'^yi U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ACxRICULTURE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS Experiment station RECORD Volume VIII, 1896-1 897 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1897 7 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Scientific Bureaus and Divisions. Weatiikk Bureau— Willis L. Moore, Chief. BuKEAU OF Animal Industky— D. E. Salmon, CMef. Division of Statistics— J. Hyde, Statistician. Division of Entomology — L. O. Howanl, Entomoloyist. Division of Chemistry — H. W. AViley, Chemist. Division op Botany — F. V. Coville, Botanist. Division of Forestry — B. E. Fernow, Chief. Division of Biological Survey — C. Hart Merriam, Biologist. Division of Pomology — G. B. Brackett, Pomologist. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology — B. T. Galloway, Chief. Division of Soils — M. Whitney, Chief. Division of Agrostology — F. Lamson-Scribner, Chief. Office of Experiment Stations — A. C. True, Director. THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Alabama — Auburii: College station; "W. L. Broun. t TTniontoivn: Canebrake Station; H. Benton. J Arizona— Tmcso« .- W. S. Devol.* Arkansas — Fayetteville : 11. L. Bennett.* California— jBcri-e^c)/ ; E. W. Hilgard.* Colorado — Fort Collins: Alston Ellis.* Connecticut — l^ew Haven: State Station ; S. W. Johnson.* Storrs : Storis Station; W. O. At- water.* Delaware — Newark : A. T. Neale.* Florida- iai-c City: "W. F. Tocum.* Georgia — Experiment: 11. J. Kedding.* Idaho— J/oico it) ; F. B. Gault.* Illinois — Urbana: E. Davenport.* lm>iA^i~— Lafayette: C. S. Plumb.* Iowa— J.me«; C. F. Curtis.s.* Kansas— Manhattan : Thos. E. "Will. § Kentucky — Lexington : M. A. Scovell.* Louisiana — Audubon Park, yew Orleans: Sugar Station. Baton Rowje : State Station. Calhoun: North Loui.siana Station. W. C. Stubba.* Maine— Oro*(o: C. D. Woods.* Maryland— t'oUeye Pari-:- II. H.Miller.* Massachusetts- J. OT7ic;-i(< .- II. H. Goodell.* Michigan- Ajrric«?i, 584, 585, 587, 588, 595, 597, 622, 636 SoTTH Carolina Station: Bulletin 22 (new series), November, 1895 84 23 (new series), April, 18!'6 159 24 (new series). May, 1896 117 25 (new series), June, 1896 625 26 (new series) , September, 1896 625 27 (new series), October, 1896 1015 Sixth Annual Report, 1895 561, 563, 574, 584, 623, 633, 636 South Dakota Station: Bulletin 45, November, 1895 46 46, February, 1896 636 47, March, 1896 782, 783, 790, 791 48, April, 1896 799,801 49, Deceml>er, 1896 965 Seventh Annual Report, 1894 :. 293, 306, 308, 313, 329, 332, 347, 353 Eighth Annual Report, 1895 298, 312, 315, 353 Ninth Annual Report, 1896 937 Tenne.ssee Station: Bulletin, Vol. IX, No. 1, May, 1896 491 No. 2. July, 1896 600 No. 3, September, 1896 810 PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. XI Tennessee Station — Continued. Page. Bulletin, Yul. IX, No. 4, December, 1896 786 X, No. 1. January, 1897 984 Kightli Annual Report, 1895 267 Ninth Annual Report, 1896 996, 1034 Texas Station: r.ulletin 37, December, 1895 175 38, March. 1896 772 39, July, 1896 784, 801 Eighth Annual Report, 1895 353 Preliminary Report, March, 1896 689 Utah Station: Bulletin 41, December 31, 1895 158 42, February, 1896 260 43, May, 1896 627, 628 44, July, 1896 812 45, August, 1896 791 46, November, 1896 934 47, February, 1897 963 Sixth Annual Report, 1895 636 Veioiont Station: Bulletin 49, December, 1895 138, 139 50, March, 1896 116 51, April, 1896 116 52, May, 1896 116 53, August, 1896 598 54, November, 1896 790 55, December. 1896 791 56, February, 1897 987 Eighth Annual Report, 1894 37, 41, 43, 60, 63, 68, 72, 78, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 92 Ninth Annual Report, 1895 966, 969, 970, 987, 992, 996, 1003, 1012, 1014, 1019, 1022, 1023. 1027. 1034 Yir(;inia Station: Bulletin 45, October, 1894 159 46, November, 1891 159 47, December, 1894 221 48, January, 1896 (1S95) 227 49, February, 1896 (1895) 227 50, March, 1895 396 51, April, 1895 396 52, May, 1895 397 53, June, 1895 492 54, July, 1895 .525 55, August, 1895 775 56, September, 1895 775 57, October, 1895 977 58, November, 1895 1033 Annual Report, 1895 208,267 Wa.shington Station : Bulletin 17, 1895 321 18, 1895 347 19, 1896 313 20, 1896 306 22, October, 1896 1016 Fifth Annual Report, 1895 537 XII EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. West Virginia Station : Page, liulletiu 40, December, 1895 117 41, J:muary, 1896 121 42, February, 1896 225 43, M.ircb, 1896 318 44, April, 1896 612 "\ViscoNSiy Station : Bulletin 4.5, July, 1895 49 46, October, 1895 170 47, Xovember, 1895 115 48, January, 1896 261 49, March, 1896 212 50, March, 1896 240 51, June, 1896 208 52, July, 1896 : 932,933 53, July, 1896 , 880 Eleventh Annual Report, 1894 293, 295, 297, 298, 300, 303, 309, 310. 313, 314, 324, 327, 328, 329, 332, 334, 335, 337, 340, 342, 347, 350, 353 Twelfth Annual Report, 1895 671, 682, 685, 686, 689, 692, 695, 696, 699, 700, 702, 709, 712, 714, 715, 716, 719, 720, 721, 722, 725, 726, 728, 730, 732, 733, 736 Wyoming Station : Bulletin 26, December, 1895 48 27, March. 1896 32,36 28, May, 1896 291 29, July, 1896 568 30, Septenil)er, 1896 815 31, December. 1896 794 Index Bulletin A, July. 1896 636 Fifth Annual Report, 1895 293, 298, 306, 307, 308, 312, 314, 318, 353 Sixth Annual Report, 1896 956,964,1034 LIST OF UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE PUBLICA- TIONS ABSTRACTED. Farmers' Bulletin 40 351 Yearbook, 1895 750, 751, 755, 756, 780, 781, 789, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 803, 804, 821, 827, 831, 832, 836, 837 Division of Agricultural Soils: Bulletin 4 481 5 574 Division of Agrostology: Bulletin 2 306 3 687 4 748,749 5 781 6 883 Bureau of Animal Industry: Bulletin 10 81,83 11 162 12 1015 13 • 926,931 Farmers' Bulletin 42 438 43 391 Tenth and Eleventh Annual Reports, 1893 and 1894 626 PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. XIII Division of Botany: Page. C'outribntions from the United States National nerbarium. Vol. Ill, No. 7, April 1, 1896 107 Contributions i'rom the United States National Herbarinm, \'oi. Ill, No. 8, June lo, IN.'ti 291 Contributions I'rom the United States National Herbarinm, ^'ol. III, No. 9, August 5, 1896 289,291 Division ok Chkmisthy: Bulletin 47 26 48 132 Division of Entomology: Bulletin 1 (new series) 413 2 (new series) 414 3 (new series) 500 2 (technical series) 148 3 (technical series) 148 4 (technical series) 610 Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American JOiitomol- ogy, V 614 Offick op Experiment Stations: Bulletin 27 92 2S 426 29 419 30 536 31 509 32 614 33 686 34 662,664 Farmers' Bulletin 37 125 39 224 41 428 44 390 Office of Fiber Investigations: Report No. 8 774 Section of Foreign Markets: Bulletin 7 175 8 637 Division of Forestry: Bulletin 13 602,604 Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy: North American Fauna, No. 10, December 31, 1895 960 11, .lune 30, 1896 960 12, July 23, 1896 961 Division ok Pomology: Nut Culture iu the Uniteil States 229 Office of Road Inquikv: Bulletin 19 936 20 935 Division of Statistics: Bulletin 10 (miscellaneous series) 442 11 (miscellaneous scries) 442 12 937 Report 134 (new series), February, 1896 93 135 (new series), March, 1896 93 7370— Xo. 12 8 XIV liXPEHIMENT STATION KECORD. Division oy Statistics — Continued. Page. Kei)ort l.SG (new series), April, 1806 93 137 (new series). May, 18!i6.... 93 138 (new series), Jnne, 1896... 352 139 (new series), July, 1896 352 140 (new series), August, 1896 352 141 (new series), September, 1896 536 142 (new series), October, 1896 536 143 (new series), November, 1896 536 A Mannal of Instructions to Crop Correspondents 352 Divisio.v oi- Vegetable Phvsioi.ogv and Pathulogv : bulletin 8 58 ii ; 315 10 497 11 : 607 12 .^ 895 Faimers' Bulletin 38 240 Weatiikr BriiEAT': ,^ Bulletin 11, part 3 .'. 755 14 34 15 :. 34 16 30 17 33 18 .:. Ill Climate and Health, A'ol II, No. 1, February 1, 1896 110 2, February 29,i896 ^207 Departures from Normal Temperature and Rainfall 110 Injury I'rom Frost and Methods of Protection '. 109 Monthly Weather Review, Vol. XXIII, Nos. 10-12, October-December, 1895. 110 XXIII, No. 13, Annual Summary, 1895 206 XXIV, Nos. 1-3, January-March, 1896 207 XXIV, Nos. 4-7, April-July, 1896 475 XXIV, Nos. 8-11, August-November, 1896. 672, 675 o EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, EDITED 15 V A. C. TRl'p], Pii. I)., Dircrlor, AND E. W. Allex, Pii. D., Assistant Director — Chemistry, Dairy Farming, a.ud Dairying. W. H. Bkal — Meteorology, Fertilizers (including methods of analysis), Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. Waltek it. Evaxs, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants, F. C. Test, M. D. — Horticulture, Entomology, and Veterinary Science. L. P. Smith — Field Croijs. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. F. H. Hall— Statistics and Bibliography. With tlie coiiperatiou of the scientific divisions of the Department and tlie Abstract Committee of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. CONTENTS of Vol. VIII, No. i. Editorial notes : P.igc. The Hungarian National Millennium Exposition 1 Experiment Station in Genuan East Africa 1 Experiments on the pliysiology of cultivated plants 2 The physiological role of water in plants, E. Gain 3 Recent work in agricultural science 2l' Notes 91 SUBJECT LIST OF ABSTRACTS. t'HEMISTRY. Kjeldahl method and platinoclilorids, C. Van Dam 22 The rapid determination of organic nitrogen, Leonard 22 The determination of nitrogen in Peruvian guano, Heiber 22 The determination of nitrogen in guano, E. Franke 23 Tlie determination of nitrogen in guano, E. Haselhoff 23 The determination of nitrogen in guano, E. Franl(» Bulletiu5!), December, 1895 (>1 Bulletin GO, December, 1895 40 Louisiana Stations: Bulletin 40 (second series) 42 Eighth Annual TJeport, 1895 9J Maine Station : Bulletin 24 (second series). March 1, 1890 48 Bulletin 25 (second series), March 11, 1896 40 Nevada Station : Bullet in 29, December , 1895 67 New Mexico Station : Bulletin 16, September, 1895 57 New York State Station : Bulletin 95 (new series), November, 1895 52 Bulletin 96 (new series), December, 1895 38 New York Cornell Station : Bulletin 104, November, 1895 64 Bulletin 105, December, 1895 87 Bulletin 106, January, 1896 50 North Carolina Station ; Bulletin 120, September 18, 1895 50, 68 Bulletin 121, October 15, 1895 91 State Weather Service Bulletin 78, March 31, 1895 34 State Weather Service Bulletin 79, April, 1896 34 State AVeather Service Bulletin 80, INIay, 1896 34 Special Bulletin 37, April 25, 18;16 40 Special Bulletin 38. MayO, 1896 40 Ninth Annual Keport of the State Weather Service, 1895 31 Ohio Station : Bulletin 60, August, 1895 75 Bulletin 61, September. 1895 47 Bulletin 62, October, 1895 67 Bulletin 63, November. 1895 •. 53 Oklahoma Station : Bulletin 18, April , 1896 90 Oregon Station : Bulletin 38, September, 1895 68 Bulletin 39, December, 1895 81 Bulletin 40, January, 1896 51 Bulletin 41, February, 1896 63 Pennsylvania Station : Bulletin 34, January, 1896 37 South Carolina Station : Bulletin 22 (new scries), Noveml)er, 1895 84 South Dakota Station : Bulletin 45, November, 1895 46 Vermont Station : Eighth Annual Keport, 1894 37, 41, 43, 60, (53, 68, 72, 78, 84, m, 86, 88, 89, 92 Wisconsin Station : • Bulletin 45, July, 1895 49 Wyoming Station : Bulletin 26, December, 1895 48 Bulletin 27, March, 1896 32, 36 VI CONTENTS. United States Department of Agriculture : Page. Bureau of Auinial Inclustrj' : Bulletin 10 81,83 Division of Chemistry: Bulletin 47 ' 26 Office of Experiment Stations: Bulletin 27 92 Division of Statistics: Report 134 (new series), February, 1896 93 Report 135 (new series), March, 1896 93 Report 136 (new series), April, 1896 93 Report 137 (new series). May, 1896 93 Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology : Bulletin 8 58 Weather Bureau : Bulletin 14 34 Bulletin 15 34 Bulletin 16 30 Bulletin 17 33 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Vol. VIII. No. 1. The Hungarian National ^Millennium Expositio)!, now in progress at Budapest and recently visited b}' tlie Director of this Office, contains a very creditable exhibition of the history, resources, and bnsiness enter- prise of a people who for 1,000 years have under great difficulties maintained a lofty spirit of coui-age and independence. The agricul- ture of Hungary was well represented in a large main building, witli small buildings for dairying, horticulture, and forestry. It was very interesting to tind liow relatively large a space had been given to the exhibits of the institutions for agricultural education and research. These exhibits were systematically and attractively installed, and showed the methods and results of investigations by means of speci- mens, apparatus, charts, and publications. The schemes of agricul- tural education and the appliances for objective instruction were also shown. Investigations on soil chemistry and physics and on veterinary science were very prominently illustrated. Fertilizer analyses, field experiments, studies in vegetable pathology and entomology were among the other subjects included in the exhibits. The number and quality of the varieties of corn (maize) shown in tlie general agricultural exhibit would probably surprise many Americans, though the traveler from Vienna to Budapest is somewhat prepared for this from seeing numerous fields of corn along the way. Corn is evi- dently grown for the grain, and not entirely for fodder as is commonly the case in (xermany. In an exhibit of spraying apparatus the knapsack sprayer was appro- priately placed on the back of the figure of a woman. The burdens of agriculture which this sex has to bear seem to increase as we go eastward. Carrying a knapsack sprayer would be an easy task for shoulders accustomed to bend under far heavier loads. The Hungarians are now giving much attention to the breeding of liorses, royal patronage and encouragement being largely extended to this industry. The experiment station movement has spread to C-erman East Africa, where a station has recently been established at Usambara. The object is to determine the adaptability of the country west of the Luengera 1 2 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORI). to tropical culture, g'eneral a.i>riculture, and stock raising. Experi- ments are to be made at different altitudes with native and introduced tropical plants to determine those best suited to cultivation in that region, and the crops best suited to general farmiii'g and to stock raising. Later the station is to supply these plants and seeds on a commercial scale. In addition to this, economic problems are to be considered to ascertain how far t\ie country may be suited to the colo- nizing of (lerman settlers, the amount of capital required to start in different kinds of farming, and the ]n'obable profits. The suggestive article on the jdiysiological role of i>lants by Prof. Edmond Gain, of the University of Nancy, France, in the present number of the Record, is one of a series of articles on subjects relating to j)hysiological botany, i)repared, at the suggestion of this oftice, by eminent experts, to aid our agricultural experiment stations in organ- izing investigations witli a view to working out more comi)letely the physiology of cultivated plants. The need and importance of work in this line have been previously dwelt upon in the Record. It is encour- aging to note that a number of stations are beginning to develop inquiries in this direction, and there is good reason to l>elieve that before long results of scientific and i)ractical interest will be attained. One notable phase of the movement to consider more closely the Adtal functions of jdants in the ho])e of ultimate benefit to agriculture from such studies is well brought out in the article under considera- tion. Increased activity in researches in physiological botany is coin- cident with the systematic attempt to establish inquiries in soil physics Oil a firm basis and with a great awakening of interest regarding the problems of irrigation in both arid and humid regions. The scope of agricultural science is thus being greatly widened, and at the same time the need of cooperative effort by scientific workers in different lines is being emphasized. Additional reasons are constantly being presented for the more thorough organization of the individual experiment station on a plan which will enable it to groui) its work around some central leading idea, each worker contributing his share to the solution of some important problem of agricultnre. It is daily becoming more incompre- hensible why any station should pursue an irregular or hit-or-miss policy, or why public funds should be wasted in so-called i)ractical experiments which in the nature of the case can only bring disai)point- ment to both investigator and farmer. We commend the article of Professor Gain, as well as the other articles of this series, not only to specialists in physiological botany, but also to managers of experiment stations who are seeking to improve and strengthen their work. THl^. PHYSIOl.OrjCAL ROLE OF WATF.R IN PLANTS. EnMONi) Gain, ProfiSKor of Aact soil has a greater capacity for water than a loose one, although it is less permeable. The capillary spaces are smaller, the number of water pores are increased, and the penetration of water into the sub- soil is hindered. (3) A comi)act soil offers more Avater for the plant than a loose one. When it is desired to increase the capacity of a soil for water it must be made more compact.^ The susceptibility of soil to drought is represented by the proportion between the water lost by evaporation ami the maximum weight of water it is able to hold. Schlossing'' has pointed out the important fact s that the size of the soil particles and the degree of humidity exert an influence on tlie amount of water transported toward the surface. The fineness of the superficial layer "^ also modifies evaporation. It is apparent that the greater the coi^tficient of evaporation the less the water capacity of the soil. The capacity for water varies directly as the hygroscopicity. The hygroscopic capacity and the tension of the water vapor varies with the size of the soil particles, being greatest ' Compt. Rend., 63 (1866), p. 1007; 70 (1870), p. 98. -Anu. Agron., 7 (1881), p. 21. ^Forsch. geb. agr. Phys., vol.5, p. 1. ••Etlmond Gain, Precis de Chimie Agricole, p. 57. •■^Enclycl. Chiniiquc de Freiuy — Cbimie Agricole. *>Chabaneix, Influence de ramenldi^senient yiiperficial sur I'evaporation. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE OF WATER IN PLANTS. 7 where the soil particles are largest. The following- table' shows the coeiticieiits of absorption, liygroseopicity, and evaporation for various types of soil : Cocfficietitfi of absorption, hiigroscopivitji, and eraporation in xoils. Absorptive capacity : Sand 25. 0 Clay 10.0 Lime 70. 0 Garden soil 89. 0 Hiimns 190. 0 Coefficients of liygroscopicity : Calcareous sand 1. .^ Garden soil 2G. 0 Clay 17.5 Humus 60. 0 Coefficients of evaporation : Sand 90. 0 Fine garden soil 80. 0 Lime " 65. 0 Clay 35.0 Hnmus 20.0 To sum up, water is a physical agent which modities tlie texture of the soil and influences its aeration, density, cohesion, etc. Water also acts chemically upon the constituents of the soil. In aerating the soil it at the same time introduces ammonia and carbon dioxid, two essen- tials to fertility, which facilitate the solution of the organic and mineral materials necessary to the jdant. The organic materials are rapidly destroyed by the oxygen of the air and the nitrogenous nnitter is trans- formed into nitrates, which are partly absorbed by the plant. The mineral constituents undergo modifications no less important. Phos- phate of lime is dissolved and the silicates are decomposed by the water charged with carbon dioxid. It is possible to conduct interesting experiments on this action of water by analyzing at different times the solutions which exist in irrigated soil. By systematically repeating these analyses through a series of years it will without doubt be found that irrigation water exerts a steadily diminishing power. Water is not only a solvent which sets free certain oxids, alkalies, phosphoric acid, and silica, but is a vehicle for the fertilizing elements intended for the roots of plants. Water, therefore, is essential to the utilization of fertilizers. A soil responds very differently to chemical fertilizers under different conditions. The fertility will be considerably increased if there be enough water i)resent to act as a vehicle for the fertilizing substances, while there will be little improvement if the soil is subjected to an extreme drought. Moreover, for certain fertilizers too abundant irrigation is injurious in that the fertilizers are washed lEdmoud Gain, Rev. g^n. Bot., 7 (1895), p. 123, 8 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. into the subsoil. The natural fertility of the soil may also be exhausted by irrigation. There is ueed of experiments to show the fertilizers best adapted to dry soils and to moist or irrigated soils. The experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, reported by Deherain/ illus- trate this point. An average of 1.03 meters of water falls at Rotham- sted during April, May, and June,- but in 1870 the rainfall for that time was only 70 cm. The harvest of hay was very light on the soils without fertilizers and also on those which received phosphates and salts of ammonia. There was a smaller delicit on the plats that had received nitrate of soda, as the following table shows: Effect of fertilizers on yieUln in dry and norrnul seasons. Fertilizer used. No fertilizfT Mineral fertilizer, no nitrate Mineral fertilizer and nitrate of soda Yield of hay per hectare. 1870 (dry! Average,' year) . l-t years. Eg. 725 3,625 7,000 Eg. 2,771 6,527 7,250 Deticit. Eg. 2,046 2,902 250 From this it appears that the deficit was almost nothing for the soils receiving nitrate of soda. Under its influence the plants are enabled to send down roots to take some of the water from the subsoil, which is usually moist even in years of extreme drought. France expe- rienced in 1892 and 1893 two seasons of i)rolonged drought, and all experiments showed that the subsoil always retained considerable water at a depth which was readily accessible to deep-rooted plants, such as wheat.^ At Rothamsted in 1870, on the meadows which we have just men- tioned, the following data relating to moisture in unfertilized soil were obtained: At depth of 22 cm., 10.8 per cent; 44 cm., 13.3 per cent; 66 cm. 19.2 per cent; 88 cm,, 22.7 per cent; 110 cm., 24.2 per cent. This indicates that in the case of drought plants will not perish if they are able to develop roots which descend to a sufficient depth. They are not likely to suffer even on a plat without fertilizers if their roots descend to a depth of 66 cm. In soils rich in nitrates plants have roots 1.3 meters long, and through these they take up large quantities of water from the subsoil, which may contain 25 per cent moisture at this depth. For this reason, as well as because they are washed out of the soil in a wet season, nitrates are most effective during rather dry seasons. 1 Chimie Agricole, p. 665. "Lawes and Gilbert, Aun. Agrou., 1 (1875), pp. 251,551. 3 Compt. Rend., 1892 and 1893, May to September. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL R(')LP] OF WATER IN PLANTS. 9 Waringtou' lias shown tlie compariitivc value of aiinnoniacal nitrogen and nitric nitrogen on dry soils, moist soils, light sandy soils, and inarl soils. A dry soil is inliuenccd to a soniewliat greater degree by the nitrates than by ammonia salts, Mdiile the converse apidies to moist soils. Warington's resnlts Avere as follows: Action of II Ural (' uf xoda and aiiiinniiia salts in drif and wet seasons. fertilizer used. Harvest of wheat at Woburn. Dry season. Wet season. Ileclolitcrs. 23.45 28.86 HectoUtem. 'i\ 57 93 56 It is nnnecessary to multii)ly researches on this point. It is evident that as regards fertilizers there is an opportunity for selection with reference to special conditions which will greatly increase the profit from their use. The results of fertilizer experiments must not be accepted as infal- lible. Duclaux - has said that "the meteorology of a region influences the vegetation more than the geology," and we believe that under different climatic infiueuces fertilizers will give different results. The life of a plant is in effect the resultant of a number of physical conditions acting in conjunction. For example, the action of water will not be the same during a hot and a cold season nor in a moderately cold temperature and a tropical region. The exact knowledge of the influence of water on the phenomena of vegetation, therefore, requires a comj^arative study of this influence as affected by such factors as temperature, light, fertility of soil, etc. The fertilizing substances are partially absorbed and retained by the soil and partially dissolved. It is known that drainage water carries off' only a small portion of i)otash, the (juantity thus removed being- least in well-manured soil. The potash is retained not only by the humus but also by the clay colloids. With an excess of water in the soil the solvent action is largely increased, as shown by the experiments of Gasparin and of Berthelot and Andre. While the soil, therefore, may contain large quantities of soluble potash it is retained with such energy that enormous quantities of water are necessary to dissohe ir. The solubility of the potash is greatly increased if some sulphate such as gypsum is added to the soil. Way^ has shown that the quantity of ammonia absorbed by a soil is nearly coustaut when the solutions present have the same concentration. 1 Aun. Agron., Vr> (1889), p. 213. 2 Relation entre la iiK^trorologic et la geographic, Ami. CJcog., 1894. 3 Jour. Roy. Soc. Ayr. Euglaud, 1850, p. 313. 10 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. but that the force with whicli the soil absorbs alkalies varies with tlie con- centration of the solutions. Brustlein' has shown that soils are not able to remove alkali completely from its solution in water. These solutions circulate to a considerable extent in the soils without nnderj^oing decom- position. This explains how water brings to the plant the chemicals needed in very great dilution. Potash and ammonia are easily retained as carbonates by the soil but less readily in the form of sulphates. When a solution of acid phosphate of lime comes in contact with sand, a portion of the phosphate is rapidly absorbed; but absorp- tion is not complete for at least 25 days. Still it is believed that there is little serious loss of phosphates by drainage following a heavy rain even in sandy soils, while with lime and clay soils the absorption is naturally more rapid and comi)lete. The influence of the water of the soil upon the microorganisms which play a part in the fertility of the soil remains to be mentioned. The experiments of Berthelot' show that the nitrogen of the air is fixed through bacteria in non-sterilized soil; and Hellriegel and Wilfarth, Breal, Schlossing, and Laurent have shown that the bacteroids in the root tubercles of leguminous plants are able to fix free nitrogen. It is known that the phenomemi of nitrification takes place in 3 steps — forma- tion of ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates ^ — under the influence of bacteria, yeasts, algiie, and the ferments of Winogradf^ky. Bacillus mj/coides is aerobic, and able to produce ammonia in the presence of organic nitrogen, but it becomes a denitrifier and anaerobic when there exists in the soil rapidly reducible substances, such as nitrates.* These investigations show that the lower organisms play an impor- tant role ill the fertility of the soil. Water in varying quantity has an influence on the biology of all these organisms. Schlossing and Miintz'' have shown that nitriflcation requires a certain amount of moisture, and the writer's'' investigations have shown that the vitality of Bhizobiuvi [.eguminosarum is influenced by the water content of the soil. For each soil there is an optimum humidity. Too great dryness checks or entirely prevents the iormation of tubercles. Excessive moisture produces an analogous efl'ect, though less marked. The writer has shown that the formation of the tubercles begins soon after the development of the plant, and it is therefore of highest importance to furnish the young leguminous plant with sufficient water. As regards the variations in ammonia formation with varying proportions of water, it would appear a priori that the results should be analogous to those cited in the case of nitrates. ' Ann. Chim. ct Phys., ser. 3, vol. 56, p. 497. ^Compt. Rend., 101 (1885), p. 775; 110 (1890), p. 558. Ann. Chim. et Phys.. ser. 6, vol. 11, p. 375; vol. 16, p. 490. ^ Eilmond Gain, Pr6cis de Chiniio Agricole, p. 74. ••E. Marfbal, Production de I'annnonia dans le sol, 1894 (I<:. 8. R., 5, p. 614). '^Schliissiny-, Encycl. Chiniique de Fremy — Chimie generale (nutrition de v6g<5. taux). e'fJev. gen. Bot., 7 (1895), p. 123. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE OF WATER IN PLANTS. 11 We think the time has iirrived to study with gTeatcr care the abso- liiU' Aahie of the different oi)ti]iia wliieh are recojiiiized in l)iok)<;y. It is well known that there are optima of temperature, of light, of plant food, and of humidity with which to realize the best possible growth of the plant, but only in rare instances have the values of these optima been detinitely fixed. It has been ccmsidered sufficient if we knew the optimum temperature for the geiinination of our cultivated plants. WATER IN THE PLANT, The water of the soil })enetrates the jjliiHt, being drawn in through osmosis and the aspiration resulting from the transpiration of the leaves. Transi^iration assures an exit for the greater part of the water absorbed. The amount of water in the interior of the plant therefore depends on the relative intensity of absorption and transpiration. If the water taken in by the plant dimhiishes, that given off' will also diminish, but more slowly and in less amount. There is then ])roduced a kind of dehydration, which, through the organic balance, tends to increase the osmotic entrance of water for the rei^'stablishnient of the equilibrium of concentration of the internal solutions. If there should happen to be at the time a liick of water in the soil, the normal hydration of the tissues is not sustained, and we say that the jdant suffers from drought. On the other hand, ti-anspiration being excessive and absorption limited the equilibrium of the sap current is disturbed, resulting in a tempo- rary drying up, which becomes permanent if the cause persists for a long time. The plant, on the other hand, suffers from excess of moisture because there is a lack of ai^ration of the underground system. Certain plants are specially adapted inorphologically to resist drought and to maintain a constant proportion of internal moisture. This adap- tation consists in the provision of morphological mechanisms, which are designed to prevent too great variation in transpiration, as is admirably shown in desert plants, which as a rule contain a normal amount of water and are not dried out as they appear to be. The means employed by the plant to control transpiration are well known but very variable. The leaves are greatly reduced in size, or thickened as in fleshy plants, in order to reduce the transpiring surface or to increase the reserve water; the stems are gradually lignified, the stomata are placed in pro- tective depressions, the greatly developed trichomes form a protective screen, the epidermis has a thickened cuticle, the reserve water is stored up in special reserve tissues or in the root, which is proportionately developed. J. Vesque^ has discussed this special adaptation of the plants to different water conditions, showing that plants change their structure in order to adapt themselves to diminished water supply. •Anatinnio dcs tissus appliqiioo .'i l:v classificatiou ties plantcs, Nouv. Arcliiv. dn Musenin, n. ser., 4 ami 5. L'espf-co ;iu point de vu de I'anatoinio compar per cent. The writer has rei)eated these experiments with many phints in order to settle the following ([uestions : (1) Is the power of resistance to drought of a given i)Iant the same in ditt'erent soils! This question must be answered in the affirmative. (2) Is the water content of the soil at the time when plants wilt the same for all stages of plant growth ? No; it fluctuates in such a way as to i)roduce a curve. These two ques- tions are interesting to agriculture from the point of view of rational irrigation. The following plants become dry and sulfer from drought with the given water contents of the soil : JFater contents of soil>i at which different plants begin to wilt. Soil. Phaseolns vulgaris. Erigeron canadensis. Lupinus albus. Poatv Per cent. 10.60 9.58 5.92 2.90 1.88 0.35 Per cent. 9.40 7.78 6.83 4.25 2.40 0.48 Per cent. 11.10 Clay 11.35 (!. 95 5.23 2.91 Sand 0.75 The writer would urge agricultural experiment stations to make experiments analogous to these with different cultivated jjlants. Tlie following plan is suggested: Establish a series of experiments on typ- ical soils and on the mixed soils which are found at the stations. In order to eliminate the influence of the subsoil, use pots about SO cm. in diameter and about 80 cm. in depth. Large barrels cut in two serve the purpose well. Bore o or 6 holes of about 4 cm. in diameter in the bottoms for aeration, and place the tubs in holes in the ground upon supports about 20 cm. in height, so that the edge of the tubs will be about on a level with the surrounding soil. For each plant experi- mented with 2 series of 10 pots each will be required. In the first pot place clay soil, in the second lime, in the third humus, in the fourth clay, in the fifth peat soil, in the sixth garden soil, and in the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth mixed soils. The two series shouhl give the same results. If they do not, a possible error is indicated. Many experiments may be made during the year with difterent varieties of the lu'incipal cereals. If it is desired to study 5 varieties of wheat, 100 pots will be required. The plants should be studied from the two points of view stated above. It is necessary to note the point at which wilt- ing occurs during each stage of growth, taking samjAes of soil and • J. Sachs, Physiology of Plants, Trauslated hy II. Marshall Ward, 1887, j). 258. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL KOLE OF WATER IN PLANTS. 13 (leteruiiuiiij^ moisture for tins purpose. The exact state of drought whicli causes positive injury to the phiut should also be determiued. By watering- plants wilted to different degrees and at successive l)eriods of vegetation it may be possible to establish morphnlogif^al characteristics of the highest interest. It may thus be shown how .i plant is affected under the influence of alternate drought and humidity, and liow plants behave upon different soils, as well as what is the result of permanent and excessive drought or humidity and of judiciously combining drought and humidity. The author has conducted general experiments along this line, and it may be of interest to discuss the conclusions from this work in its agricultural l)eariugs. In order to apply these conclusions to agriculture it is necessary to know what cultivated plant is to be especially studied — i. e., whether a cereal, a forage plant, or a tuber-bearing plant. It is possible to deduce a correct rule of irrigation based upon a curve showing the water requirements of the plant under consideration for eacli period of its growth, but there is a considerable difference between the necessary water which a clay soil and a sandy soil must possess to ju-event plants from drying out and dying from drought. In the author's experiments it was found that clay soil requires more than 11 per cent of water to prevent lupines from perishing, while 1 per cent suffices in a sandy soil. The liygroscopicity of sand being practically nothing, the water which is found in a sandy soil is all available for the plant. In other words, in a clay soil there is from 10 to 11 per cent of moisture which is not available to lupines, since about 10 per cent is retained by the hygro- scopic action of the soil. For different i)hiiits this amount varies, being 11 per cent for lupines, 7.7 per cent for Erigeron, and 9.G per cent for beans. These variations are as great for different soils as for different plants. If K represents the capacity of the soil for water, a the hygroscopic water of the soil, the maximum amount of water available to plants per 100 gm. of soil will be Q=zK — .;")(> ])er cent in 1878, a very wet year, the conditions being otherwise the same. In comparative experiments with tobacco, Mayer ' studied the influ- ence of water upon the production of nicotin, and found that the more moist the soil the less the nicotin. The percentages of nicotin in dry matter of tobacco grown on 3 soils containing ditt'erent amounts of water were as follows: In the first, 2.7 to 3.1 per cent; in the second, 1.45 to 1.75, and in the third, 1.05 to 1.02. The total dry matter varied with the nicotin content, but not proportionately. This indicates that without injuriously affecting the growth of the plant the formation of nicotin may be greatly reduced. In the tubers of artichokes the content of potash and phosphoric acid is greater in moist than in dry years.2 In a dry year the leaves are rich in phosphoric acid, the amount in the tubers being proportionately small. For each i)eriod of growth of an organ of a plant, therefore, there is a certain definite portion of internal water necessary for normal and healthy condition, the same being true for each stage of develoi^ment of the entire plant. Water produces in the organ or plant under con- sideration a state of turgescence and normal hydration. This turges cence is produced in each vegetative stage by variable proportions of water, as has been shown by the author's investigations as well as those of Gelesnotf,^ Sorauer,^ and Jumelle.^ The study of the variation in the water content of plants is necessary, therefore, in order to determine how water may be most economically and advantageously distributed by means of irrigation. From the results of his experiments the author has been able to draw curves for the development, respectively, of the hypocotyle, cotyledons, root, stem, and leaves. He has also studied the development in general of the entiie plant. These curves are based on the proi)ortion between dry weight and total weight of each organ at different periods of growth, noting also the duration of the different stages of growth. The root usually presents a weakened condition at the flowering period, at which time there is a transfer of substances toward the flowers. This weakening remains for a considerable time and is espe- cially marked if the plant is ui)on a very dry soil. If, after flowering, the root is furnished with an increased supply of moisture, the period of growth is stimulated and j)roh)uged. When the root prematurely dries, the vitality of the entire plant is soon checked. Eoots play a role in regulating the water content of the aerial part. If the quantity of dry weight tends to become too great, the root ' Laadw. Vers. Stat., 38, p. 453. 2Anii. Agron., Feb., 1892. 3 Quantito et repartition de I'eau dans lea organes des plantes, 1876. •» Influence de I'abondance ou dn manque d'eau, Bot. Ztg., 1878, p. 14. ^Sur le d^veloppement des plantes anuuelles, Rev, g^n. Bot., 1889. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE OF WATER IN PLANTS. 17 ftirDisLes the water necessary to establisli equilibrium in the ai'rial portions of the i)huit. It is interesting" to note tliat i)hints well adapted to withstand drought are nevertheless likely to profit by a supply' of moisture. This is true of buckwheat. If the proportion of the water of the root be eonipared with that of the stem it will be seen that (Ij humidity favors a general development of the plant in weight, and (2) the inlluence is greatest on the aerial part of the plant. For two stems of the same weight there will be the greatest development of the root in a dry soil. The most active growth in a plant ])recedes slightly the Howeriug period. A more or less abundant supply of moisture favors this growth to some extent, but in any case at the time of flowering the water con- tent of the plant is aj^proximatelj' the same for a given species whatever the water supply. The flowering period is a time of unusual transjura- tion, which produces a diminution in the proportion of internal water. This is a very critical period, in which desiccation may go so far as to arrest assimilation and completely check the increase in weight. If the plant is furnished with sufiBcient water to carry it over this period, not only will its vitality be continued during fruit bearing, but ordinarily it will push out new branches and new leaves, the action of which may be prolonged a considerable time after the period of flowering. The beginning of flowering is, therefore, a critical period which decides the weight of the final product, the fresh and dry weight doubling in a very short time. Internal desiccation, however slight, is an obstacle to this growth and influences the maximum product of the plant. Considering now the phenomena of growth as distinguished from increase in weight, we see (1) that although a saturated soil produces a rapid swelling of seed, germination is generally checked, principally on account of a lack of aeration in the soil; (2) that a soil which is about half saturated greatly favors germination ; and (3) that a dry soil in which there is sufticient water to cause the seed to swell, but in which that removed by evaporation is not restored, gives a germination almost as rapid as a semisaturated soil, but the subsequent growth is consider- ably checked through lack of water. When, therefore, the optimum con- ditions are departed from growth is generally checked, but to varying degrees. Plants which resist humidity well, or which are somewhat indifferent, have a high optimum. Those plants which suffer from humidity have two possible obstacles to growth, since their healthy condition is aftected by excessive moisture as well as by excessive drought. For such plants as cucurbits, castor beans, and maize the o])timuin of humidity is not very high and their growth is checked to a considerable degree if the optimum is exceeded. Attention is here directed to a previous paper by the writer,' in which the capacity and duration of growth of difi'erent organs under the influence of varying 'Rocherches snr le role physiologiqne de I'eaii dans la vdg^tation, Auii. sci. nat. Bot., ser. 7, 20 (1895) ; E. S. R., 7, p. 366. 18 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. humidity is discussed. It is there sliown tliat lioweriug is retarded by dry soil or humid air and hastened by dry air and liumid soil. As regards increase in weight, the author's experiments show also that humidity, and especially excessive irrigation, is very harmful to j^lauts in'^ended for seed production. On Avet soils the seeds are somewhat moic numerous, but snuiller and subject to rapid degeneration. Dry- ness of the soil in compelling the individual to grow slowly and by" decreasing considerably the number of its descendants strengthens the species and protects it against external influences causing variation. Tiie same conclusions were reached relative to tubers. Excessive moisture weakens the race while apparently favoring the individual by increasing its growtli. The tubers are heavier, but are less i^erfect thau those which are i)roduced under drier conditions. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. According to King,i after a rain, soil to a depth of a meter and a half, contains about 0,000 tons of water per hectare, the greater i)art of which is carried off by evaporation. Cultivation is very efiicacious in preserv- ing tliis water. Professor King determined ou April 118 the quantity of water contained in two contiguous soils, afterwards plowing one of theui. Seven days later the water content was examined to a depth of 1.2 meters. The ])lowed soil had lost from the upi^ei' 30 cm. 11 5 tons per hectare, and there was a gain of the same quantity of water for the succeeding 90 cm. The unplowed soil, on the contrary, to a depth of 1.2 meters, had lost 495 tons of water. Spring plowing, there- fore, conserves the humidity necessary for plants, but although this plowing is very eflicieut, harrowing and scraping poorly done is not. Harrowing which simply scratches or furrows the surface without cov- ering it completely with loose soil increases evaporation rather than reduces it. On the contrary, a layer of dry soil 2 cm. dee}) greatly reduces evaporation. When a given soil produces vigorous plants whose transpiration is very active and young plants whose organs are less developed, the roots of the first will take up lor themselves the humidity of the soil with grenter force than those of the second. If the soil does not contain sufficient water for both, the weaker will suffer. This is the case with clover seeded with wheat in the autumn, which suffers in a dry spring, while clover seeded alone makes good growth. Farmers continue to sow their forage seed with cereals under the mistaken idea that the cereals are beneficial as a shade. If they would seed their forage jdants alone, they would not only secure a greater yield but in dry countries they would stand a better chance of producing a crop. This also explains certain facts relative to the irregular production of seed of the same kind pf i)lants. The stronger plants take from the others the moisture and the fertilizers held in solution, and are thus 'Wiscousiu Sta,. Rpts. 1891, p. 100; 1893, p. 184 (K. S. R. 4, p. 122; 7, p. r,m). THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE OF WATER IN PLANTS. 19 enabled to produce more perfect seed. This is also the case with trees in a held, whicli are well known to injure plants cultivated about them. Weeds injure cultivated plants in the same way. In view of these facts it would be interesting to investigate from a practical standpoint the elfect on the total product of S(>wing crops together and cultivating one crop between the rows of another. An attem})t should be made to determine by experiment the proportional reduction in the yield of one grouj) of plants growing in the same soil with another, as, for exami)]e, legumes cultivated with cereals or between rows of potatoes. Opinions are very diverse as to the cause of the efficiency of water employed in irrigation.' Some claim that the fertilizing action is due entirely to nuiterials held in solution, and that water for irrigation should be turbid and impure, while others maintain that clear water produces the best results. It is known that the (piautity of carbonic acid contained in water and its temperature modify the fertilizing action to a very great degree on different soils. Prof. Ronna^ has shown that upon clay soils abundant rains which thoroughly saturate and flood the soil may advantageously take the place of fertilizers. In dry seasons fertilizers remain without effect in the soil, and in most seasc:is no fertilizer is able to supply the fertiliz- ing effect of rain. Water dissolves the elements of the soil which are necessary to the growth of plants. In well-manured, high, sandy soils the abundant spring rains wash out the soluble materials, such as nitrate of soda and guano. Pure water may be beneficial on some soils but injurious to others. Water charged with fertilizing elements is a valuable agent in fertility, but it must not be forgotten that on well- manure. 85 G.G7 The conclusion was reached that the soluble organic nitrogen in the extract obtained in the Haselhoft' method is not comi)letely transformed to ammonia by the action of the soda solution. The determination of nitrogen in guano, E. Haselhoff {Chem. Ztg., 20 {18!)0), ¥o. S7,pp. 365, .?6Y;).— Tlie author states that the method proposed by him has given better results in his laboratory than the Jodlbauer method, and suggests that Franke's results were due to a departure from his method. He reports the results of comparative tests of the Jodlbauer and Haselhoflf methods made at his request by Pfeiffer, which show a close agreement. The determination of nitrogen in guano, E. Franke {Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), Xo. 13, p. i^^^).— Replying to the criticisms of Haselhoft", the author claims that the organic nitrogen of Peruvian guano soluble in water is not completely decomposed by soda solution. With th-e Ulsch- Kjeldahl method, the ordinary Ulsch method, and the Ulsch method, using 75 CO. instead of 20 cc. of soda solution, the author found in a clear-water extract of guano 5.10, 3.30, and 3.84 per cent of nitrogen, respectively. The works of Pfeifter and Thurman ^ are referred to as confirming the author's conclusions. An investigation upon the use of Wagner's citrate method for the determination of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid in ground Thomas slag, F. Mack and M. Pa^^son {Ztschr. angcir. Chem., 1896, No. 5, p. 129). — One hundred cubic centimeters of the phosphoric-acid solution, obtained according to Wagner, is boiled in a 500 cc. llask, with 10 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid and a drop of mercury, as in the Kjeldahl method for nitrogen, until the solution is colorless. After cooling the mercury is precipitated by a 10 per cent solution of sodium ' Landw. Vers. Stat., 46 (1895), pp. 1-20 (E. S. R., 7, p. 269). 24 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. clilorid and tlie whole made up to 200 cc. and filtered. Of the filtrate 100 cc. is taken, and when quite cold 100 cc. of ammonium-citrate solu- tion and 25 cc. of magnesia mixture are added. The authors claim great rapidity aud accuracy. They give 28 com- parative analyses with the molybdate method, none of Avhich differs by more than 2 mg.— C l. parsons. The Stassfurt method of determining potash, A. Atterberg {(Jhcm. Ztg., 20 {lSf)(J), No. 15, p. lol). — The metljod of potash determi- nation recommended' by the Stassfurt Kali Works was compared with the ordinary Swedish method on 10 samples of potash salts containing from 12 to 10 per cent of potash. The Stassfurt method invariably gave higher results than tlie other, the difference amounting in some cases to 2 per cent, unless unusual care was exercised in washing with alcohol. When the final precipitate was repeatedly washed and then ground before transferring to the filter the results by the two methods were practically identical. The determination of potash by the Stassfurt method, Tietjens and Apel {Chem. ZUf., 20 {ISO(i), No. 21, pp. 202,203).— A reply to the above article by Atterberg maintaining that it is not shown that the high percentages of potash found by Atterberg in following the Stassfurt method were due to any inherent defect in the method. It is suggested that the impurity in the fiiml salt may have been the fault of the analyst rather than of the method. The determination of potash as potassium platinic chlorid, H. Precht {Ghem. Ztg., 20 {1S9(J), No. 22, pp. 209, 210).— In discussing Atterberg's criticism of the Stassfurt method (see above) the author states that it is customary for Swedish chemists to use 90 per cent alcohol for washing the final precipitate, while in the Stassfurt method 90 to 99 per cent alcohol is preferred, and points out that he called atten- tion in 1879 to the same sonrce of error as that noted by Atterberg.^ He reports results of tests which indicate tliat the double salt of sodium is more soluble in the stronger than in the weaker alcohol, while the potassium salt is less soluble, one part of the latter being soluble in 42,000 parts of absolute alcohol, 37,;300 parts of 90 per cent alcohol, and 20,400 parts of 90 i)er cent alcohol. It is claimed that the careful analyst can obtain accurate results with both 90 per cent and absolute alcohol, but for the above reasons the latter is to be preferred. The decomposition of silicates by means of boric acid, P. Jan- NASCH and O. Heidenreich {Ztschr. anorgun. Ghem., 12 {189(1), No. 5, pp. 208-222). — One gram of the fine-ground silicate is carefully mixed in a platinum crucible of 00 to Qi) cc. content with 3 to 4 times its weight of pure boric acid, or in case of refractory silicates 5 to 0 times, aud with feldspar 8 times its weight. The mixture is then fused, special precautions being taken at the beginning to prevent material from being 'Ztsclir. angew. Cheni., 1895, p. 510. ■-'Ztsclir. aualyt. C'hem., 1879, p. 509. CHEMISTRY. 25 tlirowu out of the crucible. This operation requires from 20 to 30 min- utes. The fusion is cooled and treated with 1(>0 to 150 cc. of boiliug water and 50 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid, the solution being kept near the boiling point until the mass is dissolved. The solution is evaporated to dryness on the water bath, and thel)oric acid removed by evaporating on a water bath at 75 to 80'^ (). with 2 to 4 successive portions of GO to 75 cc. each of methyl chlorid, prepared as needed by- saturating metliyl alcohol in the cold with dry hydrochloritsacid gas. Note on the distinction betv/een boiled and unboiled milk. E.UBNER {Hyg. Bundschau, 5, No. 22; ahs. in Ztschr. Fleisch- und Milch- liijg., 0 {1^9(1), No. 3, p. ~)2). — The author states that the methods for distinguishing between heated or boiled and raw milk are not entirely reliable. Schreiner has claimed that boiled milk did not give otf any hydrogen sulphid on heating, as fresh milk did; but the author did not notice the evolution of hydrogen sulphid in the case of many samples of normal milk. Likewise guajac tincture, which usually gives a blue color with raw milk, was not found reliable. The author recommends the following test: Milk is shaken with more common salt than it will dissolve, heated to 30 to 40° 0., and filtered. If coagulated albumen separates in the filtrate on heating, the conclu- sion is that the sample was boiled milk or a mixture of raw and boiled milk. It is suggested that the change in milk by cooking, noticeable in the taste and smell, may be due to a breaking up of constituents, as in the case of the extractives of meat. Rapid methods for butter examination, Ostektag {Ztschr. Fleiseh- und Milehhyg., 6 {1896), No. 2, pp. 72-7i), Jigs. 2). — The advantages of reliable rapid methods for testing the purity of* butter are discussed, and the methods of Jahr and Bischoff are described in detail. Jahr's method iucludes 3 tests, i. e., heating (1) in a water bath at 50° C. with water; (2) with sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and potas- sium-permanganate solution; or (3) with common salt solution, hydro- chloric acid, and iJotassium-])ermanganate solution. Treated in either of these ways, pure butter, oleomar'garine, and mixtures of the two give characteristic reactions, either in the appearance of the fat or coloring. An apparatus for making the test is illustrated and described. As the (juantities to be used of some of the reagents are stated in terms of the graduates furnished with the apparatus, no clear idea is fur- nished of the amounts actually used. The Bischoff test depends ui)on the appearance of the sample when melted under specific conditions in an apparatus provided for that pur- l)ose, which is figured. The test is said to be used otticially in Berlin, and by the veterinary police in the country. The determination of small amounts of magnesia in limestone, Ukrzkklu aud F(ii!STi:i: (Ztschr. Biibenz. Ind., 46 {1S9G), p. 2S5 ; aha. in Chem. Zttj., W {189G), No. 42, liepert., p. 154). 26 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A gas or saturated vapor thermo-regulator, H. Parent v ;iud R. Bkicaud {Compt. Bend., 122 (ISOi'!), Xo. 17, pp. 'J19-'J22). A new method of converting sulphates into chlorids, P. Jannascii {Ztachr. aiioryait. Clwm., 12 {ISUG), No. 3, pp.222, 224). — Tho sulphate is fused with boric aiihydrid until fumes of sulphuric acid are uo longer given off, the fusion being dis- solved in hydrochloric acid. On the composition of the red pigment of Amanita, A. 15. Giuffiihs {Compt. Mend., 122 {IS'Jo), No. 23, p. 1342). — Tho results of analysis indicate the formula Ci.iHisOh. The name Anianitin is proposed. On a new reaction for asparagin, L. Moulix {Jour, rharm. et Chim., ser. 3, IG {1S9(>), No. 11, p. r,43). Detection and separation of the acid principles of plants, L. I^indet {Compt. Bend., 122 {1S96), No. 20, pp. 1135-1137). A new cooler, R. Lasne {Ann. Chim. anal. appUq., lS9i'>, p. 145 ; aha. in Chein. Ztg., 20 {1S96), No. 42, Repert., p. 149, fuj. 1). Device for maintaining constant level of liquids in receptacles, A. Matiiot {Jour. I'liann. et Chim., ser. 3, 16 {1896), No. 12, pp. 594, 595, Jig. 1). — A balanced T-tube connected with a water supply, one arm emptying iuto a waste pipe, the other iuto the receptacle. From the latter a float is suspended, from the former a weight. When water Hows through the tube it will empty into the receptacle until the float rises and tilts the tube, when it will flow into the waste pipe, and rice versa. A w^ashing apparatus for the determination of nitric nitrogen according to Kiihn, O. Forster (6'/(em. Ztr/., 20 {1S9G), No. 39, p. 3S3, Ji;/. 1).—A sipbou-tube device for preventing alkali from being carried over in distillation. Handbook for the biochemical laboratory, J. A. JMandel {New York: J. Wiley and Sons, 1S9C,). Short introduction to the analysis of raw^ materials and manufactured prod- ucts of agricultural and fat industries, W. Kai.man {Kurze Anleilung ziir chemisclien Untersuchung von Bohstoffcn und Producten dcr LandwirtschaftUchen Gewerhe nnd der Fettindastrie. Leipsic and Vienna: F. Deutick, 1S96, pis. 3). Proceedings of the tw^elfth annual convention of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, H. W. Wiley ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Chemistry BuJ. 47, pp. 172, figs. 2). — This is a detailed account of the proceedings of the convention held at Washington, September 5, 6, and 1, 1895. A brief account of this meeting has already been given in the Record (E. S. R., 7, p. 169). Seventh report of the agricultural chemical experiment station at Tabor, Bohemia {pp. 172, pis. 3). BOTANY. On the action of different colors upon plants, O. Flammarion {Bui. Min. A(/r. France, J 5 {1S9(j), Xo. :2, pp. ;273-377, Jig. i).— The effect ofgrowiug various plants under red, green, blue, and clear glass lias already been partially reported by the author,' but the results are given in greater detail in this bulletin. The following experiments were not referred to m the previous publication. Maize was planted under the different-colored glass mentioned above, and the growth in height and weight per plant was, under white glass, 1.2 meters, weighing 111 gm.; under red glass, 0.0 meter, weight 7.5 gm.; under green glass, 0.25 meter, weight 3.5 gm.; while under blue glass there was no growth. ' Compt. Rend., 121 (1895), No. 2,5, p. 957 (E. S. R., 1, p. 746). BOTANY. 27 Rye grass was seeded November 13, under the same conditions, and the g-erminations began as follows: Under white glass December 5, red December 7, green December S, blue December 15. All plants under the blue glass soon perished. The root development was noticed to be particularly affected by the ditit'erent kinds ol light, none develop- ing under the blue glass, and but feebly under either the red or green. In conclusion it is stated that "for plants from the seed the growth will be in the following order: White, red, green, blue. But the effect exerted after germination is in the order, red, green, white, and blue, or red, white, green, blue, depending on whether height or vegetative phenomena are considered." It was further found tliat plants placed under bell jars colored with mono chromatic solutions gave abnormally colored flowers, and that apples, peaches, cherries, strawberries, when placed under colored bell jars to ripen, remained blanched, and when mature were very watery and lacking in flavor. Formation and assimilation of asparagin, O. Loew {Chem. Ztg., 20 {1890), ^'o. JO, pp. 14o-147; ahs. in Jour. lioy. Micros. Soc, 1896, Xo. 3, p. 330). — Asparagin is shown to be very often the result of splitting up of the proteids into asparagin and carbon dioxid. In other cases, as in the sugar of ripe beet roots, asparagin is a synthetic product and may be formed out of ammonia or nitric acid; this takes place in barley and maize. Sugar or some substitute is essential for the transforma- tion of asparagin into i^roteids. This may take place in the dark and the sugar need not be formed in the same cells as the asparagin. On the occurrence of nitrates in germinating plants, E. Schulze {Ztschr. pliyHiol. Chem., 22 {1890), No. 1, pp. 82-89).~lii 1885 the author published ' an account of the presence of nitrate of potash in etiolated seedlings of CHcHrhita pepo. In the experiments the seeds had been grown on sand, but when the sand had been thoroughly washed with distilled water there was a marked falling oft' in the nitrogen content of the seedlings. In 2 cases there was 0.G14 per cent nitrate of potash in the dry matter of the seedlings, while in 2 others at the end of 2 weeks there was but a trace present. Experiments with Luplnus luteus seed gave similar results. When the cucurbit seed were grown upon gauze in distilled water there were no nitrates present in the seedlings at the expiration of II days, although glutamin and tyrosin were pres- ent. Negative results were obtained with seed of Lupinvs a (bus, L. anf/usti/olius, Vicia Hativa, Ricinus communis, and Zca mays. The author states that nitrates are not constantly present in seed- lings, and that the claim of Belzuug^ that amids are supplied through th«; nitrates is incorrect. Nitrogen assimilation in the cotton plant, C. E. Coates and W. R. DoDSON {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 18 {1896), No. 5, pp. 125-428).— A 1 Jour, prakt. Chem., 32 (1885), p. 451. 2 Ann.sci.uat. Dot., scr. 7, 15 (1892), p. 249. 4256— No. 1 3 28 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. series of pot experiments was undertaken to test the possibility of tlie assimilation of free nitrogen by the cotton plant. To 2 pots no nutri- ent solution was added, the plants growing in the sterilized sand. To the others a nutrient solution of potassium phosphate, magnesium sul- phate, potassium chlorid, and calcium chlorid was added. To some of the pots an infusion of soil from a cotton held was added. The amount of nitrogen gained, either with or without soil inoculation, was so small as to fall within the limits of error of the experiments, and while the results obtained were wholly negative, yet the authors think the non- assimilation of free nitrogen by the cotton plant is not proved. The essentials of botany, C. E. Bessey (Xeiv York: Henry Holt if- Co., 1896, pp. VII, 350, figs. 2~o). — To all those acquainted with former editions of this useful work, the present revised and enlarged edition will be very welcome. A commendably simple and direct treatment is adopted, and technical terms are employed only where their use would seem to make the text plainer. The advance of our knowledge relating to the protoplasm and the plant cell have required the rewriting of the chapters devoted to those subjects. The same applies to the chapter on plant phys- iology. The author, agreeing with Debary and others, excliules the slime molds from the plant kingdom, but for the beuefit of those disposed to retain them they are consid- ered in an appendix to the jirotophytes. Pandorina aud Yolvox also seem to be con- sidered as probably outside the plant world. The terms anthophyta, spermatophyta, phanerogams, etc., are used in such a way as to show their proper restrictions and uses. The systematic arrangement of the angiosperms oifers some novelties that will require the test of time to be accepted or rejected by systematists. Useful Australian plants, J. H. Maiden {Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 {1896), No. 5, pp. 259-262, pis. 2). — Woolly-butt {Eucalyptus longifolia) and tufted hair grass {Des- champsia ciespitosa) are illustrated aud described, with notes on commercial value. Australian fungi, D. McAlpine {Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 {1896), No. 5, pp. 299- S07, pis. 2). Experimental investigation of paratonic curving of firs, J. Weisner {Ber. dexd. Hot. Ges., 14 {1896), No. S,pp. 180-185). — The author discusses the curving during growth due to external influences as opposed to that caused spontaneously. The role of anatomy in distinguishing critical species, P. Parmentier {Ann. sci. nai. Bot., ser. 8, 2 {1896), No. 1-3, pp. 1-36). Contributions to the comparative anatomy of the Caprifoliaceee, Linsbauer {Verliandl. zoolog.-iof. Ges. Wien, 1895, p. 43; abs. in Bot. Ceuthl. Beihefte, 6 {1896), No. 2-3, p. 140). Comparative histological studies of the wood of the Pomaceae, A. Burger- stein {Sitzungsher. Acad, wissench. Math, naturw. classe, 104 {1895), I, pp. 723-772; abs. in Bot. CentM. Beihefte, 6 {1896), No. 2-3, ptp. 128, 129). Investigations on the embryo sac of fleshy plants, \l. D'Hubert {Ann. sci. nat. Bot., ser. 8, 2 {1896), No. 1-3, jjp- 37-128, pis. 3). Observations on the structure of Cystopus candidus, H. T. AVager {Internat. Jour. Micros, and Nat. Sci., 6 {1896), No. 31, pp. 225-227). Concerning the anatomical structure and ash of leaves of Phytolaccaceae and their relation to systematic arrangement, C. Schulze {Inaug. Diss. Erlangen, 1895, pp. 56, pi. 1; abs. in Bot. Centbl. Beihefte, 6 {1896), No. 2-3, pp. 133, 134). The form of the leaves of sugar beets and some of their transformations, R. Kneifel {Oesterr. ungar. Ztschr. Zuckerind. und Landiv., 1895, p. 965 ; abs. in Bot. Centbl. Beihefte, 6 (1896), No. 2-3, pp. 136, 136). METEOROLOGY. 29 Sexual reproduction in plants, M. Mobius {Biol, Cenihl., 16 (1S96), pp. 129- 153, Jigs. 10; ahs. in Jour. Roij. Micros. Soc, 189G, Xo. 3, p. 3.28). — The absence of sex- uality in many groups of plants is couimentetl upon and sexual reproduction is regarded as liaviug a twofold function, the uuiintenauce of stability by the elimina- tion of acquired characteristics and tlie production of new varieties and species by the union of difterent germ plasms. The crossing of species is hehl to be more common than is generally believed. A contribution to the knowledge of germination, D. Prianisciixikow (Zandio. Vers. Stat., 40 {ISDG), Xo. G, pp. 4J0-470). A contribution to the biology of variegated leaves, E. Staiil (Ann. Jard. Bat. Buitenzorg, 13, pp. 137-216, pls.2 ; abs. in Bot. Ztg., 54 {1896), Xo. 14, pp. 209-215). Honeydew, J. Van der Plank and M. P. Biourge (La Cellule, 9 {1896), pp. 375- 399 ; ahs. in Jour. Boy. Micros. Soc, 1896, Xo. S, p. 321). — The authors collected some of the exudation from the copper beech and found it was composed of a mixture of gum, dextrin, and levulose. When incinerated it gave 1.55 jier cent ash composed of C'aO, MgO, and KjCO;. Concerning the presence of arganin in the roots and tubers of certain plants, E.ScHULZE {Landw. Vers. Stat., 46 {1896), Xo. 6, pp. 451-458). On the presence of pectic substances in the epidermal cells of the roots of Equisetum, L. Vidal {Jour. Bot. France, 10 {1806), Xo. 14, pp. 2.J6-2.39, figs. 2). A contribution to the knoAvledge of lignified cell membranes, H. C. Schellen- beik; {Inaug. Diss. Zurich, 1895, pp. 36; abs. in Bot. Centbl. Beihefte, 6 {1896), Xo. 2-3, pp. 115, 116). Researches on the intervention of atmospheric ammonia in the nutrition of plants, A. MuNTZ {Ann. Sci. Agron., ser. 2, 1 {1896), Xo. 2, pp. 161-214, figs. -5). On the presence in Monotropa hypopithys of a glucosid of methylsalicylic ether and on the hydrolyzing ferment of this glucosid, E. Bourquelot {Compt.^ Rend., 122 {1896), Xo. IS, pp. 1002-1004; Bev. Sci., ser. 4, 5 {1896), No. 20, p. 629). Assimilation of nitrogen by fungi, K. Puriewitsch (Be/-, deut. bot. Ges., 13 {1895), Xo. 8, pp. 342-345; abs. in Jour. Boy. Micros. Soc, 1896, Xo.3,p. 334). — Experiments were conducted with Aspergillus niger and Penicillium glaucum and the author concludes that they can absorb nitrogen from the air only when there is present in the nutrient solution a sufficient amount of sugar. A contribution to the nitrogen question, -T. H. Aeby {Landw. Vers. Stat., 46 {1896), No. 6, pp. 409-439). METEOROLOGY. The work of the station of agricultural climatology of Juvisy, France, in 1895, 0. Flammarion [Bui. Min. Agr. France, 50 {1896), N't). 2, PI). 257-284, Jig. 1). — The observatious of this station are sum- niaiized with reference to the action of solar radiation on the atmos- phere, the soil, and the plant. A record for 18 years (1878-'05) shows the greatest solar activity in 1893. A close correspondence is shown between the cnrves representing the occurrence of sun spots and the mean annual temperature for the period from 1879 to 1895. The tem- perature.( — IG^ C.) in February was the lowest observed since 1710. While February was excessively cold, September was excessively hot, reaching the maximum for the year (33.7° C, September 7). Such a temi)erature for tliis month has not been observed since the invention of the thermometer, the average for the month (19.1° C.) being 3 30 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. degrees above tlie normal. The period from May to July was exces- sively wet, from August to October excessively dry, the rainfall being 92 mm. in June and 0 in September. In fact tbere was no rainfall from Angust 14 to the last of September. The report on observations on the temperature and water of the soil are noted (p. 36). Observa- tions with different forms of actinometers are reported. Eeducing tlie results obtained with the distillation actinometer by means of Hou- daille's formula, it was found that the number of calories registered during 1895 was 114,411. A general correspondence between the tem- perature of the air, hours of sunshine, and calories is traced in a diagram. An account is given of observations on the period of growth, sums of temperature, and hours of sunshine, and calories of heat received during different parts of the period of growtli are reported for sweet corn seeded at 3 different dates and at different distances. The influence of color on the quantity of heat absorbed was tested by means of thermometers with cylindrical and spherical bulbs in black, white, and different-colored wooden cases, and by observing the heat transmitted by red, green, blue, and white glass. The heat absorbed increased with the depth of color, the order being on August 22, black 07° C, indigo 06.8°, violet 06.5°, blue 6G.3o, green 05.5°, red 60°, orange 59.5°, white (dull) 58°, and white (shiny) 50". The amount of heat transmitted by the different-colored glass decreased as the extreme right of the spectrum was approached, the order being white, red, green, blue. A soil artificially blackened showed a temperature 10° higher at a depth of 0.5 meter than a light soil under the same conditions. Soils, therefore, store up heat somewhat in proportion to their depth of color, and the same may apply to i)lants. The green blade of corn, for example, when exposed to the sun may attain a higher temperature than an uncolored thermometer placed under the same conditions. Chapters are given on the action of different rays of the solar spec- trum on vegetation, the internal temperature of trees, the transpira- tion of plants, the action of electricity on plants, and various other experiments on plants. The determination of the relative quantities of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere by means of the absorption lines of the spec- trum, L. 1], Jewell ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bid. ](!, pp. 12., fig. 1). — This is a report of observations on "the rain-band" during the period from January IG, 1892, to January 31, 1893. "The method of observation wsed was to estimate the intensity of a water- vapor line ill terms of the solar line most nearly equal to it in intensity, and in close enongh proximity to render the comparison easy and sufliciently exact. One observation generally included sev'eral comparisons. . . „ "Having selected a series of comparison lines, it became necessary to determine the relative intensities of both the solar and the water- vapor lines used in the com- parisons, in order that the observations might be available for actual measurements METEOROLOGY. 31 of intensity and mijiht mean something really definite instead of mere guesswork. For tills piuposo a pliotographic scale was constructed, consisting of a series of lines regularly increasing in intensity from a line barely visible to others as strong as were desired. " A large, narrow slit was used, Avith a gaslight behind it and a plate of ground glass between theiu to jjroduce a more even light. A series of images of the slit •was then made upon a i)hotographic jdate held in a camera, the Ions of which had been covered with a piece of wire gauze line enough to produce a shading to the edge of the lines and a somewhat diffuse appearance of the lines theiiiselves, but not sufticieutly line to ])roduce any definite side lines due to diffraction fringes. '' In the scale thus constructed the exposures were so timed as to be in geometrical ratio, the object being to form a scale of lines whose intensity should vary, as the geometrical series 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, etc. These lines formed the principal divisions, "while, to facilitate measurements, an intermediate line was added by making the ratio of the series 1.114 or v'2." The author concludes from the results of his observations that this method may be of great value in studying- the distribution of water vapor in the atmosphere, but that it is of little use for regular observa- tions upon which to base weather forecasts. The diurnal lunar "waves and the secular variations of the barometer, P. frAiiniciON-LAGRANGE [Compt. Rend., l:J2 {1S96), iVo. lo^ m). S46-S49). — The author coucludes from his investigations that the action of the moon on the atmosphere is very marked, amounting on the 10th parallel to 1.2 mm. of mercury. This action may be attrib- uted to the law of universal attraction, and appears to manifest itself not only in daily and semidaily oscillations, as in the case of tides, but is also exerted through monthly, annual, and secular periods. North Carolina weather during the year 1895, H. B. Battle, C. F. VON Herrmann, and E. Nunn {North Carolina State Weather Service Bpt. 1895, pp. I-L, 1-204, maps 20). — This report includes lists of publications of the State Weather Service during 1895, lists of meteorological stations and observers and crop correspondents, notes on the distribution of forecasts in the State, and a meteorological summary for the year as comi)ared with i)revious years (1882-'94), with general remarks on the climate of Korth Carolina and on the weather and cro}) conditions during 1895, and charts of normal annual temperature and precipitation for the State. Meteorological bulletins issued during the year are published as an appendix. The annual summary is as follows : Temperature (degrees F.). — Mean, 57.4; normal, 59; departure, — 1.0; maximum, 104, .Tnne 2 and 3, and September 22 and 23; mean maximum, 07.6; iniuimum, — 18, January 13; mean minimum, 47.4; mean HHmthly range, 51; mean daily range, 20.2; absolute range, 122. Pressure (inches). — Mean, 30.09; normal, 30.08; departure, +0.01; maximum, 30.77, December 17; minimum, 29.28, Fel)ruary 7; absolute range, 1.49. Relative humklity. — Normal (per cent), 74.6. rrecipitntUm (inches). — Average, 50.23; normal, 53.29; departure, —3.06; greatest monthly, 14.84; least monthly, 0.05. Wind. — Prevailing direction, SW. ; average direction for many years, SW. ; maximum velocity (miles jier hour), 66. Weather. — Number of clear days, 160; number of cloudy days, 98; number of rainy days, 108; number of partly cloudy days, 107. 32 EXPERIMENT STATION EECOED. "The meteorological conditions prevailing flaring the year 1895 present several features of unusual interest. The Aviuter months were excei)tionally severe, and minimum temperatures occurred in the mountainous sections of the State lower than any previously recorded. The mean temjierature for February is the lowest for any month of any year since 1872, excepting only January, 1893, which was 1.9 degrees colder. "During the summer there were two periods of iinusual heat, one extending from May 29 to June G; the other from September 18 to September 26, during both of which maximum temperatures (above 100 at many places) occurred, breaking all previous records at those seasons of the year. Nevertheless, the cold of winter kept the annual mean temperature for the State below the normal. "Following a period of excess of rainfixll (March, April, May), the 7 months from June to December were notable for the continued prevalence of droughty conditions, all 7 months being below the normal in rainfall, and September particularly so. Yet the annual deficiency was not very great. Since 1872 there have been 7 years with a less annual total of rainfall than 1895 ; while this year there were no months so dry as December, 1889, November, 1890, and October, 1892. There has probably never before occurred so extended a period of deficiency in precipitation." Meteorological observations in Wyoming, 1891-'96, J. D. Con- ley ( Wyoming Sta. Bui. ^7, ])P- ^^)- — General notes are given on the weather of Wyoming, and on the character and history of the meteor- ological observations made by the station since 1891, with descriptions of apparatns and summaries of observations at the station at Laramie, and at the substations at Lander, Saratoga, Sheridan, Sundance, and Wheatland. The general summary for 1895 is as follows : Tempe>-ature (degrees F,). — Highest — Laramie, 87, July 27; Lander, 89, July 26; Sheridan, 95, August 15; Sundance, 91, July 22 and 23; Wheatland, 101, July 27; lowest — Laramie, — 30, February 12 ; Lander, — 26, February 11 ; Sheridan, — 38, Feb- ruary 7; Sundance, — 31, February 7; Saratoga, — 35, February 11; highest monthly range — Laramie, 31.5, for September; Lander, 31.5, Juue; Sheridan, 35.4, October; Sundance, 25.4, October; Wheatland, ^ 35.1, October. Lowest monthly range — Laramie, 19, January; Lander, 19.6, April; Sheridan, 24.2, June;- Sundance, 16.6. December ; Wheatland, 23.5, December. The highest annual mean temperature was at Lander, 42.1^; the lowest annual mean at Laramie, 38.5°. The average annual mean for the substations at Laramie, Lander, Sheridan, and Sundance was 40.7^^. Frecipitation (inches). — The greatest annual was at Sundance, 23.84; the lowest annual at Laramie, 11.15; average for four substations (excluding WTieatland) and Dobin Springs and Little Horse Creek, 16.84. The following additional observations were made at Laramie : Terrestrial radiation: Highest, 15.5°, November 27; lowest, 0°, April 5, 15, 26, June 3, October 4, Novem- ber 17, 23, 25, and December 20. Pressure (inches). — Highest, 23.388, September 28; lowest, 22.543, December 15; mean for the year, 23.049. Wind. — Prevailing direction. Southwest ; greatest number of miles traveled in one month, 12,047 (March) ; greatest number in one day, 547 (November 26). Humidity. — Lowest relative, 15.7, April 25; mean relative for the year, 58.5. Deic-2}oint. — Highest, 54.5°, July 30; lowest, 15° ; mean for the year, 23°. Evaporation. — Greatest monthly, 7.294 in. ; total for six months (April 17 to Octo- ber 22), 37.02 in. ' Eight months reported. ^ The range was 24.3° in March. Meteorology. 33 The work of the Weather Bureau in connection with the rivers of the United States, W. L. jMoork (U. S. Dept. Agr., TVeather Bureau. Bui. 17, pp. 106, figs. 3). — The history of the work of the Weather Bureau in connection with the river floods and the value of the river and Hood service are discussed, together with a list of special river stations; an explanation of the system of flood warnings; tables of distances, river tributaries, and rate of flood movement; and reports by officials in charge of river stations at Montgomery, Alabama; Fort Smith and Little Eock, Arkansas; Redbluft" and Sacramento, California; Augusta and Atlanta, Georgia; Cairo, Illinois; Davenport, Dubuque, Keokuk, and Sioux City, Iowa; New Orleans, Louisiana; St. Paul, Minnesota; Vicksburg, Mississippi; Hannibal, Kansas City, and St. Louis, Missouri; Albany, New York; Raleigh, North Carolina; Cincin- nati, Ohio; Portland, Oregon; Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; Charleston, South Caro- lina; Yankton, South Dakota; Chattanooga, Kuoxville, Memphis, and Nashville, Tennessee, and Parkersburg, West Virginia. "The special work of the Weather Bureau in connection with the rivers of the country is to facilitate commerce on navigable streams by publishing' daily informa- tion'as to water stages along the course of each river, and to issue timely warnings of floods so as to efl'ect the saving of life and property. "On January 1, 1896, the Weather Bureau river and flood system consisted of 135 special river stations, equipped with standard river gauges for measuring the ver- tical rise of the surface of the water, and in many cases with standard thermometers for measuring air temperature. These stations were manned by local observers receiving from the Weather Burean pay commensurate with their services. There were 44 rainfall stations, equipped with rain gauges and manned by local paid observers, and so distributed in the various catchment basins of the tributaries to important rivers as to give, in connection with the regular meteorological Weather Bureau stations, a fair approximation to the average rainfall throughout each water- shed. There were 38 completely equipjied meteorological stations of the Weather Bureau where river measurements were made, and 22 Weather Bureau stations which were centers from which flood warnings and forecasts of expected changes in river level were issued." Warnings against tornadoes, E. S. Holden {Iowa Weather and Crop Servtec, Montlily Beview, 7 {1896), No. 5, p. ?). — The author suggests surrounding towns on the soiithwest side at a distance from the town of about 2 miles by wire strung on poles and terminating in electric signal bells in houses, etc. Part of the circuit is com- posed of short stay wires which hold up vanes (6x4 in.) on the poles facing the dan- gerous quarter. These stay wires are so constructed that they will break when the wind blows at a rate of 60 miles per hour. The breaking of the wire sets the signal bells to ringing. A prognostic of thunder, B. Woodd-Smith (Nature, 54 {1896), No. 1390, p. 151).— It is claimed that the formation of a small group of parallel streaks of clouds, seldom more than 3 or 4 in number, definite in form, and limited in extent and duration, appearing either as white streaks on the blue, or more rarely as darker streaks against nimbus or cumulo-nimbus, is almost always followed by thunder within 24 hours. Scientific kiteflying {Science, 1896, May 39, p. 801; Nature, 54 {1896), No. 1390, p. 156; Monthhj Weather Bcv.,2S {1895), No. 11, pp. 418-420, figa. 5),— "Instead of being flat and tapering at the lower end, the kites used are box-shaped, with their ends open and their sides partly covered with cloth or silk, and when fine piano wire is used instead of twine they are found to be splendid flyers. Recent ascents have reached altitudes of nearly a mile above sea level, and excellent results have been obtained by means of a self-recording instrument made by W, II, Fergusson, of the Blue Hill Observatory, which gives automatic readings of temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind velocity. Among the most important matters that have hith- erto been noted is the presence of cold waves and warm waves at considerable eleva- tions some hours before the temperature changes are noted at the earth's surface. 34 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The prospect of improviug weather forecasts by such means and by the use of small pilot balloons, which can be made at slight expense and can reach considerable alti- tudes, is considered to be very encouraging." A practical treatise on -weather forecasting, J. R. Plumaxdox { Trait e pratique de la Prevision dti temps. Paris : G. Masson). Protection from lightning, A. McAdie {U. S. Dept.Jgr., Weather Bureau BnJ.15, pp. 26, figs. 13). — This is a revised edition of a previously issued circular upon the same subject (E. S. R., 6, p. 20). Meteorological observations, H. B. Battle, C. F. von Herrmann, and R. Nuxx {North Carolina Sta. Met. Bids. 7S, pp. 37-51, maps 2; 70, pp. 55-70, maps 2; 80, pp. 73-SS, maps 2). — The usual summaries of observations by the North Carolina Section of the Climate and Crop Service of the Weather Bureau of this Department for March, April, and May, 1896. Report of the third annual meeting of the American Association of State Weather Services {U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bnrenu Bui. 14. pp. 31). — This consists of an account of the discussions and papers, officers of the association, and list of those in attendance at the meeting held in Brooklyn, New York, August 17, 1894. WATEH— SOILS. The improvement of unproductive black soils, H. A. Huston {Indiana Sta. Bill. 57^ pp. 83-100, pis. 4, Jigs. 5). Synojjsis. — The unproductive areas of deep, black humus soils known as "bogus" lands occurring in central and northern Indiana, and which in many cases " were formerly marshes or the bottoms of old ponds," showed on chemical examina- tion none of the characteristics usually assigned as the cause of unproductiveness. Experiments on 2 farms during 1 years indicate that the use of kainit and straw temporarily improved the drainage, and thus increased the pioductiveness of these soils. A system of drainage which taps the water-bearing gravel under- lying the humus soil and lowers the water level to at least 40 in. by removing the cause of unprtrductiveness insures permanent improvement. Systems of drainage having this object in view are described. "In nearly every county in central and northern Indiana maybe found a kind of black soil, often known as ' bogus land.' It is also sometimes called ' allvali,' but not correctly, for the land lias none of the real characteristics of alkali soil. "The size of the areas of unproductive black lands varies from a few- square rods to a hundred or more acres. Many of the places where it is found were formerly marshes or the bottoms of old ponds. Such land is found at all elevations above the level of the water courses from bottom lands beside the streams to the summit of the ridges or divides between the water courses." "The unproductive soil itself consists of partially decomposed organic matter mixed with more or less sand and clay. In the large areas the organic matter makes up the greater part of the material and the soil has the general character of muck lands. In some of the smaller areas there is more mineral matter present. Often these small areas are low places in fields of clay or loam and differ from the remainder of the field only in having more black matter in the soil and being at a lower level. On digging down in these small areas it is generally found that the distance to the hard pan, clay, or gravel is much greater in the ' bogus ' places than in the good soil near the border of the bogus place, indicating that at one time the 'bogus' place was filled Avith water to a considerable depth, and gradually became WATER SOILS. 35 filled np with the washings from the higher land surrounding it and with the products of the decay of the water plants growing in it. ''In the larger areas the stratification and general characteristics of muck beds are found, the muck being from a few inches to 15 ft. in depth." Numerous samples of such soils were examined, but iu uo case was an acid reaction, metallic sulphids, or ferrous iron compounds found. "Tlie waters of such soils hnve always given the slightly alkaline reaction common to the waters of this section." Analyses of air-dry samples of soil and subsoil gave the following results : Analijscs of .soil and subsoil of "bogus lands.'' Water Ash Kitroseii Phospl.ioric acid, P^Oj Potash, K2O Soil. Subsoil. Per cent. 16. 320 39. 940 3. 220 .400 .105 Per cent. 16. 230 42. 870 2.840 .270 .108 \ The percentage of humus was abnormally high. . In some of the soils examined tile had been laid at the usual depth in the humus layer of soil without any improvement resulting, due to the fact that the pores and joints of the tile had been closed by the muck. Underlying the humus layer at a depth of 5 ft. or more was a bed of sand or gravel immediately overlaid by a thin bed of clay marl and carrying a strong flow of water. When holes were dug down to this layer, the water usually rose to within at least 30 in. of the surface. "All the observations . . . lead to the conclusion that the real difticalty is the high permanent water level." Different systems of drainage which it is believed would be effective in lowering this level are explained in some detail. In most of these, where it is impossible to tap the water-bearing strata directly with tile, the main features are a series of permanent wells tapping the water-bearing strata and con- nected with tile at the depth to which it is desired to reduce the water table. From one experiment on twentieth-acre plats of this soil, with straw, kainit (1 ton per acre), and lime (10,000 lbs.) singly and the last two combined, ."it appears that the best yield [of corn] was obtained from the use of kainit, the next best from the use of kainit and lime, and the next best from the use of straw. ..." "Iu the years 1893, 1894, and 1895 no further materials were applied to the i)lats, but observations were continued on them. . . . "All who have watched the progress of the experiments have agreed that the yields of the past 3 seasons on the treated plats have exceeded the yields of the first season. It therefore seems that one will be Justified in calculating the returns on the yields of 1892. On this basis the application of a 3-inch layer of straw in 1892 has given a net increase of uo le.ss than 44 bu. of sound coru per acre for 4 years, or a total of 176 bu. "The net returns from the use of 1 ton of kainit per acre are not less than 54 bu. per acre for 4 years, or a total of 216 bu." 36 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, On a second farm similar experiments were made with kainit and lime singly and combined, manuie, and straw. One plat was snbsoiled. The results were vitiated by injury from frost, but confirm in general those of the other experiments. "The results of the field work show that there are satisfactory methods of tempo- rary improvement — methods that are easily ai)plied and that are exceedingly j)rofit- ahle from a commercial standpoint. "While there is reason to believe that the effects of this temporary improvement may extend over a number of seasons, . . . permanent improvement of such lands must be effected by eflicient drainage." Soil temperature and water, C. Flammaeion {Bid. Min. Agr. France., 50 {1896), No. 5, ;pp. 262-268).— This is a part of the report of the station of agricultural climatology at Juvisy, France. Observations on the temperature of the soil at the surface and at depths of 0.05, 0.10, 0.25, 0.50, and 1 meter are briefly summarized in tables and charts. In winter the highest temperature was observed at a depth of 1 meter, the lowest at a depth of 0.05 meter. A similar diurnal variation was also observed. In March and Aj)ril the conditions were reversed, the soil being warmer at the surface than at a depth of 1 meter, and this remained the case until autumn. The average for the year shows that the temperature of the soil was lowest at 0.10 meter and increased uj) to 0.50 meter, where it was practically the same as at 1 meter. The depth and temperature of the water in 2 drainage wells near together, one 13.56 meters deep and tbe other 11.08 meters deep, were observed. There was considerable variation in the temperature, depth, and chemical composition of the water in the 2 wells. The dif ference in temperature and depth was on an average 0.5° 0. and about 1.5 meter, respectively. The temperature of the soil water was very uniform throughout the year at a depth of 14 meters, being but slightly affected by the weather, except during a very cold period in February. Soil temperatures, J. D. Conley {Wyoming Sta. Bui. 27, pp. 12, 19, 28). — The soil thermometer used is described and a summary is given of observations at Laramie, Wyoming, since 1891 at depths of from 3 to 72 in. In 1895 the mean temperature of the air was 37.9°, at 3 in. 43.7°, at 6 in. 44.40, at 12 in. 44.2°, at 24 in. 44.5°, at 36 in. 44.5°, at 72 in. 45°. The following are the mean soil temperatures for the past' four and a half years: Mean soil temperatures from July 5, 1891, to December 31, 1895. Period. Depth. Air. 3 in. 6 in. 12 in. 24 in. 36 in. 72 iu. 1891 (from Beg. F. Beg. F. 44.6 42.7 43.1 44.5 43.7 Beg. F. 48.5 44.5 45.3 45.8 44.4 Beg. F. 49.8 44.9 45.1 45.8 44.2 Beg. F. 50.4 44.7 44.8 45.5 44.5 Beg. F. 48.0 46.1 45.0 45.5 44.5 Beg. F. 51.7 45.7 45.3 45.7 45.0 1892 38.4 40.8 39.1 37.9 1893 1894 1895 FERTILIZERS. 37 The greatest difference between the readings of the 3-inch thermom- eter for 4 years (1892-'95) was 1.8° ; for the G-inch, 1.4° ; the 12.iuch, 1.0° ; the 24-inch, 1°; the 36-inch, l.GO; the 72-inch, 0.-7°. ' The public lauds aud their water supply, F. H. Newell ( U. S. Geological Sur- vey Iipt.lS94- 05, pp. 463-533, pis. 5, figs. 10). — This is an account of a continuation of work bej^nn by the Geological Survey in 1879. The purpose of the present paper is "simply to point out the location of the public lands, to indicate in a general way their extent and position, and to lay before the public such facts as have been obtained concerning their broader physical characteristics, and their water supply. The latter is still a subject of investigation, and although considerable work relating to it has been done, in view of the enormous extent of country to be traversed it cau hardly be said to be more than inaugurated." The classification of the public land was provided for in the organic law of the Geological Survey approved March 3, 1879. The mapping aud studj^ of soil condi- tions have proceeded rapidly, and facts regarding the phj^sical conditions of large jiortions of the national domain are now available. A detailed map is given show- ing the disposition made of public lands in the United States. Smaller maps are given which show the relative location of forests, woodlands, and irrigated areas, and the areas within which dry farming is attempted. The subject of water supply is treated under the general heads of sources of supply, including streams, wells, and reservoirs; and the supply of the individual States in the arid region. Nitrates in potable waters, T. Schlossing {Compt. Itend., 123 {189G), No. 19, pp. 1030-103S). — The results of examinations of three sources of water supply with ref- erence to nitric nitrogea and lime during the spring and summer of 1895 are reported in tables and diagrams. lu one case the average amount of nitrogen found was 10.26 mg., of lime 114.2 mg. per liter; in the others the figures were 11.61 and 106.5 mg., and 10.84 and 86.3 mg., respectively. Analyses of drinking water, J. L. Hills and B. O. White ( Vermont Sia. Bpt. 1S94, pp. S4, 85). — Analyses with reference to drinking qualitj'^ of 12 samjiles of spring water, 16 of well water, and 9 of reservoir or brook water are reported. FERTILIZERS. A phosphate deposit in Juniata County, Pennsylvania, M. C. Ihlseng and ]\I. S. McDowell {Pennsylvania Sta. Bui. 34, irp. 14, pi. l,Jig. 1). — A i^reliminary report of investigation of tlie geology and chemical composition of a phosphate de^josit in this locality to which the attention of the station was called in 1895. "The existence of an especially fertile narrow belt of soil along the two central ridges of .luniata County has been known to observant farmers for years. It was in this fertile belt that the discovery was made, along the outcrop of what is called th(s Oriskauy sandstone. Between this and the overlying Onondaga limestone is a decomposed mass of marls and sands in which the phosphatic material is found. The seams lie conformably with the stratification of the country, and may be easily traced. The prospect has not yet been developed, though trenches and drifts have been dug at numerous points along the contact, giving evidence of a persistent belt of i)hosphatic material which cau be easily mined, is accessible to railroad, and incloses valuable material in amount sufficient to constitute an industry. "Three classes of phosphatic materials have thus far been discovered. The first is a friable white rock, locally known as ' white vein,' containing in typical speci- mens from 29 to 54 per cent of bone phosphate. The second consists of red nodules similar in appearance to the so-called 'clay ironstones,' but containing from 45 to 38 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 52 per cent of boue phosphate, aloug with a considerable percentage of iron and alumina. The third class of material consists of blocks of Avhat appears to be a dense blue limestone, hut which appears ou analysis to contain in the neighborhood of 40 per cent of bone phosphate of lime. "These various materials were not of a grade equal to that of the southern prod- uct, but will neverthele.ss bc.lr transportation to a moderate distance. None of the sami)les contained carbonic acid, and the material is otherwise of fair grade for fertilizer manufacture. The present indications are that the deposits are quite extensive. What renders the discovery of special interest and importance, how- ever, ia the fact that almost exactly similar geological conditions exist in many other parts of the State. Moreover, the reports of the State Geological Survey note the occurrence of 'calcareous nodules' in precisely these localities. Apparently there is warrant for the belief that further explorations may develop (|uite exten- sive phosphate deposits in A'arious parts of the Commonwealth."' Analyses of commercial fertilizers, L. L. Van Slykb {Neic York State Sta. Bui. 96, n. scr., pp. 445-480). — Notes are given on the law and rej^ulations governing the fertilizer control in I^ew York State; the influence of different kinds of fertilizers npon plants; sources of nitro- gen, phosphoric acid, and potash in fertilizers; terms used in analysis of fertilizers; and valuation of fertilizers, with tabulated analyses of samples of fertilizing materials collected during the fall of 1895. "During the fall of 189.5, there were collect(>d 288 samples of commercial fertilizers, representing 182 ditlerent brands. "Of these 182 different brands, 133 eoutained nitrogen varying in amount from 0.10 to 5 per cent. The average of all the guarantee analyses was 1.60 per cent of nitrogen, wliile the average amount found by the station analysis was 1.75 per cent. "There were 181 brands which contained available phosphoric acid varying in amount from .5. .56 to 16.81 per cent. The average amount of available phospiioric acid found l)y station analysis exceeded the average guarantee analysis by 0.85 per cent, the average of all the guarantee analyses being 9.12 per cent and the average actually found Iteing 9.97 per cent. "There wei-e 153 brands which contained potash varying from 0.55 to 49.02 per cent. The average amount of potash found by our analysis exceeded the average guarantee analysis by 0.33 per cent, the average of all the guarantee analyses being 2.75 per cent, and the average actually found being 3.08 jter cent. . . . " Of the 182 different brands collected, 76 were below the manufiicturer's guarantee analysis in one or more constituents, in amounts varying from 0.01 to 2.91 per cent. "The amount of nitrogen was below the guarantee analysis of the manufacturer in 27 brands, the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 1.15 per cent and averaging 0.18 per cent. In 24 of the 27 brands the deliciency was not greater than 0.25 per cent; in 1 brand it was over 0.25 and below 0.50 per cent; in 1 brand it was over 0.50 and below 1 per cent; in 1 brand the deficiency Avas slightly over 1 per cent. "The amount of phosphoric acidAvas below the maiinfacturer's guarantee analysis in 33 brands, the deficiency A^arying from 0.02 to 2.91 per cent and averaging 0.58 per cent. In 14 of the 33 brands the deficiency Avas less than 0.25 per cent; in 10 cases it was above 0.25 and below 0.50 per cent; in 2 brands it was above 0..50 and below 1 per cent; in 2 brands the deficiency was above 1 and below 2 per cent; in 3 brands itAvas above 2 and below 3 per cent. "The amount of potash was below the manufacturer's guarantee analysis in 30 different brands, the deficiency A-arying from 0.01 to 1.55 per cent and averaging 0.43 per cent. In 14 of the 30 brands the deficiency Avas below 0.25 per cent ; in 5 brands it Avas above 0.25 and below 0.50 per cent; in 7 brands it was above 0.50 and below 1 per cent; in 4 brands the deficiency was above 1 and below 2 per cent." FERTILIZERS. 39 Comparative tests during 1893 and 1894 of sulphate of am- monia and nitrate of soda, 11. Gkahl (Juhrh. dent, landic. Ges., 10 [1895)^ pp. 18:2— 187). — A brief review i >s given of experiments by jNI a rcker, whicli indicated that with small applications nitrate of soda and sul- phate of amnioniai were about equally effective but with larger applica- tions the nitrate was superior to the sulphate; by Wagner, which indicated that the efiectiveness of the nitrogen in sulphate of ammonia as compared Tvith that in nitrate of soda was as 90 : 100 ; and by Schultz- Lupitz in the summer of 1890, which showed that the effectiveness of the nitrogen in botli nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia Avas increased by the application of lime, the benefit being more marked in the case of the latter. The experiments reported in this article were carried out on 12 ten- are (119. G sq. yds., or nearly | acre) i^Iats, to each of which Avere applied a basal fertilizer of 60 kg. (132 lbs.) of Thomas slag and 80 kg. (ITGlbs.) of kainit. Two plats received in addition 20 kg. (44 lbs.) of nitrate of soda; 2 plats, 1") kg. (33 lbs.) of sulphate of ammonia; 2 plats, 200 kg. (440 lbs.) of lime in addition to 20 kg. of nitrate of soda; and 2 plats the same amount of lime in addition to 15 kg. of sulphate of ammonia; while 2 plats received lime without nitrogen. Crops of wheat and rye were raised on these plats during both 1893 and 1894. The yields of grain and straw are tabulated in detail. The results in 1893 are too variable to admit of definite conclusions. Those obtained in 1894 indicate that the relation between the effectiveness of nitrogen in nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia is as 100 : 93 as regards ])ro- duction of grain and 100 : 95 as regards production of straw. The addition of lime increased the effectiveness of the nitrate of soda 8 I)er cent and the sulphate of ammonia 4J per cent, so that in this case the relation between the effectiveness of the 2 forms of nitrogen was the same as that reported by Wagner, namely, 100 : 90. Pot experiments "with refuse lime from beet-sugar factories, G. Faye {Ugcslr. Landm.^ 11 [lsO(i),p. 138). — Experiments were made with oats grown in pots holding about 11 lbs. of soil. The soils used were different mixtures of (1) garden soil and washed sand; (2) garden soil and heavy clay; and (3) clay, sand, and refuse lime from beet-sugar factories. Three series of exiieriments with 9 or 10 pots in each were conducted. The addition of sand to the garden soil increased the yield of oats, the highest yield (at the rate of 12,944 lbs. of grain, roots, and straw per acre) being obtained with a mixture of 7 parts of sand and 3 parts of garden soil. The pots to which refuse lime was added showed a very marked increase in tlie yields obtained; the mixture of 3i parts of clay, 3i parts of sand, and 3 parts of lime yielded at the rate of 13,895 lbs. of total crop per acre (4,520 lbs. of grain and 9,375 lbs. of roots and straw), against a total yield of 5,673 lbs. (1,153 lbs. of grain and 4,520 lbs. of roots and straw) from a mixture of 4f^ parts clay, 4| parts sand, and h part of refuse lime. — f. \v. woll. 40 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Fertilizer problems, P. Wagner (DUngungsfragen. Berlin: Paul Farey, 1S96, Nos.l, pp. 40; 2, pp. 39, figs. G ; 3, i^p. 56, figs. 15).— This is a third revised edition of part 1 and a second edition of part 3. Part 1 contains the following articles : Is it rational to fertilize Avith ground Belgian phosphate ? Can the purchase of prepared pliosphate meal he recommended? Is there a cheap mineral phosphate which can be used'with i)rofit as a substitute for Thomas slag? How can the farmer protect liim- self against adulterated Thomas slag? Is there an easily soluble and a difficultly soluble Thomas slag? What kind of guaranty should a farmer demand in order to protect himself from low-grade Thomas slag and other phosphates? On what prin- ciple should the trade in Thomas slag be regulated? Will it be commercially profit- able to produce an easily soluble and quick-acting Thomas slag? Under what conditions will fertilizing with Thomas slag be most profitable and under what con- ditions Avill the use of superphosphate be preferable? What precautions must be observed in field experiments with phosphates in order to avoid false conclusions? Part 2 contains the following articles: What crops increase the nitrogen supply of the farm? What plants are adapted to the purposes of green manuring? Is it true that liberal fertilizing with potash, and phosphoric acid increases the nitrogen assimilation of leguminous plants? Is it true that green manuring on the better class of soils is an agricultural error? Under what conditions is green manuring rational and under what conditions is it to be considered a mistake? What are the secondary influences of the practice of green manuring? Part 3 contains the following articles : What do field experiments with, fertilizers tQach? Results of field experiments with fertilizers at the Darmstadt station on barley, oats, and potatoes. How much phosphoric acid and potash should be applied to difierent plants? How much nitrogen should be applied to wheat, oats, barley, rye, clovers and other leguminous plants, carrots, beets, cabbages, potatoes, corn, and tobacco? How must Thomas slag be prepared in oEder to be quick and sure in its action? Fertilizer for plants, C. H. Thompson {Ztschr. angetv. Chem., 1S96, No. 10, p. S99). — A patented process in which a mixture of 4.5 kg. soot, 7.2 kg. fine ground bone, and 7.2 kg. gypsum is boiled m 225 liters of water containing 240 gm. of phos- phoric acid and absorbed in peat or moss. The influence of carbon bisulphid on the gro^vth of plants, Mach {L'Engrais, 11 {1896), No. 23, p. 543). — Applications of 200 gm. per square meter increased the yield of oats, corn, potatoes, and beets to a marked degree. The use of se-wage water on meadows in Alsace {Jour. Landtv., 44 {1896), No. 2, pp. 195-200). Note on the deposits of guano in Peru, D. Crispo {L'Engrais, 11 {1896), No, 22, pp. 517, 518). Potassic fertilizers, G. Smets and C. Schkeiber {L'Engrais, 11 {1896), No. 22, pp. 516, 517). Superphosphate-gypsum, T. Pfeiffer {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), No. 48, p. 425). Commercial fertilizers H. A. Huston and W. J. Jones {Purdue TJnirersily Special Bui., May, 1896, pp. 8). — Brief notes on the extent of the fertilizer trade in Indiana and on the quality of fertilizers sold in that State, explanation of terms, and tabu- lated analyses and valuations of 378 samples of fertilizers. Analyses of commercial fertilizers {Eentucky Sta. Bui. 60, pp. 133-142). — Tabu- lated analyses and valuations of 63 samples of fertilizers, with explanatory notes. Inspection of fertilizers in Maine.in 1896, W. H. Jordan, J. M. Bartlett, and L. II. Merrill {Maine Sta. Bid. 25, pp. i7).— Analyses of 76 samples of fertilizers furnished by the manufacturers or dealers in compliance with the State law. Fertilizer analyses, H. B. Battle {North Carolina Sta. Bids. 37, pp. 21; 38, j)p. 5).— The usual notes and explanations, and tabulated analyses and valuations of 279 samjjles of fertilizers. FIELD CROPS. 41 Analyses of fertilizers, J. L. Hills and B. O. ^Xjiitk (Vei'mont Sta. Bpt. 1S94, 2)i>. S.?-SJ). — Analyses are reported of 15 samples of >vood aslies, 2 of limekiln ashes, 1 of refuse tannery salt, 1 of refuse from soap works, 2 of granite dust, 2 of guano, and 6 of Tiiuck. FIELD CROPS. Cotton culture, R. J. Ket>ding {Georgia Sta. Bui. 31, pp. 389-417). Synopsis. — As a result of experiments at the station. King Improved variety, a dis- tance of 1 by 4 ft., 400 lbs. of a complete fertilizer per acre, applying two-thirds of the fertilizer before ]ilaating and one-third with the seed, supei'phosphate instead of Tennessee soft phosphate, and leaving the cotton without topping, are recommended. This is a continuation of work published in Bulletin 27 of the station (E. S. E., 6, p. 884). Test of varieties (pp. 391-397). — Eighteen varieties were tested. The yield at each picking, number of bolls to the i)ound of seed cotton, number of seeds in 1 lb., yield of lint and seed, percentage of lint, and total value of lint and seed are tabulated. The largest yield of lint (511 lbs. per acre) was made by King Improved, which stood fourth in the yield of seed cotton and seed, thirteenth in size of boll, and second in earliness. In a comparative trial of Jones Improved and King Improved, the latter yielded 1,759 lbs. of seed cotton per acre, surpassing Jones Improved by 108 lbs., and in money value of yield by $6.27 per acre. Distance experiments (pp. 397-402). — In rows 4 ft. apart single stalks were left at distances of 1, 2, 3, and 4 ft. During this and the 4 ju'e- vious years, on the manured and unmauured plats, the largest yield was made on the plats planted at distances of 1 by 4 ft. The following table gives the yield of seed cotton for different dis- tances for each year of experiment : Yield of seed cotton at different distances. 4 by 1ft. 4 by 2 ft. 4 by 3 ft. 4 by 4 ft. 1891 Pounds. 1,943 1,616 1,903 2,065 2,270 Pounds. 2,027 1,516 1,905 1,812 2,047 Pounds. 2,007 1,501 1,925 1,843 1,985 Pounds. 1,833 1892 1, 439 1893 1,770 1894 1,671 1895 1,767 1,960 1,861 1,852 1,696 In an experiment on the distance between rows, Avith a uniform number of plants i)er acre, the largest yield was from the 2-foot rows. Effect of increasing amount of fertilizers (pp. 402-405). — In this experi- ment a comidete fertilizer was applied at the rate of 400, 800, and 1,200 lbs. per acre and the results compared with those obtained on check plats. With the variety King Improved a profit of 189 per cent was 42 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. made when 400 lbs. of fertilizer was used, aud with the Jones Improved 69 per cent; where 800 lbs. was applied the gain fell to 13 and 2G per cent, respectively; and with 1,200 lbs. there was a gain of 15 per cent and a loss of 33 per cent, respectively. Apphjing feriiUzerH in the driU (pp. 405, 406).— In different cases fer- tilizers were ai)plied (1) all before jdanting, and' (2) two thirds before planting and one-third with the seed; the results favored the latter course. Tennessee soft phosphate rs. aeid phosphate (pp. 407, 408).— Superphos- phate in a complete fertilizer was compared with 1, li, and 2 times the same amount of Tennessee soft phosphate. The latter was applied in each case at a loss. Effect oftopphui cotton (pp. 408, 409).— Single rows were topped July 1 and 15 and August 1 and 15; others were not topped. The author con('ludes that the topping proved a decided injury. General fertilizer experiments (pp. 410-416). — In 1895 the formula giv- ing best results was 468 lbs. of acid phosphate, 36 lbs. of muriate of potash, and 286 lbs. of cotton-seed meal (or nitrate of soda 130 lbs.) ; the mixture contained 8.77 per cent of available phosphoric acid, 2.54 per cent of potash, and 2.54 per cent of nitrogen. Cowpea, W. O. Stubbs, W. E. Dodson, and M. Bird {Louisiana Stas. Bnl. 40, 2(1 ser., pp. 1139-U6fi). — This is mainly a popular bulle- tin, partly compiled, on the cowpea. In an experiment to determine whether the present varieties had been produced by cross-fertilization 78 plants were selected, including 24 varieties. When the flower buds were formed each plant was sur- rounded by a wooden frame. One-half of these were covered with mosquito netting and the remainder with thin muslin. Pollen was dusted by hand on the stigmas of 12 jilants covered with netting, but no difference in results was observed. Over 95 per cent of tlie pro- tected flowers matured seed, showing that the flowers are self-fertiliz- ing. Close observations failed to detect any cross-fertilization by insects. Flowers fertilized artificially failed to produce seed. From a study of 63 varieties the authors conclude as follows: "It ^Aould seem, tbeu, that as far as we can tell 1 original form of the cowpea was selected for cultivation, and in the natural tendency to vary from that original form under new environments some forms would arise exhibiting new characters. These individuals were selected and preserved, the new characters tending to become more i)ermanent. The offspring of these would often tend to revert, and other A'aria- tions arising would keep in existence many of the connecting links between the original and the new forms. "Many of the so-called varieties of the cowpea are forms of these connecting links. All forms studied by me can not claim to he more than 1 species, Tiyna sinen- sis, with the possible establishment of a small number of varieties." During 3 years a green-manuring experiment was conducted at the station with 12 varieties of the cowpea on 12 plats, 9 by 9 ft. The seed of each variety was sown at the rate of 2 bu. per acre. On one- FIELD CROPS. 43 half of each plat the vines and roots were removed when the crop was rii)e; on the other half they were plowed under. In the spring and fall of each year a sample of soil from eaeli half plat was analyzed for nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and jjotash. Tabulated data are given con- taiuing analyses (fertilizer constituents) of different ])arts of the jdant and analyses of the soil of the plats. The largest amounts of fertilizing ingredients weje found in the soil of the plats on Avhicli the varieties Clack, Unknown, ludian, Red Pep- per, and Clay were plowed under, showiug an estimated gain for 3 years of VM) lbs. per acre for the soil from which the crop had been removed and 305 lbs. per acre for the green-manured soil. The results of experiments are summarized in part as follows: " The best varieties of peas for ^iiies and green manuring are tlie Unknown. Black, Clay, lied, etc, while the strictly bunch varieties, Whix)poorwill, Blue, Black-eye, etc., give larger returns in peas. "Cowjtea vines can be converted into hay or preserved as silage, botli of whichhave proven by repeated experiments to be palatable and nutritious food for larm stock." On account of its capacity for gathering nitrogen the cowpea is regarded as a valuable crop in a rotation for the South. A 3 years' rotation with 5 crops (oats, cowjieas, cotton, and corn and cowjieas), with suitable feitilizer for each crop, has been found most effective in building up worn soils. The vines should, if possible, be converted into hay or silage and fed to stock. If they can not be thus utilized, they should be plowed under for green manure. On the ground of economy it is recommended to plow under tlie green manure early in the fall and sow the grouud later in some winter croj), like rye, to be turned under later if a spring crop be desired. Miscellaneous fodder crops, J. L. Hills ( Vermont Sfa. Rpt. 1894, pp. Jii7^ KiS). — The yield and conii^osition with reference to both food and fertilizer ingredients are given for the following crops grown experimentally at the station: Soja beau, hairy vetch, hairy vetch and oats, spring vetch, spring vetch and oats, and serradella. " [Soja beans, green aiid black medium varieties] were grown in 1893, as Avell as in 1894, and proved satisfactory each year. . . . No other leguminous hoed crop which we have grown has given us better returns in tonnage of green fodder, dry matter, or ]»rotein. The green variety this year yielded at the rate of 6| tons green fodder, 2 tons dry fodder, and nearly a (quarter of a ton of protein to the acre. The crop was poorer in protein than last year's growth. . . . Although good growths were made [of hairy and spring vetches with and without oats] our experience with these crops for several years does not lead us to consider them equal to peas and oats. . . . [Serradella yielded] about a ton of dry matter to the acre. . . . We recommend it as a iiromising forage crop." Experiments with oats, C. C. Georgeson, F. C. IJurtis, and 1). 11. Otis {Kansas ^Sta. liuL oi,2>P- 115-125). Synopsis. — Spring plowing, early sowing, hot-water treatment for smut, heavy seed, the shoe drill with press wheels, and cutting when ripe are recommended. This is a continuation of work published in Bulletin 42 of the station (E. S. R., 5, p. 1072). Tabulated data are given for each set of experi- ments. 4250— Xo. 1 4 44 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Method of i^rejjaring Und (pp. 116-118).— Fall plowing, spring plow- ing, and disking the land were compared; also cultivating the seed in vs. drilling. "The spring-])lowed laud on wliicli the seed was drilled in gave the best results in nearly every instance." Time of seeding (pp. 118, 119).— This experiment occupied 45 plats. Oats were sown March 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, April 5, 12, and 26. The yield decreased as the date of sowing became later. EoUcater treatment for smut (pp. 119, 120).— This treatment has also been described in Bulietiu 29 of the station (E. S. R., 3, p. 789). "The average for the 5 years shows a gain of 2 bu. to the acre in favor of the treatment." Light, medium, and heavy seed (pp. 120, 121).— The averages for the 6 years give a yield of 28.48 bu. for light seed, 29.85 bu. for medium, and 30.76 for heavy seed. Methods of seeding (pp. 121, 122).— As the average of 5 years' trials broadcasting yielded 26.18 bu. per acre, seeding with the hoe drill 25.71, seeding with the shoe drill with press wheels 30.31, and seeding with the shoe drill without press wheels 28.72 bu. Amounts of seed (pp. 122, 123).— In 1894 and 1895, U to 2^ bu. gave the largest yields; in the 3 years previous, 4 bu. gave the largest returns. Tivie of harvesting (p. 123). — In 1894 oats cut in the dough yielded 17.85 bu., cut in the hard dough 21.08, and cut when ripe 26.37 bu. Varieties (pp. 123, 124). — The following have given the largest aver- age yields for 5 years: Northwestern White, Belgian, Pedigree Eed Eust Proof, Board of Trade, Golden Sheaf, and Brown Winter. The assimilation of fertilizing materials, and the fertilizer requirements of rye, Eemy {Jour. Landw., 4-i {1896), No. 1, j;j>. 31- 103). — After a discussion of the relation between the fertilizing mate- rials taken up by the plants and the increase in plant substance, the author reviews the work of previous investigators in this line. Experiments were conducted in 1891 and 1893 on 56 i)lats of 50 square meters each. Nitrate of soda 3 kg., carbonate of potash 3 kg., and superphosphate 3 kg. per plat were applied singly, two by two, and all tliree together. Full tabulated data are given and discussed under the following heads: Effect of manuring (1) on the moriihological development of rye, (2) on the yield; absolute quantities of fertilizing materials; assimila- tion of fertilizing materials, and the manurial needs of rye. On the basis of the exi^erimeutal data the author concludes that certain laws obtain in the relation between the assimilation of fertiliz- ing materials and the production of dry substance in rye; that both processes, as well as the relations between them, are little aftected by the manuring, and that the weather has more influence on these proc- esses than the manuring. It was found that a rapid assimilation of nitrogen took i»lace in the FIELD CROPS. 45 spring, and that this process appeared to last till shortly before ripen- ing. The intensity of this process of assimilation in diflerent stages of growth Avas very different. Valid general rules for the form and time of nitrogen manuring can not be given with exactness. The weather conditions are a considerable factor in the problem. The small amount of nitrogen needed in the fall is supplied by the residue of former applications and by the natural provision in the soil. At the beginning of growth in spring is the most important time for applying nitrogen for rye. As to potash, there is a large class of soils on which its ai^plication •would be advisable for rye growing. The assimilation of phosphoric acid is distributed quite uniformly over the whole period of vegetation. Eye must accordingly have the power to make a full use of an application of phosphoric acid that becomes gradually soluble. The most suitable time to apply phos- phoric acid to rye seems to be in the fall. Trifolium pannonicum {I)eut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), ]SFo. 21, p. 180, jig^ ^). — The everlasting clover of Pannonia has not yet been culti- vated as a fodder plant. It contains quite a high percentage of albu- minoids. It is rather hairy, and on this account it must be cut at the beginning of bloom to be acceptable to cattle. It has a deep, branching root, bearing several, often 20 to 30, upright stalks. It requires a deep soil. The flower heads are yellow, 4 to 8 cm. long, and the plant is dependent on insects for its fertilization. This clover has a special value in cold mountainous regions where red clover will not succeed. It stood the winter quite well in the Fiirstenalp at a height of 1,782 meters above the sea. A bed of 2 square meters yielded at the first cutting, June 2, 12.3 kg. green fodder; at the second cutting, Sept. 28, 8.0 kg., standing 60 to 70 cm. high before cutting. Air-dry plants cut in bloom contained per 1,000 parts: Nitrogen, 19.6; ash, 102.0; pliosphoric acid, 5.9; potash, 34.9; lime, 20, and magnesia, 3.1. Calculated to a water content of 11 per cent the proportion of food constituents is as follows: Food constituents of Trifolium pannonicum. Crude allmiui- uoids. Crude fat. Nitroj;en- free ex- tract. Crude liber. Ash. Per cent. 12.28 12.18 Per cent. 1.49 1.89 Per cent. 45.42 48.33 Per cent. 30.40 27.35 I'er cent. 10. 24 10.25 Cultural experiments with American wheat, Kamm {Beut. landw. Prenfic, 23 {1890), JSo. 24, pp. 20.5, 206, Jitjs. 31).— At Toppelsdorf on November 24, 1894, 5 varieties of American winter wheat were sown for trial at the rate of 80 lbs. per Prussian morgen. Notwithstanding 46 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. tlie severe winter, the stand in tlie spring was good, but tlie spring and summer drought shortened the harvest. The following are the yields of grain per hectare: Mold Eed Prolific 2,737 kg., lleliable 2,478 kg., Tusitan Island 2,004: kg., Fulcaster 1,901 kg., Valley 1,811 kg., and Carman ^o. 1 1,573 kg. The ch-ange in , pp. ^79-298, figs. ^5).— Forty grains each of 54 varieties of wheat Avere tested for hardness for the crops of l>t93, 1894, and 189.^. A study of new forage plants, C and H. Dexaiffe {Plantes fourrageres nouveUes, etude. Carignan: 1896, pp. 40). HOETICULTURE. Subirrigation in the greenhouse, W. J. Green and E. C. Green {Ohio Sta. BuJ. 01, pp. 57-7(1, pis. J). Synopsis. — This bulletin discusses the construction of greenhouse benches and beds for subirrigation, tlie history of subirrigation, a comparison of surface and sub- irrigation, aud the results of experiments in subirrigation. The latter is highly recommended as the best method of greenhouse watering. Notes on the culture of lettuce under glass are included. Ill tlie coustnictioii of greeiilionse benclies for subirrigation water- tight beds are necessary. These may be made of boards with the cracks battened and cement spread over the bottom to a depth of about half an inch and 1 to 2 in. thick at the angle with the side- boards. A better plan, however, is to construct the benches on racks of gas pipe a few feet abov.e the ground, on which maybe laid bottoms of tile, a size 12 b}^ 24 in. being recommended. The sides of the benches may be made of ordinary roofing slate, 7 by 24 in., held in place, as are the bottom tiles, by means of iron clips and cajis. After the tile and slate are in place, cementing is to be done as in the case of wooden benches. The irrigation tiles may be laid lengthwise or cross- wise the beds; but if the runs are longer than 50 ft. there should be from 1 to 2 in. fall in that distance. Two-and-a-half-inch drain tile are considered cheapest and best, simjily placed end to end in rows 2J ft. apart, and opening on the surface at the upper end, where Avater may be ])oured in. To guard against a too rapid flow of water toward the lower end, strips of tin should be inserted in the joints of tile at inter- vals. From 0 to 10 in. of soil has been found sufficient for most purposes. Thehistory of subirrigation in the greenhouse is briefly discussed, the method, it is claimed, having been first tried at the Ohio Station. It is stated that watering by subirrigation is more cheaply and efificientl.y done than by the ordinary method, as both labor and water are saved and the moistening of the earth is distributed more evenly. The difficulty frequently met with in surface watering, due to the foliage of the plants preventing thorough watering of the soil, is obviated by subirrigation, 48 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. aiKl by subirrigatioii the soil does not become compact. Experiments have indicated that plants are less liable to suffer from over watering and diseases by subirrigation than when the water is applied to tlie sur- face; and all classes of plants that are usually grown upon greenhouse benches have been found to thrive best by subirrigation. It is believed that aeration of the soil is also favored by the presence of the tile. Many garden vegetables and ornanieutal plants have been successfully grown by this method. Detailed notes and tabulated data are given of 10 varieties of lettuce grown by surface watering and subirrigation, with a gain in weight of from 40 to 100 per cent in favor of the subirrigated plants. The variety Grand Eapids was chiefly used in the experiment. The plants were started in flats, watered by being set in shallow vats of water, and transplanted as soon as the second leaf appeared, placing them 2 by 2 in. apart. The temperature was kept at 50 to 00° by day and 40 to 50° b}^ night, as a higher temperature was found to favor the development of lettuce rot. Ventilation was also found to be impor- tant. It is stated that the plants may be sprinkled once when set in the bed, but after that it is not necessary, nor is there any need of sprinkling the walks in order to render the air moist. A subirrigated soil should be kept so that it is rather dry on tox) and wet enough below to retain the shape given it when pressed in the hand. The illustrations are from photographs, showing different stages in the construction of greenhouse benches for subirrigation and compar- ing surface and subirrigated lettuce plants of the same age. Cabbages, H. P. Gould {2Iai)ie Sfa. Bui. 34, M ser., pp. 4). — Notes on experiments with cabbages to test the influence of size of seed, results of tying up the outer leaves, the effect of mulching, and to compare shallow and deep cultivation. Three varieties were compared to test the effect of size of seed on the heads. In 2 varieties the larger seed was found to produce much heavier heads. Tying up of the outer leaves was found to have no influence upon the maturity of the head, as is popularly sui)posed, while it caused a marked decrease in size, and the moisture collecting within the leaves almost invariably caused the heads to decay. Mulch- ing the plants with swale hay produced heads slightly larger than were borne by unmulched plants used as checks. But little effect on the size of the heads was produced by deep cultivation, but plants so treated appeared to mature more uniformly than when shallow cultivation was given. Tabulated data are given on the different experiments. Garden peas, B. C. Buffum {Wyoming Sta. Bui. 26, pp. 159-167).— This consists of cultural notes and tabulated data for 38 varieties of peas that have been grown at the station for two or more years. In 1895 late frosts injured all varieties, more or less. Irrigation was given 4 times during the summer. Extra Early Premium Gem gave the heaviest weight of peas in the pod, amounting to 3 lbs. 9 oz. HORTICULTURE. 49 per gallon. The average of the varieties was about 3^ lbs. Of shelled peas, Lee Earliest proved the heaviest, a gallon weighing 1 lb. 11 oz. The yields, earliness, and hardiness of the varieties are comj)ared, and the varieties Alaska, Sterling, Telephone, Telegrai)h, Admiral, Blue Imperial Dwarf, Black-eyed Marrowfat, and Melting Sugar are recom- mei'ded for general planting. Some market vegetables for Florida, P. H. Eolfs {Florida Sta. Bui. 31, pp. 140-10!)). — This bulletin gives cultural directions for the growing of several kinds of vegetables for market, preceded by direc- tions for the starting of the plants. The adaptability of the light sandy loams of Florida for vegetables is discussed and detailed directions given for the construction of hotbeds, cold frames, and plant beds. The selection of the soil, planting, cultivation, i^referable varieties, manur- ing, and marketing are discussed for beans, beets, cabbages, cauliflow- ers, celery, cucumbers, eggplants, lettuce, onions, English peas, and tomatoes. Directions are given for calculating the fertilizers required by difl'ereut plants, and for each vegetable a fertilizer formula is given. The subject of tomatoes is treated at some little length, the impor- tance of good seed being emphasized, and considerable space devoted to the seed bed, hardening off, and setting the plants. Great care in pick- ing and packing the tomatoes in crates just before they begin to turn red is urged, that the fruit may be as presentable as jiossible for market. The subject of canning is also briefly discussed, and it is believed that canning establishments are at present too uncertain investments to warrant their establishment without deliberate consideration. The fol- lowing varieties are recommended: For shipping — Perfection, Aristo- crat, Beauty, New Stone, and Paragon ; for home use — Favorite, Beauty, Golden Queen, Eoyal Eed, and Potato Leaf. Apple culture in Wisconsin, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Bui. 45, 2)p. 21). — This bulletin is a compilation of notes and data gained from 172 apple growers in the State who responded to a circular letter sent out by the station containing a number of queries relative to varieties and methods. From the reports received the majority of the apple orchards of the State are located in the counties Waupaca, Eock, Wal- worth, Lafayette, and Kewaunee, although answers were received from orchardists in 19 other counties. Of the apple trees in the State 88 per cent belong to 27 varieties, of which. Oldenbui'gh (Duchess), Wealthy, Fameuse, Longfield, McMahon, Whitney No. 20, Haas (Horse apple), Tolman Sweet, Tetofski, and Golden Eusset are most cultivated. Of these 10 varieties but 3 are of Eussian origin, which shows conclu- sively that there is mucli to be hoped for from the hardiest native varieties. The varieties Oldeuburgh, Tetofski, Tolman Sweet, Haas, and Fameuse are cited as being most resistant to cold, in the order given. As regards productiveness, Oldeuburgh, Longfield, Wealthy, Fameuse, and Hass lead in the order given, while Oldeuburgh, Fameuse, Wealthy, Haas, McMahon, and Ben Davis sell best in market. A large 50 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. number of the correspoudents reported having sprayed their apple trees, and the majority of those who did so found the results beneficial. As regards keeping the orchards iu grass or giving them clean cultiva- tion, Gl correspondents recommended keeping the soil constantly culti- vated and usually growing some crop, while 62 would seed the orchard to grass after the trees are of bearing age. The vast majority of cor- respondents were in favor of planting Wisconsin-grown trees, while but 4 answers reported better success with eastern- grown trees. The codling moth was reported the most serious enemy of apples, but borers, bark lice, tent caterpillars, cankerworms, and leaf rollers have been injurious to a small extent. A table is given showing the varieties recommended by the ditterent correspondents for an orchard of 100 trees, and another table indicates the varieties planted in 97 young orchards located in various parts of the State. The answers to several other inquiries of less importance and interest are given in condensed form. The testimony of the correspondents shows that in the southern and eastern portions of the State apple culture is in a healthful and grow- ing condition, although most of the orchards are small. It is believed that apple culture in Wisconsin will be carried on on a larger scale in the future. The planting, pruning, and cultivation of the peach, AV. F. Massey {Xorth Carolina iSta. Bid. 120, pp. 309-315). — The planting of medium-sized budded trees, 1 year from the bud, is advised, and a dry soil inclined to sand, with a northern exposure, is recommended. June-budded trees are to be preferred to those budded in August or September. Directions are given for planting and pruning, it being urged tliat both roots and top be pruned. The formation of low heads should be encouraged. Clean shallow culture during the early i)art of the growing season and covering the ground with some leguminous crop during the fall and winter give the best results. For green manure cowpeas may be sown as soon as cultivation ceases in June, followed by the seeding of crimson clover among the cowpeas in August, both crops being |)lowed under in April. Fertilizers containing an abundance of potash anur- bank, and Chase seem to be entirely safe for planting in Xew York, and as second choice Georgeson, Maru, Chabot, Ogon, Berckmans, and Satsuma. For very early varieties Berger, Yosebe, and Willard may be planted, although the size and quality are not the best. Descriptive, and in some cases illustrated, notes are given for 54: varieties, those T^iiich are better known and understood having rather detailed remarks devoted to them. The list of varieties contains also the names of several synonyms. Prunes, apples, and pears in Oregon, TT, P. Hedrick {Oref/on Sta. Bid. 40, ])]). o5-!);J). — Tiiis bulletin is based upon data collected •while making a horticultural survey of the State. It is stated that about 2(),(M)0 acres are devoted to prune growing in Oregon, mainly in the Willamette and Umpqua valleys. The Willamette Valley pos- sesses a more humid climate than some of the other regions, and in consequence fungus diseases are rather more prevalent, while there are not so many insect pests. For the successful growing of prunes a rich sandy soil at least 4 ft. deep is best, with a well-drained black loam as second choice. The maj(^rity of prune trees in Oregon are grown on peach stock, but, in the opinion of the writer, the use of myrobolan l)lum stocks is to be preferred, as the range of soils upon which peaches will thrive is small, since they recpiire better drainage than do i)lums. Prunes unite better with i)lum stocks. Plum stocks are less suscepti ble to borers and diseases, and in general in other fruit regions plum roots g'ive better results. Good drainage to obviate puddling of the surface during the rainy season and to allow of cultivation is urged. In some cases subsoiling may be necessary. Pruinng the tops and roots of tlie trees before planting and setting them in straight rows at a time when the soil is dry enough to crumble are advised, a distance of not less than 20 or 22 ft. having proved the best. Early, clean cultivation should be given, and in young orchards the land may be deeply plowed for a few years. The trees should be ])ruiied to low rounded tops, having the branches well distributed on the dilferent sides of the trunk. ]\In(^h larger and better prunes can be obtained by thinning the fruits. This should be done when the prunes are quite 'small, and the quantity removed must depend upon tlie variety and vigor of the tree. It is believed that some varieties of prunes are inclined to be self sterile, and that to provide for- the proper fertilization of the flowers an orchard should be planted with mixed varie- ties. The shot-hole fungus, borers, and the green aphis were found to be the most abundant enemies of the prune. Descriptive notes are given for 11 varieties of prunes, the Italian prune, French or Petite prune, and Silver prune being considered the best. Brief remarks are 52 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. made upon evaporators for drying prunes, and upon tlie budding ndustry of shipping fresh prunes East. From data obtained from 132 prune growers it is shown that tlie average expense of planting and caring for a prune orchard amounts to $41.80 per acre for the first 4 years. The net profit of the 1894 crop averaged $104.50 per acre. General directions are given for the prei^aration and care of apple orchards and the renovation of old orchards. Apples in Oregon suifer more from pests than other fruits, the apple scab and codling moth doing most damage, but being readily controlled by spraying with a combination of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. Practically but 7 varieties of apples are grown in the State for commercial purposes — Spitzenburg, Ben Davis, Yellow Newtown Pippiu, Baldwin, Eed- cheeked Pippin, and Northern Spy, named in the order of acreage. Pear growing in the State is as yet conducted on only a small scale, but a few thousaud acres being planted to this fruit. Pears from the Eogue River Valley seem to be of firmer texture, and consequently shij) better. A deep, mellow clay loam is recommended, with tillage, and pruning the trees to a pyramidal top. The chief pests are the scab, Avoolly aphis, pear blight, and pear mite. Bartlett, Winter ISTelis, Tyson, Seckel, Clapp, and Flemish Beauty are the favorite varieties grown. Currants, S. A. Beach (Xew Yorlc State Sta. Bui. 93, n. ser., x)p. 413-444, pis. 5, Jigs. 4). Synopsis. — ThiB bulletin treats elaborately of a number of varieties of currants tested on the station grounds, giving cultural notes, data on yields, and illustrated descriptions of varieties. Ninety-three varieties of currants are comprised in the station col- lection, of which 53 are station seedlings, the remainder being named varieties, including IS red, G white, and 10 black kinds, 1 red and white striped, 3 varieties of Rihes aureum, 1 of R. Jforidnm, and 1 of E. sanguineum. The ground upon which they are grown is a well-drained clay loam with clay subsoil, sloping to the south. The bushes are set 4 ft. apart in 6 or 7 foot rows, and each plant is given a forkful or two of stable manure in the fall. Shallow summer cultivation is given until August, and in the fall the bushes are pruned, all canes of 5 years old being removed. Eighteen varieties of the common red currant {Rihes rubrum) are described, and the varieties Cherry and Fay are regarded as among the most desirable on account of bearing large, thin-skinned fruit, well filled with rich juice or pulp. Prince Albert, London Eed, and Victoria have given larger average yields, but the fruit is smaller, and in the case of Loudon Eed the clusters are very short. Of the 6 varieties of white currants {Rihes ruhrum) described, White Dutch gave the largest yield for 1894 and 1895, followed by White Grape and Champion. Prince of Wales was the most productive of the 10 varieties of European black currant {Rihes nigrum) cultivated, followed by Common Black HORTICULTURE. 53 and Lee. The highest average yield per bush of the foreign varieties for the past 3 years was 8.80 lbs. for the red, G.19 lbs. for the white, and 5.45 lbs. for the black varieties. Two varieties of the native black cur- rant {Bibes anreum), indigenous to the Western prairies of the United States, were grown. Of these the variety Jelly averaged larger and had a better flavor than tlie sliglitly more productive variety Crandall. The annual yields of each of these varieties was loss than a pound per bush for the last 3 years. For propagation of currants the cutting method is preferred, the cuttings to be made from ripe, hard wood in the fall, stripped of their foliage if need be, and either planted at once, if early in the season, or tied in bunches and buried about G in. deep in the earth until spring, with the buds upward to keep the top buds dormant. In this case the cuttings may be set out as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring. The soil for growing cuttings should be rich, well drained, and thoroughly pulverized, and the cuttings should be placed in long trenches with the top buds just above the surface. Strong 1-year-old plants are regarded as the most desirable for setting. Directions are given for propagation by layers and from seed, the latter method to be used when it is desired to originate new varieties. Currants may be planted either in fields to themselves or in vine- yards between the trellises. The distance between the bushes varies with the vigor of each variety, but about 4 ft. apart in G-foot rows is considered a good practice. Annual fertilizing with barnyard manure and some commercial fer- tilizer is considered necessary, and clean, shallow cultivation should be given until the end of summer. Pruning in either bush or tree form is regarded as preferable to allowing old canes to remain on the i)lants. Brief descriptive and remedial notes are given on the currant worm, currant borer, 4-lined leaf bug, leaf spot disease, and leaf blight. In addition a note is made on an unknown fungus disease which infests currant canes in the Hudson Eiver Valley, and for which no remedy has yet been suggested. Orchard spraying and notes on raspberries, W. J. Green ( Ohio Sta. Bui. 63^ lip. 97-113). — This bulletin consists chietly of directions for spraying various orchard fruits, with remarks on the principles to be followed. Experiments in spraying apple trees in different parts of the State have resulted in the preservation of the foliage of sprayed trees and in reducing premature dropping of apples from the sprayed trees. It is urged that young trees be sprayed as soon as planted, using the same precautions against fungi as advised for bearing trees, and attempting by this means to prevent fungus diseases from gaining a foothold. It is advised that 2 or 3 sprayings be given with Bordeaux mixture, one before the leaves are open and another just before the time of bloom- ing. After the apples have set, 1 or 2 sprayings with a combination of 54 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture should be given. Owing to consid- erable differences in susceptibility of different varieties of apples to scab and to injury from spraying mixtures, the strength of the solu- tions emi)loyed will depend on the varieties to be treated. Some varieties are so naturally resistant to the scab that but slight advan- tage has followed the spraying. For pears much the same course as for apples is recommended, care being taken not to spray late, as the fruit of some varieties is easily injured by the Bordeaux mixture, which produces a russet appearance, especially on Angoulemes and Bartletts. White Doyenne, Flemish Beauty, Yicar, Angouleme Clairgeau, and Bartlett are mostly bene- fited by spraying. Plums should be sprayed with both Bordeaux mixture and Paris green to prevent premature dropping and also to keep tlie curculio in check. About 4 applications of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green should be given, followed by the use of the curculio catcher. Peaches and American plums should be sprayed with a mixture of about half the strength that is used for foreign varieties of plums, as the foliage is more easily injured. Directions are given for preparing Bordeaux mixture, ammoniacal copper carbonate, potassium suljihid, white hellebore, and the arsen- ites. A summary gives in condensed form directions for spraying sev- eral sorts of orchard and small fruits. Remarks are made on appli- ances that are thought best for use in spraying. A large apparatus worked by two or more men, and supplied with about 25 ft. of hose with a Vermovel nozzle at the end of a 10-foot length of quarter-inch gas pipe, is recommended. Descriptive notes are given for 21 varieties of yellow, red, purple, and black raspberries. The final summary recounts the most important points made in the bulletin. All asparagus bed, H. ^[ilt.kr (Amer. Gard., 17 (ISnC), Xo. SS, p. 475).— Cultural notes, chiefly nrgiug the abundant use of barnyard manure in the fall, all weeds being kept down. Comparative fertilizer tests -with chemical fertilizers, R. Otto {(iartmflora, 45 {lS9G),pp. Gn-72; ahs. in Hot. Centhl. Beihefte, G {1S9G), No. 2-3, pp. f5/-5i.5).— Several varieties of cabbages were experimented upon with various pure mineral salts. Composition of various melons, W. Rekscii (Landw. Vers. Stat., 4G (1S9G), Xo. 6, pp. 473-470). — Proximate analyses are given of watermelons, muskmelons, and Per- sian melons. One of Uncle Sam's truck gardens (Amer. Gard., 17 {1896), Xo. 83, p. 4G8).—A short account of the vegetable garden operated by the Soldiers' Home at Los Angeles, California, with a table giving the yield of each vegetable for each month in the year. The propagation of tender plants, W. IT. Taplin (Gard. and Forest, 9 (1896), Xo. 440, p. 307). — Cultural notes on several tropical greenhouse plants. Chemistry of the apple, J. .1. Willis (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 (1896), Xo. 499, pp. 63, 64).— Recounts investigations carried on by the Ottawa Experimental Farms, and SEEDS WEEDS. 55 gives tables showinj; analyses of tlic loaves aud fruit. Tlie fertilizing constituents witlulrawn from the soil arc discussed. Oil the composition of Mespilus germanica, W. Behscii (Landw. Vn-n. Stat., 46 (lS9i:), Xo. i:, pp. 471-473). — Proximate amilyses are given of the whole fruit aud various portions of the medlar (nu\si)el). The reproduction of the orange from seed, II. .1. Wkbbkk (dard. Chron., ser. 3, 10 i:SOG), yos. 401], pp. 7S4, 7S5; 497, p. 10). The barberry (Canadian Hort., 19 (1S96), Xo. 7, pp. 217, 21S, pi. 1).—A brief note on Herber'iH vulgaris, Avith a colored illustration of the flowers and fruit of B. vulgaris- purpurea. Edible barberries {(lardcn and Forest, 9 (1S96), Xo. 440, jjp. 308, 309).— The diti'ereut colored fruits of several varieties are briefly noted, and their value for jams aud jellies urged. Currants (Canadian Hort., 19 (1896), Xo. 7, pp. 219,. 220). —Brief suggestions for the use of this fruit in making jelly, jam, jireserves, wine, and for eating raw or stewed. Austin Improved or Mayd Hybrid de-wrberry, .J. Nimon (Rural Xew Yorler, 1896, June 20, p. 413, Jigs. 2). Winter protection for bush fruit, F. W. Card (Garden and Forest, 9 (1S96), Xo. 439,p.29S). The ripening of grape wood and the effect of copper upon it, .Scans.s (Deut. landw. Fresse, 23 (1890), Xo. 62, pp. 462, 463). Grape growing on sandy soil (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 (1896), Xo. 498, p. 39). Progress in the hybridization of roses, Penzance (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 (1896), Xo. 499, p. 6-5). — Eecouuts experiments in crossing and obtaining new varieties. History of the grape and fig, J. Caillot (Historique de la vigne et da figuier. Argenteuil: Hobert cj- Co., 1896, pp. 23). Odor cf flowers (Amer. Gard., 17 (1896'), Xo. 83, p. 473). — Cites experiments with Orchis hifoVia to determine the time of greatest fragrance of bloom. It was found that the strongest odor was from twilight to dawn, aud that the fragrance ceased upon the fertilization of the blossoms. The flowers of Maxillaria aromatica com- pletely lost their perfume within half an hour after hand jiolli nation. The summer w^atering of plant boxes, vases, etc., E. A. Long (Amer. Gard., 17 (1896), Xo. S3, pp. 465, 466, fig. 1). — Directions for watering potted jilants so that the water will not run off the dry surface. A concave surface is recommended. SEEDS— WEEDS. Influence of certain substances used as fertilizers on germina- tion, Claudel and Crochetelle {Ann. Ayron., 22 {1S9G), Xo. 3, pp. 131-142). — A series of experiments was conducted by the authors to test the elfect that certain fertilizers exert upon the germination of seed. The tests were made in rather shallow porcelain trays contain- ing calcined and thoroughly washed sand. The seed came in direct contact with the fertilizers used as the more sohible ones were api)lied in solution, the others finely powdered and well mixed with the sand. The seed were uniform!}^ covered to a depth of 8 to 10 mm., and pro- vision made for maintaining uniform moisture in all tlie tests. The following table (p. 56) shows the total germinations at the end of IS days' testing, the fertilizers having been applied at the rate of 1 part per 1,000. 56 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Germination of seed as affected by fertilizers. Kind of seed. Sainfoin. Lupine.. Vetch... Beans ... Peas Lentils.. Alfalfa.. Kape Mustard Flax .... Wheat . . Xum- ber planted. Number of seed sprouted. Check. 16 11 20 2 20 19 20 10 20 12 10 9 Sul- jihate of potash Chlo- rate of potash. Sul- phate of ammo uia. 2 7 2 2 2 2 3 2 0 17 10 3 1 9 9 Ammo- niated super- phos- phate. Slag Nitrate of Liquid 7 9 6 12 6 8 13 16 19 17 13 9 10 From the table it will be seen that the potash fertilizers checked germination, the chlorate exercising the most unfavorable influence. The suli^hate of ammonia has a very destructive effect uj^on the germi- nation of all the seed with the exception of the sainfoin and wheat. Experiments were made with diflereut strengths of sulphate of ammo- nia aud nitrate of soda, using J, 1, 2, and 5 parts per 1,000. The results are tabulated, in which it is shown that wheat, barley, aud oats are practically uninjured up to and including the 0.2 per cent application of sulphate of ammouia. Clover and beans were retarded in their germination by all, and rape was checked by all except the lowest per cent. It was also found that 0.5 per cent arrested the germination of all seed tested. With nitrate of soda aj)plied as above, barley was the only seed uninjured by the strongest applications 5 wheat, beets, and rape were somewhat checked by the 0.2 per cent, while buckwheat, beans, and clover were greatly checked by the same strengths. Experiments were conducted with winter vetches to test the effect of phosphates and lime upon their germination, and it was found that the basic phosphates of lime assist in germination, while the acid phos- phates are injurious. Liquid manure, it is said, not only hastens the germination of most seed, legumes especially, but has a i^ermanent effect upon the young plant. In summarizing his results the author states that in the strengths used aud in immediate contact with the seed, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, chlorate and sulphate of potash, and ammoniated super- phosphates exert an injurious effect upon the germination of seed in general. All kinds of seed are not equally susceptible to the influence of fertilizers upon their germination. Alkaline substances having lime or potash for their base favor the germination of many kinds of seed, legumes especially. Slag and liquid manure are said to give better results than lime alone. The acidity of 17 species of germinated seed is given, ranging from 1.612 per cent in clover to 0.108 in flax, and the authors conclude that SEEDS WEEDS. 57 the lime, slag', and liquid manure are beneficial in proportion as tliey neutralize the acid formed during the processes of germination. By the entrance of these all^aline substances the loss of phosphoric acid in the seed is i)revented, and the acid phosphate of lime is transformed into a less soluble form, which will serve as a phosi)horic acid reserve of the plant. Average results of Danish seed control, 1886-95, E. Eostrup {Lommehog f. Landm. {Holt), ls96, pp. 74-77 -The i)rincipal data obtained iu the seed examinations by the Danish Seed-Control Station, lS86-'95, are given in the following table. Varieties of seeds, of which less than 50 diflerent samples were examined, are not included in the table, and only complete analyses of commercially pure seed, the quality of which the seedsmen are willing to guarantee, were considered in making up the averages : Average results of Banish seed control, 1886-95. Name of seed. Ked clover. White clover Alsike clover , Ulacli medick , Aiithyllin vulneraria French ryo grass {Avena elatiur) . . . A'elvet grass (Rolcus lanatus) Meadow brome grass Orchard grass English rye grass Italian rye grass Kough nioaffow grass {Poa trivialis) Kentucky blue grass Meadow foxtail Meadow fescue Festvca dxiriuscula Timothy Two-rowed barley Euta-baga Turnip Carrot Fodder beet Num- ber of sam- ples. 1,957 636 546 370 80 591 77 218 940 762 504 128 75 175 404 102 583 82 59 71 148 346 Weight per bushel. Lhs. 53.8 54.5 54.4 55.0 52.8 11.3 5.6 11.9 14.5 22.4 18.9 19.8 22.9 9.1 21.3 15.7 39.4 47.4 42.1 44.3 21.1 16.3 Weight per 1,000 kernels. Grams. 1.753 .633 .658 1.580 2.510 3.549 .442 1.924 .992 2.039 2.047 .179 .245 . 8.59 1. 857 .774 .422 48. 872 2.943 2.049 1. 255 23. 823 For- eign seed. Per ct. 0.4 1.8 1.9 .2 2.8 4.4 4.6 2.6 2.4 2.5 1.1 1.9 1.3 1.2 3.8 .6 .9 .1 Refuse. Per ct. 3.0 2.2 1.5 1.6 4.6 11.8 26.4 3.0 11.5 1.4 1.9 9.3 7.2 16.3 2.0 14.6 .7 .6 1.8 2.3 10.8 1.3 Purity. Per ct. 96.6 96.0 96.6 98.2 93.1 83.8 69.0 94.4 86.1 96.1 97.0 88.8 91.5 82.5 94.2 84.8 98.4 99.3 98.2 97.7 89.1 98.6 Germi- nation of pure seed. Per ct. ft 98. 7 0.97.3 a 97. 5 a 94. 3 a 97. 3 83.5 80.9 91.6 87.0 89.9 85.6 82.9 71.0 69.5 92.2 81.3 94.1 96.9 96.8 98.0 76.2 88.2 Pure germi- nated seed. Per ct. 86.2 77.9 82.7 85.1 82.1 70.0 55.8 86.5 74.9 86.4 83.0 73.6 65.0 57.3 86.9 68.9 92.6 96.2 95.1 95.7 67.9 87.0 «The "hard" seeds are included. — F. W. WOLL. The Russian thistle, E. O. Wooton {Neiv Mexico Sta. Bui. 16, pp. 20, ph. 2). — This i)lant was first recognized in the Territory in 1894, and it seems to be jiretty well established in the vicinity of Santa Fe and possibly at Koswell. The author advises that every effort be made to eradicate it while the weed is confined to a restricted range, an especial Avarning being given of its possible distribution through the agency of irrigating ditches. Technical descriptions are given of the plant. Several other weeds are mentioned which are sometimes mis- taken for it, and their most striking differences are pointed out. Vari- ous sources have been drawn upon for the habit of the plant, its distribution, and suggested means for its exterminatiou. 58 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Concerning the relation between the absolute Aveight and composition of leguminous seed, W. G.Wallig {Inaug. Disi. Jena, 1S04, i)p. 37; abs. in Hot. Ceuthl. Beihefte, 0 (ISOr,), Xo. 2-P., p. ^:?S). Germination tests of Swedish seeds, L. J. VVahlstedt (lijit. Kristianstad Seed Control Station, 1S04-05, pp. 1-i, 14).— X report is given of the tests of aliont 4,000 samples of seed tested at the station during the years 1879 to 1895. The principal seed tested were various grains, leguujiuous forage plants, and grasses. — F. w. woll. On the examination of grass and clover seed in respect to their purity and the impurities which they contain, F. F. Bruuning (Uj-tr. Archie. Teylor, ser. 2, 5 {1SD6), Xo. l,])p. 44, pis. C). On the importance of the origin of clover seed {Landmanshlade, 29 {1S9G), pp. 71-73). On a new germinating apparatus, A. Sempulowski {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 (1S96), Xo. 52, p. 462). Report of Kristianstad Seed-Control Station, ia94-'95, L. J. Wahlstedt {Kristianstad (Stveden): lS9iJ,pp. 15). On the extirpation of hedge mustard {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1S96), Xo.42,p. 369). Weeds on Swedish moorland cvi\taxes,^.'ToiAf {Svensla Mossk. FiJren. Tidslcr., 1S95, pp. 329-334). "Weeds and how to eradicate them, T. Shaw {St. Paul: Wehh Puh. Co., 1S96, pp. 210, Jigs. 22). — This volume, "which is the outcome of much study and experiment in dealing with weeds, will no doubt he found suggestive to anyone desiring to rid his ground of troublesome weeds. Chapters are devoted to the prevalence of weeds, evils arising from their presence, possibilities of their destruction, agencies of distri- bution and propagation, methods and principles generally applicable to the destruc- tion of weeds, specific suggestions for the destruction of many troublesome weeds, and specific modes for eradicating some of the most serious weed pests of the western prairies, such as the Russian thistle, Hungarian nmstard, penny cress, wild prickly lettuce, foxtail, and wild buckwheat. Most of the weeds are so well known as to be easily identified with the aid of the descriptions given, but unfortunately some of the illustrations are so poorly executed as to be beyond recognition. Tlie use of bare fallow and fermenting manure as means for weed eradication are considered as of doubtful value. The practicability of having a farm clear of weeds if sufficient energy be put into jiiactice in the methods of eradication advised is demonstrated. DISEASES OF PLANTS. The principal diseases of citrus fruits in Florida, W. T. SwiNaLE ami H. J. Webber ( U. *V. Dept. Agr., Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology Bui. 8,2)p. 43, pis. S, Jigs. 6).— TLe authors Lave described and illustrated 6 of the priucipal diseases attacking citrus fruits iu Florida as follows: Blight, die-back or exanthema, scab or verrucosis, sooty mold, foot rot or mal-di-gomma, and melanose. Some of these diseases have been under investigatiou for a number of years, and pre- ventive measures are suggested. The bliglit, also called wilt and leaf curl, is, so far as known, con- fined to Florida. Nearly all citrus fruits are liable to its attack, and at present it is considered incurable. All infected trees should be dug up and burned as soon as they show signs of the disease, as it is con- sidered contagious. The annual loss due to this disease is estimated at $150,000. BUght attacks bearing trees 5 or more years old, and its DISEASES OF PLANTS. 59 presence is first iudicated by a sudden wilting of tlie leaves, which continues in bad cases even during wet weather. The whole top may be attacked at once, or only a single branch. The spring following the wilting of the top the branches which have become nearly leafless bear abundant small flowers, which continue to a])pear for 2 or 3 weeks after the normal period for blooming. Little if any fruit is set, and the branches usually die after blooming. The affected trees usually linger for a few j^ears, becoming reduced to stumps by the dying of the branches. The roots for the first year appear normal. Die-back, which is estimated to cause at least $100,000 loss annually, receives its name from the behavior of the diseased trees, a few inches of the vigorous growth dying back early in the spring. The disease is apparently caused by malnutrition, improper drainage, improper cultivation, etc., and may be recognized by the very large, dark, pointed leaves and the reddish-brown stains on the new-growth twigs, which finally die back for some distance. Diseased trees bear little fruit, and that formed assumes a pale-green color and rii)ens i^rematurely. The fruits are commonly more or less disfigured by the characteristic reddish-brown stain. It has been found that withholding organic manures, mulching the soil, ceasing cultivation, and, where necessary, thorough drainage, will })revent or greatly reduce attacks of this disease. Scab, or verrucosis, a disease which attacks sour oranges and lemons, is due to Cladosporium sp., and its attacks may be prevented on lem- ons by spraying the young fruits 3 to 5 times with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. The fungus causes small excrescences upon the young leaves and fruits. These excrescences are pale watery green at first, becoming darker with the development of the fungus. When the attack is made upon the fruit while it is quite small the fruits become covered with warts and bumps wliich render them unsalable. The loss occasioned by this disease is estimated at about $r)0,000 annually. The sooty mold is due to a black fungus which follows attacks of honeydew secreting insects. A description of this disease was given in Circular 15 of the Division of Vegetable Pathology (E. S. E., 7, p. 737), in which resin washes were recommended. Fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas is also an effective remedy. Foot rot, or mal-di-gomma, is one of the most widespread and destruc- tive diseases of citrus trees. It may be recognized by the exudation of gum from definite patches near the base of the tree. Later the dis- eased bark curls up and falls off. The disease spreads downward to the roots and around tlie tree, finally girdling it and causing the death of the tree. Accompanying sym^itoms are sparse foliage, small yellow leaves, and the dying of small limbs over the tree. While probably C(mtagious, it is thought that improper ai-ration of the roots is condu- cive to the disease. Sweet seedling oranges and lemons are most subject to the disease, while grape fruit is attacked but slightly and 4256—^^0. 1 5 60 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. sour orauges escape almost entirely. The use of sour orange stocks for low lauds and grape fruit stocks for the dry pine lands will greatly aid iu preventing tLe disease. Exposing the crown and upper roots, cutting away diseased portions, and treating the cut surfaces with sulphurous acid, carbolic acid, or sulphur wash is recommended. The use of nitrog- enous organic manures, excessive cultivation, and irrigation are to be avoided. Melanose attacks all citrus fruits, and seems capable of causing con- siderable damage should it become widely distributed. At present it is reported from but a few localities in Florida. It forms minute brown spots on the leaves, twigs, and fruits. On the fruit, which is attacked only while young, the spots run together, staining considerable areas, lemons being rendered unsalable by such an appearance. In bad cases the trees are damaged, while ordinarily it is the fruit which suffers. The cause of the disease is i^robably parasitic, and it may be controlled by the use of Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal copi)er carbonate. Report of the botanist, L. E. Jones ( Vermont Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 93-118, Jigs. 9). — Detailed reports are given of experiments in spraying potatoes, observations upon the date of planting x^otatoes, jirevention of potato scab, on the prevention of ap])le and jiear scab, occurrence of oat smut, observations on grasses and weeds, and some studies upon carnation rust. The principal topics are revised reprints from Bulletin 44 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 999), some of which are reported upon at greater length than in the bulletin. A tabular report is given of the gains from spraying potatoes with Bordeaux mixture in 1894, in which gains of from 12 to 30 x)er cent in favor of the treatment are shown. Comparative tests were made to determine the relative value of the following fungicides for spraying potatoes: '^(1) Stronger and weaker Bordeaux mixture, (2) Bordeaux mixture in the form of dry powder, (3) Bordeaux mixture which had stood some time after preparation, (4) Bordeaux mixture made by the potassium ferrocyanid test, (5) modified eau celeste, (6) ammoniacal copper carbonate, and (7) soap as added to liquid fungicides." In every case the Bordeaux mixtures gave the best results, their rel- ative value being about in the order of the enumeration of their strengths. During 1894 9 fields were sampled for the presence of oat smut, and the amount found ranged from nothing to 3.7 per cent, with an average of 1.7, a slight increase in the amount of smut as observed during the previous year. Notes are given of experiments with grasses for sowing on overtlowed river bottom lands. The most promising species for this purpose is fowl meadow grass, Poa serotina, and experiments will be continued with it. Brief notes are given calling attention to several species of weeds which once established may prove very troublesome. I DISEASES OF PLANTS. 61 A report is ^ven of some studies upon carnation rust. These studies were conducted along 3 lines: (1) effect of chemicals upon the germi- nation of the spores, (2) inoculation experiments, and (3) spraying- experiments. About 250 experiments were conducted with varying strengths of copper sulphate, Bordeaux mixture, ammoniacal copper carbonate, can celeste, iron sulphate, potassium sulphid, potassium chromate, potassium bichromate, lead acetate, corrosive sublimate, car- bolic acid and salt to test their ability to prevent'spore germination. The stronger solutions of all except the last were successful to a greater or lesser degree. The inoculation experiments conducted were success- ful only where the epidermis had been punctured. Exjieriments were conducted for the repression of rust by spraying plants with the strengths of the chemicals above referred to which had proved success- ful in preventing spore germination. When the final examination of the plants was made no injury was percei)tible. Experiments for checking apple rot and codling moth in 1895, H. (lAiiMAN {Kentucky Sta. Bill. 59, pp. 113-129, j>?.v. i.) — The experi- ments reported upon in this bulletin were in continuation of tests made during previous seasons with a. view of finding some practicable means for the prevention of the injuries of the apple rot {Spha'vojysis malonim) and the codling moth. It is desirable that applications for both pests should be made at the same time; and the time, number of applica- tions, and strength of solutions should be determined. For the experi- ments of 1895 10 trees were vselected, 5 of which were sprayed, the others being left as checks. The fungicide used in most of the experi- ments was Bordeaux mixture made by the following formula : Copper sulpliate 6^ lbs., lime 3i lbs., water 32 to 33 gals. The author used 1 or 5 applications. These were made April 4, May 6,8, and 29, and July 12; or where 4 applications were given the trees, that of May 29 was omit- ted. A heavy rain falling soon after the spraying of May 0 necessitated a second on May 8. Paris green was added to the Bordeaux mixture for every application except the first. When the apples were gathered they were assorted into sound ones and those showing attacks of disease. These 2 lots were then inspected for evidence of codling moth attack. In the accompanying table the results of the tests are shown : Eesult of spraying to prevent applevot and codling moth. Ko. of i-xpcri- iiieiit. Kiml of tree. Ko. of spray- ings. Total number of apples. Per cent of decay- ed fruit. Per cent of fruit attacked bycodliug moth. Sound. Rotten. 501 502 («) Check 5 437 29 1,112 385 1,G86 533 2,597 774 47.5 05.5 21.5 28.0 20.0 22.0 28.0 55.0 13 70 16 39 18 48 34 24 . 61 84 503 4 49 504 6.T 505 5 39 506 61 507 4 44 508 63 aXame of variety not given. 62 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The effect of the spraying was especially noticeable in the condition of the sprayed trees and in the greater number of apples that remained upon the trees until the crop was picked. While the reduction in the percentage of rot was small, yet in every case the smaller yield of rotten fruit was from the sprayed tree of each pair. The substitution of iron sulphate for the copper sulphate in Bordeaux mixture was tested. In other respects the applications were the same in time and amount. While the test was not wholly satisfactory, the author thinks iron sulphate will be less effective in checking rot than Bordeaux mixture made in the usual way. Six apples weighing 420 gm. were tested for the quantity of copper and arsenic present. In the peelings and cores 0.0004 gm. of copper oxid was found with a minute trace iri the iiesh, and of arsenic a trace too small for measurement was found in peelings and cores but none m the flesh. The small quantity of each could not be considered at all injurious. Potato blight, L. R. Jones {Garden and Forest, 9 (1896), i\ro. 428, pp. 188, 189. — The author calls attention to the confusion which exists in the nomenclature of the potato blights. The late blight due to Phytophthora infestans is well known, but under the term early blight are confused several distinct conditions. The author states that the early blight proper is due to Macrosporlum solani, and is characterized by the appearance of numerous sharply defined dark spots scattered irregularly over the leaf. These spots, enlarging slowly, give rise to the peculiar arrangement of concentric rings. The spots may or may not have originated with bites of flea beetles, but the fungus is more liable to attack plants that have become weakened from any cause. A second form of disease is distinguished from early blight by the name ^'tip burn," and is characterized by drying at the tips and mar- gins. It is attributed to dry hot weather, insufticient water supply, and is aggravated by insect injuries. Numerous fungi are associated with this disease, but they are present as saprophytes. A third injury is recognized as due to too strong applications of arsen- ites. The appearance of the spots is very much like that caused by the Macrosporlum, except for more regular outline and slight difference in color. A fourth disease is recognized in which dead spots occur on the mar- gins of leaves or around the flea-beetle punctures. They do not seem due to either of the above causes, and are probably caused by too great dry heat. In this respect this disease resembles the disease described • under the name of "tip burn." Comparative investigations of the important agricultural smuts, P. Herzberg {Beiiratje Physiol, unci Morph. niederen Organismen, 1895, No. 5, pp. 1-S6,pls.3 ; abs.in Bot. Centbl., 6.-7 {1S90), No. 6-7, pp. 231-233). Cotton blight (Indian Textile Jour.; Indian Agr., 21 {1896), No. 9, p. 274). An outbreak of asparagus rust, B. D. Halsted {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 449, pp. 394, 395).— A description is given of the asparagus rust due to Fiiccinia asparagi, and the burning of all affected plants is recommended as a precautionary measure. ENTOMOLOGY. 63 Notes on the Cladospoiium of the apple, P. A. Dangeard {Le Botaniate, ser. 4, lS'Jo,pp. 190-195; (lbs. in Hot. Centbl. Beihefte, 6 (1896), JVo. £-3, p. 176). Ripe rot of plums (Canadian Hort., 19 (1S96), No. 7, pp. 220, 221, figs. ^),— Brief notes, mostly quoted from a bulletin of the New York State Experiment Station. Die back, E. S. Hubbard (Florida Farmer and Fruit (Irower, S (1806), No. 20, p. 4(i7). — I'isciisses remedies, reconiinoudiug no cultivation during the rainy season, and applications of aiumonium sulphate. The larch disease, L. t^APirii (Card. Cbron., sir. 3, 20(1896), No. 500, pp. 93, 04). Causes of browning of leaves, Coste-Floret (Prog. Agr. et Vii., 26 (1896), No. .'!>,2)P- 63-67). Beet nematodes and their repression (Deul. landw. Presse, 23 (1896), Non. 55, p. 480; 57, p. 508; 50, pp. 535, 526, figs. 2). Eel ■worm disease in onions, E. A. ORMKRor) (Agl. (raz., 44 (1896), No. 1175, p. 9). — This treats of the ravages of Tglenchus devasiatrix attacking onions in England this summer for the first time. The species has been known in Holland for a num- ber of years. On the effect of sulphur during flow^ering, De Palameny (Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 (1806), No. 29, pp. 79, 80). — Applications of sulphur may be made to vines while in bloom without injury. The treatment of chlorosis, G. Gastine (Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 (1896), No. 37, pp. 307-309). — An account is given of the successful use of solutions of iron sulphate. Treatment of mildevT- by simple solutions of copper sulphate, G. Bourthou- MIEU {Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 (1806), No. 27, pp. 8-10). The distribution of fungi in G-ermany, O. Wunsche (Die verbrcitesten Pilze DeutscMands. Fine Anleitnng zii Hirer Kenntniss. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1896, pp. 124; abs. in Bot. Ztg., 54 (1896), No. 17, pp. 269, 270). Spraying, U. P. Hedrick and A. B. Cordlev (Oregon Sta. Bui. 41, pp. 95-108). — This bulletin contains popular notes on the use of fungicides and insecticides, with formulas for the preparation of some of the best known. Some of the more injurious fungus and insect injuries are described, and the treatments required under the climatic and other conditions of the region are given. Some of the more common reasons for the failure of spraying are pointed out and suggestions oftered for their avoidance. ENTOMOLOGY. Experiments in beekeeping, O. J. Lowrey, M. F. Cram, and H. W. Scott (Vermont Sta. R^ft. 1891, pp. 136-140). — Tins consists of notes on experiments with bees and honey carried out under the general direction of the Vermont Beekeepers' Association. Seventeen hives were phiced in a room 6 by 24 ft., capable of accom- modating 24 colonies. The bees having come from different sources were in different sized frames, and for this reason were observed closely to determine tlie best form of frame to adopt in the production of comb or extracted honey and for wintering bees. No perceptible difference has yet been noticed. After the onset of frost, sugar sirup was fed in different ways to test the ability of bees to change cane sugar into honey sugar. Analyses are given of the honeys i)roduced, pure honey, and honey that had been adulterated with cane sugar. It was found that the best honey was l)roduced when a large quantity of sirup was fed to the bees rapidly. The resulting honey did not graiuilate. When sirup was fed in small quantities for a considerable time less sucrose was found on analysis, 64 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. but tlie product granulated. Stimulative feeding during the spring was tried, but was interrupted, and the results are inconclusive. A non-swarming device was employed with 4 colonies of bees, but proved a ftiilure so far as preventing any desire to swarm. Two strong colonies running together with a non-swarmer produced less comb honey than single colonies tliat were allowed to swarm at will. During February and March, 1894, the temperatures of the apiary, of the interior of the hive, and of the outside air were taken and are shown in a table. It is urged that the spraying of fruit trees be refrained from while the trees are in bloom to avoid poisoning the bees and in addition affecting the proper fertilization of the blossoms. Mosquitoes and fleas, L. O. Howard ( TJ. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Entomology Circular 13^ 2(1 ser., pp. 4). — Mosquitoes. — It is stated that at least 21 species of mosquitoes are present in North America, of which the most common is Giilex pimgens. Observations on the life history indicate that a generation may be completed in 10 days, the Q\^g stage lasting IG hours, the larval stage 7 days, and the pupal stage 24 hours, although all of these periods may be lengthened by cool weather. For protection against mosquitoes, the use of nets and screens in the windows and doors and about beds and the burning of pyrethrum in rooms to which mosquitoes have gained access are considered the best remedies against the pest indoors, while to prevent their breeding the draining of ponds and marshes, the introduction of fish in lishless ponds, and the use of kerosene on the surface of the water are strongly recommended. Experiments with applying kerosene to pools and ponds show that if an ounce of kerosene be applied to every 15 square feet of water surface the larva^, and pupje in the pool and females alighting to lay their eggs will be killed. The applications should be repeated at intervals of about a month. Fleas. — The Ilea causing most common annoyance is Pulex serraticeps, infesting the dog and cat- In case of an outbreak of fleas in the house freely sprinkling pyrethrum powder about the rooms, followed by spray- ing the carpets and floors with benzin, and as a last resort washing the floors with hot soapsuds are recommended as efiflcient remedies. Climbing cutworms, M. Y. Slingerland [New York Cornell 8ta. Bill. 104, pp. 553-600, pis. 5, figs. 2). Sjinopsls. — This bulletin contains general remarks on cutworms as a class, with additional descriptions and notes on climbing cutworms, and directions for suc- sessfully combating these pests. Cutworms in general (pp. 555-5G0). — The habits and appearance of the moths and caterpillars, destructiveness, life history, and natural enemies of cutworms are briefly treated of, and it is stated that about 30 species occur in the State. Corn, onions, peach trees, and garden crops in Is'^ew York have suffered most from attacks of cutworms. ENTOMOLOGY. 65 Climhlng cuUcormH (pp. 501-584). — Under this bead are discussed sev- eral species of cutworms with the climbing habit, spending- the day in the ground at the bases of trees and at night ascending the trunks and feeding upon the buds and leaves until nearly daylight. A large variety of shade and fruit trees are attacked by climbing cutworms, as are also small fruits, grapevines, and various flowers, especially roses and chrys- anthemums. Among fruit trees, peaches have experienced most dam- age, perhaps because of their being extensively grown on the sandy soils, where cutworms flourish best. A list is given of 12 species of cut- worms that have been noted as possessing the climbing habit, and it is believed that other species would assume it under favorable conditions. The greatest damage to jjeach trees has occurred along the shore of Lake Ontario, where in some instances the attacks of cutworms have been so severe that on still nights their feeding has produced a dis- tinctly audible nipping sound. Each cutworm destroys several buds in a night, and when a luimber of caterpillars ascend a young tree it is soon killed or its growth distorted and stunted. Where the buds are few the branches are often girdled through the bark being gnawed. During the daytime these cutworms bury themselves in the sand about an inch below the surface, usually within a radius of a foot from the base of a tree. As many as 50 cutworms have been found at one time on a year-old tree and 120 on a 2-year-old tree. The history and dis- tribution, description, habits, life history, and illustrations taken from photographs are given for the white cutworm {Carnearles sca7ide)is-), spotted-legged cutworm {Forosagrotis retn.sta), well-marked cutworm {Xoctiid clandesfina), dingy cutworm {Feltia si(bgothica),aud variegated cutworm {Peridroma saucia). Of these the white cutworm constituted over 90 per cent of those that attacked peach trees in western Xew York in 1S93 and 1894. The well-marked cutworm, dingy cutworm, and si>otted-legged cutworm were next in respective abundance. The variegated cutworm was not found attacking peach trees, but was noticed several times damaging plants in greenhouses and gardens. The most damage it accomplished was in attacking chrysanthemums, which it did by eating into the blooms in a manner at first attributed to mice. The variegated cutworm is believed to be a European species, while the others described are of American origin. Row to combat cutworms (pp. 585-600). — The results of numerous experiments carried on at the station for iireventing the ravages of cut- worms are cited. Trapping the moths by means of sweet traps and trap lanterns is believed to involve more labor and expense than the results repay, besides destroying numbers of beneficial insects, espe- cially parasites. To combat climbing cutworms, clean cultivation is advised, to keep out entirely all weeds and grasses upon which the eggs are laid and the young cutworms feed. Clean cultivation for two or three months after the middle of July, and the growing of some gar- den or field crop in or near peach orchards to attract the moths and QQ EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. tlius prevent them from attacking tlic trees, are suggested. To prevent the worms from getting to the buds the painting of the trunks of the trees with ''Eaupenleim," ^'Dendrolene," or some other sticky caterpil- lar lime has i)royed quite effective. The mechanical devices which have been looked upon with favor are collars of stiff', smooth paper pulled out in funnel shape at the bottom and collars of cotton batting, a band of batting 4 or 5 in. wide being bound at its bottom around the tree and the top then pulled over in the shape of an inverted funnel. This has proved an effective barrier against cutworms and is not readily matted down by rain. For killing climbing cutworms jarring them from the trees at night on to sheets and digging them out of the ground during the day, although tedious methods, have proved profitable. Poisoned baits of fresh foliage sprayed with Paris green and a moistened mixture of bran and Paris green were eagerly eaten by the cutworms, which died in a few hours, in some cases 90 per cent being killed. In gardens it is recommended that the advent of the cutworms be prevented by plow- ing deep furrows around the patches to be protected, and that such destructive measures as spraying with Paris green, hand picking, and the use of poisonetl baits be employed. For grass lands and field crops a short rotation of crops, leaving fields but a short time in sod, is believed to be the l)est method of protection known at the present time. Cut-worms in Kentucky, H. Garman {Kentucky Sta. Bid. 58, pp. 89-109, pi. 1, Jig. 1). — Owing to a marked outbreak of cutworms in Ken- tucky in 1805 special attention was paid to these pests, and specimens were sent to the station from various parts of the State. Descrijjti ve and life-history notes are given for the traveling cutworm {Feltiaf/ladiaria), dingy cutworms {F. jaculifera and F. subgothica), granulated cutworm {F. annexa), greasy 'cutworm {Agrotis ypsilon), vatiegated cutworm {Per idroma sancia), green cutworm (P. incirls), spotted cutworm {Noctua hicarnea), W-marked cutworm {X. elandcstina), bristly cutworm {Mames- tra renigera), glassy cutworm {Xylophasia devastatrix), and bronzed cutworm {Xephelodes minians). Several species of cutworms were bred at the station for purposes of accurate identification. As remedial treatment are recommended burning of tracts suspected of harl)oring cutworms or known to do so, inclosing newly set plants with paper or tin (cylinders, and the use of poisoned bait, which is to be prei)ared by dipping bunches of clover in Paris green water. Some of the worms in the laboratory investiga- tion were found to be infested with bacteria and others with a fungus disease, which proved to be quite readily communicable, and which it is hoped may prove of advantage in destroying worms in the field. Examination of the stomachs of bluebirds killed in February showed that on an average 30 per cent of the contents consisted of cutworms. In addition, illustrated and descriptive notes are given on the army ENTOMOLOGY. 67 worm {Lencania nnipuncta), and winter burning of infested land is recommended. The grape root worm, F. M.Webster {Ohio Sta. Bui. 02, pjK 77-'.>'j^ pj. 1). — This consists of notes on the appearance and life history of Fidia rituida, with an account of experiments in combating this pes" in I.S94 and 1805, This hoary chestnut-colored beetle was present in immense quantities in the northern portion of Ohio, especially in the vicinity of Cleveland. The several stages of the insect's life history are described in technical detail. The habits are briefly noted, there being but one annual brood, from eggs laid under the bark of grapevines in July and August, whence minute white, brown-headed larvae hatch, drop to the ground, and make their way to the roots upon which they feed. They attain their full growth before winter, when they pass into earthen cells, developing into pupa) in June without further feeding, and emerging from the latter part of June until September, but mostly during July. The adults feed upon the foliage of the grapevines, com- mencing with the lower leaves and gradually ascending until later in the season they are found upon the youngest and most tender foliage. The upper surface of the leaves is the place of their attack. Sometimes the fruit is also eaten. , Ants and mites were found to attack the eggs of these insects, and 1 new hymenopterous genus, Fidiobia, and 2 new species, F.fiavipes and Bracliysticha Jidm, were bred from the eggs and are technically described by W. H. Ashmead. For the destruction of the adult beetles spraying with arsenites was employed with satisfactory results, but owing to the irregular emergence of the adults an abundance of beetles was always in evidence, the newcomers taking the place of those that had perished by the arse- nites. Kerosene emulsion, salt, and kainit were applied about the bases of the grapevines for the destruction of the larva', but only kerosene emulsion was in any way effective. An application of bisulphid of car- bon, 4 to 6 oz. per vine, was made by means of 3 holes, each about a foot from the base of the vine. When the soil was not too wet or too dry this was found to be an effective method, although it can not be used to advantage earlier than November on account of the pro- longed season of oviposition. It is believed that additional treatment with bisulphid of carbon in the spring will be found advantageous. It is urged that tlie soil of the vineyards be kept loosely cultivated and banked slightly toward the rows, thus covering the roots more deeply with light soil that will not crack, and so tend to jireveut the larva' from reaching the roots. The San Josd scale, F. H. Htllman {Xevada Sta. Bui. 29, pp. 6', figs. /). — This is a short popular bulletin giving the main facts in regard to the life history of Aspidiotus perniciosuft, and describing its various stages. The pest has made its appearan(;e in and about the town of Eeno, where it affects apple, plum, and prune trees and rosebushes. 68 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The washes usually aj)plied are recommended for the treatment of the pest, although no formula has yet been selected as giving best results at this locality. The earnest attention of fruit growers is called to the pest and their aid solicited in arresting its progress. The peach tree and its parasites, G. McCarthy {^^orth Carolina Sta. Bui. 1:30,2)2). ^Sd-308,fi(js. ^;?).— This bulletin is of a popular nature- Directions for the use of insecticidal apparatus and formulas for the preparation of various insecticides are given. Descriptive, life-history, and remedial notes are given on the root borer, curculio. May beetles, rose beetle, peach tree aphis, periodical cicada, soft scale. West Indian peach scale, San Jose scale, and nematode worms. Peach yellows, brown rot, i)each scab or mildew, peach leaf curl, shot-hole fungus, and root rot or pourridie are described and remedies suggested. The ^g,w York law in regard to yellows, black knot, and San Jose scale is quoted as suggestions for a law to be adopted in I*^^orth (Jarolina. A list of the varieties recommended by the State Horticultural Society is appended. Fruit pests, F. L. Washburn {Oregon Sta. Bid. 3s, 2^2^. 37 , figii. 14). — The use of combined insecticides and fungicides for spraying produced satisfactory results, and a combination of Paris green and Bordeaux mixture is recommended, early applications to be made for the purpose of destroying fungus spores and young larval insects. Formulas are given for lime, sulphur, and salt wash, and for Bordeaux mixture. Descriptive notes are given for the codling moth, San Jose scale, woolly aphis, oyster-shell bark louse, Hat-headed apple borer, apple aphis, tent caterpillar, corythuca, climbing cutworm, red spider, scolytid borers, cicada, red-humped apple caterpillar, pocket gopher, and "digger squir- rel." Annotated lists are given of insects attacking the pear, prune, plum, peach, cherry, and grape. An entomological calendar is included showing the treatment to be given orchards during each month of the year. Brief notes are given on the following beneficial and parasitic insects: Ground beetles, tiger beetles, Podahrus comes, lady beetles, syrphus flies, lace-wing ily, ant lion, ichneumon flies, and tachina flies. It is urged that almost without exception birds are beneticial to horticultur- ists through the destruction of the injurious insects upon which they feed. Report of the entomologist, G. H. Perkins ( Vermont Sta. Ept. 1894, pp. 119-135, figs. 10). — This report consists of notes on a number of insects studied during the year, and is prefaced by some general remarks upon economic entomology and the importance of more extended knowledge of insects amotig farmers. Directions are given for preparing and applying the more common insecticides. Under the heading of house- hold pests remarks are made on the life history and treatment of Dermestes lardarius, red-legged ham beetle {Corynetes rufipes), ants, bedbug {Acanthia lectularia), flea, house fly, and mosquito. The pea weevil {Bruclms pisi) and the bean weevil (B. obtectus) are noted, and fumigation with bisulphid of carbon advised. Descriptive, life history, ENTOMOLOGY. 69 aud remedial notes ai'e given on some currant worms, tlie following species being treated: Currant borer {Scsla tii)uliJ'ormls)^ common cur- rant worm {Diastlctus ribearia)^ imported sawfly {I^cmatns ventricosns)^ native sawlly [TriHttpltora (jrossnJtar'uv), measuring worm {Bislon cog- niiaria), and i)rogne butterlly {l.^oJy), Xo. 2, pp. Gl-GG, fuj. 1). — IIi8tolo {IS'J.5), JV"o. 11; Centhl. Physiol, 9 {1896), pp. 733, 724).— A dog weighing 25 kg. was made to fast 6 days. The nitrogen excreted daily in the urine was G.l gm. and in the feces 0.3 gm. The animal was fed 100 gm. of meat and 75 gm. of fat daily. On the first day 200 gm. of rice FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 71 was fed also, the amount being- increased until on the sixth day the animal received 250 gni. On the fifth day the animal was in nitrogen e(]uilil)rium. On the sixth and seventh days 4.G5 gm. of nitrogen was excreted in the urine and 0.8G gm. in the feces, about three times as much as in hunger. Undigested rice could be identified in the feces. The nitrogen required was only sixth-seventlis of that excreted during hunger. The author conchides that when a large amount of carbohydrates and little protein and fat are fed the protein consumption sinks far under the typical hunger mininmm. The formation of fat from protein in the animal body, M. Kuma- GAWA and G. Kaneda {Mitt. med. Few. d. I: Jap. Univ., ToMo, 3 {1895), No.l,2).li; Centbl. Fhi/.siol, 9 {1896), pp. 731-723; ahs. in Chem. Centbl, 1896, I, No. 13, p. 719). — Two dogs of the same litter were made to fast for 24 days. The nitrogen in the urine was determined daily. One dog was then killed and the fat in all the organs determined. This dog weighed 11.55 kg. at the beginning of the fasting period and had lost 82.88 gm. in weight. The total nitrogen in the flesh of the animal was 519 gm, and the total ether extract 115.5, The second dog weighed 9.04 kg. at the beginning of the fasting period and at the end 6.08 kg. It was calculated that the fat content of this dog was 120 gm. The dog was fed meat for 50 days, the ether extract, glycogen, nitrogen, and water in the meat being determined, and the nitrogen in the urine and feces. The dog was killed and the flesh analyzed. It was found that he had gained 1,087.7 gm. of fat and had consumed practically the same quantity, 1,084.4 gm. (The glyco- gen of the meat consumed was reduced to fat in the computation.) From this experiment the authors conclude that the animal organism can not build fat from protein. The nitrogen consumed was consider- ably greater than the amount excreted in the urine and feces. Adding to this latter quantity the amount which was gained in the form of muscular tissue there still remained an excess of nitrogen which the authors can not account for, A practical experiment in the study of dietaries, M, Talbot {Review of Reviews, 13 {1896), No. 3, pp. 300-302). — A brief account is given of a dietary investigation made at the Women's Halls of the University of Chicago. The composition of the food was calculated from standard tables. The food purchased, the cost of food, and the nutrients consumed per person per day in 1894 and 1895 are shown in the following table: Total amonnt pur<-liased and cost, with imtrients and nutritive value of food eoiiHumed per person per day. Tear. Food pur- chased. Pounds. 5.00 5.33 Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbohy- drates. Calories. 1894 $0. 250 .241 Grams. 121 115 Orams. 121 122 Orams. 381 408 3,183 1895 3,279 72 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "During the time covered by the iuvestigatiou the income received from persons paying board at the rate of $3.50 per week was only sufficiently large to permit of an allowance of 25 cts. for raw food material per day per person, including the large staff of servants." Chinese soja bean preparations, H. C. P. Geerligs {Chem. Ztg.,30 {1896), No. 9, j)p. 07-69). — Tlie author describes in detail the process of manufacture of Chinese bean cheese {tao-hu), soja sauce {tao yu), and iao tjium/, which is very similar to Japanese oniso. Analyses of these products are given, also of Javanese and Chinese soja beans and of the pods of the black variety of soja beans. The author discusses at length the importance of fungi in the manufacture of soja beau prod- ucts, and describes briefly a similar use of fungi in Java in iDreparing a food from peanut cake. The fungi change starch and pectin sub- stances into sugar, and also break up cell walls, rendering the contents more available. "Nutriotone," a condimental food, J. L. Hills ( Vermont 8ta. Bpt. 1894, pp. 150, 151). — The trial of this material was made away from the station and not under its auspices, but "under such circumstances as cause it to be entirely trustworthy." Seven Jersey cows were fed a daily ration of 15 lbs. of hay, 3 lbs. each of bran and corn, 2 lbs. each of oats and gluten meal, and 1 lb. of malt sprouts during 5 two-week periods. During the third and fifth periods 2 tablespoonfuls of the " Nutriotone," the amount prescribed, were added to the ration of each cow daily. The yields of milk and the percentages of fat are given. The material costs from $250 to $500 per ton, according to the amount purchased. "The circular of the maker states that if 2 tablespoonfuls are mixed with each grain feed the user 'will be agreeably surprised at the increased quantity and improved quality of milk . . . and productiveness of the animals.' "The material does not appear to have increased production in this particular experiment." Four ways of preserving fodder corn, J. L. Hills ( Vermont 8ta. Bpt. 1894, pp. 168-192). Synopsis. — The four methods used were as follows: (1) The whole plant cut up and ensiled; (2) the stover ensiled, the corn being removed and afterwards ground and fed with the silage; (3) the whole plant stooked in tbo open air and cut and fed as needed; and (4) the stover stooked in the open air, the corn being removed and afterwards ground and fed with the stover. The loss of dry mat- ter was practically the same by the four methods, namely, about one-fifth of that harvested, the losses falling mainly upon the carbohydrates. "The ears in the silo lost more of their food value than those handled in other ways." Cowa relished the silage better tlian the dry fodder. There was little difference in the product of milk and butter on the two kinds of silage, although the results slightly favored the whole silage as regards the amount of milk and but- ter i)roduced per jiound of drj^ matter fed. This is a repetition of 2 experiments previously reported (E. S. E,, 5, p. 312). In the fall of 1894 the corn (a mixture of Sanford and Eed Cob) harvested at the station was treated in the following manner: That from the first 2 rows was cut in ^-inch pieces, ears and all, and FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 73 ensiled ("whole silage'')^ from t lie next 2 rows tlie ears were i^icked ott", liusked, and gronnd, and tlie stover and Lusks were ensiled, the silage and corn meal being afterwards fed together (" stover silage and nieal*'); from the next 2 rows the corn was stooked near the barn and cut lip as wanted for feeding, ears and all ("■corn fodder''); and that from the fourth 2 rows was stooked near the barn, the ears picked off, a little later husked and ground, and the stover cut \\\) as needed and fed with the corn meal ('' corn stover and meal''). This plan was fol- lowed throughout the entire field. The corn crop was thus divided into 4 equal parts, 2 x>iirts of which were ensiled and the other 2 parts field cured, the ears from one part in each case being cut up with the stalks and from the other part ground and fed with the respective corn fodder or silage. The i)erceutage of loss in preserving corn by each of the 4 methods is summarized below : Percentage of losses in preserving corn fodder in different ways. Method of iircservatioii. Dry matter. Crude ash. Crude protein. Crude fiber. Nitro- gen- free ex- traiit. Ether extract. Phos- phoric Potash, acid. 20 18 20 20 +3 +3 1 6 12 6 12 10 5 + 3 30 27 31 29 IG 11 26 21 18 7 16 6 8 ("oni fodder 8 16 20 0 10 1 2 29 19 1 12 { " Notwithstanding the very different inetliods of handling, the losses are essentially the same in kind and degree, falling mainly upon the carhohydrates (stareh, sugar, etc.). "The character of the losses is similar to those found in the 2 experiments previ- onslj^ reported. . . . There is a close relation hetween the losses of weight and of dry matter in the silages. . . . "The experiment of 2 years ago showed an average of 25 Djs. dry matter lost for each 100 lbs. of loss iu weight, average percentage loss of weight and dry matter of 15.8 and 18.7, while the averages of 8 experiments at the Wisconsin Station show 19 per cent loss in both weight and dry matter. It would appear I'rom these figures that, roughly, a fourth of the gross loss iu the silo is dry matter, and that the jierceut- age loss of dry uuitter usually exceeds that of the entire weight. . . . "There appears to have been much greater losses with the ears put into the silo than with thos*; which were husked, the reverse of the results 2 years ago, when the losses were 15 i)er cent with the ensiled and 23 i^er cent with the stooked ears. The stover silage ears of 1892, however, Avere exposed for several days to heavy rains, which probably accounts for their large losses. . . . "The cars of tlie other 2 parts lost but little in feeding value. The showing is not favorable to the ensiled ears.' A feeding experiment to test the corn preserved in the ditferent ways was made with 14 cows. One lot was fed alternately ou the 2 kinds of silage for 5 four-week periods, and lot 2 on the 2 kinds of dry fodder for the same time. As explained above, the corn meal from the ears which had been picked off" were fed with the stover or silage to which they belonged. L 74 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. In additiou eacli cow received 10 lbs. of liay, 4 lbs. of wheat bran, and 4 lbs. of corn meal daily. The data for the feeding trials are given in detail and summarized. "A large jjroportion of the cows under experiment ate too little of the dry fodder in comparison with the other materials fed to admit of safe conclusions being drawn." The yields of milk, etc., on the two kinds of silage are given below. Yields of milk, etc., on two kindfi of silage. MUk. Whole silage Stover silage aucl meal. Pou7ids. 5,403 5,440 Total solids. Pounds. 754 757 Fat. Pounds. 257 257 Solids- uot-fat. Pounds. 497 500 "Had the cows been fed precisely alike the results coukl have hardly been closer. The butter yiehlis are identical, aud there is but one-half of 1 per cent difference in the milk yields." The production of milk, total solids, and fat from the whole silage was notably larger than from the stover silage and meal, which was also the case in the experiment the year before. Following is the author's summary of the investigations : "(1) Each of the 4 methods of preservation saved about four-fifths of the dry mat- ter as harvested, and, judged by this alone, they were of jiractically equal efticiency, the figures being: Stover silage and meal, 18 per cent loss of dry matter; whole silage, corn fodder, and corn stover and meal, 20 per cent loss of dry matter each. These figures are almost identical with those obtained in similar tests previously made at this station. "(2) The character of the losses in food ingredients is much tlie same in each case, there being little or no loss of crude ash or crude fiber, a shortage of about a tenth each of the crude in-otein, j)hosphoric acid, and potasli, wliile ether extract and nitrogen-free extract lose, respectively, two-tenths and three-tenths of the amoimt present at harvest. "(3) The stocked fodders, Avhile stoolved, lost more and more dry matter as the winter went on. After cutting they lost considerable dry matter, but less as the winter grew longer. "(4) The losses in gross weight and dry matter in the silos were found to be par- allel, the latter, however, exceeding the former. "(5) The ears in the silo lost more of their food value than those liandled in other ways, the reverse of the result in the 1892-'93 experiment. "(6) The relative cost of placing the same amount of dry matter in the mnnger was greatly in favor of the whole silage. The time and money spent in husking and grinding the ears were wasted, since better results were obtained when the ears were left on the stalk. "(7) In this experiment the silages were relished much better than tlje dry fod- ders, and the cows did better upon them. "(8) The same ([uantities of milk and butter were made by feeding whole silage and stover silage and meal; the milk was not changed in quality, but the cows ate less dry matter from whole silage to produce the same auKmnts of milk and butt(!r. "(9) There were but 91 or 92 lbs. of milk and butter produced by a given amount of dry matter in the stover silage and meal ration to 100 lbs. produced by the same amount of dry matter in the whole silage ration. FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 75 "(10) The whole silage lasted longest, and -would con8e(iuently make the most milk and butter. Au acre of corn made into whole silage yielded as nmch as 1.095 acres made into stover silage. "(11) The results of this experiment as a whole are iu entire accord with those obtained in the similar trial at this station in 1892-'93 (E. S. R., 5, p. 312)." Experiments in feeding for beef, C. E. Thorne and J. F. Hick- man ( Ohio Sta. Bill. 60, pj). o(J, ihjms. 3). Synopsis. — Two sets of experiments (in 1894 and 1895) with mixed breeds were made to determine the cost of producing beef and to test the relative feeding value of corn meal and wheat meal, gluten meal and linseed meal, corn silage as part of a ration, and corn silage and corn stover. Data were also recorded relating to heavy and light feeding, iinishing beeves on grass, warm barns rs. open sheds, effect of temperature, and value of manure. Tentative conclusions only were drawn. The chemistry of cattle feeding and the comparative value of various feeding stufl's are also discussed with reference to the experiments. The steers, 32 in number, for tlie lirst experiment were purchased in the neighborhood and were grades of mixed breeding. They were pas- tured during the summer and fall and were then divided into 7 lots of 4 steers each and 2 lots (8 and 9) of 2 steers each. The experiment began January 11,1894, and continued 120 days. The rations fed each lot were as follows : Lot 1. 3 parts corn meal, 3 wheat bran, 2 gluten meal, clover hay. 2. 3 parts corn meal, 3 wheat bran, 2 gluten meal, clover hay, and silage. 3. 3 parts corn meal, 3 wheat bran, 2 linseed meal, clover hay. 4. 3 parts corn meal, 3 wheat bran, 2 linseed meal, clover hay, and silage. 5. 3 i)arts wheat meal, 3 wheat bran, 2 gluten meal, clover hay, and silage. 6. 3 parts wheat meal, 3 wheat bran, 2 linseed meal, clover hay, and silage. 7. 3 parts corn meal, 3 wheat brnii, timothy hay, and silage. 8. 3 parts corn meal, 3 wheat bran, timothy hay, and silage. 9. 3 parts corn meal, 3 wheat bran, timothy hay, and silage. The linseed meal was old-process meal. The steers were given all they would eat. All but lot 9 were fed in the barn. This lot was fed in an open shed in the yard. The financial statements are based on the following prices : Corn meal, $16; wheat meal, $20; gluten meal, $18; linseed meal, $2G; wheat bran, $1G; clover, $8, and corn silage $2.50 i)er ton. The average amount of grain eaten per steer daily during the later part of the experiment was 15 or 16 lbs. on the corn-meal mixture and about 12 lbs. on the wheat meal. 4256— No. 1 6 76 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The average results for each lot are summarized in the following table : liesult of feeding experiment with steers in 1894. Grain (in addition to wheat bran) . Weight at begin- ning of test. Total gain. Feed consumed. Dry matter con- sumed ])er pound of gain. Cost of feed. Lot. Grain. Hay. Corn silage. Per Total. l'°^';"^ gain. 1 Corn meal and gluten Pounds. 1,019 980 981 906 936 960 995 842 Pounds. 279 258 209 239 212 255 231 245 Pounds. 1, 783 1,627 1,783 1,529 1,226 1,358 1,628 1,639 Pounds. 1,249 443 1,100 365 453 505 327 317 Pounds. Pounds. 9.73 10.16 12.36 10.47 10.40 9.78 10.78 9.46 $19.66 19.13 20.63 19.00 16.42 19.80 18. 27 17.40 Cents. 7. 05 2 do 3,188 7.42 3 Corn meal and linseed 9.88 4 do 3,374 2,859 3,447 3, 397 2,416 8.20 5 AVheat meal and gluten 7.77 6 Wheat meal and linseed 7.74 7 Corn meal and timothy 7.90 8 ifc 9 do 7.11 a Without corn silage. At the conclusion of the experiment the steers were sold and slaugh- tered. The price received Avas $4.70 per 100 lbs., "which netted $4.50 per 100 lbs. at the station, making their value at the end of the 120 days under review $1,G77 .64, The total cost of the feed consumed was $587." For the second experiment 16 steers of similar breeding to those used in the first exjieriment were purchased. After grazing during the summer and fall they were divided into 3 lots of 4 and 2 lots of 2 steers each. The experiment lasted from January 11 to April 30, 1895, 110 days. All the steers were fed wheat bran, hay, and silage or stover. In addition, lots 1 and 2 were fed wheat meal and gluten meal, lot 3 corn meal and gluten meal, and lots 4 and 5 corn meal. Less grain was fed than in the first experiment and there were fewer cases of surfeit. Lot 5 was fed in an open shed in the yard. The other lots Avere fed in the barn. The financial statements are based on the same data as in tlie first experiment, with tlie addition of com stover at $3 per ton. The average results for each lot are summarized in the following table : Result of feediuij experiment with steers in 1S95. Total gain. Peed consumed. Dry mat- ter con- sumed per pound of gain. Pounds. 11.78 13.64 9.90 11.07 Cost of feed per pound of gain. Lot. Weight liatiou (in additidu to wheat at be- branaud hay;. ginning of test. Grain. Hay. Silage. 1 Wheat meal, gluten meal, and Pounds. 1, 0(>3 1,009 954 994 Pounds. 187 176 222 226 Pounds. 1,240 1,262 1,232 1,256 Pounds. 596 943 671 871 Pounds. 2,558 a 394 2,250 2,555 Cents. 8. 9.") 8.93 7.01 7.40 2 Wheat meal, gluten meal, and 3 4&5 Corn 7ueal, gluten meal, and si- lage Corn meal and silage a Stover, FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 77 At the conclusion of the experiment the steers were sold and slaugh- tered. The price received was $5 per 100 lbs., "netting S-i.TT per 100 lbs. at the station, or a total value of 6910.04: at the end of the 110 days." The total cost of feed consumed was $047.72. The various points under consideration are discussed and the two experiments are compared in detail. A brief summary of the discussion is given below : Corn mc(d vs. wheat meal. — The average daily gain per animal in 1894 of lots li and 1 on corn meal was 2.07 lbs., and lots 5 and (I on wlieat meal, 1.98 lbs.; in 1895 it was 2.02 lbs. for lot 3 on corn meal, and 1.70 for lot 1 on wheat meal. The results are contradictory. Linseed meal vs. (/hiten meal. — In 1894 the average daily gain per ani- mal of lots 3, 4, and 6 on linseed meal Avas 1.96 lbs. and of lots 1, 2, and 5 on gluten meal 2.11 lbs. In the author's opinion this would " war- rant the statement that for the fattening of cattle these feeding stuffs are api^roximately of equal value pound for pound and that the one which can be bought for least money is the one to use." In 1894 lot 2, on mixed grain (corn meal and bran), with gluten meal, made an average daily gain per animal of 2.15 lbs., and lots 7, 8, and 9 on mixed grain, without gluten meal, 1.98 lbs. In 1895 the average daily gain per animal of lot 3 on mixed grain, -with gluten meal, was 2.02 lbs., and of lots 4 and 5 on mixed grain, without gluten meal, 2.05 lbs. The results were in favor of gluten meal. Corn silage as part of a ration, and earn silage vs. corn stover. — In 1894 lots 2 and 4, with silage, made an average daily gain fter animal of 2.07 lbs., and lots 1 and 3, without silage, 2.03 lbs. In 1895 lot 1, on a ration with silage, made an average daily gain per animal of 1.70 lbs., and lot 2, on stover, of 1.60 lbs. The slight difference was in favor of silage. The author reviews briefly the comparison of corn silage and stover at other stations, and makes the following deductions: "The logical conclusiou of all this work is that the iirocess of eusiliny adds noth- ing to the nutritive valne of a feeding stuff". It does add to its palatabilitj', how- ever, when the method has been properly employed, and in consequence a larger proportion of the fodder Avill be consumed. In regard to the cost of this method, ■we do not consider it any greater than that of the ordinary method of cutting and husking and stacking the stover, and not so great as cutting, husking, and stack- ing and grinding the grain, and certainly all this must be done if the food materials are to be as thoroughly preserved and nuide as completely available as they are in well cured silage." Finishing heeves on grass. — During the last 2 weeks of each experi- ment half of the cattle were turned out to grass during the day, and stabled at night. The others remained in the barn all the time. The average daily gain per animal in 1894 was 1.42 lbs. at pasture and 2 lbs. in the barn; in 1895 it was* 1.37 lbs. at pasture and 1.76 lbs. in the barn. The best gains were made by the steers kejyt in the barn. Warm barns vs. open sheds. — In each exi)eriment 2 steers were fed 78 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. iu an open yard with a shed. The average daily gain per animal was 1.93 lbs. The other steers were fed iu a warm barn and averaged 1.99 lbs. per day. No conclusion is drawn. Careful records of the temperature during each test were kept and the variations shown by diagrams. No conclusions were drawn. The best gains were made when heavy feeding (all the animals would eat witliout surfeit) was followed. The steers made a more rapid gain during the first part of the fat- tening period thau later. The principles of feeding and the value of the manure are discussed at considerable length and analyses quoted. Using the available data, the digestible nutrients and the fuel value of the food consumed per pound of gain and the nutritive ratio of the rations are computed and tabulated. The digestible nutrients con- sumed daily by the average steer were as follows: Total dry matter, 21.2 lbs,; protein, 2.13 lbs.; carbohydrates, 11 lbs.; fat, 0.75 lb. Pig feeding, J. L. Hills ( Vermont Sta. Bpt. 1894^ pp. 80-93). Synojisis. — The tiiiestioiis studied were the comparative value of watery aud con- centrated rations, the effect of these rations upon shrinkage and dressing, the relative feeding value of skim niillc and buttermilk, and a comi^arisou of Poland- China, Yorkshire, and tierkshire breeds. These experiments werem continuation of tliose reported in previous years (E. S. E., C, p. 317 ; 7, p. 929). The tests were made with 10 pigs purchased in the vicinity of the station. Nos. 1 and 4 were Poland-Chinas, Nos. 2, 5, 8, and 10 Berk- shu'es, and Nos. 3, 6, 7, aud 9 Yorkshires. Owing to errors in tlie rec- ords the results obtained for Nos. 3 and G were omitted in the author's summary. For 3 weeks before the trial began the pigs were fed skim milk ad libitum. The exi)eriment began June 1 and lasted until November 15-28. The jugs were 4 weeks old at the beginning of the test. The test with Nos. 1, 2, 4, aud 5 was divided into 4 ])eriods of 20, 5G, 48, and 44 days; with Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 into periods of 30, 46, 51, and 41 days. Nos. 1 and 2 were fed at first 2 oz. of corn meal to 1 qt. of skim milk daily, and later corn meal and half bran ad Uhitum. When they weighed about 200 lbs. they were finished oft" with skim milk and corn meal ad libitum. Nos. 7 and 8 were fed the same general ration ; also Nos. 9 and 10, except that 7 qts. of buttermilk were sub- stituted for 0 qts. of skim milk. Nos. 4 and 5 were fed skim milk alone in increasing amounts until they consumed 9 qts. daily, then 1 oz. of corn meal to 1 qt. of milk was added until 12 oz. were taken daily. The amount of meal was then doubled, and after a time half bran and corn meal in increasing proportions were fed. The financial statements are based on cori^ meal and bran at $20 and $18 per ton, respectively; .skim milk at 15 cts. per 100 lbs., aud but- termilk at 13 cts. per 100 lbs. At the end of the experiment the pigs were slaughtered and sold for 7 cts. per pound, dressed weight. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 79 Tables are given which show the food consumed and the gains made by each pig- during each period, the difference between tlie live weight and dressed weight, food consumed per pound of gain, and the profit obtained. These data are summarized for the whole period in the fol- lowing table : Summary of results of pbi-feedhuj experiment. Food consumed. Weight at begin- ning. Gain in' live weight. Dry mat- ter eaten per pound of gain Shrink- age in dres.s- ing. Xuniber of pig. Skim milk. Butter- milk. Coru meal. Bran and corn. Profit per pig. 1 Quarts. 1,0U8 1,008 1,724 1,724 1,008 1,008 Quarts. "i',m 1,176 Pounds. 221 221 152 152 186 211 211 211 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 21G 213 181 180 183 208 195 211 Pounds. 3.26 3.27 2.87 2.88 3.07 2.89 3.19 2.98 Pounds. 42 40 36 42 33 42 39 42 $3.87 3.75 3.37 3.28 3.73 4.37 3.93 4.44 347 37 41 35 41 29 234 27 249 32 249 20 256 27 4 5 7 8 9 10 IsTos. 1, 2, 7, and 8 were compared with Nos. 4 and 5 to determine the relative value of concentrated and watery foods. ''The cost of food for a pound of increase in live weight and the profits were slightly in favor of the les.s watery ration. The shrinkages were identical by both methods of feeding," Kos, 1, 2, 7, and 8 were compared with Nos. 9 and 10 to show the relative value of skim milk and buttermilk. "The buttermilk had about four-fifths the feeding value of skim milk." Nos. 1 and 4 (Poland-China) were compared with Nos. 2, 5, 8, and 10 (Berkshire) and Xos. 7 and I) (Yorkshire). "The Poland-Chinas and Berksliires gave the same results. In another test Berkshires out- stripped the Yorkshires," In each comparison the average live weight, dressed weight, percentage of shrinkage, dry matter eaten per pound of gain, live and dressed weight, cost of food per pound of gain in dressed weight, and the total gain per pig are shown in tabular form. The author di.scusses the proper time to market pork, and calls attention to the fact that after a time it costs more to keej) pigs than the gain is worth. lie computes that the fertilizing value of the food eaten was $38.93, or 02 i)er cent of the market value of the food, pro- vided the manure was properly handled. Report on feeding experiments with pigs in 1895 at the Dairy Institute in Proskau {Molk. Ztg., 10 {1890), Kos. l,pp. 2-5; 2, pp. IS, 19; 5, pp. kt. and Jlyg. Gaz., 12 (1S90), Xo. 1. pp. ,Ci-3;).— This is a resume of an article by Stockman {Jour. Phijsio]., IS, p. 4S4). The amount of iron in various articles of food is given, as well as the amount in the diet of persons of ditferent ages and occupations, 8 to 10 or 11 mg. being the amount for healthy persons with a good appetite. Notes on hospital dietaries, E. H. RiciiAiiDs (Amer. Jour. Insaniii), 52 {1895), No. 11, pp. 214-217). — The author points out that the dietary suggested by A. Flint for hospital patients (insane) when computed in terms of protein, carbohydrates, and fat is much larger than the accepted standard in Germany. It is also quite expen- sive. The diet is compared with several other American dietaries. Dietary of the Ne-'^r York State hospitals, C. H. Pilgrim {Amcr. Jour. Insanity, 52(189.')), Xo. 11, pp. L'^.S'-^-j.j).— Flint's dietary for insane patients is quoted in its original and also in its revised form. The author finds by practical experience that the diet is well suited to the purpose for which it was proposed, and various sugges- tions regarding the preparation and serving of food in insane hospitals are given. A study in the economy of cattle foods, G. W. Suaw (Oregon Sta. Bnl. 39, pp. 31-52). — Terms used iu feeding experiments are discussed, and analyses of several Oregon fodder plants (red clover, timothy, orchard grass, tall oat grass, cheat or chess, aud oat straw) are given, as well as the calculated dry matter and digestible matter per 100 lbs. VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. An investigation of the nature, cause, and means of preventing the cornstalk disease (Toxcsmia niaidis) of cattle, V. A. Moore ( U. S. Dept. A(/r.. ]>urcau of Animal Intlustrt/ Bui. li), pp. 0-70, 2)h. 2). — This article records the results of an elaborate investigation of this obscure disease from which cattle sometimes suffer when feeding- in cornstalk fields in late fall and early winter. The afiection is restricted in distribution to the middle and nortliern portion of the Mississippi Valley, wlieie tlic farmers harvest their corn by picking tlie ears from the standing stalks, cattle then being turned into the lields. Owing to the iusidiousness of tlie disease and the frequent failure of veterina- rians and butchers to find lesions sufficient to cause death, the disease has been regarded as a most mysterious affection and almost invari- ably fatal. The disease has been known to exist for 40 years. Various theories as to its cans(» have been suggested — lack of salt and insnilTi- cient water, eating cornstalks alone, stomach impaction, ingestion of 82 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. corn smut, and the presence of the species of bacteria which causes corn blight, or Burrill disease. Tlie first 3 theories are of popular origin and not supported by the general experience of cattle raisers. The results of investigations previous to those undertaken by the Bureau of Animal Industry are briefly summarized, the symptoms of the disease being the chief points determined by the investigators. Experiments to determine the etiological importance of corn smut gave negative results. A circular letter of inquiry concerning the nature, distribution, and importance of the cornstalk disease was sent out in 1891 to a large number of farmers and cattle raisers, and the replies are briefly summarized. The investigations detailed in this article were carried out with the assistance of the experiment station at Ames, Iowa, and the methods of investigation are briefly outlined. Notes are given on cattle attacked and dying in 18 outbreaks in different portions of the State, and the symptoms of the diseased animals and the results of post-mortem examinations are detailed. To determine the connection of cornstalks affected with corn blight, or the Burrill disease, with the cornstalk disease, diseased cornstalks were fed exckisively to cattle which were carefelly watched for several weeks, but no evidence of disease appeared. Eight rabbits, fed upon cornstalks and leaves known to be infected with the bacillus of the Burrill disease, became emaciated, but only 2 died. The bacillus of the Burrill disease of corn is thus regarded as possessing an innocuous nature. Tlie bacillus was isolated and pure cultures made. It was identified as Bacillus cloacm. It occurs in the soil and in the stalks afl'ected with corn blight. Although previous experiments to test the effect of feeding corn smut to animals had given negative results, further experiments were made, cattle being fed almost exclusively on smut-laden cornstalks and free smut for several days. The animals continued perfectly well throughout the time of feeding and for several months afterwards, during which they were kept under close observation. A table is given showing the daily temperature of the animals daring the feeding experiment. Instances of cattle and sheep dying while pasturing in cornstalk fields were reported to the investigators, but there was no evidence of the existence of the cornstalk disease in horses, sheep, or swine. Corn- stalks, leaves, tassels, and the liver of a steer dying from cornstalk disease were subjected to a careful chemical analysis without the pres- ence of any alkaloidal poison or unusual quantities of inorganic salts being revealed. A discussion of the nature of the disease, based upon data obtained in the special investigation, is given, and the conditions under which the disease occurred are elaborated in an extensive table. In general the symptoms were those of mviscular weakness, merging into paralysis, VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. 83 and accompanied by signs of intense agony and distress. Nervous twitcliings and Jerkiugs were frequently present. An opportunity was not afforded the investigators to observe an animal suflering from this affection prior to death, and the accounts of the symptoms are all taken from observations made by the owners. Fost-viortcm examinations revealed very slight structural changes in the various organs, the only gross pathological changes observed being those of a hemorrhagic nature, mostly confined to the serous membranes and principally those of tlie heart. Ecchymoses were also present beneatli the pleura, over the surface of the liver and spleen, and in the mucosa of the intestinal tract. Twelve distinct si^ecies of bacteria not recognized as sapro- l)hytes were isolated, but they all proved harmless to experimental animals. It is believed that the disease is due to the existence of a jjoison in the cornstalks, although the nature of this toxin has not yet been deter- mined, and its presence is indeed but a provisional hypothesis based upon the trend of the accumulated data. It is stated that although the loss of cattle from this disease is severe, it is not of such great economic importance as has been thought, and as it is not contagious, does not threaten the cattle industry of this or other countries to M^hich cattle may be shipped. Prevention is regarded as the only practical remedy. It is recom- mended that cornstalks and leaves for fodder be cut, and fed to cattle after this manner, instead of tlie cattle being turned into tlie fields and allowed to feed upon the standing stalks. The plates are from microscoijic sections of liver tissue and heart muscle, showing blood engorgement and hemorrhages in the tissues. Chemical examination of cornstalks presumably the cause of cornstalk disease in cattle, E. A. db ScH^^^:INITZ ( U. S. Dept Agr., Bureau of Animer cent for the corn silage and 33.7 per cent for the Eobertson mixture. "The losses are excessive, greater than should occur in a good silo. As usual they fall mainly upon the more soluble carbohydrates." The 2 kinds of silage were fed in an experiment with 0 cows, cov- ering 4 j)eriods of 4 weeks each. The cows were divided into 2 equal lots, fed alternately on the 2 kinds of silage. Each of the cows received 10 lbs. of hay per day, from 45 to 50 lbs. of silage, and while on corn silage 4 lbs. of bran and 4 lbs. of corn meal daily ; wliile on the Eobertson mixture 2 lbs. less of grain per day was fed for every 50 lbs. of silage. The individual records of the cows are tabulated and the data summarized. The following table shows the average yields for the last 15 days of all the periods: Yield and composition of milk from cows on corn silage and on Rohertson mixture silage. Milk yield. Composition. Total yield of— Total solids. Fat. Solids- not-fat. Total solids. Fat. Solids- not-fat. Pounds. 4,007 3,978 Per cent. 14.32 14.50 Per cent. 5.04 5.15 Percent. 9.28 9.35 Pounds. 574 577 Pound.'!. 202 205 Pounds. 372 Kobertson mixture silage 372 "Considering the yiekls from the dry matter eaten, the balance is strongly in favor of the Robertson mixture, more milk and butter being produced than from similar weights of dry matter iu corn silage. The cows, if anything, gained iu weight on the mixture. It seems that in this test, at any rate, the claims made for the mixtiiro are not without basis. 86 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "Notwithstanding tlie favorable results in tliis trial, the writer does not feel as yet like recommending the mixture to the Vermont dairyman. We have not thus far been able to grow horse beans successfully. "We have grown them for 2 years, hut neither time have had a satisfactory stand, although the soil conditions seemed favorable." Robertson mixture and corn silage vs. roots, J. L. Hills ( Vermont Sta. Ex)t. 1894, pp. 148-150).— At the conclusion of the above experi- ment the cows were fed a mixture of silage made from corn and from Robertson mixture, with hay and grain, for 2 weeks. They were then gradually changed to a mixture of cut beets and carrots in an interval of 1 week, and fed 45 lbs. of this mixture per day for 2 weeks, with the same amounts of hay and grain as in the first period. Analyses of the 2 kinds of silage and of the corn and beets are given, and the data for the feeding trial, including the com])ositiou of the milk, are tabulated for each of the cows. "On the wliole, the results appear to be about even. We do not feel like laying stress upon them, however, because of the short duration of the trial. An extended test of corn silage and roots is planned for the coming winter." Effect of fatigue upon the quantity and quality of milk, J. L. Hills {Vermont iSta. Bpt. 18U4, pp. 102, 103). — In April 17 cows pur- chased by the station were driven 10 miles, shipped 50 miles by rail to Burlington, and then driven to the station, about a mile and a quarter, where they arrived about dnsk, having been all day on the road. October 8 more were purchased, which traveled the same route uuder similar coaditions. The yield and composition of the milk given by each of these cows on the night of arrival, the next morning, several days later, and 2 weeks later are tabulated. A summary of the averages for each lot is given in the following table: Average yield and composition of milk of coics after a journey. Milk yield. Total solids. Fat. Solids- not-fat. First lot : Xinht of arrival Pounds. 7.5 7.4 8.8 8.8 11.0 ]2. 7 Per cent. 14.95 16.70 13.90 14.10 14.98 14.14 Per cent. 5.45 7.28 4.55 5.04 5.90 4.88 Per cent. 9.50 9 42 9.35 Second lot : Night of arrival 9 06 9 08 9.26 "The milk flow was lessened by fatigue, the general quality decidedly bettered, and the butter yields increased. Half of the cows gave richer and half essentially the same [amount] of poorer milk on the evening of the day of travel as they g.ive after recovery from fatigue. All gave richer milk the morning following the travel than 2 weeks later, and, with 3 exceptions, richer than the night before. The fat was the most variable constituent, the solids-not-fat remaining quite uniform." On the influence of the fodder on the fat content of milk, H. Steffen {Dent, hindw. Presse, 23 {1890), Xos. 18, p. 152; 20, pp. 108, 109). — The author does not agree with Sebelien's conclusion that there is very little evidence that the comx)osition of milk is affected by feeding. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 87 He cites a number of examples from i)ractice, especially the records of milk delivered by creamery patrous, which he is ({uite sure show that tlie food is a very important factor iu determining- the quality of milk. Tests of cream separators, H. II. WiNG(A"eir York Cornell Sta. Bui. 105, pp. (J().'j-G:J()). — During the short dairy course of 1895 a series of tests of the efficiency of separators was made similar to the tests made the precediu,i? year and reported iu bulletin 00 of the station (E. S. 11., G, p. 215). The machines were operated by students in the dairy course under the direction of an instructor, but none of the tests recorded were made until alter the class had been at work for nearly a month and the students had had considerable Y)ractice in handling the various machines. The fat in the skim milk was determined by the Babcock test. The results of the test, including the maximum, niinumum, and average percentage of fat in the skim milk, are summarized in the table below: Suvimary of iesis of separators. Separator. Butter accnninlator a... De Laval Acme Alplia. . . De Laval Baby No. 3 Keid's Improved Danish. I'nited States No. 3 Victoria, 75 gallon Average tempera- ture of milk. Beg. F. 86 85 87 83 87 86 Average revolu- tions of bowl per minute. 7,438 6,185 5,720 4,485 7,578 6,686 Average amount of milk sepa- rated per hour. Pounds. 414 1,088 560 1,906 562 790 Fat in skim milk. Mini- mum. Per cent. 0.01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .05 Maxi- mum. Per cent. 0.20 .10 .15 .25 .10 .20 Aver- Pfr cent. 0.10 .05 .06 .11 .05 .09 (f Used as a separator. Tests ((t factories. — With a view to studying the efficiency of different separators of the same make, visits were made to factories in the vicin- ity of Ithaca and samples taken of the skim milk and other data secured. In all, 22 factories and 3 private dairies were visited, and the working of 30 machines of 4 different makes and 9 different sizes and styles were studied. The separators studied were Alexandra Jumbo, De Laval Alpha Ko. 1, BabylSo. 2, and Standard; Sharpies llussian, Standard, and Imperial; and United States. "In all the tests tho machiues were entirely iu the hands of the factory operators and were run by them in their ordinary manner. "Equal i)ortions of the skim milk were taken from the skim-milk outlet at inter- vals of 10 or 15 minutes, according to the amount of milk separated, ami from these mixed together a sample was drawn for analysis. The determinations of fat iu the skim milk were made in skim-milk Babcock bottles in all tests that were made pre- vious to Septenib(3r 14. In the tests made on and after that date the determinations were nnide with the new B. &, W. double-necked bottle for testing skim milk and buttermilk. We have found this bottle much more convenient aiul more accurate for testing skim milk than the ordinary skim-milk Babcock bottles, because of the ease with which it is possible to measure slight differences iu percentage of fat. We have found, too, iu comparison withtlie skim-milk Babcock bottle, that the B. it W, bottle will give a slightly larger reading of fat. . . . 88 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "In regard to the tests as a -svhole, the jiercentages of fat are cousiderably higher than those found in the machines nsed at the station, and it will he seen also that inmost of the different kinds of machines there is quite a large variatiou between the highest and lowest percentage of fat, in every case amounting to 100 per cent and in most cases to considerably more. "In the case of all of the various makes, except the Jumbo, at least one of the machines tested did what is called 'practically clean skimming; ' that is, the per- centage of fat in the skim milk was 0.1 per cent or less. In the case of the machines where a greater percentage was left in the skim milk, in many cases it was evidently due to carelessness of the operator, but in other cases it seemed to be some inherent cxuality of the machine. It would seem, therefore, that since it is ijossible that machines of the various makes that will do perfect work can be made that it is due the operator to demand from the manufacturer a guarantee of such perfect work." Results of tests at various stations. — The data are summarized for the tests of separators which have been reported by the Vermont, Penn- sylvania, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Xew York Cornell stations, and the following- average is given of the percentage of fat found in the skim milk from the different separators and in different series of trials. Fat i)i skim milk from different separators. liind of machine. Average. Minimum. By series. Of all trials. Maximum. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 0.12 0.11 0.01 0.20 .22 .22 .15 .33 .09 .12 .05 .34 .10 .08 .(11 .25 .13 . 09 .01 .50 .27 .10 .05 .65 .18 .12 .01 .60 .21 .16 .05 .38 Accumulator Alexandra Jumbo Columbia Danish Weston. . . De Laval Sharpies United States . . . . Victoria "The results of all of these trials show that it is possible to separate the cream from milk with a loss of not more than 0.1 per cent of fat iu the skim milk. " That in all probability there is nearly as much difference in efficiency of separa- tion between different machines of the same make as there is between the different makes themselves." Tests of dairy apparatus, J. L. Hills ( Vermont 8ta. Rpt. 1894, pj). 151-160). — In connection with the dairy school tests were made of the relative efficiency, power con.sumption, and steam consuuiption of the De Laval Alpha Turbine, De Laval Acme, Jumbo, United States No. 3, United States No. 5, De Laval Alpha No. 2, and De Laval Alpha No. 3 separators. There were 4 hand and 5 i)ower separators. The data for these trials are tabulated, together with the losses in churning. The average percentages of fat iu the skim milk were as follows: Per cent. De Laval Alpha Turbine 0. 05 De Laval Acme * 10 Jumbo 21 United .States No. 1 B 08 Reid Improved Danish 07 United States No. 3 07 " DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 89 "The couiparativo stetim coDsuiuptious of tho De Laval Alpha Turbine and the United States No. 1 B Halt Separator were carefully deteiniiued this year Ijy Prof. A. W. Ayer, of the Mechanical Department of tho University. . . . From tho results it appears that under the conditions prevailing during the tests, the belt machine used only 86.3 i)er cent of the steam required by the turbine Avhile Sfqiarating the same amount of milk. . . . It is Professor Ayer's judgment that 'while the saving in steam by the belt machine might not be considered sullicient to warrant the extra expense of an engine if only one separator were to be used, I believe there should be no doubt as to the typ(? of separator to be used if several of tbem were to be run in the same creamery, and that the belt machine in such cases should be chosen.'" Comparison wa-s made of the Moseley & Stoddard Co. and the Ver- mont Maeliine Co.'s steam Babcock testers, 28 and 30 tests being- made, respec'tivel3^ The average was 4.75 per cent of fat by tlie former and 4.78 per cent by the latter. ''The tendency throughout seemed to be toward slightly higher results in the Farm Machine Co.'s tester. ... A long series of trials of the two against the Rus- sian Babcock test averaged: Steam turbine machines, 5.18 per cent; Russian, 5.09 per cent. It is but fair to say, however, that recent comparisons of the steam Babcock with gravimetric tests (Adams's jiaper coil method) at this station seem to indicate that the former may run from 0 02 to 0.05 per cent too high." The lactanalyt, a nevy milk tester, J. L. Hills ( Vermont Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 161, 1(12). — This tester, which has been sokl to some extent iu the State, is said to be a modified butyrometer. In making the test about 10 cc. of milk is mixed with an alkaline solution furnished with the tester, alcohol, and ether, the liquids being intimately mixed by means of a brush. The mixture is warmed slightly and then the ether-fat column read off' on the neck of the tube by means of a metallic measure, which is sui)posed to show the percentage of fat directly. A series of comparisons of the tester with the Babcock tester showed a difference between tlie 2 methods of from nothing up to over 2 per ceut. As a rule the figures were too low. Pasteurized vs. sterilized milk, A. R. Leeds (Dairy, 1S96, No.S8,p.95). — A dis- cussion of the relative merits of each. "Viewed from an everyday practical stand- point, the result of a general consideration and trial on the part of the medical fraternity and also of the general public has l>een a decision in favor of pasteurized f». sterilized milk."' Experiments on removing the free acid from rancid butter by heating and by washing, K. Fai:xsteixku (Forsch. ii. Lehensmtl. utid Hyij. Chem., 3 (ISOC), Xo. ■ '>, pp. Si-S'J). — From a number of experiments the author concludes that heating rancid butter to the temperature commonly obtained in cooking reuioxes less than one-lifth of the free acid. It is possible to remove only a sinall part of the liei- acid by very thorough washing. Tests for milk, L. Rigaux {Johv. Agr.,7 {lSDG),No.7'>,pp.l35,l,.'6.figs.2).—'V\\o acid test lor fat oC Dr. Gerber, of Zurich, is described and the api)aratus figured. No heat is employed, and the sample has to be iu the apparatus only 2 or 3 minutes. 90 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Irrigation in Oklahoma, G. E. Morrow (0/./«/io>«fl Sta. Bui 18, pj). IT), — Meteorological data are reported to show that the rainfall iu the Territory is frequently not sufficient for the full development of crops, the amounts in general decreasing from the east to the west. In respect to distribution " Oklahoma is fairly but not entirely fortu- nate. . . . We have no distinct wet and dry seasons. Generally the principal rainfall occurs duriug the growing season. On the other hand, droughts during critical periods of crop growth are not uncom- mon. The total rainfall is sometimes largely made up of excessively violent rains and of-very slight showers." The conditions are also favorable to rapid evaporation. This, together with the fact that much of the soil of the Territory is fine and closely packed, suggests that subsoilingto increase storage capac- ity and frequent surface tillage to reduce evaporation would be very beneficial. "If irrigation is to be i>racticed ou tlie majority of the farms iu Oklahoma, it must he by the use of water drawn from wells, or from ponds iu which storm water has been stored. The rivers and streams of the Territory do not have wide valleys as a rule. It is not probable that much will be done, for some years at least, iu the way of organizing companies for building canals and establishing large irrigation systems. As yt^t little is known as to the existence of 'underflow waters,' even' in the river valleys. Nothing is known, with certainty, as to the possibility of secur- ing large supplies of water from artesian wells in this region. The water of some of the rivers and smaller streams has so much saline matter that its use for irriga- tion would be objectionable. "The most practicable i)ower for lifting the water, iu a vast majority of cases, is a wiud wheel.'"' Methods to be followed and precautions to be observed in iutroduc- ing the practice of irrigation into this region are given. Influence of the distribution of the load and the inclination of the traces on the consumption of the strength of draft animals (Deut. landw. Fres.se, 23 {1896), Ko. 24, p. 208, Jigs. 5).— This is an abstract from an exhaustive treatise by H. Eeinhardt on the subject, as api^lied to 4-wheeled farm wagons. The author concludes that for ease of draft on solid roads the load should be concentrated as much as possible on the rear axle; for soft roads, fields, and where the formation of ruts is possible, the load should be distributed equally over both axles. An upward ijiclination of the traces is always to be recom- mended, especially on bad roads and on soft fields. The degree of this inclination must be decided by the height of the fore wheels, the height of the draft animals, and the way in which they are hitched to tlie wagon. As to the best place for the drawbolt, it must be at such a point on the pole as to avoid side draft. If other considerations do not interfere the whifletrees and drawbar should, in most cases, be ])laced under the \ AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 91 pole. The length of the traces depends on the most favorable angle of draft. On technical grounds long traces should be avoided unless there are good reasons for using them. Supplemental irrigation at the Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, C. Gapen {Rtprixt of address he/ore the Illinois State Hort. Assoc, pp. S; Irrigation Age, 9 {1890), i\"o. J, pp. 1-3, xih. 3). — An account is given of irrigating 150 acres of land i)lanted to fruits and vegetables. " The cost of laying the pipe was to the institution about Sl,oO(>, or about $10 i^er acre. The land before these pipes were laid would be regarded as high priced for agricultural inirposes at $100 per acre; it now has a producing value to the institution of $500 per acre." The yield on the irrigated area was far greater than the average in the surrounding regions. The economy and methods of irrigation in humid regions are discussed. Hillside terraces or ditches, F. E. Emery {North Carolina Sia. Bui. 1.21, pp. 319-326, pla. 2. figs. 4). — Directious are given for the construction of liillside terraces according to the method originated by P. D. Mangum, of Wake Forest, North Carolina, in 1895. The great flooding system of the San Joaquin Valley, T. S. Van Dyke (Irriya- tlon Age, 10 {1S9G), Xo. 1, pp. S-17). More practical irrigation in Kansas, I. N. Pepper {Irrigation Age, 10 {1896), Xo. 1, pp.7,'S). Irrigation and subsoiling in Montana, S. M. Emery {Irrigation Age, 10 {1896), Xo.l,pp.l7,18). Fertilizing irrigation, J. Shomaker {Amer. Agr. {mid. ed.), 1896, July 4, p. 30, fig. 1). Storage reservoirs, evaporation, and percolation, F. C. Finkle {Irrigation Age, 10 {1S96), Xo. l,pp. 10-21). The Nebraska irrigation annual for 1896 {i)p.210, figs.6). — This is an account edited by A. G. Wolfenberger of the proceedings of the third annual convention of the Nebraska State Irrigation Association, held at Sidney, Nebraska, December 18 and 19, 1895, "with an appendix of valuable tables and special articles contributed by irrigation experts/' including among other valuable matter a report by O. V. P. Stout ou the flow of the different streams in the State available for irrigation and a synopsis of the irrigation laws of Nebraska. Nevr grain centrifuge -with fans and grader {Deut. landtv. Presse, 23 {1896), Xos, 60, p. 534, figs. 2 ; 61, p. 543). — The grain is first subjected to a blast of air, which removes all chafl', etc. It then passes over a sieve, which allows the grain to pass through and carries over larger particles like stones, peas, beans, etc. The grain then passes into a revolving cylindrical sieve, in which the small seeds of weeds, etc., are taken out. It then passes into a revolving vertical sieve with sides flaring upward and outward. In this the graiu is divided into 3 portions according to size. In a trial at Leipsic the machine did superior work in every way. The Ingleton steam plow {Sci. Amer., 74 {1896), Xo. 19, p. 292, fig. 1 ).— The plows work at right angles to the line of movement of the carriage to wliich they are attached, and a strip 30 to 50 ft. wide is plowed for each time across the piece. The cost of plowing an acre by this system is estimated at 45 cts. A new electric plow, F. Buutschke {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), No. 45, p. 399, fig-i)' The Brabant double plows at the local agricultural fair at Monlius, SI. Rin- GEi.MANN {.Tour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), I, No. 25, pp. 895-902, figs. 5).— In this article the author gives an illustrated description of this type of plow, with a mathematical discussion of the relations of the difl"ereut parts. 4256— i^o. 1 7 92 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Tests of agricultural machinery at Ultuna Agricultural Institute (Sweden), 1894, H. Juhlin-Dammfelt and ^y. Melin (Rjyt. Ultuna Agl. Inst. 1894, pp. 99-11^').— Tests are reported of several forms of grain seeders, seed cleaners, and mowing machines. Agricultural machinery in Denmark during 1895, H. F. K. Dencker (Tidsskr. Landiikon., 15 {1896), pp. 156-167). Road construction, A. W. Campbell (Ori/ario Dept. Agr. Road Bui. l,pp. 4).— Brief directions are given for drainage of the roadbed, crowning the road, selection and placing of gravel, and repairs. Roads and pavements in France, S. P. Rockwell {Xeiv York: John Wiley 4- Sons, 1896, pp. 107, figs. 25).— This book is partly the result of personal observation by the writer and partly a compilation from standard publications on roads by French engineers and from official documents. It treats of the stone roads of France and includes, among others, the following topics: A perfect wagon road, grade, material for roads, gravel, broken stone, quality of various rocks used, preparation, cleanness, size of stone used, mode of construction, gravel road, stone road, roads with foundations, Tn'saguet's method, Telford's system, roads without foundation, Macadam's system, thickness on the Routes Nationales, binding material, convexity, maintenance and repair, general recharging, rolling, cost of construction in United States and in France, and cost of maintenance. Enlarging and arranging a barn, I. P. Roberts (Country Gent., 61 (1896), Ko. 2271, p.612,figs.5). Notes on the construction of dairies, F. W. Waller (Agl. Students' Gaz,, 7 (1896), No. 6, pp. 209-219, pi. 1). STATISTICS. Organization list of agricultural experiment stations and institutions ■with courses in agriculture in the United States (V. S. Dipt. Agr., Office of Experi- ment Stations Bui. 27, pp. 93). — This contains the organization list of agricultural col- leges and experiment stations revised to January, 1896 ; a subject list of ])ublication8 of the experiment stations received by this office during 1895; Federal legislation relating to the colleges and stations; and the rulings of the Treasury and Post-Office Departments as to the construction of the act of Congress of March 2, 1887, estab- lishing the stations. Reports of the director and treasurer of Florida Station for 1894 (Florida Sta, Ept. 1894, pp. 4). — A brief outline of the work of the year and a statement of receipts and disbursements for the year ending June 30, 1894. Annual Report of the Louisiana Stations for 1895 (Louisiana Stas. Rpt. 1895, pp. 8). — Brief remarks on the work of the 3 stations in the State, list of bulletins published, and a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Annual reports of director and treasurer of Vermont Station for 1894 ( Ver- mont Sta. Ept. 1894, jip. 9-16). — This includes a brief review of the work of the year by the director and a treasurer's report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894. Abstract of bulletins of Vermont Station, 1894 ( Vermont Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 75-5i).— Abstracts of Bulletins 41, 43, and 44 of the station (E. S. R., 6, pp. 2ti, 994, 1007). Annual Report of the experiment station of the Department de I'Aisne (R^puhlique Fran^aise, Dept. de VAisne, Sta. Agron., Bui. 1895, pp. 87). — This bulletin contains meteorological data for 1895, a general meteorological resume for the years 1890-'95, and reports ou investigations of the following questions : The role of com- mercial fertilizers associated with barnyard manure; the best form of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash for sugar beets; the eilect of applications of pyritic ashes and of sulphate of iron ; negative action of the products of coal oil distillation STATISTICS. 93 against nematodes; sylphitl beetle of the beet and practical means for destroyino- it; the composition of wheat; the mode of development of ii/iuocS. Dept. Agr., Division of Siatiatics lipt. 134, n. ser., pp. 8). — This troats of prices and number of farm animals in the United States iu January, 1896, aud reports weather and crop conditions in Europe. Monthly crop reports for March, April, and May, 1896 ( U. S. Dept. Arjr., Divi- sion of Statistics Rpfs. (n. ser.), 135, pp. IG; 136, pp. 7; 137, pp. S). — These consist of the usual monthly reports on the condition of the princijial crops aud reports of the European agents. No. 135 contains, iu addition, statistics on the coru, wheat, and tobacco crops of 1895; No. 136 gives the condition of farm animals iu the United States and losses from disease and other causes for the year, together with notes on the health of the people, aud No. 137 gives notes on weather conditions and the legal weights per bushel of the principal farm j)roducts in the different States. Crops and live stock in Ontario {Ontario Bureau of Industries Bui. 57, pp. 14). — Statistics on the condition of crops, live stock, etc., with extracts from returns of correspondence. Agricultural returns for Great Britain for 1895, P. G. Craigie {London: Eyre if- Spottiswoode, 1896, pp. ,24S). — This report shows the acreage aud produce of crops, prices of grain, aud number of live stock, with agricultural statistics for the United Kingdom, British possessions, and foreign countries. For Great Britain the average yield per acre of wheat was 26.33 bu., of barley 32.09 bu., of oats 38.67 bu,, of potatoes 6.6 tons. NOTE S . Arizoxa Statiox. — Mark Walker, assistant horticulturist, has severed his connec- tion with the station, the position being discontinued. Dfxaware Station. — M. H. Beckwith has resigned his position as horticulturist and entomologist, the resignation taking elitect September 1, and G. Harold Powell has been elected as his successor. Massachusetts Station. — To meet the increasing demands upon the station the legislature of Massachusetts has granted $7,000 for the purpose of enlarging the laboratories of the station for analysis of fertilizers and food and feeding materials. Pennsylvania Station. — C. A. Browne, B. A., has been appointed assistant chem- ist of the station, rice M. S. McDowell, B. S., resigned, commencing his duties Sep- tember 1. Wyoming Station. — W. H. Fairfield, B. S., assistant to the agriculturist and horticulturist, has also been made superintendent of the Laramie Farm. Viticultural College at Eutherglen, Australia. — The corner stone of a viti- cultural college was laid at Eutherglen, Australia, June 12. The wine-making industry is an important one in this region, and it is intended that the college shall carry on both experimental and educational work. A valuable work of the station will be the raising of rust-resistant vines. Special efforts will be made to dissemi- nate the results of the work by personal visitation of fruit growers in different parts of the colony. Similar work with tobacco is in progress at the station under the supervision of Prof. A. J. Bouduraut, formerly of the Alabama College Station. Harvard University and Bussey Institution. — The medical school of Harvard University having received a gift of $100,000 to endow a chair of comparative path- ology the position has been filled by the appointment of Dr. Theoliald Smith, for- merly of the Bureau of Animal Industry of this Department and more recently professor of apiilied zoology at the Bussey Institution. The announcement of the reopening of Professor Storer's chemical laboratory at the Bussey Institution will be received with great interest by all friends of agricultural science. The reports of the investigations iu this laboratory more than a score of years ago were very valuable, and did much to awaken interest in agricultural science iu this country and to aid the movement Avhich culminated iu the establish- ment of the experiment stations. Pecuniary disability, due to the great Boston fire of 1872, crippled this work for many years, but it is hoped that it will be possible to carry on important investigations in the future. The Arnold Arboretum becomes richer in specimens and more valuable for pur- poses of information and instruction with every year. 94 I EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, EDITED BY A. C. TRUE, P^. D., Director, E.W. Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director — Chemistry, Dairy Farming, and Dairying. W. H. Bkal — Meteorology, Fertilizers (including methods of analysis), Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. Walter H. Eva^.s, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants. F. C. Test, M. D. — Horticulture, Entomology, and Veterinary Science. L. P. Smith— Field Crops. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. F. H. Hall — Statistics and Bibliography. With the cooperation of the scientitic divisions of the Department and the Abstract Committee of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. CONTENTS of Vol. VIII, No. 2. Editorial note : The Second Internatioual Congress of Applied Chemistry 95 Recent work iu agricultural science 99 Notes 176 SUBJECT LIST OF ABSTRACTS. chemlstky. On the estimation of organic matter by means of chromic acid, J. Barnes 99 On the preparation of water free from ammonia, J. Barnes 99 Note on a difficulty encountered in determining nitrogen by the absolute method, W. R. Dunstan and F. H. Carr 99 Combination of atmospheric and chemical nitrogen with metals, P. L. Astanglon 99 Determination of the citrate-soluble phosphoric acid in Thomas slag by direct precipitation of the citrate solution obtained in the Wagner method, W. Hotfmeister IGO Rai)id est imation of insoluble phosphate, V. Edwards 100 Investigations on the deteruiination of phosphoric acid, C. Meineke 100 Methods of ])hosphate analysis, O. Grothe 102 The molecular weight and formula of phosphoric anhydrid and of nietaphos- phoric acid, W. A. Tilden and R. E. Baructt 103 The determination of potash, F. T. B. Du Vri- 103 Determination of potash, A. Prayer 103 1 II CONTENTS. Pagft A method for determining the purity of butter by means of its density, R. Brulle 104 Estimation of uric acid by Febling's solution, E. Riegler 104 Further notes upon the fats contained in the tuberculosis bacilli, E. A. de Schweinitz and M. Dorset 104 BOTAXV. Preliminary revision of the North American species of Echinocactus, Cereus, and Opuntia, J. M. Coulter 107 The formation and use of the pentoses in plants and animals, Goitze and Pfeiffer 106 On the relation between calcium and the transportation of carbohydrates in plants, P. Groom 106 Copper as a constituent of vegetables, V. Vedrodi 107 The lloraof Alabama, P. H. Mell 109 METEOROLOGY. Injury from frost, and methods of protection, W. H. Hammon 109 Departures from normal temperaturt- and rainfall, with crop yields, in Ne- braska, H. H. C. Duuwoody 110 Climate and Health, W. F. E.Phillips 110 Meteorological observations at Massachusetts Hatch Station, L. Metcalf and J. L. Bartlett 110 Monthly Weather Review, October, November, and December, 1895 110 Report of the fourth annual meeting of the American Association of State Weather Services Ill SOILS. Geological history of the Chautauqua grajje belt, R. S. Tarr Ill Available potash and phosphoric acid in soils, T. B. Wood 113 The rapid and exact determination of lime in arable soils, A. Nantier 113 FERTILIZERS. The proi)cr use of tables of analyses of fertilizers and fertilizer chemicals, E. H. Jenkins 116 The action of muriate of potash on the lime resources of the soil, C. A. Goess- mann 114 Cost of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and jiotash in Connecticut during the spring months of 1896 114 Wisconsin's fertilizer law, W. A. Henry 115 Commercial fertilizers, C. A. Goessmann 117 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, J. L. Hills, B. O. White, and C. H. Jones.. 116 Analyses of commercial fertilizers 117 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, B. H. Hite 117 FIELD CROPS. Alfalfa, flat pea, and sachaline, O. Clute 124 Experiments on the variation in Hanna barley grown in different places, von Liebeuberg 117 The velvet bean, 0. Clute 117 Cauaigre, O. Clute 124 Prickly comfrey, 0. Clute 124 Experiments with foreign cotton, P. H. Mell 125 CONTENTS. Ill rage. Cotton, its cultivation and fertilization, A. A. Persons 125 Flax, \V. Saunders 118 Kafir corn, C. C. Georgeson 125 Experiments with lupines and other nitrogen gatherers, B. Larsen 118 Exi)eriuients on pasture in 1896, E. K 119 Coniparative trial of oats, G. Vaalder 119 Field experiments on oats 119 Irish potatoes, C. L. Newman 125 On a special method of planting potatoes, C. Allier 120 Concerning the intiuence of the starch content of the potato on the amount and quality of the yield, H. Hitler 120 Potato experiments, M. A. Scovell and C. W. Mathews 121 Potatoes, L. Foster 121 Potatoes, L. C. Corbett 121 Studies of Norwegian potatoes of the crop of 1895, J. Sebelien 122 A study of the fertilizing materials used by the sugar beet, W. Schneidewind and H. C. Miiller 122 Natural sugar in tobacco 122 Experiments with wheat, oats, and fertilizers 123 Notes on the threshing of wheat, N. A. Cobb 123 Crop conditions at Strend Agricultural School, Norway, 1886-'95, O. Sandberg. 124 HORTICULTURE. Irrigation of garden crops, B. D. Halsted and J. A. Kelsey 127 Cassava, O. Clute 128 Taro and tropical yam, O. Clute 128 The pole Lima beans, L. H. Bailey 128 Notes on apricots at Phcenix Station, W. S. Devol 129 Present condition and treatment of orange groves, M. S. Moremen 129 Small fruits by irrigation, S. C. Mason and F. C. Sears 130 The 1895 chrysanthemums, L. H. Bailey, W.Miller, and C. E. Hunn 130 Sweet peas. L. H. Bailey and A. P. Wymau 131 Zinc in evaporated apples, H. W. Wiley 132 Experiments with new orchard fruits, trees, and shruhs, J. L. Budd 133 Spraying fruits ; strawberries ; grapes. J. T. Stinson 133 Eeport on fruits, S. T. Maynard and J. H. Putnam 134 List of A'arieties of fruits, W. S. Devol 134 Fruits at the Agricultural College, L. R. Tuft and H. P. Gladden 134 Fruits at South Haven, T. T. Lyon 134 Fruits and vegetables on the Gulf Coast, F. S. Earle 134 Extension work in horticulture, L. H. Bailey 135 FORESTRY. The internal temperature of trees, C. Flammarion 135 Mechanical and physical properties of Southern pine, B. E. Fernow 135 DISEASES OE PLANTS. Insect and fungus pests of potatoes, H. Garman 136 Potato scab, L. Foster 137 Diseases of the i)otato, E. G. Lodeman 137 Potato blights and fungicides, L. R. Jones 138 On the primary cause of potato scab, E. Roze 139 A new disease of almond trees, U. Brizi 139 Frost injuries to apples and i)ears, L. R. .Jones 139 IV CONTENTS. Paga On the browning of grape cuttings, P. Viala and L. Eavaz 139 Experiments for tlie prevention of plum leaf spot and cherry leaf spot and fruit rot, S. A. Beach 139 Spraying orchards and A-ineyards, J. C. Whitten 140 Directions ffir the use of fungicides and insecticides for the season of 1896, S.T.Maymird 140 ENTOMOLOGY. The Mexican cotton boll weevil, L. O. Howard 142 The grass and grain .ioint-worm liies and their allies, L. O. Howard 148 The San Jos6 scale, M. H. Beckwith 147 The San Jose scale in Missouri, J. M. Stedman 148 The pear psylla and the New York plum scale, M. V. Slingerland 142 Wireworms and the bud moth, M. V. Slingerland 143 Insects injurious in 1895, O. Lugger 144 Some injurious insects, R. A. Cooley 146 Insect enemies of truck and garden crops, A. L. Quaiutance 147 Methods of destroying chinch bugs, G. E. Morrow 147 Spray calendar, E. G. Lodeman 149 Composition of Paris green, C. A. Goessmann 148 Revision of the Nematimc of North America, C. L. Marlatt 148 FOODS— ANIMAL PRODUCTION. The mineral constituents of muscular tissue, J. Katz 149 Relations between muscular work and the metabolism of the proteid materials of the body, A. Chauveau 149 Investigation on the influence of muscular exertion on the metabolism of pro- tein, O. Krummacher 149 The influence of temperature on the amount of carbon dioxid and water vapor jjroduced by man when performing severe muscular labor, H. Wolpert 149 The excretion of carbon dioxid and water vapor by individuals of various trades during rest and work, H. Wolpert 150 Does muscular energy depend directly upon the energy of the protein of the food? A. Chauveau and C. Contejean 150 Respiration and muscular energy, A. Chauveau 151 Dietary study at Lyman School 151 Leaves as a food for farm animals, F. H. Werenskiold 151 Analyses of silage from stack silos, P. Hellstrom 151 Feeding experiments with Rehnstrom's "horse bread," J. V, Nordendahl 152 Report of the State Chemical-Control Station of Norway for 1895, F. H. Werenskiold 152 Report of agricultural chemical work for the Royal Agricultural Society (Nor- way) in 1895, V. Stein 153 Report of Oerebro Chemical Station and Seed-Control Station for 1894, J. Widen 153 Dangers from rancid cotton cake, D. Crispo 154 Calf-feeding experiments, G. J.Leufven 154 Fattening exjjeriments with sheep during 1895, J. Crude 154 VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. Hog cholera and swine plague in Indiana, A. W. Bitting 157 The direct transmission of infectious eutero-hepatitis in turkeys, V. A. Moore. 158 Tuberculosis, F. W. Brewer 158 CONTENTS. V Page. Veterinary materia medica for farmers, E. P. Nilea 159 Lameness in horses and mules, W. E. A. Wyman I59 Principles of horseshoeing, E.P. Niles 159 DAIRY FARMING — DAIRYING. Corn silage for milch cows, W. P. Wheeler IGO The induence of feeding sesame cake and cotton-seed cake on the butter, V. 8teiu 161 Examinations of the fat globules in cow's milk, G. J. Leufven 161 Statistics of the dairy, H, E. Alvord 162 Report of the Chemical Institute of Budapest for 1895, M. Ballo 166 The creamery industry, E. E. Kaufman 175 Further experiments in cream ripening: Flavor, aroma, acid, H. W. Conn 166 Bacteriological investigations in the dairy, G. J. Leufven 168 A bacteriological and chemical investigation of kefir, Essaulow 169 Cleanliness in handling milk: Bacteriological considerations, H. L. Bolley... 169 Power tests of centrifugal cream separators, A. W. Richter 170 Inspection of glassware used by creameries and butter factories to determine the value of cream and milk, J. M. Bartlett 172 Report of the permanent Danish butter exhibitions, F. Friis 172 Some butter investigations, V. Stein 173 Report of Oerebro Chemical Station and Seed-Control Station for 1894, J. Widen 173 The eiiect of rennet on the proteids of milk and in cheese making, P. Hillmann . 174 STATISTICS. Annual Report of Kansas Station, 1895 175 Texas Station press notes during 1894 and 1895 17.5 The world's markets for American products — Norway 175 Arizona agriculture, W. S. Devol 175 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. Experiment Stations in the United States : Alabama College Station : Bulletin 70, March, 1896 109 Bulletin 71, April, 1896 125 Arizona Station : Bulletin 15, June, 1895 134 Bulletin 16, June, 1895 129 Bulletin 17, October, 1895 175 Bulletin 18, December, 1895 175 Arkansas Station: Bulletin 38, January, 1896 125 Bulletin 39, January, 1896 133 Connecticut State Station : Bulletin 122, May, 1896 114,116 Connecticut Storrs Station; Bulletin 16, May, 1896 166 Delaware Station : Bulletin 30, January, 1896 147 Florida Station : Bulletin 32, January, 1896 125 Bulletin 33, February, 1896 129 Bulletin 34, March, 1896 147 Bulletin 35, April, 1896 117, 124, 128 VI CONTENTS. Exi)eriment Stations in the United States — Continned. Page. Indiana Station : Bulletin 58, February, 1896 157 Iowa Station : Bulletin 31,1895 133 Kansas Station : Bulletin 55, December, 1895 130 Eighth Annual Report, 1895 175 Kentucky Station : Bulletin 61, March, 1896 121,136 Maine Station : Bulletin 26 (second series), March 25, 1896 172 Massachusetts Hatch Station: Bulletin 36, February, 1896 146 Bulletin 37, March, 1896 134,140 Bulletin 38, March, 1896 114,117,148 Meteorological Bulletin 88, April, 1896 110 Meteorological Bulletin 89, May, 1896 110 Michigan Station : Bulletin 129, February, 1896 134 Bulletin 130, February, 1896 134 Minnesota Station : Bulletin 43, December, 1895 144 Mississippi Station : Bulletin 37, March, 1896 134 Missouri Station: Bulletin 31, July, 1895 '. 140 Montana Station : Bulletin 9, April, 1896 121,137 New Jersey Stations: Bulletin 115, November 30, 1895 115,127 New York State Station : Bulletin 97 (new series), December, 1895 160 Bulletin 98 (new series), January, 1896 139 New York Cornell Station : Bulletin 107, January, 1896 143 Bulletin 108, January, 1896 142 Bulletin 109, January, 1896 Ill Bulletin 110, January, 1896 135 Bulletin 111, February, 1896 131 Bulletin 112, February, 1896 130 Bulletin 113, February, 1896 137 Bulletin 114, February, 1896 149 Bulletin 115, February, 1896 128 North Dakota Station : Bulletin 21, December, 1895 169 Bulletin 22, February, 1896 175 Oklahoma Station : Bulletin 19, April, 1896 147 South Carolina Station: Bulletin 23 (new series), April, 1896 159 Bulletin 24 (new series). May, 1896 117 Texas Station : Bulletin 37, December, 1895 175 CONTENTS. VII Experiment Statious iu the United States — Continued. Page. Utah Station: Bulletin 41, December 31, 1895 158 Vermont Station : Bulletin 49, December, 1895 138, 139 Bulletin 50, March, 1896 116 BulletiuSl, April, 1896 116 Bulletin 52, May, 1896 116 Virginia Station: Bulletin 45, October, 1894 159 Bulletin 46, November, 1894 159 West Virginia : Bulletin 40, December, 1895 117 Bulletin 41, January, 1896 121 Wisconsin Station : Bulletin 46, October, 1895 170 Bulletin 47, November, 1895 115 United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletin 37 125 ^ureau of Animal Industry : Bulletin 11 162 Division of Botany: Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium, Vol. Ill, No. 7, April 1, 1896 107 Division of Chemistry : Bulletin 48 132 Division of Entomology: Bulletin 2 (technical series) 148 Bulletin 3 (technical series) 148 Section of Foreign Markets : Bulletin 7 175 Weather Bureau : In jurj^ from Frost, and Methods of Protection 109 Bulletin 18 Ill Departures from Normal Temperature and Eainfall 110 Climate and Health, Vol. II, No. 1, February 1, 1896 110 Monthly AVeather Review, Vol. XXIII, Nos. 10-12, October-December, 1895 110 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Vol. YIII. No. 2. The Second luternational Congress of Applied Chemistry, held in Paris July 27-August 5, 1896, included much of interest to agricultural chemists. It was attended by Dr. H. W. Wiley as a delegate from this Dei^artmeut, who has furnished the material for the following* state- ments. The congress was organized under the patronage of the French Gov. ernment and under the immediate direction of the Association des Chi- mistes de Sucrcrie et de Distillerie de France et des Colonics. Through the Frencli foreign office all the principal Governments were invited to send delegates, and official delegates were present from Austria, Bel- gium, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Eussia, Switzerland, and the United States. Between 500 and 600 persons attended the con- gress, but about 2,000 sent their membership subscriptions. Although the congress represented the interests of the various branches of applied chemistry, such as the manufacture of sugar and fer- nu'Uted liquors, chemical products, dyestuffs, metallurgy, medical chem- istry, toxicology, pharmacy, electrical chemistry, and photography, as well as agricultural industries, papers and discussions on subjects related to agriculture and agricultural chemistry were perhaps more numerous than in any other line. The participants included many agricultural chemists and investigators of world-wide reputation. There were, for instance, papers on the influence of culture on the chemical and physical jiroperties of the soil, by P. P. Deherain; the assimilability of phosphates, by L. Grandeau; the determination of soil elements assimilable by plants, the phosphate industry, and the ])lan and installation of an agricultural experiment station — the lat- ter by Soillard. The subject of dairying was well represented by papers on the best methods of disinfecting stables and creameries by chemical means, the effect of food on the composition and character of milk and butter, and discussions of the best means of providing cities with ])ure milk and the use of pure cultures in butter and cheese mak- ing. On the latter point the work done in the United States did not seciu to be fully realized. 95 96 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. There were many interesting papers on the methods of agricultural analysis. Several papers discussed the determination of phosphoric acid in soils and fertilizers, dealing especially with the methods appli- cable to phosphatic slags. The Wagner method of solution in ammo- nium citrate of definite composition was advocated by nearly all those taking part in the discussion. A paper by Dr. von Grueber gave the official German method of determining iron and alumina in i^lios- phates. The method of E. Glaser, as modified by Jones, is regarded by German chemisls as the most reliable for this purpose. Peter- mann discussed the detection and prevention of fraud in the sale of commercial fertilizers, and Kjeldahl gave a brief statement of the pres- ent methods of conducting his process for the determination of nitrogen in moist combustion. There were also communications and resumes on methods for the analysis of fats, distinguishing of butter from oleo- margarin, and sugar analysis. A paper by the representative of this Department on the importance of international agreement in methods of agricultural analysis was followed by a general discussion and a vote that the congress collect and publish in German and French the official methods of France, Germany, and the United States. An editor was appointed to take charge of this matter. There has been much discussion on international cooperation and methods before the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and it is a matter for congratulation that this preliminary step in that direction has been taken. Of quite general interest was a paper by Moissan on the electrical furnace. The construction and operation of the furnace were described and a large number of samples of typical compounds obtained at the intense heat of the furnace were exhibited and a description given of their physical and chemical properties. Another discussion of unusual interest was devoted to the official graduation of instruments of ])ie- cision. It was the general consensus of opinion that a uniform 100 gm. weight of platinum should be adopted by all countries, and that all implements and utensils for weight and volume should be referred to this standard. The official meter was regarded by all to be the ultimate standard of instruments to measure length. The chemistry of food and nutrition received a goodly share of atten- tion. There were interesting communications on food adulteration, the gases contained in canned goods, by Doremus, of New York, and the difficult digestibility of sterilized milk; and one entire session was devoted to the chemical study of processes of bread making, and espe- cially to the methods of analysis of moist and dry gluten. An inter- esting exhibition was given of the workings of the latest form of bomb calorimeter for determining the thermal equivalents of food. The emploj^ment of aluminum in the construction of cooking utensils and its influence on the wholesomeness of food prepared therein was the subject of a paper by Baroma. It was shown that with proper pre- EDITORIAL. 97 cautions aluminum could be safely used, but that it presented few, if any, advantages over copper or other metals in common use. There were many papers on various chemical questions connected with the manufacture of sugar from cane and beets, several giving the latest European processes for the manufacture of starch, and a number on matters related to wine making. The question of fermentation and the germicidal methods of controlling it by means of iluorids was dis- cussed by J. Eftront; and a communication was presented by 0. J. Murphy, of this country, describing a new process of fermenting maize and showing the way to a more extended use of this product in Euro- pean distilleries. A subject of interest to the Southern wine-growing States and California was a paper on vinification in warm climates. These papers are to be published in full by the congress at an early date, and doubtless many of them will then be noticed in considerable detail. An enjoyable and very profitable feature of the congress was the excursions. About half the time was devoted to these, and they served to prevent the tediousness of continued sessions of papers and discussions. One afternoon was spent in a visit to the celebrated agri- cultural school and experiment station at Grignon. The school and the farm connected with it were inspected, and the experimental plats of the station were explained by Deherain, and afterwards in his labo- ratory he gave a brief explanation of the charts presenting the results of the experiments for many years. Another afternoon was emi^loyed in inspecting tlie irrigating works lately constructed at Gennevilliers to suijplement those at Asnieres in disposing of the sewage of Paris. For more than a quarter of a cen- tury the city of Paris has been using its sewage for irrigation. The fact that in the light of this long experiment it has recently more than doubled the area under irrigation shows that the process is considered a practical success. The sewage of Paris consists mostly of the water used for washing the streets. As water-closets are to a large extent connected with vaults, the sewage is not so highly polluted nor so rich in fertilizing materials as might be supposed. The fields irrigated con- tain 709 hectares (about 1,970 acres). The city of Paris expended 200,000,000 francs (about $40,000,000) in acquiring the land and con- structing the aqueduct, pumping machinery, and irrigating canals. The crops grown are vegetables and fruits — largely small fruits. The methods of irrigation are exactly those practiced in the arid regions of the United States. The gardens, though only 2 years old, presented a scene of almost tropical exuberance. Many dwarf fruit trees Avere already in bearing. Fortunately, the soil is of a sandy nature, permit- ting souiewhat rapid filtration. At the end of the field next to the river the sewage which has passed through the soil reappears as a large stream of pure water, colorless and bright. The number of nn'cro- organisms, which is many millions in the sewage,'is diminished to 2,500 per cubic centimeter of the seei>age water. 98 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. One day was devoted exclusively to the exercises in honor of tlie late Louis Pasteur. In the morning the congress assembled in the chapel of Notre Dame and placed a memorial wreath on the coffln of the eminent savant. The final resting place of the body is to be in the court of the Pasteur Institute, where a tomb and monument are to be erected by popular subscription from all parts of the world. Later a most inter- esting visit was made to the Pasteur Institute, where the laboratories clinical rooms, etc., were inspected, and to the stables of the institute at Garches, where are kept the 130 horses used to furnish the anti- diphtheritic serum. Visits were also made to numerous laboratories, museums, botanical gardens, public buildings, manufactories, etc., in the vicinity of Paris, including the national porcelain works at Sevres. One evening a lec- ture was given to tlie congress, in the amphitheater of the ISorboune, on color photography, by Professor Lippman, who has achieved an interna- tional reputation by his researches in this important process. Another evening a banquet was given to the chairmen of committees of organiza- tion and to the delegates of foreign Governments, under the presidency of the minister of finances, which was attended by nearly 500 i)ersons. The final session of the congress was held in the grand amphitheater of the Sorbonne, under the presidency of the minister of commerce and industry. It was voted to hold the next congress at Vienna in 1898. RECENT WORK IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. CHEMISTRY. On the estimation of organic matter by means of chromic acid, J. 15ARNES {Joiir. ;Soc. Chcm. Ind., 15 {1890), No. L\ pp. 82-84).— '£\iq author's metliod is to add to 50 cc. of the sohition to be tested 25 cc. strong- sulphuric acid and 10 cc. of a solution of potassium bichromate containing (5.2 gm. of that salt and 50 cc. sulphuric acid to the liter. The mixture is heated 1 hour on the boiling-water bath, after which 10 cc. of a standard ferrous sulphate solution is added and titrated back with standard permanganate solution. A series of parallel experi- ments with this and tlie permanganate method is given, from the results of which the author concludes that the chromate method gives a better measure of the organic carbon than the permanganate method. The oxidation by permanganate was effected by 2i hours digestion at 70° in acid solution. — A. m. peter. On the preparation of ^vater free from ammonia, J. Barnes {Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.^ 15 {1890), No. 4, pp. 254). — The author prepares ammonia-free water for nesslerizing without distillation by destroying the ammonia compounds by means of an alkaline hypobromite. A quantity of ordinary distilled water is put into a stoppered bottle and bromin vapor is poured in until the water is just perceptibly colored after shaking. A drop of strong soda solution is then added and the bottle again shaken. After standing about 10 minutes a few drops of potassium iodid are added to destroy the excess of hypobromite, and the water will then be found free from ammonia and suitable for use in nesslerizing. — A. M. peter. Note on a difficulty encountered in determining nitrogen by the absolute method, W. R. Dunstan and F. H. Carr {Chem. News, 73 {1896), p. 128). — Wnen nitrogen was determined in the base aconite by the absolute method, twice tlie amount of nitrogen corresponding to the accepted formula was found, but the absolute method gave good results on the hydrochlorid, as did also the soda-lime method on the base. An analysis of the gas from the combustion of the base by the absolute method showed it to Ite coiitamiiiated with methane. — e. w. kilgore. Combination of atmospheric and chemical nitrogen -\vith metals, r. L. ASTANGLON {Chem. Ncics, 73 {1890), p. 115).— The, author found 99 100 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. tlie nitrid of magnesium (MgjNo) formed by buruiug- maguesium in air by two methods to contain 20.42 and 26.82 per cent of nitrogen, as com- pared with the theoretical 28 per cent; while the nitrid formed by com- bination with chemical nitrogen contained 27.21 i^er cent of nitrogen. He discnsses the results of Ramsay and Rossel for maguesium nitrid. — B. W. KILGOKE. Determination of the citrate-soluble phosphoric acid in Thomas slag by direct precipitation of the citrate solution obtained in the Wagner method, W. Hoffmeister [Chem, Ztg., 20 {1890), No. 31, p. 305). — To an aliquot part of the citrate solution of 5 gm. of Thomas slag a small amount of concentrated sulphuric acid is added (5 cc. of acid for each gram of slag) and tlie solution evaporated until it is of a thick sirupy consistency and a slightly yellow color. The residue is washed into a measuring flask with hot water and after cooling the flask is filled to the mark with water. The solution is then filtered and an aliquot part of the filtrate corresponding to 0.5 gm. of slag is transferred to a beaker covered with a funnel, 10 cc of fuming nitric acidadded, and the solution heated over a small flame nearly to boiling. After rinsing off the funnel 50 cc. of the ammonium citrate solution ordinarily used in the determination of phosphoric acid is added, the solution cooled, and the phosphoric acid precipitated by means of 10 cc. of magnesia mixture in the presence of sufficient ammonia to neutralize the sulphuric acid and nitric acid present. For complete precipitation it is necessary to allow the solution to stand 12 hours with occasional stirring. Rapid estimation of insoluble phosphate, V. Edwards {Chem. News, 73 {1896), p. 25 ; abs. In Jour. Chem. Soc, 1890, Apr., p. 373). — The method j^roposed is as follows: "The residue, from the exhaustion of 0.5 gm.of the substance with cold and hot water, is boiled fin^ a short time in water containing a very small quantity of hydrochloric acid, filtered, nmde up to 300 cc, rendered alkaline with ammonia, and then faintly acidified with acetic acid. The solution is then placed on a sand bath and titrated hot with standard uranium acetate of the strength 1 cc. = 0.01 gm. CaiPoOa." Investigations on the determination of phosphoric acid, C. Meineke {Chem. Ztg., 20 {1890), No. 13, pp. 107-113).— Tests of 2 methods are reported : Determination of phosphoric acid (1) by igniting the yellow molybdic precipitate, proposed by the author in 1885;' and (2) as magnesium pyrophosphate. In addition studies of the influence of ammonium chlorid on the molybdic precipitation of phosphoric acid in solutions rich in iron are reported. The molybdic solution used in the first method is prepared as fol- lows: Dissolve 150 gm. of ammonium molybdate in 150 cc. of ammonia of 0.91 specific gravity and 850 cc. of water and stir in 1,000 cc. of nitric acid of 1.2 specific gravity; heat for 10 minutes at 90° C, decant, and filter. The method is carried out as follows: In case of solutions 'Report Anal. Chem., 5 (1885), p. 153. CHEMISTRY. 101 poor in iron, only 5 per cent of amuionium nitrate and a slight excess of free nitric acid should be i)resent. Cool the solution to about 50° and add the required amount of molybdic solution, whereupon the temperature sinks to 35 to 40°. Let the solution stand until it ^)er- fectly clear. With solutions rich in iron a high temperature is i . red, and the solution should contain at least 10 per cent of ammonium nitrate and from 5 to 10 cc. of free nitric acid of 1.4 specitic gravity for every 100 cc. of solution. Heat the solution nearly to the boiling temperature, add the necessary amount of molybdic solution, and stir vigorously. Allow the precipitate to settle, and filter. For washing the precipitate use a solution containing 100 parts each of ammonia (0.91 specitic gravity) and nitric acid (1.4 specitic gravity), diluting to 1 liter. AVash until all iron is removed, tinally using a little cold water and a small amount of 96 per cent alcohol or ether-alcohol, if the pre- cii)itate is large, dry it, and ignite in a flat platinum dish with a plati- num cover at a very low red heat, scarcely perceptible in daylight. The ignited residue sliould be grayish when cooled and should con- tain no yellow or green particles. It should also be free from sublimed molybdic acid, (.'ool in a desiccator and weigh. In the method originally proi)osed by the author this residue was given the formula P20:/Mo240c8, which contains 4.018 per cent of phos- ])horic acid. A comparison on phosphorite of this method with that in which phosphoric acid was determined by weighing the magnesium pyrophosphate indicated that this factor was too high. Careful analy- ses of the ignited residue from precipitates obtained with disodium phos- l)l!ate and trisilver jihosphate according to the above directions showed that it had the formula 24M0O34-P2O5, with a phosphoric acid content of 3.944 per cent. By using this factor it was found that the results by the author's method, and by that in which phosphoric acid was deter- mined by weighing the magnesium pyrophosphates, agreed very closely. Two methods of determining phosphoric acid based upon the weight of magnesium pyrophosphates were tested, viz, that of Miircker' and that of Wagner.- In the first method the molybdate precipitate is dis- solved in an excess of ammonia which is neutralized by hydrochloric acid before precipitation with a magnesia solution, a sufiicient amount of ammonia being added to bring the final amount of ammonia in the solution up to 2h to 3 per cent. In the second method i)hosphoric acid is directly precipitated out of 2i to 3 per cent of ammonia solution by means of magnesia mixture. These methods were tested on solutions of disodium and trisilver phos- idiates containing varying amounts of phosphoric acid. The results indicate that for the analysis of ordinary phosphates the Wagner method is sufficiently accurate. For very small amounts of phos]>horic aicd a small plus error was found. The irregularities observed are 'Ztschr. nnalyt. Cliem., 12 (1873), p. 447. aZtethr. aualyt. Chem., 19 (1880), p. 44. 102 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. ascribed to variations in the length and intensity of ignition of the pre- cipitate. Intense ignition appeared to increase the loss of phosphoric acid by decomposition of the metaphosphates, and this loss increased witl "'e increase in weight of the precipitate. In the author's exi^eri- mcii' • bore no definite relation to the correction given in Neubauer's table, ihe indications are that the precipitate of Mg(]SrH4)4(POj)2 is very variable, and consequently that the proportion of metaphosphate in the ignited residue is also variable. Experiments are reported which indicate that the difference in weight between the gently ignited and strongly ignited precipitate gives a factor which may be utilized in cal- culating tlie relative proportion of metaphosphate and pyrophosphate present, and thus furnishes a more exact means of determining the per- centage of phosphoric acid present. As a rule this method gave more reliable results than either Wagner's method or Neubauer's method with correction. The results by the ^liircker method were very variable, sometimes showing a plus error and sometimes a minus error. In many cases it was found that the precipitate contained a considerable amount of molybdic acid. The error due to formation of metaphosphate and vol- atilization of phosphoric acid was much smaller than in case of the Wagner method. This is exjilained by the fact of the simultaneous formation of Mg(NH4j4(P04)2 and Mg;j(P04)2, which yield on ignition magnesium pyrophosphate without loss of phosphoric acid when com- bin(!d in proper proportion. If the amount of i)hosphoric acid present is not very large it is completely precipitated in the above forms in proportions which yield on ignition pure pyrophosphate, and the results generally show a plus error (due to other impurities). If phosphoric acid is present in large amounts the addition of the large amount of magnesia mixture, which is then necessary, favors the formation of an excess of Mg(NH4)4(P04)2 and results in a minus error. The experi- ments reported indicate that although many of the precipitates contain molybdic acid, accurate results may be obtained by this method when precautions are taken to delay precipitation, as for instance, by the addition of citric acid.' In order to get the best results, as Marcker has shown, the solution to be precipitated should not contain more than 2 gm. of phosphoric acid, and sufficient hydrochloric acid should be used so that precipitation does not commence until about one-half of the required magnesia mix- ture has been added. The precif»itate should be strongly ignited in order to remove the molybdic acid which may be present. The results of a number of experiments are reported, which indicate that the large amounts of ammoniara chlorid resulting from the use of hydrochloric acid in the solution of i^hosphates rich in iron in no way affects the determination of phosphoric acid by the molybdic method. Methods of phosphate analysis, O. Grothe (Amer. Fert., 4 1 Ztsehr. analyt. Cbem., 32 (1893), p. 64. CHEMISTRY. 103 {lS9f!), No. 4, p. 20i). — The following modification of TMiircker's method hiisbeeii found by the author to give good results iu the analysis of phosphates: "The amniouiacjil solutidii of the aminouium phospho-molybdate obtained in the ordiiiiirv \\ay from i gm. of ])hosphorite is freed from the surplus of ammonia by eithci- boiliuji- or heating on the water bath, and to the neutral solution, after cooling, 2 drops of magnesia mixture is added, which should, after some stirring, produce a precipitate. Should this, however, be delayed, 1 or 2 drops of concentrated ammo- nia is added, always stirring until the precipitate shows itself. Then the precipi- tation is continued to the end in the ordinary way l-j- the addition of the necessary magnesia mixture. After, say half an hour, ammonia is added as usual in the execu- tion of the Miircker metliod. Th(i i)recipit:'.te of ammonium-magnesium phosphate, after washing with dilute ammonia, may for convenieme sake be moistened by a coucentri'tcd ammoniacal solution of ammonium nitrate, as recommended by Glaser in the execution of the citric method. The ignition is done over the Buusen burner until the filter is burned and liually to constancy of weight over the gas burner." It is claimed that control analyses with ^ gm. of pure silver phos- phate "have demonstrated the absolute correctness of this moditica tiou of tlie Miircker method." The molecular weight and formula of phosphoric anhydrid and of metaphosphoric acid, W. A. Tilden and 11. E. Barnett {Jour. Cheni. i^oc, lb96, Mar., j)}). 154-160, Jig. 1). — A number of deter- minations by the Victor Meyer vapor expulsion process of the vapor density of carefully prepared samples of })]»osphoric anhydrid are reported which indicate a molecular weight corresiwuding to P40in. In the preparation of the phosphoric anhydrid it was observed that the metaphosphoric acid iormed was quite readily volatile. The results of 3 series of experiments on the vapor density of this compound indicate "that although the composition of metaphosphoric acid varies a little, the vapor of this substance consists chiefly of dimetaphosphoric acid H2P20t;, which is apparently liable to undergo i)artial di.':sociation at a high temperature and even during ebullition to part with a small quantity of water. The determination of potash, F. T. B. Du Pni: {Chcm. Ztg., 20 {1890), No. 31, p. 305). — In view of a suggestion to change the factor for calculating potash in potassium platinic chlorid, the author rei)orts work by himself and others, which shows that the results of the deter- mination of potash by any method are usually variable, and that accu- rate results can only be obtaiticd by determining the factor which is applicable to the particular set of conditions under which the analyst works. Determination of potash, A. Prager {Chem. Zfg., 20 {1896), No. 27, p. 269). — The method proposed for the determination of potash in combination with sulphuric *acid is as follows: An aliquot part of the potash solution is precipitated with chlorid of barium in the usual manner, using the minimum excess of the chlorid. The filtrate t!iom the sulphate of barium is diluted to 75 cc, platinum chlorid added, and the solution evaporated on a water bath kept below the boiling i)oiut. 509G— No. 2 2 104 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. This and subsequent operations must be carried out in an atmosphere absolutely free from ammonia. As soon as the formation of crystals on the surface of the solution is observed it is allowed to cool, and then again slowly evaporated to 5 cc. After cooling, 20 cc. of 90 i^er cent alcohol is added and the solution is allowed to stand for a long time with stirring. The crystalline precipitate is brought on to a filter which has been previously washed with 80 per cent alcohol and hot water, washed with 80 per cent alcohol, dried in a Eofi'meister drying oven at 110°, and weighed. Tests of this method on pure sulphate, of potash and mixtures of sulphate of potash with other salts gave results which agreed closely with the theoretical percentage of potash. A method for determining the purity of butter by means of its density, E. Beulle {Compt. Rend., 122 {1896), No. 6, p. 325 ; Rev. IScieni., ser. 4, 5 {1896), No. 8, p. 217; Jour. Agr., 1896, Mar. 7 ; ahs. in Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 19, p. 297). — According to the abstract experiments showed that when the water, casein, and coloring matter were removed, the exact determination of the specific gravity of the fat remaining gave very reliable indication of the relation between the pure butter and the foreign fats added. Estimation of uric acid by Fehling's solution, E. Eiegleb, {Ztschr. anaJyt. Cheni., 35 {1896), No. l,p.31). — The method depends on the formation of cuprous oxid wlien ati alkaline solution of uric acid is boiled with Fehling's solution, an average of 0.8 gm. copi^er correspond- ing to 1 gm. uric acid, the extremes in 10 experiments being 0.7812 and 0.8333 gm. The method is described in detail. — b. w. kilgore. Further notes upon the fats contained in the tuberculosis bacilli, E. A. de Schweinitz and M. Dorset ( Centhl. Bald, und Par. Med., 19 {1896), No. 18-19, pp. 707, 70S). — This reports a continuation of analyses of the tuberculosis bacilli, published by the same authors in 1895.1 ^ mass of dried tuberculosis bacilli weighing about 3..5 gm. was collected and submitted to examination. The crude fat, constituting 37 per cent of the whole, was saponified in a closed flask by means of sodium hydrate, and the acids freed with sulphuric acid. The volatile fatty acids were removed by distillation, the 3.5 gm. of crude fat giving only 0.05 gm. of volatile fatty acids. They had an odor resembling tbat of sweet almonds. The non-volatile fatty acids were partly soluble in 85 i)er cent alcohol and the remainder in absolute alcohol. By means of fractional crystallization an acid melting at 62° C. was obtained and identified as palmitic acid. The acid soluble in hot 85 per cent alcohol was purified by repeated crystallization and showed a melting- point of 102° C, which would indicate a liigher carbon content than any acid heretofore noted in plants. The acid soluble in cold 85 per cent alcohol melted at 42 to 43° C. and is believed to be lauric acid. The work is being continued. — m. Dorset. 'Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 1895, Aug. CHEMISTRY. 105 Theories and applications of chemistry, Bertiielot {Rev. Scient., scr. 4, 6{1S96), No. 5, pp. 129-133). Combination of argon with water, P. Villard (Compt. Rend., 123 (1S96), No. 7, pp. 377-379). Deposition of aluminum from aqueous solutions, H. N. Warren (Chem. News, 73 (JS96),p. 122). Note on the proportion of pure hydrofluoric acid, A. H. Allen (Analyst, 21 (lS9€),p.S7). The nature of an oxidizing substance produced by distilling aqueous solu- tions of potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid in vacuo, C C. Frye {Chem. News, 73 {1S96), p. 12i). — The author concludes that the oxidizing agent produced is ozone. — B. w. kilgore. Study of commercial saccharin by means of the calorimetric bomb, H. Lang- BEiN {Zischr. anrjew. Chem., 1896, No. 16, pp. 486-494, figs. 4). The chemical composition of the oil of sassafras bark and leaves, F. B. Power and C. Kleber {Pharm. Rev., U {1896), p. 101; abs. in Chem. ZUj., 20 {1896), No. 50, p. 173). Rapid determination of carbonic acid in the air and in confined mediums, Hen- RIET {Compt. Rend., 133 {1896), No. 2, pp. 125-127).— The carhonic acid is absorbed by potash which is titrated with sulphuric acid, using phenolpthaleiu as an indicator. The red color disappears when oue-hall' of the CO.. present has united with the undecomposed carbonate present to form bicarbonate. Official methods for the analysis of fertilizers issued by the German Manure Manufacturers' Association, Harzburg, May 28, 1895, H. H. B. Shepherd {Analyst, 21 {1896), April, pp. 99-101; May, pp. 128-132; June, pp. 151-156; and July, pp. 186-191). On the method for the quantitative determination of copper in plants, V. Yedkodi {Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 59, pp. 584, ,585). Table for obtaining Vv'eight of phosphoric acid from magnesium pyrophos- phate, P. Goetsciike {Zischr. analyt. Chem., 35 {1896), No. 2). Optical determination of sulphuric acid, Aglot {Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, 15-16 {1896), No. 13, pp. 855-86?). The quantitative estim.ation of tin, C. J. Brooks {Chem. News, 73 {1896), p. 218). A chemical study of the glycogen in fungi and yeasts, G. Clautriau {Mem. Roy. Acad. Belgique, 1895, pp. 99; abs. in Centbl. Bait, und Par. Allg., 2 {1896), No. 13, pp. 429-434). On the micro-chemical determination of nitrates in plants, W. Ellram {Sit- tiingsber. natiirf. Ges. Univ. Dorpat, 9 {1895), No. 1, pp. 105-116; abs. in Bot. Centbl., 67 {1896), No. 3, p. 74). The determination of organic matter in w^ater by means of permanganate of potash, SCOUPEVSKY {Abs. in Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, 15-16 {1896), No. 13, pp. 1210, 1211). The determination of dry matter in w^ater and the examination of drinking •water on a large scale, O. Erkuhakd {Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 49, p. 480). Polarimetric determination of lactose in human milk, P. Thiuault {Jour. Pharm. Chim., scr. 6, 16{1896),p. 5; abs. in Chem. Ztg. ,20 {1896), No. 60, Repert.,p. 192). Note on the titration of quinin, A. H. Alli.n {Analyst, 21 {1896), p. 84).— The method is based on the neutrality of the sparingly soluble quinin sulphate (two molecules of the base to one of sulphuric acid) to cochineal, Brazil wood, and logwood, and the neutrality of the readily soluble acid sulphate (one molecule of the base to one of sulphuric acid) to methyl-orauge.— B. w. kilgore. Reviev/ of progress in work on wines and food material.?, E. Eist {Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 46, pp. 448-455). — A review of recent work on wines, fruit juices, flour and bread, water, meat and meat i)roducts, coffee, tea, and cocoa. Chemical work in Canadian agriculture, F. T. Shutt {Reprinted from Ottawa Naturalist, 10 {1896), No. 2, pp. 29-4.3) .—This i.s ar^sumd of the work of the chemical 106 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. divisiou of the Exiierimeutal Farms of Canada during the past 8 years. The topics treated are virgin soils of Canada, naturally-occurring fertilizers, fodders and farm crops generally, the grasses of Canada, Indian corn, fruits and vegetables, and well waters. Report of the official analyst of the Island of Jersey (Bap. Ann. Anal. Offic, pp. 12). — This is for the year ending March 25, 1895, and includes brief reports on examination of alcoholic liquors, butter, baking powder, and waters, and on the inspection of waterworks. A table is given showing the fertilizing constituents removed from the soil of the island in the exports of potatoes and milk, and restored by the use of farm manure and artificial fertilizers. A new form of carbonic acid apparatus, C. H. Ckibb (Analyst, 21 (1896), p. 6?). A modified filter pump, G. Behle."\iont (Bui. Soc. Chhn. Paris, 15-16 (1S9G), No. 1.5, p. 917, pj. 1). An auto-pneumatic .stirrer, H. Beorley (Chem. Xews, 74 (189G), No. 1915, p. 63). A registering thermometer for casks and vats, Houdaille and Koos {Prog. Agr. et Vit., S6 {1896), No. 30, pp. 99-102, fig. 1). BOTANY. The formation and use of the pentoses in plants and animals, GoiTZE and Pfeiffer {Landiv. Vers. Stat., 47 (ISIW), p. 59 ; ahs. in Chem. Centhl., 1896, T, p. 967). — The pentoses are found in plants from the time of their earUest growth, and their formation proceeds proportionately with that of the cellulose. They can be used by the j)lant as a reserve material similarly to the true carbohydrates when the x>ossibility of ordinar}- assimilation is removed by the exclusion of the light. The cereals or Graminea? are especially rich in pentoses, while the Leguminosa' contain smaller quantities. The animal organism partially absorbs and partially expels the X)en- toses. They seem to be intimately connected with the formation of hippuric acid, as the consumption of large quantities of easily digesti- ble pentose is always followed by the appearance of hippuric acid. — "W. H. KRUG. On the relation bet^veen calcium and the transportation of car- bohydrate.=5 in plants, P. Groom {Ann. Bot., 10 {1896), JVo. 37, pp. 91-96). — A brief review is given of the investigations of Boehm, Schimper, and others upon the role of calcium in plants, and experi- ments ot the author are described in which it is shown that the evil effect of a lack of calcium in a plant is due to the accumulation of potassic oxalate. Schimi)er has shown that oxalic acid is a by-product of the sjnithesis of proteids, and where there is no calcium present it unites with potassium, forming a soluble oxalate, which acts as a poison to plants. The author summarizes his results, showing that acid potassium oxalate retards the action of diastase on starch. The i)resence of this substance is first shown by an accumulation of starch, owing to the arrest of its change into sugar. A second effect, as tbe oxalate accu- mulates, is the retarding of starch formation and probably- the assimi- lation of carbon. The death of the protoplasm is the ultimate result of BOTANY. 107 the acciiinulation of the sohible oxalate. Since part of the carbon assiniihited by the plant never enters into the starch condition the reason is evident why the growth of shoots or seedlings is not at once checked when deprived of calcium. Copper as a constituent of vegetables, V. Yedrodi {Chem. Ztg., 20 {180(i), Xo. 10, pp. 399, 100).—T\\Q, author refers to his previous experiments ', and compares the method of analyses with those of Leh- mann^ for the same purpose. lie thinks the latter s method inferior to his own and especially liable to error. Numerous analyses were repeated an.d the results are tabulated. Analyses were made of vari- ous crops in 1S94: and 1805, and the results in percentage of copper oxid are tabulated. The amount of metallic copper in the same seed was calculated in milligrams per kilogram of seed and the following result obtained : Amount of melaUic copper in 1 Ig. of seed. Mini- Maxi- mnm. mum. Winter -n-hcat Spring wheat . Corn Barley Oats Buckwheat. .. Beans Flax Peas So.ja beans Lupines Hemp Pepper pods . , Mg. 80 190 60 80 40 160 160 120 60 70 80 70 790 Mg. 710 630 90 120 190 640 320 150 100 100 190 130 1,350 Mini- Maxi- mum, mum. 210. 200 190 10 10 40 150 110 110 60 70 70 60 230 Mff. 230 30 70 200 160 150 150 110 80 290 70 400 The f )rm in which the copper gets into the plant and its poisonous properties are not known, but the author is disj)0sed to think that the small quantity present will have no injurious effect upon the human or animal system. Preliminary revision of the North American species of Echinocactus, Cereus, and Opuntia, J. M. Coulter ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Botany, Contrihutions from the U. S. Xaiional Herharium, vol. 3, No. 7,X)p. IV, 353-462). —The author has here com- pleted the iireliminary revision of the North American species of Cactacere, the first part having appeared in 1894 as Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, vol. 3, No. 2 (E. S. R., G, p. 190). In the present report there are described 52 species of Echinocactus, 82 of Cereus, and 101 of Opuntia. Of this number many are described as new by the author and many others are published for the lirst time from the nmnuscript of Dr. Engelmann. Notes are also given as to the geographical di3tribution of the species. On the genus Calamagrostis, E. ToRGEO (Mitt. Thnring. hot. Ver., 8 {1895), pp. 1.3-15 ; ahs. in Bot. Cenihl, C? {1S9G), No. 3, p. 5.?).— The author describes several new varieties and hybrids of this genus of grasses. iChem. Ztg., 17 (1893), p. 1932. 2 Arch. Hyg., 24, p. 3. % 108 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Peculiar vrhite flowered varieties of some species of plants, J. Klinges Dent. hot. Monaisschr., 14 (1S96), Xo. 6-7, pp. 75-80). A remarkable variety of Populus tremala, P. Ascherson {Dent. hot. Monats- sclir., 14 {1801]), No. 6-7, pp. 73-75). Three ne"w species of Bursera, J. Ramirez {An. Inst. Med. Xacional, 2 {1896), No. 1, pp. 14-18, pU. 3). — Bursera aptera, B. irijuga, and B. morelense are described and figured from Mexico. A new species of Casimiroa, J. Ramirez {An. Inst. Med. Xacional, ,? {1896), Xo. 1, pp. 18-20, pi. 1). — Casimiroa piihescens is figured and described as new. Contributions to the knovvledge of Puccinia sylvatica and P. sessilis, G. Wagxer (Ber. dent. hot. dcs., 14 {1896), Xo. 6, pp. 212-215). Contributions to the biology of the Myxomycetes, C. Lippert ( Verhandl. zool.- lot. Ges. Jfien, 18DG, Xo. 6, pp. 235-243, pi. 1). On the transformations of Melampsora tremulae, G. Wagner {Oesterr. hot. Ztschr., 46 {1890), pp. 273, 274). The order of development of the parasitic Bxoasceae, K. Giesexhagen (Centhl. Bakf. itud Par. Allg., 2 {1896), Xo. 12, pp. 394, 395). On the formation of calcium oxalate in plants, J. Wittlix {Bot. Centhl., 67 {1896), Xos. 2, pp. 33-41; S,pp. 05-73; 4, pp. 97-102; 5, pp. 129-133, pi. 1). The dependence of plant respiration on the amount of their unassimilable proteids, W. Palladin (Charkow, 1895; ahs. in Bot. Centhl., 67 {1896), Xo. 3, pp. 79-82). Biology of pollen, B. Lidforss {Jahrh. wiss. Bot., 19 {1896), pp. 1-38; ahs. in Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc, 1896, Xo. 4, p. 437). — Attention is called to the difference in degree to which nearly related pollens resist the injurious action of water. In most ane- mophilous plants the pollen resists the action of moisture to a considerable extent. Bark within a tree trunk, F. D. Kelsey {Bot. Gaz., 22 {1896), Xo. 1, p. 54, fig. 1).— Notes are given on the occurrence of a well defined bark on the inside of an elm tree trunk. The physiology of color in plants, D. T. MacDougal {Science, n. ser., 4 {1896), Xo. 89, pp. 350, 351). Concerning the spontaneous emptying of reserve cells, K. Puriewitsch {Ber. dent. hot. Ges., 14 {1806), Xo. 0, pp. 207-212). Some causes of fluctuation in the turgescence in the motor organs of leaves, D. D. CuxNiNGiiAM {Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta, 0 {1895), I, pp. 101, pis. 5; ahs. in Bot. Centhl., 67 {1890), Xo. 5, pp. 141, 142). Concerning the presence and physiological action of lecithins in plants, J. Stoklasa {Bot. Centhl., 67 {1896), Xo. 6, pp. 101, 102). On the influence of earthworms upon the development of plants, M. Djemil {Inaug. Diss. Halle, 1896; ahs. in Bot. Centhl, 67 {1896), Xo. 8, jjp- ^35, 236). Individual variation in flowers and its significance, G, R. B. von Mannagetta (TFien. illus. Gart. Ztg., 21 {1896), Xo. 7, pp. 229-235). Fertilizers and flowers {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), Xo. 446, pp. 361, 56;?).— Edi- torial notes are given on a recent address of Prof. R. C. Kedzie before the American Florists' Association on the application of fertilizers for ilower growth. Adaptation of plants to environment, H. de Varigny {Rev. Scient., ser. 4, 6 (1896), Xo. 5, pp. 140-145). Flowers and insects, C. Robertson {Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., 7 {1896), Xo. 6, pp. 151-179). — Notes are given upon the adaptation for fertilization and insect visitors of Hepatica acntiloha, Asimina triloha, Podophyllum peltatum, Solea concolor, Enonymus atropurpureus, ^Esculus hippocastanum. Astragalus canadensis, A. mexicanus, Stylosantlics elatior, Gymnocladus canadensis, Sjyiraa aruncus, Gillenia stipulacea, Vihur- num opulus, V.puhcscens, Symphoricarpus rulgaris, Aster ericoidea villosus, Silphium per- foliatum, Heliopsis Iwcia, Rudheckia laciniata, and Cacalia rcniformis. In regard to the application of "Nitragin" {Dent, landw. Prcsse, 23 (1896), Xo. 69, pp. 615, 616). — A popular article on the use of the Nobbe and Hiltner's " Nitra- gin." METEOROLOGY. 109 The "nutrition" of the Leguminosae, L, Grandeau (Jour. Af/r. Prat., 60 (189G), II, No. ,3G, Pi). S:J9-3S2). The flora of Alabama, P. H. Mell (Alahama College Sta. Bui. 70, pp. 276-296).— This, bulletin, which is oue of ;i series to be devoted to the same subject, gives a list of species of Leguminosio aud Rosace;e with their range throughout the State so far as known. The series is to be continued as material accuniulatos without reference to botanical sequence of families. Contribution to tlie Myxogasters of Maine, F. L. Hauvey {Torreij Bui., 2S {1S9G), Xo. S, pp. 307-314). Notes on Indian fungi {Agl. Ledger, 1S95, No. 20, pp. 132, pis. 2, figs. 11). Capsicum, potatoes, and some other economic Solanaceee of India, Y. Ghosa {Indian Agr., 21 {1S06), No. 7, pp. 209-212). A horizontal microscope, C. R. Barnes (Bat. Gaz., 22 (1896), No. 1, pp. 55, 56, pi. 1). — A description is given of a horizontal microscope devised by the author for the measurement of the vertical growth of plants. METEOROLOGY. Injury from frost and methods of protection, W. H. Hammon {U. S. Dept. Agy., Weather Bureau, pp. 12). — The conditions favoring the formation of frost are popularly explained and the best locations for orchards or gardens to avoid injury by frost and methods of frost prevention are described, especially with a view to the needs of the agriculturists of California. The use of the psychrometer in deter- mining the dew-point is explained, with tables giving the dew-point corresponding to dii^erent readings and temj)eratures likely to prove injurious to 43 farm crops at 4 different stages of growth. "The experience of the past two seasons has shown that forecasts of sudden and decided changes in temperature over a large territory are among the most accurate made by the Weather Bureau ; consequently it is reasonable to expect that if suit- able arrangements are made warnings may be received of those otherwise unex- pected cool waves which will result in frost. There are instances, however, when the general forecasts of the Weather Bureau can not be expected to .be sufficiently speciiic to provide for the different conditions that may prevail in various sections. . . . "It is, therefore, necessary that the orchardist and gardener be able to judge, at times, for themselves when danger from frost is imminent. For this purpose they should be provided with a wet and dry bulb hygrometer or psychrometer, by which the dew-point of the air can be deiterniined. "If, in the afternoon, the dew-point is near the critical temperature, arrangements should Ije made for protecting, if necessary. If, at a later hour, the dew-point is constant or lower, the sky clear or clearing, and the air calm, it is reasonable to expect that the temperature will fall to the dew-point during the night. The efforts to protect should be based on this dew^-point. If it merely approximates the danger point (and no warning of more severe temperatures has been received) but little protection will be necessary, and action may be delayed until the temperature is but a few degrees above the danger point. However, if the dew-point be several degrees below that liable to cause injury, or if it be falling, or if a change for the colder is anticipated, efforts to protect should be undertaken earlier. The ground should be irrigated during the day, smudge fires started when the temperature is several degrees above the critical point, and, if the temperature contiuues to fall, the fires should be sprayed until dense fog or mist envelopes the entire space. If the tem- perature should then fall to the danger point, the trees aud plants should be thor- oughly sprayed, at the same time keeping up the smudge and vaporizing fires. 110 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "It would seeiii tlint these precautious Khould 1)0 sufficient to prevent injury, unless it l>o in tlie case of narrow valleys, where the cold nir from the unprotected hillsides displaces that which has been kept warm, and, should Avind-breaks be ionnd successful in removing this danger, it is believed that there are few, if any, loialities where injury could not be avoided." Departiiresj from normal temperature and rainfall, v^rith crop yie'ds, in Nebraska, H. U. C. Dunwoody ( U. S. I)ept. Afjr., Weather Bureau, pp. 30, charts 10). — This is a series of diagrams accompanied by explanatory notes "exhibiting the departures from normal tempera- tare and rainfall, and also the variations from the average yield of corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay in ^Nebraska for each year from 1880 to 1895, inclusive. . . . "In the construction of the diagrams, data have been used from 8 stations so distributed as to best represent the actual conditions which existed over the central and eastern portions of the State, the most important agricultural districts. "With records presented in this form, the farmer may compare the current weather conditions, as the season .advances, with the corre- sponding periods of previous years, and thus be enabled to determine some time in advance of harvest the i)robable effect upon his crops." Climate and Health, W. F. R. Phillips ( U. S. Ihpi. Afjr-, Wcaihcr Bureau, Climate and HeaUh, ;? ( IS96), No. 1, pp. 3J, charts 14). — "Climate and Health is intended to be a repertory of statistical and other information appertaining to climatology and its relations to hygiene, from which persons interested in the subject of the influence of climate and weather upon health may obtain data for making comjiarisons to deter- mine the relative therapeutic and hygienic merits of dili'erent climates, for the prose- cution of original researches, and whatever other uses and purposes to which they may find the inibrmatiou applicable . . . "This number contains cliraatologic, morbidity, and mortality statistics for the 5 calendar weeks emljraced between December 29, 1895, and February 1, 1896, inclusive. The climatologic statistics are taken from reports of the regular stations of the Weather Bureau, and the morbidity and mortality statistics from special reports con- tributed by physicians and health officers directly to the Weather Bureau." A scientific lightning rod, W. A. Anthony (Rural New Yorker, 55 {1896), No. 2432, p. 597). — The author recommends for a ground connection in moist earth a plate of copper or galvanized iron iiresentiiig a surface of 6 or 8 sq. ft., with the end of the rod wired and firmly soldered to it. The rod itself would best be a cable of copper or galvanized ii'on wire. Size of conductor will depend on exposure and surroundings. For an isolated building on au elevation, with no trees near, -^ in. gahanized iron cables would suffice, and enough of them should be used to furnish an ample path for any possible discharge. They should all be connected, the sharp points of the upper end extending above chimneys. No insulators should be used. Meteorological observations, L. Metcalf and J. L. Bartlett (Mafisachiisells Hatch Sta. Mit. Jiuh. S8 and SO, pp. 4 each). — The usual summary of observations at the meteorological observatory of the station during April and j\Iay, 189(5. Monthly Weather Revievsr {U. S. Dept. A(jr., Weather Ilureau, Montlih/ Weather Review, 23 {1895), Nos. 10, pp. 365-407, charts 6; 11, pp. 409-44S, charts 7,Ji(js. 9; 12, •pp. 449-487, charts 7, pi. 1). — Besides the usual summnries of observations at over 2,500 stations, No. 10 contains special articles upon the earthquake of October 31, 1895, by C. F. Marvin; ])hotographing lightning by daylight, by A. .1. Henry; and notes by the editor on the great storm of October, 1896, in the Gulf of California, WATER SOILS. Ill timo reckoning, drougbts find the Aveatlier in distant regions, the extent of a local rain, lightning flashes by pairs, the nor'wcsters of Canterbury, and the movement of thunderstorms against the wind. No. 11 contains an article on weather types of the north Pncitic Slope by B. S. Pagne, an illustrated description by C. F. Marvin of a kite used in observations by the Bureau, auar excellence for fall application. FIELD CROPS. 117 Fertilizer experiments -with Bremer poudrette, Schultz-Lupitz {Mitt. deut. latuhc. Ces., II {1S!K), Xo. m, p. 100). The use of commercial fertilizers on w^inter grain, voN Bousmann (.Fiihlijig's laudw. Zig., 45 {1S9G), No. 17, pp. 545-549). Commercial fertilizers, C. A. Goessmann (Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Bui. 38, pp. 3-11). — A brief general discussion ou fertilizers is given, with notes on valuation and analyses of 24 samples of fertilizing materials, including cotton-hull ashes, cotton- seed uieal, lir.seed meal, bone, Florida soft phosphate, ashes from garbage crematory, soft coal ashes, cotton waste, card waste, a liquid fertilizer, sheep fertilizer, and hen manure. Analyses of commercial fertilizers, T. J. Edge and W. Frear (Pennsylvania Bcpt. A(jr. Bid. 11, pp. 31). — This includes the text of the State fertilizer law, notes on valuation, and tabulated analyses and valuations of 257 fertilizers collected in Pennsylvania during the period from January 1 to August 1, 1896. Analyses of commercial fertilizers (South Carolina Sta. Bui. 24, n. scr., pp. 15). — This includes a statement of commercial values of raw materials during the season of 1895-'96, and tabulated analyses and valuations of 109 samples of fertilizing materials, including acid phosphate, cotton-seed meal, kainit, and mixed fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers, B. H. Hite ( West Virginia Sta. Bui. 40, pp. /55-W-5).— This bulletin describes the different forms of phosphoric acid, explains briefly the value and management of farm manure, makes suggestions regarding the selection and valuation of fertilizers, gives the text of the State fertilizer law, and reports analyses of 317 fertilizing materials collected during 1894 and 1895. Report of Oerebro Chemical Station and Seed-Control Station for 1894, J. "Widen (Oerchro (Sivcden): 1895, pp. 48). — The report contains the usual accounts of chemical and seed control work performed during the year. The following aver- age analyses of fertilizers are given: Superphosphates (26 samples): Water-soluble PjOs 19.10 per cent (18.13 to 20.17), citrate and water-soluble P.O., 20.21 per cent (19.85 to 21.04); Thomas slag (18 samples): Total P>0, 18.18 per cent (16.09 to 21.06), citrate-soluble (Wagner's method) 13,90 per cent (11.23 to 15.93), fine meal Sr>.42 per cent (79.40 to 91.90) ; kali-magnesia (10 samples) : K.O 14.86 per cent (13.72 to 17.22); Icainit (5 samples) : K:0 12.74 per cent (12,25 to 13.39). — r. w. woll. FIELD CEOPS, Experiments on the variation in Hanna barley grown in differ- ent places, VON Liebenberci {31itt. Ver. Ford, landiv. Versuchsio. Oestcrr., Id {1895), No. ^, i)iJ. 81-100). — Among- the points covered by the investigation were the weight per bushel, weight of 1,000 kernels, percentage of husk, character of the endosperm, content of protein and of extract. The author says that the results corroborate those of earlier experi- ments, and it can be safely stated that with a heavy weight per bushel go a greater weight per kernel, a smaller percentage of husk, a richer content of extract, and finally a greater yield. The velvet bean, O. Clute (Florida Sta. Bui. 35, pp. 340-345). — This bean was planted on a poor soil at distances of 1 foot in 3-foot rows. The vines grow from 10 to 20 feet long, yielding at the rate of 10,080 lbs. green forage per acre. The thick and leathery pods con- tained from 3 to 5 large beans irregularly colored with purplish and brownish patches. 118 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. All analysis showing food constituents is given. In trials by two otber cultivators the velvet beau is reported as val- uable for green manuring iu orange groves and for fet-diiig to horses and cattle. Flax, W. Saunders {Canada Exptl. Farms Bui. 25, pp. 11, figs. 3). — This bulletin treats of the culture of flax, the amount and value of the flax crop in Manitoba and the United States, flax growing in Ontario for fiber, and of the exhaustion of the soil produced by the flax crop. The author states that "the diflereuce in exhaustive effect of these several crops [wheat, oats, and flax] on a rich soil would scarcely be perceptible, and would not justify the opinion that flax is a very exhausting croi>." When grown for fiber, flax is pulled at a cost of $4 to $5 per acre, the yield of fibei' averaging li tons, and of grain 8 to 9 bu. per acre. The average yield in Manitoba when grown for seed in 1895 was 15^ bu. per acre. Experiments -with lupines and. other nitrogen gatherers, B. Lar- SEN {Tidsskr. norslie Landbr., 3 {1896), pp. 8ti-96). — Experiments with lupines and other nitrogen-gathering plants were made on several Nor- wegian farms. The effect on potatoes and oats of a preceding lupine crop, either harvested or plowed under, and with or without ai)plica- tion of commercial fertilizers, was studied during 1895. Poor, sandy soil, uumauured for a number of years, was selected for the tests. All of the 7 potato plats received an application of superphosphate and basic slag, and in addition nitrate and carbonate of potash, singly or combined, were applied on 4 plats, on 3 of which a crop of lupines was plowed under; on 1 plat without potassic fertilizers the entire lupine crop, on another the roots and stubble only, were turned under. The 7 plats of oats were treated in a somewhat similar manner. The data are tabulated. The results indicate that the supply of nitrogen furnished by the crop of lupines plovred under was not sufficient to meet the requirements of the potatoes, since an additional allowance of nitrate of potash increased the yields obtained. Infection experiments with lupine soil were made at 2 substations. Soil on which lupines had grown successfully was carted on to the land in quantities varying from 132 to 396 bu. per acre. The results are tabulated. The author considers 264 bu. per acre of lupine-infected soil ample to obtain a good stand of lupines, and 132 bu. will often prove sufficient. As the cheapest and most effective method of infecting a field to be sown to lupines the author recommends when sowing oats to add a small amount of lupine seed a year or two before growing lupines exclusively on the land. In another experiment during 1895 oats, vetches, j^eas, and lupines were grown with and without fertilizers on land a portion of which was treated with lupine soil. The results are tabulated. The author concludes that lupine infec- FIELD CROPS. 119 tioii floes not aid tlie other legumes nor oats in tlieir growth, while lupines gave a materially increased yield in all cases where lupine soil was added to the plats. These data indicate tliat the different legu- minous plants reipiire ditierent symbiotic bacteria tor their growth. — F. W. WOLL. Experiments on pasture in 1896, E. K. {Agl. Students^ Gaz., n. ser., 8 {1896), No. l.pp. 15-17). — On 20 twentieth-acre ])lat3 r;!pe meal, basic slag, farmyard manure, sodium nitrate, kainit, guano, superphos- phates, and ammonium sulphate were apidied alone or in combiuatious of 2 and 3. The manures were applied at dates between January and May. The composition of some of the fertilizers and the yields i^er acre are given. The average yield of all the plats was nearly 1 ton per acre. Mineral manures alone or nitrate of soda alone gave no increase or but a very slight one. Where mixtures of mineral and nitrogenous manures were applied the yields were greater. Usually ammonium sulphate gave better results than nitrate of soda. Gener- ally the more complex the manure or the mixture the better the result on the first crop. Comparative trial of oats, G. Vaalder [Agl. Ga~. N. 8. Wales, 7 (1896), No. 3, irp. 135, 130). — An account is given of a test at the Wagga Wagga experiment farm of 31 varieties of American oats for hay and grain. The seed was grown from oats obtained at the Chicago Exposi- tion. White Baltic gave the largest yield per acre of hay, 2 tons 1 cwt., followed by Carter Prize Cluster, Early Dakota, and Early Egyptian, I ton IG cwt. each. The largest yield of grain was made by Early Eed Texas, 77 bu. and 15 lbs. per acre (10 lbs. per bushel), followed by lied Rust Proof, Texas Eust Pi oof. White Bonanza, and Pringle Progress. The average yield of the 31 varieties was 38 bu. per acre. Field experiments on oats (Agl. StndenW Gaz., n. ser., 7 {1896), No. 6, pp. 211-218). — In the trial 21 tenth-acre plats were used. Three hundred pounds of kainit, 300 lbs. mineral superphosphates, 131 and 175 lbs. ammonium sulphate, 150 and 200 lbs. of sodium nitrate per acre were applied alone, and in combinations of 2 and 3; one plat received 7 and one 11 tons of barnyard manure ])er acre, and one remained un manured. The plats were plowed in February and sown April 10 to Black Tar- tarian oats. The rainfall for May and June was below the average. The yields are tabulated. The smallest yield, averaging 29^ bu. per acre, was from plats receiving mineral superphosphate and kainit; the highest yield (55^ bu.) was from the plats receiving kainit, superphos- phate, and mineral nitrogen, followed by the plats which had received II tons per acre of barnyard manure every year since 18G5. The aver- age yield of all the plats was equivalent to 10^ bu. of grain and 1,975 lbs. of straw i)er acre, 23 bu. less than the previous year and less thau one-half the yield of straw. 5096— No. 2 3 120 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. On a special method of planting potatoes, C. Allier {Prog. Agr. et Vit, 13 (1896), No. 5^ pp. 121-129).— T\n& is a eontiniiatiou iu 1895 of work carried on iu 1892, 1893, and 1894. The following methods were compared: (1) Potatoes, large and small, were cut into pieces weigh- ing 15 to 40 gm., with oue or two eyes to the piece, aud the cuttings planted 10 cm. (about 4 in.) apart in the row; (2) whole tubers of medium size were plauted 50 cm. (about 20 in.) apart in the row; and (3) small whole tu.bers weighing 20 to 40 gm. were planted at 10 cm. in the row. In all cases the rows were GO cm. (about 2 ft.) apart. The preparation of the soil, the manure, the depth of planting, and the cultivation were the same as in the ordinary methods. The results of experiments at the station and of cooperative experi- ments of a similar character in different parts of France are tabulated and discussed. The author states that the largest yield was produced by the small tubers planted closely, a gain of 45 per cent over the yield of medium tubers at 50 cm. iu the row; aside from this the largest yield with each of the 8 varieties tested was produced by the 1-eye pieces. The cuttings gave a profit with all the varieties except one; the largest profit came from the small tubers closely planted, the gain over medium sized tubers being valued at G33 francs per hectare. The results of the cooperative trials were of the same import. In conclusion the author recommends a trial of the method of plant- ing 1 and 2 eye pieces at 10 cm. distance, in comparison with the regular methods. Concerning the influence of the starch content of the potato on the amount and quality of the yield, H. IIitier {Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), J, No. 18, pp. 657, 658).— Iu his experiments in 1892 A. Girard indicated clearly that the starch content of the seed tubers had no influence on the yield. Beside cultural methods and meteorological conditions 3 factors take part in the production of large yields of potatoes — the hereditary quali- ties of the plant, its weight, and its content of substances capable of nourishing the young plant. Girard plauted 53 lots of 2 tubers; each two were taken from the same hill, were of nearly equal weight but of different specific gravity, and were subjected to like conditions of soil and culture. In 15 cases only the tubers richest in starch gave the largest yields; in 20 cases the opi^osite result was obtained. In 1894, from 30 lots on trial, similar results were had. In 1894 the middle row of 3 under trial was dug when partly grown, and all parts of the plants were weighed and analyzed; at the same time from one of the remaining 2 rows the seed tubers were carefully removed. When planted the seed tubers contained 13.83 per cent of starch and 2.09 per cent of nitrogenous substances; when removed they contained 4.56 and 0.99 x)er cent, respectively. The yield of the unmo- lested row was 7.336 kilos; of the row from which the seed tubers had FIELD CROPS. 121 been removed^ 7.222 kilos. The tubers in the former contained 11.16 per cent of starch, in the hitter 11.8 i)er cent. Some of these potatoes had consumed 13 per cent of the starch in the seed; others 9 i^er cent. The author conchides that the starch content of the seed tuber has no effect on either the amount or starch content of the yiekl. Potato experiments, M. A. Scovell and 0. W. Mathews {Ken- tiiely Sta. Buh 61, pp. 3-13, 36-42). — These experiments are in con- tinuation of previous work reported in Bulletin 55 of the station (E. S. E., 7, p. 201). Tests u-ith fertilizers (pp. 3-13). — The potatoes used for seed were uortheru-gTown Early Rose; these were immersed for A hour in a solu- tion of corrosive sublimate, 3i oz. to 30 gals, of water. The fertilizers were scattered by hand in the row, and slightly mixed with the soil before planting. Nitrate of soda, muriate of i)otash, and acid phosphate were used singly and in combinations of 2 and 3. The data are tabu lated. The author concludes that both potash and nitrogen are needed for potatoes on the soil under experiment. In a similar cooperative experiment reported, phosphoric acid seemed to be the element needed. Varieties of potatoes (pi). 36-42). — Of the 241 varieties tested, about 2 lbs. each were cut into 20 pieces of nearly even size; these were planted Aj^ril 15 in drills about 4 in. deep, pieces 16 in. apart in the row. Each variety occuiiied 80 sq. ft. The seed previous to i^lanting was treated with a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 part to 1000 of water. The yields are tabulated. Potatoes, L. Foster {Montana Sta. Bui. 9, pp. 3-22). — By way of introduction the methods of potato culture emj)loyed by several farmers in the State are given. May 10 and 11, 52 varieties of potatoes were planted on fall-plowed land, the seed pieces being dropped 13 in. apart in 3-foot rows and covered 4 in. deep. One irrigation was given when the potatoes were in bloom. The yields are tabulated. Potatoes were planted at depths of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, S, and 10 in. There was a constant decrease in yield with increase of depth. In a comparison of hills vs. drills, drills gave the larger yields. In a trial of seed cut 5 days before planting vs. seed freshly cut, the larger yields were obtained from the latter. Potatoes, L. C. Coijbett {^¥cst Virginia Sta. BuL 41, pp. 190-206, fig. 1). — Horse manure and lime, alone or in combination, were used on the manured portions of the land on which 35 varieties of potatoes were grown in 1894 and 62 varieties in 1895. The results are tabu- lated. Twenty-one of the 35 varieties produced larger yields in 1895 than in 1894; the 14 varieties showing a falling off in 1895 were mainly those most promising in 1894. Only 4 of the 35 varieties maintained an average yield of 170 bu. i)er acre during both seasons. In treating the seed the advantage of using corrosive sublimate without lime and Bordeaux mixture with lime is spoken of. The lime 122 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. converts the corrosive sublimate iuto an oxid, wLicli is of no value as an insecticide. Tabulated data are /Aiven of yields in a cooperative test of potatoes. Studies of Norwegian potatoes of the crop of 1895, J. Sebelien {Xorsk Landinanshlad, 15 {1896), pp. 157-161). — Ninety-three sam])les of potatoes from CA localities were examined by the author during 1895. Twenty-six samples contained 13.9 per cent of starch or less, 19 11 to 15 per cent, 17 15.1 to 16 i^er cent, 23 16.1 to 17 per cent, and 8 over 17 per cent. The highest starch content obtained was 20.1 per cent. About oae-third of the samples received were Magnum Bonum potatoes. Experiments at Kalnaes Agricultural College gave results indicating a very beneficial influence from Bordeaux mixture, both on the yield and the quality of the potatoes grown (Magnum Bonum), shown as follows : Effect of Bordemix mixture on potatoes. Date of plant- Date of dig- ging- June 6 ; Sept. 28. MaySl Oct. 2... MaySl Oct. 3... May31 Oct. 3... Times treated. rSieldpert Starch I acre. content. Pounds. Not treated ' 1 , 426 Not treated ' 2, IIG Treated once I 2, 499 Treated twice 2,858 Per cent. Below IH. 9 14.3 14.5 16.3 -F. W. WOLL. A Study of the fertilizing materials used by the sugar beet, W. SCHNEIDEWIND and H. C. MuLLEB {Jour. JaouIw., 44 {1890), Xo. l,pp. 1-30). — The authors treat the subject under the following heads: The ash content of the sugar beet; the ash content of the leaves; the func- tion of potavsh and soda, lime, magnesia, phosphoric acid, chlorin, the plant acids, and nitrogen in the plant. Tabulated data show for the different varieties under trial, both when kainit was applied and when not, the sugar yield, iierceutage of sugar in the beet, percentage of ash, and the eflect of the application of kainit on the content of nitrogen, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, phosplioric acid, and chlorin; also the effect of irrigation, and the composition of the dry substance. In conclusion the authors state that the ash content of the sugar beet has diminished under cultivation, since a high sugar content cor- responds with a low ash content. The ash content of the leaves has not been influenced. The ash and nitrogen contents stand in inverse ratio to the sugar con- tent. The potash content of the beets and leaves was increased by an application of potash; and a corresponding effect upon the soda con- tent was produced by an application of soda. Natural sugar in tobacco {Eew Misc. Bui., 1896, No. 110, pp. 49-55). — In connection with the duty on tobacco in England an investigation was made by H. Miller as to the sugar content of the dried and green FIELD CROPS. 123 leaves. The presence of sugar in fresh tobacco was first ascertained by J. Nessler.i At the wholesale houses 12 samples were selected from the original packages; these were all of a pale color and, except the Virginia, Ken- tucky, and Algerian, were known in the trade as "sun-dried" tobacco. The following- is a list of the varieties with the percentages of sugar found: Algerian, none; Kentucky, none; Greek, a trace; Turkish, 2.3; Syrian, 2.8; Chinese, 3.5; Virginia leaf, 3 samples, 5.4, 7.2, and 9.8; Bright Virginia, 3 samples, lO.G, 12.5, and 15.2 per cent. A repetition of the experiment confirmed the above results. The samples of green leaves from Kew analyzed were from 10 varieties of 2 principal species, Nicotiana tabacum and JS^. rustica, "the former being the one chiefly cultivated in America, whilst the latter seems to furnish most of the Oriental tobaccos." The fol- lowing list contains the names of the varieties and the percentages of sugar found: Nicotiana texana var. rustica, 1.5; Shiraz, 4.0; N. rustica, 4; N'. tabacum var. rirginiana, 2.3; Maryland tobacco, 5; N. tabacum, 6.2; Bhilsa tobacco, 3.5; JSf. tabacum var. atteniiata, 3.2; N.gigantea,4:.2; N. macrophyJla purjnirea, 4.5. The author says: "Although I have in the foregoing shown that a very considerable quantity of saccharine matter may be present in certain kinds of tobacco as a natural constituent, I had no means of proving that so large an amount as 15 per cent (the (luantity I found in the best Bright Virginia leaf) was produced by the plant itself." He found that in the yellow tobacco the amount of matter soluble in water varied within small limits, and concludes that " the addition of even a small percentage of sugar to tobaccos of this class would upset the average proportion of soluble and insoluble matter, unless a pro- portionate amount of soluble matter had been previously removed." Experiments •with -wheat, oats, and fertilizers {An. Rpt. School Agy., Stellenbosch ; reprinted in AgJ.Jour. Cape Colony, 9 {1896), JSfo. 10, pp. 238-240). — Variety tests were made with wheat. Smith Nonpareil, Fluorspar, Anglo- Australian, Pringle Defiance, and Marshall No. 22 were satisfactory. Stable manure proved to be a much more economical fertilizer than artificial potato manure. Artificial manures applied to crops cultivated duHng the growing season only proved remunerative with copious irrigation. Notes on the threshing of -wheat, N. A. Cobb {Agl. Gaz. N. 8. Wales, 7 {1896), No. 4, pp. 204-208).— In 1893 36 varieties, in 1894 460 varieties, and in 1895 nearly 1,000 varieties were tested. Bags con- taining a given quantity of heads received a uniform number of blows, when the contents were emptied and the results determined. The nature of the chaft' determines the ease or difficulty of thresh- ing. If it clings closely to the grain, the wheat threshes hard. Lists 'Der Tabac, seine Bestandtheile und seine Beliandlung. Mannheim: 1867. 124 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. are given of 8 wheats that thresh very easily, 7() th^lt thresh easily, 88 rather easily, 104 rather hard, 42 hard, and G very hard. The author concludes as follows : The hard or maccaroni wheats, of which Medeah and Belotourka may be taken as types, are harder to thresh than the soft wheats. The Poulard wheats, of which the Alge- rian and Mummy may be taken as types, also thresh with greater difficulty than the soft wheats. Weak straw and earliness or lateness of ripening are of no value as an indication of ease in threshing. Yel- vet-chaffed wheats, whether bearded or beardless, thresh harder than the corresponding smooth-chaffed sorts. Wheats with crowded heads are generally harder to thresh, other things being equal. Red-chaffed wheats, with few exceptions, are easier to thresh than white-chaffed sorts. Bearded Avheats, other things being equal, are easier to thresh than beardless sorts. Crop conditions at Stend Agricultural School, Norway, 1886- 1895, O. Sandberg [Landmandsvennen. 3 {1895), jpp. 138-140). — The school is located at Stend, near Bergen, Xorway (latitude 60° 24' N., longitude 5'^ 18' E.j. The following summary shows the dates of sow- ing and harvesting barley and oats, amount of seed used, yields obtained, etc.: Average data for barley and oat culture in iSTorway were as follows : Date of sowing/oats May 5, barley May 6] germinating period, oats 12 days, barley 8 days; date of harvesting, oats September 4, barley August 14; growing period, oats 119 days, barley 111 days; amount of seed sown, oats 0.53 bu., barley 0.57 bu.; yield per acre, oats 52.8 bu., barley 39,2 bu. — f. w. woll. On recent breeding of cultivated agricultural plants (Braunschw. landw. Ztii., 64 (1896), Xo. 34, 2>P- 1S9, 140). — The .author describea his experience in increasing the productive capacity of wheat by improved methods of culture and by cross-fertili- zation. In tlie latter case he used a square head variety as the staminate parent for crossing with the ordinary varieties of German wheat. Alfalfa, flat pea, and sachaliue, O. Clute {Florida Sta. Bui. 3.5, j^p- 351-354). — Alfalfa sown ou sandy land, well fertilized, jjroved a failure. Sowings of the flat pea (Laihi/rits sylresfris) also failed. A planting of sachaline {Polygonum sack alinense) grew vigorously. The foliage was readily eaten by stock. Beets at the experiment station at Capelle, F. Desprez {Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), II, No. 34, pp. :J74, 275). Caflaigre (Rumex hymenosepalus), O. Clute {Florida Sta. Bui. 35, pp. 349-351). — An account of tlie planting and growth at the station of a few roots of canaigre. The seed ripened in May. Prickly comfrey (Symphytum oflBcinale), O. Clute {Florida Sta. Bui. 35, pp. 345, 346). — A few roots were planted in the spring of 1895, and grew well; the leaves were green all winter. The roots are fleshy and run deej) into the soil. The plant does very well ou light lands. Stock learn to be fond of the leaves. Corn and the sorghums, F. D. Coburn {Ept. Kansas State Bd. Agr., March 31, 1896, pp. 232). — This is a popular pamphlet treating of corn, its cultivation, hand- ling, utilization, cost, and values, more especially from a Kansas standpoint; the' sorghums, their cultivation and value for grain and forage, estimated by Kansas growers and feeders, and a report of the twenty-lifth annual meeting of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture. FIELD CROPS. 125 Experiments with foreign cotton, 1*. II. Mell {Alahama CoUefje Stci. Bid. 71, pp. 299-307). — Begiiniiug iu 1893 the station Las been experimenting with foreign varie- ties of cotton. T\Yenty-ono varieties were grown in 1895, 5 of which were Mexican, and the remainder from Egypt and India. A list of varieties and a botanical classi- fication of cotton are given. Cotton, its cultivation and fertilization, A. A. Persons {Floridn Sta. Bui. 32, pp. 20 1-204). —T\\\ii is a popnlar article on the planting, mannriug, and cnltivation of cotton. Cotton, P. N. Laiiiui {Indian Agr., 21 {1S96), Xo. 7, p. 202).— X popnlar article on cotton raising in India. Report on certain Indian fibers, F. A. Abel {A(j1. Ledger, 1S9G, No. 6, p. 3). — This article treats of Hibiscus ahclmoschus, Malachra capitata, and Abroma angusta. • Concerning jute, F. Ritter von Hoiinel (Seliriften Ver. Verbreit.naturw. Kennt. JVien, 3-', {1S95), pp. 31-60; abs.in Bot. Centbl. Beihefie, G {1896), No. 2-3, pp. 20S, 209).— Jute is produced from several nearly related sorts of Corchorus, especially C. cap- sularis. The ditl'erent species of Corchorns grow to a Leight of 4 to 6 meters and fnrnish the longest of all bast fibers. They require a moist climate and high tem- perature for their development, liengal produces about four-fifths of all the jute grown in the world. The yield in P.engal averages 1,500 kg. per hectare. Kafir corn, C. C. Geokgeson ( U. S. Depi. Agr., Farmers' Bid. 37, pp. 11, fig. i).— This is a popnlar bulletin treating of the characteristics, culture, uses, and varieties of Kaiir corn; of the soils and climate adapted to it; preparation of the soil; methods of seeding, cultivation, and harvesting; of the yield and composition; and of practi- cal feeding tests with the grain. Kafir corn yields best on rich land, and is-es]iecially adapted to the regions in the semiarid West, where corn succeeds only ouce iu 5 oi- 6 years. So far experiments have not shown the grain to be equal to corn as food. Millet, G. Yaalder {AgJ. Ga~. N. S. Wales, 7 {1S9G), No. 3, pp. 132-135, pis. 5).— Notes are given on the growth at the Wagga Wagga experiment farm of 7 varieties of millet. German millet (Salzer Dakota) yielded at 3 cuttings 10 tons aud 13 cwt., and Pearl millet 18 tons and 5 cwt. of green fodder per acre. Irish potatoes, C. L. Newman {Arkansas Sta. Bui. 38, pp. 16). — This is a popu- lar article on potato raising, including selection and preparation of the soil, manures and fertilizers, planting, cultivation, varieties, digging, and marketing lor both spring and fall grown potatoes; also remarks on potato scab, blight, and rot, and the potato l)eetle. Recent observation on the cutting of potato tubers, A. Girard {Anti. Sci. Agron., ser. 2, 1 {1S9G), No. 3, pp. 42S-430). — The system of Allier of planting single eyes was compared with that of planting whole tubers. The hitter gave a gain of 47 per cent in weight over the former. Recent investigations on the influence of the starch content of potatoes on the crop, A. Girard {Ann. Sci. Agron., ser. 2, 1 {1896), No. 3, pp. 440-452). — As a result of his investigations the author concludes that it is not worth while to sort out the tubers richest in starch for planting. Improvement of potato culture, A. Girard {Ann. Sci. Agron., ser. 2,1 {1896), No. 3, pp. 453-4GG). — A report of cooperative trials. Eighty-seven yields are tabulated for 1894 and 1895. Ramie in Jamaica {Bui. Bot. Dept. Jamaica, n. ser., 3 {1896), No. 7, pp. 149-151). Rice cultivation in Tennessee {From Northern Agriculturist; Sugar Cane, 28 {1896), No. 225, i)p. 4.'1, 4..'?). — An account of the successful growing of rice in the overflowed and unreclaimed land along the ilississippi. Experiments with seed mixtures of rye and oats, voN Liebenberg {Mitt. Ver. Filrd. landw. Versurhsw. Oesterr., 10 {1895), No. 2, pp. 122-127). — On 13 plats oats were sown alone, and with 10, 30, and 50 per cent of barley added. The mixture yielded more grain and less straw than the pure oats. The differences in the yields of the mixtures were insignificant. 126 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The culture of wheat on a loam soil, L. Grandeau {Jour. Agr. Prat., 6G (IS96), II, No. 35, pp. ,290-300). — An accouut of experiments at Jomnielieres ^vitli aiiplica- tions on wheat of superphosphates, and increasing amounts of chlorid of potash and nitrate of soda; also phosphatic slag. Ko delinitc results were obtained. The spontaneous combustion of hay and its prevention, I^. Hapke (Abhandl. Naiurio. Ver. Bremen, 13 {1895), No. 2, pp. 337-341; als. in Bot. Cenfbl Beiheffe, 6 {1896), No. 2-3, p. 214). — Spontaneous combustion is more common in damp liay than in dry. If the inner temperature rises above 122° F., or smoke appears, application of water is the only remedy. The bacteria which cause spontaneous combustion are aerobic, and as far as possible access of air to the attected mow or stack should be prevented. A study of rotations, A. Preiss {Deni. Jaudw. Bresse, 23 {1806), Nos. 69, pp. 612, 61^; 71, p. 030, dfjin. 1; 72, p. 640). — The rotations recommended are for the climates of Germany and for the difl'erent sorts of soils and cultures practiced there. Report on field experiments for the year 1895 {Agl. Dept. Vniversitij College, Nortit Waha, pp. 40). — A report on coijperative experiments carried on at nearly 40 centers situated in 5 difiPcrent counties, embracing about every variety of soil. These exjieriments "are not usually arranged with the object of discovering some- thing absolutely new, but meant rather to act as object lessons." The experiments reported enjl)ra(c fertilizer tests on turnips, meadows, and pastures, and on seeding to oats and to grass. Cultural experiments instituted by the Schleswig-Holstein Agricultural Society in 1893-'95, Tancrk {Landw. Wochenhl. Schles.-Eolst., 46{1896), Nos. 18, pp. 271-270; ID, pp. 292-295). — In trials with catch crops and forage crops, white mus- tard, oil rape, crimson clover, sand vetch, lupines, and serradelhi were grown. As a plant for gathering nitrogen and enriching the soil serradella is of particular aihantage when preceding grain crops or potatoes. The author discusses the manurial requiremeuts of the potato crop for that region, and mentions the constant degeneracy of varieties of potatoes and the con- tinual need of replacing the failing varieties with established and fruitful ones of recent breeding. In a variet,v test the 6 varieties producing largest yields were Early May Queen, Magnum Bonum, Costernitzer, Saxonia, Buntkopfige, and Prof. Maercker. Burdwan experimental farm ( Indian Agr., 21 {1896), No. 4, j>p. 108-110). — The farm consists of 21 ;ures of sandy loam. In a series of fertilizer trials in which cow manure, castor cake, bone meal, and nitrate of potash were used the highest yields per acre were as follows : Winter rice, 4,673 lbs., and rice straw, 6,377 lbs., from an application of bone meal and nitrate of ])ota8h; and jute, 1,721 lbs., from an applica- tion of cow manure. The largest return of sugar on 6 twelfth-acre plats of sugar cane followed an a])plication uf bone meal. The largest yield of potatoes, 19,030 lbs. per acre, grew where cow manure had been a])plied. The potatoes were remark- ably good in quality. Seebpore experimental farm {Indian Agr., 21 {1890), No. 4, pp. 110-112). — The farm consists of 26 acres of heavy alluvial loam. In a potato experiment on 8 tenth-acre plats, 3 were green manured with dhainche {Sesbania uctdeata), 3 with castor cake, and the remainder with the two preceding combined; these were planted to potatoes in the last part of November. The crop was gathered in March. The doubly manured ]ilats gave the largest yields, followed by those to which castor cake had been applied. In an experiment with castor cake rs. crude ])otassic nitrate on cabbages the largest returns were from api)lications of the former. An experiment in rattoouing the khari sugar cane was successful, the yield of cane the fourth year being 4,742 lbs. per acre. By rattoouing the canes became harder each year. Oats, sorghum, teosinte, and guinea grass gave profitable returns as fodder crops. HORTICULTURE. 127 Cawnpore experimental farm (Indian A;/)-., 21 {ISOG), No. 4, pp. J06-10S). — The farm, consisting of Hl.oo acres, is situated abont 3 miles southwest of Cawnpore city. It has special facilities for irrigation. The soil is a light reddish loam. A fertilizer test with Moznfreriiiigger wheat was made on duplicate series of 1.3 plats, with bone dust, bone superphosphate, nitrate of potash, poudrette, gypsum, and cow and sheep manure. The last, alone or with gypsum, gave the largest yields. Late planted maize produced a larger crop than early planted. With cotton planted May 27 and June 20 the results favored the early planting. HORTICULTURE. Irrigation of garden crops, B. D. Halsted atul J. A. Kelsey {Neic Jersey Stas. Bui. 115, pp. 16, 2;/.s\ 4, Jif/s. ;^). — This recounts tlie results of a series of irrigation experiments conducted on various garden crops which had been planted for the purpose of testing certain fun- gicides. The plats were each 11 by 33 ft., or one one-hundredand- tweutieth of an acre in extent. The irrigation was not begun until demanded by drought in the fall, and was continued from September 17 until the crops were harvested, varying with the different crops from October 4 to 28. The water used was from the city waterworks, and applied by means of inch faucets and hose, each averaging 3 gal. per minute, the water being distributed in channels between the rows. The following table gives the amount of water used for each of the irrigated plats, amount per plant, and remarks as to the results: Amount of icatcr per plant and per plat and re.-iulta. Crop. Total. ATerage j per plant. I Results. Beans rcpliers ... Ejiu^ilanta. Tomatoes . Turnips ... Celery Total . Gallons. 1,685 1,830 1.2ti7 1,550 2, 705 8,513 17, 550 Gallons. 5 22 32i 64 i 9 13J 164 per cent increase. • 83 per cent increase. Too late. Do. Crop ruined by club root. 1'12 per cent increase. The cost of water supplied was -$2.34. In the case of eggplants and tomatoes the season was so far advanced that no substantial results were noticed. New growth was stimulated in the eggplants but no increased fruitfulness was obtained. A plat of eggplants that was not irrigated had been mulched in July and treated with Bordeaux mixture. When com])ared with otlier unirrigated plants, some of which had been sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, while others had received no treatment, the mulched i)lat gave a yield nearly double that from the plat only sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, which in turn gave twice as many sound fruits as wher6 no treatment was used. "With tomatoes a new growth was produced and the foliage was fresh- ened but no gain in fruit resulted. With these and with eggplants irrigation must be given in midsummer instead of in late autumn. 128 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. As shown by the table, the result of irrigating bush beans was very satisfactory, the yield from the irrigated plat being 45 lbs. of pods, while the average yield of 9 unirrigated plats was 17 lbs. 1 oz. The quality of the irrigated beans was also superior. The period of fruitage with peppers was prolonged and the yield nearly doubled, the irrigated i^lat giving 147 lbs. against 80 lbs. from an unirrigated plat. In addition, the fruit from the watered plants was firm and plump and of fine color and quality, thus being of greater market value. The leaf development of turnips was greatly increased by irrigation, but, although there was an increased growth of roots, they were destroyed by the club root, which raged with unusual virulence in the moistened soil. The soil of the celery plat was not the most favorable, but the yield of the irrigated plat was 42 lbs., while the unirrigated plat gave only 17^ lbs. The market value of the crop produced from the irrigated plat was 8 times tliat produced without the aid of artificial watering. The loss from outside leaves and roots in preparing the plants for market was 28 per cent in the case of the irrigated plants against 40 per cent in the uonirrigated plants. Cassava, O. Clute {Florida Sta. Bui. 35, pp. 331-339, pis. 4.)— This discusses the propagation, manuring, culture, and harvesting of cassava {Maniliot aipi), and the value of the roots as food for ujan and animals. The use of cassava for preparing tapioca, starch, and glucose is briefly mentioned, and the botanical relationships of cassava among the Euphorbiaceae are discussed. An analysis of cassava root is taken from Bulletin 44 of the Division of Chemistry of this Department. The illustrations are from photographs showing cassava plants and roots. Taro and tropical yam, O. Clute {Florida Sta. Bid. 35, pp. 346- 348). — This gives brief notes on taro {Colocasla antiquornm) and the tropical yam {Dioscorea sp.) now being grown on the station grounds. Both plants produce roots of considerable size and of agreeable flavor, although they are not thought to be as desiral)le as potatoes or sweet potatoes. The pole Lima beans, L. H. Bailey {Neic Yorii Cornell Sta. Bui. 115, pp. 293-314, Jigs. 17). — This bulletin comprises descriptive, com- parative, and cultural notes on Lima beans {Phaseolus lunatiis) as grown at the station. All the 3 types of Lima beans — sieva, flat, and potato Limas — were grown. Three varieties of the sieva type, 9 of the large flat Limas, and 2 of the potato variety are noted. The sievas are valuable chiefly because of their earliness, since the beans are neither as large nor as rich as those of the large Limas. The Willow Leaf variety is interesting on account of its peculiar foliage. Of the large flat Limas the variety Kaighn proved best, although Jersey and May Champion were also satisfactory. Of the potato Limas Dreer Improved produced a good yield of beans of high. quality. HORTICULTURE. 129 Four otlier varieties of Lima beans catalogued by dealers, but not grown at the station, are mentioned, and in addition descriptive notes are given of the Horticultural Lima and Chickasaw Lima or Jack bean. The Horticultural Lima is not a Lima bean at all, but merely a large fruited variety of the common garden pole bean {Phaseolus vulgaris). The Chickasaw Lima {Canavalia ensi/ormis) is a tropical si)ecies, which has been introduced in the Southern States, but it is believed will not mature in the latitude of New York. It produces long, hard iiods bearing large white beans with prominent brown seed scars. The beans have been used for feeding to cattle, but are of little value for this purpose. In the culture of Lima beans light, "quick" soils, especially those which are sandy and loose, but well manured, are best. Use should be made of concentrated fertilizers rich in potash and phosphoric acid and containing but little nitrogen. As the young plants are checked by inclement weather, the seeds should not be planted until the weather is thoroughly settled. Planting 7 or 8 beans to a hill 3 ft. apart in 4-foot rows is advised. After the plants are well up all but 3 or 4 are pulled out from each hill and the hills set with jjoles 6 ft. high. A yield of about 150 bu. of pods per acre is considered a good one. The most desirable varieties as regards productiveness and quality are the Jersey, Extra Early, Kaighn, May Champion, Dreer Improved, and Speckled Lima. Varieties of the potato Lima type are considered the richest. Notes on the practice of growing Lima beans for seed in California are quoted from an article in the American Florist (E. S. E., 7, p. 504). Notes on apricots at Phoenix Station, W. S. Devol {Arizona Sta. Bui. 16, pp. 79-92). — This consists chiefly of descriptive notes on 23 vari- eties of apricots belonging to the species Prunns armeniaca. The soil requirements of the apricot are discussed, it being stated that potash and phosphoric acid are the chief ingredients taken from the soil. In 9 varieties grown the pit averaged 0.2 per cent of the total weight of the fruit. The smallest pit was from the Kaisha, averaging 5.2 per cent of the weight, and the largest from Breda, composing 8.1 per cent of the total weight. The mean weight of fruits of all varieties was 1 oz., Breda being the smallest found, 22 to the pound, while the larg- est, 12 to the pound, were borne by Kaisha and Moorpark. Several of the varieties are grown upon both apricot and myrobolan stocks. In some of them no difference has been noticed, while in others the apri- cot stock gives larger, earlier, and better fruit than the myrobolan. Pringie was the earliest, St. Ambroise the finest appearing, and lioyal the most ijroliflc variety. Present condition and treatment of orange groves, M. S. More- men {Florida Sta. Bui. 33, pp. 205-236). — This bulletin discusses the condition in January, 1890, of the orange groves in the frost- stricken region of Florida. The trees were almost without exception killed to 130 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the ground in December, 1894, or February, 1895, although groves on the shores of large bodies of water showed the influence of water pro- tection by not beiug killed back to so great an extent as elsewhere. In the St. Johns Eiver region the tops of the trees were injured, but the trees are not entirely dead. The frost-bitten trees are promptly sending out sprouts and shoots, and for renewing the orchards is rec- ommended permitting several of these wSj^routs to grow up and form a head. Instead of following this method, budding may be practiced, either inserting buds about the old stump or setting them in the sprouts. The seedling trees are hardier, and it is thought will produce more vigorous sprouts. In addition, cultivation and liberal applications of fertilizers are insisted upon, perhaps sui)plemented by mulching. Directions are given for grafting oranges, taken from information furnished by a prominent grower in the State. For the benefit of growers renewing their orchards or setting out new ones the following varieties are recommended: For autumn shipj)ing — Centennial, "Parson Brown, Boone Early, Nonpareil, Homosassa, Tangerine, Mandarin, and Satsuma; for midseason — Jaffa, St. Michael, Maltese Blood, Majorca, and in rich hammock lands Pineapple; for late — Hart Tardiff, King, and Valencia Late. The question of restoring groves is discussed and definitely settled in the affirmative. The greater and lesser freezes in Florida for the past century are briefly discussed, and a record of the temperature of the freezes of 188G, 1894, and 1895 at diflerent points in the State is given, taken from a paper by G. E. Fairbanks, read before the Florida State Horticultural Society. Small fruits by irrigation, S. 0. Mason and F. C. Sears {Kansas Sta. Bui. 55, pp. 127-148, plates 7). — The first part of this bulletin con- sists of a discussion of the best methods of irrigation in Kansas and illustrated directions for the preparation of an irrigation "tank" or "pond" from which fields can be supplied with water at need. For small areas of ground of not over one acre iu extent a wooden tank is considered satisfactory and economical, while for larger -fields other methods must be adopted. Directions and illustrations are given for the construction of a reservoir 60 by GO ft., inclosed by an embankment 6 ft. high, and of an outlet box and valve for regulating the flow of water. The second part of the bulletin is occupied with a popnlar treatise on strawberry culture, with directions for setting, cultivation, and gen- eral treatment, and for picking and packing the berries.- A tabulated list is given of 20 varieties which have i^roved best at the station for the last two years, showing the time of ripening and the relative productiveness. The 1895 chrysanthemums, L. H. Bailey, W. Miller, and C. E. HUNN {Xew York Cornell Sta. Bui. 112, pp. 213-244, pi. 1, Jigs. 12).— This bulletin contains general remarks upon the subject of chrysanthe- mums, with notes upon the varieties grown at the Cornell Experiment HORTICULTURE. 131 Station. The culture of clirysaiithemums is briefly outlined, cuttings made from the tips of basal or strong lateral shoots in early spring being preferred, taken early or late as desired for field or pot culture, respectively. The growing of the plants to a single bloom gives large specimen flowers, but does not produce the most decorative results. Eeform in the matters of nomenclature, synonymy, and classification is strongly urged, and suggestions in this respect are nmde. The ditterent forms of florets are described and 10 difl'erent styles are illustrated. Suggestions are made for breeding chrysanthemums for the production of new varieties, and recommendations are made for careful combination of the parent varieties to obtain artistically colored offspring. It is believed that fragrant varieties can be obtained in time. Already several varieties with a pleasant odor are extant. It is thought, however, that the fragrance can not be obtained in a large flowered variety. Descriptive notes, in several instances illustrated, are given for 90 varieties of chrysanthemums tested at the station, fol- lowed by a list of varieties considered most choice as regards size, single and combined coloring, season, oddity of form, and other char- acteristics. The following varieties of 1895 introduction are the choice of the authors: Mrs. Henry Eobinson, Mrs. W. H. Eand, Crimsona, lora, Madame Carnot, Miss Georgiana Pitcher. Sweet peas, L. H. Bailey and A. P. Wyman {New Yorlc Cornell tSta. Bui. Ill, pp. 169-208, figs. 14). — This bulletin gives a general sketch of the history of the sweet pea, with brief cultural directions, discussion of the various types of flowers, and a descriptive list of 106 varieties, giving the blooming season. The author states that the sweet pea {Lathyrus odoratus) is a native of Italy and was introduced into England about 1700. Up to the first of this century only about 2 varieties were known in cultivation. Two closely allied species, the Tangier scarlet j)ea (X. tingitanus) and the l^erennial or everlasting pea {L. latifoJius), are described and figured and recommended for cultivation. It is advised that sweet peas be planted in the bottom of 4 to 6 in. furrows in rich, well drained soil and the seed covered with about an inch of earth. As the plants grow the earth is to be gradually filled in until the furrow is full. The surface of the soil should be frequently cultivated until the peas begin to bloom, when a heavy straw mulch may be applied, to conserve moisture, as a large snpi)ly of water is essential for the best production of blooms. Training on about 5 hori- zontal wires on a trellis 3 or 4 ft. high is recommended. The structure of the flower, comprising the standard, wings, and keel, is described and figured, and the tendency of these portions to become duplicated under a high degree of cultivation and careful selec- tion is noted. The advancement in the number and jierfection of vari- eties of sweet peas is chiefly due to the work of Eckford, an English gardener. The difference in varieties consists in both different forms 132 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. and colors, altliongh the variations in tints are the most apparent at first glance. It is urged that sweet ])eas are not plants for formal flower beds, but on ac<;oant of their modest daintiness should be planted in half secluded places. The cultural methods employed with the varieties grown at the Cornell Station are briefly outlined. ISTotes, in several instances illustrated, are given of the varieties, and the following are considered as best: Adonis, Apple Blossom, Blanche Ferry, Boreatton, Butterfly, Captain of the Blues, Cardinal Wolseley, Countess of .Radnor, Duchess, of Marlboro, Emily Henderson, Empress of India, Improved Painted Lady, Isa Eckford, Lemon Queen, Mrs. Gladstone, and Tangier Scarlet. Zinc in evaporated apples, H. W. Wiley {TJ. 8. Bejjt. Agr., Dirision of Chemistry Bui. 48, JW- 38). — The investigations reported in this bulletin were undertaken to ascertain the correctness of the com- plaints made in Germany that American dried apples contain zinc salts in quantity sufficient to prove deleterious to health. The investigations and analyses heretofore made are briefly reviewed and the process of evaporating apples as commonly followed in the United States is detailed. The apples after the removal of the skin and core are fre- quently "sulphured" by exposing them to the fumes of burning sulphur for the purpose of preventing the freshly cut surface from turning- brown owing to the oxidizing effect of the air. After the sulphuring process, which as a rule does not exceed half an hour, the a])ples are sliced and dried on trays with bottoms usually of galvanized iron wire screens. This method produces dried fruit of good taste and attractive appearance, but which has been recently reported in Germany as con- taining zinc, the metal undoubtedly having been taken u^) from the galvanized Avire upon which the apples were dried. Eeports from the United States consuls at Hamburg, Cologne, and Frankfort-on-the-Main are quoted, giving an account of the restrictions against American dried apples in Germany because of their supposedly poisonous nature. Samples of evaporated apples were obtained from various factories and dealers in Kew York State and analyzed in the Division of Chemis- try. The methods of analysis recommended by several German chem- ists are quoted and the methods employed in the analyses here given are technically detailed. Twenty-three samjAes of evaporated apples were analyzed. In 5 of them no estimable quantities of zinc were found, while in the others the percentage ranged from 0.0016 to 0.0318. The average was 0.0152 i)er cent. The zinc was estimated as zinc oxid. Brief notes are given on each of the samples and their origin described. Some of the slices of evaporated apples were taken directly from con- tact with the galvanized iron wire, while others had not touched the wire at all. The iron wire used in making the drying trays was exam- ined and found to lose its zinc covering in a few years from its being gradually dissolved by the acids of the ajiples. HORTICULTURE. 133 The physiological action of zinc is briefly discussed. The salts are considered but slightly poisonous, and then only in large doses. The question of substituting other material for galvanized iron wire in the manufacture of trays has received attention, and the use of aluminum- wire netting or i^erforated sheets of aluminum is suggested. Trial evaporations with aluminum-bottomed trays have proved satisfactory- It is not believed that evaporated apples contain sufficient zinc to produce the deleterious results feared in Germany, yet it is urged that to avoid further complaint the galvanized iron wire on which apples are now evaporated be replaced by some substance not readily acted upon by apple juices, or not poisonous if taken up by them. Experiments \vith new orchard fruits, trees, and shrubs, J. L. BuDD {Iowa Sta. Bid. 31, pp. 325-358, dgm. 1). — This consists of brief descriptive notes on the native and foriegn varieties of orchard and small fruits and ornamental trees tested at the station. Notes are given on the fruit of 10 summer, 17 autumn, and 27 winter varieties of apples, 14 of i)ears, 25 of cherries, 11 of native and 12 of foreign plums, 4 of prunes, and 1 of apricots. Notes are given on the culture of the various fruits grown at the station, and, in addition, directions are included for the winter protection of peach trees by laying them flat uj)on the ground in late fall and covering them with straw and earth. Spraying fruits ; strawberries ; grapes, J. T. Stinson {ArJcansas Sta. Bui. 39, pp. 17-34, Jigs. 3). Spraying fruits (pp. 17-22). — This article discusses the results obtained in spraying for apple scab, bitter rot, api)le skin blotch {Leptothyrum pomi), some grape diseases, and strawberry leaf blight. The treat- ment was of advantage in all cases, and in several instances all injury was avoided. Bordeaux mixture was used. The causes of failure from spraying are discussed and are believed to be due to improper prepara- tion of the mixtures, to lack of thoroughness in spraying, and to spraying in wet weather when the rains soon wash oft" the mixture. The results are given of exi^eriments in spraying apple trees in the orchard of one of the fruit growers of the State to prevent apple scab and apple skin blotch, the latter being wholly prevented by 3 applica- tions of Bordeaux mixture. The yield from sprayed trees was over 3 times that obtained from the unsprayed check trees, and the apples averaged larger. In addition, the foliage was much more thrifty and remained on the trees later in the season. Strawherries (pp. 22-25). — Notes on the strawberries grown at the station. From 100 varieties now being cultivated brief descriptive notes are given for 15 of the most desirable varieties. Reports are included on some of the leading varieties in various sections of the State. Orapes (pp. 26-34). — This consists of a descriptive list of 81 varieties growing in the station vineyard, the botanical species from which each variety is derived being indicated. 134 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Cost of gro'wing onions {Rural New Yorker, 1894, Dec. 1, })• 758). A Spanish truffle and 3 nevsr species of truffles from Morocco, A. Chatik {Compt. Bend., l:J3 (1S9G), No. 4, pp. 311-214; Ihv. Scient., ser. 4,6{1S90), No. 5, p. 152). Small fruit culture for market, W. A. Taylor {Amer. Gard., 17 {1896), No8. 82, p. 457, figs. 9; 83, pp. 466, 467, fuj. 1). List of varieties of fruits, W. S. Devol {Arizona Sta. Bid. 15, pp. 59-76). — This bulletin consists of lists of the varieties of different orcliard and small fruits grown at the Tucson, Phcfuix, and Mesa stations. The greater number of the varieties are old standard sorts, but mostly new in Arizona, and are tested to determine their value in this section. In addition, a number of tie w or little-known varieties, believed to possess qualities likely to recommend them for value in Arizona, are also included among those grown on the station grounds. Report on fruits, S. T. Maynard and J. H. Putxam (Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Bui. 37, pp. 1-29). — This consists of cultural discussions and tabulated notes on the orchard and small fruits tested at the station, there being under consideratiou 148 varieties of apples, 64 of pears, 42 of peaches, 42 of plums, 145 of grapes, 20 of black raspber- ries, 20 of red raspberries, 16 of blackberries, 16 of gooseberries, 155 of strawberries, and 150 of seedliug strawberries. The tables give data as to the blooming, ripening, yield, and quality of the various varieties, witli brief notes on spraying for insect and fungus diseases which yielded to such treatment whenever remedies were found necessary. Fruits, at the Agricultural College, L. R. Taft and H. P. Gladden (Michigan Sta. Bui. 130, pp. 47-59). — This consists of descriptive notes and tabulated data of 75 varieties of strawberries, 25 of black raspberries, 15 of red raspberries, and 17 of blackberries. The hardiness, yield, and general desirability of most of the varieties are remarked upon. Fruits at South Haven, T. T. Lyon (MicMgan Sta. Bui. 129, pp. i-46').— This bul- letin consists of notes and tabulated data on the various varieties of orchard and small fruits tested at South Haven in 1895. Statistics of the dates of blossoming and ripening, yield, and quality are given for 156 varieties of strawberries, 53 of raspberries, 30 of bliickberra^s, 3 of service berries, 24 of currants, 20 of gooseberries, 62 of cherries, 5 of mulberries, 191 of peaches, 1 of apricot, 1 of nectarine, 72 of plums, 37 of pears, 101 of apples, 8 of quinces, and several nuts, in addition to brief mention of asparagus and rhubarb. Owing to unfavorable season, fruiting of the grapes was interfered with and no notes are given. Brief mention is made of cultural methods and treatment, and of insect and funjins attacks, whicli, however, were not serious. Some experiments were made with several commercial fertilizers upon grapes, and the effect to date is tabulated. Fruits and vegetables on the Gulf Coast, F. S. Earle (Mississippi Sta. Bui. 37, pp. 111-134). — This recounts the result of extensive cultivation of various fruits and vegetables at the Ocean Springs Sul)8tation to ascertain their value in that latitude. The majority of fruits cultivated through the more northern parts of the United States were found not to thrive here, the best results being obtained from black- berries, grapes, figs, loquats, mulberries, pecans, persimmons, raspberries, and straw- berries. Peaches, pears, and plums have been partially successful. Flower bulbs and all of the common garden vegetables can be grown successfully. Of forage plants, redtop, carpet grass (Paspaluni plati/caule), water grass (P. dilata- tum), and a few legumes have given the best results. Some economic plants and their planting prospects, E. D. Ewen {Jour. Trini- dad Field Nat. Club, 2 {1895-'96), No. 1.2, pp. ;?9^-m5).— Discusses the following species, recommending them for culture in the West Indies: Guarana (Paullinia sor- hilis and P. cupana), star-anise seed tree (Illicium anisatum), nutmegs, clover, black pepper, gambiir (Uncaria gamhir), rubber vines, indigo, and physic nut (Jatropha curcas). Some Nev7 South "Wales plants Avorth cultivating for shade, ornamental, and other purposes, J. H. Maiden (Agl. Gaz. N. S, Wales, 7 (1896), No. 6, p. 341). FORESTRY. 135 Eztensiou work in horticulture, L. H. Bailey (Kew York Cornell Sta. Bui. 110, pp. 125-1G4). — This bulletin consists of a report on the progress of the work under- taken by the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station in pursuance of the requirements of the experiment station extension law of the State. The researches and experiments in horticultural and entomological lines are briefly out- lined, and the objects, methods, and results of extension of university teaching to the people of the State are given. Conspectuses of 5 so-called schools of horticul- ture held in diU'ereut parts of the State are given, and in addition are included synopses of the lectures delivered at these schools, dealing with different phases of horticulture, botany, chemistry of the soil, insect and fungus diseases, etc. A list of the bulletins published under the ausruces of the experiment station extension bill is appended. FOEESTRY. The internal temperature of trees, C. Flammarton {Bui. Min. Agr. France, 15 {1896), No. 2, pp. 277-279, fig. 1).—T\iq author has made a study of the internal temperature of a number of trees and finds that it varies with the temperature of the air and is transmitted to the interior in proportion to the diameter of the tree and the condition of the wood whether living or dead. The minimum temperatures observed February 7 at 9 p. m. were for air — 15.1°, dead poplar — 14.9°, fir — 11.8°, cherry — 14.0°, dead cherry — 14.2°, black locust undergrowth — 12.3°, and black locust — 10.2°. Figures are given for the internal temperatures of the same trees August 21, and it is shown that in the dead wood there was a wider diurnal range than in the living. The effect of the diameter of the tree upon its temperature is shown by observations made during 8 days upon a large and a small black locust tree. The average temperature for 12 days was air 7.3°, small tree 9.4°, and large tree 10.1°. The average internal temperature of resin-bearing trees is said to be higher than those not producing it. Mechanical and physical properties of Southern pine, B. E. Fernow ( TJ. 8. 1)ept. Agr., Division of Forestry Circular 12, pp. 12, dgms. 4). — Notes are given on the mechanical and physical i^roperties of the long-leaf pine {Pinus palustris), Cuban pine (P. heterophylla), short- leaved pine (P. echinnta), and the loblolly or old field pine (P. twda). The data given in the present circular are condensed from a special bulletin ui)on the same subject that is to be issued in the near future. Familiar trees and their leaves, F. S. Mathews {New York: D. Appleton <|- Co., 1896, pp. X, 320, figs. 215). — This handsome work is an artist's description in popular language, illustrated in a rather satisfactory manner, of about 200 of the more com- mon trees and larger shrubs of the region covered by Gray's and Chapman's manuals, with occasional references to some growing beyond these limits. The plan of the work is to attbrd a ready means for identifying trees by means of their foliage, other char- acters being called upon when necessary. The author seems to have been very suc- cessful in his undertaking, and the work will be found useful and instructive to the botanist as well as to those who are unfamiliar with botanical details. The nomen- clature is that of Gray, with the names as given by Sargent as synonyms. A copious index is given of the scientific, common, and ordinal names of every species and variety described in the text. 5096— No. 2 4 136 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The introcluction to tlie work was written by Prof. L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University. Forest-fire legislation in the United States ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of For- estry Circular 13, pp. 8). — The Minnesota law, which is modeled after the New York and Maine laws upon the same subjects, is quoted, together Avith ahistracts from the laws of Wisconsin, Maine, Colorado, New York, Pennsylvania, and New Haraiishire. A summary in tabular form is given of the laws of all States and Territories having legislation uj)on the subject of forest fires. It appears from this table that all have some legislation ux)ou this subject except the State of Washington. Abies nobilis {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1S9G), No. 506, pp. 274, 275, pi. i).— Illus- trated descriptive notes are given of this tree as grown in Ireland and elsewhere. A contribution to the knowledge of North American Coniferae, E. S. Bastin and H. Tiumble {Avier. Jour. Pharm., 6S {1SD6), No. S, pp. 409-422, figs. 6).— Notes are given on the histologj^ and chemical composition of various species of spruce. North American conifers in Germany (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 9 {1S96), No. 503, pp. 187, 188). Eucalyptus in California {Bui. Bot. Dept. Jamaica, n. se)\,3 {1S96), No. 7, p. 149). Tw^o good trees for California planting, H. G. Pkatt {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 444, p. 348). — The author recommends Boiinia pscndacacia and Acacia melanoxglon for planting in the region mentioned. The spruce trees of eastern North Amei'ica {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 445, pp. 351, 352). The Burma teak forests, D. Bkakdis (GarfZc/t and Forest, 9 {1896), Nos. 441, pp. 318, 319; 446, pp. 363, 364). — Notes are given of the cfi'ect of a svstem of management upon the present condition of the forests, in which it is shown that the supply has been greatly increased by such means. The wood pulp supply and our spruce forests {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 446, pj). 363, 364). — Notes are given on the rapid destruction of spruce forests and the necessity of some system of forest management is shown. Investigations on the growth and condition of a 110-year-old pine forest, E. Omeis {Inaug. Diss. Mnnich, 1895, pp. 34, pi. 1 ; abs. in Bot. Centbl. Bcihcfte, 6 {1896), No. 2-3, pp. 200, 201). The trees of Paris, A. Chakguekaud {Les arhres de la ville de Paris. Paris: Eot- scMld, 1896, pp. XV, 333, figs. 333). DISEASES OF PLANTS. Insect and fungus pests of potatoes, H. Garman {Kentucky 8ta. Bui. Gl,p2^. 14-35, Jigs. 7). Synojjsis. — Notes are given on the occurrence and means for prevention of attacks of the Colorado potato beetle. Southern flea beetle, tobacco ilea beetle, blister bee- tles, i)otato blight, and potato scab, due to various causes, and a rejiort is given of experiments in checking scab in 1885. The nature and amount of injury done by the Colorado potato beetle {Doryphora deeeniUneata), Southern flea beetle {Epitrix fuscuJa), tobacco Ilea beetle {E. imrvula), and the margined blister beetle [Epicauta cine- rea) is given and the use of arsenites is recommended for the destruc- tion of the insects. Brief notes are given on the potato blights due to Pliytoplitliora infes- tans and Macrosporium solani, and the use of Bordeaux mixture is advised as a means for preventing- these attacks. An account is given of x)otato scab. Instances are cited of scab DISEASES OF PLANTS. 137 being caused by attacks of wireworms, millepeds, and injuries caused by wliite grubs and small mammals, such as field mice, etc. The scab caused by Oospora scabies is also figured and described. Plat experi- ments were conducted to test the value of Bordeaux mixture and corro- sive-sublimate solutions for preventing scab. The injury done by the fungus on both treated and untreated plats was so slight as to give but little opportunity for comparison. The tubers were soaked in Bor- deaux mixture aud corrosive-sublimate solutions, and in one plat they were sprayed with Bordeaux mixture in the rows before covering. The use of Bordeaux mixture for soaking the seed seemed to have no bene- ficial actioii. The results with the corrosive-sublimate solution were suf&cient to warrant the author recommending this treatment for scab prevention. Potato scab, L. Foster {Montana Sta. Bui. 9, pp. 5,2-^i).— Notes are given on experiments for the prevention of potato scab. A tabulated report is given of the results obtained by using zinc chlorid, zinc sul- phate, potassium permanganate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium sulphid, and corrosive sublimate in different strengths of solution aud for difierent lengths of treatment. The different compounds in some strength were somewhat effective in reducing scab, but the corrosive- sublimate treatment, when the seed tubers had been treated for at least an hour, proved the most successful treatment. Diseases of the potato, E. G. Lodeman {New YorJc Cornell Sta. Bui. 113, pp. 2d9-.3S3, pi. 1, figs. 3). — Popular notes are given on the late blight or rot, the early blight, and scab of potatoes, together with notes on the injurious insects affecting the i^otato, and recommendations for the prevention of the several injuries. The potato rot, or late blight, which is due to Fhytoplitliora infestans, is fully described, and it may be successfully prevented by spraying the vines with Bordeaux mixture. In giving the life history of this fungus the author mentions oospores as a means for carrying it over the winter. W. G. Smith ^ claimed that these bodies have been observed, but De Barry and others do not accept his conclusions. The early blight, which has been recognized but a few years as dis- tinct from the late blight, is usually attributed to attacks of Macrospo- rium solani, but recent investigations show a number of causes at work to produce the condition called early blight. These causes may be the fungus, peculiar character of the season, injuries of flea beetles, or some disturbance in tlie physiological functions of the plant. Each of these or several of them acting together may produce the disease. The Macrosporium is not an active parasite, and entrance to the host must be secured through tissues weakened by some of the means suggested. The use of Bordeaux mixture for this disease has met with only partial success, proper fertilization and cultivation having increased the yield to a greater extent than spraying. ' Gard. Chron., 4 (1875), No. 81, p. 68. 138 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Notes are given upon potato scab, wliicb is commonly caused by Oospora scabies, and tbe corrosive sublimate treatment is recommended. The i^nblications of several stations are drawn upon for information relative to tlie effect of acid and alkaline conditions of the soil upon the disease. Formulas for the fungicides used and the results of some experiments for the repression of the disease are given. !N"otes are included on the potato beetle and flea beetles, with direc- tions for their destruction. Arsenites have proved most efficient for the potato beetle, while Bordeaux mixture seems most promising for protection against flea beetles. A report is given of a comparative trial of different forms of spray- ing apijaratus for applying Bordeaux mixture to potato plants. It was found that power sprayers were generally the best, those depending upon gravity for the distribution of the fungicide not proving wholly satisfactory. For the application of dry insecticides the powder guns tested were very satisfactory. Potato blights and fungicides, L. R. Jones ( Vermont Sta. Bui. 49, pp. 81-99, Jigs. 4). — Notes are given on selection of seed tubers as a means for the prevention of late blight, tests of different forms of Bordeaux mixture, and various forms of potato blight. In 1895 the late blight was about 2 weeks late in attacking pota- toes. This was due, the author thinks, to the unusual freedom from rot of the crop of 1894, the one su])plying the seed. It is thought that by selecting for seed only tubers from lields of early j)otatoes which have escaped late blight, attacks of late blight would be almost wholly pre- vented. Comparative trials of various kinds of Bordeaux mixture and of Bordeaux x)owders show that fresh liquid preparations of standard strength gave the best results. Directions are given for the best way to make Bordeaux mixture as shown by the author's experiments. By the term blight is generally meant any injury resulting in the premature dying of foliage of the i)otato. The author recognizes at least 4 forms of blight, the successful treatment of which requires that the cause be definitely known. The late blight, or mildew, is caused by Fhytophtliora infestans, and may be prevented by planting sound seed and spraying the plants with 2 or 3 applications of Bordeaux mix- ture. The early blight, or leaf-spot disease, is due to attacks of Macro- sporium solani upon plants that are more or less weakened from various causes. The measures suggested for preventing this form of blight are to increase the vigor of the plant by selection of varieties, better culti- vation and fertilization of the soil, later planting, and spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture. Arsenical jioisoning by the improper use of Paris green produces a condition resembling the blight due to Macro siiorium, and may be avoided by using smaller amounts of Paris green, or adding lime to the water if it is applied in this form. When applied dry, it may be diluted with plaster. Tip burn, which is caused by dry, hot weather, aided by other conditions unfavorable to the plant, DISEASES OF PLANTS. 139 is often confused, with the early blight. Increasing the vigor of the plant and irrigation wherever possible will prevent tip burn to a great degree. On the primary cause of potato scab, B. Roze {Compt. Rend., 122 {1896), Ifo. 18, pp. 1012-1011).— From studies made upon pot cultures in which sound tubers were exposed to scabby ones the author is led to believe that the primary cause of the scab is bacterial, and the organism is called Micrococcus pellucidiis. It is nearly spherical, about 0.6 // in diameter, and is said to be very active. It is thought to prepare the way for Oospora scabies or other organisms which live for a time at least as saprophytes upon the tissues destroyed by the Micrococcus. A new disease of almond trees, U. Beizi {Ztsclir. Pflanzenlcranlc, 6 {1896), Ifo. 2, pp. 65-72, pi. 1). — The author describes an anthracnose of almonds which has appeared in Sardinia, the first specimens having been received from Cagliari in April, 1805. The disease is said to be caused by a new species of Gloeosporium, to which the name G. amyg- dalinum has been given. The fungus is fully described, aud numerous notes are given relating to its biology. The fungus is said to attack the young fruit, although it rarely occurs upon the branches. The early indication of its presence is the appear- ance upon the green fruits of yellowish spots surrounded by concentric rings of lighter color. Later it appears as a gray rot. From the action of copper solutions upon the spores the author thinks that Bordeaux mixture will probably prove efficient in combating the disease. Frost injuries to apples and pears, L. R. Jones ( Vermont Sta. Bui. 49, p. 100, fig. 1). — Notes are given of a serious russeting of apples and pears, due to a late frost in 1895. The cause was attributed by many growers to injury from spraying, but investigation showed that sprayed and uusprayed trees suffered alike. The author reports having observed the same injury upon fruit in Canada, New York, and Wisconsin. On the browning of grape cuttings, P. Vial A and L. Eavaz {Compt. Rend., 122 {1896), No. 20, pi). 1112-1144).— "IhQ common brown- ing of grape cuttings, which is due to bacteria aud has been considered as a disease, is said by the authors to be without any pathological effect. Externally the cuttings retain their normal color and when grafted readily unite with the stock. They root well and produce vigor- ous branches. The bacteria are never found in the new growth no matter how abundant they may have been in the cutting, nor do they descend into the stock in case of grafting. Experiments for the prevention of plum leaf spot and cherry leaf spot and fruit rot, S. A. Beach {Neiv Yorh State Sta. Bui. 98, 11. ser.,pp. 17, pis. 5, fig. 2).— Experiments were conducted during 1895 to determine the relative values of an eau celeste soap mixture and Bor- deaux mixture for preventing leaf spot of plums {Gyli^ulrosporium padi). While investigating the merits of the two fungicides the times 140 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of application were also considered. A block of 5G7 trees was placed at the command of the author for the experiments. The varieties were Italian Prune, Guii, Lombard, Purple Egg, and Bavay Green Gage, one- third of each being sprayed with each fungicide and the other third being left as a check. The results obtained were carefully estimated and tabulated nnd the superiority of Bordeaux mixture was shown. The best results were obtained by 3 sprayings with Bordeaux mixture, the first applied just after the fall of the blossoms, the second about 2 weeks later, and the last about the middle of June. The trees given this treatment lost their foliage to the extent of about 10 per cent as compared with 73 per cent for the eau celeste and 78 for the check. Tlie good effect of the use of Bordeaux mixture in checking the ravages of black knot and ripe rot is commented upon, but such treat- ment must be supplemented by pruning out the knots and destroying all mummy fruits. For the leaf spot and fruit rot of bearing cherry trees the results were not so satisfactory. The fruit rot was checked, but the foliage was injured by the treatment. The investigations upon the treatment of cherry trees are to be continued, and for the present no recommen- dations are made. Spraying orchards and vineyards, J. C. Written [Missouri Sta. Bui. 31, j)p. 21). — Spraying experiments that have been conducted for 2 years indicate that apple scab can be prevented by the use of Bor- deaux mixture. Four applications were found more efficacious than three. In orchards sprayed in 1894 there was less scab than in the unsprayed ones. Bitter rot, while more destructive than usual, was less prevalent on trees sprayed with a 6-pound solution of Bordeaux mix- ture. Attacks of codling moth were not prevented by the use of arsen- ites, the injury being due, the author thinks, to a second brood of the moth appearing after the use of arsenites had been discontinued. Bor- deaux mixture was efticient in causing less loss from plum rot where the trees were sprayed weekly throughout the ripening period. At this time ammoniacal copper carbonate solution is recommended, as it does not leave a sediment that injures the appearance of the fruit. Paris green was used with success for repressing the curculio. Notes are given on the use of Paris green for destroying the bag- worm on evergreen trees. If used as soou as the eggs are hatched, at the rate of 1 lb. to 300 gal. of water, the bag worm will be destroyed without injury to the trees. If the worms are two-thirds grown, double the strength of the insecticide will not kill the worms. Strong solu- tions of arsenites can not be used on evergreens until the wood is ripe and the weather dry. A spraying calendar is added to the bulletin. Directions for the use of fungicides and insecticides for the season of 1896, S. T. Maynard [Massaclmseiis Hatch Sta. Bui. 37, j}p. 30-40, Jig. 1). — Formulas and directions are given for the prepara- DISEASES OF PLANTS. 141 tion and use of some of tlie more common fungicides and insecticides, as well as notes on some forms of spraying apparatus. Analyses arc given ot" what is called "New Process" Paris green, wliicli is sliown to be not Paris green, but a mixture of lime, arsenious acid, and copper oxid. The substance varies in its constitution, the limits being arseni- ous Jicid 58 to 63 per cent, lime 14 to 16 per cent, and copper oxid 3 to 4 per cent. The use of this substance is not to be advised Avithout a careful trial, as it is reported as injurious to many plants. A spraying calendar for the year is given. The rots of sugar beets (Fiihlinc/'s Jaiidw. Ztg., 45 {1S96), No. 15, p. 4S1). On combating the heart and dry rots of beets, Frank {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1S9G), No. 64, jyp. SOS, 569). A new melon disease, M. C. Cooke (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), No. 506, pp. 271, 272). — A new fungus disease is reported on leaves of melons, and it is thought possilily to be due to Cercospora cifrnUina, or, mny be, to a new species. The rotting of turnips and Swedes, M. C. Pottkr {Jour. [BrUish^ Board. Agr., 1S06, No. 2, pp. 120-131, pis. 4). — Notes are given of attacks of Botrytis on stored turnips and Svredes. An American potato disease in Europe, C. Sa.jo {Fiihling's landw. ZUj., 45 {1S9G), No. 15, pp. 4SS-491). American blight {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1S9G), No. 506, p. 576).— Hydrochloric acid luixcd with clay or cow dnng and applied with a paint brnsh is said to bo a specific agaiiist blight of fruit trees. Care must be used in applying the mixture on account of the well-known corrosive action of the acid on plants. A new smut on Panicum crus-galli, P. Magnus {Ber. deut. lot. Ges., 14 {1S9G), No. 6, pp. 216-221, pi. 1). — Chitractia seymouriana is figured and described from material communicated from North America. The brown rust of peaches and its treatment, J. Tachaires {Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 {1S9G), No. 31, pp. 132-134). — Descriptions of the disease are given, and 3 formulas of solutions of copper and iron sulphates are recommended as treatments. Contagiousness and prophylaxis of the tubercle disease of the vhie, F. Latase {Compt. Pcnd., 123 {1S96), No. 3, pp. 200-202; Bev. Scient., sn: 4, 6 {1S96), No. 5, p. 152). On the inelHcacy of copper salts for controlling black rot, L. Degrully {Prog. Agr. et Tit., 26 {1S9G), No. 32, p. 143). Treatment of black rot, J. Perkaud {Le Iraiiement du Mack rot daus les vignohlcs dn centre ct de Vest. Macon and ViUefranche: 1S96, pp. 64). Observations on the prevention of black rot of grapes, A. de L'Ecluse {Ftudcs et observations sur le traiiemvnt integral de la rigne contre le black rot, etc. Agen: Qnil- lot, lS96,pp. XVI, 80). A report on field experiments for the prevention of black rot, G. Couderc {Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 {1SD6), No. 35, pp. 232-239). Means for combating grape mildew, L. Anderlind {Allg. Wcinztg., 1896, p. 649). On the treatment of mildew by dilute solutions of copper sulphate, E. Per- RiER DE LA Bathie {Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 {1896), No. 30, pp. 103, 104).— '^otes are given on the successful employment of very dilute solutions of copper sulphate in preventing grape mildew. Oidium, anthracnose, and mildew, G. Battaxchon {Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 {1896), No. 32, pp. 147-140). On the application of sulphur during the flov/<3ring period, H. Devatix {Prog. Agr.et Fit., 26 {1896), No. 32, pp. 158-l(;i, figs. 3). — The author claims that applica- tions of sulphurjjjuring the flowering period of grapes have no injurious effect. Rassiguier's treatment for chlorosis of grapevines, A. Menudier {Jour. Agr, Prat., 60 {1886), II, No. 31, pp. 157, 158). 142 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. Concerning the principal diseases and enemies of the vine, J. Perraud (Prog. Agr. et Vit., 26 {1896), Nos. 27, pp. 11-16; 28, pp. 48-50; 30, pp. 105-107; SI, pp. 123-132; 34, pp. 207-2 12, jig 8. 50). — Ilhistrated descriptive notes are given of the principal insect and fungus enemies of the grape, with suggestions for their prevention. Concerning the nature, appearance, and method of entering the host of the pine rust, J. Eriksson {Centhl. Bakt. und Par. JUg., 2 (1896), No. 12, pp. 377-394). A poplar disease in -western France, P. Dangeakd (Le Botaniste, 5 {1896), pp. 38-43). — A preliminary note is given on a disease of poplar trees. The bacterial diseases of plants, E. F. Smith {Amer. Nat., SO {1896), Nos. 356, pp. 626-643; 357, pp. 716-731; 358, pp. 796-804).— K critical review is given of the present state of our knowledge relating to bacterial diseases of plants. ENTOMOLOGY. The Mexican cotton boll weevil, L. O. Howard (U. S. Bept. Agr.., Division of Entomology Circular 14, 2d ser,, pp. 8, Jigs. 5). — This circular is a revision of Circular 6 (E. S. E.., 7, p. 312) giving the results of supi)lementary investigation of Anihonomus grandis. The general appearance, life history, and habits are reviewed, and a map is given showing the localities at which the insect occurred in Texas in 1895. As a remedy trapping the weevils in the spring by planting a few early cotton plants which the weevils will attack before the balk of the crop has developed bolls and in which they may be found and destroyed is suggested. As further treatment of the pest is suggested destroy- ing the entire cotton crop in the infested region by burning it during the fall. This should be gradually done, so that weevils escaping at first may be destroyed later. In addition, clean cultivation is urged to prevent hiding places for the weevils. The pear psylla and the New York plum scale, M. V. Slinger- LAND [New York Cornell Sta. Bui. 108, pp. 69-86, Jigs. §).— This bulletin consists of the matter contained in Bulletins 44 (E. S. E.., 4, p, 472) and 83 (E. S. R., 6, p. 1004) of the station, with recently discovered facts concerning the life history and treatment of the insects. The pear psylla (pj). 69-81). — The different stages and the life history of Psylla pyrieola are described, and the pest is stated to have a dis- tribution ranging from Maine to Virginia, and as far west as the Missis- sippi River. In the Northern States there are 4 annual broods, while in Maryland there are 5. Two predaceous insects have been found feeding upon the jisyllas in great numbers, a lacewing fly {Chrysopa oculata) and the red ladybird {Adalia Mpunctata). Spraying with kerosene emulsion is recommended as the most efficient treatment against both nymphs and adults, and successful experiments with this insecticide by a New York orchardist are quoted. The New York plum scale (pp. 81-86). — The damage to New York orchards in 1894, as described in Bulletin S3, was greater than then supposed; but about 75 per cent of the scales were killed by the winter of 1894-'95. This decrease in the numbers of the scales, vigorous spraying with kerosene emulsion, and attacks on the scales by parasites ENTOMOLOGY. 143 and ladybirds have made the ravai^es during 1895 small. Plum trees are most iujured by the pest, although quince and apple trees are also attacked, and in one instance an ash grove was found to be infested. A hymenopterous parasite {Coccophagus lecanii) and the twice-stabbed ladybird have been active in attacking the scales. Spraying with kerosene emulsion is strongly urged, one application to be made after the leaves fall in the autumn and two others in the spring before the buds open. Wirewornis and the bud moth, M. V. Slingerland [New York Cornell iSta. BuJ. 107, pp. 37-66, figs. 26). Synopsis. — Illnetrated descriptive and life-history notes on wireworms and the bud moth, with the results of experiments in combating them. Early fall plowing and the use of poisoned baits are recommended against wireworms, and spring spraying with arsenites against the bud moth. Wireivorms (pp. 37-56). — Wireworms and click beetles in general are briefly discussed, and the methods of experimentation with them described, the cnges employed being kept under as natural conditions as possible, with untreated cages as checks. The possibility of protect- ing seed corn from the attacks of wireworms by coating it with various substances, and by soaking it in poisonous and disagreeable solutions, was tested extensively. Coatings of Paris green and flour and tar were applied, and the corn was soaked in solutions of salt, copperas, chlorid of lime and copperas, strychnin, kerosene, turpentine, and other substances without the least deterrent effect being produced. The wireworms readily ate the prepared seed, which in a number of cases had its germinating power injured by the processes to which it was subjected. Tbe destruction of the larvae was attempted by means of starvation, and by various insecticides and fertilizers, without satisfactory results. The wireworms were found to live in fallow land, and where crops were grown on which they had been supposed not to feed, such as buck- wheat, mustard, and rape. Kerosene, pure and as an emulsion, and carbon bisulphid killed the larvae; but required use in such quanti- ties that with the first substance the vegetation was destroyed, and with the second the expense would be too great for field use. Salt, potash salts, lime, gas lime, and chlorid of lime were either not effect- ive or only in large quantities. The best results were obtained by plowing and harrowing for a few weeks in summer, commencing the latter part of July, by which procedure the earthen pupa cells were broken up and the tender, immature insects destroyed. In connection with this cultivation, short rotation of crops is advised. It was found that the adults could be readily attracted and killed by the use of trap baits of clover poisoned with some arsenite. Trapping by lanterns was of no practical value, owing to the small number captured. Illustrated descriptive notes are given on the life history of the wheat wireworm {Agriotes inancus), Asaphes decoloratus, Melanotus communis, 144 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. Drasteria elegans, and Cryptoliypnus ahhrevlatus. The first-named spe- cies constituted 91 i^er cent of the wire worms observed and experimented upon. The late larval, i)upal, «and early adult stages are best known, the habits of the adults as regards egg-laying and the early larval con- ditions being but scantily understood. The hud moth (pi). 57-66). — Detailed notes on the life history, ravages, and treatment of Tmetocera ocellana, which is believed to have been imported from Europe about 1840, and is considered the most injurious insect and hardest to combat of any in the ISTew York orchards. Its distribution, which now extends from JSTew England to Idaho and from Canada to Maryland, is thought to be chiefly due to infested nursery stock, although the moths are active flyers as well. The different stages are described and the life history outlined. The half-grown brown caterj)illars appear about the first of May, and pupation occurs in June. This is followed by a speedy emergence of the adults, which immedi- ately lay the eggs singly or in clusters on the leaves. Tlse ravages of the caterpillars are greatest in July and August. Then follows hiber- nation in silken cases, hidden in crevices of the bark, from September until the next spring. Only one annual brood has been observed. Where nursery ti^ees are attacked, hand picking of the caterpillar nests the latter j)art of May has proved effective. In the case of large trees frequent and tliorough spraying with arsenicals is recommended, at least two applications to be made before the flowers open, so that on their emergence from winter quarters the caterpillars will find only poisoned food. Insects injurious in 1895, O. Lugger {Minnesota Sta.Bul. iS^pp. 99-252, pis. 16, figs. 44). Synopsis. — This bulletin contains accounts of experiments witli infectious diseases among chinch hugs, notes on migratory locusts, insects attacking potatoes, cab- bages, currants, shade trees, and some other economic plants, and on the Hes- sian fly, plant lice, and scale insects. The life history, and especially the hibernating habit, of chinch bugs is briefly discussed. The use of ditches, and of kerosene for spraying the insects and destroying them in the ditches both by contact and by burning, and the cleaning up of places where they might find harbor in winter are recommended as valuable methods for their destruction. The action of fungus diseases on insects and the method of making cultures for distribution among insect hordes are briefly outlined. The fungus found most useful at the station in combating chinch bugs in 1895 was Isaria vexans, obtained from the white grub at the Cornell Station. The fungus was propagated on an extensive scale in fruit jars in a mixture of corn meal and beef broth. The disease was found to be very effective in the infection boxes, and attacked insects other than chinch bugs in the laboratory without having been introduced upon them. The cultures were shaken \\\) with water and sprayed upon wheat fields infested with chinch bugs. At first no eftect was ENTOMOLOGY. 145 noticed, probably owing to dronglit, but after a short time the disease appeared following- showers, and killed practically all of the bugs. There were sent to 1,941 farmers in 4C counties of the State 14,877 boxes of infected chinch bugs. In addition other distributions of chinch bugs were made. A number of the distributions of fungus failed of the best elfect on account of dry weather preventing the growth of the fungus, but in many cases the disease spread rapidly and checked the ravages of the bugs, though not always until after the rains had occurred. A map is given showing the distribution of chinch bugs in the State in 1887, 1894, and 1895, as well as the location of pine and deciduous forest areas and prairies. Eemarksaremadeon some fraudulent insec- ticides, particularly one containing equal parts of ginger and salt. Notes are given on the fungus Tsaria tomicii, found attacking bark beetles of the genus Tomicus, and bacterial diseases of the 2-strip8d locust {Melanoplus bivittatus), of a cabbage butterfly {Picris protoMoe), and of the tent caterpillar. It was found impossible to introduce into the State the grasshopper disease, which was raging violently among grasshoppers iu Colorado, but the cabbage- worm disease proved of easy propagation and killed all the caterpillars in the fields where it was introduced. Tlie tent caterpillars disappeared before pure cultures made from the single diseased individual were ready for inoculation, but as with the other diseases attempts toward infecting will be made this year. Notes are given on a grasshopper invasion of the State in the neigh- borhood of Duluth, where these insects in increasing numbers have been damaging vegetation for the past 2 or 3 years. Formerly the injurious grasshoppers were the Rocky Mountain locust {MeJanoplus spretns), but the species concerned in this invasion were the lesser migratory locust (M. atlanh) and the pellucid locust {Cammda pellu- cida). Illustrated descriptions are given of these 2 species, and their life history is outlined. Early fall plowing of all the land in which eggs have been deposited is recommended as the best preventive method, and for a remedy against an invasion of adults the use of hopperdozers has been found most efficient. Hopperdozers were used over a space of from 36 to 40 square miles, where the grasshoppers were most abundant, with great success. Poisoned baits of bran mash and Paris green also killed large numbers. Illustrated notes are given on several parasitic enemies of grasshoppers, especially the red mite {Tromhidium locustarum), tachina flies, flesh fly {Sarcophaga carnaria), bee fly {Hystcechus oreas), and blister beetles {EpiGauta spp.). The history, life history, and remedial treatment for the potato beetle {Dorypliora decemlineata) are given. There are 3 annual broods iu Minnesota, of which the last hibernates in the adult state. Paris green, applied either dry or preferably mixed with water (1 lb. to 150 gal.) has proved the best and a most eflicient remedy. Brief notes are also 146 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. given on the life history of some other i)otato insects, the blister beetles Upicauta pcnn sylvan ica and Macrohasis unicolor. Illustrated, descriptive, and life-history notes are given on the imported cabbage butterfly {Pieris rcqice)^ native cabbage butterfly (P. 2)rotodice), zebra caterpillar {Mamestra picta), cabbage plusia {Plusia brassiccu), and cabbage plutella {PlnteUa crimferarvm), and the destruc- tion of the larvjB by the application of boiling water, pyrethrum pow- der or tea, or a mixture of lime and carbolic powder is recommended. As a rule, however, the attacks of parasitic hymenopters, especially Apanteles glomeratus, will effectually keep down the numbers of the pests. Illustrated, descriptive, and life-history notes and remedial treatment are also given for sawflies in general, the imported currant worm {Nematus ventHcosus)^ native currant worm {Pristiphora grossuJariw), currant plant louse {Aphis ribis), currant borer {8esia tip ul if or mis), grapta butterfly {Grapta comma), and Alined leaf bug {Pmcilocapsus lirieatus). Eemarks are made on several borers that have proved inju- rious throughout the State, and descriptive, life-history, and remedial notes are given for the maple tree borer, red oak hoTer {Trochilium lug- geri), ash tree borer {T. fraxini), and Prionoxystus qucrclperda. A leaf roller {Cacoecia scmlferana) was injurious to box elder, and spraying with Paris green was found to assist the work of tlie natural parasites. The apple tree leaf roller {Cacwcia rosaceana), corn worm {Hcliothis armigera), rosin weed caterpillar {R. plilogopliagus), parsley butterfly {Papilio asterias), box elder bug {Leptocorsia triviUata), bean fly {Anthomyia sp.), wheat stem maggot {Meromyza americana), Hessian fly {Cecidomyia desiructor), and several species of plant lice were vari- ously injurious, and are described and remarked upon at length. General remarks are made on scale insects, with descriptive and remedial notes on the mealy bug (Z)acfyZopiws citri), cottony maple scale {Pulvinar'ia innumerahilis), willow or cottonwood scale {Chionaspis salicis), cactus white scale {Diasjjis cacti), elm tree white scale {Chio- naspis americana), and eccentric scale {Aspidiotus ancylus). Illustrated descriptions of variouH forms of apparatus for applying sprays, and directions for the preparation and use of insecticides, are given. The habits of cutworms are briefly noted and the use of xjoisoned baits and insect lime against them is recommended. A list is given of 233 species of cutworm moths or owlet moths taken by sugaring at St. Anthony Park. Some injurious insects, E. A. Oooley {Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Bui. 30, pp. 20, figs. 9). — Tliis comprises illustrated, descriptive, hfe-his- tory, and remedial notes on the imported elm leaf beetle {Galerucella lutcola), maple pseudococcus {Pseudococcus aceris), and Abbot sphinx {Thyreus abhotii). The elm leaf beetle made its appearance in Massachusetts in the ENTOMOLOGY. 147 summer of 1895 in the Coiiiiecticnt Yalley. The use of Paris green against the larvte, kerosene emulsion against the pup«, and arsenate of lead against the adults is considered the best treatment. The maple pseudococcus has been found at several localities in the eastern part of Massachusetts and in the Connecticut Valley. A solu- tion of whale oil soap applied with a brush or as a spray in late fall or early spring is believed to be effective treatment. The Abbot sphinx is discussed on account of its having been fre- quently received at the station. It is not especially injurious, and it is believed that hand picking will be sufficient to keep down its numbers. In addition, an article by C. H. Fernald, discussing the appearance and life history of the San Jose scale, with remedies, is reprinted from the Massachusetts Crop Eeport for August, 1895. Burning infested trees, if not too numerous, is regarded as the best remedy, although spraying with whale-oil soapsuds and resin wash is recommended. Insect enemies of truck and garden crops, A. L. Quaintance {Florida Sta. Bui. 34, pp. 241-337, figs. 36).— A popular bulletin briefly discussing the life history of insects in general, insecticides, and various forms of spraying apparatus, with special descriptive, life-history, and remedial notes on the chief species of insects affecting the bean, beet, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, squash, melon, eggplant, onion, and tomato. The encouraging of insectivorous birds is recommended. The tabula- tion of the insects treated in the bulletin is appended, indicating the proper treatment and the method of application. A list of materials used in making spraying solutions, with the cost of each, is given. Methods of destroying chinch bugs, Gr. E. Moueow [OMalioma Sta. Bui. 19, pp. 8). — A popular bulletin on the subject. The method of combating the pest by means of contagious fungus diseases is discussed, but more reliance is placed upon the barrier and tra^p method. In this method fields that it is desired to protect are surrounded with steep- sided ditches having holes in the bottoms 20 ft. apart, into which the bugs may fall and can be destroyed by kerosene or by crushing. Monograph of tlie Bombycid moths of America north of Mexico, I, A. S. Packaud {Nat. Acad. Sci., 7 {1S05), Memoir I). — This treats of the family Notodontidw. Accelerated development of silkworm eggs, M, Bellati and E. Quajat (Arch. Hal. Biol., 25 {1S9G), No. 2). — Notes on hastened maturity under various treatments. Foul brood, or bee pest {Jour. IBritish^ Bd. Agr., 1896, No. 2, pj^- 132-134). — Notes are given on Bacillus alvci, witli suggestions for combating its attacks. Preliminary report on the tzstze fly disease in Zululand, D. Bruck {London: Bennett cj- Davis; reviewed in Nature, 53 {1S06), No. 13S1, pp. 566-568. Life history of the parasol ant, J. H. Hart {Trinidad Bui. Misc. Inf., 2 {1896) No. 7, pp. 166-177). — Descrijitions aud uotes on the habits of Attn cephalotes aud A. octospinosa. Constant attention is necessary to destroy them, fire and sulphur fumes being used. The San Jos6 scale, M. H. Beckwith {Delaware Sta. Bui. SO, pp. 16). — This bulletin briefly notes the history of the San Jose scale, urging the necessity of united eftbrts against it, and gives the present status of the scale in Delaware and the extent to which other States are infested by the pest. The species has been found on fruit trees in 13 different localities of the State, pears, plums, and apples 148 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. being worst affected. The results of efforts with the different insecticides are men- tioned. Si^rajing the trees with Bordeaux mixture and whale-oil soap and water, in addition to the winter resin wash and treatment with hydrocyanic acid gas, are recommended. The San Jose scale in Missouri, J. M. Stedman (Missouri Sta. Circular of Infor- mation 3, pp. 10, figs. 3). — A brief popular account of the life history of JspidioUis perniciosus and the best treatment, with a discussion of its distribution in the United States and its occurrence in Missouri. So far as is known, but one orchard in the State has been infested with the scale, and in that the diseased trees have been dug np and burned, so that it is ho])ed the spread of the pest is checked. Directions are given for preventing the entrance of the insect by careful inspection of imjiorted nursery stock, and whale-oil soap wash is recommended for treatment. A parasite of plants, Aspidiotus vastatri:^ or perniciosus (Eer. Scient., scr. 4, 6 (1896), No. 4, pp. 124, 135). Combating Ocneria dispar in the United States, E. Henry (Ann. Sci. Aaron., ser. 3, 1 (1896), pp. 376-290). The ■weevil Hypera uiuriiia as an injurious insect to alfalfa (Dent, landw. Presse, 33 (1896), No. 71, pp. 630, 631, fig. 1). Revision of the Nematinae of North America, C. L. Marlatt ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of -Entomology Tech. Bui. 3, pp. 135, pi. 1, figs. 10). — This bulletin is a tech- nical monograph of this group, containing general notes on the geographical distri- bution, food plants, life history, and anatomy of these sawfiies as a whole, with scientific descriptions and notes on 19 genera and 217 siiecies occurring in America. Two genera and 90 species are described as new. The grass and grain joiut-'worm fiies and their allies, L. 0. Howard ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Entomology Tech. Bui. 3, pp. 34, figs. 10). — This bnllotiu com- prises a technical discussion and synoptical keys for a number of American phyto- phagic Eurytominfe feeding in the stems of grasses and small grain and in the seed of grapes. The five genera Isosoma, Isosomorpha, Decatomidea, Eurytomocharis, and Evoxysoma, comprising 19 species, are included, 14 species being described as new. Grain insects, P. Lesnes (Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 (1896), II, No. 33, pp. 197-302, figs. 27). Injurious insects and fungi (Jour. \^Britisli'\ Bd. Agr., 1896, No. 2, pp. 153-166, figs. 4). — Descriptions, life history, and suggested remedies for the prevention of the cherry moth, onion lly, Carpocapsa pomonella in walnuts, hop bug, surface cater- pillars (Jj/roiis spp.), and a tomato disease due to Cladosporium Igcopersici, are given. The tomato disease must not be confounded with Macrosporium solani. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture or a solution of copper sulphcite is recommended as preventive treatment. Notes on insect friends and foes, C. Fuller (Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 (1396), No. 6, pp. 398-403). A list of the insectivorous birds of New South Wales, A. J. North (Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 (1896), No. 6, pp. 380-397, pis. 10). Legislation and jurisprudence relating to insects useful and injurious to agriculture and insectivorous birds, G. Viret (Legislation et jurisprudence conccr- nant les inscctes utiles et nuisibles a V agriculture ct les oiseawx insecfivorcs. Paris : Berger- Levrault et Cie., 1S9G, pp. 365). Calcium carbid as an insecticide, E. Chuard (Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 (1896), I, No. 22, pp. 795-797). Composition of Paris green, C. A. Goessmann (Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Bui. 38, pp. 11-13). — Analyses of 8 samples of Paris green are reported. When 1 part of Paris green was treated with 100 parts of cold water the resulting solution contained about 3.5 per cent of arsenious acid. The hot water (SC- C.) extract of 3 samples contained 15.67, 15.92, and 21.12 per cent, respectively. When the first solution was cooled, it showed only 3.39 per cent of arsenious acid. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 149 Spray calendar, E. G. Lodeman (Keio York Cornell Sta. Bui. 114, folio, figs. 4). — This spray calendar gives tabulated directions for spraying the most important fruits, A-egetables, and flowers to prevent or remedy the attacks of various insects and fungus diseases. Formulas are given for the preparation of various insecticides and fungicides, and illustrations of several forms of spraying apparatus are ai^pended. FOOBS— AmMAL PRODUCTION. The mineral constituents of muscular tissue, J. Katz {PflUger's Arch. FhysioL, 63 {1S96), Xo. 1-2, pp. 1-85, Jigs. 3).— The potassium, sodium, irou, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus from pliosphates, phos- phorus from lecithin, phosphorus from luiclein, chlorin, and sulphur were determined in human flesh, pork, beef, veal, and the flesh of goats, rabbits, dogs, cats, hens, haddock, eel, and pike. The results are expressed in graphic form. The maximum and miniuuim of each ele- ment is also given, calculated for fresh and water-free substances. Relations between muscular xvork and. the metabolism of the proteid materials of the body, A. Chauveau ( Compt. Rend., 122 {1896), Xo. 8, pp. 429-435; abs. in Cliem. Centbl, 4 {1896), Xo. 13, p. 7iS).— Three experiments were made with a dog. In 2 of the experiments consid- erable muscular work was performed. It was found that practically the same amount of nitrogen was excreted in the urine whether work was performed or not. In the author's opinion these results confirm the conclusion drawn from previous experiments, that the combustion of carbohydrates in the muscles furnishes the energy for external muscu- lar work. The following conclusions were also reached: The energy for muscular labor is furnished by oxidation processes, both complete and incomplete. When work is performed by a fasting animal, carbo- hydrates are replaced by a ijartial oxidation of fat. The energy neces- sary for muscular labor is never furnished by the oxidation of protein of the cells and tissues of the organism. Investigation on the influence of muscular exertion on the me- tabolism of protein, O. Kkummachee, {Ztschr. Biol., 33 {1896), Xo. 1, pp. 108-138, pis. 2). — In experiments Avith men the author finds that the nitrogen excretion in the urine is increased by muscular labor; the increase is, however, not regular nor proportionate to the amount of labor. In 1 experiment the amount of nitrogen metabolized could have furnished enough energy for the external work performed. In the 2 other experiments this was not the case. The conclusion is reached that fat and carbohydrates must also be considered sources of energy for muscular labor. The influence of temperature on the amoimt of carbon dioxid and water vapor produced by man v/lien performing severe mus- cular labor, H. Wolpert {Arch. Eyg., 26, Xo. 1, pp. 32-67, fig. 1, dgm. 1). — These experiments were made with a respiration apparatus similar to that of Petteukofer and Voit, described in Bulletin 21 of this Office (E. S. E., 7, p. 14:8). Some modifications and improvements in construe- 150 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. tiou were introduced. The experimeuts were of several hours' duration and covered periods of rest, labor, and sleep. The author was himself the subject. His weight varied somewhat during the experiments, but the results in every case are recalculated to a uniform weight of 70 kg. The respiratory quotient was determined and the amount of water vapor produced. Very careful records of the temperature were kept and the amount of work performed was measured with an ergograph. Aliquot samples of the external air and of the respired air were taken for analysis by methods similar to those followed by Pettenkofer and Voit. Some of the conclusions reached are as follows: A room temperature of between 5 and 25° exercised no particular influence upon the amount of carbon dioxid excreted duriiig rest or when as much as 15,000 kilo- grammeters of work per hour were performed. The amount of carbon dioxid produced in sleep, rest, and labor (15,000 kilogramraeters jier hour) was in the proportion of 4:5: 12, The amount of carbon dioxid l^roduced per hour was increased about 50 gm. when 15,000 kilogram- meters of work were performed j^er hour. When the same amount of work was performed in an average temperature of 16°, 119 gm. of water vapor were produced; when no work was performed, the temperature being 22.5°, the amount of water vapor i>roduced was 42 gm.; daring sleep, the mean temperature being 20.1°, the amount of water vapor produced was 49.5 gm. Some practical deductions from the results of these experiments are also made. The excretion of carbon dioxid and water vapor by individuals of various trades during rest and work, H. Wolpert {Arch. Byg., 26, No. 1, pp. 68-108, dgms. 9). — Using the apparatus and follow- ing the methods referred to in the previous abstract (p. 149), experi- ments were made with shoemakers, seamstresses, a lithographer, a mechanic, and men of several other trades. Tables are given which show the amount of carbon dioxid and water vapor produced at rest and at labor. The amounts produced by the people of various trades are compared with each other and with the amounts i)roduced by the author himself in the experiments reported in the previous article. Assuming that 1 kilogram meter of work produced 3^ mg. of carbon dioxid, the author calculated the amount of work performed by the subjects. It ranged from 900 (seamstress) to 8,000 kilogrammeters (shoemaker), in every case falling below the 15,000 kilogrammeters performed by the author in the experiments of which he was the subject. The practical ax)plication of his results is briefly discussed. Does muscular energy depend directly upon the energy of the protein of the food? A. Chauveau and C. Contejean {Compt. Bend., 122 [1896), No. 9, pp. 504-511, diag. 1). — Two sets of experiments were made with a dog; in one the food consisted of meat and in the other of gelatin. In each experiment there were periods of rest and of FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 151 work. The conclusion is readied that, since the excretion of nitrogen in the urine is not increased by muscuhir exercise, the protein of the food is not directly concerned in the production of work. (See also i). 156.) Respiration and muscular energy, A. Ghauveau {Compt. Rend., 122 {1896), Xos. 2, pp. 58-64; 5', pp. 113-120).— Tha author divides the ener^iy expended when a nniscle is doing positive work — for instance, lifting: a weight — into two iiarts, one utilized in displacing the weight and the other in sustaining it during displacement. The external work of lifting a weight was measured directly, and the energy changes in the muscles indirectly hy means of respiration experiments in which the resi)iratory quotient was determined. The experimental details are given. The conclusion is reached that the mechanical work done by muscles in lifting a weight requires only an equivalent expenditure of energy. (See also p. 156.) Dietary study at Lyman School {Sixteenth Annual Rpt. Trustees State Primary and Reform Schools {Massachnsetts), 1895, pp. 25-27). — A dietary study of one of the families at the Lyman School was made by Mr. Chapin and Mr. and Mrs. A. S. Meserve. The family consisted of 34: boys, 4 adult officers, and 2 children 4 and 8 years old. The ages of the boys ranged from 11 to 19 years. The duration of the experiment was 1 week. The composition of most of the articles of food consumed was calculated from standard tables. A few analyses were made at the laboratory of the Massachusetts State Board of Health. The nutrients consumed per individual per day were protein 0.265 lb., fat 0.183, carbohydrates 1.278, and the weight of the food was 4.25 lbs. Leaves as a food for farm animals, F. H. Wekenskiold {TidsJcr. norsle Landhr., 3 {1896), pp. 22-34). — The author gives analyses of the leaves of elm, ash, aspen, birch, alder, mountain ash, yellow willow {Salix caprea), and gray willow gathered at Aas Agricultural College (ISTorway). The analyses cover a period of several years. In some instances the leaves, together with small twigs, were analyzed, and in other cases the leaves only. In addition to the usual determinations, in the later analyses indigestible albuminoids, digestible albuminoids, amids, tannin, gallic acid, and i)entosans were determined. The average digestion coefficients obtained for the protein in the leaves were: Ash, 74.1 per cent; elm, 67.3; gray willow, 65.2; moun- tain ash, 62.2; aspen, 60.6; yellow willow, 56.0; alder, 52.7, and birch, 41.1. Including the earlier analyses, the average digestion coefticients of the tannin-free leaves were as follows: Ash, 10.34 i)er cent; elm, 9.56; aspen, 7.68; mountain ash, 6.59. Neither starch nor alkaloids were found in any of the leaves analyzed. — F. av. woll. Analyses of silage from stack silos, P. Hellstrom {Rpt. Ultima Agl. Institute, 1894, pp. 75-77). — Samples were taken from silo stacks built according to Kamstedt's method. The ages of the different sam- ples, when sampled, were as follows: Sample 1, 5 months; sample II, 13 5096— No. 2- — 5 152 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. montlis; sample III, 5 mouths; samples IV and V, 6 mouths. The results of analysis were as follows : Analysis of silage from stack silos. As sampled. Dry substance. Grass with some clover. Green rye. Glyce- ria spoota- bilis. Clover (main- ly). Grass with some clover. Green rye. Glyce- ria spcota- bilis. Clover main- ly). I. II. III. IV. V. I. II. m. IT. V. Water Fer ct. 63.75 4.72 1.59 15.53 12.08 2.33 .76 1.03 Per ct. 75.55 3.03 1.25 11.78 6.55 1.84 .48 .98 Per ct. 82. 52 1.58 .97 } 13.39 1.54 . 25 .77 Per ct. 80.64 1.52 .42 15.59 1.83 .24 .83 Per ct. 62.78 7.21 1.37 24.98 3.70 1.15 1.09 Per ct. Fer ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Crude protein Crude fat 13. 03* 4.40 f 42. 81 \ 33. 32 6.44 2.08 12.41 5.12 48. 15 26.81 7.51 1.97 9.04 5.58 \ 76. 59 8.80 1.45 7.84 2.18 80.54 9.44 1.25 19.37 3 37 Carboliydrates Crude cellulo.se . . . Ash 67.03 9.93 3.10 — F. W. WOLL. Feeding experiments with Rehnstrdm's "horse bread," J. Y. NoKDENDAHL {Tidslr. Vet. Med., 14 {189 5), pp. 5i5-X^i 7). —Several feed- ing trials were made with "horse bread" (E. S. E., 7, j). 247) on horses in diiferent regiments of the Swedish army, with favorable results. One pound of the bread is said to possess about the same feeding value as 2 lbs. of oats. Analysis shows its composition to be as follows: Water, 8.16 per cent; ash, 3.45; protein, 17.13; carbohydrates, 66.50, and fat, 4.76. — f. w. woll. Report of the State Chemical-Control Station of Norv^ay for 1895, F. H. Werenskiold {Christiania : 1896, pp. 51). — The report gives the usual resume of the main work of the chemical-control station during the year. The following results are deemed of more general interest : Analyses of Norivegian root crops. — The investigation was begun in 1893, the object being to study the average composition of the main Norwegian root crops and the variations to which they are subject. Forty-seven samples were analyzed during 1895. The average data obtained for the different kinds of crops are shown in the following table : Arcraf/e corn-position and yield of root croj)s, 1S95. Number of sam- ples. Water. Dry matter. In dry matter. Ash. Ether extract. Pro- tein. Crude fiber. Nitrogen- free extract. Yield per acre. 8 7 25 6 1 Per ct. 88.54 87.93 91.38 91.80 83.80 Per ct. 11.46 12.07 8.62 8.20 16. 20 Per ct. 6.42 5.87 7.93 8.19 5.92 Per ct. 2.50 3. 62 3.38 3.94 1.21 Per ct. 5.34 7.23 9.32 7.63 5.48 Per ct. 7.11 8.63 10.32 10.76 3.18 Per cent. 78.73 74. 65 69.05 09.48 84.21 Buihcls. 574 Swedish turnips Yellow turnips White turnips Fodder beets 758 1,102 1, 370 344 FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 153 Composition of goat manure. — A sample of goat manure was analyzer! and found to contain: Nitrogen, 0.74 per cent (0.042 per cent in the form of ammonia); phosphoric acid, 0.24 per cent, and potash, 0.17 per cent, indicating- a composition and value similar to sheep manure. Alkaloids in distillery slump, — A sample of distillery slump was found to contain 6 decigrams solaniu and 1.5 decigrams solauidin salts per liter of slump ; also 0.4 volume per cent of alcohol, a small trace of copper, and an alkaloid substance, most likely a ptomaine. An animal con- suming 30 liters of slump j)er day would thus take in 18 gm. of solanin and 4.5 gm. solanidin salts daily. — f. w. woll. Report of agricultural chemical v/ork for the Royal Agricul- tural Society (Norv/ay) in 1895, V. Stein {Tidsslcr. Landokon., 14 (1895), pp. 618-635). — The author describes the chemical control work on feeding stuffs, fertilizers, and dairy products performed during 1895 for this society. Of the 503 samples of feeding stuft's analyzed there were 191 samples of rape-seed cake, 113 of wheat bran, 70 of sunflower- seed cake, 33 of cotton-seed meal, 28 of linseed cake, 6 of cocoa cake, and 6 of palm-nut cake. The 1,520 samples of fertilizers examined included 817 samples of superphosphates, 238 of mixed fertilizers, 152 of potash salts, 143 of Thomas phosphate, 41 of bone meal, and 42 of Chile saltpeter. The 3,867 samples of dairy products included 1,899 samples of milk, 1,920 of butter, and 46 of cheese. All samples of feeding stuffs analyzed were examined microscopically to ascertain their purity. The following table gives the average com- position of the common feeding stuffs analyzed in 1893-94 which micro- scoi:>ic examination proved to be free from foreign impurities : Average composition of pure concentrated feeding stuffs. Linseed cake Eape-seed cake Cottonseed cake, decorticated Peanut cake, decorticated Sunfiower-seed cake, I ' Sunflower-seed cake, II • Hemp-seed cake Palmnut cake Cocoa cake Sesame cake Wheat bran Rye bran Elce bran Moisture. Per cent. 11.9 10.3 7.8 9.2 7.9 8.2 10.3 10.0 9.0 9.0 n.i 10.8 10.0 Ash. Per cent. 6.8 7.4 6.0 6.2 .5.7 5.4 8.2 3.7 5.9 10.7 5.6 4.5 7.2 Crude protein. Percent. 30.7 33.9 46.8 40.5 39.1 32.9 32.0 17.0 21.0 38.2 10.5 lfi.6 11.6 Crude fiber. Per cent. 10.0 11.5 6.5 5.5 11.9 20.1 20.5 26.0 16.0 4.2 10.0 5.6 12.0 Nitro- gen-free extract. Per cent. 31.6 28.0 21.3 23.8 19.6 ]9.7 10.9 34.8 34.3 23.6 52.0 59.4 49.2 Ether extract. Per cent. 9.0 8.9 11.0 8.8 15.8 13.7 9.1 8.5 13.8 14.3 3.8 3.1 10.0 1 Sunflower-seed cake is divided into two groups according to the cembined content of nitrogenous substances and fat, viz, I, 50 per cent and above, and II, below 50 jier cent. The number of samples included in this summary is not given in the original. — F. w. woll. Report of Oerebro Chemical Station and Seed-Control Station for 1894, J. Widen {Oerchro {Sweden): 1895, pp. 48). — This contains the usual accounts of chemical and seed-control work, including analyses 154 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of fertilizers (p. 117), feeding stuffs, and dairy products (p. 174). The following average analyses of feeding stuffs are given: Average analyses of feeding stuffs. Kapeseed cake Peanut cako . . . Wheat bran . . . Eye bran No. of samples. Moisture. Ash. Per cent. / 9.44 \ 7.40-11.97 f 9. 2.3 I \ 7. 83-10. 96 / 11.82 \]0. 90-14. 33 / 11.28 \ 9.77-12.42 I Per cent. 8.01 6.75-10.02 6.19 4. 50-8. 05 5.03 3. 75-0. 25 4.83 3. 93-5. 47 Crude protein. Per cent. 34.64 32. 50-37. 00 46.09 42. 93-50. 63 15.08 13. OU-18. 37 16. 5-t 11. 87-18. 00 Carbohy- drates. Per cent. 38.81 35. 77-42. 01 28. 90 25.43-31.36 '9.50 18.02-10.65 •'G.31 2 5. 40-7. 20 Ci.ude fat. Per cent. 8.99 7. 52-10. 90 8.29 6. 32-13. 25 3.48 2. 30-5. 51 3.00 1. 78-3. 49 'Crude fiber; nitrogen-free extract, 53.45 per cent (51.76-54.77). ^Crude fiber; uitrogon-free extract, 57.53 per cent (55.51-61.15). — P. W. WOLL. Dangers from rancid cotton cake, D. Crispo {Rap. Trav. Lab. Utat, Anvers, 1893, pp. 13, 14).— The killing of 13 Lead of cattle by- eating damaged cotton-seed meal is reported. The post mortem exam- ination indicated intlamination of the mucous membrane similar to gastroenteritis. An examination of the meal showed the presence of a considerable amount of free acid, due to the action of a special butyric ferment. Milk inoculated with this ferment acquired in a few- hours the same odor as that observed in the damaged meal. It is sug- gested that this ferment produces an abnormal acid digestion which results liiuilly in inflammation of the stomach and death. Calf-feeding experiments, G. J, Leufven {Rpt. Ultima Agl. Inst., 1894. pp. 47, 48). — Six calves, divided into 2 uniform lots, were fed sweet whole milk, and later skim milk with ground flaxseed and oatmeal. Lot 1 was fed from pails and lot 2 with patent calf feeders. The two lots w^ere fed 3 times daily and received the same quantities of food. The experiment proper covered 9 weeks. One of the calves in lot 1 died from diarrhea: the 2 other calves in the lot gained 181.5 and 191.4 lbs., respectively. The calves in lot 2 gained 23G.5 lbs., 179.9 lbs., and 210.5 lbs., respectively. The author concludes that feeding calves with a- good artificial feeder results in gieater gains in weight than feeding from a pail, and tliat while it does not prevent the appearance of diarrhea it diminishes the number of cases. — f. "VV. woll. Fattening experiments with sheep during 1895, J. Grude {Landmandsvennen, 4 {1896), pp. 1-7). — The experiments were conducted under the auspices of the Norwegian Government at 11 different farms in the county of Stavanger, on a plan similar to that followed in pre- vious years (E. S. R., 5, p. 919). The experiments included 199 sheep divided into 11 lots, and lasted from 40 to 58 days. The average quan- tities of feeding stulfs fed daily were as follows: Hay, 1.1 lbs.; turnips, 9.4; linseed cake, 1.4, and oats, 0.7. The gains in weight made during FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 155 the experiment, the age, length of fattening period, the cost, and sell- ing price of each sort of sheep are given in the following table: Itesults of sheep-feeding experiments in 1S95. Xuiuber of animals. Ago. Lcnsth of f.lt- tciiiiig ln'iiuil. Weight at bt'gin- uiiig. Gain made per head. Purcliase price ptT poiiud. S.lliiig price per pound. Profit per head. 137 33 1 Year.^. U-31 2.\-i).V 4f"-7l I Days. 47.9 48.4 45.7 5J.0 GG. 0 Pounds. 10;i.9 1U7.7 109. 1 107.3 8(i.O Powidg. 2G. 1 25.4 23. 9 22.0 Cents. 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.5 5.1 Cents. 5.5 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5 $2.49 Young ewes 2.40 2.46 Spayed ewes 2.36 1.64 47.9 10i).3 25.8 4.5 5.5 2.46 As found in the previous series of experiments, the gains in live weight after the i^ixth week were smaller, and in some cases there was a decrease in weight. The quality of the carcass may, however, have improved during the period. — F. w. woll. Food products of the world, Mary E. Green (The Hotel World, Chicago, 1896, pp. XI, i?^5).— The book contains description of many common and uncommon foods and condiments. The work is largely based on the exhibits of food at the World's Columbian Exposition. Starch, its digestiou and value as a nutrient, J. E. Hoijart {Diet, and H\jg. Gaz., 12 {1S96), No. 9. pp. 543, 544). — A brief review of the subject. On the determination of gluten in flour, Ballaxji (Cowpl. Rend., 12S (1896), Xo. 2, pp. 136, 137). — A note on the influence of diflereut methods of milling on the gluten and nitrogen content of flour. On the nutritive value of flours and on the economic consequences of exces- sive bolting, Balland (Compt. Fiend., 122 (1896), Xo. 25, pp. 1496-1498; Rev. Scient., ser. 4,6 (1896), Xo. 2, ^. 5J).— The author believes, on the ground of their chemical composition, that the coavso flours are better fitted to furnish nutrients in the cor- rect proportion than the finer sorts. On the nutritive value of bread frcm different specimens of screened flour, A. GiRARD (Compt. Rend., 122 (1896), Xos. 23, pp. 1309-1313; 24, pp. 1382-1388).— From a study of the amount of phosphorns in various kinds of bread the author concludes that th.ere is no reason for the belief that bread from coarse flour is to be preferred to white bread if the digestive organs are healthy. Ried wheat, its suitability for bread making, J. Genin (Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 (1896), II, Xo. 36, pp. 355, 356). — The author reports favorably on this variety of wheat. A poison in cotton seed and cotton cake, C. Cornevix (Ann. Agron., 22 (1896), Xo. 8, }}p. 353-361).— Piij;s were killed by feeding Egyptian seed and cake to them. The cold water extract of the whole seed was injected into a dog aud it died in 18 hours. The kernel contains more poison than the hull. The oil was fouud to be harmless. The albuminoids and fats of agricultural foods, R. Warixgton (Agl. Students' Gaz., n. ser., 8 (1896), Xo. 1, pp. 4-11). — A general discussion of the subject. The preservation of foods and condiments, Andks (Das Konservirung des Xah- rungs- und Gennssinittels. Vienna, Rest, Leipzig: Hartlehen. A few practical hints on the dieting of the native sick and invalids, Dutt (Indian Med. Jour., 3tj (1895), Xo. 11, pp. 437-441; and Diet, and Ili/g. Gaz., 12 (1896), No. 2, pp. 73-81). — The author urges the importance of a diet for the native sick suited to their dietary habits. A very largo number of native foods und food prep- arations are described, and their use in disease and convalescence is discussed. 156 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. An outline of the diet of man in health and disease, H. Schlesinger and H. Becker (Grnndziige der Ernahrung des gesiinden und hranken Mensclien. Frankfort : H. Bechhold, pp. 60). — The authors give briefly the principles of diet, describe vari- ous foods and condiments, and suggest a number of menus which are very low priced. How to feed children : A mannal for mothers, nurses, and physicians, Louise M. HOGAN {Philadcljihia: J. B. Lipinncott Co., pp. 236). — The book is a practical dis- cussion of the foods suited to infants and children, methods of preparing foods, and the diet suited to various conditions of health and disease. Rules of diet for health and disease, J. Borntrager (Didt-Vorschriften fiir Gesunde und Kranle jeder Art. Leipzig: H. Hartung und SoJin, 1S96, Sd ed.). The relation, as shown by the respiratory quotient, between the expenditure of energy by a muscle and the shortening it undergoes, A. Chauveau {Compt. Bend., 123 {1896), No. 3, pp. 151-155; abs. in Bev. Sclent., ser. 4, 6 (1896), Ko. 5, p. 152).— For a given amount of external work done by the muscle the energy is smaller as the muscle is nearer its maximum length. On the transformation of fat into carbohydrates in animals consuming no food, A. Chauveau (Compt. Bend., 122 (1S96), No. 20, pp. 1098-1103).— Wihevnating animals sometimes increase in weight. In the author's opinion this may be accounted for by the partial oxidation of stearin of fatty tissue to glycose, carbon dioxid, and water. In this case the respiratory quotient should be constant and •qual to about 0.78. Source and nature of potential energy directly utilized in muscular ■work as shown by the respiratory quotient in fasting man, A. Chauveau (Compt. Bend., 122 (1896), No. 21, pp. 1163-1169; Bev. Scient., ser. 4, 5 (1896), No. 20, p. 726).— The respiratory quotient increases rapidly when muscular work is commenced, but diminishes if the work is prolonged. After an hour's rest the respiratory quotient is normal. The following conclusions are reached: (1) The evidence furnished by the respiratory quotient seems to indicate that fat is not used directly by the muscles in the production of energy even by a fasting man. (2) The energy for muscular exertion is furnished by carbohydrates. (3) Muscular exertion exhausts the reserve of glycogen and glycose when these reserve materials are stored up. There is a tendency to renew these materials as they are used in spite of fasting. The respiratory quotient indicates that this takes place at the expense of fats, which are thus indirectly the source of muscular energy. The respiratory quotient of animals either fasting or fed a diet rich in carbohydrates "when muscular contractions are produced by means of elec- tricity: Deduction concerning the potential energy directly expended in internal muscular exertion, A. Chauveau and F. Laulanie (Compt. Bend., 122 (1896), No. 22, pp. 1244-1250). — Experiments were made with dogs and with rabbits which confirm the authors' previous conclusions (see above). The utilization of fat in food from the evidence furnished by the respiratory quotient as to the potential energy used for muscular work by a man on a diet of fat, A. Chauveau, Tissot, and de Varigny (Compt. Bend., 122 (1S96), No. 21, pp. 1169-1173; abs. in Bev. Scient., ser. 4, 5 (1896), No. 23, p. 7^7).— Experiments are reported which in the authors' opinion show that fat is transformed into reserve material (carbohydrates) which serve as the source of muscular energy. On the nature of the chemical processes involved in muscular action, A. Chauveau (Compt. Bend., 122 (1896), No. 23, pp. 1303-1309) .-The author cites many authorities and defends his position on the above question. Practical results of experiments in metaboiism conducted on the w^orking horse, Zuntz (Deut. landw. Presse, 23 (1896), Nos. 64, p. 571; 65, pp. 579, 580).— In the form of a lecture the author discusses some of the results of experiments on the metabolism of work horses. VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. 157 The influence of spaying on metabolism, Curatulo and Tarulli {Ccnthl. PhyaioJ., 9 {ISOG), p. 149; Ztschr. Fleisch- und JUilchhyg., 6 (,1896), Ko. 11, pp. 219, 220'). — Experiments were made with a lemale dog, the diet being the same belbre and after the operation. The daily excretion of phosphoric acid was determined, and the authors coucliulc that it was diminished by spaying. Intestinal fermentation -when the flesh of tuberculous cattle is fed, Kutscher {Arch. Hycj., 27, No. 1, pp. 34-40). — The author fed the iiesh of tuberculous and healthy cattle to dogs. The conclusion was reached that the flesh of tuberculous animals, both the diseased and normal tissue, was more susceptible to intestinal fermentation than that of healthy animals. The action of mustard and pepper on pancreatic digestion, Gottlieb (Jour, riiarm. et Ckim., ser. 6, S {1896), Xo. 11, p. 652). — In experiments with rabbits the secretion of pancreatic juice was tripled or quadrupled without materially dimin- ishing its strength or digestive power for carbohydrates, fats, or albuminoids. Bellow^'a "Origin of species by a change in environment" in stock breeding, L. Adametz {Jour. Landw., 44 {1896), i\"o. 2, pp. 159-170). The importance of the mineral constituents of plants for the nourishment of cattle, Tancr^: (Fiihling's landw. Ztg., 45 {1896), No. 12, pp. 375-382).— K brief snm- marj' of the subject. Influence of locaJity on cattle, R. Bruce {Agl. Jour. Cape Colony, 9 {1896), No. 10, pp. 250-252). — Extracts from a paper on the above subject read before the London Farmers' Club. The slaughter te.sts at the fat-stock show at Berlin in 1896, C. Lrhjiann {Deui. landw. Fresse, 25 {1896), Nos.46,pp. 406, 407; 47, p.415).—T'h& article contains a large number of statistics. Monograph on Illyrian cattle: The relation of this breed to other breeds, L. Adametz {Jour. Landw., 44 {1896), No. 2, pp. 105-136) .—The author believes that the Illyrian cattle are the direct descendants of the prehistoric Brachyeros of central Europe in the time of the lake dwellers. Investigation on the anatomical structure of the Montenegrin branch of the Illyrian breed of cattle, L. Auametz {Jour. Landw., 44 {1896), No. 2, pp. 137-157). — A description of the breed is given and a comparison of it with the Bosnia-Herzego- vina breed. Sheep breeding in the Deccan, J. W. A. Morgan {Agl. Ledger, 1895, No. IS, p. 3). — Notes on the above subject, mentioning several breeds. French mutton sheep of the Charmoise breed, R. Behmer {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), No. 67, pp. 595, 596, figs. 5). The production of wool and the dairy industry in the Argentine Republic, E. Marie {Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), II, No. 34, pp. 260-263). Fattening hogs on alfalfa, F, C. Barker {Irrigation Age, 10 {1896), No. 1, pp. 26, 27). — In a general article on the subject the author recommends alfalfa for hogs. Water in the economic feeding of horses, H. V. de Longey {Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), II, No. 31, pp. 167-171). Composition of eggshells {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), No. 57, p. 571). — Accord- ing to B. Wicko the shells of hen eggs contain 93.7 per cent of calcium carbonate, 1.39 per cent of magnesium carbonate, 0.76 per cent of phosphate of lime, and 4.24 per cent of organic substance. VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. Hog cholera and swine plague in Indiana, A. W. Bitting (Indiana 8ta. BuJ. 58, j^p- ^^)- — This consists of brief remarks on the etiology, symptoms, and treatment of these diseases, with an account of answers received in response to circulars sent by the station and 158 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. also by the State Swine Breeders' Association to swine breeders in the State asking- their experience with the diseases. The replies show that about 8 per cent of hogs perished each year that cholera prevailed, and that the disease was most virulent where the hogs were allowed free access to surface water and wallows. It is believed that medical treatment is of little avail, although the U. S. Prescription, including charcoal, sulphur, several sodium salts, and antimonj^ sulphid, was as efficacious as any during the present season. As preventives are recommended water from wells or springs, clean quarters, care in feeding, and caution against infection by diseased hogs from other sources. The Indiana laws relating to hog cholera are quoted, and the answers received from the swine breeders of the State are condensed and tabulated. The direct transmission of infectious entsro-hepatitis in tur- keys, V. A. Moore {U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of A^iimal Industry Cir- cular 5, pp. 8, figs. 7). — This briefly recounts the nature of the disease, with illustrations of normal and diseased cfeca and livers, and gives the result of experiments made to ascertain if the affection could be directly transmitted from diseased to healthy turkeys. In ISTovember, 1895, 3 turkeys supposedly ill with this disease were shipped from Ehode Island to this Department. One of the turkeys was dead upon its arrival, but the other 2 were placed in the yard with 6 healthy turkeys. The dead turkey was found vq}on post-mortem to be aiiected with the dis- ease, and microscopical examination revealed the presence of the sjDe- ciflc protozoan parasite. The liver and ca^ca of the dead turkey were chopped up and fed to the healthy ones. In addition, the feces of the other turkeys suspected of having the disease were mixed with the food given the healthy turkeys. One of the Ilhode Island turkeys died from the disease 4 days after its arrival and its viscera were fed to the other turkeys. In the 6 weeks following 3 of the healthy turkeys became affected with the disease, and died from it. In January the remaining 3 were killed and one of them showed evidence of the disease. The third of the turkeys received from Khode Island showed no symptoms of the disease and neither died nor was killed. The experiment is believed to be a conclusive proof of the communicability of the disease by the association of diseased turkeys with healthy fowls. Prevention of the disease by the destruction of sick turkeys is strongly recommended and the complete disinfection of infected locali- ties urged, the cleansing to be done by the use of slacked lime in turkey yards and the washing of infected jilaces with the following: Crude carbolic acid, ^ gal. ; crude sulphuric acid, h gal. ; water, 19 gal. Tuberculosis, F. W. Brewer ( Utah Sta. Bid. 41, pp. 37, pis. 2, figs. 5). — This bulletin gives a popular and general discussion of the subject of tuberculosis, both of animals and man. The nature of the bacillus is discussed and the formation and appearance of tubercles briefly described. The method of injecting tuberculin into suspected VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. 159 animals for the purpose of detoctiug the disease in its early stao,es is noted. Great care in selecting- cattle, promptness in removing and destroying those diseased, and thorough disinfection of the infected places are urged. In addition are given tabulated data showing the temperature records of various members of the station herd when injected with tuberculin, with notes on the post-mortemH, and illustra- tions showing diseased tissues and scenes in the station laboratories. Principles of liorseshosing, E. P. '^h.-e.'B {Virginia Sta. Bui. 46, pp. 131-138, pis. 2). — In this bulletin tlie anatomical structure of a horse's foot is described and illustrated, and directions given for properly level- ing the foot to receive the shoe and for applying the shoe. It is stated that the foot should be pared until the angle of the wall of the hoof at the toe ranges from ~A) to r>,>o, and that the sole of tlie foot should ordinarily not be touched with the tools in preparing the foot for the shoe. The sole-bearing surface of the shoe must be perfectly level, and the hoof trimmed so as to rest evenly upon it at all points. The jiractice of fitting tlie shoo hot is strongly condemned, and the use of 3 or 4 small nails for fastening on the shoe is recommended. Shoes should be reset every 4 or 6 weeks. Veterinary materia niedica for farmers, E. P. Xiles ( Vir{jinia Sta. Bui. 45, pp. 121- l.:-'i). — This is a coutinuatioii of tlic popular notes on drugs of importance for treat- ing ailments of farm animals, begun in Bulletin 43 (E. S. R., 7, p. 526). This bulletin contains notes on the physiological and therapeutic action and dose of ammonia, aco- nite, potassium bromid, chloral hydrate, cannabis iudica, areca nut, hyposulj)hite of soda, creoliu, lysol, pyoctanin, and (luinin. Lameness in horses and mules, W. E. A. Wyman {South CaroJina Sta. Bui. 23, n. scr., pp.11). — This bulletin discusses in a popular manner the various causes of lameness in farm auimals. Direct ions are given for diagnosing the exact nature of the lameness and the part affected, the treatment of the special lesions causing lame- ness is discussed, and prescriptions given for liniments and soothing lotions. In addition, the subject of depraved appetite in horses and mules is brieiiy noted and prescriptions included for medicines to be given. Hygiene of the domestic animals, H. Geoijge (Jour. Agr. Prat., GO (ISOG), IT, No. 2S, pp. 53-55). — This article treats of the transmission of glanders by public watering places, jaundice in dogs, poisoning of cattle by smut of wheat, foreign bodies swallowed by ruminants, and the dietetic importance of salt. A wasting disease of cattle (Deut. Janrhr. I'rrsse, 23 (1S9G), No. 57, j)- 505, figs. 2). Arthritis in lambs, J. La Flize (Jour. Agr. Prat., GO (1S9G), IT, No. 31, ])p. 171, 172). A contribution to the etiology of rinderpest, Tai;tacovskv {Arch. Sci. Biol., 4, No. 3, pp. 205-327; al)s. in Cenihl. Bald, und Par. Med., 19 {1896), No. 24, p]). 948,949). Experimental study of translucent tubercles in the lungs of horses, Nocard {Berl. tierurz. Wochenschr., 189G, No. 17; ais. in Centbl. Bakt. und Par. Med., 20 {1896), Nos. 4-5, pp. 200, 201). A study of the differentiation of the tuberculosis of man and other mammals from that of birds, Leuoy {Arch. viM. exper. et anat. path., 7 {1805), p. 636; ahs. in Centbl Bakt. und Par. Med., 19 {1896), Nos. 16-17, pp. 620, 621). A coccidium from the skin of a mouse, A. Scuuberg {Verhandl. naturw.-med. Ver. Heidelberg, n. ser., 5 {ISOG), No. 4, pp. 369-308, pi. 1). 160 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. DAIRY FARMING— DAIRYING. Corn silage for milch cows, W. P. Wheeler {Xeui Yorl: State Sta. Bid. 97 J n. scr.^i)p. 473-511). — The results of 10 trials iDade in ditferent years, where corn silage formed part of the ration, have been averaged and arranged to show changes in yield and composition of milk which have followed changes in food. The tests were made " with cows in a state of lactation when a fair flow of milk of normal composition would be expected, aud any general change in quality or quantity of the milk, besides the gradual change as the period of lactation advanced might reasonably be attributed to the influence of the different foods." The average amount of food consumed per cow per day, the composition of the food, calculated digestible nutrients per 1,000 lbs. live weight, yield and composition of milk, and cost per pound of milk and milk constituents are expressed in tabular form for each test. The cows were fed in every case coarse fodder and a mixed grain ration, the coarse fodder being fed 3 times a day aud the grain morn- ing and night just before the coarse fodder. The cost of the rations is based upon wheat bran at $18, corn meal at $20, ground oats at $25, linseed meal at $27, gluten meal at 825, wheat middlings at $20, cotton- seed meal at $30, gluten feed at $18, ground flaxseed at $60, hay at $10, corn stover at $6, corn silage at $3, clover silage at $3, roots at $3, and all green fodder at $2 per ton. Each trial consisted of two or more periods, and corn silage formed part of the coarse-fodder ration in one or more of the periods. The rations ajiproximated those that would generally be made from the materials composing them and were not extreme in any case. Silage was never fed exclusively, but was used once or twice a day with grain, and hay was usually given. In several instances beets, carrots, corn fodder, corn stover, or alfalfa fodder formed a part of the coarse food. The author draws the following conclusions: "When corn silage replaced some other food or tLe amount of silage in the ration was increased, there followed in 7 instances a decrease in the cost of milk (5 times, the decrease was slight) ; once there was a slight increase in the cost aud in 1 instance little change. "There was an increase in the yield of milk in 6 instances (twice the increase was slight) and in 3 instances a slight decrease, less than the normal, "When the change was from a ration containing corn silage to one containing less silage or not any, there followed an increase in the cost of milk in 4 instances and little change once. There was a decrease in the milk yield in 4 instances (once small — less than normal) and little change in 1 instance. "When corn silage replaced some other food in the ration or the amount of silage was increased, there followed a decrease in the cost of fat in 6 instances (once but lit- tle), a sliglit increase in cost twice, and little change in 1 instance. There was an increase in the amount of fat in 5 instances (3 times slight), little change in amount 3 times, and a small decrease once. "When the change was from a ration containing corn silage to one containing less or not any, there followed an increase in the cost of fat in 5 instances (in 3 of them the increase was small). DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 161 "There was a decrease in the auionut of fat in 3 instances and little change in amount twice. "When the change in the ration was to more silage or to silage in place of some other food, there followed an increase in the percentage of fat in the milk in G instances (3 times the increase was slight), a decrease in 2 instances, and little change once. "After a change from a ration containing corn silage to one containing less silage ornct any, there followed a decrease in the percentage of fat in the milk in 2 instances, an increase in 2 instances (1 of them slight), and little change once. "In general there has been an increase in milk flow accompanying the use of corn silage in the ration and at the same time an increase in the amount of fat, the per- centage of fat not diminishing. At the valuations for foods given, milk has very generally been produced at lower cost and the cost of the production of fat has been lower while corn silage has constituted part of the ration." The influence of feeding sesame cake and cotton-seed cake on the butter, V. Stein {Tidsl-)-. LandoJcoii., 13 {1895), pp. GCA-6G8).— Sesame cake was fed to 2 cows iu iucreasing quautities for a period of 49 days, until 5.5 lbs. a day per head was fed. Samples of the cream were churned every 10 days and the butter fat examined by the Badouin test (melted fat shaken with a solution of sugar in HOI, sp. gr. 1.18; giving intense red color in the presence of sesame oil). In no case was a reaction obtained in the fat produced by the cows fed sesame cake. On the completion of this experiment the same 2 cows were fed cotton-seed cake for 12 days, 2.2 lbs. and up to 5.5 lbs. being fed per head per day. The buttter fat produced gave a reaction for cotton-seed oil with Becchi's test as early as the third day of the experiment, and the reaction was very marked after the sixth day and till the end of the experiment. — F. w. woll. Examinations of the fat globules in cow's milk, Gr. J. Leufven {Rep. Ultuna Agl. List., 1891, pp. 39-46). — The author investigated the influence of the feeding of various kiuds of oil cakes on the size of the fat globules found in the milk produced by 8 different cows; also the influence of different breeds, and of the time of milking. The oil cakes fed during the different periods of the experiment were palm- nut cake, peanut cake, cotton-seed cake, sunflower-seed cake, and rape- seed cake, 3.3 lbs. in each case, in connection with hay, straw, roots, bran, and ground grain. It was found that no appreciable and pro- nounced change in the size of the fat globules was brought about by the feeding of these different kiuds of oil cakes. On the otlier Land, the diminution in size of the globules with the advance of lactation was very marked. Tbe author states that an increase in the size of globules seems to occur again in the yellow viscous milk secreted immediately before the cows are dried off". Certain diseases may change the size of globules. Thus an increased size was observed in case of a cow sufi'eriug from intestinal catarrh. The proportion of large glob- ules was greater in the evening than in either the noon or morning milk, and larger in the noon than in the morning milk. The ratio between the globules larger and smaller than 0.0022 mm. for the 3 milkings was as follows : Morning 1 : 12.2, noon 1 : 10.8, night 1 : 9.6. 1G2 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The milk from a number of cows of different breeds and crosses was examined microscopically and the proportion of globules of different sizes determined. The author finds that in crossing Ayrshire cattle with other breeds tlie size of the fat globules in the milk of the offspring is determined by the breed with which the crossing is made. — f. w. woll. Statistics of the dairy, H. E. Alvord ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry Bui. 11 {Dairy Bui. 1), 2^P- ^^i (Igtns. 5, map 1). — This consists of an introductory, a discussion of the agricultural statistics of the Eleventh Census by J. Hyde, general agricultural statistics, cows and cattle of foreign countries by E. A. Pearson, and dairy statistics later than 1890 for several States. In the Introductory the object and purpose of the Dairy Division are discussed, and remarks are made on dairy statistics, the relative importance of the dairy, estimates for 1895, and needed improvement in dairy cattle. " At the close of the year 1895 the cows which may properly be regarded as dairy animals constitute about one-third of all the neat cattle iu the United States, and are about 17,000,000 in number. Dividing these roughly according to their principal products, it may be considered that 11,000,000 cows are primarily butter producers, 1,000,000 cows produce all our cheese, and the milk from 5,000,000 cows is consumed by the families of their owners, or on the farms where produced, or is sold to be consumed as milk, fresh or condensed. . . . "This gives the grand total value of the dairy products of the country as $454,900,000. If to this be added the skim milk, buttermilk, and whey, at their proper feeding value, and the calves yearly dropped, the annual aggregate value of the products of our dairy cows exceeds $500,000,000. This is regarded as a conserva- tive estimate, and does not include the manure product, which has a very large but quite uncertain value. "If the value per head estimated for cows in this country, viz, $22 to $25, is accepted, these animals produce nearly 50 per cent more than their own value, annually." Based on the estimates made, the author believes that " the average cow of the country is far below a standard which is desirable and entirely practicable," and emphasizes the need of continued improve- ment in dairy cattle. A standard given is 5,000 lbs, of milk and 200 to 225 lbs. of butter per cow annually. "Every possible influence should be exerted to induce dairy farmers to weed out their herds and keep fewer cows and bettor ones. At least the average quality of cows kept for dairy purposes should be brought up to a respectable and profitable standard. For the present the cow owner may reasonably require something over 2 gal. of milk per day for 4 months, then 2 gal. a day for the next 4, and at least 2 months more iu milk during the j'ear, with constantlj^ decreasing yield. This pro- vides for an annual average yield of .5,000 lbs. of milk, or about 575 gal., wliich is a fair ideal standard for the dairy cow in the United States." In the discussion of the statistics from the Eleventh Census, the number and quality of neat cattle, the milch cows on dairy farms, total amount of dairy products, the mile i)roduction, and the production of butter and cheese on farms and in factories are considered. DAIRY FAKMIXG DAIRYING. 163 "The increase iu the number of milch cows on farms between 1880 and 1890 is the largest ever reported, and in 1890 the number to every 100 of the population (26.4) Avas greater than at any census since 1860. At the censuses of 1850, 1860, 1870, and 18S0 the number of milch cows reported as on farms was 6,385,094, 8,585,735, 8,935,31)2, aud 12,443,120, respectively, the number per 100 of the population ranging from 23.2 iu 1870 to 27.5 iu 1850. . . . "The North Central Division [from Ohio to Kans;is and north] witnessed during the decade ending with 1890 an exceediugJy largo increase iu the number of its luilch cows and, as will be shown hereafter, a remarkable development of its dairy industry. The total number of niileh cows reported as on faruis in the 12 States comprised in this division is 8,240,999 — 49.91 per cent of the total number iu the United States, aud an increase of 2,838,918 upon the number reported from these 12 States in 1880. . . . "In Iowa there are no fewer than 32 counties iu which there are more than 1,000 milch cows for every 1,000 of the population, Delaware County standing at the head of these and all other counties in the United States with the liigh average of 1,630 to 1,000." A summary of the number ofmileli cows and the production of milk, butter, and cheese by States and grand divisions is given iu the fol- lowing table: Uairi/ statistics hij States. [From the Elevt'Uth United States Census, 1890.) States and Territories. Tlio United States... K'orth Atlaiilic Division... Maine New Hampshire . Vermont Massailuisetts. . . Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsvlvania Soutli Atlantic Division . Delaware ^larylund District of (Columbia. Viririuia West Virginia Nortli Carolina Soutli Carolina Geort;ia Florida North Central Division. Xumhrr. 16,511,950 Miich cows. Gallons. 5, 209, 125, 567 y, 351,061 Milk (all produi ed on farms). 1 435, 739, 255 1, 369, 466 8, 240, 999 Ohio I 794, 833 Indiana 579, 287 Illinois 1 1,087,880 Miehiuan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota. South Dakota. Ni'hi aska Kansas 497,611 792, fi20 593, 908 1,498,418 851,076 88, 280 210, 240 505. 045 741,786 331, 728, 677 2, 719, 414, 705 326, 925. 200, 510, 367, 269, 224, 537, 303,701. 182,908, 486, 961, 193,931, 26, 566, 59, 666, 144, 708, 201,008, Butter made on farms. Butter Cheese made at made on creameries, farms. Pounds. Poimds. Pounds. 1,024,223,468 181,284,916 18,726,818 246,788,544 48,245,172 I 6,693,671 15,593,315 7, 942, 840 23,314,063 8, 358, 703 905. 456 7, 196, 095 98, 241, 813 8,367,218 76, 809, 041 78, 270, 911 520, 025, 636 74, 900, 307 48, 477, 706 57,121.486 50,197,481 46, 295. 623 34, 760, 409 72, 8!I3, 079 43,108,521 5,712,566 13,127,244 27,818,078 46, 117,076 1,406,041 1,919,590 5, 085, 377 2.051,597 233, 783 3, 173. 104 14, 485. 702 499. 531 19, 390, 387 2, 143, 928 466, 761 847, 277 696, 052 341,235 609, 586 122, 900 24,631 112,506 4, 324, 028 23, 613 439, 060 271, 291 359 9.573 811,890 18, 000 109, 187 74, 372 60, 760 2,476 12, 833 1, 731 129, 925, 952 ! 6. 669, 421 6, 532, 485 1,677,088 25, 553. 422 2. 145, 731 14, 059, 870 13,911,095 53, 143, 140 1,529,647 440, 290 532, 513 0, 076, 783 4,317,876 1,068.083 300, 948 343, 450 328, 082 906, 260 676, 642 1,038,358 288, 620 131,374 303,051 463, 831 759, 210 Cheese made at factories. Pounds. 338, 035, 005 132, 545, 023 755, 761 103. 386 5, 582, 327 262, 633 300, 000 195, 955 119,762,496 563, 628 5, 018, 837 144, 000 109, 000 21, 000 103,556,440 21,185,971 830, 552 10,005,477 5, 041, 778 53, 708, 595 3, 615, 528 4,705,576 1, 384, 397 49, 000 250, 812 804,618 1,974,136 164 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Dairy statistics hy States — Continued. States and Territories. Milch Cows. Milk (all produced on farms) . Butter made on larm.s. Butter made at creameries. Cheese made on farms. Cheese made at factories. South Central Division Number. 2, 829, 657 Gallont. 519, 693, 663 Fou7ids. 135, 192, 272 Po^inds. 110,679 Poxindg. 318, 367 Pounds. 31, 300 Kentucky 364, 516 345, 311 292, 088 310, 159 167, 223 1,003,439 16, 756 330, 165 720, 767 118,497,289 107,657,116 55, 508, 687 50, 803, 371 12,881,927 118,475,320 1,544,280 54, 325, 673 202, 549, 207 29, 038, 406 28, 314, 387 14,548,435 12. 988, 637 2, 089, 774 32, 100, 560 387, 920 15, 724, 144 43, 346, 105 64, 822 69, 919 6,131 4,898 3, 939 145, 730 1,600 21, 323 65, 990 31,300 Texas 44, 689 820, 185 4, 774, 068 1, 745, 8U2 24,143 11,684 76, 948 18,507 4,874 45, 982 9, 273 27, 278 70, 721 114, 156 317,201 6. 038, 096 3, 064, 588 19, 680, 791 717,155 709, 225 8, 614, C94 2, 532, 052 5, 085, 863 19,873,281 25, 042, 276 111,191,186 1,062,185 428, 269 3, 282, 086 86,042 115,203 1,759,354 489, 657 1, 078, 103 3, 482, 225 4, 786, 277 26, 776, 704 11,512 15, 196 87, 183 18, 931 10, 855 163, 539 51, 207 207, 213 71,281 265, 576 3, 871, 575 339, 000 44,500 Utah 55, 800 13, 200 13, 650 1,500 138,468 271,767 116, 640 249, 700 Oregon 230, 540 1,091,222 "The total production of milk on farms in the United States in the year ending December 31, 1889 (not including farms of less than 3 acres, except where $500 worth of the produce of the farm had been actually sold during the year), was .5,209,125,567 gal., equivalent to 3I5J gal. for each milch cow reported on June 1, 1890, and to 83 gal. per head of population. "The total production of butter on farms (as above defined) in the year ending December 31, 1889, was 1,024,223,468 lbs., as compared with a total of 777,250,287 lbs. in 1879, and the total production of clieese, 18,726,818 lbs., as compared with a total of 27,272,489 lbs. iu 1879, an increase of 246,973,181 lbs., or 31.78 per cent in the j)ro- ductiou of butter on farms, and a decrease of 8,545,671 lbs., or 3 per cent, in the production of cheese on farms. . . . "The most noteworthj' fact in connection with the production of butter on farms is that, notwithstanding the great extension of the creamery system and the decline in the amount of butter annually exported, such production has increased even more rapidly than population. To go back to the census of 1850, it is found that the total production of butter on farms in 1849 was 313,345,306 lbs., or 13.51 lbs. per capita of of population. In 1860 tho amount reported was 459,681,372 lbs., or 14.62 lbs. per capita. In 1870 the amount reported was 514,092,083 lbs., which gave an average of only 13.33 lbs. for each inhabitant. Up to this time there had been no creamery but- ter reported, but in 1880 the production of farm butter averaged 15.50 lbs. for each inhabitant, and that of creamery butter 0.58 lb. for each inhabitant, the total aver- age being thus 16.08 lbs. At the Eleventh Census, however, the ]iroduction of but- ter on farms alone averaged 16.33 lbs. i)er capita of the population, and such had been the increase in tho production of butter iu creameries that the total production of butter averaged no less than 19.24 lbs. per unit of the population. . . . "The whole of the States from which a smaller production of farm butter is reported than at the Tenth Census belong to the North Atlantic Division. Every other portion of the country shows an increase in its i>roduction of butter on farms, and, as a rule, the States that have witnessed the greatest extensions of the creamery system, such as Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska, show also the greatest increase in the production of butter on farms. The North Central Division, which produced 72.03 per cent of the total production of creamery butter, produced 50.83 per cent of the total amount of farm butter, and its production, both on farms and in creameries, jicr capita of the poi>ulation, is much higher than that of any other of the 5 grand divisions of States. . . . DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 165 "Of the States in wliicli the prodnctiou of butter ou farms and in creameries is of the greatest iiiiportauce, relatively to population, Vermont has a production of over 80 lbs. per capita, Iowa of over GO lbs., South Dakota of over 40 lbs., and Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, Nebraska, aud Kansas of over 30 lbs. . . . "While nearly 6 times as much butter is made on farms as in creameries, nearly 13 times as much cheese is made in factories as on farms, and while the production of cheese on farms shows a decrease of nearly one-third, such decrease is more thau doully olfset by the increase in the production of cheese in factories. It is exceed- ingly interesting to observe how the production of cheese on farms has gradually given place to the factory system and how the remarkable change that has been brought about is shown in the statistics of successive censuses. ... In 1870 the factory i^rodnction amounted to 109,435,229 lbs., in 1880 to 215,885,361 lbs., and in 1890 to 238,013,565 lbs. . . . "The total production of cheese on farms and in factories per capita of population was not only less in 1880-90 than in 1879-80, but even less than in 1849-'50. In Wis- consin this total production in 1889-''90 averaged 33.7 lbs. for each inhabitant, in New York 20.7 lbs., and in Vermont 18.6 lbs. For the entire country, however, the aver- age per capita of population was only 4.10 lbs., of which less than 5 oz. represented the liroduction on farms. Only in California, Idaho, Vermont, Nevada, and Maine did the production on farms average 1 lb. or upward for each inhabitant. "In connection with the relative decline of cheese making in the United States, of which there is further evidence in the fact that the total production per milch cow in 1889-'90 was 4 lbs. less than in 1879-80, reference may be made to the fact that the total exports of cheese in the fiscal year ending Juno 30, 1890, were only 95,376,053 lbs. as compared with a total of 127,553,907 lbs. in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880." Tables aud diagrams are given showing tlie total cheese and butter production in 1800 by States; the ])rogress of dairying- for half a cen- tury; butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories; and cattle and farm statistics by States. Dairying' in foreign countries is briefly discussed, and statistics and diagrams are given of the cows and cattle in a large number of foreign countries. "Canada is our chief competitor in the foreign cheese market. Recent statistics show that its dairy iuterests per square mile are comparatively small. ... In 1890 the total cheese production of Canada was less than that of New York, and her butter production was slightly greater than that of New York, but less than that of Iowa. "During the 10 years from 1880 to 1890 the production of cheese in Canada increased 80 per cent and the production of butter 11 per cent. In the same period the cheese production of the United States increased less than 6 per cent and the butter pro- duction 50 per cent. In the same time the number of cows increased 16 per cent in Canada and over 32 per cent in the United States, and population increased 12 per cent in Canada and 25 per cent in this country." The population, number of cows, and production of butter and cheese ])er sfpiare mile in each State and Territory are shown, and the rank of each State and Teriitory in regard to land area, population, production of dairy i^roducts, etc. Some figures are also given on the average value of the cow, the number of cattle of diti'erent breeds, and the growth of the factory system in the United States, and in conclusion dairy statistics later than 1890 are given for 15 States. 166 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, Report of the Chemical Institute of Budapest for 1895, M.Ball6 {CJiem. Ztg., 20 {JdUo), I\o. 23^ p. 218). — hi its control and inspection work the institute examined 1,753 samj)les of milk and 2(30 sami)les of butter. As usual, considerable difficulty was experienced in detecting "half milk," or milk partially skimmed or diluted with skim milk, and the specific gravity of the solids was found very useful in this respect. As an illustration, the data are given for whole milk, skim milk, and a mixture of the two, collected at the central milk depot, as follows: Analysis uf ivhole milk, skim milk, and ''mixed" milk. Specific gravity at 15° t. Specific gravity of solids' at 15° C. Dry matter. Ash. Tat. Solida not I'at. Whole milk 1. 0322 1. (1325 1.0347 1. 3370 1.3700 1. 5430 Per cent. 12.3700 11.6200 9. 5100 Per cent. 0. 6500 .6700 .68U0 Per cent. 3. 4500 2. 7800 .4400 Per cent. 8. 9200 8 8400 Skill! milk 9. 0700 Except for the specific gravity of the solids, the mixed milk is said to be within the limits for whole milk. To prevent diluting milk with skim milk, the following limits were fixed for milk in Budapest: Spe- cific gravity of milk at 15° C, 1.029 to 1.034; specific gravity of serum, at least 1.02G5; dry matter, at least 12 per cent; fat, at least 2.8 per cent; solids-not-fat, 8.1 to 9.3 per cent. The milk of cows in the neigh- borhood is said to contain rarely less than 3.5 per cent of fat. Analyses are given of 4 samples of goose fat tried out by the analyst. Further experiments in cream ripening: Flavor, aroma, acid, H. W. Conn {Connecticut iStomj Sta. Bui. KJ, pp. 10). — This bulletin gives a i)opular report on the results of bacteriological studies of cream collected at a number of creameries in Connecticut during May and June, and also during the fall and winter. From the cream as many different species of bacteria as possible were isolated and studied. The detailed results of these studies are not given. " [There were found] bacteria of all the general types, some producing lactic acid and rapidly souring milk and cream, others developing an alkaline reaction and curdling the milk hy the production of rennet, others again exerting a putrefactive effect upon the milk, and still others that have seemingly no effect whatsoever upon the milk or cream. The various types were in almost equal abundance among the species collected, except that the number of forms that have no ajipreciable effect upon milk is considerably larger than those belongiug to any of the other classes. "In the early summer the variety of bacteria found iu the cream has been found to be greater thiin at the other seasons of the year thus far tested (no examinations have yet been made of the cream of the late summer or early fall). In nearly all of the samples of cream collected in May, and particularly in .June, the number of dif- ferent species was very great, not only when different samples were compared with each other, but in the same sample of cream. This would naturally have been antici- pated and is })robably closely associated with the green food of the cows. It appears not unlikely that in this fact lies the exjilanation of the high quality of butter flavor commonly developed during these months. Not only is the variety greater, but the number of bacteria found in the cream during these months is vastly in excess of that found under similar conditions in the cooler mouths of the year." DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 167 In one series of experiments the milk of 8 cows kept in the same barn in adjoining stalls and led in the same manner was tested individually, the milk from each cow being drawn into sterilized bottles. These tests were repeated a nnmber of times. The number and kind of bacteria in the milk of the different cows varied greatly, and "no 2 of these 8 samples of milk, when left to themselves and carefully guarded from outside contamination, nnderwent the same kind of fermentation." The milk of the same cow at different times also differed as to its bacterial flora. During the year the author separated about 70 different species of bacteria from milk and cream, and of these about 55 have been tested in ripening cream to determine their effect ujion the butter. In making these tests 4 lots of cream were pasteurized, 3 lots being subsequently inoculated with the culture of the same bacteria, and the fourth not inoculated. After ripening, the cream was churned and the butter tested. Some of the deductions from these studies were that the fermenta- tion in the inoculated cream was very different from that in control or uninoculated cream ; that most of the bacteria found in cream are harm- less or beneficial ; that flavor is independent of acid, and that aroma is independent of flavor and acid. "Of the species of bacteria producing good flavors in the butter the majority were of theacid-produciug cla?8; 8 were lactic organisms, 6 were among the class which would be described as alkaline species. . . . "Independent of the acid it is doubtful whether there was enough difference in the flavors produced by the 2 classes of organisms to enable us to separate them from each other in this way. "Of the 9 species described as producing injurious eff"ect8 lapon the butter, 6 belonged to the acid-producing class, while 3 belonged to the class developing alka. line reaction. "From these facts it appears to me a safe and perfectly legitimate inference that the flavor is a matter entirely distinct from the acid. . . . "Among the 5.5 species studied only 6 have been found as yet to produce an aroma which has been described in my notes as a good typical butter aroma; [and] none has been among the acid-producing organisms. The 6 either develop an alkaline reaction or have no especial effect upon the reaction of the milk. . . . "It is, however, interesting to note that in the hands of European bacteriologists, Bo far as their experiments have gone, somewhat similar results have been obtained. There are upon the European markets several different kinds of pure cultures of bacteria used by creameries for ripening their cream. All of them are of the lactic- acid type and none of them is capable of developing aroma to any considerable extent. . . . "It is consequently an interesting and an important point if we find that this butter aroma is associated with a different class of organisms from those which produce lactic acid. Herein we probably may find a partial explanation of the reason that the aroma of butter developed during the months of May, June, and July is of a higher character than that produced during other months of the year, since at this period the cream, as already noticed, is provided with a larger variety of bacteria, and therefore among them there is a greater chance of finding not only those 7)roduciug acid, but also some which give rise to an aroma. " It has been found in these experiments thus far that none of the 55 species tested 5096— No. 2 6 168 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. combines all of the 3 cliaracters, tlie power of producing flavor, acid, and aroma. Some develop flavor witli the acid, others develop aroma with flavor, and others develop aroma without any special flavor. . . . "Lastly, it is interesting to notice that among the species of bacteria which pro- duce good flavor in the butter are found some that were quite widely distributed during" the month of June." Bacteriological investigations in the dairy, G. J. Leufven {Rpt. Ultima Agl. Inst, 1894, pp. 35-39). — The influence of pasteurization and cooling upon the hacteria content of milk. — Separator skim milk was pasteurized in a "Separator Heater No. 2" and cooled in a cooler. Samples of milk were taken in sterilized flasks directly before and after pasteurization, and also after the cooling. The flasks were left standing at room temperature until the milk was coagulated. In 6 trials the average length of time before the milk coagulated was: Unpasteurized milk, 58 hours j pasteurized milk, 112 hours; pasteur- ized and cooled milk, 81 hours. The temperature of the room ranged between 54 and 68° F., the average temperature being 01° F. The results showed that the pasteurized milk became infected while pass- ing over the open cooler. The bacteriological analyses also corrobo- rated this view. Number of hacteria per cubic centimeter of milk. Pasteurization temperature. 80° C. (176° r.) 85° C. (185°F.) 80OC. (176°F.) 75° C. (167° F.) Unpasteur- ized milk. 1,868,000 992, 000 3, 200, 000 1, 156, 000 Pasteurized milk. 1, 484, 000 150, 000 542, 000 268, 000 Pasteurized and cooled milk. 1, 738, 000 192, 000 618, 000 284, 000 The lactic-acid bacteria proper were killed by the pasteurization, and generally also the peptonizing forms found in the milk, the bac- teria remaining being only a few forms, chief among which was a micrococcus present in especially large numbers. This form coagulates the casein to a compact mass after a considerable period of time. The bacteria introduced in the cooled milk were largely lactic-acid forms. The bacteria content of the air of the dairy was found to vary between 71 and 1,248 bacteria per liter. The bacteria content of the air of dairy and cattle ham. — The air was aspirated through sugar filters and the bacteria content of the same determined. The number of bacteria found per liter of air (September 28) was as follows : In dairy : No. Before beginning of daily work 28 At close of churning 56 At close of separation and pasteurization 71 At close of cleaning and scrubbing 26 Before receiving milk 22 DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 169 At other times considerably bigber figures were obtained: In cattle barn : No. 5 a. m. before beginning barn work 178 6.30 a. m. at close of milking 193 8.30 a. m. at close of feeding hay 504 1.30 p. m. at close of noon rest 228 5.30 p. ni. at close of milking 184 Influence of milling on the bacteria content of milk. — The exiieriraents were made with 3 different cows. Tbe udder and lower parts of cow No. 1 were thoroughly washed and afterwards wiped dry; the udder of cow No. 2 was wiped with a dry towel, as is generally done by Swedish farmers; and that of cow Ko. 3 was not cleaned at all. Glass dishes 10 cm. in diameter were exposed in each case for a second at the upper rim of the milk pail while tbe milking was in progress. Tbe number of bacteria found per square- decimeter was as follows: Influence of milking on bacteria content of milk. Samples taken — Cow No. 1. Udder washed and wiped. Cow No. 2. Udder wiped. Cow No. 3. Udder not cleaned. At beginning of milking 47 107 109 87 210 At close of milking 101 Investigations concerning the presence of tubercle bacilli in milk. — Tbe milk was examined according to Dr. K. Arnell's method, but with nega- tive results. — F. w. woll. A bacteriological and chemical investigation of kefir, Essau- LOW {Inaug. Diss. Moskoiv, 1895; abs. in Ztsclir. Fleisch- und Milchhyg., 6 [1896), No. 6, J). 110). — In examining kefir grains of various origin, the author was able to cultivate from them Saccharomyces, Bacillus acidi lactici, and Bacillus subtilis in every case. He believes all other micro- organisms in kefir to be impurities which can cause trouble in prepar- ing kefir milk. Neither of these 3 microorganisms alone can produce anything resembling kefir. Bacillus subtilis does not appear to take any part in the preparation of kefir grains (fungi) — it produces a skin or network which takes up the other 2 microorganisms. Alcohol, carbonic acid, lactic acid, and peptone were recognized in kefir. Cleanliness in handling milk : Bacteriological considerations, H. L. BoLLEY {North Dakota Sta. Bui. 21, pp. 157-176, figs. 6).— This bulletin contains popular statements in regard to the souring and other changes in milk, character of bacteria, sources of germs in milk, care of animals in the stable, pasteurization of milk for home con- sumption, with illustrations, precautions in regard to typhoid fever, and dairy inspection, together with a number of experiments. In tbe first exijeriment the germ content of tbe air in different localities showed that ''a cleanly conducted creamery will show a low atmospheric germ content; and that tbe air of a good, clean stable 170 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. coDtaiES many kinds of germs in large numbers, at least, during work- ing hours." Another experiment showed the variability of the bacteria content of river, hydrant, and well water. An account is given of an outbreak of typhoid fever the source of infection of which "seems inevitably to have been by way of the milk, traceable to a slough and small creek running through the pasture and stable lot of the farm." An exj)eriment was made on the eiJectiveness of direct steam for sterilizing milk utensils, the results of which "go to show that 20 minutes' direct steaming will destroy most germs not in spore form." The results of other experiments are given on the germ content of different kinds of milk and of i>asteurized products, the kind and number of germs which may fall into the milk pail during milking, the germs in the milk from the first part of the milking, and on cheese- curd inflation or pin-hole formation. An account of some of the work on cheese-curd inflation has already been given (E. S. E., 7, p. 991). "The inference to be drawn from these teste is that the germs which originated the gas holes in the curds came from dirt falling from the flanks and udders of the animals. "Many similar tests, and over 200 qualitative cultural tests upon milk drawn through sterile milk tubes from 13 different cows, during both winter and summer months, at Fargo, substantiate this conclusion. In all these tests of milk from the normal udder no gas-engendering species have been taken. They have, however, often been met Avitli in the milk open to dirt contaminations. Hence one may readily see the economic importance of cleanly methods of work with milk when considered from the standpoint of cheese making." PoTver tests of centrifugal cream separators, A. W. Richter ( Wiscoiishi iSta. Bui. 46, pp. 38, figs. 5, dgms. 12). — " During the past 2 years a series of tests have been made to determine the power required for running the diflerent kinds of centrifugal cream separators in use at the Wisconsin dairy school. In these trials machines have been managed and tests of skim milks made by representatives of the dairy school, instructions of the manufacturers regarding the running of the diflerent machines being strictly adhered to." Ten belt machines and 3 turbines were tested. Determinations were made in each case of the capacity of the separator as operated, time and power required for starting, and the steam and iwwer required for running. The results are reported in detail and discussed. Some of the results are given in the following table: DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 171 Steam consumption of power separators. Belt machines: Reid III! j)roved United States Xo. 1 Alpha No. 1 Alj)ha Acme De Laval: Standard United States No. United States No. 5 Baby No. 2 Turbine machines: Alpha No. 1 Do Do Imperial Russian . . Standard Russian.. Do Rated capacity. 2, 000-3, 000 1, 800-2, 300 2, 000 1,300 1,000 G50 300 300 2,000 2,000 2,000 1, 200-1, 500 1, 200-1, 500 1,200-1,500 Average capacity as operated. 2, 775. 0 2.141.5 1,991.7 1,229.6 971.5 679. 2 331.5 283.8 2, 540. 7 2, 028. 9 1, 698. 9 2,041.6 1, 148.0 1, 420. 8 Steam required per 1.000 lbs. milk, includ- ing amount required to start machine.' Pounds. 91.0 67.4 48.6 59.0 126.9 38.7 44.5 28.3 88.5 97.9 107.6 84.9 126.8 105.2 ' At the rate of 60 lbs. steam per indicated horsepower per hour. "Accordiug to the above figures, we find a very marked difference in the power required to run the difiPerent machines and also in the pounds of steam jyer 1,000 lbs. of milk as found in the last column. This difference, though it may appear surprisingly great, is easily accounted for upon a close inspection of the difterent machines. The greater portion of the work required to operate one of these sepa- rators is consumed in rotating the separator bowl; the (juautitj^ of milk passing through the machine has little effect upon the total power required, and conse- quently has a great effect upon the amount of steam required to skim 1,000 lbs. of milk. We have, therefore, every reason to conclude that the power required to run the machine varies chiefly with the mechanical construction and speed of the bowl, while the capacity of the machine further affects the amount of steam required per 1,000 lbs. of milk separated. . . . "Considered from a standpoint of economy in the steam consumption, we find the Baby No. 2 most efficient. It might therefore occur to some of the readers of this bulletin that a number of these separators should be used in preference to one of the larger ones. There are, however, other conditions which must be taken into consid- eration. For example: Eight machines of the Baby No. 2 will skim as much milk per hour as one machine of the Reid Improved style and will require a little less than one-third the steam. The floor space may be the same in both cases. The first cost of 8 machines of the Baby No. 2 would be much more than when using one of the Reid separators, while the extra work required to operate 8 machines and clean 8 bowls as compared to that required to operate and clean one machine makes the use of the smaller sizes entirely impractical and really places the larger machine ahead of the smaller one in such cases as regards the total fiual cost. "The table shows that, generally speaking, the belt separator is more economical than the steam separator, although some of the turbines, esiiecially the Imperial Russian and Alpha No. 1, running at a capacity of 2,500 lbs., compare very favor- ably with the belt machines, even surpassing a number of them. "The question often arises. Which of the 2 classes of machines, belt or turbine, is more economical in a skimming station? " A careful consideration of all points involved, including cost of machine, engine, shafting, running expenses, etc., shows that whatever difference there may be between the 2 styles of machines is on the score of convenience rather than economy." 172 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A table is given sliowing for different separators the distribution of material in the bowl, weight, speed of the bowl, etc., and these data are commented upon. Inspection of glass-ware used by creameries and butter fac- tories to determine the value of cream and milk, J. M. Bartlett [Maine Sta. Bui. 26, 3d ser., pp. 4). — The Maine State legislature of 1895 passed a law entitled "An act for the protection of dairymen," which required that "every individual or corporation buying milk or cream or apportioning its value on the basis of fat content shall have all the bottles and pipettes tested for accuracy, which are used in determining the percentage of fat, and each of these bottles and pipettes shall bear a mark showing that it has been so tested." It is made the duty of the director of the station to test the apparatus, the actual expense being borne by the persons for whom it is done. "Any person operating the Babcock or other tests for determining the fat in milk or cream which is to be purchased or its value apportioned, must possess a certifi- cate of competency for such work. This certificate is to be issued by the Superin- tendent of the State College Dairy School in accordance with such rules and regulations as he may devise. "No one is allowed to use at any creamery, butter factory, cheese factory, or con- densed-milk factory where milk or cream is bought or its value apportioned, or to have in his possession, with intent to use, any sulphuric acid of less than 1.82 specific gravity." The bulletin describes the method of testing the apparatus, and gives a list of the persons .who have sent apparatus for testing. The bottles and pipettes are tested by means of mercury. Those found correct are marked " O. K." "Only about one-half of the creameries of the State have sent their glassware to us. ... In all, 1,498 cream bottles, 210 milk bottles, and 96 pipettes were received prior to January 1. Thirty-nine of the cream bottles were found to be more inaccurate than the prescribed limit, 0.3 per cent, and were consequently thrown out. Twenty- four of the number, however, were found in 2 small lots, which evidently came from Bome unreliable manufacturer, as the error found was greater in those, in some cases over 0.5 per cent, than in any other lots. Of the 210 milk bottles all were correct, excepting 33 of one lot of 60. The errors in these bottles varied from 0.3 to 1 per cent. ♦'The glassware as a whole, however, has been very satisfactory, and the new goods received from the manufacturers since the above act went into force have been exceptionally accurate, showing that the law has had the desired efi"ect. No intentional fraud has been detected, the discrepancies discovered evidently being due to errors in graduating. " Report of the permanent Danish butter exhibitions, F. Friis (^Copenhagen, January, 1896, pp. 24). — The report gives a list of 593 creameries or private dairies which exhibited their butter jDroduct dur- ing 1895, the creameries being arranged in classes according to the quality of the butter scored. The main results of more general interest refer to the summaries given of the average water content of the butter exhibited, and of the adoption of pasteurization in Danish creameries. In only 5 out of 593 creameries (0.8 per cent) did the butter exhibited during the year have an average water content of over IG per cent, the highest average being 16.51 per cent. These 5 creameries were all DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 173 included among tlie number in tlie poorest class. The average percent- ages of water in the butter placed in the different classes according to the judges' scoring were as follows: Per cent of water. Class A (scoring highest) 13. 50 Class B 13.64 Class C 13.68 Class D 13.68 Class E (scoring poorest) 13. 79 The average water content for all creameries during the year was 13.70 per cent. The butter from 90 per cent of the creameries averaged between 12 and 15 per cent of water, and that from 42 per cent (250 creameries) between 13 and 14 per cent of water. Eighty-six per cent of the creameries made butter from pasteurized cream, 44 per cent pasteurizing their cream at all times and 42 per cent a part of the time. Fourteen per cent made butter from unpas- teurized cream, Ninety-eight per cent of the butter in the 3 highest classes was from creameries where the cream was pasteurized. — f. w. WOLL. Some butter investigations, Y. Stein ( Tidskr. LandoJcon., 13 {1895), pp. 653-663). — Thirty-two samj)les of butter and 25 samjjles of fat from cream churned by the author were examined. The butter was produced on 3 Danish estates and by English analysts had been pronounced adul- terated. Most of the cows in the herds in question were far advanced in lactation. The samples were taken between September and March. The limits of the results obtained are shown in the following table : Beaults of examinations of butter fat. Name of estate. Origin of sample. Reichert- AVollny metbod. Specific gravity at 100° C. Koettstorf's method. lodin number. Number of sam- ples. Bubbel C Butter... I Cream . . . C Butter... I Cream . . . C Butter... I Cream . . . Cc. 22. 6-29. 6 23. 1-28. 4 23. 9-29. 3 24.3-29.6 24. 5-30. 1 24. 8-29. 5 0. 8634-. 8658 . 8654 ' . 8633-. 8644 Mgr. EOH. 218. 4-228. 6 230. 7 ' 221. 0-228. 6 32. 0-44. 4 31.9" 34. 8-41. 1 H 6 10 10 . 8641-. 8653 220. 8-228. 1 29. 1-45. 0 10 I 1 Single determination. The lowest figure found for the volatile acids according to the Wollny-Eeichert method was in a sample of butter taken in October, when only 15 cows in a herd of 26 head were milking, all of which were " strippers." The author warns dairymen not to export butter made almost exclusively from the milk of old milking cows, and advises send- ing it to a large creamery where it may be mixed with milk from new milch cows. — f. w. woll. Report of Oerebro Chemical Station and Seed-Control Station for 1894, J. W. Widen {Oerebro {Siveden) : 1895, pp. 48). — This con- tains the usual accounts of chemical and seed-control work, includ- ing analyses of fertilizers (p. 117), feeding stufis (p. 154), and dairy products. The following average analyses of 01 samples of creamery 174 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. butter are given: Water 14.53 per cent (11.60 to 17.80), fat 82.31 per cent (77.75 to 84.76), salt 1.95 per cent (1,5 to 2.5), casein 0.85 per cent (0.78 to 0.96). The last 2 determinations were made in only 3 and 5 samples, respectively. — f. w. woll. The effect of rennet on the proteids of milk and in cheese mak- ing, P. HiLLMANN {Inaufj. Diss. Leipsic, 1895; abs. in Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 6, p. 86). — The action of rennet on milk results in 2 albumi- noids, one precipitated by the rennet, which the author calls paracasein, and the other whey albumen, which remains in solution. Experiments showed that the time of curdling was affected by the rennet, the tem- perature, and the dilution of the milk, although the amount of para- casein secured was only slightly affected by the first two. Dilution of the milk diminished the precipitation of paracasein somewhat, and the addition of calcium chlorid of known strength accelerated the curdling and very materially increased the amount of paracasein precipitated. A very little calcium chlorid was found to be sufficient to bring about this increase. The acidity of the milk, which is closely related to the content of soluble lime salts, was also an important factor. Likewise the ash content, especially the lime. Kennet was more effective on the milk of new milch cows than of cows well advanced in the i^eriod of lactation, which is attributed to a decrease in lime with the advance of lactation. In other words, a high lime content of the milk accom- panied by a high acid content are requisites for a large yield of para- casein, and high lime and acid contents are usually found especially at the beginning of lactation and usually with a high protein and casein content, so that these factors have a perceptible effect on the relative yield of paracasein. The rennet is said also to change the soluble proteids of the milk to a form more difficult to precipitate, i. e., to a cer- tain extent more soluble. It is believed that under conditions especially favorable paracasein can probably be formed from the milk albumen. The author proposes to carry on f>ractical experiments in a cheese factory to determine whether the proportion of curd can be increased by the means suggested. Feeding milch cows, L. Drumel {Jour. Agr., 7 (1896), Ko. 76, pp. 163, 164). On the fat content of milk and the choice of breeds, K. Plelm iDeut. landiv. Presae, 23 {1896), No. 31, p. 268). — A popular account of the develoiimeut of a dairy herd. The different foxms of udders and teats {Dent. landw. Prease, 23 (1896), Nos. 48, pp. 426, 427,fiijs. 11; 52, p. 466, figs. 8). — Extracts from Prof. G. Puach's new book on the judging of cattle (Die Beurteilungslelire des Bindes. Berlin: Paul Parey). Camels' milk, von Dinkler (Pharm. Ztg., 41 (1896), p. 304; aba. in Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 42, Eepert., p. 156). — The average composition is said to be: Fat, 2.5; casein and albumen, 3.6; milk sugar, 5, and ''salts" 0.65 per cent. This places the camels' milk in the first rank as a substitute for human milk. Aside from its com- position, it possesses a further advantage over cows' milk of yielding a flocculent curd, similar to human milk, favorable to digestion. Camels' milk is white, sweet in tayte and odor, clean and agreeable. Methods of milk investigation, Sommerfeld (Die Methoden der Milohuntersuchung, Berlin: A. Hirschwald, 1896). I STATISTICS. 175 A ne-w butter machine, T. B. O'Neil (Amer. Agr. {mid. ed.), 1S96, July 25, p. 66, PJ- !)■ Milk registering scales {Deut. landio. Presae, 23 {1896), No. 65, p. 680, fig. 1). The creamery industry, E. E. Kaufman {North Dakota Sta. Bui. 23, pp. 27, figs. IS). — This is a purely popular bulletin on modern dairy machinery, the advantages of a creamery, testing of milk, the organization and establishment of cooperative creameries, plan for creamery building, outfit required, etc. Eairying in Australia, A. C. Macdonald {Cape of Good Hope Dept. Agr. Bpt. on Dairying in Australia, 2)p. 93, figs. 61). — The report is the result of an investigation made by the author at the instance of the local government of the Cape of Good Hope. It gives statistics of the dairy exports of Victoria, showing the increase in the butter export from 369J tons in 1889 and 1890 to 11,584| tons in 1894-'95; relates the manner in which the government has encouraged the industry, and describes the live stock and dairy management and the creamery management, with numerous illustrations of creamery buildings and equipment. The relative-value plan of ])ay- iug for milk and cream and several forms of the Babcock test are described in detail, together with refrigerating machines and plants. Dairying in India, J. W. Mollison {Indian Agr., 21 {1896), No. l,p. 15). — Bombay is for India the great center for butter making and for the export trade in butter. Ice is cheap, and good butter can not be made there without it, except iu cold weather. Much of the butter is made without ice and will not keep long. During the past year the average number of pounds of buffalo's milk required to make a pound of butter ranged from 10.5 to 12.7, being the least in the hot season when green fodder was scant. STATISTICS. Annual Report of Kansas Station for 1895 {Kansas Sta. Bpt. 1S95, pp. I- XXIV). — Brief general review of the work of the year, a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, an inventory by departments, list of previous publi- cations, and a general index to Bulletins 49-56. Press notes during 1894 and 1895 {Texas Sta. Bui. 37, pp. 657-739, fig. i).— This is a compilation of the more important articles contributed to the agricultural i^ress of Texas by members of the station staff' during the years 1894 and 1895. "These articles are of two kinds, (1) those relating directly to results of experiments, and (2) a small number of letters written in reply to actual letters of inquiry upon all the varied subjects embraced in the term ' Texas Agriculture.' An index to this mat- ter is added at the close of the bulletin to assist in locating the special subjects treated in its pages." The -world's markets for American products — Norway {U. S. Dept. Agr., Sec- tion of Foreign Markets Bui. 7, j^P- 68). — Among the topics treated are area and po])u- lation, finance, agriculture, fisheries, shipping, commerce, customs tariff, and foreign trade. The report of the consul at Stavanger is given. Arizona agriculture, W. S. Devol {Arizona Sta. Buls. 17, pp. 3-30; 18, pp. 33-54). — These bulletins consist of a synopsis of the proceedings of a convention of farmers, fruit growers, and stockmen of the Territory held at Phoenix October 18 and 19, 1895, under the auspices of the station and the Phoenix Chamber of Commerce. Popular addresses were made on The P^conomic Distribution of Water, by J. McMillan; The Adaptation of the Water Supply of Arizona to Its Farmers, by C. W. Crouse; Water Supply, by E. M. Boggs; The Prevention of Blight in the Strawberry and Tomato Plant, by A. C. Lockwood ; Economic P'ungi, by J. W. Toumey ; The Experiment Sta- tions, by W. S. Devol; Cattle Feeding, by F. A. Gulley; Dairy Advantages of the Salt River Valley, by F. A. Hough ; Alkali, by R. H. Forbes ; Cauaigre, by R. H. Forbes; The Growing of Grapes and Their Treatment to the Raisin, by H. H. Logan; Citrus Fruits of the Salt River Valley, by J. S. Tait; and Economic Insects, by J. W. Toumey. NOTES. Illinois University and Station. — P. G. Holden, from Michigan Agricultural College, has been elected assistant professor of agricultural physics in the univer- sity and assistant agriculturist in the station. J. C. Blair, of Cornell University, has been engaged as assistant in horticulture in the university and station in place of G. W. McCluer, resigned. W. J. Fraser has resigned his position as assistant in agriculture and has been elected instructor in dairying in the university and assist- ant in dairy science in the station, rice W. A. Powers, resigned. T. I. Mairs, of the Missouri University, has been engaged by the director to superintend field experi- ments. The chemical laboratory, which was partly destroyed by fire in August, has been rei^aired and is again in use by the chemical department of the university. Temporary quarters for the chemical department of the station have been provided in Natural History Hall. Indiana Station. — W. B. Anderson, B. S., a graduate of the School of Agricul- ture of Purdue University, class of '96, has been appointed assistant agriculturist in the station. Important improvements have been made in the construction of new accommodations for the chemical and veterinary departments. Both of these depart- ments now have laboratories with superior appointments. Maine Station. — Fred C. Moulton, assistant chemist, has resigned, and his place has been filled by Henry B. Slade, a graduate of Brown University. L. J. Shepard was appointed September 1 as assistant horticulturist, rice H. P. Gould. Oregon Station. — H. B. Miller has been elected president of the State Agricul- tural College and director of the station. Texas Station. — James Clayton has resigned his position as associate professor of agriculture in the college and agriculturist to the station, and B. C. Pittuck, a graduate of the Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College, has been appointed assistant in agriculture iu the college and station. Virginia Station. — Dr. F, S. Roop has been appointed assistant veterinarian to the station. 176 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, EDITED BY A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director, AND E. W. Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director — Cliemistry and Dairying. W. H. Deal — Meteorology, Fertilizers (including methods of analysis), Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. Walter H. Evans, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants. , — Horticulture, Entomology, and Veterinary Science. L. P. Smith — Field Crops. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. F. H. Hall— Statistics and Bibliography. With the coiiperaf ion of tlie scientific divisions of the Department and the Abstract Committee of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. CONTENTS of Vol. VIII, No. 3. Page. Editorial note : Suggestions regarding the improvement of station publications . 177 The formation of fat in the animal body, Selik Soskin 179 Recent work in agricultural science 192 Notes , 268 SUBJECT LIST OF ABSTRACTS. chemistry. On the action of certain plant acids on insoluble phosphates in the presence of nitrates, G. Loges 192 Upon the determination of magnesium oxid as magnesium pyrophosphate, H. Neubauer ; 192 Precipitation of phosphoric acid in the citrate extract of Thomas slag by means of molybdic solution, M. Schmoeger 193 An accurate volumetric method for determining phosphoric acid and arsenic acid, A. Christensen 193 A study of the Kjeldahl method and its modifications, G. Rivifere and G. Bail- hache 194 The determination of potash, C. Fabre 195 The quantitative determination of crude fiber in foods and condiments, G. Bau- mert 196 On the analysis of flour and of fat in Avheat and rye flour, E. Spaeth 196 Analysis and composition of canned meats, R. Hefielmann 197 Copper cyanid reagent for the determination of glucose, A. W. Gerrard 197 On the determination of glucose, Causse 198 A method for the separation of galactose and arabinose, E. Subaschow 198 I II EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Page Determination of the diastatic power of malt, W. J. Sykes and C. A. Mitchell. 198 The estimation of starch in meat products, J. Mayrhofer 199 Composition of human fat, C . A. Mitchell 199 Determination of volatile fatty acids by the method of Leffmaun and Beam, W. Karsch 199 On the probable error of the rapid milk testing methods of Babcock, Gerber, and Thijrner, compared with the gravimetric (sand) method, H. Schrott- Fiechtl 199 Contribution to the determination of milk sugar in milk and milk products, B. A. VanKetel 200 Further notes on the deteition of formalin, H. D. Richmond and L. K. Boseley . 200 The detection of formalin, A. Hehner 200 Note on the estimation of formic aldehyde, H. M. Smith 201 Note on IIehner"s test for formic aldehyde, N. Leonard 201 Physical methods of butter examination, N. Wender 201 Photometric- method for the quantitative estimation of sulphuric acid, J. I. D. Hinds 201 Photometric method for the estimation of lime, J . I. D. Hinds 20J Detection of small quantities of lead in drinking water, M. Antony and T. Benelli 202 A new condenser, R. Walther 202 BOTANY. Relation of growth of leaves to the carbon dioxid of the air, D. T. MacDougal. 20.j On the resting periods of plants and the means of shortening the same, .J. Eriksson -..' 203 Contributions to the physiology of woody plants, K. G. Lutz 204 METEOROLOGY. On the diurnal variation of rainfall, A. Angot 206 Observations with actinometers on Mont Blanc to determine the solar con- stant, J. Vallot 206 Monthly Weather Review, annual summary, 1895 206 Monthly Weather Review, January, February, and March, 1896 207 Climate and Health, Vol. II, No. 2 207 Meteorological observations, June and July, 1896, L. Metcalf and J. L. Bartlett. 207 Meteorological records, E. A. Beals 207 Meteorological observations, June, 1896, H. B. Battle and C. F. von Herrmann. 208 Meteorological observations, W. B. Alwood 208 SOILS. The oxidation of the organic matter of the soil, P. P. Deh<^rain and E.Demoussy . 208 FERTILIZERS. The maintenance of soil fertility: Commercial fertilizers, F. W. Woll 212 The marls of Wisconsin, F. W. Woll 208 Fertilizer experiments conducted at the Royal Swedish Agricultural Academy during 1895, L. F. Nilson 209 Composition of commercial fertilizers, H. B. McDonnell et al 212 Provisions of the new fertilizer law of New York, L. L. Van Slyke 212 FIELD CROPS. Variety tests of barley, W. M. Hays 223 Experiments with corn, C. C. Georgeson, F. C. Burtis, and D. H. Otis 213 CONTENTS. Ill I'agQ Com experiments, W. M. Hays 223 Field experiments with corn, H. J. Waters and C. M. Conner 212 Yields and time of ripening of five different varieties of maize, Samek 214 Grain and forage crops, J . H. Shepperd 214 Kafir corn, C C. Georgeson, F. C. Burtis, and D. H. Otis 215 The mannring of irrigated meadows, Streker 215 Experiments in manuring meadows 2^5 Variety tests of oats, W. M. Hays 223 Variety tests of field peas, W. M. Hays 223 Potatoes, L. R. Taft 216 Potato experiments, R. H. Miller and E. H. Brinkley 216 Inquiry into the principles of potato growing, and tests of varieties, P. Schweitzer 216 A test of northern and home grown seed potatoes, C. O. Flagg, J. D. Towar, and G. M. Tucker 217 Early potatoes, C. O. Flagg and G. M. Tucker 217 Potatoes, fertilizer experiments, AV. J. Green and H. O. McFadden 218 Potatoes, variety tests, S. B. Green 219 Variety trials with potatoes, W. J. Green and H. O. McFadden 219 Potato culture, results of 1894 and 1895, A. Girard 219 Culture of the potato in Algeria, H. Hitler 219 Variety tests of rape, W. M. Hays 223 Field root crops, W. M. Hays 223 Experiments in the culture of sugar beets in Nebraska, H. H. Nicholson and T. L. Lyon 220 Tobacco, yellow leaf and cigar varieties, W. C. Stnbbs, J. G. Lee, and D. N. Barrow 220 Types of tobacco and their analyses, F. B. Carpenter 221 Test of fertilizers on wheat, D. 0. Nourse 221 Variety tests of wheat, W. M. Hays 222 Wheat, cutting at difterent dates, R. H. McDowell 224 Tillage experiments, W. M. Hays 222 Silage and silos, W. P. Wheeler 222 Cross rotation experiments, W. M. Hays 223 HORTICULTURE. Variety tests of beans, W. M. Hays 231 Onion culture, R. L. Watts 224 Peas and sweet corn, H. P. Gould 231 Tomatoes, 8. B. Green 225 Vegetables, L. C . Corbett 225 Vegetable tests, H. P. Gladden and U. P. Hedrick 225 Dwarf apples, E . G. Lodeman 226 Evaporating apples, W. B. Al wood 227 Pear culture, W. B. Alwood 227 The American persimmon, J. Troop and O. M. Hadley 228 Strawberries, C . W. Mathews 231 Small fruits, variety tests, S. B. Green 231 Nut culture in the United States, W, P. Corsa 229 SEEDS — WEEDS. On the influence of arsenic on the germination of seeds, B. Jimsson 232 Testing garden seeds, L. F. Kinney and G. E. Adams 233 Latent life of seed, V. Jodin and A. Gautier 233 IV EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. DISEASES OF PLANTS. l-agft Weeds in our fields, W. M. Hays 234 Potato diseases ou Long Island in the season of 1895, F. C. Stewart 234 Bacteriosis of carnations, J. C. Arthur and H. L. Bolley 235 Report ou black rot in Armagnac during 1895, G. Lavergne 236 Potato rot, H. P. Gould 237 A review of the diseases of the sugar cane in Java, I, J. H. Wakker and F. A. F. C. Went 237 A new disease of tobacco, J. Van Breda de Haan 237 Smut in wheat, W. M. Hays 237 The smut of oats and its prevention, A. D. Selby 238 Combating carnation rust, F. C. Stewart 238 Treatment for potato diseases, S. B. Green 239 The hot-water treatment for the prevention of smut of oats, wheat, and barley, E. S. Goff 240 Spraj'ing apparatus, S. B Green 240 Spraying for fruit diseases, B. T. Galloway 240 Notes on spraying, W. M. Munsou 240 ENTOMOLOGY. The spinach leaf maggot or miner, F. A. Sirrine 240 Some injurious insects, G. C. Davis 241 FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Investigations on respiration aud the total metabolism of man, K. Sond<^n and R. Tigerstedt 242 The food A'alue of ground cotton seed as compared with cotton-seeil cake, R.Christy 244 Molasses feed 246 Fattening steers in winter, T. Shaw 246 On an experiment in calf feeding, A. Gouin 251 Experiments with skim-milk feed, J. Lindstrom 248 Economy of feeding with home-grown wheat and barley, J. A. Voelcker 248 Fatteuing lambs in winter, T. Shaw 251 Results of feeding beet leaves, N. Zuntz 252 Quarantine experiments with swine, J. Arup 253 DAIRY FARMING AND DAIRYING. The effect of heavy exercise on milk production, T. Henkel 254 Danish feeding experiments with milch cows, 1887-'95, F. Friis 255 Spayed cows at the Geneva Exhibition, C. Cornevin 258 Effect of lead acetate on milk, Baum and Seliger 258 The milk of tuberculous animals, means of rendering it harmless, and its use, Ziiru 258 The present status of bacteriological investigation in dairying, H. Weigmann. . 259 The spontaneous souring of milk, G. Leichmann 259 Creaming experiments, F. B. Linfield 260 The Conn culture (B 41) in butter making, E. H. Farrington and H. L. Russell. . 261 The bacterial flora of Cheddar cheese, H. L. Russell and J, Weinzirl 265 STATISTICS. The number of farm animals in Denmark 266 Annual Report of Florida Station, 1895 266 Eighth Annual Report of Illinois Station, 1895 267 CONTENTS. V Page. Report of Iowa Station, 1891 and 1895 267 Ninth Annual Report of Nebraska Station, 1895 267 Sixth Annual Report of New Mexico Station, 1895 267 Sixth Annual Report of North Dalvota Station, 1895 267 Eighth Annual Report of Tennessee Station, 1895 267 Annu il Report of Virginia Station, 1895 267 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. Experiment Stations in the United States: Flori(hi Station: Annual Report, 1895 266 Illinois Station : Eighth Annual Report, 1895 267 Indiana Station : Bulletin 59, March, 1896 235 Bulletin 60, April, 1896 228 Iowa Station : Biennial Report, 1894 and 1895 267 Kansas Station : Bulletin 56, December, 1895 213,215 Kentucky Station? Bulletin 62, March, 1896 231 Louisiana Stations: Bulletin 41 (second series) 220 Maine Station: Bulletin 27, March 18, 1896 231 Bulletin 28, March 31, 1896 237 Bulletin 29, April 10, 1896 240 Maryland Station : Bulletin 37, February, 1896 212 Bulletin 38, 1896.... 216 Massachusetts Hatch Station : Meteorological Bulletin 90, June, 1896 207 Meteorological Bulletin 91, July, 1896 207 Michigan Station : Bulletin 131, April, 1896 216,225 Bulletin 132, April, 1896 241 Minnesota Station : Bulletin 44, December, 1895 246, 251 Bulletin 45, December, 1895 219, 225, 239, 240 Bulletin 46, December, 1895 207, 222, 223, 231, 234, 237 Missouri Station: Bulletin 32, October, 1895 213 Bulletin 33, January, 1896 216 Nebraska Station : Bulletin 44, April 25, 1896 220 Ninth Annual Report, 1895 267 Nevada Station : Bulletin 30, December, 1895 224 New Mexico Station : Sixth Annual Report, 1895 267 New York State Station : Bulletin 99 (new series), January, 1896 240 Bulletin 100 (new series), February, 1896 238 VI EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Experiment Stations in the United States— Continued. New York State Station — Continued. Page. Bulletin 101 (new series), February, 1896 234 Bulletin 102 (new series), March, 1896 222 Bulletin 103 (new series). May, 1896 212 New York Cornell Station: Bulletin 116, May, 1896 226 North Carolina Station : Bulletin 122, November 7, 1895 221 Meteorological Bulletin 81, June, 1896 208 North Dakota Station : Bulletin 23, March, 1896 214 Sixth Annual Report, 1895 267 Ohio Station : Bulletin 64. December, 1895 238 Bulletin 65, December, 1895 218, 219 Rhode Island Station : Bulletin35, January, 1896 233 Bulletin 36, January, 1896 217 Tennessee Station: Eighth Annual Report, 1895 267 Utah Station : Bulletin 42, February, 1896 260 Virginia Station : Bulletin 47, December, 1894 221 Bulletin 48, January, 1896 [1895] 227 Bulletin 49, February, 1896 [1895] 227 Annual Report, 1895 208, 267 West Virginia Station: Bulletin 42, February, 1896 225 Wisconsin Station: Bulletin 48, January, 1896 261 Bulletin 49, March, 1896 212 Bulletin 50, March, 1896 240 Bulletin 51, June, 1896 208 United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletin 38 240 Farmers' Bulletin 39 224 Division of Pomology : Nut Culture in the United States 229 Weather Bureau : Climate and Health, Vol. II, No. 2, February 29, 1896 207 Monthly Weather Review, Vol. XXIII, No. 13, Annual Summary, 1895. 206 Monthly AVeather Review, Vol. XXIV, Noa. 1-3, January-March, 1896. 207 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Vol. Vlll. No. 3. The energy with wliich the agricultural experiment stations in the United States have undertaken to bring the results of their investiga- tions home to the farmer has excited the admiration of foreign leaders in agricultural progress. The system which we have adopted for fre- quent publication and wide distribution of station bulletins is without a parallel elsewhere. It undoubtedly brings the stations close to the farmers and secures the support of the people. The labor involved in the preparation of station publications is so great and the funds required for the printing and distribution of these publications con- stitute so large a share of the total resources of our stations that questions relating to the proper form and style of station publications are worthy of the careful attention of station workers and managers. Already these matters have been much discussed at conventions of station officers and on other occasions. Nevertheless a general survey of our station literature indicates that there is still room for improve- ment in the manner of presenting station investigations to the public. It is taken for granted that in a general way station publications may be divided into two classes — technical and popular. In the tech- nical publications accuracy and clearness are the chief elements of style needed to show whether a good piece of work has actually been accomplished. In the popular publications there must be, in addition, a careful consideration of the best way to interest the reader — to instruct him without wearying him, and to leave him with definite ideas of the practical usefulness of the work described. It is granted that the translation of science into the language of the people is a difficult task. But for the very reason that this is so it does not become the writer of station bulletins to give evidence of haste or carelessness in his literary efforts. lie can not be allowed t(> plead l)ressure of time and other work as an ex(!use for the slovenly per- formance of one of his most imi)ortant duties. It is of comjiaratively little use to make or record experiments if they are so reported as to confuse or mislead the inquirer after scientific or practical truth. And what stumbling-blocks we put in the way of our farmer readers by using unfamiliar technical terms when the i^eople's English would have served our purpose far better. We were recently much grieved to lind a bulletin from one of our stations, which has a good record for 177 178 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. tlie readability of its bulletins, marred by this defect. In detailing the results of tests of separators terms are used in this bulletin which may be very familiar to the mechanical engineer, but which are unintel- ligible to laymen, especially when referred to solely by abbreviations. Such a bulletin should certainly be accompanied by a key or an inter- preter. The work reported in this bulletin is of great merit, but in their present form the details are lost to the average reader. The character of the tables and their relation to the text are matters which are often too slightly considered by the writers of station bulle- tins. Many readers have an aversion to tables, which is largely to be credited to the blind, involved manner in which data are not iufre quently tabulated. Tabulating requires not a little skill and study. The table should have a title exijlaining what it is about; the cokimn headings should be as brief and plain as possible; as a rule onl}" like measures should be put in the same column, and the table should not cover too many j)oints. It should be so constructed that it will be self- explanatory to a large degree, and will enable the reader to take in the general plan at least at a glance. It is a kind of word picture, and the picture should be so well drawn that the reader will comprehend it without protracted study. Moreover, he should, if possible, be attracted to examine it, and not led to skip it. In a popular bulletin if a table can not be so constructed as to attract the reader, it is at least worth con- sidering whether it should not be omitted or relegated to an appendix. With regard to illustrations, we hold that they should not be used unless they serve to explain or amplify the text or to instruct the reader at least as well as words can do. To make a picture book of a station bulletin is hardly legitimate, though if the pictures are first class in conception and execution we can condone such a fault. But to print poor i^ictures which do not really illustrate the text is unpardonable. It is a good rule to make the text as good as you can, and then make the pictures of higher grade than the text. And when great pains have been taken to write a good bulletin and to procure fine illustrations, why spoil it by sending it to a poor i^rinter or using cheap paper or bad ink? We appreciate the difficulties under which some stations labor in this matter. It certainly is too bad that local laws or regulations should make it necessary to have the people's literature ruined by bad typography. There may of course easily be extravagance in ijrintiug, but it is only fair that good type and clean paper should be used in giving to the world what it has cost so much patient efibrt to obtain. Least excusable is careless proof reading. We have good reason to know how difficult it is to secure absolute accuracy of detail on the jirinted page, but when, as in a recent case, a score of errors in spelling IS found in a list of plants, not to mention the improper use of capitals and italicSj something is wrong. THE FORMATION OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL BODY. Sei.ik Soskin, Ph. D. The controversy regarding the formation of fat in the animal orgh-uiism began with Liebig, who advanced a theory jnst the opposite of that ordinarily accepted. In 1742 the idea was first advanced by Beccaria, in Bologna, that animals take the substances which form their tissues ready-made from the vegetable kingdom. This theory had many fol- lowers, among others Front, in England, while in France Dumas, a con- temporary of Liebig (1842), is especially worthy of mention. The chief point of the theory was that animal fat was derived from the fat of plants. Liebig' disputed this deei^-seated belief. He called attention to the relation of the nitrogenous constituents of food to those of the body, and from the fact that Carnivora consume no sugar, starch, or vegeta- ble gums, drew the conclusion that these substances are not really nutrients — that is, they can not build blood. Further, since tlie nitro- genous constituents of plants and of blood have a similar composition, it follows that the nitrogenous constituents of the food of Herbivora contain the elements necessary for the formation of albumen. In normal life processes sugar, starch, and vegetable gums undergo combustion in the organism, and are excreted in the form of carbon dioxid and water. That is, they are really fuel, and serve for the produc- tion of heat. If, however, respiration is hindered by a lack of exercise or a rise in temperature, fat accumulates in the organism of Herbivora. Fat must have its origin in the nitrogen-free nutrients. Their carbon remains in the body in the form of fat when there is not enough oxygen to burn it to carbon dioxid. Such was Liebig's new theory. The phenomena of fermentation and decay seemed to strengthen it, as did also the discovery by Huber and Gundlach that bees make w^ax when fed on wax-free honey. The theory was further strengthened by the discovery by physicians that a formation of fat followed the consumption of food ricli in sugar, starch, and similar substances, and also by the observation of farmers in fat- tening animals with rice, maize, peas, lentils, potatoes, and turnips. Liebig attempted by the aid of statistics to overturn the theory of Dumas and Boussingault that animals take the substances used in the formation of tissue ready-made from the vegetable kingdom. »Ann. Cbem. und Pliarm., 45 (1843), p. 112. 179 180 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Three one-year-old pigs which were fed for 13 weeks on peas and potatoes yiekled on slaughtering from 150 to 105 lbs. of fat. The food consumed contained at most not more than 25 lbs. of fat. In the same way, 2 experiments by Boussingault with cows showed 1,050 gm. and 2,305 gm., respectively, of butter fat in the milk unaccounted for even if it is assumed that all the fat in the food consumed was used for the formation of fat in the body. However, it is a fact that considerable quantities of the fat consumed are found in the excreta. Boussingault, Dumas, and Payen' again attempted to show that sufficient fat was contained in the food of herbivora to account for the fat formed in the organism. They reasoned that wax is formed by bees fed only honey and sugar m just the same way that milk is produced from the tissues of the body when the diet does not contain sufficient fat and protein. In the other cases thej^ explained the fatty tissue gained or the butter fat produced by the assumption of a higher fat content in the food consumed. For instance, they used 7.59 per cent for the fat content of maize, while Liebig considered it only 5 per cent. Boussingault made 2 new experiments- with cows. In the first, 7 cows were fed for one year upon hay. Assuming that it contained 1.8 per cent of fat, the amount consumed would furnish 089 kg. of fat. The milk produced contained only 073 kg. of fat. Assuming that the hay contained 2 or 3 per cent of fat, it would have furnished 700 or 1,149 kg., respectively. In the author's opinion, however, the hay con- tained even more fat. In the second experiment a daily ration of straw and roots furnished 1,110 gm. of fat to account for 915 gm. in the butter. The opponents of Liebig, however, were gradually compelled by their own investigations to accept his theory of the formation of fat. This was the case with Dumas and Milne-Edwards, who published their investigations on the formation of wax by bees in 1843, They were followed by Boussingault and Payen in 1845. Dumas and Milne-Edwards^ made their experiments with bees as follows: The fat in the bees was determined at the beginning and end of the experiment. The food consisted of pure honey or sugar. If the bees did not draw upon their own tissues, wax must have been formed from the sugar consumed. The first experiment did not sub stantiate Liebig's view, since each bee produced only 0.5 mg. of wax, although its body contained 2 mg. at the beginning of the exijeri- ment. A second experiment, however, furnished a fine proof of the correctness of Liebig's theory. A swarm of bees was fed honey only for 32 days and produced 1L515 gm. of wax, although the honey consumed contained only 0.607 gm. of fat. Each bee produced 0.0064 gm. of wax. The bodies before the experiment contained 0.0018 gm. of fat and 0.0042 gm. at its close, and the weight of each bee had also •Ann. Chim. et Pbys., ser. 3, 8 (1843), p. 63. ^Ann. Chim. et Phys., ser. 3, 14 (1845), p. 400; Compt. Rend., 17 (1843), p. 531; Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool., ser. 2, 20 (1843), p. 174. THE FORMATION OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL BODY. 181 increased 0.106 gm. According to this, each bee must have produced 0.0084 gin. of wax from lioney. On the ground of some experiments in fattening a goose, which he published in 1844, Persoz also concluded that fat was formed from car- bohydrates. Persoz fed geese maize and they accumulated more fat than the maize contained. He also fed geese food containing very little or no fat — for instance, maize with the fat removed, potatoes, or starch and sugar — nevertheless the geese gained considerable fat. In spite of the experiments which had been made and criticised — for instance, Gundlach and Huberts research on the formation of wax by bees, Playfair's on the proPO4+6l4-KBr-|- 3H2O. The separated iodin is titrated with fifth normal thiosulphate in the usual manner, each 1 cc. of thiosulphate corresponding to 0.0071 gm. of phosphoric acid. '100 gm. molybdic acid, 400 gm. aninioiiium hydrate 0.96 sp. gr., and 1,500 gm. nitric acid 1.2 sp. gr. 194 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The method applied to the determination of phosphoric acid in fertil- izers is as follows: Dissolve 4: to 5 gm. of the substance in 20 to 30 cc. of nitric acid (1.2 sp. gr.). Make solution up to 500 cc. and use 20 to 50 cc. for each determination. Dilute to 50 cc. if necessary, and add 1 to 2 gm. of silver nitrate in solid form or concentrated solution. Add sloMiy from a pipette a warm normal solution of sodium hydrate until the yellow precipitation no longer disappears on stirring, then add drop by drop 10 per cent solution of ammonia until no further precipitation occurs. After boiling 5 to 10 minutes and standing a short time, filter and wash free from lime. To prevent cloudiness of filtrate, wash finally with a 2 to 3 per cent solution of potassium nitrate. Wash the precipi- tate back ijito the flask in which the precipitation was made with the same solution, add 3 to 6 gm. of sodium chlorid, and warm a few min- utes. Filter the solution of sodium phosphate (]^a3P04) thus obtained into a glass-stoppered flask and wash the precipitate with the potassium- nitrate solution until the washings are neutral. Add to the filtrate 5 cc. of half normal sulphuric acid, 3 gm. potassium iodid, and 10 cc. of a 5 per cent solution of potassium bromate, dilute to 100 to 120 cc, warm for one-half hour at 40 to 50° C. or allow to stand for a day at ordinary temperature before titrating the separated iodid with thiosulphate solution. In case of phosphates rich in iron, such as Thomas slag, precipitate the phosphoric acid by either the molybdic or the citrate method, wash the precipitate with 2i per cent ammonia solution and then with 90 per cent alcohol to remove excess of ammonia. Wash the precipitate into a stoppered flask, add 30 cc, of tenth-normal sulphuric acid for each tenth gram of i^hosphoric acid present. The following reaction occurs : 2MgNH4 PO4 + 3H2SO4 = 2MgS04 + ( NH4) 2 SO4 + 2H3PO4. Titrate the free phosphoric acid in the manner prescribed above. A study of the Kjeldahl method and its modifications, G. KlVlERE and G. Bailhache {Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, ser. 3, 15-16 {1S96), No. 12, pp. 806-811). — The use of phosphoric acid or bioxid and phos- phate of manganese did not give satisfactory results. In the latter case a certain amount of nitric nitrogen was driven off. The use of sesquioxid of iron and sulphate of iron furnished more satisfactory results, but the method is complicated and results in a bulky precipi- tate when soda is added which interferes with distillation, Vanadic, molybdic, and arsenic acids were tested and were found too slow in action, but boric acid gave quite satisfactory results. On the assumption that the quickness and completeness of reduction would be promoted by raising the boiling point of the sulphuric acid, varying amounts of sulphate of jiotash (1 to 10 gm.) were added to the acid. Since the smaller amounts gave as good results as the larger, it was concluded that the increased eff'ectiveness was due to the character of the salt added and not to the increased temperature. Although the mixture gave good results as a rule, its action on sub- stances like horn was too slow, and pyrophosphate of soda (1 to 2 gm.) CHEMISTRY. 195 was substituted for it. The metliod used was as follows: Place 0.5 gm. of substance iu a 1J.")0 cc. tiask with 20 cc. of sulphuric acid and 1 to 2 gm. of dry and pulverized pyroi)hosphate of soda. Incline the flask slightly and heat gently at first until the evolution of fumes of sulphuric acid has subsided and the i)yrophosi)hate has dissolved, which geuerall}^ requires about 20 minutes, then gradually increase the temperature until the acid boils. Continue the digestion until the solution is limpid and but slightly colored. Cool, dilute with water, remove to a liter flask, add a little litmus solution, and connect with a condenser. Run in soda solution through a funnel until the blue color just disappears on shaking, add 3 gm. of magnesia, dilute to 450 to 500 cc, and distill the ammonia in the usual way. This requires from 1| to 1^ hours. Comparative results by diflerent methods are shown in the following table : Determinations of nitrogen hy different methods. Substance. Horn Meat Do Do Dried blood... Do Do Fish fertilizer Do Do Pigeon dung.. Do Oil cake Fertilizer Do Do Soda-lime method. Per cent. 13.00 10.34 8.65 9.50 11.40 10.45 11,20 8. 05 9.05 10. 15 6.95 0.27 5.25 2. 15 8.85 1.90 Kjeldahl method, using mercury. Per cent. 13.00 10.35 8.65 9.45 11.35 10.45 11.15 8.85 9.90 10.00 G. 90 6.27 5.25 1.95 8.80 1.90 Sulphate of potash method. 10 gm. Decolor- ized in 1 to 2 hours. Per cent. 13.15 10.41 8.75 9.30 11.40 10.55 11.05 8.95 10.00 10.00 5 gm. Decolor- ized in 2 to 3 hours. Per cent. 13.15 10.45 8.75 9.40 11.45 10.55 11.10 9.00 10.00 10.00 2gm. Decolor- ized in 2J to 3^ hours. Per cent. 13.20 10.45 8.80 9.50 11.50 10.60 11.15 9.05 10.00 10.10 7.15 5.25 2.15 8.85 1.95 1 gm. Decolor- ized In 3 to 4^ hours. Per cent. 13.20 10.45 8.80 9.55 11.50 10. G5 11.20 9.00 10.00 10.15 Sodium pyrophos- phate method. 2 gm. Decolor- ized in I to 2 hours. Per cent. 13.20 10.40 10.65 9.05 10.15 7.18 6.30 5.30 2.20 8.90 1.95 1 gm. Decolor- ized in 2Jto3 hours. Per cent. 13.20 10.45 9.50 'io.'eo "9.06 10.10 7.20 6.30 5.25 2.15 8.90 1.95 The determination of potash, C. Fabre {Compt. Rend., 122 {1896), No.23,])p. 13Sl-looo).—T\ie method proposed is as follows: The potash salts are evaporated on the water bath with a slight excess of j)latinic chlorid, adding toward the end of the operation a few drops of aqua regia to destroy ammonium compounds. The residue is taken up in a few cubic centimeters of distilled water and the solution again evap- orated to dryness. The residue is ground up in the evaporating dish with a few cubic centimeters of 90 per cent alcohol, collected on a filter, and washed, first with alcohol until the washings are colorless, then with a small quantity of ether. The precipitate is dissolved on the filter with boiling water and to the solution, warmed to about 60° C, purified (washed in alcohol) magnesium powder is slowly added, a large excess being a\7oided. The reaction which occurs is as follows: 2Mg+ K2PtC]6=2KCl + 2MgCl2+rt. To prevent the formation of oxychlorid of magnesium it is well to add a few drops of sulphuric acid at the end 106 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of the above operation. The solution is filtered, a slight excess of pie- cipitated carbonate of lime and a little potassium cbromate are added to tbe filtrate, and the solution titrated with tentli-uormal silver nitrate. It is (claimed that while the results by this method are not rigorously exact they are sufficiently so for industrial purposes. The following results were on salts of known composition: Percentage of potash in different salts. Potash- present. ^^^^^^_ Muriate of potash . . do Sulphate of potash do Per cent. 47.80 48. 25 49.60 49.50 Per cent. 47.60 48.10 49.50 49.30 The quantitative determination of crude fiber in foods and con- diments, G. Baumert {Ztschr. angeiv. Ghent., 1896, No. 13, pp. 408- 411). — In a paper read before the German Society of Applied Chemistry the author, after speaking of the difficulty of determining crude fiber in foods which have but little of that constituent, recommends the fol- lowing modification of the Weeude method : Two grams of finely ground air-dry substance is moistened with alcohol and a small amount of tine asbestus fiber added. It is then heated for 1 hour with 100 cc. of dilute sulphuric acid (1.25 per cent.) in a covered beaker immersed in a boil- ing water bath, with frequent stirring. The acid is removed by an asbestus filter, the asbestus and substance washed back, and the whole again treated in the same manner for I hour with 1.1*5 per cent sodium hydroxid. It is then filtered as before, washed, dried, weighed, and ignited as usual, the loss on ignition representing the crude fiber. If the material is rich in fat, treatment with hot 90 per cent alcohol is recommended previous to the analysis. The results are given of duplicate determinations on 35 samples of wheat and rye, flour, bran, bread, cocoa, potatoes, etc. A difference of 0.2 per cent occurred only once (cocoa). The author shows by several analyses the influence on the amount of crude fiber of the duration of heating with the acid and alkaline solu- tions, results being given for h hour, 1 hour, and 2 hours, and compared with those by Holdefleiss' method. The fiber diminished with increased times of contact, but the author prefers heating for 1 hour. — c. l,. PARSONS. On the analysis of flour and of fat in wheat and rye flour, E. Spaeth [Forscli. Ber. Lehensmtl., 1896, No. 6, pp. 251-259). — The author gives a summary of recent work on the fat of flour, and on the ground of his numerous experiments he advises the use of petroleum ether instead of ordinary ether in the extraction of fat in flour, since in his CHEMISTRY. 197 opinion extraction witb the latter is not complete. The following con- clnsions are reached : (1) LoNv boiling petroleum ether is the only sort suitable for the determination of fat in flours and in vegetable products in general. The fat content of flour gives an idea of its fineness, since the fat bears a definite relation to the increase in bran; that is, to the coarseness of the flour. (2) The fat in the starchy part of the kernel has a different composi- tion from that of the hull. The latter is richer in unsaturated fatty acids. It is possible that the fat in the starchy part of the grain has undergone polymerization or oxidation on being stored as a reserve material. (3) The fats of wheat and rye flour are somewhat different, and the difference can serve as a means of identification if the sample is a very fine flour. A determination of the iodin number of fat furnishes no clue to a mixture of wheat and rye flour if both are coarse. The index of refraction of wheat and rye behave differently. That of wheat flour fat stands in inverse proportion to the iodin number. That of rye flour fat increases with the coarseness of the flour. {4 ) When flour is very dry the iodin number of the fat is influenced by the polymerization of the unsaturated fatty acids and becomes lower, just as is the case when fat from flour or other cereals is heated for some time. It is best to extract fat in the cold with petroleum ether and remove the latter and dry the fat on a water bath in an atmosphere of hydrogen. (5) The fat from old flour, which has become moist, has a lower iodin number tliat the fat from normal flour. Analysis and composition of canned meats, E. Hefelmann {Pharm. Centhl., 30 {1895), p. 652; ahs. in Yierteljahr. Chcm. Kahr. und GcnussmtL, 10 [1895), Xo. 4, pp. 485, 486). — Methods for sampling and analyzing canned meats are given and a number of analyses made by Xaumann, of I'lauen. Dresden, are quoted. The chief difference between these methods and those ordinarily followed is in the determi- nation of fat, which was made as follows: Weigh 6 to 7 gm. of the sample in a glass tube () cm. long and 1 cm. wide, inside measurement, open at each end; place in a graduated tube; add '2ii cc. fuming hydro- chloric acid (specific gravity 1.19); place the graduated tube in a cold water bath ; heat ([uickly to boiling, and shake the tube often. In half an h(mr the protein will be dissolved. Dilute the contents of the tube with 20 cc. cold water, cool to 30°, add 30 cc. ether, and shake gently. Cool, fill the tube with ether, cork it, and shake. Allow the contents to settle 2 hours, note the volume of ether, draw off" 20 cc. with a pipette, evaporate the ether in a small beaker glass, dry 1 hour at 100 to 110^, and weigh the fat. From this compute the fat content of the whole sample. Copper cyanid reagent for the determination of glucose, A. W. 198 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Gerrakd [Jour. Pharm. et Chim., ser. 6, 3 {1896), j)' 250; ahs. in Chem. Ccnthl., 1890, II, No. 3, p. 135). — The reagent originally described by the author' is not stable, and the following modification is therefore projiosed: Ten grams of Eehling's solution and 40 gm. of water are heated to boiling in a casserole and a 50 i^er cent solution of potassium cyanid slowly added until the liquid is decolorized or only slightly blue. Another 10 gm. of Fehling's solution is then added and the sugar solu- tion run iu from a burette, the liquid being kept constantly boiling, until the blue color disappears. The solution thus prepared is stable through the formation of the double salt CuCyi* 2KCy. — w. h. keug. On the determination of glucose, Causse [Jour. Fharm. et Chim., ser. 6, 3 {1896), p. 433). — In connection with Garrard's method (see above), the author calls attention to the fact that in 1889 he proposed the use of potassium ferrocyauid to accomj)lish the same purjDOse. — W. H. KRUG. A method for the separation of galactose and arabinose, E. SuBASCHOW {Ztschr. Ver. Rlihcnz. hid., 1896, pp. 270-273 ; ahs. in Ghem, Centhl., 1896, II, No. 2, p. 134). — The method of separating arabinose and galactose depends on the difference in the rapidity with which the respective hydrazids are formed as well as the difference in solubility of these compounds. Galactosebenzhydrazid is formed when one part of galactose is heated on the water bath under a reflux condenser with the calculated amount of benzhydrazid and 20 to 23 parts of 96 per cent alcohol according to the reaction : C6H12O6 + C7H8N2O = CiaHisXaOe + H2O. After 1^ to 2 hours the whole mass is liquid, and on cooling a small amount of galactosebenzhydrazid separates. The greater portion is obtained only after evaporating to ^ or J of the original volume. Ara- binosebenzhydrazid is formed in a similar manner. The arabinose dissolves almost immediately, and after 15 to 20 minutes the arabin- osebenzhydrazid begins to separate. After further boiling for half an hour and cooling the compound separates completely. — w. H. krug. Determination of the diastatic power of malt, W. J. Sykes and C. A. Mitchell {Analyst, 21 {1896), May, pp. 122-128).— The authors give the following method, which is a combination of those of Kjeldahl and Lintner. The soluble starch, malt extract, and diastase solution are prepared as usual. One hundred cubic centimeters of the soluble starch solution and 1 cc. of the malt extract are placed in a 200 cc. flask having a wide neck, well shaken, and allowed to stand 1 hour at 70° F. Fifty cubic centimeters of Fehling's solution is then added, the mouth of the flask covered with a watch glass, and the liquid heated to 98°. The flask is then placed in boiling water for 7 minutes. The CU2O is collected in a Soxhlet tube, reduced with hydrogen, and the copper weighed. The weight of the copper divided by 0.438 and multiplied by 100 gives the diastatic power. — w. n. krug. 1 Chem. Centbl., 1893, I, No. 9, p. 445. CHEMISTRY. 199 The estimation of starch in meat products, J. Mayrhofer {Forsch. a. Lehcnsmtl. und Hyg. Ghem., 3 {1896), p. 141). — The method is based on the power of alcoholic potash solution to dissolve the pro- teids aud fat while the starch remaius behind. The substance is treated on the water bath in a covered beaker with 8 per cent alcoholic potash. The li(|uid is diluted with hot alcohol to prevent the gelatin- ization of the soap, the insoluble residue collected on a filter, and washed with alcohol. The starch is dissolved by means of aqueous potash solution and reprecipitated with alcohol. It is then collected on a filter, washed with alcohol and finally with ether, and the dry starch weighed. It contains considerable ash which, according to the author, can be avoided by acidifying the solution slightly with acetic acid before precipitating. — w. h. krug. Composition of human fat, C. A. Mitchell {Analyst, 21 {1896), July, p. 171). — Clievreul found that human fat consisted of olein and stearin, while Heintz concluded that it was composed of olein and \)al- mitin with small quantities of several other acids, one of them being liquid. The author concludes from his work that human fat consists of about 70 per cent of liquid acids, principally oleic, 30 per cent of solid acids, probably palmitic, with small amounts of stearic and myristic and traces of lower volatile acids. — b. w. kilgore. Determination of volatile fatty acids by the method of Leff- mann and Beam, W. Karsch (Ghem. Zt per cent. The probable error of determination of eacli of the 4 methods given was calculated as follows : Error in different milk tests. Average error of a single determination. Probable error Gravi- metric. Per cent. ±0.0344 ± .0232 Babcock. Per cent. ±0.0299 ± .0202 Gerber. Thorner. Per cent. , Per cent. ±0.0211 I ±0.0241 ± .0144 I ± .0162 The author considers the difficulty of accurately reading oft" the column of fat the main source of error in the rapid milk tests. — f. w. WOLL. Contribution to the determination of milk sugar in milk and milk products, B. A. Van Ketel {Nederl. Tjdschr. Fharm., s, p. 15 J; abs. in Cliem. Ceuthl., 1896, II, No. 2, p. 134). — The anthor states that in the determination of milk sugar and other liquids it is necessary to first remove the proteids and fat, which is best done by adding phenol and lead acetate. To 50 cc. of milk are added 4 cc. of phenolum lique- faetum and 10 cc. of a 10 per cent solution of lead acetate, the mixture thoronghly shaken, filtered, and washed until the filtrate and wash water aggregate 100 cc. If the milk sugar is to be determined by Feh- ling's solution the lead is removed with a few drops of sodium sulphate solution. Further notes on the detection of formalin, H. D. Eichmond and L. K. BOSELEY [Analyst, 21 (ISi)O), April, i).'J2). — The authorsfouud that the amnion iacal silver nitrate reaction, while delicate, was so general as to be misleading, and that Schift's reagent was delicate but must be per- formed in slightly acid solution. In making Hehuer's test with sulphuric acid the authors dilute the milk with an equal volume of water and use 90 to 91 per cent sulphuric acid. A violet ring is formed when formic aldehyde is present, and a greenish tinge when none is present. Trillat's dimethylauilin reaction and riochl's test are mentioned. — b. w. kilgore. The detection of formalin, A. Hehnek {Analyst, 21 {1896), April, p. 94). — The author does not consider SchifPs reagent a satisfactory test for formic aldehyde, as it reacts in the same way with other aldehydes and may give indication of the presence of formic aldehyde when none is present on account of the oxidation of the sulphurous acid by the oxy- gen in the liquid tested. It should only be used as a confirmatory test. The sulphuric acid test previously mentioned by the author,^ it is said, will readily detect 1 part of formic aldehyde in 200,000 parts of milk. If milk containing formic aldehyde is allowed to float upon 1 Analyst, 20 (1895), July, p. 154. CHEMISTRY. 201 sulpliuiie acid (about 9-4 per cent strength) a pale-colored ring forms at the juncture of the two liquids. The milk or food may be distilled and the distillate, to which some casein dissolved in alkali has been added, can be tested as above. This test is characteristic of formic aldehyde and is not given by acetic aldehyde, but when much formic aldehyde is present the blue color is not produced. An equally sensitive and more generally applicable test for formic aldehyde is made by adding one drop of dilute aciueous solution of phenol to the distillate from milk, mixing, and pouring upon concen- trated sulphuric acid, when a bright crimson color appears at the point of contact if formic aldehyde is present. L'henol and sulphuric acid give an orange-yellow color with acetic aldehyde. — b. w. kilgore. Note on the estimation of formic aldehyde, H. M. Smith {Ana- lyst, 21 {189 {189(i), pp. 46-49,85-87).— The melting test. — Fifty grams of the butter to be examined is placed in a warm, tall 100 cc. beaker and kept in a drying oven at 60° C. for 30 min- utes. The author recommends the method for preliminary work. Pure butter will, as a rule, give a perfectly clear oil, while mixtures of butter and oleomargarine will be more or less turbid. The emulsion tests. — A review of the methods of Mayer, Jalir, Katz, etc. — F. W. WOLL. Photometric method for the quantitative estimation of sul- phuric acid, J. I. D. UmBa {Chem. News, 73 {1896), No. 1908, p. 285).— The author found that by adding solid boriuni chlorid to sulphuric acid of known strength (very dilute) and observing the height of a column in a cylinder similar to a ISTessler cylinder, through which an ordinary candle flame was visible (holding the candle directly under the cylinder and shading the cylinder from direct light), the product of the height of this column by the percentage of sulphuric acid in the solution was a constant. This constant for 11^804 was found to be 0.0r>l»0 and fcu' SO3, 0.0482. Hence the amount of sulphuric acid in dilute solutions can be estimated by adding borium chlorid, observing 202 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the lieiglit of the eolamn through Avhich the tlame is visible, and applying' the lollowing formulas: 0.590 Peicentasi' of H:S04 = Peiceutajie of SO3 = height of column. 0.482 height of column. — B. W. KILGORE. Photometric method for the estimation of lime, J. I. D Hinds {Chem. Xeics, 73 {1S90), No. 1909, j). 299).—T\i\^ method is sim- ilar to the one for sulphuric acid mentioned above. Solid ammonium oxalate is used as the precipitating reagent and only dilute solutions can be worked, 0.01 to 0.02 per cent giviug best results. The method is not adapted to flaky precipitates or ones large enough to settle rapidly. The equations are: 0.0642 Perceutage of CaCos = Percentage of CaO height of column — 0,3 0.0360 height of column — 0.3 For the success of the methods for lime and sulphuric acid the flame must be constant. They are considered especially applicable to the determination of these substances in waters and urine. The author states that the method for calcium carbonate is more accurate than the soap method and is but little aflected by magnesium salts. — B. w. KILGORE. Detection of small quantities of lead in drinking water, M. Antony and T. Benelli {Gazz. chim. Hal., 26 {1890), No. 1, }). 218; abs. in Cliem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 54, Bejfert, p. 181). — To avoid evaporating large quantities of the water, it is recommended to dissolve mercuric chlorid in about 4 liters of the water at the rate of about h gm. per liter, and then conduct hydrogen sulphid through the cold liquid. Quan- tities of lead so small as not to be shown by hydrogen sulphid alone are thrown down with the mercury. If the solution after settling is brown colored, it is shaken with ammonium chlorid (about 5 gm. per liter) and allowed to settle, when it should be colorless. The precipi- tate is collected on a filter, washed, dried, and incinerated to drive off the mercury. The residue contains the lead, which is treated with sul- phuric acid and weighed as sulphate. A new condenser, R. Walther {Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 47, p 462, Jigs. 3). — This consists of 2 tubes of metal or glass, one within the other, the ends of the outer tube being welded to the inner tube, which is open at both ends, or may be nearly closed at the upper end. The usual inlet and outlet tubes are i)rovi. 436). — About 30 species were studied with a view to their separation or definition as based upon their morphological characteristics. The significance of the compound ovary, C. E. Bessey {Fresenfed before Sec. G of ihe American Association for tlie Advancement of Science, Anf/., 1S96; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 {1S96), No. 91, 2yp- 434, 435). — The origin, development, biological signifi- cance, and the application in systematic botany of the compound ovary were dis- cussed. Remarks on the northern species of Vitis, L. 11. Bailey {Presented before Sec. G of tlie American Association for the Advancement of Science, Au(j., 1S96; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 {1S96), Xo. 91, p. 438). — Notes were given on the .systematic position of cer- tain native grapes. The origin of sugar in the beet, F. Stkohmer (Xeue Ztschr. IHihen:. Ind., 37 {1896), No. 11. pp. 137-143). A contribution on the anatomy of the fruit of the pear and apple, J. Mal- FATTi {Ztschr. Nahrunf/s. Untersuch. nnd Hug., 10 {1896), No. 16, pp. 265-,269, fuia. 10). Abnormal hickory nuts, F. H. Herrick {Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 4, 3 {1896), No. 10, pp. 258-263, pi. 1, figs. 12). Sensitive organs of the Leguminosse and Oxalideae, M. RoDRic.rE {Arch. sci. phys. et nat., 32, No. 12; abs. in Bot. CentbL, 67 {1896), No. 11, p. 329). The most important adaptations for the protection of plant organs, G. Ramme (Die wichtigsten Sc]nit:ei)irichfHngen der Vegetationsorgane der Pfianzen, Pt. II, Osterprogramm, Fredic. L'eal Gyntnasium, Berlin, 1895, pp. 25; abs. in Bot. CentbL, 67 {1896), No. 9-10, pp. 289, 290). Structures of the embryo sac, J, ^I. Coulter {Presented before Sec. G of the American Association for the Adrancement of Science, Aug., 1896; ahs. in Science, n. ser., 4 {1896), No. 91, p. 431). — The author gives modified definitions of egg apparatus, primary endosperm cell, and antipodal cells. A contribution to our knowledge of the relation between growth and turgor, E. B. Coi'ELAND {Presented before Sec. G of tlie .American Association for tlie Advance- ment of Science, Aug., 1896; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 {1896), No. 91, pp. 432, 433). — The author reported experiments with seedliugs of Vicia faba grown at different temi)er- atures. He concludes that rapidity of growth regulates turgor rather than the turgor regulating growth. BOTANY. 205 Studies in nuclear phenomena and the development of the ascospores in certain Pyrenomycetes, ^I. A. NiciKtL.s (Presenlcd be/ore. Sec (i of Ihe American Aa-socialion for the Advanceineut of Science, Aiuj., ISOr,; ahs. in Science, n. ser., 4 {1S90), No. 01, pp. 430, 431). — As a result of these studies, it is shown that sexual processes may bo present in some and absent or dcgeuerate in other members of the Sphieria- cea'. An account was also given of the discovery of nuclei in this family, their structure and behavior during division. On the formation and distribution of abnormal resin ducts in conifers, A. P. Andeksox (Presented before Sec. G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, An;/., 1S96; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 {ISOG), Xo. 91, pp. 431, 43.2). — Notes are given on the influence of frost, fungus attacks, etc., upon the formation and dis- tribution of resin ducts in Finns sylreslris, P. strobus, Plcea excel. sa, and Abies pectinata. The curvature of tendrils, D. T. MacDougal (Presented before Sec. Gof the Ameri- can Association for ihe Advancement of Science, Aug., 1S9G; abs. in Science, n. ser. ,4(1896) No. 91, p. 43~>). — It is stated that curvature in response to a stimulus is due to the contraction of certain cells on the concave side of the tendrils. It was found that the effects of the stimulus were not transmitted more than 2 cm. from the point of reception. The influence of rainfall upon leaves, U. T. MacDougai, (Presented before Sec. G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug., 1S9G; abs. in Science, n. ser. ,4 (1S96), No. 91, p. 43'>). — The investigations of Ridley and .Stalil are mentioned and a brief resume is given of the observations of Junger in the same line. The forces determining the position of leaves, E. N. Day (Presented before See. G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug., 1896; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 (1S9G), No. 91, p. 430). — Specimens of Phaseolus, Taraxacum, Cucurbita, Nicotiana, Helianthus, and Arissema were grown in light and darkness in upright, horizontal, inverted, and planostat positions, and the author concludes that the heliotropic tendency of leaves so far overbalances the other influences as to determine their position; hence it is a physiological and not a mechanical resultant. Rheotropism and the relation of re.sponse to stimulus, F. C. Newcombe (Pre- sented before Sec. G of tlie American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug., 1896; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 (1806), No. 91, p. 43.3).— The effect of flowing water as a stimulus is mentioned, those roots curving against the stream being called posi- tively and those with the stream negatively rheotropic. The roots of many plants were shown to be positively rheotropic, while others are unresponsive. The stimulus is not considered as necessarily closely biological, but may be mechanical. The graft from antiquity to the present time, L. Daniel (Le Monde des Pluntes, ser. 2, 5 (ISOG), pp. 73, 89, 106, 113). On the supposed immediate effect of pollen, H. J. Webber (Science, n. ser., 4 (1896), No. 93, pp. 498-500). — The author believes reversion and graft hybridization more responsible for unusual forms of fruit than the immediate efl'ect of a foreign pollen. Grass flora of Iowa, L. H. Pa:\imel (Presented before Sec. (r of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, Aug., ISOG ; abs. in Science, u. ser., 4 (1896), No. 91, p. 433).— 'Sotcs were given of the indigenous grasses of the State, their distribu- tion and relative value. The distribution of the species of Gymnosporangium in the South, L. M. Underwood and F. S. P2arle (Presented before Sec. G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug., 1806 ; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 (1896), No. 91, p. 437). — The distribution of the 6 species parasitic on Juniperus rirginiana is given, the most common ones being Gytnnonporavgium macropnx, G, clavipes, and an nndescribed species. Formaldehyde as a preservative of vegetable tissues, .1. 1.'. .Iacksox (Gard. Chron., ser, 3, 30 (1896), No, 500, p. 365). 206 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. METEOKOLOGY. On the diurnal variation of rainfall, A . Anciot ( Gompt. Rend., 122 {lsu6)j Xo. 2-1, pp. Ii09-lill). — Suimiiariziug- the results of daily obser- vations at Paris during G years (L890-'05), in 8 3-hour periods, tlie fol- lowiuii' fi inures are obtained, showing- the thousandths of the total rainfall duriu<;- the respective periods : liaiufull duriny different parts of the day in summer and winter. Midnight to 3 a.m. 3 to 6. 6 to 9. 9 to 12. 12 m. to 3 p. m. 3 to 6. 6 to 9. 9 to 12. Summer Winter n4 ]06 86 142 90 172 87 123 143 120 223 104 161 111 95 122 The average for the whole day is 125. In summer the rainfall falls below this average during 5 ]>eriods, or 15 hours out of the 24, from 9 p. m. to noon. In winter, on the other hand, the rainfall exceeds 125 in only 2 periods, 3 to 9 a. m. — that is, at the time of lowest temperature and greatest relative humidity. The most marked variations occurred in May and September. During April, October, and November the daily vaiiations were not appreciable. Since the conditions in summer and winter are almost diametrically opposed, the averages for the year possess no significance. From observations on the frequency of rainfall during the same period, it appears that the probability of rain for each hour of the day during the summer is 75 out of 1,000. This rises to 104 between 3 and C p. m., and is about 71 for the rest of the (Iny. In winter the average proba- bility is 93, rising to 103 between 3 and C p. in. and 120 between C and 9, remaining constant at about 8G during the rest of the day. The intensity and freipiency of rainfall were found to follow the same rule. Observations w^ith actinometers on Mont Blanc to determine the solar constant, J. Vallot (Rev. >Svient., ser. i, G [1896), No. 2, p. 53). — The results ol>tained by the author in 1887 with the absolute acti- nometer of Ville and in 1S91 with the mercury actinometer of Crova while differing widely from the results of other observers agree closely with each other, although obtained by totally difterent instruments aud calculated by two distinct methods. The solar constant is equal to the quantity of heat observed at a given station increased by the amount absorbed by the atmosphere. Monthly Weather Revie^v ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather Rcvieic, 2J [1895), No. 13, pp. VII, 489-501, charts 5).— This number contains the title-pages, table of contents, list of corrections and additions, and index for volume 23 (1895) of the Review, aud an annual summary of meteorological observations during 1895, "based upon data received from about 3,000 stations occupied by regular and voluntary observers of the Weather Bureau, Canadian data received by METEOROLOGY. 207 the cooperation of Prof. K. F. Stupart, and Mexican (lata received from the directors of observatories in that country." Notes and tabulated data are also giveu by the editor on the annual snowfall and by P. Morrill on the reduction of barometric pressure to the sea level. In applying the formula proposed by the International Meteorolog- ical Committee to the reduction of barometric observations at elevations of 1,000 ft. or more, a difficulty is encountered in determining a proper reduction temperature. "For several months past the writer has devoted considerable labor to a study of this problem, as presented in onr elevated western stations. "The results obtained may be brieily summarized in the following theses: "(1) Normal reduction temperatures maybe determined froni the normal observed temperature reduced to sea level by assuming a decrement of temperature with alti- tude ranging from 1.5° F. per 1,000 ft. in winter to 2.5° in summer, and being 2° jjer 1,000 ft. for the average of the whole year. "(2) Observed t(;mperatures may be reduced to sea-level temperatures (whereby is meant such temperatures as would exist if the present terrestrial surface were replaced bj- a sea-level plain, while the general features of the atmospheric circula- tihosphoric acid (in the form of Thomas slag) anhoric acid, or, in case of undissolved bone, total i)hosphoric acid, and per cent of potash S(>luble in distilled water. "Before any fertilizer can be legally sold, oft'ered, or exposed for sale in this State the manufacturer or agent must file with the New York Agricultural Experiment .Station, at Geneva, a statement like that provided for on ])ackages, and also an addi- tional statement iu .January of every year. "When fertilizers contain leather or similar inert products the fact nnist be explicitly and conspicuously stated on each package." A brief statement of the work accomplished by the station in inspec- tion of fertilizers is added. Since July, 1890, there have been collected and analyzed about 2,700 samples of commercial fertilizers manufactured by over 120 firms, nearly one-half of whom reside in other States. The maintenance of soil fertility : Commercial fertilizers, F. W. Woll ( Wis- consin Sta. liiil. 40, pp. 5.^).— This is the first l)nllctin issued m accordance with the ])rovisions of the Wisconsin fertilizer law passed in 1895, and gives the results of 10 analyses of fertilizers licensed for sale in the State during the cnrreut calendar year. "It has been considered desirable, in addition, to include in the bulletin such general information on the subject of iertilizers and thtur apiilication as will be heljiful to the farmers of our State and aid them to a more thorough understanding of the problems connected with the maintenance of the fertility of their laud." The topics discussed are the nature and source of the difierent fertilizing ingre- dients; the fertilizing constituents of feeding stufi's and farm products; amounts of fertilizing constituents removed from the soil by different crops; the nature, man- agement, and use of barnyard manure; green manuring; and the composition, valuation, and use of commercial fertilizers. The text of the State fertilizer law is also given. Composition of commercial fertilizers, H. B. McDonnell kt al. {Maryland Sta, Ihil. 37, pp. 5/).— Tabulated analyses and valuations of 439 fertilizers inspected September, 189.^), to .launary, 1896, with a list of fertilizers liceused for sale in Mary- land for the year ending January 31, 1896, and a schedule of trade values of fertiliz- ing materials. FIELD CROPS. 213 FIELD CROPS. Experiments with corn, C. C. Georgeson, F. C. Bttrtts, and T). il. Otis {Kansafi Sta. linl. .',/;, pp. ]i<)-l(iO). Synopsis. — Phiiitiiiii' May 1.', cultiv.iliiiL!; twice in a. season, listing acMonipiinied with eauty, 57,4 bu. i)er acre, followed by Leaming, Piasa King, Saint Charles White, and Chester County Mammoth. Fertilizer test (pp. 13-17). — In 1891, as in 3 889, applications were made at a uniform rate of 10 tons of barnyard manure per acre, fer- mented and unfermented, solid horse and cattle manure alone, and solid and liquid manure combined. These were applied both on the surface and idowed under. The tabulated data cover 3 years. The authors state that from the land where fresh barnyard manure was applied twice in .') years an average increase in yield was obtained of 30,0 per cent. From the combined solid and licpiid manures larger yields were obtained than from solid manure alone. Horse manure produced larger yields than cattle manure. Plowing manure under was better than applying it on the surface. 214 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Preparaiio7i for plantinfi (pp. 17-20). — In a test of tliorougli, partial, and no plowing the yields for 3 years increased with the thoroughness of ])reparation of the soil. Harrowing with the disc or spring-tooth harrow, instead of plowing, was unsatisfactory. The yields from j)low- ing 4i ill. deep were better than from 0 in. deej). Subsoiling showed no gain for the 3 years in yiekl of rutabagas, corn, or sugar beets. . Bute of seedhifi (pp. 22-24). — Tabulated data for 3 years are given. At a distance of 45 in. in 45-inch rows the total yield increased as the number of stalks in the hill increased, but there was an increased pro- portion of unmerchantable ears. The authors found that with a stand of 85 per cent it was unprofitable for the single season's trial to replant the missing hills. Cult i ratio)!, (pp. 25-27). — In deep vs. shallow culture the better yields were obtained from the latter. Tt?e drainage (pp. 27, 28). — Tile drainage on upland clay with fair surface drainage has been for 3 years unprofitable with corn, mangel wurzels, and .sugar beets. Weekly moisture determinations indicated slight differences in the water content of the drained and undrained soil from A])ril to October. Yields and time of ripening of five different varieties of maize, Samek [Tirol, landiv. Blatter, 15 {1S96), lio. 9, p. 85). — Two foreign and 3 native varieties of nmize were comi)ared as to yield and time of ripen- ing. The very tenacious soil received an application of barnyard manure and on May 10 was planted to maize at distances of 40 cm. in 07 cm. rows. The yields are tabulated. The periods of ripening extended from August 21 with Szekler to October 19 with White Lanaer, the duration of growth thus varying from 98 to 150 days. The early or foreign sorts suffered more from insect attacks than the native or late sorts. The highest yield was given by W^hite Lanaer 50.22 bu. per acre, followed by a native light yellow sort 44.89 bu., Cinquantino 30.10 bu., Polish maize 32.72 bu., and Szekler 23.25 bu. The last two were the foreign varieties and had the shortest periods of growth. Had they been planted more closely they would i)robably have given a larger yield. They are well adapted to northern climates with shorter seasons or to double cropping in warm regions. Grain and forage crops, J. H. Shepperd {North Daliota Sta. Bui. 23, x^p. 31-54). — Previous work in this line was published in Bulletins 10 and 11 of the station (E. S. Pv., 5, pj). 170, 078). Tabulated yields are given of 36 varieties of sirring wheat, 39 of oats, 20 of barley, 23 of corn, and 38 of potatoes. The Tartarian and Race Horse varieties of oats Avere comparatively rust proof. The rotation plats were reduced in size in 1894 from 1 acre to ^ acre and the number increased to 35. Compared with the yield of wheat under continuous cropping, the effect of the rotation during the first year was to increase the yield after summer fallow 03 per cent; FIELD CROPS. 215 after tbe cultivated crops 75.^ per ceut; after millet 41i per cent; aud after timothy aud clover 33 i)er ceut. After sowiug' G diflereut mixtures of oats and peas for forage the author recommeuds i)er acre j| bushel of oats to 2 of jjeas. Directions are given for the culture of Dwarf Essex rape. After tests of Kafir corn, millo maize, duria, and Jerusalem corn during 2 years the author recommends gio\ying Indian corn instead. Kafir corn, C. C. Georgeson, F. C. Bfrtis, and D. H. Otis {Kan- sas /8'^a. Bui. o6,2)p. 161-168). — The authors review previous work of the station with Kafir corn. The largest yield so far obtained was in 1891 with red Kafir corn, 98.7 bu. of seed, aud 12.29 tons of fodder i^er acre. Planting at different distances (pp. 162, 1G3). — On 48 trial plats the rows varied from 10 to 32 in. and the plants from 4 to 8 in. in the row. The largest yield of grain was obtained with plants 4 in. apart iu 32- inch rows. The authors state that experiments have shown that when corn and nearly all other crops are complete failures, Kafir corn will yield a fair cro]) of forage. Varieties (pp. 104,165). — Eed, white, and black-hulled white Kafir corn (African millet) are described. IJed is prefeired to white; it grows 6 to 9 in. taller, ripens earlier, does not shell in handling, has a juicier stalk, and the head always pushes clear of the upper sheath. The seed of white Kafir corn is liked better by stock. The black-hulled white has been grown the past season only. It is very promising, and may surpass the red. Culture (pp. 107, 168). — Full directions for the culture of Kafir corn are given. It is adapted to all soils, and to regions too dry for corn. The manuring of irrigated meado^vs, Streker {Sachs, landw. Ztschr., 1S96, Ko. 23, pp. :267-26U).—ln 1894 on land which had been used for meadow 9 years in the district of Vaucluse, France, 5 plats were laid out containing 158 square rods each. To 1 plat was applied superphosphate, to another urine, and to another barnyard manure, to another nitrate of soda, nniriate of potash, and phosphate of lime, and 1 plat received no fertilizer. This experiment was repeated in 1895. The yields for the plats where phosphoric acid or a complete commer- cial fertilizer had been applied were largely in excess of the unnmnured plats. The barnyard manure and the urine were used either at a loss or at a very small profit. Experiments in manuring meadows {Selsl-oe Khozyaistvo i Lyesorodstro, 1895, JVb. 153, pp. 229, 230). — The agricultural experiment station of the Polytechnic School at Ifiga carried out a series of experi- ments for the purpose of investigating the influence of artificial manures on the improvement of meadows. Ou the Ebelshof estate 10 plats, 3,920 sq. ft. each, were laid out. Two plats were manured with Thomas slag, 2 with bone meal, 2 with kainit, aud 2 with a mixture of Thomas slag aud kainit. There were s check plats. Twenty-four jiounds of fertilizer was api)lied to each of the 8 jilats iu the fall of 1890, 48 lbs. 216 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. in the falls of 1891 and 1892, and 10 lbs. of nitrate of soda in the spring of 1894. Tabulated data of the yields are given for 5 years. The plats receiving- the mixture of Tliouuis slag and kainit gave the largest yields, followed by the potash i)lats. The residtuil effect was greatest on those jdats receiving the mixture, followed by those on which Thomas slag was used. Potatoes, L. K. Taft [Miclmian tita. Bui. ISi, pp- 3-11). — This is a continuation of i)revious work reported in Bulletin 108 of the station (E. S. E., 0. 1). 208). Test of varieties (pp. 3-9). — Xinety varieties were tested, 2 lbs. of seed ot each variety being planted June 8. July 2 and twice later at inter- vals of 3 weeks the plats were irrigated. The yields are tabulated, and descriptive notes given on a number of varieties. The following vari- eties are recommended: Early — Early Peachblow, Early Walton, Free- man, Milwaukee, North Pole, Clay Rose, Victor Eose, and Pearl of Savoy ; medium to late — Summit, American Wonder, Irish Daisy, Park Eegion, O. K. Mammoth, On Toi>, Prize Taker, and others. Fertilizer test (pp. 10, 11). — On 17 eighth-acre plats on a light sandy loam on which rye, buckwheat, and similar crops had been grown for several years previous, were applied muriate and sulphate of potash, ground bone, boneblack, nitrate of soda, wood ashes, and stable manure, either alone or in various combinations. The Eural New Yorker Xo. 2 variety of i)otatoes was planted at distances of 3 by 3 ft. An un ma- nured strip of 3 ft. was left between each plat and the adjacent one. A diagram is given showing the arrangement of plats, kinds and amounts of fertilizers applied, and the yields i)er acre obtained. The largest yield was obtained where 24 loads of stable manure per a(a^e were applied, a gain of nearly 70 bu. i)er acre over an adjacent unmanured plat. The author states that the average gain from the use of a full application of fertilizers was 80 bu. per acre. There was a gain of about 8 bu. per acre in favor of sulphate of potash over muriate of potash. Potato experiments, E. H. Miller and p]. H. Brinkley {Mary- land Sta. Bui. SS,}}}). 55-63). — This is a continuation of work reported in Bulletin 31 of the station (E. S. R., 6, x^- 983), and consists of tests of varieties, experiments with fertilizers, green manuring, distance, meth- ods of cultivation, amount of seed, and spraying. The yield where crimson clover was j)lowed under showed an increase of 34.4 bu. per acre, or 50 per cent. With distances 30 by 14'in. there was an average gain for 2 years of 19 bu. per acre over 36 by 12 in. Practically the same results were given by ridge and level culture and by deep and shallow cultivation. The yields showed a gain of 86 per cent where the plants were sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. Inquiry into the principles of potato growing, and tests of varie- ties, V, Schweitzer {^[issouri ISta. Bnl. 33, pp. 24). — Inconclusive exi)eriments were made in 1891. In 1894, on well-prepared land, plowed and subsoiled 18 in. deep, and to which 1,300 lbs. jier acre of a fertilizer FIELD CROPS. 217 consisting of nitrate of soda, niuiiate of potasli, salt, gypsum, and dis- solved bone were added, potatoes were planted 12 in. apart in 1 and 2 eye pieces, quarters, halves, and wholes for each of 12 varieties. Early Vermont is reported as the best and Burbank the poorest vari- ety. Whole tubers gave the highest yields. In 1895 the Early Maine variety was planted on well-prepared soil in 44-inch rows. The fertilizer, where used, consisted of equal parts of sulphate of i)otash and superphosphate. For given areas the seed planted, whether pieces or whole tubers, was at the same distance apart in the row. The yields for the different amount of seed are tabulated. The author concludes that 900 lbs. per acie was the limit of profitable application of fertilizers, and that "it makes no difference whatever whether potatoes are planted wliole or in i)ieces. . . . The result depends entirely upon the fertility of the soil and the character of the season, both of which determine the stand of the crop as a whole, as also the productiveness of each individual i)lant." The yields of the 70 varieties tested are tabulated, 18 giving a yield of over 400 bu. per acre, 3 of over 500 bu., and Mills Prize nearly GOO bu. From the data tlie author concludes that "the size of the seed potato has nothing to do with the greater or less number of small pota- toes. It is siu)ply a question of the vigor of the plants, the richness of the soil, and the proi)er condition of the season." A test of northern and home gro^wn seed potatoes, C. O. Flagg, J. D. TowAK, and G. M. Tucker {Rhode Islftnd Sta. Bnl. SO, pp. 3-8).— Fourteen varieties of potatoes, of Maine-grown and home-grown seed, were tested during 2 years on a sandy loam soil, manured with com- mercial fertilizers applied on a clover sod. Ten pounds of seed of each variety was used, cut in one case to 150 pieces, in the other to 2-eye sets, and planted 10 in. apart in the row. The vines were sprayed for potato blight. The yields are tabulated. In their summary the authors say that of merchantable potatoes the northern-grown seed tubers produced a greater percentage in 11 out of 14 varieties, and a greater yield in 9 out of 14 varieties, the average increase being 17.04 bu. per acre; the home-grown tubers gave a greater yield in 5 out of 14 varieties, the average increase being 20.94 bu. per acre. Early potatoes, C. O. Flagg and (r. M. Tucker {Rhode Lsland Sta. Bui. 3(i, pp. f)-27, fi(/s. 13). — The methods of hastening maturity by starting the tubers in pots under glass, and sprouting the thickly planted sets in a cold frame are described, and under the second method the experience of a Khode Island planter is given. In the second method 12 sash 3 by 0 ft. are required for each acre. The cuttings of seed tubers are put into the prepared and fertilized soil of a cold frame from the 15th to the 20th of March, 3 pecks of tubers for each sash. When about to break ground the sets are lifted from their position by a manure fork, separated by hand, and placed 12 in. apart in 30 to 32 inch rows. The average yield has been 95 barrels per acjfi). 218 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Buddinf/ (i)p. 12-19). — Seed tubers about the size of liens' eggs x)laced steui end down on racks held in tiers in a framework are kept iu a moder- ately warm (60 to 75° F.) and fjiirly lighted room for 4 to G weeks. The racks are figured and described. Thick, firm buds J to 1 in. long and :| to f in. in diameter will form which, when ready for planting, may be kept nninjured for days or weeks by lowering the temperature. On March 20, 2 bu. of the Early Rose variety, each containing 311 potatoes of an average weight of about 3 oz., were taken from the bin; one bushel was kept in a bag in a cold cellar; the other was placed iu a tray under favorable conditions for budding. May 1, on a light, sandy loam, manured with commercial fertilizers, f applied broadcast and J in the drill, the potatoes were jjlanted in 8 rows at distances of 15 iu. between sets. Each tuber was cut in two before planting. On July 29, 10 ft. of each row was harvested, and on August 20 the remainder of the crop. The following table contains the yield per acre, the gain from the budding method and the increased growth between the two dates of harvesting: Yield 2>er acre of potatoes from seed tiihers budded and not budded. Date bar- vested. Large tubers. Small tubers. Total. Gain by budding. Increase from furtlier growth. Julv 29 ...do\ .. Aug. 20 ...do ... BxisheU. 97.96 7C. 10 135. 47 94.45 Bushels. 53. 23 42.78 55.51 41.90 Bushels. 151.19 118.88 190. 98 136. 35 Bushels. 32.31 Bushels. Budded 54. 63 33.79 17.47 ... Notes are given on potato culture on the island of Jersey. The authors state that w^here large seed tubers are used sprouting is pref- erable to budding. Potatoes, fertilizer experiments, W. J. Green and H. O. McFad- DEN {Ohio Sta. Bui. Go, pp. 151-159). — The trial plats are of jL. acre at the central station and .,\ acre at the substations. Sujjerphosphate, muriate of potash, nitrate of soda, bran, linseed meal, dried blood, sulphate of ammonia, bone meal, acid phosphate, basic slag, and barn- yard manure, alone or combined in various proportions, were applied on 18 plats; of these, 8 plats received the same quantity of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but in different forms. Thirteen plats were without fertilizers. The yields are tabulated. In conclusion the authors say: "In the use of fertilizers the lowest cost per bushel of increase in crop has been attained iu the use of superphosphate alone, but the greatest gain per acre has been with 1,100 lbs. per acre of fertilizer coiitainiug phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potash. "Muriate of potash and uitrate of soda when used alone have not given a profitable increase, but have proved beneficial iu connection with superphosphate. "Phosphoric acid seems to have been the controlling element iji an increase in the potato crop in all of our experiments," FIELD CROPS. 219 Potatoes, variety tests, S. B. (Ireen {Minnesota Sta. Bui. 45, pp. 200-307, Jig. 1). — Is'otes and tabulated data are given on 45 varieties of potatoes tested at the station farm, 23 varieties in Lyon County, and 1<) varieties in McLeod County. Among- tlie largest yields per acre are the following: At the station farm. Rural New Yorker No. 2, 388 bu.; Lee Favorite, 340 bu. ; Early Everitt, 343 bu,; Early Oxford, 328 bu., and Irish Cobbler, 32;") bu.; in Lyon County, Worlds Fair, 551 bu. ; American Wonder, 528 bu.; Irish Daisy, 510 bu.; Early Oxford, 470 bu., and Pearl of Savoy, 407 bu. In McLeod County the highest yield was given by Summit, 227 bu. Notes are given on 17 of the newer varieties of potatoes grown on the station farm in 1894. Variety trials with potatoes, W. J. Green and H. O, McFadden {Ohio IStd. liul. (15, pp. 1 11-151). — The authors begin with a discussion of the difficulties and value of variety tests of potatoes. May 16, 17, and 19, 1895, on duplicate sixtieth-acre plats on a clay loam soil, 71 varieties of potatoes were planted in 2 eye pieces 10 in. apart in 33i-inch rows. The yields are tabulated for 1894 and 1895. Sixteen varieties are mentioned as above the average in yield, American Won- der, Columbus, Carman No. 1, Early Northern, Forest Rose, and Irish Daisy leading. Tabulated yields are given of a test of varieties at two substations and at the central station. The results were unsatisfactory. A com- parison was also made between northern seed and second-crop southern, with inconclusive results. Descriptive notes are given on 42 varieties. Potato culture, results of 1894 and 1895, A. Girard {Prog. Agr. et Vif., 13 {1895), JSfo. 20, pp. 550-550). — An account of cooperative experiments in potato culture participated in by 88 experimenters in 1894 and by 68 in 1895, under direction of the author. The plowing was done at depths of 7 to 8 in., and in some cases as deep as Hi to 15 in. Both barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers were applied liberally, in most cases at the time of planting. Whole tubers were used almost exclusively, planted 19^1- by 23.4 in. The largest yield reported was in 1894, 623.2 bu, per acre; the yield on the same farm in 1895 was 235 bu, per acre, tlie difference being due to drought. In 1894 11 farms, and in 1895 7 farms, averaged over 5194. bu. per acre. The percentage of starch was lower in the potatoes grown during tlie wet summer of 1894 than during the . 24, pp. 872, 67o).— Tlie difficulty with potato culture in Algeria, according to the author, is that the seed has to be renewed every year from France or other foreign country. Richter Imperator, liowever, has been cultivated tliere successfully for 0 years. Two crops of potatoes can be raised every year in the littoral region, the 6128— No. 3 4 220 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. second giviug an inferior yield, i t is proposed to try raising the variety mentioned in tlie oases of the Saliaiii next year. Experiments in the culture of the sugar beet in Nebraska, H. H. Nicholson and T. L. Lyon {Nebraska Sta. Bui. 44, pp. 109-135, map 1, charts 2). — Previous work in this line was reported m Bulletin 30 of the station (E. S. K., 0, p. 209). A description of the method of cul- ture, determinations of sugar content in samples of beets grown in different parts of the State, and data on the temperature and rainfall for different sections of the State are given. Experiments were made on the effect of certain fertilizers, as compared with no fertilizacion, value of large and small seed and heavy and light seed, tests of varie- ties, and analyses of the byproducts of a beet sugar factory. The authors consider the use of potash lertdizers unprotitable and recommend seed of more than average size. Five varieties were tested, and Kleinwanzleben, Vilmorin, Lemaire, and Desprez are recommended. Food ingredients of pulp and sugar beets, and fertilizer ingredients of dried lime cake are given. Tobacco, yellow leaf and cigar vavieties, W. C. Stubbs, J. G. Lee, and D. N. Barrow {Louisiana Stas. Bnl. 41, 2(i ser., pp. 1472- 1499). — Previous work in this line was published in Bulletin 33 of the stations (E. S. R., 7, p. 29). This bulletin is a record of fertilizer and variety experiments at the North Louisiana Station at Calhoun with cigar and bright leaf tobaccos, and at the State Station at Baton Kouge with cigar tobaccos. At Calhoun 13 varieties of cigar tobaccos were tested, with and with- out fertilizers, on a red sandy soil, the yields of cured tobacco averaging 630 and 558 lbs. per acre, respectively. Similar tests were made with bright long leaf tobacco on "lighter mulatto sandy soil" with average yields of 788 lbs. with and 505 lbs. without fertilizers. Exjieriments with different amounts and combinations of fertilizers indicated that nitrogen is needed to grow tobacco successfully on the soils tested. The conclusions for Calhoun are in general as follows: '•Our soils are not well adapted to cigar tobacco. "Hester, Ragland Improved Yellow Oronoko, Coiiqnerer, Long Leaf Goocli, and Hyco are the best varieties of the bright-leaf type. "The old pine tields of North Louisiana can be reclaimed in producing these types of tobacco, and that with liberal fertilizing good profits are sure." At Baton Rouge experiments were made on the bluff soils. Nineteen varieties of cigar tobacco were tested with unsatisfactory results. In a fertilizer test 3 varieties were grown, and nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in various forms, combinations, and amounts were applied. The author states that fertilizers have increased the quantity and quality of tobacco. Three methods of curing were tested — air curing of whole plant, air curing of leaves placed separately on Snow laths, and curing the leaves in the Snow barn by artificial heat. FIELD CROPS. 221 Brief directions for harvestiug, stripping, and assorting, and a description of the barn are given. Types of tobacco and their analyses, F. B. Carpenter [North Carolina Sta. Bui. 133, pp. 33l-3(iotash, lime, and chlorin in 29 samples of leaves of typical tobaccos, exclusive of midrib, and of 29 samples of midrib. The following topics are also treated of: Production of tobacco in the United States, varie- ties and classification of tobaccos, tobacco soils, fertilizers, development of nicotin in the tobacco plant, descrii)tions of typical tobaccos, and relation between (diemical composition and burning quality. The nicotin at maturity is found mainly in the leaves. The percent- age found in the whole leaf ranges in the tobacco grown in the United States from 1.90 to 5.53. A coarse rank growth is associated with a comparatively large amount of nicotin. The author states that the burning qualities are more largely depend- ent upon the composition of the ash than upon the extent of fermenta- tion; also that in these tests the best burning tobaccos were accom- panied by a high percentage of ash constituents, particularly lime, and by i)otash in proper combination. Among his general observations the author says: "The percentage of iiicotiu aud albumiuoids is matenally increased by the use of large quantities of nitrogenous manures. "A large percentage of nitrogen in tbe form of albuminoids is usually accompanied by a large nicotin content. "The percentage of nicotin in tbeleaf islargestjust as the leaf reaches maturity, but the amount is materially reduced by the various processes of fermentation to ■which the product is subjected before manufacture. "While nicotin is the active principle of tobacco aud is desirable to a certain extent, it was found that the high-prued varieties contained a relatively small percentage. "The nitric nitrogen is chietly continedto the stems, and is not present in the leaf in appreciable amounts, except when large (quantities of nitrogenous fertilizers are present in the soil. Its presence as such seems to be of no special importance. "Relatively larger series of 12 plats each, Avere planted G crops, 1 to each series. They were field peas, mangel-wurzels, potatoes, flax, wheat, and corn. In 1895 the same crops were planted across the series of ])lats, giving for each crop duplicate plats sej^arated by 5 others. A diagram is given of the plats, showing also the yields. Mangel-wurzels gave the best yield after peas; M'heat and flax after potatoes; and corn, potatoes, and peas after corn. The author states that the hoed crops — corn, potatoes, and mangels — had an especially good effect in preparing the land for other crops, while the reverse was true with flax, wheat, and even held peas. On recent breeding of cultivated agricultural plants (Braitnschw. landw. Ztg., 64 {1S96), Xo. S4, pp. 139,140)^ — The author describes his experiences iu increasing the iirodnctive capacity of wheat by improved methods of culture and by cross fer- tilization. In the latter case he used a square-head variety as the staminate parent for orossinix with the ordinary varieties of German wheat. Variety tests of barley, W. M. Hays (Minnesota Sta. BuJ. 40, pp. 350, 351). — The yields for 2 years of grain and straw and other data are tabulated for 34 varie- ties. French Chevalier gave the highest yield of the named varieties, followed by Odessa, Champion of Vermont, Highland Chief, Black Hnlless, and Salzer. Corn experiments, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bui. 40, pp. 331-342). — Tabulated data are given of a test at the station and on a farm elsewhere of 18 named varieties of corn, and of 22 samjiles received from farmers, with general remarks on dent, tlint, and sweet varieties. A statemejit is made iu regard to the method used at the station for improving varieties of corn. Drying seed corn by artificial heat is recom- mended. In a trial on 8 plats of dejiths of plowing and subsoiling the best yields were on the plats plowed 4 in. deep. Variety tests of oats, "\V. ;M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bid. 46, pp. 352, 353).— The yields for 2 years of grain and straw and other data are tabulated for 63 varieties. The largest yields at the station farm in 1895 were given by Giant Side, Wide Awake, Haggett White, Early Swedish. White Kussian, and Improved Ligowo. Variety tests of field peas, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bid. 46, p. 354). — Yields of grain and other data are tabulated for a field test of 33 varieties of jieas grown at the station and on a jirivate farm. The largest yield was given by White Canada Field, 20.3 bu., followed by Alpha, lUne Prussian, Crown, and Green Canada Field. Influence of manure on the starch content of potatoes, Comdx {I'rofj. Ayr. et Tit., 20 (ISOO), Xo. .;7, pp. 310-312). Variety tests of rape, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sla. Bid. 46, pp. 300, 301).— The period of growth and the yield of green forage per acre are given for 11 varieties of rape, including 4 from Japan. Dwarf Essex gave the largest yield, 18.3 tons per acre. Field root crops, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bid. 46, 2>p- 350-360). — The period of growth and the yield per acre are tabulated for 12 varieties of mangels, 2 of sugar beets, 8 of turnips, 4 of ruta-bagas, aud 3 of carrots. Planted at depths of i, 1, and l.V in., mangel, ruta-baga, and carrot seed gave the largest yields with the shallowest ]danting, aud turnijis at 1 and 11- in. deep. With 224 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. plants 4 in. apart in IS, 24, 30, and 36 in. rows, the turnips yielded best at 18 in., ruta- bagas at 24 in., and mangels at 30 in. On the application of kainit to rye, A. Emmerlixg {Landw. JVoclienhl. Scltles. HoJst., 40{lSDr,). Xo. 33, pp. 471-473).— The autiior thinks tliat the application of kainit to rye on sandy soil sbonld be made under the most favor.able conditions, c. g., after green raaunring and when serradella or some otlier clovers are sown with the rye. At the present low ])rices the use of kainit on rye does not promise much in the way of profit. The relation of bacteria to tobacco culture and manufacture, J. Behijkns {CeiMhl. Balct. und Par. Allg., 2 {1S9G), Xo. 17, pp. 540-545). — A compilation is given, together with an extensive bibliography of our present knowledge of the snbject. Wheat, cutting at different dates, R. H. McDowell (Xei-ada Sta. Bui. 30, pp. 7). — Fourteen cuttings in 1894 and 13 iu 1895 Avere made while the wheat kernels advauced from the milk stage to dead ripe. The yields per aero are tabulated, and the author states that they were calculated as follows : " The cutting that rerjuired the least number of kernels to weigh one-half ounce was taken as the one giving the best yield. In each case it was assumed that the maximum yield per acre was 40 bn." Analyses are given showing the albuminoids, crude iibcr, and ash for each cutting. The author recommends cutting when the grain is " iu stiff dough," New cross-bred wheats, Yilmoiux-Axdrieux {Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 (1896), If, Xo. 3S, pp. 424, 4?'>,fig. 1). — A description is given of a new variety, the " Briciuet jauue," also of the " hybrid de Champlan," and of the "hybrid Gotellier." Culture of wheat at the experiment station of Capelle, F. Desprez (Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 (1896), II, Xo. 38, pp. 425-429). — Cultural notes are given on the following varieties: Kaough-Chaaf, White Sciuarc Head Scheriff, White Head Cambridge, Staudup, Lamed, Challenge, Blanzed Desprez, and Victoria. Hairy vetch in southern France, C. Tallavignes {Profj. Agr. et Fit., 26 (1896), Xo. 33, pp. 182-184). — Unfavorable report given. HORTICULTURE. Onion culture, R. L. Watts ( U. S. I)ept. Af/r., Farmers^ Bui. 39, pp. 30,Ji(is. 3). — This bulletin uroes the importance of the onion crop in the United States and the necessity of improved cnltnre. Light, well- drained, fertile soils are recommended, especially those well stocked with organic matter. Liberal fertilizing is recommended for onions, applications of nitrate of soda 200 to 400 lbs. in four equal dressings, kainit 800 to 1,000 lbs., and a few hundred pounds of bone meal per acre being suggested for this purpose. American varieties are best adapted to most parts of the United States, and the following have proved most successful : Danvers, Extra Early Red, Egyptian, Red Globe, Yellow Globe, Potato Onion, Shallots, Silver Skin, Wethersfield, AVhite Globe, and Yellow Strasburg. These varieties are described, as are also IG foreign varieties, of which Prize- taker is the most desirable. Starting the seed under glass and transplanting the young plants later to the field, is recommended, and directions are given for carrying it out, and also for cultivation, harvesting, and storage. Storing the crop in dry, cool apartments is preferred. In addition, the method of growing onions for seed is brietiy mentioned, and remedies are given for the onion maggot {Phorhia ceparvm) and onion snmt ( ?7roc^s^ts cepulw). HORTICULTURE. 225 Tomatoes, S. B. Green {Minnesota 8ta. Bnl. //7, pjj. 313-330, Jigs. 3). — This consists of variety tests and brief notes on foicing and spray- ing tomatoes. Tabnlated data and descriptive notes are given for 46 varieties, indicating the yiekls and the ability of each variety to resist rot. In addition, an ilUistration, reduced from a photograph, is given of 50 varieties of tomatoes grown at the station in 1895. The largest yield was obtained fioni the variety Early Advance, Belmont ranking next. The largest percentage of good frnit (05) was i)roduced by Lan- dretli No. 1. The most rotten frnit was afforded by the varieties Long- keeper and Volunteer, each giving 50 per cent. Tomatoes were forced in rich soil over well-rotted horse manure in a barrel, and trained up the south side of a building, with good results. Experiments conducted for '1 and 3 years past with potassium sulphid and Bordeaux mixture for the prevention of rot in tomatoes have given unsatisfactory results, and the best method of avoiding rot is believed to be the selection of resistant varieties and the use of uninfected land. Much variation was found among different varieties in susceptibility to rot. Early tomatoes were, as a rule, found to be inferior in quality to later varieties. The varieties Acme, Dwarf Champion, and Beauty are generally recommended for commercial planting, with the use of Early Euby, Maule Earliest, and Earliest of All in sections where the seasons are short. Vegetables, L. C. Corbett ( West Virginia Sta. Bui. 42, pp. 211-226, pj. l,jigs. 2). — This bulletin comprises notes and tabulated data of 19 varieties of bush beans, 9 of pole beans, 30 of cabbage, 35 of peas, and 42 of tomatoes. The fruits of the different varieties of tomatoes are illustrated from a photograph. To test its value for preventing tomato rot a mulch of straw was applied to one plat of tomatoes, while two others received sprayings with Bordeaux mixture and no treatment, respectively. The plants treated with the straw mulch developed the least rot. The experiment is to be continued during succeeding years to test varying atmospheric conditions. A comparison of methods of training tomato plants showed that those plants supported on brush, over which they were allowed to fall at will, gave the greatest yield, while the earliest fruit was obtained from plants trained in a trellis made of barrel hoops fastened to stakes. Vegetable tests, H. P. Gladden and U. P. Hedrick {Michigan Sta. Bnl. 131, pp. 12-36).— T\n^ consists of tabulated data and descrip- tive and brief cultural notes on 20 varieties of bush beans, 8 of pole beans, 5 of beets, 9 of celery, 12 of cucumbers, 8 of lettuce, 27 of radishes, 17 of sipiashes, 00 of tomatoes, and 60 of peas. Twelve plats of tomatoes, each containing a square rod, were used to test the eftect of various fertilizers. The variety employed was Ignotum, and 20 plants were set in each plat. The largest yield, 352^ lbs., was obtained from a plat to which 3 lbs. of dissolved bone had been applied, but as the next largest yield, 309-| lbs., was obtained froai an unferti- lized plat, the result is believed to be inconclusive. '226 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. In an experiment in im(>ating- 3 rows of tomatoes, eacli by a diifer- cnt method, the rows so treated gave a larger yield than check rows not snpplied with water, but the best method of irrigation was not decided upon. All the named varieties of peas offered by American seedsmen which had not been previously tried and discarded were grown, the objects being to determine the respective values of the varieties under the sta- tion conditions, to determine the duplicate and synonymous varieties, and to ascertain if any of the varieties could be further improved. It >Yas found that the different varieties of peas were very liable to lose their original characteristics, especially in regard to the seed. D-warf apples, E. G. Lodeman (Neiv York Cornell Sta Bui. 116, pp. 317-315j Ji(j!^. 5). — This bulletin discusses the subject of dwarfing in general, with remarks upon the effect of checking the movement of sap in fruit trees. The circulation of the sap in fruit trees is popularly explained according to the principles of plant physiology, and the method of obtaining greater fruitfulness by means of i)artially girdling' trees or encircling them with tightly constricting bauds is discussed The dwarfing of fruit trees is usually done by grafting a variety upon another of smaller habit and much slower growth. The belief that dwarf trees produce larger and handsomer fruit than standard trees is considered highly probable, although the matter has not been settled l)y experiment. Of all fruit trees, pears are most often dwarfed, followed closely by apples, although cherries and plums are also grown as dwarfs. Apples are at present regularly dwarfed by grafting or budding the desired variety upon some suuill form of the common apple species, Pyrus mains. The forms usually employed are the Paradise and Doucin types of apple. These two stocks are described and the history of their use for dwarfing is given, together with a brief note on the lien- nette apple, also used fot this purpose. The Paradise apple is the earliest of these forms, having been known in France at the beginning- of the Fifteenth century, and the Doucin was first brought to notice a century later. Dwarf apple stocks are propagated by means of suckers which are detached the first year and grafted or budded the second year with the desired variety,, The dwarf apple trees should be thor- oughly and persistently pruned from the time they are set, each year's growth being cut back one-half or two-thirds. By this means fruit spurs will be more freely produced and more evenly distributed over the trees and the dwarf habit maintained. The lowest branches should spring from the trunk at a height of from 10 to 18 in. from the ground. The tops should be pruned in the form of a broad vase, and summer pruning may be employed if the amount of fruit buds borne is con- sidered too small. Orchards of dwarf apple trees are recommended to be set with the trees 12 to 15 ft. apart where the soil is rich and the varieties vigorous. IIORTICULTUKE. 227 Dwarf trees 10 to 15 years old avera<2fe 3 to 4 pecks of apples aiiim- ally, or 7") barrels of fruit from an acre of 300 trees. Alter the trees liave passed their twentieth year they will bear from 2 to 4 bu. each. An annual yield of 125 barrels per acre from an orchard of 30-year-old trees is regarded as average. This yield is very favorable as compared with tliat of standard trees, whicli are estimated to give 135 barrels per acre frotn trees of the same age as the dwarfs. Tables are quoted comparing the actual yields from orchards of standard and dwarf apples in Denmark, where dwarf trees are more extensively grown. The ])oucin stock shows a slightly greater fruitfulness than any other. A list is included of the varieties considered to be best adapted for dwarfing, and a brief summary of the main points embodied in the bulletin is appended. Evaporating apples, W. B. Alwood ( Yirgmia 8ta. Bid. 48, pp. 15, (Igm. 1, figs. 3). — This bulletin advocates the drying of apples by the use of evaporating apparatus in place of the method of snn drying now employed throughout Virginia. It is stated that the apple production of the State is so large that the industry of evaporating apples can easily be made a profitable one. Figures are given comparing the rela- tive results reached by the processes of sun drying and evaporating sliowing that while the cost of manufacturing is practically the same (about 3 cts. per pound of dried fruit) the evaporated fruit brings on an average G cts. per pound, while the sun-dried fruit averages 2^ cts. per pound. It is believed that by obtaining the green fruit at the usual price of from 8 to 10 cts. per bushel, profitable returns can be had. A large percentage of the apples grown in Virginia are unmarket- able, chiefly because of the bad selection of varieties planted by farmers. This inferior fruit can readily be utilized in evaporating establishments. Descriptions, diagrams, and directions are given for the construction of evaporating plants, the drying being done either by heat from fur- naces or by coils of steam i)ipes. Evaporators fitted up with steam are considered best, and it is preferred that the fresh fruit be introduced from the top of the evaporator stack rather than from the bottom, so that the vapors may be quickly carried oif. Illustrations are given of machines for paring and slicing apples, a hand parer being preferred for small plants. The one figured is capable of paring 50 bu. of apples in a day of 10 hours. Drop[)ing the sliced fruit into salt baths for a few minutes before drying is preferred to bleaching the fruit by means of sulphur fumes. The serious consideration of the subject of evaporating fruit is earnestly recommended to the farmers of the State. Pear culture, W. B. Alwood ( Virginia Sfo. Bui. 49, pp. l'.)-S2). — This bulletin treats of the cultural methods emjdoyed in the station pear orchard, with notes on the varieties grown. A stiff, calcareous clay soil, well drained, and ])referably not sloping to the south, is con- sidered best. In the opinion of the writer cropping the space between 228 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the VOWS with a lioed crop may be practiced if the soil is fertile, but if not, green manuring accompanied by deej) plowing and thorough till- age is recommended. Mulching is desirable for young orchards. Directions are given for spraying against insects and fungus diseases with a lye wash and a combination of Bordeaux mixture and Londou purple. Descri])tive notes are given for 9 summer, 19 autumn, and 4 winter varieties, the following being recommended: Summer Doyenne, Law- son, Manning Elizabeth, Bartlett, Lucrative, Flemish Beauty, Seckel, Sheldon, and Easter Beurre. A summary embodying tlie main points of the bulletin is appended. The American persimmon, J. Troop and O. M. IIadley {IntUana HUi. Jiiil. CO, pp. 4o-'>l, pis. 6', Jigs. S). — This bulletin discusses the botanical characters, horticultural possibilities, culture, i^ropagation, varieties, use, and composition of the ]iersimmon or date plum {Dios- pyros virginuoia). It is believed that more attention should be paid to the iDersimmon, and that in consequence of efforts to improve the fruit instead of the neglect it now receives this species may be developed into a valuable horticultural product. The species grows wdd in most of the Southern States, but will ripen fruit as far north as the Great Lakes, and seems especially adapted to the soil and climate of the southern half of Indiana. The trees vary in height from 20 to 80 ft., according to the land on which they grow. The flowers are ditecious, both the staminate and i)istillate being born on the same tree, although some ti ees i)roduce only staminate blossoms. The flowers are rich in nectar. The fruit is subgiobose, from one-half to 2 in. in diameter, and borne on a very short Iruit stalk. The number of seeds in the fruit varies from 2 to sev^eral, although some varieties are practically seedless. All persimmons possess a ]ieculiar astringency when green, which is lost upon the fruit becoming ripe, from August to December, the time varying with the variety. The propagation may be from the seeds or by means of budding or grafting, which should be done in the spring. The stocks for grafting should be at least 2 years old. The top working of old trees has been successfully performed, and is believed to be desirable in many cases. The transplanting of persimmons is difficult on account of the long taproot; hence it is safest to transplant trees only 1 to 2 years old. The transplanting is best done in the autumn. Persimmons grow on almost any kind of soil, from a rich bottom land to the poor thin soil of hilltoi)s; but a warm, rich soil, with sunny exfjosure, is best adaj^ted. They give best results under judicious cul- tivation and pruning. The varieties Shoto, Early Bearing, Golden Gem, Daniel Boone, Hicks, Kansas, Smeech, and Early Golden are described, and several of the varieties illustrated from photographs. These varieties have HORTICULTURE. 229 been recently improved from wild fruits, and are believed to be capa- ble of still further improvement. J)irections are given for keeping- |)ersimmons by placing them in a cool, dry place, and for canning- the ripe fruit by placing it in siru}) in jars. A recipe is given for persimmon pudding. The composition of the persimmon is discussed by 11. A. Huston and J. j\I. Barrett, and tabulated data given sliowing the amount of pulp and seeds in persimmons and the chemical composition of the fruit. The percentages of pulp in 6 varieties of persimmon analyzed were found to range from 82 per cent to 88.5 per cent, and the number of seeds averaged 3 or 4. The following table shows the ash analyses of one of the varieties : Ash analyses of jnyslmmons. Silica and tr.'ires of iinbnrned carbon. P'ernc oxid (FciOa) Manganese oxid (Mn-Oj) Calcium oxid (CaO) Magnesium oxid (MgO) Pliospboric acid (P2O5) Sulphur trioxid (SO3) Potassium oxid (K2O) Sodium oxid (XajO) Carbon dioxid (COj) Chloriu Moisture Ash from pulp. Per cent. 1.520 .440 .060 4.740 2. 230 7. 200 6.840 53. 450 2.360 15.940 .300 4.320 Ash from seeds. Less oxygen equivalent to chlorin. 99. 460 .067 Per cent. 20. 120 1.190 .100 6.760 6.960 13. 360 10. 530 37. 620 .820 .000 .110 2.520 100.090 .024 Nut culture in the United States, W. P. Corsa ( U. S. I)ept. Agr., Division of Pomology Special Report, pp. 144, pis. 16). — This publication treats of the cultivation of the native and introduced species of nuts grown or capable of being grown wathin the limits of the United States. To a great extent it is based upon replies from growers in all parts of the country to a circular of inquiry. The subject of nut culture in general is brietiy treated, the question of propagation receiving most attention. The establishment of nut nurseries is advocated in preference to the procuring of young nut trees from the forests as being both cheaper and more productive of high-grade nuts. The nuts may either be planted where it is intended the trees shall be established in the orchard or may be set in a nursery and later transplanted to their permanent position. Only such nuts as are superior in size, Havor, and thinness of shell should be planted, unless budding or grafting is to be done upon the young trees. Nuts should be planted about 8 in. apart and 1^ to 2 in. deep, and the ger- mination will be hastened by soaking the nuts for a few hours in warm water before spring i)lauting. Fall planting — or better, strati tication of nuts with light soil in a seed bed in the fall— is recommended. The processes of shield and flute budding and top, prong, cleft sap, crown. 230 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. root, and terminal cleft grafting are described, annular budding and cleft sap grafting being recommended. In addition, the harvesting and marketing of nuts in general are brietly noted. The culture of the almond {AmygdaluH communis) as followed in Cali- fornia is discussed at some length, with especial attention to the prep- aration for market. Descriptive notes are given on 18 varieties grown in the United States and 7 varieties imported from abroad. Three species of walnut are cited as being of commercial imiiortance iu the United States, the black walnut {Jtuilans nigra), butternut [J. cinerca), and Persian walnut (J. rcgia). Elaborate cultural notes are given on the Persian or English walnut, which is grown extensively in California, and 20 varieties are described. Three species of Japanese walnuts are being introduced, and it is thought these may prove useful economic trees. Desirable nuts have resulted from the crossing of different species of waliuits. The black walnut and butternut are usually gathered from wild trees, but their domestication is urged and descriptive notes are given for G choice wild varieties of black walnut. The California walnut {J. californica) and another species {J.rupeHtris) are noted, and the first is believed to be desirable as a stock for the Persian walnut. Of the several species of hickory nuts but 4 are considered worthy of the attention of nut growers, the pecan {Hicoria pecan), shagbark {H. ovata), shellbark {H. laeiniosa), and one or two varieties of the pig nut {H. glabra). The culture of each of these is described, that of the pecan being treated at length. Annular budding has proved most successful with pecans, and descriptive notes are given on 16 choice varieties. Of the hickory nuts proper the shagbark is preferred and 12 named varieties are described. The culture of the European hazelnuts or filberts {Corylus avellana and C. iuhulosa) is described with some detail, and the adoption of like methods with the American hazelnuts {G. americana, C. rostrata, and C. californica) is urged. The American chestnut {Castanea dcntata), European chestnut (0. sativa), and Japanese chestnut {€. japonica) are discussed and direc- tions given for their growing in orchards and preparation for market. Descriptive notes are given on 17 varieties of American chestnuts, 9 of European, and 15 of Japanese. In addition brief mention is made of the chinkapin (C. piunila) and Western chinkapin {Castanopsis crysophylla). Nine species of pine trees are cited as yielding edible nuts, the piQon [Pinus edulis) affording the most plentiful crop of wild nuts. The culture of the cocoanut (Cocos nncifera), which is now beginning to be grown extensively in southern Florida and the adjoining keys, is treated at some length, and the extension of this industry is recommended. HORTICULTURE. 231 The bulletin concludes with remarks upon the tbllowin^j? miscellaneous nuts: Beech {Fayiis atropunicea or F. ferriiginca), oaks {Qucrcus spp.), horse-chestnuts {JEscuIks spp.), ginkgo {Ginl-go biloba), kola {Sterciilia acuminata), cashew [Anavardium occidentah'), leechee {Nephelium litchi), rambutan {N. lappaccum), tallow nut {Still ingia sebifera), catappa {Ter- minalia catappa), cream nut {BerthoUctia excelsa), Chilean nut [Guevina arellana), Queensland nut {Macadamia ternifolia). betel {Areca catechu), and pistachio [Fistacia vera). Two of the plates are colored, and the others are from pen and ink drawings, or from photographs, admirably illustrating the more promi- nent and important varieties treated in the text. Variety tests of beans, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sfa. Bid. 46. p. 355).— The yields and other data are tabulated for 14 varieties. Tlie largest yield was given by Salzer White Wonder, 21.6 bu., followed by Early White Navy, Boston Pea, Choice Navy, Early Manly, and Early White Marrow. Asiatic cantaloupes, E. R. Harris {Garden and Forest. 9 (1896), Xo. 450. pp. 404,405). Peas and sweet corn, H. P. Gould {Maine Sta. Bui. 27, pp. 4).— Descriptive notes and tabulated data on varieties of peas and sweet corn tested at the station in 1895. Special notes are given on 8 A^arieties of wrinkled peas. Of the 25 varieties of sweet corn the variety Early Sunrise was most prolific and is preferred. Radish growing under glass, B. T. Galloway {Amer. Gard., 17 {1SD6), Xo. 92, pp. 609, 610,fujs. S). — Directions are given for growing radishes under glass and for preparing them for market. American plums, F. A. Waugii {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), Xo. 449, p. 398). — Notes are given on some of the more prominent varieties of American plums. Strawberries, C. W. Mathews {Kentncky Sta. Bill. 6:?, pp. 45-57). — Cultural and 'lescriptive notes and tabulated data ou 40 varieties grown at the station, of which the varieties Bubach, Haverland, Gandy, Crescent, Warfield, Michel, Downing, Lovett, aud Enhance are considered the most desirable. The strawberries were grown in matted rows 2| ft. wide and 4^ ft. apart, each variety comprising 2 dozen plants. A table gives the duration of yield, which extended from May 23 to June 18. Small fruits, variety tests, S. B. Green {Minnesota Sta. Bid. 45, pp. 3Jl-o25,Jjf/s. 2). — This comprises brief notes on the yield of small fruits throughout the State in 1895, the amount being much less than usual owing to the preceding dry season. Descriptive notes are given for 4 varieties of strawberries, 1 of dewberry, and the Logan berry, fruiting for the ilrst time at the station. Mention is made of attacks of the leaf curl and anthracnose of raspberries, the lat- ter being held in check by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. An illustrated descrip- tion is given of an apparatus for irrigating a strawberry patch by means of wooden troughs provided with holes at intervals. Green manuring for grape vines, L. Rougier {Prog. Aijr. et Vit., 26 {1896), Xo. 31, pp. 118-121). Grapes under glass, W. Scott {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), Xo. 450, p. 406). — Notes are given on greenhouse cultivation of grapes. The Mills grape, F. C. Sears {Garden and Fore>kI. ,55, pp. 131-167, Jigs. (I). — A report is given of the results obtained from tests of 233 samples of seed repres^enting standard vari- eties of common vegetables. The seeds were purchased m the open market and were represented as having been secured from 19 different seedsmen. The methods of testing are described in full, and a tabu- lated statement is given in which is shown the data secured for each variety during the test. For comparison the authors have adopted standards of vitality and i)urity, which are proposed as standards for good merchantable seed. Numerous diagrams are given showing the relative value of the seed from the different dealers, comparing them with the |)roposed standards. Tables are given showing the average vitality and purity of the sami)les tested, the average weight of 100 seed in grams and the average number of seed in an ounce of each kind of seed. In the material examined there was little foreign matter iiresent, bnt in quite a number of samples a considerable proportion of dead seed was present, as much as 75 per cent in some cases. Many of the sam- ples fell below the value required by the standard. Latent life of seed, V. Jodin aud A. G autier ( Gompt. Rend., 122 {1896), No 23, pp. 1349-1352). — Notes are given of experiments con- ducted with air- dried peas that were sealed in vessels for various lengths of time. Analyses are given of the atmosphere showing a slight loss of oxygen due to intramolecular respiration. One lot of 20 seeds that was sealed up for 4 years and 7 months retained its germinative ability. In another lot of 20, half were removed in li years, when 8 germi- nated readily and 2 rotted without sprouting. The remaining 10 were tested in 6^ years and 2 germinated and grew, 2 germinated with difii- culty, and 6 rotted without sprouting. In one experiment the average amount of oxygen annually absorbed by a seed was 0.036 cc. Germination of Lathyrus sylvestris seed, C. O. Harz {Dent. Ztschr. Theirmed. and vergleich. Pathol., 1S06, Suppl. 19, pp. 59-6(1; abs. in Bot. Ceulbl., 67 {1S96), No. S, I). 249). — The author tested 10 lots of llat-pea seed uuder a bell .jar and tlie average time rerjuired for gernuuatiou was 351 days. Experiments couducted m the held showed that from 1 to 1^ ytnirs were re([nired for germination. On the influence of fertilizers on germination, G. de Marneffe {Ingeiiieur agri- cole Gembloux, 1S96, No 11). On the examination of commercial seed, F. F. Buuijning (Arch. Mus^e Teyler, 8er.2, 5 {1896), No. 1, irp. 1-14; ah.f. in Bot. Centbl. Beihefte, 6 {1890), No. 4, j)p. S19, 320). — Notes are given of the examination of commercial seed and clover seed with the view of ascertaining their pnrity and the nature of their impurities. On the eradication of colchiciim, V.. Drxaiffk {Prog. Agr. el Fit., 26 (1896), No. 33, pp. 189, 190, figs, i).— An iuHtriuiieut is (hjscrilted for raising the bulbs from tlie ground. 234 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Dodder on garden vegetables, l^. D. ?Ialstkd (Harden and Forest, 9{189G), No. 446, pp. 365, 30G, 1)1, 1). — Notes are giveu on a species of Ciisuuta growing ou ouions and egg plants. An attempt to combat dodder and Rhizoctonia of alfalfa, L. Degrully ( Pro(j. Agr. et TU., ..'I'l {ISDG), No. 31, p. 115). — The use of crude ammonia is recommended. Weeds in our fields, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bui. 46, pp. 37S-S83, pls.2).— Notes are given on the occiUTence, methods of distribution, and habits of the foxtail grasses (Setaria i^h-idis a.ndS. glauca), lamb's-quarters {Ctienopodinm album), pigweed (Amarantus retroftexiis), yellow mustard {Brassica sinapistrum), and wild oats {Avcna fatiia), and methods are suggested for their eradication. Notes on compass plants, E. J. Hill (Garden and Forest, 9 (1806), No. 450. pp. 407, 408). The cocklebur, J. H. Maiden (Agl. Gaz. N. 8. Wales, 7 (1896), No. 7, pp. 421-423, pi. 1). — Notes are giveu on Nanthium. sirumariuni. The weeds of New South Wales, ,J. H. Maidkn (Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 (1896), No. 7, pp. 428, 429). — Supplementary notes are given of Melilotus parviflora, Conium mavulatum, Xanthiiim strumarium, Amarantns panictilatus, and A. frunieniaceous. DISEASES OF PLANTS. Potato diseases on Long Island in the season of 1895, F. C. Stewakt {Xav York State Sta. Bui. 101, n. ser., pp. 70-86). Synopsis. — General observations are given of potato diseases, together with notes on spraying potatoes, on internal browning of potatoes, a new stem blight, pimply potatoes, and a new Fusarinm ou potato stems. The most troublesome diseases are the early and late blijjlits which the author states may be controlled by spraying the plants 5 or 6 times with Bordeaux mixture, beginning when they are about G in. high and repeating the application every 2 weeks. Experiments are quoted show- ing a gam of 02 bn. per acre where the plants had been sprayed 5 times, and 52 bu. where 3 applications were given them. In spraying the plants Paris green may be added to the Bordeaux mixture, the com- bination being more efficient than either when used alone against potato bugs and Ilea beetles. The internal browning of the tubers which has been reported in Minnesota ' was observed upon Long Island in 1894. The cause of the disease is thought to be physiological, as all attempts to cultivate any organism or to inoculate sound tubers failed. There are thought to be some reasons for suspecting that rapid growth favors the appearance of the disease, since it is seldom observed ui)on small iwtatoes or those l^roduced late in the season when growth is slow. Exi^eriments were conducted to ascertain the effect of using diseased tubers for seed I)otatoes. The author's conclusions, based upon a single experiment, are: "(I) The disease of potatoes known as 'internal brown rot' or 'internal brown- ing' is not transmitted from seed to product; " (2) The greater the amount of ' interior browning ' in the seed tubers the smaller the yield. It is therefore not advisable to plant tubers so affected." 1 Minnesota Sta. Bui. 39 (E. S. R., 7, p. 136). DISEASES OF PLANTS. 235 During 1895 a new stem blight of potatoes was observed upon Long- Island and also in Dutchess and Orange counties. The disease is characterized as follows : "First, there is a cessation of growth. The topmost leaves take on a yellowish, or in some varieties a jjurple color, ami roll inward from the edges and upward, exposing the under surfaces. This condition is followed by wilting and comjjlete drying up of the entire foliage, the process taking from 1 to 3 -weeks. The tubers appear to be sound, but when cut at the stem end blackened fibers are seen pene- trating the flesh to a considerable distance, materially injuring it for cooking pur- poses. No rot develops in the tubers. The stem just beneath the surface of the soil first shows discolored spots and later becomes dry and shriveled." The disease seems not to be dependent upon weather conditions nor varieties. In some cases it seemed worse ui)on upland soil than on moister lowlands. The author thinks it possible that the disease is due to OUspora rosea, since that fungus is nearly always present in diseased stems after the death of the plants. JSTo thing is known about preventive treatment, spraying not being able to control it. The author's attention was called to a peculiar potato trouble to which the name '^ijimply potatoes" was given. Numerous minute elevations are distributed over the surface of the tuber. When examined they were found to be caused by corky deposits under the epidermis and were thought to have originated from insect punctures. From the absence of eggs or larva? the attacks were probably made for feeding purposes. A report is given of a new Fusarium that attacks potato stalks. The stalks appear as though girdled iu various places by a pink fungus. The disease appears about midsummer, spreads rapidly for a few days, and then disappears. The fungus was characterized by Ellis and E verhart ' as follows : "Fusarium acuminatum. — Sporodichia gregarious, minute, white at first, then flesh- colored, attenuate acuminate at each end, 3 to 5, exceptionally 6 septate, not con- stricted, arising from slightly elongated cells of the proligerous layer, in which respect it differs from the usual type of Fusarium. Quite distinct from F. diplos2}o- rum, which occurs on the same host." Bacteriosis of carnations, J. C. Arthur and H. L. Bolley {Indi- ana Sta. Bui. 59, pp. 15-39, pis. 8). — This disease, which appears to be very widely spread, attacks the leaves, being found only rarely upon other parts of the plant, and checks the growth of the plant and reduces the size and number of flowers. It may be recognized by the small pellucid dots scattered irregularly over the leaves, and is said to be of bacterial origin, the organism having been given the name Bacil- lus dianthi. The disease usually starts when the leaves are quite imma- ture and the surface of the leaf may sometimes be slightly raised over the dots, making watery pimples. Later the surface of the leaf above the spot changes, indicating the spot, and as it extends to the inside of the leaf the surface becomes dry, the internal tissues collapse, and ' Proc. Philadelphia Acad. Sci., 1895, p. 441. 6128—1^0. 3 5 236 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. whitisli sunken spots appear. Yery badly diseased plants usually have tbeir leaves more yellowish-green than normal, more transi^arent, and usually smaller. The disease has been under investigation since 1887-'88, but it was determined to be of bacterial origin in 1889, when Mr. Bolley carried on extensive investigations on the biology of the organism. The methods of isolation and cultivation of the germ are given in detail as well as its morphological characteristics. It is said to be an aerobic germ, while in another place we read ''in hydrogen under pressure the growth was to all appearance normal, but with very faint coloration." Inoculation experiments were conducted with varying -success, prob- ably due to the almost universal presence of the disease in the plants or lack of purity of the cultures. In January, 1890, three seedlings were inoculated and "the disease became manifest in 6 days," seeming to indicate successful inoculations, but the later statement that scarcely a plant could be found in doors or out that did not show the disease would suggest the possible infection of the plants before inoculation. It is said that no variety of carnations is wholly immune from attacks of this organism, although they vary considerably in their suscepti- bility, and that it may be conveyed to other pinks through inocula- tions. The disease is considered as common throughout eastern [N^orth America, occurring wherever carnations are extensively grown. For the jjreveution of the disease the plants should be kept as dry as possible, watering to be done between the rows, so as not to wet the foliage. An occasional spraying on bright days with water containing a small quantity of ammouiacal carbonate of copper will also be found advantageous. Report on black rot in Armagnac during 1895, G. Lavergne {Bui. Min. Agr. France, 15 {1896), No. 2, pp. 285-291).— A report is given of held experiments in southwestern France for the repression of black rot of grapes. During 1894 the disease was very destructive, and a special commission was appointed to conduct experiments for its pre- vention. The meteorological conditions Avere very unfavorable during the experiments on account of heavy rains atid numerous fogs. Seven- teen plats were used in this work, applications being made of lysol, verdigris, Bordeaux mixture, Bordeaux sucrate, tannin copper mixture, Burgundy mixture with and without molasses, Bordeaux mixture alter- nating with sulphur, copper sulphosteatite, and sulphur and sulphate of copper applied in the form of a powder, from 2 to 5 api5lications being given at various times. The results obtained expressed in percentages of loss due to black rot at the end of July and at the time of harvest are tabulated. The most successful treatment was 5 applications of 3 per cent Bordeaux mixture, the first spraying being given the vines May 2, the last July 17. This treatment prevented any apjiearance of disease at the end of July and a loss of but 3 to 5 per cent of the fruit at harvest. When but 2 DISEASES OF PLANTS. 237 sprayiugs were given on one plat, the first applications on June 25, the loss was 75 to 80 per cent. The early ai)i)lications were in every ca.se the most successful, but no treatment equaled the earliest use of Bor- deaux mixture, showing the decided advantage accruing from pre- ventive treatment. By the destruction of all diseased leaves and* grapes that may remain dried in the vineyard and careful spraying, begun early, of all the green parts of the plant, together with attention to the wood of the vines where the spores may lodge, it is considered possible to prevent any considerable loss from black rot. Potato rot, H. P. Gould {Maine iSta. Bui. 28, pp. 4). — Brief notes are given descriptive of potato rot and its effect uj^ou the plant and tuber, together with a summary of experiments with Bordeaux mixture and " fungiroid " for its prevention. The use of Bordeaux mixture as a preventive gave the most satisfactory results. "Fungiroid" is a fungicide which, it is claimed, is a powdered form of Bordeaux mixture. The total yield was less and a greater percentage of rotten tubers were present where "fungiroid" was used than where Bordeaux mixture was employed, although "fungiroid" gave better results than where no application of fungicides was made. A review of the diseases of the sugar cane in Java, I, J. H. Wakker and F. A. F. C. Went {Med. Proe/sta. East Java, n. ser.,No. 22, pp. It, 2)1. 1). — Notes are given on the following diseases and fungi attacking the sugar cane: TJstilago sacchari, Thielaviopsis a'thaceticus, Colletotrichum falcatum, Marasmius sacchari, red rot, sour rot, Cercos- pora Jcopei, Uredo kulinii, Coleroa sacchari, Leptosphwria sacchari, Cer- cospora sacchari, C. vaginw, Pestalozzia sp., the " sereh disease," a yel- low striped leaf disease, a striped disease of the roots, chlorosis of the heart leaves, a heart disease of the young plants, and a red spot disease of the leaves. A new disease of tobacco, J. Van Breda de B[AAN(il/efZ. h Lands Plantentuin, A'o. 15, pp. 107, pi. 1). — The author gives a report of a dis- ease of tobacco that has made its appearance in certain districts in Java. The leaves become dark si)otted and greatly depreciate in value. The cause is attributed to Phytophtliora nicotianw n. sp., a technical description of the fungus being given, with illustrations. A study of the biology of the j)arasite has been made and various attempts under- taken for the repression of the disease. The author thinks it can be prevented from spreading by careful attention to and frequent change of the plant beds and by spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture, otherwise the disease threatens to become a serious enemy to tobacco culture. Smut in wheat, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bui. 46, pp. 362-308).— Popular notes are given of the stinking smut or bunt of wheat. Dur- ing 1895 a series of experiments was conducted for the prevention of this disease by preliminary treatment with solutions of different strengths of copi)er sulijhate and by the hot-water method of prevention. 238 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The experiments witli the copper sulphate consisted of either sprink- ling the grain with the solutions or dipping the grain into the solu- tions, and after each treatment part of the seed was limed and part not limed. In the hot-water treatment the temperatures employed were, for first dipping, 120° F., and for the second 130 or 135°, the times of immersion varying from 2 to 10 minutes. The best results obtained were those in which the seed was dipped until thoroughly wet in a solution of J lb. copper sulphate to 16 gal. water, after which it was dried in lime; and in the hot- water treatment, where the grain was soaked in water at 120° for 10 minutes and then for 10 minutes at 135°. In each case 0.1 per cent smutted plants were grown from the seed as compared with from 11 to 20.6 per cent in the check lots. Soaking the seed in cold water for 15 minutes gave 10.4 per cent smut, and in a saturated salt solution 3.3 per cent. Full directions are given for all the different treatments. The smut of oats and its prevention, A. D. Selby ( Ohio 8ta. Bid. 64, pp. 115-139, pi. 1). — Notes are given upon the botanical characters of the fungus, its life history, and historical facts relative to its S])read and the amount of damage it is thought to do in decreasing the yield of the crop. The author estimates that about 6 jier cent of the oat crop of his State is destroyed each year by the smut. Directions are given for the hot-water and the potassium-sulphid treatment of seeds before sowing. The results of plat experiments with these treatments for the prevention of the disease are tabulated, and it is shown that there is an increased yield from treated seed, in addition to the prevention of smut, that is sufficient to pay the cost of treatment. Combating carnation rust, F. C. Stewart {New York State Sta. Bui. 100, n. set:, pp. 36-68, Jigs. 2). — Notes are given on the history and distribution of carnation rust, together with a resume of treatments suggested and tested for its prevention. Bordeaux mixture, fostite, potassium sulphid, carbolic acid, copper sulphate, and copper sulphate in ammonia have been tried with conflicting results. The author investigated the effect of different strengths of solutions of copper sulphate, common salt, and potassium sulphid upon the ger- mination of the rust spores. The spores were found to germinate readily in 1 to 1,000 copper sulphate and there was some germination in as strong solutions as 1 to 300. The spores are able to germinate in salt solutions up to 1 to 45, while 1 to 3,000 of i)otassium sulphid pre- vented all germination. Soaking cuttings in different strengths of copper- sulphate solutions showed that the plants were injured in most cases where the strength of the solution was sufficient to prevent the germination of the fungus spores. Cuttings soaked for a half hour in a 1 to 134 solution of potassium sulphid rooted better and were more vigorous than untreated cuttings. All attempts at curative treatment failed and the trials for preventive treatment were not wholly successful in preventing disease. For DISEASES OF PLANTS. 239 preventive treatment solutions of potassium sulphid, copper sulphate, and Bordeaux mixture were tested and at "lifting" time tlie percentage of rusty plants on the different plats was 43^, 42, and 100, respectively. The author recommends the growing- of varieties least subject to rust and spraying all plants once a week with a solution of coi)per sulphate (L* lbs. to 45 gal. of water) or potassium sulphid (1 oz. to 1 gal. of water). Before bringing in plants in the fall all houses should be thoroughly fumigated, and careful greenhouse management will aid in controlling or preventing rust attacks. Treatment for potato diseases, S. B. Green {Minnesota Sta. Bui. 45, pp. 307-313,Jigs. 2). — A report is made on potato scab, internal brown rot, and potato blight. For the scab the corrosive sublimate treatment was tried, and it greatly reduced the amount of scab on treated plats over plats where the seed tubers had received no treatment. The soil in whicli the ])otatoes were grown had never grown them before, and the infection must have come from the seed tubers. The internal brown rot did not appear as troublesome as during the previous year. A crop grown from diseased tubers showed no indica- tion of the disease until late in the winter, while the potatoes were in storage. Such tubers should not be employed for seed. A report is given of experiments conducted with liordeaux mixture for the prevention of potato blight. From 1 to 4 applications were given, and based upon the experience of the past 2 years the author says that little if any increase due to the treatment was observed. A spot disease of barley leaves, Steglich (Scichs. landiv. Ztschr., 44 {1S9G), Xo. 32, pp. 397-399, fi(is. 3). Investigations on potato scab, Fraxk and Krcger (Ztsclir. Spiritus Ind., 1S96; abs. in Ztschr. Pjianzcnkrank., 6 (1S96), No. 3,pp. 1S9-191). The yellowing of sugar beets, J. Froude {Sucrerie indig., 4S {1896), Xo. 13, j)}) -338-340). — A preliminary report is given on a trouble of sugar beets whicli seems to be of physiological origin. It causes a marked reduction in the yield and sugar conteut of the beets. On the variety of rust affecting Australian w^heats, J. Eriksson (Ztschr. Pjlan- zenTiraiik., G (1S9(>), No. 3, pp. 141-144). — The author states that the most common rust on Australian wheats is Piiccinia dlspersa, P.graminis occurring sparingly and /'. glumarum not observed. A spot disease of celery (Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank., 6(1896), No. 3, pp. 191, 193). — Notes are given of a Septoria disease of celery. Diseases of peach trees (Bol. entomol. agrar. e pat. reg., 3 (1896), pp. 75, 76; abs. in Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank., 6 (1896), No. 3, p. 169). — Notes are given on gumming, leaf curl, and leaf crumpling insects. Observations on the control of black rot, A. Larroze (Fj-o^. Agr. et VH.,26 (1896), No. 38. pp. 326-329). Report of the black rot congress at Ager, L. Degrii.ly (Prog. Agr. et Vit., 26 (1896), No. 38, pp. 317-321). — A brief report is given of the proceedings in "which Bordeaux mixture was shown to be the best means for controlling black rot. Notes on the pine-inhabiting species of Peridermiuni, L. M. Underwood and F. S. Earle (Presented before Sec. G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug., 1896; abs. in Science, n.8er.,4 (1896), No. 91, p. 437). — A revision of the species of the eastern United States is given and the difference in swellings caused by Peridermiuni cerebrum on Pinus twda and P. echinata was pointed out. 240 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A tobacco sickness of soil (Ber. Baden landiv. Bot. J'er. Sta., 1896 ; ahs. in Ztschr. Pjianzenkranlc., 6 {1S9G), Xo. S, p: 1S5). — Notes are given of tbe occurrence of nema- todes in such soil, also ou the presence of Cusciita europaa on tobacco. Concerning plant injuries due to smoke, Schroedek ( Ueher die Bcsehddigung der Vegetation dnrch Eaitch. Freiberg: 1S95, pp. 35 ; aha. in Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank. , 6 {1S96), Xo. 3, pp. 158, 159). Some plant diseases in the United States and the means for combating them, B. T. Galloway {Ztschr. Pjlanzcnkrank., 6 (1890), No. 3, pp. 174-178).— This, article con- sists in popular descriptions of potato diseases and the means for their pi'evention. Concerning plant diseases in Denmark, ¥j. Rostritp {Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank., 6, (1896), Xo. 3, pp. 151-155). On the spread of fungi by snails, G. Wagner (Ztschr, Pflanzenkrank., 6 (1896), Xo. 3, pp. 144-150). The hot-water treatment for the prevention of smut of oats, -wheat, and bar- ley, E. S. GOFF ( Wisconsin Sta. But. 50, pp. 13, figs. 5). — Tbe autlior represents dia- grammatically the value of the oat crop of 1894, its cost of production, and the increase that might have Iteen added to the profits had the seed oats been treated by tbe hot-water method before sowing. The money value of this possible increase is placed at $1,. 500,000. Directions are given for tbe treatment of oats, wheat, and barley by the Jensen or bot- water method for tbe prevention of smut, tbe different utensils required being fully described. Ceres-pulver, a newr fungicide for the treatment of smuts, AV. A. Kellerman (Presented before Sec. G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug., 1896 ; ahs. in Science, n. ser., 4 (1896), Xo. 91, p. 438).— The author reported upon tbe value of "ceres-pulver," which consists mainly of potassium sulpbid, as a means for preventing oat and barley smut. The results obtained in his experiments have led tbe author to recommend the use of this preparation as an efficient means for preventing smut on oats and barley. Pure potassium sulpbid is also recommended. Spraying apparatus, S. B. Green (Minnesota Sta. Bid. 45, pp. 326-328, figs. 3). — Descriptions are given of a'cheap though good spray pump and an improved strainer for Bordeaux mixture. Tbe advantages claimed for tbe pump are a i)Owerfnl pump adapted to all sorts of heavy work, easily worked, conveniently transported, and of simple construction. Tbe strainer, which consists of a cone of copper gauze soldered to a galvanized-iron rim, is said to remain unclogged better than ordinary forms. Spraying for fruit diseases, B. T. Galloway ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 38, pp. 12, figs. 6). — This is a popular bulletin on the preparation and use of fungicides as remedies for plant diseases. The results of recent investigations are stated in a con- cise form, and specific directions are given for preventive treatment of the diseases of tbe grape, apple, pear, quince, cherry, and plum. Notes on spraying, W. M. Munson (Maine Sta. Bui. 29, pp. 4, figs. 4), — Brief illus- trated notes are given of different forms of spraying apparatus, together with for- mulas for tbe preparation and application of Bordeaux mixture, ammoniacal copper carbonate, kerosene emulsion, and hellebore. ENTOMOLOGY. The spinach leaf maggot or miner, F. A. Sirrine {ISfew York State Sta. Bui 99, n. ser., pp. 20-31, pi. ]). — This bulletiu reports the results of investii>atioiis of the spinach leaf maggot {Pegomi/ia vic'ma), which has been proving quite injurious to the spinach crop in the market-gar- den district of Long Island. It attacks both the late spring and fall crops, and has been doing damage for the last 2 years, feeding upon beets and lamb'squarters [Chenopod'nim album) in addition to spinach. The adult flies are inconspicuous, flying near the surface of the ground ENTOMOLOGY. 241 and depositing' their eggs in small numbers on the lower surfaces of the leaves. The larva buries itself within the leaf tissue immediately upon hatching, and at once commences to feed in a thread-like mine which forms the curve of an entire semicircle. Before long the mine appears as a blistered blotch in which often 3 or 4 larvne are found feeding together. The pupa state is usually passed in the loose soil or under lallen leaves, although occasionally it is undergone within the leaves. The life cycle probably varies from 2 to 4 weeks, thus enabling the si)ecies to produce G or 7 broods annually, the last passing the winter in the pupa stage. The various stages of the insect's life history are described and illustrated from photographs and the species is histori- cally discussed. A bug {Coriscus inscriptns) feeds upon the larvae, piercing them with its beak as they lie in their mines within the leaves, although the opei ation itself has not been seen. Although some damage is done to beets, by far the most is produced in the case of spinach, and combating the insect is made more difficult because of its feeding upon lamb's-quarters at times when sjnuach and beets are not available. For controlling the pest are recommended clean cultivation, destroy- ing all plants of lamb's quarters, combined with late fall or early spring plowing of old spinach and beet fields to so bury the pupating insects that it will be imijossible for them to emerge. This plowing should be deep and preferably followed by rolling of the ground. Some injurious insects, G. C. Davis {Michigan Sta. Bui. 133, pp. 30, Jigs. 21). — This bulletin consists of illustrated, descriptive, and life-his- tory notes on climbing cutworms, granary insects, and carpet beetles and clothes moths. The speckled cutworm [Mamestra suhjuncta), white cutworm {Carneades scandens), spotted -legged cutworm {Prosagrotis vetusta), well-marked cutworm {Noctua clandestina), dingy cutworm {Feltia subgothica), and variegated cutworm {Peridroma saiicia) are treated. As the means of control, clean cultivation, wool bands, cater- pillar and insect lime, and the use of poisoned buds are recommended. Of insects injurious in granaries, the saw-toothed grain beetle {8il- vanus Surinam ensis), granary weevil {Calandra, granaria), Angoumois grain moth {Geleckia cereaJella), flour beetles {TrihoUumfcrrugineum and T. confusum), Mediterranean flour moth {Epliestia Jcuehniella), meal snout moth {Pyralis farinalis), Indian meal moth {Plodia inter punctella), com- mon meal worm (Tenehrio moUtor), and cadelle {Tenebrioides mauritani- ciis) are figured and described. Care and cleanliness, to prevent the entrance of insects into granaries, are urged, and for the destruction of the species found in the granaries the use of carbon bisulphid is preferred. The buffalo carjiet beetle {Anthrenus scrophularia;), bushy tipped car- pet beetle {Attagenus piceus), and two clothes moths [Tinea hiselliella and 2\ pellionella) are described and their habits noted, gasoline being recommended as a remedy against all 4 si)ecies. 242 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Gall formation and the transformations of Cynips calicis, etc., M. W. Beyer- INCK {Verli. Kgl. Akad. TVetenschap. Amsterdam, 3 {1S96), Sec. 5, No. 2, pp. 43; abs. in Centhh Bald, und Par. Ally., -J {1S9G), No. 17, pp.5G3-56S). The apple maggot, J. J. Willis {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), No. SOS, p. 331).— Brief notes are given on Trypeia pomonella. Concerning kerosene emulsion, W. M. Schoyen (Zlschr. rjianzenkranTc., 6 (1890), No. 3, pp. loO, 151). — Notes are given on the preparation and use of this important insecticide. Insecticide for combating aphides, B. Liebig {Amer. Forest, 12 (1896), No. 434, p. 189). — Spraying the under side of leaves and around the stems of plants with a solution of 10 jiarts soft soap, 50 of quassia powder, 5 of salicylic acid, and 200 of alcohol is 8%id to protect them from aphides. A bacterial disease of the squash bug, B. M. Duggar {Presented before Sec. G of the America)) Association for the Advanren)ent of Science, Aug., 1896 ; abs. in Science, n. ser., 4 {1896), No. 91, p. 432). — A brief description was given of a bacterial disease of the squash bug {Anasa tristis) together with a report of successful experiments upon l)oth squash and chinch bugs. The isolation, growth, and characteristics of the bacillus were given. Mention was made of a toxic principle excreted by the organism, in an infusion of which insects died almost as soon as immersed. FOODS— ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Investigations on respiration and the total metabolism of man, K. SoNDEN and R. Tigerstedt {ISkand. arch, rhj/siol, 6 {1895), No. 1-3, pp. 1-2M, pis. 5, dgms. 35). — The authors describe a respiration apparatus which has been built at the physical laboratory of the Caro- lieu Medical-Surgical Institute at Stockholm. The apparatus is of the Pettenkofer type, but is very much larger than those previously used, since it has a cubical content of 100.65 cubic meters. It is really a small air-tight room lined with zinc. In making the experiments a current of air was pumped through in somewhat the same way as in the Pettenkofer apparatus. The moisture in the air was determined by means of Souden's hygrometer, the August psychrometer, and the dewi;)oint apparatus. The carbon dioxid was measured by a modifica- tion of the Pettenkofer-Voit methods. The authors made a number of control experiments with burning lamps of various sorts to furnish heat and wet cloths to furnish moisture, and believe that their meas- urements of water are accurate within 7.1 iier cent and of carbon dioxid within 1.16 per cent. The apparatus was so large that a number of persons could enter at the same time. A large number of experiments with men, women, and children were made. They were divided into 4 classes: (1) On total daily excretion of carbon dioxid by men and women of different ages, (2) on the excre- tion of carbon dioxid and nitrogen by man at different hours in the day, (3) on the influence of muscular work upon carbon dioxid excretion, and (4) on the total metabolism of individuals of different ages. (1) Under the first class 18 experiments with 122 men and boys ranging from 7 to 57 years old were made, and 15 experiments with 111 women and girls ranging from 8 to 66 years old. The results are given in detail in tabular form. The following- conclusions were reached: The carbon dioxid excretion of boys increases so little between the FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 243 years of 9 and 12 tliat the difference is within the limit of experimental error. The excretion anionnts to 33 to 34 gm. per honr. In the thir- teenth year the carbon dioxid increases to about 42 to 45 gm. per hour, and remains about the same until the nineteenth year. From the twentieth year on the amount diminishes. For men between 20 and 30 it is 38 gin. per hour, and between 35 and GO it is from 34 to 37 gm. i^er hour. With girls the carbon dioxid excretion between the ages of 8 and 10 is 23 to 25 gm. per hour. It then increases but does not show as great an increase as in the case of boys; and from the eleventh to the thirtietli year it varies only between 2G and 32 gm. As women grow older the carbon dioxid excretion seems to diminish somewhat. In the sixty-fifth year it is about 26 gm. per hour. In the case of both males and females the carbon dioxid excretion per kilogram body weight is greater in young (and light) than in old (and heavy) individuals, and the amount excreted per square meter of body surface is greater in young than in older persons. The latter fact indicates that in youth, leaving out of consideration the small size of the body, metabolism is really more active than in old age. In youth the excretion of carbon dioxid per kilogram body weight and per square meter body surface is much greater by males than by females of the same age and weight, viz, in the ratio of 140 to 100 on an average. This difference between the sexes, which is so marked in youth, seems gradually to diminish and finally in old age to disappear entirely. (2) A large number of experiments of the second class were made, in which the carbon dioxid, and in some cases the nitrogen, were meas- ured at frequent intervals, and under varying conditions. The follow- ing conclusions were drawn : Generally speaking, when no work is done the hourly variation of carbon dioxid excretion is comparatively small. In 44 experiments made with 9 individuals the mean hourly variation in 5-hour jieriods was G.19 per cent. When periods of labor occurred between j^eriods of rest the variations were not much greater. In G3 experiments made with 7 individuals in a 5-hour period, in which rest and labor alter- nated, 3 hours being devoted to rest, the mean hourly variation observed during rest was 6.84 per cent of the mean value for the 3 hours at rest. In the same individuals under the same external conditions the car- bon dioxid excreted varies very little from day to day; even though the experiments are separated by several months the variation is only 9.6 per cent of the mean daily value. During the 24 hours con- siderable variations occur which in the main are caused by sleeping and waking. On an average the carbon dioxid excreted in sleep is to that excreted in waking as 100 to 145. The extremes are 100 to 169 and 100 to 132. When awake the mean variation during 2-hour periods in 82 observations made witli 11 individuals was 9.32 per cent of the mean value. In sleep the mean variation during 2-hour periods in 42 244 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. observntious made with 11 individuals was 6.84 per cent of the raean value, that is, oue- third smaller thau during waking. The minimum carbon dioxid excretion per square meter body surface in sleep in the case of 11 and 12 year old children is 52 per cent greater than that of aged persons, and in the case of young people of 18 to 20 years it is 17 per cent greater. The daily variations in the temperature of a man at rest are chiefly and very probably entirely caused by the daily variations in the intensity of metabolism. The experiments with nitrogen are discussed in detail, but the general conclusions are not summed up as in the case of carbon. (3) A number of experiments were made in which the subjects per- formed muscular labor of various sorts — for instance, walking, climbing up and down a ladder, and working with an ergostat (Gartner's). The following conclusions were reached: When muscular work is performed the increase of carbon dioxid excretion is so great that it is hardly possible that work is done at the expense of protein. The labor which must be expended to move 1 kg. of the body 1 step forward increases the carbon dioxid production 0.000102 gm., the limit of error being iO.OOOOOG gm. The motion of forward pi ogression of 1 kg. body weight through 1 meter increases the carbon dioxid production 0.000149 gm., the limit of error being ±0.000008 gm. In climbing a ladder each kilogrameter expended for external work increases the carbon dioxid production 0.00214 gm., the limit of error being ±0.00006, provided the same amount of energy is expended in the ascent and descent. If the work is performed at the expense of carbohydrates 42.4 per cent of the energy is utilized. In turning a crank each kilogrameter of energy expended for external work increased the carbon dioxid production 0.00368 gm., the limit of error being 0.00013 gm. If the work is performed at the expense of carbohydrates 24.7 per cent of the energy is utilized. (4) In the metabolism experiments the food and feces were not measured or analyzed. The nitrogen in the urine was determined and the carbon calculated. The authors intend to make more extended investigations, and the results already published are not summed up as in the other cases. Throughout this report the authors make many references to the work of other investigators and quote many of their results. The food value of ground cotton seed as compared with cotton- seed cake, K. Christy {Rejmrted by B. Dyer in Dent, landw. Presse, 23 {1896), Ko. 3, pp. 22, 23). — Two feeding tests were made with black- headed Suflblk yearling sheep at Eoxwell, Chelmsford, England. The object was to determine the relative value of ground cotton seed, which contains all the oil of the seed, and cotton-seed cake. The first trial was begun with 2 lots of 19 sheep. They were pastured in a meadow and fed kohl-rabi and later ruta-bagas and chopped barley or oat straw. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 245 In addition, lot 1 was fed cotton seed cake and lot 2 orouiid cotton seed. The experiment was divided into 3 periods of 39, 34, and 26 days. At the end of the first period 6 sheep were dropped from lot 1 and 7 from lot 2. The average weight per animal at the begiuuiug- of the experi- ment, gain in weight, food consumed, and cost of food are shown in the following table: Bcsult^ of feeding cottonseed cale and ground cotton seed. Lot 1 (cotton-seed cake) Lot 2 (ground cotton seed) Weight at begin- Pounds. 10-1.1 98.0 Gain in weight. Poxinds. 30.5 36.7 Concentrated food consumed. Cotton- seed cake. Pouiids 72.75 Ground cotton seed. Pott7idg. Cost of cotton seed and cake. s. d. 2 6J 3 5i The lot receiving ground cotton seed made a larger gain than the lot receiving cotton-seed cake. The excess of gain cost 2d. per pound. At the conclusion of the experiment the sheep were shorn. The average yield of wool of lot 1 was 7.7 lbs. ; of lot 2, 8.3 lbs. The sheep were slaughtered. It was found that the yield of meat and tal- low of each lot was the same. The second trial was made with 2 lots of 12 Lincoln-Hampshire sheep. They were pastured in a clover meadow and were fed ^ bu. of cut roots and 1 lb. of chopped straw per head per day. In addition lot 1 received 1 lb. of cotton-seed cake per head and lot 2 received 1 lb. of ground cotton seed. The trial began April 19 and continued 59 days. It was divided into 2 periods of 39 and 19 days, resiiectively. The average weight per animal, gain in weight, food consumed, and cost of food for the whole trial are shown in the following table: Eesults of feeding cottonseed cake and ground cotton seed. Weight at begin- ning. Gain in weight. Concentrated food consumed. Cost of cotton seed and cake. Cotton- .seedcake. Ground cotton seed. Pounds. 128 128 Pounds. 41.2 46.7 Poxinds. 5.8 Pounds. Shillings. 2 58 3 In this case also the lot fed ground cotton seed made a greater gain than the other. The excess of gain cost 2id. per pound. The animals of each lot were weighed before and after slaughtering. The average loss in weight in slaughtering of lot 1 was 77 lbs. and of lot 2 72.75 lbs. All the sheep had too much tallow. 246 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The conclusion is reached that It is much more profitable to feed sheep a fodder rich in fat. Molasses feed {Landmamblade, 39 {189G), pp. 1-J). — Molasses feed is manufactured by the Danish beet-sugar factories from palm-nut meal, wheat bran, and molasses in the proportions of 1:3:4. According to an analysis made by V. Stein, it has the following composition: Per cent. Crude protein 13. 69 Fat 1.14 Crude fiber 6. 16 Nitrogen-free extract (coutaiuiug 43.9 per cent sugar) 55. 83 . Mineral substances 7. 22 Water 15.96 On account of the large proportion of alkali salts in the feed, it will cause scouring if fed too freely. It is recommended to begin with very small quantities, gradually increasing the allowance until full rations are fed, which are 8 to 10 lbs. daily per 1,000 lbs. of live weight for milch cows, 0.5 to 3.3 lbs. per head for young cattle, about 1.5 lbs. for horses, 1 to If lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight for sheep, and 1 to 2 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight for fattening hogs. The influence of the feed on the digestion of the animals as indicated by the appearance of the manure should be noted. — F. w. woll. Fattening steers in winter, T. Shaw {3linncsota Sta. Bui. 44, pp. 255-279). Syvopsis. — The principal objects of this test were (1) to compare the value of alight, heavy, and intermediate grain ration, (2) to see if steers could be profitably fat- tened under existing conditions, (3) to show the importance of not feeding steers too long, and (4) to compare Shorthorn, Hereford, and Galloway breeds. The existing conditions for fattening cattle in Minnesota are dis- cussed. The test was made with 3 lots of steers, each lot consisting of 1 Galloway, 1 Hereford, and 1 Shorthorn. The lots were given water twice a day, had access to salt, were allowed an hour's exercise in a yard twice a week, and were fed similar rations of grain, corn silage, and hay. The grain mixture consisted of wheat bran, ground wheat and ground corn in the proportion of 1:2:1. During the last period of the test some linseed cake was added. The financial statements are based upon bran at $11, ground wheat at $15.86, silage at $2, hay at $C, and linseed cake at $20 per ton. After a preliminary trial of 7 days to accustom the steers to the feed, the test was begun December 10 and covered 5 periods of 28 days each. The cost of the food of lot 1 during the preliminary experiment was $1.95; of lot 2, $2.07; and of lot 3, $2.15. At the beginning of the test lot 1 was fed 5 lbs. of grain per head per day; lot 2, 7 lbs.; and lot 3, 9 lbs. These amounts were increased 1 lb. each ])eriod. The results are tabulated for each lot and for each breed of steers. The weight of each lot at the beginning of the test, the FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 247 food consumed, gains made, and cost of food are shown in the following table: Food consumed, gains made, and cost of roduct8 of proteolysis. An extension of the application of the law of equivalence of energy in biol- ogy, A. Chauveau {Compt. Ilend., 123 {1896), No. 5, pp. 283-289). The normal occurrence of iodin in the animal body, I, E. Baumann {Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 21 {1896), No. 4, pp. 319-330). The normal occurrence of iodin in the animal body, II, E. Baumann and E. Ross {Ztschr. phiisiol. Chem., 21 {1890), No. 5-0, pp. 481-493). The normal occurrence of iodin in the animal body: III. The iodin content of the thyroid gland of man and animals, E. Baumann {Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 22 {1896), No. l,i}p. 1-18). Fattening or turning loose in the pasture, H. Bartii {Dent, landw. Presse, 23 '1896), No. 76, p. 681). — The advantages and disadvantages of both procedures are discussed. DAIRY FARMING— DAIRYING. The effect of heavy exercise on milk production, T. Henkel {Landw. Vers, Stat., 40 {1S95), irp. 329-355). — The literature of this subject is reviewed at length, and is summed up by the author as follows : "The authors agree that moderate exercise has a favorable influence on the quantity aud quality of milk, while heavy fatiguing exercise or work diminishes both the quantity and the quality of the milk. But as to the effect of heavy exercise on the quality of milk the results are not clear or uniform." Seven separate experiments are reported in which cows — usually a DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 255 number — were driven a. considerable distance, in some cases np a moun- tain, and the milk analyzed for a nund)er of days before and after the trip. These experiments were made on different cows, in different parts of the country, and under varying conditions. They all showed that heavy exercise influenced both the quantity and quality of milk. The quantity of milk diminished and also the absolute amount of milk con- stituents. This decrease was more or less noticeable in the first milk- ing after the trip, according to the severity of the exercise, and was much more noticeable in the second milking. The water content decreased in the first milking and more in the second milking, then gradually returned to the normal. The casein content increased in the first milking, remained about the same iu the second milking, and then gradually sunk to the normal. The fat content was much increased iu the first milking, according to the severity of the trip, was still larger in the second milking, and then gradually sunk to the normal. The sugar content decreased in the first milking and usually rose again to the normal in the second and following milkings. The asli content was noticeably liigher in the first milking after the trip, and then sunk to the normal. The acidity was not greater after than before the exercise, as has been claimed. In no case did the milk curdle on heating. Three experiments were also made with goats, in two of which the goats drew a load part of the way. As in the case of the cows, the sugar content decreased considerably, and the fat content (probably also the casein and ash) increased noticeably in the first milking after the exercise. But in the case of the goats, the milk of the second milking was nearly normal in composition, only the sugar being below normal, and the increase in fat content did not continue in the second milking. Danish feeding experiments -with milch covrs, 1887-'95, F. Friis {Sdth Bpt. Kgl. Yet. and Lawlbohlijsl: Lab. landol: Forsog, Copenhagen, 1895, pp. 96). — The report gives a summary of all cooperative feeding experiments with milch cows conducted by the Danish State Experi- ment Station since 1887 (B. S. E., 4, pp. 601-G06; 6, pp. 588, 589,, 657-659), and in addition the results are given of the series of experi- ments carried on during the winter of lS94-'95. In the latter a grain mixture of barley and oats was compared with wheat on G different estates on the same general plan as earlier experiments. In each case the cows were divided into 3 lots. All were fed about 3.3 lbs. of wheat bran, 1.8 lbs. of oil cake, 30 lbs. of mangel-wurzels, and 10 lbs. of hay per head, and straw ad libitum. In addition lot A was fed on an aver- age 5.2 lbs. of the grain mixture, lot B 2.G lbs. of the same and 2.G lbs. of wheat, and lot C 5.2 lbs. of wheat. During the preliminary and post experimental periods all the cows were fed the same rations as that fed to lot A throughout the experiment. The average results follow (p. 25G). 256 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Average yield and fat content of miJlc. Yield of milk per day. Lot A. Grain mixture. LotB. J ^rain mixture, h wheat. Preliminary period Kxperimental pei iod Post-experimental period Pounds. 26.3 23.0 21.0 Pounds. 26.3 22.8 21.1 LotC. "SVheat. Pounds. 26.4 23.2 22.0 Lot A. Grain mixture. Fat in milk. LotB. i grain mixture, J wheat. LotC. "Wheat. Per cent. 3.08 3.09 3.24 Per cent. 3.11 3.10 3.25 Per cent. 3.11 3.12 3.29 The yields of milk of the different lots were practically the same throughout the exi^eriment, except in case of lot C during the post- experimental period. This latter may have been due to an unevenness in the lots which had not jireviously shown itself. Xo differences were found in the average fat content of the milk of the cows in the differ- ent lots. The changes in live weight were on the average slightly in favor of the wheat feeding, though the results are not uniform. The conclusion is drawn that, "judging from these experiments, wheat and a mixture of barley and oats must be considered of very nearly equal value as food for milch cows." Infiuence of feed on quality of milk. — The experiments with milch cows conducted at this station, as previously stated, lead to the con- clusion that the average fat content of the milk produced was not practically changed by changes in the composition and the quantities of the rations fed, although tlie changes were radical. In all cases the rations were ample. ^' There was an appreciable and very characteristic influence of the feed on the quality of the milk when the cows were turned to pasture in the spring. Calculated from the average of the last 10 days in the stable and the first 10 days at i^asture, the fat con- tent of the milk increased on pasturage sometimes as much as 1 per cent for single cows, and occasionally 0.5 per cent for single lots. But this increase in the fat content always rapidly disappeared, and could usually not be traced beyond a few weeks." [The food is only one of the points of difference between the two feeding x)eriods. The exercise in open air, the full supply of fresh air and sunshine when the cows are on pasture are other and, it would seem, more important factors. In other words, the difference observed in the quality of the milk may be explained by the infiuence of the new conditions on the nervous system of the cows, rather than by the efl'ect of the food on the milk secretion. — f. w. w.] The relation between the amount of food eaten, the yield and the fat content of the milk, and the yield of butter has been calculated from all the results obtained at the station in feeding experiments with milch cows. The amount of food is exx)ressed in "food units," calculated from the average rations fed at the different estates according to the following ratios: 1 food unit = l lb. concentrated feed (grain, bran^ oil cakes) =10 lbs. mangel wurzels = 12^ lbs. turnips = 2 lbs. hay = 4 DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 257 lbs. straw. The yields of butter are calculated froin the average yields of butter fat by means of tlie following formula (Fjord's^ : Yield of butter per 100 lbs. of milk = (per cent fat - 0.22) x \\^. The average results per cow daily are as follows : Average relation between, amount of food and yield of milk and butter. !No. Name of estate. Kosvanji Wedellsborg . . Ouruiiiiaiird. .. Sdr. Elk.iaer . . Nislevyaaid . . Soeholt K.jaersgaard . . Bregentved . . . Sanaeruuigaarii Averages : lto3 4 to 6 7 to 9 Number of food Fat content Yield of milk. units. of milk. Per cent. Ponnds. 18.9 3.18 25.3 18.4 3.29 22.9 17.8 3.15 25.0 17.0 3.17 23.6 IG. 5 3.18 21.0 16.3 3.31 21.1 15.8 3.28 19.5 15.6 3. 12 21.8 14.7 3.24 19.6 18.4 3.21 24.4 16.8 3. 22 21.9 15.4 3.21 20.3 Yield of butter. Pound. 0.870 .818 .853 .809 .722 .757 .794 .735 .847 .763 .739 The data for the percentages of fat do not appear to bear any relation to the intensity of feeding. The yields of milk and butter rise and fall very regularly with the number of food units fed. This is especially apparent from the average data for each group of three. Composition of Banish milk. — In thefoHowing table will be found the average composition of the milk produced on the nine Danish estates mentioned in the above table: Average chemical composition of millc produced on Danish estates. Num- ber of years includ- ed. Days from calving— Composition of milk. Production per cow per day. No. of estate. At begin- ning of ex- peri- ments. At end of experi- ments. Water. Fat. Nitrog- enous sub- stances. Milk sugar. Ash. Milk. Butter. I 8 8 3 7 5 3 6 8 37 64 51 45 42 55 50 50 51 213 253 204 204 222 205 233 220 221 Per ct. 88.05 87.92 88.11 87.94 88. 13 87.99 88.01 88. 25 88.12 Per ct. 3.18 3.29 3.15 3.17 3.18 3.31 3.28 3.12 3.24 Per ct. 3.10 3.13 3.17 .3.20 3.09 3.12 3.10 3.01 3.02 Per ct. 4.90 4.88 4.80 4.90 4.82 4.81 4.85 4.85 4.85 Per ct. 0.77 .78 .77 .79 .78 .77 .76 .77 .77 Lbs. 25.3 22.9 25.0 23.6 21.0 21.1 19.5 21.8 19.6 Lb. 0.870 II .818 Ill .853 IV .8J9 V . 722 T I .757 VII .794 VIII . 735 IX .688 All experiments conducted since 1887 are included in the summary. The determinations made show but small variations in the milk i)ro- duced on the same estates from year to year. All experiments were con. 111). — A goat was fed for nearly 14 days 1 to 1.5 gm. of lead acetate per day. During the first 3 days only traces of lead were present in the milk, but subsequently 0.0009 to 0.0013 per cent of lead; and this amount continued after the administration of lead ceased. A young cat and a small dog fed with the milk sh6wed no symptoms of illness. A cow was given 3 gm. of lead acetate dail}^ for 3 weeks, 4 gm. for 8 days, 5 gm. for 14 days, and up to 9 gm. for 25 days, receiving at length 15 gm., making in all 520 gm. during 80 days. There was no injury to health from this. When the dose reached 10 to 12 gm. 0.0015 to 0.02 per cent of lead was found in the milk. Two young cats and dogs fed the milk for 10 weeks showed no ill effects whatever. On slaughtering the cow, considerable percentages of lead Avere found in various i)arts of the carcass. The author con- cludes that the milk of cows treated with the lead acetate is harmless for man or animals. The milk of tuberculous animals, means of rendering it harm- less, and its use, Zurn {Molk. Ztg., 10 {1896), No. 12, i)p. 181-183).— The author discusses the literature on the prevalence and dangers of milk from tuberculous cows, the means which have been suggested for rendering such milk harmless, the statutory measures adopted in some countries against tuberculous animals, and the sale of their meat and milk, etc. The wholesale testing of cows with tuberculin he believes to be impracticable, chiefly on account of the expense. He argues against compulsory heating or sterilizing of all milk before it is sold, on the ground that the public generally demands raw milk, the opera- tion can not be controlled so as to insure its being properly carried out in all cases, and such milk is more difiScult to digest if not less digest- ible, and concludes that this can not rightfully be required of the milk dealers. He believes the only practicable way in which to do away DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 259 with the danger is to educate the people to use only milk which they have themselves ])asteuii/ed or sterilized. In conclusion, he states Dr. Law's views in regard to the dangers from consuming the meat and milk of tuberculous animals, which he criticises. The present status of bacteriological investigation in dairying, H; WeigmaNN {Milch Ztcf., 25 {1896), ¥os. 10, pp. 147-150; 11, pp. 163- 166). — This is a lecture delivered before the German Dairy Union. The progress in dairy bacteriology during the past 5 years is reviewed in a general way. The origin of the bacteria in milk, sources of contamina- tion, relation of food and of cleanliness in the stable to contamination, milk and butter ^'faults," the use of pure cultures for ripening cream, sterilizing and pasteurizing milk, and the ripening of cheese are treated at greater or less length. After summing up the work on the ripening of cream and the employ- ment of pure cultures of different kinds, the author says: "It will be seen that the effort is to produce artificially, not only pure butter of good keeping quality, but also butter of delicate aroma; and that it is only a question of time when mixed cultures will be widely used in I)lace of cultures of acidifying bacteria alone. But for the present it is to be wished that we might more generally follow the example of Denmark, and by taking advantage of the improved methods of butter- making produce a pure and fine-flavored butter, which is possible with the use of pure cultures of souring bacteria." The spontaneous souring of milk, G. Leichmann {Milch Ztg., 25 {189G), j\'o. 5, pp. 07-70). — The author refers to a previous paper by him- self and to a recent one by C. GUnther and H. Thierfelder (E. S. R., 7, j). 806). In his i)revious studies on 24 samples of milk of various origin, made during summer, the souring was determined to be invariably due to a single form of microorganism which did not agree with Hueppe's Bacillus acidi lactici or with other described forms. The form found by Giinther and Thierfelder is said to correspond to that found by the author, although they x)ronounced it identical with Bacillus acidi lactici. The author gives a preliminary account of continued studies during winter on some 60 samples of milk from different localities. The same lactic- acid bacillus as jireviously described was found in all the samples, and in nearly all in such immense numbers as to convince the author that it was the cause of the souring. In sterilized milk it produced optic- ally active, dextro rotatory lactic acid, with traces of a volatile com- pound giving the iodoform reaction, but no volatile acids or gas forma- tion. A pure culture in milk in a breeding oven for 3 days used 0.65 per cent of the milk sugar present, and the increased acidity was equiva- lent to 0.67 i)er cent of lactic acid. As no other acid was produced, it is believed that the decomposition of the milk sugar by tlie bacillus was as Schiitzenberger has suggested: 260 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Oxygen was not necessary to the fermentation. The effect of diifer- ent temperatures was studied in detail. Although at lower and middle temperatures the bacillus behaved like spontaneously souring milk, at higher temperatures (above 4'5o C.) it diifered perceptibly. It was found that the spontaneous souring between 44 and 50° C. was a lactic fermentation, but was caused by a difterent organism from the one cans ing the ordinary spontaneous souring. The author concludes that there are two well-characterized mocroorganisms concerned. Sometimes one of these predominates and sometiuies the other. The most common of these is a micrococcus, the other a bacillus. Both thrive only at a high temperature, but are very different on agar plates. In other respects they appear to be alike. They cause exactly the same curdling of steril- ized milk as the bacteria causing the common spontaneous souring, although they act only at higher temperatures — at 33 to 35° C, rela- tively slowly, but rapidly at 40 to 48°. The product of their action is the same as the common form, except that the micrococcus produces right-handedlactic acid, while the bacillus produces theleft-handed acid. With regard to the occurrence of the ordinary bacillus of the spon- taneous souring of milk, the author found it regularly in dust, provided this had not laid too long in a dry j^lace. It was frequently found on hay and straw, but not in cow dung or tap water. It was found to be an active element in the pure cultures purchased at the Kiel Station for souring cream and in Hansen's preparation. Creaming experiments, F. B. Lini< ield ( Utah Sta. Bui. 43, pp. 15). — In these experiments, which covered nearly a year, comparisons were made between separating the cream with a hand separator and cream- ing in shallow pans and in deep cans of the Boyd Cooley, Shotgun, Common Sense, and Vermont Cooley patterns. The Common Sense can is like the Shotgun, except that the skim milk is drawn from the bottom of the can. The results with each method of creaming are tabulated and summarized. Taking the averages for the whole year, the percentages of fat in the skim milk with the different methods were as follows: Shallow pan 0.35, Boyd Cooley deep can 0.70, Shotgun pail O.Go, Common Sense pail 0.70, Vermont Cooley can 0.70, and separator 0.10. A number of tests of the skim milk from fiirms where deep and shallow pans were used for skijnming indicated that the above results "are not exceptional, but rather better than many peojjle are doing." Six tests were made during the fall and winter months of setting the milk in deep cans in ice water or in the air. In September setting in ice water gave much the best results, but in the winter months there was naturally less difference. The author makes the following practical deductions from his experi- ments : " (1) As regards thoroughness of skimming, the efl'ectiveness of the methods of creaming milk, according to our work, stands in the following order: 1st, separator; 2d, shallow pans ; 3d, deej) pails. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 261 "(2) When the setting' methods are practiced, the pans will give much the best results dnriiij;- the winter or cold months. " (3) There is no advantage, but rather the opposite, in moving the pans into the house during the cold weather, provided that thej' he kept in a place where the milk will not freeze. ' (4) Of the deep setting cans, those which are skimmed by drawing the skim milk from the bottom give the better results; but the Cooley or submerged can, as regards thoroughness of skimming, does not seem to possess any advantage over those not submerged. "(5) From the results given it is evident that for a herd of 10 good cows a separator would be a wise investment. The extra butter obtained by its use, valued at 20 cts. a pound, would pay 20 per cent a year on its cost as compared with results from shallow ])ans, and 50 per cent a year as compared with deep setting. '■(6) With the deep setting methods, the cooler the water is kept in which the milk is set the better the skimming. In fact, to do the best skimming it is abso- lutely necessary to use ice, and a sufficient quantity of it to keep the water at 40^^ F. or below, at all times." The Conn culture (B41) in butter making, E. H. Farrington and H. L. Russell ( Wisconsm Sta. Bui. 48, pp. 22). — This bulletin describes imineious experiments with the use of Conn's "B41" culture in ripening- separator cream at 50 to 60° and CO to 70° F., and also in ripeuing' gathered cream from a creamery in the State. In every experi- ment the cream was divided into 2 lots — one being ripened with the B4:l and the other allowed to ripen without the aid of any starter. Usually a bacteriological examination was made of the culture pellet as it came from the company. "In all, 10 different samples of this culture have ])een examined bacteriologically. "As a rule, the cultures received were quite uniform in their character. When examined bacteriologically by means of culture plates, the purity of the starter as determined by the percentage of germs belonging to 'B41' usually varied from 97 to 99 per cent. Associated with the proper organism there was in every case another species that li(iuefied gelatin and had a digesting action on milk. This impurity was present in all samples, although in only a small degree, varying from 1 to 2 per cent of total germ life in sample selected. In several instances, other species of bacteria appeared in the plates." In a number of cases a bacteriological examination was made of the cream after the B41 had been added, and also after the cream had ripened for some time. "These examinations showed that the percentage of 'B41' bacteria in the cream was subject to great fluctuation. In some cases this organism made up only about 3 per cent of the total number of bacteria that were present in sweet cream immedi- ately after adding the culture stai-ter; then again, 'B41' was present to the extent of 15 per cent of total bacteria. "In a number of cultures made from the cream ripened with the aid of the 'B41' starter, this culture organism was invariably found, although the percentage varied greatly as before. The germ seems to be a thrifty one, and a])parently is not killed out in competition with the lactic acid bacteria universally present in milk." In each experiment the 2 lots of cream were allowed to ripen for the same length of time and were usually churned at the same time. As the B41 almost invariably hastened the development of acid it was necessary to hold this cream at a somewhat lower temperature than 262 EXPERIMENT STATION KECORD. tliat without starter. The butter froni both lots was treated exactly alike and was packed on the day succeeding the churning and shipped immediately to a number of well-known dairy experts for scoring. Eleven trials were made with separator cream ripened for about 2 days at from 50 to 60° F. "The average of the scores of each kind of butter as scored on basis of 50 as per- fect flavor by the different judges is summarized as follows: Butter from separator cream ripened 2 days at 50 to G0° F. Number of biittev packages scored Average score of normal butter Average score of B41 butter Difference In favor of normal butter Gurler. 14.0 47.0 45.6 Barber. 22.0 47.3 46.4 Woolver- ton. 10.0 44.2 44.6 General average score.' 46.9 45.8 ' This score is obtained by averaging the total number of points scored and not averaging the aver- ages of each judge. "Seven of the 11 lots were scored by Gurler and in no instance did he score the 'B41' higher than the normal butter; in 4 cases it scored several points lower. "All the 11 lots were scored by Barber and the 'B41' was likewise in no case better than the normal butter. "Woolverton scored the 'B41' butter higher than the normal butter in 3 of the 5 lots of chilled butter which he tested. His scores are almost uniformly lower than those of the other two judges. This is due to the fact that the butter aroma was only faintly, if at all, perceptible when he scored the butter." Four trials were made with separator cream ripened for about 1 day at 60 to 70° F. "In the 32 scores made by the 4 judges on the 8 different packages of butter the 'B41' product scores lower than normal 10 times, higher than normal 3 times, 3 times the same. "The average of the scores of each kind of butter is indicated below: Butter from separator cream ripened 1 day at 60 to 70° F. Gurler. Barber. Moore. Douglas. Woolver- ton. General average score. 8.0 45.9 41.6 8.0 45.5 43.7 8.0 44.5 42.6 8.0 46.4 42.4 4.0 45.0 44.5 45 5 Average score of B4 1 butter 42 7 Difference in favor of normal butter 4.3 1.8 1.9 4.0 0.5 2.8 Seven trials were made with gathered cream. "In the 40 scores made by 3 different judges on the above 14 packages of butter the 'B41' butter scored lower than normal 14 times, higher than normal 2 times, and twice the same. While the difference was not great with the exception of one instance, yet the uniformity can leave no doubt as to the relative quality of the two kinds of butter. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 263 "Averaging tlio scores of each judge ou the clilfereut kinds of butter gives the fol- lowiug figures : Butter from gathered cream. Gurler. Barber. Moore. General average scores. 14.0 44.4 43.7 14.0 45.3 44.0 12.0 45.1 43.0 45 3 43 9 0.7 1.3 2.1 1.4 "A comparison of the foregoing scores shows that the fresh l)utter from the sepa- rator cream ripened about 2 days was the best. In nearly every one of the 11 trials such butter scored from 46 to 48 ou flavor. The 4 trials of separator cream ripened for about 1 day at a higlier temperature, with few exceptions, scored lower than the butter from cream ripened for a longer time at a lower temperature, although the number of experiments made was not sufficient to determine this point definitely. Some of the scores of the gathered cream butter are as high as those of the best separator butter, but usually they are lower. This shows that it is possible to make as good butter from gathered as from separator cream. "It should be said that during the interim between the different experiments the Conn culture was used in the sweet cream from day to day. In these cases the cream was not divided, but the quality of the butter compared with our usual product was noted. "While in the main no ai^preciable difference was observed between the cultured and the normal butter, yet occasionally the product did not seem to be up to the usual standard of the creamery. These regular churniugs far outnumbered the experimental ones, but as they were not checked by duplicate lots of cream ripened without any starter, their evidence is not so strong as in the case of the regular experiments described in this bulletin. However, they substantiate these experi- ments and add further data that point to the same conclusion that the "^41' culture failed to improve the quality of the butter as compared with that made from nor- mally ripened cream." To test the etfect of the use of B41 on the keeping quality of the but- ter, all of the butter that was sent to one of the scorers (A. H. Barber, a leading commission merchant of Chicago) was placed in cokl storage after being scored by him. The date at which the butter was phiced in cold storage is not given in the bulletin. On November 18 all the packages were removed from storage, allowed to stand at room temper- ature for 2 days, and again scored by Mr. Barber on the basis of cold- storage goods. A week later the same samples were scored by Mr. Woolverton on the same basis. A summary of these scores compared with the scoring of the fresh butter is given. "The result of 11 experiments with separator cream ripened for 2 days may be grouped as fallows: "In () experiments 'B41' scored a total of 2H points above normal. "In 4 experiments 'B41' scored a total of 10 ])oiuts below normal. "In 1 experiment 'B4l' scored the saini! as normal butter. . . . "There was little difference (2 points) between tlio sum of the scores of the 'B41' and normal butter wlien botli were taken from storage, but as the fresh normal but- ter scored 94 poiuts higher than the fresh 'B41' butter the loss of flavor by storage 264 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. is Hi points more for the normal than for the 'B41' butter. This agrees with the generally accepted opinion that the highest flavored butter loses most in storage. "Seven experiments were made with 'B41' in gathered cream. In 5 experiments *B41' scored a total of 8.5 points below normal, in 2 experiments 'B4I' scored a total of 3 ])oints above normal. ... "Relative difference [in favor of] normal l>utter when fresh, 6 points. "Relative difference [in favor of J normal butter after storage, 11.5 points. The normal [from gathered cream] kept, therefore, better than the ' B41 ' product. "Inasmuch as the butter made from separator cream ripened at high temperatures for about 1 day was not in storage for more than a few days, no conclusions as to the keeping (j^uality of the same under these conditions can be made." In tlie above the butter from separator cream scored on a basis of perfect flavor 550 points and that from gathered cream 350 points. The scorings of the fresh butter made by different judges are grouped so as to show the relative uniformity in the product. "While in a number of cases the difference in uniformity between 'B41' and normal butter is not marked, yet in several instances a sharp distinction is to be noted, as is seen in the scores of Barber and Gurler in the first division of the above table. Not only is the extreme variation in scores less in normal than in 'B41' butter, but what is more important, a larger number of packages of normal butter scored the same, or within one point of each other." Four exi)eriments were made to ascertain tbe comparative develop- ment of acidity in cream ripened with B41 and without any starter. It has been claimed that the addition of B41 to normal sweet cream delays the rapidity with which the acid is developed, and that consequently the ripening may be continued longer, thus improving the flavor of the butter. In the experiments made on this subject acidity usually devel- oped more rapidly in the cream ripened with BIl than that to which no starter was added, and the B41 cream was invariably the more acid at the conclusion of the experiment. "The general conclusions from these experiments are summarized as follows: " (1) Cultures of ' B41 ' have been examined bacteriologically as they were received from the Culture Co. In every culture examined there has been found associated witli the proper organism a small percentage of foreign bacteria and molds. " (2) The detailed discussion of the flavor scores show, so far as these experiments are concerned, that the Conn culture ' B41' did not improve the flavor of the sepa- rator butter ripened for one day at a high temperature, or of that ripened for a longer time at a lower temperature; on the contrary, the score of the fresh ' B41' butter by the different judges was in the majority of cases materially lower than that of nor- mal butter. " (3) The experiments with gathered cream, as in the separator cream, show that the flavor of the ' B41 ' butter was poorer than that of nornuil butter. " (4) AVith separator-cream butter in cold storage, that made with ' B41 ' deterio- rated less than did the normal butter. When taken from storage there was but little difference in flavor between these two butters, although the normal butter when fresh scored higher. " (5) In cold storage the ' B41 ' butter from gathered cream, on the other hand, did not keep as well as that made from normal cream. " (6) While the difference in the i^niformity between normal and ' B41 ' butter was not marked, yet the difference, as a rule, was in fiivor of the greater uniformity of normal butter. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 265 " (7) Four special experiments iu ripeniiiij cream were made to determine the effect of ' B41 ' on the development of acidity in cream. The results of these, as well as these of the regular churning experiments, fail to confirm the claim that 'B41' retards the development of acidity in the cream. " (8) The above conclusions do not agree with the results that have been gener- ally reported where ' B41 ' has been used in cream ripening. These reported results may jjossibly be attributed in part to the use of a starter and closer attention to the details of manufacture and not exclusively to the use of the culture organism." The bacterial flora of Cheddar cheese, H. L. Kussell and J. Weinzirl [Presented before Sec. G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug., 1S9G; ahs. in Science, n. ser., 4 [ISDG), No. 91,1). 430). — A quantitative and qualitative study was made of the bac- teria of American Cheddar cheese. It was observed that there was a diminution in the number of all the species during the first 10 days. There soon begins an enormous development of organisms of the lactic- acid group of bacteria, and the digesting and gas-producing bacteria gradually decrease in number. Succeeding the stage of bacterial increase is a period of decline, until iu the course of a year or two the cheese becomes almost sterile. The physical changes that mark the curiug of the cheese appear synchronously with the marked develop- ment of lactic-acid bacteria. The authors maintain that these facts are at variance with the theory that the digestive bacteria are the active agents in curing. A bacteriological study of St. Petersburg milk, M. P. Scharbekoff (Inaug. Diss. St. Petersburg, 1895, pp. 80; abs. in Centbl. Bakt. iind Far. Allg., 2 {1896), No. 17, pp. 545-55.'>). List of the State dairy commissioners and associations of dairymen iu the United States and Canada for 1896 {U. 8. Dept, Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 10 {Dairy Xo. 2), pp. 6). Dairy bulletin by the dairy school, Guelph (Ontario Agl. College and Exptl. Farm Bui. 101, pp. 30). — This is a popular dairy bulletin containing articles by dif- ferent instructors in the school on the following subjects: Separators and the sepa- ration of milk, M. Sprague; care of milk for creameries, J. H. Findlay; care and churning of separator cream, T. C. Rogers; cream-gathering creameries and the private dairy, J. Stonehouse; cheese making, T. B.Miller; a starter, K. W. Stratton; and milk testing, J, W. Mitchell. 266 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. STATISTICS. The number of farm animals in Denmark ( Uyeslr. Landm., 40 {1805), 2U^- 80-82, 125, 120). — Statistics giving tlie number of cattle, sheep, and goats according to tlie census of 1893 are shown in the article. The number of cattle in 1S93 and previous census years was as follows: lu 1861, 1,118,771 head; 1881, 1,170,078; 1888, 1,459,527; 1893, 1,690,100; 976,331 of the last number given were in Jutland and 719,859 on the islands. The size of the herds of cattle is shown in the following table, total number of different herds 179,800 : Size of herds of cattle in Denmark, 1893. Group. Larse herds (over 50 head) . . . ^Medium lierds (15 to 49 head). Smaller lieids (4 to 14 head) . . 4 Small herds (1 to 3 head). Number of herds. 2,209 35, 200 72, 173 70, 218 Total niiinber of cattle. 221, 667 793, 474 539, 301 141, 748 Per cent of num- ber of herds. 1.2 19.6 40.1 39.1 Per cent of num- ber of cows. 13.0 46.8 31.8 8.4 During tlie last 5 years the number of herds in group 1 has been increased by 292, that in group 2 by 7,179, and that in group 3 by 6,416, while the number of herds in group 4 has been decreased by 11,273. Of the total number of herds of cattle in 1893, 178,070 were made up of milch cows, the total number of milch cows being 1,011,098, or 59.6 per cent of the number of cattle. There were 26,771 service bulls, of which 17,949 were 2 years old or over. Of the former number, 14,281 belonged to the red Danish breed of cattle, and other breeds were rep- resented as follows: Jutland 7,339, Shorthorn 1,228, Holstein 216, Ayrshire 80, other breeds 505, mixed breeds 3,122. The number of sheep in Denmark has been as follows: In 1801, 1,751,950; 1871,1,842,481; 1881,1,548,013; 1888,1,225,196; 1893,1,246,- 552. In 1893 there were 934,446 sheep in Jutland and 312,106 on the islands. There were 49,213 rams, 40,269 of which were used for breeding purposes. The latter were divided between the following breeds: Xative 24,540, Disley and other long- wool breeds 7,858, South- down and other short-wool breeds 4,608, Merinos and other Spanish breeds 620, and various breeds 2,643. There were the following number of cattle and sheep per 1,000 inhabitants in 1893: Cattle, in Jutland 1,007 head, on the islands (exclusive of Copenhagen) 767 head ; sheep, in Jutland 964, on the islands 331. The number of goats kept in Denmark in 1893 was 25,266. — F. W. WOLL. Annual Report of Florida Station, 1895 (Florida Sta. Bjyt. 1S95, i)p.S).— Brief otitliue by the director of work carried on at station and substations, list of bulletLus issued during tlie year, and a financial report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. STATISTICS. '2G7 Eighth Annual Report of Illinois Station, 1895 (niinoin Sta. lipt. 1S95, pp. 1(1). — This report includos a general atoount (tf the transactious of the goveruiiif board, with a talmhited statement showinjx date of beginuin, pp. ,.'.3-47, pis. 4). — This contains reports of the dif- ferent sections of the station outlining work and bulletins of the period, ami financial statements for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1894, and .June 30, 1895. Ninth Annual Report of Nebraska Station, 1895 (Xebraska Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. A'A'AT). — This includes a brief report by the director on changes in station organi- zation, on progress of work, and on bulletins of the year; outlines of work by the heads of departments; treasurer's report for the fiscal year ending .June 30, 1895; and a list of all publications <>f the station. Sixth Annual Report of New Msxico Station, 1895 (Xew Mexico Sta. Rpt. 1805, pp. 4-40). — Director's account of improvements and needs of station, publications issued during the year, cost of branch stations, and of a farmers' institute held under station auspices; reports of chiefs of divisions of station and superintendents of branch stations; and treasurer's report for fiscal year. Sixth Annual Report of North Dakota Station, 1895 (North Dakota Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 14). — Outline by the director of work in the difi'erent departments of the station and a financial statement of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Eighth Annual Report of Tennessee Station, 1895 (Tennessee Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 16, pi. 1). — The report contains a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, and brief outlines by heads of the different departments of the work of the year. Annual Report of Virginia Station, 1895 ( Virginia Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 13). — Report of director giving list of bulletins issued and in preparation, treasurer's report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, and brief outlines of work by heads of (lirt'erent departments of the station. Progress of Southern Agriculture, C. W. Dabxey, Jr. ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of the Secretary, Circular S, pp. 12). — An address before the Farmers' Institute at Ash- land, Virginia, June 2, 1896. The world's trade in eggs, Boyesex (Landw Wochenbl. Schles. Hoist., 46 (1896), No. 36, pp. 519-523). Grain elevators and associations for selling grain, Backhaus (Hannov. land, and forstw. Ges. Sonderabdnick, 1895, No. 3?, pp. 6). — An address delivered at Got- tingen before the central committee of the Royal Agricultural Society of Hanover. It treats of the advantages of grain elevators like those in use in America, and of selling grain, as such sales are conducted in America, through the elevators. 6128— No. 3 7 NOTES, Connecticut Storks Station. — "William J. Karslake, Ph. D., formerly lectvTrer on chemistry in Dalhousie University, Halifax, has been appoiuted assistant chemist of the station, to take eifect September 15. Louisiana College and Stations — T. D. Boyd has been elected president of the college, rice J. W. Nicholson, resigned. J. G. Lee, assistant director of the North Louisiana Station, has resigned to become State commissioner of agriculture, and D. C. Sutton has been appointed in his stead. E. B. Fitts, farm manager and tobac- conist at tiio State Station, is succeeded by .Tames Clayton. R. E. Blouiu, of the State Station, has been transferred to the Sugar Station at New Orleans, and .J. D. Clark has been appointed to succeed him. Mississippi College and Station.— Dr. Tait Butler has resigned his position as veterinarian, and is succeeded by Dr. J. S. Roberts. Montana Station. — E. V. Wilcox, Ph. D., has been appointed l)iologist of the station. Texas College and Station. — D. Adriance has been compelled by poor health to resign his position as associate chemist in the college .and station. Papers uefore the Society for the Promotion oe Agricultural Science, August 21-22, 1896. — The following papers were read belore the Society for the Pro- motion of Agricultural Science at its seventeenth annual meeting held at Buffalo, New York, August 21 and 22, 1896 : " The relation of science to agriculture," l)y W. R. Lazeuby ; '• On A^arieties of timothy and red clover " and " Pollen-distributing insects observed on flowers of timothy and red clover," by A. D. Hopkins; •' The influence of animal experimentation upon agriculture," by V. A. Moore ; " Steer-feeding exper- iments at the Kansas Experiment Station," by C. C. George-soii; ''A biographical sketch of Dr. C. V. Riley," by L. O. Howard; "White muscardine (Sporolrichum glohulifennn) of the chinch bug economically considered," by B. M. Duggar; "An antitoxic serum for hog cholera and swine plague. The production of immunity to hog cholera by means of the blood serum of immune animals," by E. A. de Schweinitz ; " The relation of the time of seeding and the period of development to the develop- ment of rusts and smuts in oats," and " Some further experiments on potato scab," by H. L. Bolley; "Protective inoculation against anthrax," by F. D. Chester; "Forcing cauliflower with lettuce and cucumbers," by H. C. Irish; "New experi- ments with fungicides for smuts of wheat and oats," by W. A. Kellerman; "A biographical sketch of Prof. C. L. Ingersoll," by C. E. Bessey ; " Electro-horticulture: range of incandescent lamps," by F. W. Rane; "Notes on grasses collected l)etween Jefferson, Iowa, and Denver, Colorado," by L. H. Pammel and F. L. Scribner. Personal Mention. — Dr. A. Zimmermanu, of the University of Berlin, has been appointed botanist of the newly founded division of coffee culture in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Buitenzorg. The new directeur dc I'agriculture of France, M. Yastilli^re, was for a time a farmer in North Carolina, has an American wife, and is fond of this country. 268 O EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, EDITED 15 Y A. C. TKUE, Ph. D., Director, AND E. W, Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director — Cliemistrv and Dairying. W. H. Beal — Meteorolony, Fertilizers (inclnding metliods of analysis), Soils, and Agricnitural Engineering. "Walter II. Evans, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants. Horticulture, Entomology, and Veterinary Science, L. P. Smith — Field Cro^js. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. F. H. Hall — Statistics and Bibliography. With tlie cooperation of the scieutitic divisions of the Department and the Abstract Committee of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. CONTENTS of Vol. VIII, No. 4. Editorial note : The factor for protein in foods and feeding stufts 269 The convention of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1896 272 Recent work in agricultural science 279 Notes 354 SUBJECT LIST OF ABSTRACTS. chemistky. The calculation of the protein from the nitrogen content of the seeds of plants, H. Kitthausen 279 Constitution of the cereal celluloses, C. F. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and C. Smith.. 280 The pentosans contained in plants, especially feeding stuil's, their determina- tion and properties, B. Tollens 281 On the relation between the citrate solubility and soil solubility of phosphoric acid, with special reference to Thomas slag, O. Foerster 281 A method for separating the '' insoluble"' phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers derived from bone and other organic matter from that derived i'rom rock phosphates, A. P. Bryant 283 On the \arious modifications of the Pemberton volumetric method of determin- ing ])hosphoric acid in commercial fertilizers, F. P. Veitch 283 A modified ammoniuin molybdate solution, A. L. Winton 283 The polarimetric determination of lactose in human milk, P. Thibault 284 I II CONTENTS. Pasre. The detection of pentoses by precipitation Avitli pliloroglucinol and bydro- cliloric acid, B. Tollens 284 Chloraloses, M. Hanriot 284 The sei>aration of sugars by means of new bydrazones, A. von Eckensteiu and C. A. Lobry deBruyn 284 The estimation of sugar by the copper method, Kalnian 285 BOTANY. Roseanthus, a new genns of Cucurbitacea>, A. Cogniaux 289 Crcpls occideiitalls and its allies, F. Y. Coville 289 Liebergia, a new genus of Umbellifer;ie, J. M. Coulter and J. N. Rose 289 Assimilatory inhibition in plants, A. J. Ewart 287 Variation of seed as influenced by climate and soil, E. Gain 288 Flora of south\Yestern Kansas, A. S. Hitchcock 291 Flora of the Black Hills of South Dakota, P. A. Rydl)erg 291 First report on the flora of "Wyoming, A. Nelson 291 Plants from the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, J. N. Rose 291 METEOUOLOGy. Meteorological observations during August and September, 189(i, L. Metcalf and J . L. Bartlett 293 The rainfall of Nebraska, G. D. Swezey and G. A. Loveland 292 Meteorological observations, July and August, 1896, H. B. Battle and C. F. von Hermann 293 Meteorological sunnuary for Ohio, 1895, C. A. Patton 293 Meteorology in South Dakota 293 Notes on climate, J. D. Conley 293 WATEi; — SOILS. The number of inches of water required for a ton of dry matter in Wisconsin, F. H. King 293 Field experiments on the percolation of water as related to irrigation, F. H. King 295 The rate of percolation from long columns of soil, F. H. King 297 The artesian waters of South Dakota, J. H. Shepard 298 Water analyses, E. E. Slosson 298 Analyses of water, F. W. Morse 298 Destructive eflects of winds on sandy soils and light sandy loams, witli methods of prevention, F. H. King 298 Results obtained in the culture of Swedish marsh lands, C. von Feilitzen 297 Fl'.KTILIZKRS. The relation of barn manures to soil temperature, J. Troop 299 A soil test with fertilizers, H. P. Armsby 298 Commercial fertilizers and chemicals, R. T. Nesbitt and G. F. Payne 299 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, M. A. Scovell, A. M. Peter, and H. E. Curtis. 300 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, F. W. Morse 300 Fertilizer analyses, H. B. Battle 300 Fertilizer analyses, H. B. Battle 300 FIELD cnops. Cereals and other field crops 306 Experiences in rational coft'ee culture, F. W. Dafei't 300 Cultivation of corn 3 inches deep compared with a less de]ith, F. H. King 300 CONTENTS. Ill Page, Effect of previous mannriiig on yield of corn, W. C. Latta 302 Fiber tiax in Washington, A. W. Thornton 306 Tests of forage grasses, G. McCartliy and F. E. Emery 302 Forage plants 306 Fodder and forage jjlants exclusive of the grasses, J. G. Smith 306 Native and introduced forage plants in South Dakota, J. H. Shepard and T. A. Williams 306 Some New Mexico forage plants, E. O. Wooton 306 Grasses, W. C. Latta 306 The formation and care of grass lands, G. McCarthy 307 Haying tools and hay making, F. E. Emery 307 Second crop of seed potatoes, J. Troop 307 Potatoes 307 Eoot crops 307 Cooperative test of sugar beets, I. P. Roberts 307 Tobacco, test of fertilizers, M. A. Scovell and A. M. Peter 302 Field exiieriuients with tobacco, E. S. Gotf 303 Experiments in the curing and culture of tobacco, E, S. Goff 303 Wheat, W. C. Latta 304 Experiments with winter wheat, C. A. Zavitz 305 Further notes on the milling qualities of different varieties of wheat, F. B. Guthrie and E. H. Guerney 308 Results of three years' experiments in cost and profit of growing wheat, B. C. Buffum 308 Crops at the Divide Substation, Colorado, J. H. McClelland 308 Grain, forage crops, and root crojjs at the Rain-Belt Substation, Colorado, J. B. Robertson 308 Report of the Arkansas Valley Substation, Colorado, P. K. Blinn 308 Grain, forage, and root crops and garden at the San Luis Valley Substation, Colorado, C. A. Duncan 308 Grain, root, and forage crops in South Dakota, E. C. Chilcott 308 Effect of rotative crojiping and continuous grain growing on yield, W. C. Latta. 305 HORTICULTURE. Onions, B. C. Bufifum 312 Garden peas, B. C. Buffum 312 Squashes, L. C. Corbett 312 Tomatoes, L. C. Corbett 313 The ash analysis of the watermelon, giving the mineral substances it takes from the soil, G. F. Payne 309 Vegetables in Washington, J. A. Balmer 313 Some recent Chinese vegetables, L. H. Bailey 313 Apricot growing in western Noav York, L. 11. Bailey 313 The native dwarf cherries, L. H. Bailey 313 Impressions of the peach industry in western New York, L. H. Bailey 313 Flowering and fertilization of native plums, E. S. Goff 309 The Japanese plums in North America, L. H. F.ailey 313 The quince in western New York, L. li. Bailey 313 Notes on orchard fruits, E. S. Goff 313 Hints on the planting of orchards, L. II. Bailey 313 The cultivation of orduirds, L. H. Bailey 313 Experiments in strawberry culture, E. S. Goff 310 Varieties of the strawberry, L, H. Bailey 313 Small fruits at Laramie 311 The grafting of grapes, E, G. Lodeman 314 IV CONTENTS. Page. Fruit luevities, L. H. Bailey 311 The cultivated poplars, L. H. Bailey 314 Notes on ornameutal trees and shrubs, E. S. t;off 314 FORESTRY. Native shrubs and trees of South Dakota, T. A. ^^"illialU8 315 Forestry, L. C . Corbett 315 DISEASES OF PLANTS. Grain smuts and potato scab, A. Nelson 318 Peach yellows, L. H. Bailey 318 Leaf curl and plum pockets, G. F. Atkinson 318 Leaf blight of the strawberry, L. H. Bailey - 318 Black knot of plums and cherries and methods of treatment, E. G. Lodeman.. 318 Some grape troubles of western New York, E. G. Lodeman 318 Bordeaux mixture, its chemistry, physical properties, and toxic effects on fungi and algaj, W. T. Swingle 315 Why, when, what, and how to spray, L. C. Corbett 318 Eeport of the botanical department, J. C. Arthur 316 Report of the Tiacterioiogist, H. H. Lamson 318 KeiJort of the botanist, A. D. Selby 317 ENTOMOLOGY. Forms of the so-called potato scab caused by insects, A. D. Hopkins 320 On certain grass-eating insects, a synopsis of the si>ecies of Crambus of the Ithaca fauna, E. W. Felt 320 Cabbage root maggot, with notes on the onion maggot and allied sjjeeies . 320 A plum scale in western New York, M. V. Slingerland 320 Some dangerous fruit insects, C. M. Weed 321 Two shade-tree pests, C. M. Weed 318 Insects of the year, J. Troop 321 The insect record for 1895, C. M. Weed 321 Insect pests of the garden, farm, and orchard, C. V. Piper 321 The use of arsenites on tobacco, H. Garman 319 Analyses of iiisectici'CE AND PRACTICE. Pace. Exi^eriments with tuberculin ou uoutuberculous cows, J. Law 335 On the etiicieucy of tuberculiu as a diagnostic agent in tuberculosis, If. L. Kussell 332 Additional report upon tuberculiu tests, H. H. Lamson 333 The infectiousness of milk from tuberculous cows, H. L. Kussell 334 Eelation of separator slime to tuberculosis in hogs, H. L. Russell 334 Report of the vetermary department, A. W. Bitting 335 DAIRY FARMING — DAIRYING. One hundred rations for dairy cows, F. W. Woll 347 On the comparative feeding value of linseed meal, corn jueal, and wheat bran for milch cows, F. W. Woll 335 Tests of dairy cows, J. W. Decker 336 The fat globules in cows' milk, F. W. Woll 337 The sources of bacterial iufection and the relation, of the same to the kcejiing quality of milk, H. L. Russell 340 Test of cream separators, H. H. Wing 347 The Babcock milk test, W.J. Spillman .' 347 Effect of salt upon cheese, J. W. Decker 342 Experiments in the manufacture of cheese, S. M. Babcock 342 Analyses of milk and cream, F. W. Morse 347 Dairy experiments, A. H. Wheaton 347 TECHNOLOGY. Maple sap studies, F. W. Morse 347 Investigations of maple sap, sirup, and sugar, A. H. Wood and F. W. Morse.. . 348 Analyses of cider, F. W. ^lorse 348 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Farm drainage, C. G. Elliott 3.51 Surface and subirrigation out of doors, F. W. Kane 349 Money value of good roads to farmers, W. C. Latta 3.50 Small lateral pressure of silage after settling has ceased. F. H. King 3.50 Scales used for heavy weighing 350 STATISTICS. Monthly crop reports, .Tune, July, and August. 1896 3.52 Manual of instructions to crop correspondents, H. A. Robinson 352 Sixth Annual Report of Arizona Station, 1895 352 Eighth Annual Report of Colorado Station, 1895 352 Annual Report of Idaho Station, 1895 352 Annual Report of Indiana Station, 1895 352 Report of the treasurer of New Hampshire Station, 1894 352 Annual Report of New Hampshire Station, 1895 3.52 Seventh Annual Report of New York Cornell Station, 1894 353 Fourteenth Annual Report of Ohio Station, 1895 353 Seven til Annual Report of South Dakota Station, 1894 353 Eighth Annual Report of South Dakota Station, 1895 353 Eighth Annu;i4 Report of Texas Station, 1895 353 Reports of director and treasurer of Wisconsin Station, 1894 353 Fifth Annual Report of Wyoming Station, 1895 353 Miscellaneous agricultural topics 353 VI CONTENTS. Page. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. Experiment Stations in the United States: Arizona Station : Bulletin 19, .January, 1896 (Sixth Annual Report, 1895) 352 Colorado Station : Eighth Annual Report, 1895 308, 352 Idaho Station : Annual Report, 1895 352 Indiana Station : Eighth Annual Report, 1895 299, 302, 304, 305, 306, 307, 316, 321, 335, 352 Kentucky Station : Bulletin 63, May, 1896 302,319 Bulletin 64, J uly, 1896 300 Massachusetts Hatch Station : Meteorological Bulletin 92, August, 1896 293 Meteorological Bulletin 93, September, 1896 293 Nebraska Station : Bulletin 45, .June 19, 1896 292 New Hampshire Station : Bulletin 31, November, 1895 (Seventh Annual Report, 1895) 321, 333, 352 Bulletin 32, September, 1895 347 Bulletin 33, November, 1895 318 Bulletin 34, April, 1896 349 Sixth Annual Report, 1894 298, 300, 318, 321, 331, 347, 348, 352 New Mexico Staticm : • Bulletin 17, December. 1895 331 Bulletin 18, March, 1896 306 New York Cornell Station : Bulletin 117, May, 1896 311 Seventh Annual Report, 1894 307, 313, 314, 318, 320, 33.5, 347, 353 North Carolina Station : Bulletin 123, December 14, 1895 354 Bulletin 124, January 8, 1896 300 Bulletin 125, January 15, 1896 302, 307 Special Bulletin 38 [39], May 30, 1896 300 State Weather Service Bulletin 82, July, 1896 293 State Weather Service Bulletin 83, August, 1896 293 Ohio S<^ation : Bulletin 66, December, 1895 293 Fourteenth Annual Report, 1895 317, 353 Pennsylvania Station : Bulletin 35, April, 1896 298 South Dakota Station : Seventh Annual Report, 1894 293, 306, 308, 313, 329, 332, 347, 353 Eighth Anuual Report, 1895 298,312,315,3.53 Texas Station : Eighth Annual Report, 1895 353 Washington Station: Bulletin 17, 1895 321 Bulletin 18, 1895 347 Bulletin 19, 1896 313 Bulletin 20, 1896 306 West Virginia Station: Bulletin 43, March, 1896 318 CONTENTS. VII Experiraont stations in the United States — Continued. Page, Wisconsin Station : Eleventh Annual Keport, 1894 293, 295, 297, 298, 300, 303, 309, 310. 313, 314, 321, 327, 328, 329, 332, 3.34, 335, 337, 340, 342, 347, 350, 353 Wyoniin(> {1S9(;), Xos. H), pp. 39 1-39 G ; 41, p. 413; 43, p. 422). — The principles underlying the use of the citrate method are discussed at length and the literature of the subject is reviewed. The varying solvent acticm on phosphates of acids of the same chemical strength is brought out. It is suggested that the varia- tion in the solubility of the diflerent phosphates is due largely to their state of hydration. The larger the amount of water in chemical com- bination with the phosphoric acid the more soluble the phosphate. 1 Agl. Sci., 7 (1893), No. 1, p. 6. 282 ^EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Experiments have been reported wliicli indicated that liydrated phos- pliates of aluniinuin and iron were more effective as fertilizers tlian tricalcium pliospliate. It is claimed that tbe citrate-solubility is not a true index of the availability of phosphate in the soil, because the same phosphate produces very different effects upon different kinds of soil, as has been frequently shown by field experiments. Among' the more important of such experiments those carried out by Gerlach,^ Ulbricht,^ and Tacke^ are noted. The unreliability of the citrate method as api)lied to bone meal is shown by citations of the v»"ork of Kellner, Kozai, and Mori," C. Antz,^ and L. Gebek.'' Gebek's investigations showed that the citrate solu- bility of bone meal varied directly with the content of gelatin, and this is in conformity with the general opinion that raw bone decom- poses in the soil more quickly than steamed bone. It is suggested that these results may be partially explained by the fact that the phos- phate of lime is dehydrated and thus rendered more insoluble by the action of the heat in steaming. Other exiierimenters, including Kell- ner, have obtained results in field experiments which indicate that the steamed bone is quicker in its action than the raw bone. In conclusion the author claims that the Wagner method is valuable as a comparative test, but that quantitative exactness can not be claimed for it. Investigations are reported on the citrate solubility of Thomas slag with reference (1) to the relation between the proportions of the solvent and the material to be tested, (2) the time of digestion, (3) the basicity of the material, and (4) the temi^erature and time of digestion are reviewed at some length, as well as a <;oinparison of the results obtained by this method with those obtained in field experiments, and comparisons of a citrate solution containing 2.4 per cent of citric acid with the ordinary Wagner solution on 7 samples of slag. A study of the chemical constitution of Thomas slag led to the con- clusion that the citrate-solubility of slag is due to the presence of tetra- calcium phosphate, and that the presence of a considerable amount of silicic acid is not a sure indication that the i>hosphate is highly soluble. A slag containing 11.21 per cent of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid was found to contain only 3.88 per cent of silicic acid, while one which showed 4.03 per cent of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid contained 7.24 per cent of silicic acid soluble in ammonium citrate. It is claimed that a slag which is rich in lime may be free from silicic acid and still show a high solubility in citrate. This fact is utilized in the process of E. Bartz,' in Avhich phosphorite is mixed with the molten slag, the phos- phoric acid of the former being rendered soluble in citrate by the i)rocess. iLiindw. Vers. Stat., 46 (1895), p. 208 (E. S. R., 7, p. 488). '-^Laiulbote, 1889, p. 821; Agr. Chem. Vers. Stat., DaLme, 1894 (E. S. R., 6, p. 626). 3 Mitt. Ver. Ford. Moorknlturs, 1894, p. 345. -•Landw. Vers. Stat., 43 (1894), p. 1-14 (E. S. R., 4, p. 861). 6 Chem. Ztg., 19 (1895), p. 1875 (E. S. R., 7, p. 293). «Zt8chr. angew. Chem., 1894, p. 193 (E. S. R., 7, p. 398). 'Chem. Ztg., 1895, p. 1273; see also E. S. R., 7, p. 198. CHEMISTRY. 283 A method for separating the " insoluble " phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers derived from bone and other organic matter from that derived from rock phosphates, A. P. Bryant [Jour. Amer. Cliem. Soc, 18 {1896), No. 6, x)p. 491-498).— The separation depends upon the difference of specific gravity of the materials, and. is accomplished by means of a solution of mercuric iodid (100 gm.) in potassium iodid (75 gm.) made up so that the solution has a specific gravity of 2.2G. All water-soluble matter is extracted from 2 gm. of the fertilizer, and the residue is dried before separation. This latter is conducted in 2 tubes 0.3 cm. internal diameter, one of which is 7 cm. long and closed at one end, the other 20 cm. long. These tubes are connected by means of stout rubber tubing, so that the parts may be separated by means of a pinch cock. The dried residue is placed in one of these combination tubes with 15 to 20 cc. of the above solution, shaken up, and allowed to stand until the separation is complete. Then by closing the cock and remov- ing the lower shorter tube, the lighter and heavier portions of the sample are obtained for separate examination. Details of manipulation and illustrations of apparatus are given. — H. J. PATTERSON. On the various modifications of the Pemberton volumetric method of determining phosphoric acid in commercial fertilizers, F. P. Veitch {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 18 {1896), No. 4, pp. 389-397).— The paper gives the results of investigation on (1) the method of filter- ing and washing; (2) the time of standing after adding the molybdate solution; and (3) the use of tartaric acid to prevent the precipitation of molybdic acid. The following are the conclusions : (1) The use of molybdate solution to which nitric acid has been added, allowing the solution and precipitate to stand one-half hour at 40 to 50°, gave results comparing favorably with those by the gravimetric method. (2) The use of tartaric acid gave good results, but possessed no advantage, and extra time of standing made its use undesirable. (3) The official molybdate plus 10 cc. nitric acid per 100 cc, using the funnel and paper without pressure in filtering, and only water for washing, was preferred to the usual method. — h. j. Patterson. A modified ammonium molybdate solution, A. L. Winton {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 18 {1896), No. 5, pp. 445-446). — Tbe solution is pre- pared according to the following formula: (1) Dissolve 1,000 gm. of molybdic acid in 4,160 cc. of a mixture of 1 part of concentrated ammonia water (specific gravity 0.90) and 2 of water. (2) Dissolve 5,300 gm. of ammonia nitrate in a mixture of 6,250 cc. of concentrated nitric acid (specific gravity 1.4) and 3,090 cc. of water. Add (1) to (2) slowly with constant stirring. Allow to stand and decant off the clear liquid. 284 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The use of this solution makes the usual addition of the 15 gni. of ammonium nitrate to the phosphate solution unnecessary. — ii. j. PATTERSON. The polarimetric determination of lactose in human milk, P. ThibaULT {Jour. Fharm. et Chim., ser. 0, 4 (1896), i)p. 5-10; abs. in Chem. Centbl., 1896, II, No. 6, p. ,5^, p. oSl). On the formation of sodium carbonate in nature, H. Taxatar (Ber. dent. chem. Ges., S9 (ISOG), Xo. 7, p. 1034; ahs. in Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, scr. 3, 15-16 (1S96). No. U,p. 12S0). Gums and resins exuded by Queensland plants, chemically and technolog- ically examined, J. Latterkr (Queensland Bepf. Aijr. liul. 13, 3d scr.. pp. 33-70). The decomposition of mono-saccharids by alkalies, F. Framm (Pfluger's Arch. Physiol, 04 (1S9<;), Xo. 10-13, pp. 575-399). The action of alkali on the phenylosazones of di- and polysaccharids, C. J. Lixtxer (Chem. Ztg., 30 (1890), Xo. 79, p. 7 33 ) .—Whan an atiueoiis solution of the phenylosazones of (Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, ser. 3, 15-10 (1S90), Xo. 12, pp. 791-703). Concerning the hydrolosis of melezitose by soluble ferments, E. Bourquelot and H. Hkrissey (.lour. I'harm. ci ('him., ser. 0, 4 (1890), Xo. 0, pp. 385-387). The behavior of protein compounds to^vard aldehyde, E. Beckmaxx (Forsch. a. Lchensmtl. und Hyg. Chem., 3 (1890), Xo. Ki, pp. 324-329). — The article is a con- densation of two inaugural dissertations. A large number of preparations were investigated to test the method of determining gelatin or albumen in the presence of peptone, by meaus of "forinoi" (40 per cent solution of formic aldehyde). 286 j:xperiment station record. The determination of manganese in the presence of phosphoric acid, (i. Yiard (Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, ,srr. 3, 15-li; {ISOG), No. 15, pp. :i73~975). A simple method of determining the neutrality of ammonium citrate solution used in the analysis of fertilizers, N. W. Lord (Jour. Anu-r. Chem. Soc, IS (1890), No. 6, pp. 457, 45S). A ne^w method for the estimation of iron oxid and alumina in phosphate rock, T. S. GLADDixd (Jour. Amcr. Chcm. Soc, IS (1896), No. 8, pp. 721-724).— A. moditieation of the auimouinm acetate method, which saves time and laljor. — ii. J. PATTERSON. Determination of iron oxid and alumina in phosphate rock by the ammonium acetate method, T. 8. riLADDixc; (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, IS (ISfiC), No. 8. pp. 717- 721). — The paper gives mauj' results which prove the accuracy of the method — H. J. PATTERSON. Photometric method for the quantitative determination of lime and sulphuric acid, J. I. D. Hinds (Jour. Amer. Chcm. Soc, 18 (189G), No. 8, pp. G(',l-G70). The determination of uric acid in guano, A. Stutzer and A. Karlowa (Chem. Ztg., 20 (1S9G), No. 75, pp. 721, 722). Standