. Leave for a week. Do not allow them to become very dry. Conclusion: Is light necessary for germination? Is it necessary for healthy plant growth? Exercise No. 63 AMOUNT OF AIR NEEDED BY ROOTS Object : To learn whether roots need air. Material: Two bottles or glasses and some cuttings of willow or Wandering Jew. Method: Place two or three cuttings in each bottle, fill each one two-thirds full of water and over the surface of one pour a thin layer of sweet or castor oil to exclude the air. Leave them in a warm, sunny place for a week or more. Conclusion: Can roots grow without air? N. B. An excess of water in the soil largely excludes the air. Could you drown a tree or a corn plant? 99 Exercise No. 64 MOISTURE REQUIRED FOR GERMINATION Object: To learn how much moisture seeds require for germination. Material: Wheat, corn, beans, and sunflower seeds; tumblers or jelly glasses with covers, sand, and saw-dust. Method: Take four glasses. Fill each one-third full of sand ' or saw-dust. Leave one dry and make the others respectively, moist, very moist, and saturated. Plant three seeds of each of the different kinds in each glass. Set all in a dry place and cover to prevent drying. Conclusion: With what degree of moisture do these particular seeds germinate best? Exercise No. 65 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GERMINATION Object: To learn the temperature at which seeds germi- nate best. Material : Corn, oats, peas, and squash seeds; glasses and saw-dust. Method : Plant several seeds of each kind in moist saw- dust in each of the several glasses. Set one in a very warm place, one in an ice box, and the others in places with inter- mediate temperatures. Have other conditions so far as possible the same. Examine each every other day for a week. Conclusion: What temperatures do you find best for germination? Do seeds vary in this respect? 100 Exercise No. 66 DEPTH FOR PLANTING SEEDS Object : To determine the best depth for planting various seeds. Material: Box of soil, olive bottle eight inches high or Mason jar, so that plants may be observed. Twenty seeds each of beans, peas, clover, oats, etc. Method :* Plant a few seeds of each kind at depths of J, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches. Fill the jar with soil to within six inches of the top and plant a few seeds. Put in another inch of soil and plant more seeds. Continue this method of planting until the jar is full, arranging the seeds in different sized circles. Wrap a black cloth around the jar to exclude the light. Record the date at which each comes up, and tabulate results from the whole class record. Depth Planted Beans Peas Clover Oats Corn Wheat Radish ^ inch 1 inch 2 inches, etc Conclusion: Which should be planted deeper, peas or beans? Why this difference? In what way does tempera- ture, character of soil, and amount of moisture influence depth of planting? What is the purpose of rolling or '^plank- ing?" Is it more desirable with large or small seeds? In a wet or dry season? *With a large class divide the work and give each division different kinds of seeds. 101 * Exercise No. 67 ROOT GROWTH Object : To show the effect of soil on root growth. Material: A box five inches deep divided by a partition, with sand on one side of the partition and soil on the other side, and twelve kernels of corn. Method: Remove the partition and plant the corn between the sand and the good soil. After the corn has grown about ten inches high, remove the corn with the root system and notice which way the roots have grown and the difference in the size and the number of root hairs on the roots. (The plants should be kept well watered until they are removed.) Conclusion : Which soil contained the greater number of roots? Compare the size and length of the roots in the sand with those in the soil. Compare the number of root hairs on the roots in the sand with those in the soil. What caused this difference? What effect has good soil on the root system? 102 Exercise No. 68 AMOUNT OF WATER USED FOR PLANT GROWTH Object: To learn whether or not plants can use all the moisture in the soil. Material: Four flower pots, enough of each of the four kinds of soil to fill a pot, and four cuttings of geraniums (corn may be used) . Method : After the plants have grown to a height of three inches, water thoroughly. Allow the pots to stand without watering until the plants are badly withered. When it is evident that they can no longer absorb moisture from the soil, weigh the soil. Then thoroughly dry it by heating it in a pan, weigh it again, and ascertain the difference in weight. This difference is the amount of water in the soil that the plants cannot use. Conclusion: What per cent of water remained in each soil that the plant was not able to use?..... Which soil would you prefer in a dry season? Which soil would you prefer in a wet season? What can be learned from this exercise about the usable amount of water in the different soils? 103 Exercise No. 69 FARM DRAINAGE Object: To locate the drainage lines needed on a farm. Material : Plat of farm, paper, and rule. Method: Make a drawing of the lateral tile drainage needed on a 160-acre farm. Use red ink except for the heavy main lines, which should be black. Conclusion : Location of the tile drains and the number of rods of tile on the entire farm. 104 Exercise No. 70 MAKING CONCRETE Object : To learn how to make concrete. Material : Sand, gravel, cement, sieve, shovel, and bucket. Method : Make some concrete from one of the formulas in the book. The proportion of each material will depend upon where the concrete is to be used. The formula used should be the one that is used in the community where the pupils can also see the men making it. Concrete is a mixture of cement and sand, or of cement, sand, and gravel or crushed stone. It is used for building sidewalks, silos, reservoirs, dams, and a variety of other things. Sand and stone are bought by the cubic yard or load, and cement by the sack or barrel. A sack of cement is J of a barrel and a barrel is estimated to contain 4 cu. ft. and to weigh 376 lb. The materials which make up concrete are mixed in varying proportions, depending upon the purpose for which the concrete is to be used. A very common mixture is 1, 2, 4. This means that for making a cubic yard of concrete a certain amount of cement is used, 2 times as much sand (by volume), and 4 times as much stone. The table (ninth Une) shows the number of barrels of cement required for one cubic yard of concrete mixed in tjie proportion 1, 2, 4. The amounts of sand and stone required, expressed as parts of a cubic yard, may be figured as follows: 1.51 bbl. cement = 1.51 x4 cu. ft. =6.04 (cu. ft.). 6.04 6.04 cu. ft. = or .2237 cu. yd. 27 2 X.2237 cu. yd..= .4474, or approximately .45 cu. yd. of sand. 4 x.2237 cu. yd. = .8948, or approximately .89 cu. yd. of stone. 105 Proportion OF Volume Amounts in One Cubic Yard OF Concrete Cement Sand Stone or Gravel Cement Bbl. Sand Cu. Yd. Stone or Gravel Cu. Yd. 1 2 2i li li li 2 2 2i 3 3 4.80 3.87 3.21 2.74 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.74 1.51 1.24 1.16 1.06 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 Ex. 1. If cement costs $1.35 a bbl., sand $0.75 a cu. yd., and crushed stone $1.25 a cu. yd., what will be the cost of materials in a 1, 2, 3 mixture for 50 cu. yd. of concrete? Conclusion: The method of mixing and the proportion of each material used. 106 Exercise No. 71 FARM MACfflNERY Object : To become familiar with farm machinery. Material : An implement store. Method: Visit an implement store and find out all you can about the different kinds of farm machinery. Take a plow to pieces and try to put it together again. Conclusion : The things learned about the machinery as to the best kind to use in connection with wheat or alfalfa crop 107 Exercise No. 72 DRAWING PLANS OF FARM BUILDINGS Object : To learn to plan a house and a barn. . Material : Drawing paper, ruler, house, and barn plans. Method: Study a book of plans and the plans of several buildings in the community before starting to draw a plan. Conclusion : Draw plans for an ideal barn. Draw plans for an up-to-date country home. Draw each plan to an accurate scale. 108 109 Exercise No. 73 ROPE KNOTS Object: To learn to tie knots and to splice a rope. Material: 12 feet of rope and Iowa Extension Bulletin No. 24 Ames, Iowa, or Iowa Farmer's Bulletin No.638 or Cornell Reading Courses on Knots, Hitches and Splices, Cornell University. Method: Try to tie each knot and make a sphce as shown in the Bulletin. Conclusion : Name the knots tied and the sphces made. Exercise No. 74 LAYING OUT AN ORCHARD Object: To learn how to lay out an orchard. 110 Material: Three dozen stakes a foot and a half long, one dozen 3 feet long, all sharpened at one end, a hammer, plenty of string, three rings and a tape line. Method: See Bailey's ^Trinciples of Fruit-Growing,'' page 262. B AA' C D Fig. 1 Fig. 2 A. SQUARE METHOD Let A BCD represent a square acre bounded by field lines or fences. The problem is to stake this field preparatory to planting an orchard, on the square system, the trees to be thirty feet apart and the outer trees to be fourteen feet from the fence lines. The larger stakes are guide stakes. These are to be used only as guides in sighting to test the position of the smaller stakes which are used to show the locations of the trees. The guide stakes are to be placed along the fence lines, fourteen feet apart and just far enough from the fences so that one can walk between them and the fences. Place one guide stake near hne AD, just 14 feet from point D. Place another near line BC, just 14 feet from point C. Place your first tree stake at point D' (See Fig. 1), which is just 14 feet from line DC and 14 feet from hne AD. Find this point by measurement. Test its position by sighting between the two guide stakes. Set a tree stake at C, following the same plan. Now make a right angle at point D' as follows. Measure 40 feet along hne DV, and fix point M (See Fig. 2). From D', using a tape line, swing a 30-foot arc, and from point M swing a 50-foot arc, the two arcs intersecting 111 at A^. The triangle D'MN (See Fig. 2) is a right angle. Fix point A' (Fig. 1) by continuing line D' N to a point 14 feet from fence line AB. Place a guide stake behind point A', along fence line AB. In the same manner, make a right angle at point A' and fix line A'B'. Then make a right angle at C and fix point B'. Next place guide stakes at E, E\ F, and F' (Fig. 1). Their exact position on the hne is immaterial so long as they are exactly on the line. Guide stakes are used only in sightyig. Finally, set all the tree stakes, beginning at point D'. Since all corners of the square are fixed, the setting of the tree stakes is merely a matter of accurate measuring and sighting. B. HEXAGONAL METHOD See Bailey's "Principles of Fruit-Growing," page 265. X ; cf \' v \' b The problem is to lay off a square acre according to the hexagonal system with the trees 30 feet apart each way. First fix the base line, following the plan used in Exercise A, and set the stake for the first tree, 14 feet from the fence hne, on this base line. Tie a ring on each end of a 30-foot string or wire and measuring with this apparatus set tree stakes along the base line at intervals of 30 feet. Next, using the 30-foot string, swing arcs from the tree stakes set on the base line. At the points of intersection of these arcs, as shown by the diagram, set stakes for the second row of trees. Then complete the lay-out of the other rows in the same manner. Make drawings showing the exact number of trees to the acre by each method. Conclusion : The number of the trees to the acre by the square system is The number of trees by the hexagonal system is There are % more trees by the method. 112 Exercise No. 75 GRAFTING WAX Object: To learn to make grafting wax. ' Material : Beeswax, rosin, tallow, and a pan. Method : Take ^ pound of rosin, ^ pound of beeswax, and 1^ pound of tallow, or in this proportion. After crushing the rosin into fine pieces put it in the pan and apply heat. It is not necessary to add water to the rosin. Add the beeswax and tallow after the rosin starts to boil. Boil slowly for 15 minutes and pour into cold water. Pull, like taffy, when it begins to cool, until the wax turns white. It is then ready for use. The hands should be well greased before handling the wax that it may be kept from sticking to them. Conclusion : What precaution should we take in making grafting wax? 133 Exercise No. 76 BRIDGE GRAFTING Object: To learn how to bridge over injured parts of trees. Material: A small orchard tree which has been girdled, and scions. Method: This grafting consists of bridging the injured parts by means of scions of the last season's growth to con- nect the part below the wound with the part above the wound. First trim the bark around the injured parts. Sharpen both ends of the scions and fasten them in the cambium layer above and below the wounded part. Cover well joinings with grafting wax and wrap with old cloth to keep the wax from drying out or from melting by the sun. Cleft Grafting Bridge Grafting (If the class has not done cleft grafting and budding, they should be included in this exercise.) 114 Exercise No. 77 PRUNING Object: To learn how to prune fruit trees. Material : Pruning shears, a saw, and a ladder. Method : Prune an old tree by first cutting out all dead hmbs, then prune it to a definite shape. In pruning small trees always cut to an outside bud, keeping in mind the shape of the tree during the next season's growth. Be sure you can give a reason for cutting each limb before the cut is made. Exercise No. 78 BORDEAUX MIXTURE Object: To make the Bordeaux Mixture. Material: 4 pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); 4 pounds of quick lime (not slacked); 2 barrels; wooden buckets; and a cheese cloth sack. Method : Dissolve the copper sulphate by enclosing it in the cheese cloth sack and suspending it in warm water. Do not use an iron or tin vessel. Slack the lime in another vessel by adding a little water to it. Pour into each vessel enough water to make 25 gallons. Pour the two solutions together and the Bordeaux Mixture is made. When used for chewing insects add 3 pounds of arsenate of lead. Conclusion: Bordeaux Mixture, 4-4-50. Note: One-fourth of each of the above named ingredients will make a usable quantity. 115 Exercise No. 79 LIME-SULPHUR SPRAY SOLUTION Object: To make lime-sulphur solution. Material : 36 pounds of lump lime; 80 pounds of sulphur; iron kettle; and water. Method: Slack the lime in the iron kettle and add enough water to make 50 gallons. Put a stick in the kettle and cut a notch in the stick to mark the height of the water. When the water begins to boil add the sulphur and stir until all the sulphur goes into solution, which is usually in about three quarters of an hour. Pour water in the kettle until it reaches the notch on the stick. This is the stock solution. As a dormant spray, use 1 gallon of the stock solution to 8 gallons of water. As a summer spray, use 1 gallon of the stock solution to 30 gallons of water. Exercise No. 80 STUDY OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF APPLES Object: To study the characteristics of the common varieties of apples. Material : The common varieties of apples. Method: Fill out the following score card, using the exact terms to describe the peculiar variety of apples. IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF APPLES Variety Form: Oblong, oblate, round, conic, flat, unequal, lopsided, oblong-conic. Horizontal section regular, irregular, ribbed, five-angled. Size: Small, large, very large, medium. (Exact size.) Cavity: Depth, breadth; sides, abrupt, rounded, sloping, broadly flaring, regular or irregular, wavy, plaited; color, russet, green. 116 \ Stem: Long or short, slender or stout, club. Basin: Shallow, medium deep, deep, narrow, medium broad, broad, abrupt, rounded, sloping, flaring, smooth, regular, irregular, wavy, plaited, color if different. Calyx: Large, small, open, half open, closed. Color: Blush, washed, splashed, striped, stripes fine, regular or irregular, self colored. Dots: Color, white, gray, russet; round, irregular, areolar (russet dot sur- rounded by white or gray) ; sunken, raised, scattered, crowded. Bloom: Scant, moderate, abundant. Skin: Thin, thick, tough, brittle. Flesh: Color; texture, hard or soft, coarse or fine grained, crisp, spongy, granular, dry or juicy. Core: Large, small, open or closed. Flavor: Sour, subacid, mild subacid, flat, slightly sweet, sweet. Quality: Very poor, poor, fair, fair to good, good, very good, extra. Season: Time, when fruit is ready for table. Give month or season. Tree: Hardy, short hved, large or dwarf, spreading or closed, good or poor bearer. Variety o o 02 P o o < 1 P 1 1 1 1 Form Size Cavity Stem ' Basin Calyx Color Dots Bloom Skin Flesh Core Flavor Quality Season Tree 117 Exercise No. 81 SCORING APPLES SCORE CARD FOR APPLES (For Plate Exhibits.) 1. Size (Normal) 2. Uniformity and Trueness to Type 3. Color 4. Texture and Flavor 5. Freedom from Blemishes Total Points Explanation: 1. The apples should be of good size, but not overgrown for the variety. It is much better to have five apples of medium, uniform size than it is to have them of different sizes, even though part of them are large. 2. The five apples should be as uniform in size as peas in a pod. One should compare each apple with the others to see that they are ahke in form and size. In selecting trueness to type, one should know what the correct type is for the variety. Look over a number of the varieties and fix in mind the pre- vaiUng types. 3. The color should be the best obtainable for the variety. The apple should not be rubbed or polished as this destroys the natural bloom and may disqualify the apples when thus treated. 4. The time of picking and the care of handhng have much to do with the texture. If the apples are to be kept any length of time after they are ripe they should be stored where a uniform temperature of 34° can be obtained. 5. The apples should be free from all blemishes, such as worm holes or bites, limb bruises, hail marks, spray burns, and bruises in handhng. The stem and calyx must be intact and they should be of the correct size and length for the variety. 118 Exercise No. 82 STUDY OF THE IRISH POTATO Object: To become familiar with the most common varieties of potatoes. Material; A good sample of the Early Rose or Early- Ohio, Rural New Yorker, Cameron No. 3, Green Mountain or any other variety. Extension Bulletin 20, Ames, Iowa. (Do not select the best potatoes for this study.) Potato Plant Method : Describe each variety according to the follow- ing outline, using the bulletin as a guide to see if the variety is true to type. 119 Potato Plant 1. Variety: (a) Name. (b) Early, medium or late , 2. Shape: (a) Cylindrical, oval, flat oval long oval, irregular, com- pound 3. Size: (a) Small, ipedium, large, uni- form or not uniform 4. Skin: (a) Color of skin: Whitish, yellowish, pinkish, reddish, other color (b) Surface: Smooth, wrinkled or rough (c) Condition of skin. Sound, crackedjCut in digging, worm eaten, sim burned, diseased 5. Eyes: (a) Abundance: Few, medium, many (b) Condition of eyes: sound, cracked, cut in digging, worm eaten, sun burned. (c) Color of eyes: Yellowish, white, pink or russet 6. General Characteristics: (a) Clean, dirty (b) Smooth, tough, knotty (c) Scab, dry rot, blight Flesh : (a) Color: White yellowish, pink, blue (b) Texture: fine grained and crisp, flabby, and tough .... (c) Soundness: Sound, hollow, diseased Early Rural Cameron No. 3 Green Mountain 120 Conclusion : Is the sample described a good specimen of the type to which it belongs? Exercise No. 83 SCORING POTATOES Object: To learn whether or not a particular variety of potatoes is profitable from the farmer's standpoint. Material: Different varieties of potatoes, such as Early Rose and Rural New Yorker, and a knife. (These samples should be taken from the garden earher in the fall with notes kept concerning the hills from which they were taken.) Method: Score each variety according to the following score card. Score Card for Potatoes I. Will They Yield Well? i.e., produce well 1. Size of Tubers. Individual potatoes should be fairly large, indicating strength and constitution. 2. Number in the hill. Hills with only a few good sized potatoes are undesirable, also hills with a large number of undersized potatoes. 3. Compactness in the hill. They should be com- pact enough to gather easily, and spread enough to push out of the ground. II. Will They Sell? (Are they what the market demands and are they attractive in appearance?) . . . 1. Size. Potatoes should be large and of uniform size. 2. Shape. Tubers should be similar in shape and free from deformities and irregularities. Points 121 Score Card for Potatoes — Continued 3. 4. III. 3. IV. Skin. Skin should be firm, clean, bright, and clear, uniform in color. A white skin, other things being equal, is preferable. Soundness. Potatoes should be free from scab, rot, sunburn and bruises, also from damages due to bad handling. They should not be hollow. Will They Cook Well and Economically? 1. MeaUness when boiled and- baked. Potatoes which are immature, large and coarse, or with a thin papery skin, and also those grown in heavy wet clay soils are liable to be soggy, 2. Color when Cooked. They should have uniform, white color throughout and should not turn yellow or dark upon handling. Potatoes should be free from brown or blackish spots, and from dark or reddish streaks, especially near the stem and under the eyes. Evenness in Cooking, The different potatoes and the parts of each potato should cook quickly and uniformly. Potatoes which are hard and watery when cooked, or those having hard water spots, or with a tendency to be yellow will cook unevenly. Flavor. They should have a sweet, pleasing taste. Sunburned, sprouted, immature potatoes, or those which have been exposed to the hght will have an undesirable flavor. 5. Eyes. Deep or sunken eyes, and those pro- truding in clusters are objectionable, and cause a large loss in preparation for cooking. Do They Show Breeding? 1. Trueness to Type, Indicated by the uniformity in size, shape, color and other characteristics of the tubers. 2. Freedom from Mixture. A mixture of varieties is objectionable, because of difference in manner of growth, time of ripening and in keeping and storing qualities. 4. Points 25 25 122 Exercise No. 84 DRAWING OF A POTATO Object : To make a detailed study of the general appear- ance, eyes, and flesh of the potato. Material: Early Rose or Rural New York potatoes, knife, hand lens, and iodine solution. Method: Make a drawing 3 inches in diameter of the surface of two potatoes showing general appearance and eyes of the potatoes. Make a large detailed drawing of an eye of each potato and label as per diagram. No. 1. The line beneath the eye or line yolk. No. 2. A leaf point or mid rib No. 3. Eye blinds. No. 4. . The sprout tips the \, color of which is a means of tuber •**' . , , . ^ , . Diagram of Potato Eye identification. No. 5. Side sprouts. Cut each potato into halves and make drawing to show structure. Pour a few drops of iodine solution on a half of each potato and make drawing to show where the starch is located and where most abundant. Conclusion: Describe the general appearance of a good potato 123 124 Exercise No. 85 HOT BED Object: To become familiar with the dimensions of a hot bed. Material: Drawing paper and the dimensions of the hot bed. Method: Make a drawing of the hot bed. Draw to a scale. 125 Exercise No. 86 PLAT OF A GARDEN Object: To keep a record of a garden layout. Material: Stakes, string, hammer, and a 50-foot tape line. Method: Make accurate measurements of the size of the garden and of the individual plots. Make a neat drawing of the garden locating each plot and labeling it with the kind of vegetables planted on it. 126 Exercise No. 87 RECORD OF A GARDEN Object: To determine the time and. cost of raising a garden crop. Material: Garden tools, and a record book. Method : Make a record of the time worked in the garden and the tools used, the cost of spraying, and the time and method of preparing the products for market. This record should be accurate. The exact expenses subtracted from the returns will give the gain or loss on each product. Conclusion: The results of the garden work. (This exercise will require several laboratory periods.) 127 5 ^ JI '^ 'i 128 129 Exercise No. 88 FOREST TREES Object: To become familiar with the common shade and forest trees. Material : Forest, wood lot, and park. Method: After learning the names and characteristics of the most common trees, take a walk through the forest or where the desired trees can be found. Identify the trees when found, or at least twenty-five of them. Conclusion : Write a descriptive sentence by which each tree can be identified. 130 131 Exercise No. 89 FOREST MAP Object: To learn the forest area of the United States. Material: Outline map and a map of the forest area of the United States. Method: Locate by red lines the forest areas of the United States. V J / ~rT--~ /py i ( ) St 1 n 1 Outline of Map of United States 132 Exercise No. 90 A STUDY OF WEEDS Object: To become familiar with the common weeds of your community. Material: Pasture field, meadows, the roadside, and Farmers' Bulletin No. 660. Method: Go out into the fields with a note book or collect the weeds on the trip and fill in the outline after returning to the laboratory. Name of Weeds Annual Biennial Perennial Propa- gation by Seeds Roots or Tubers Time of Flower- ing Color of Flower Time of Seeding Place Where Grown How Con- troUed Quack grass Canada thistle Wild morning glory Buck plantain Yellow dock Wild mustard Buffalo bur Burdock Chick weed Pig weed Milk weed Iron weed Smart grass Dandelion Crab grass Dog fennel Blue vervain Rag weed Prickly lettuce Oxeye daisy Wild carrot Sorrel Jimson weed Wild oats Etc - 133 Exercise No. 91 IDENTIFICATION OF WEED SEED Object: To become familiar with the common weed seeds. Material: Samples of the common weed seeds, weed seed chart, and some grain mixed with various weed seeds. Method: Pick out the different weed seeds in the given sample and identify them by the different samples or charts. Pick out at least ten of each of the common weed seeds found in the sample. Conclusion: Give the names and make drawings of the various weed seeds to fasten in the mind their comparative sizes and shapes. 184 Exercise No. 92 BIRDS Object: To become acquainted with the common birds. Material: Woods, fields, a bird book, bird glasses, and Farmers' Bulletin No. 630. Method: Take a trip in the fields or forest to study the birds. Learn the economic value of the birds seen on the trip by studying them in their natural habitat. Find out what foods the birds seen on this trip live on. Conclusion: What are the foods of the birds seen on this trip? In what ways do they benefit the farmer? 135 Exercise No. 93 COLLECTING INSECTS Object: To learn the habits of the common insects. Material: The fields, an insect net, and a potassium cyanide jar. Method : A field trip studying the insects in their natural habitat. Look for their homes and see if you can learn how they spend their winter. Use the potassium jar to pre- serve any insects for further study. Conclusion: Which insects found get their living by biting and which ones by sucking? How are each controlled? What crops are being destroyed by the different insects found on the trip? About what per cent of the crops are being destroyed by insects? 13C 137 Exercise No. 94 MOUNTING INSECTS Object : To learn to label and to mount insects properly. Material: Insects, labels, pins, and mounting boxes. Method: Make a general classification of the insects from the standpoint of those that injure the same kind of grain or fruit. Label them and place them in a box for future school use. (Each class should add some to the collection.) Conclusion: What is the best way to preserve insects for future use? Exercise No. 95 A FARM LAYOUT Object : To learn to lay out a farm. Material: The plat of a farm in the community. See Boss' Farm Management, Chapter VIII. Method : Draw a plat of the farm as it is and as it should be. Then draw plats of an 80 and a 160 acre farm. 138 139 140 Exercise No. 96 STOCK ACCOUNT Object : To learn how to keep accounts with stock. Material : A farmer buys a carload of feeders on Sept. 10, 1915. The steers average 1200 pounds. He pays $0.0725 per pound. The first period of 30 days he feeds them an average of 1 pound of cotton seed meal, 5 pounds of corn, 12 pounds of silage, and 18 pounds of clover hay. During the second period of 30 days he increased the cotton seed meal to 2 pounds and the corn to 8 pounds a day. During the third period of 50 days he increased the cotton seed meal to 3^ pounds, the corn to 12 pounds, and the silage to 18 pounds a day. During the first period the cattle gained 1.8 pounds a day, during the second period they gained 2.3 pounds per day, and. during the third period they gained an average, of 2.9 pounds per day. He sold them for $0,089 per pound. The price of corn was $0.50 per bushel of 70 pounds, cotton seed meal was $30 per ton, clover hay was $10 per ton, and silage was $3.50 per ton. Interest was worth 6%. Method : Make up a record of this venture as it should be found in your farm account book if you were the farmer. Conclusion: What were the average profits on each steer? On the carload? 141 142 Exercise No. 97 CROP ACCOUNT Object: To learn to keep accounts with crops and to determine the profits. Material : Twenty-five acres of corn. The land is worth SI 50 per acre and interest is 6%. The field was plowed September 15th, at a cost of $1.50 per acre. It was har- rowed on the 16th of September at a cost of $0.20 per acre. On April 24th the land was double-disced for $0.50 per acre. The field was harrowed on April 28th at a cost of $0.25 per acre. The seed corn was worth $2 per bushel and it required one bushel to plant 6 acres. The seed was tested for $0.05 per acre. On May 10th the corn was planted for $0.40 per acre. On the 11th it was harrowed at a cost of $0.25 per acre. The corn was cultivated on May 25th at the rate of $0.35 per acre. It was again cultivated on June 5th, June 15th, and June 25th. Each cultivation cost $0.35 per acre. Four bushels of seed corn were harvested Septem- ber 1st. The other corn was harvested September 15th. It cost $0,045 per bushel to harvest it. The yield per acre was 70 bushels, and was worth $0.60 per bushel. The depreciation of the machinery was $0.25 per acre. Method: Make a record of this venture as it should be found in your farm account book if you were the farmer. Conclusion: What was the profit from the 25 acres? 143 144 145 146 Exercise No. 98 FARM ACCOUNT Object: To find the gain on a 160-acre farm. Material : The data from farm records. Method: Make regular debit and credit entries for the farm transactions for a year. Make entries for all the business transactions for the year. See Boss' Farm Man- agement, Chapters 3 to 5. Conclusion: How much was gained or lost on the fann during the year? 147 148 149 150 151 Exercise No. 99 A COUNTRY YARD Object: To lay out a country yard. Material: A ruler, bulletins of country yards, and landscape catalogs. Method: Make a neat drawing of a country yard, locating the house, trees, flower beds, and shrubbery. Label carefully and estimate the cost of the landscape work. Conclusion : The cost of beautifying the yard. 152 153 154 Exercise No. I06 ' ^ LAYOUT OF A FARMSTEAD Object: To learn to plan the arrangement of the farm- stead. Material : Ruler and model farm-stead plan book. (See Boss' Farm Management Chapter VIII.) Method: Draw to scale the location of all the buildings, fences, lots, and trees on 2 model farm-steads. Conclusion : The plan accurately and neatly drawn. 155 156 157 158 159 160 YC 59221 369133 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY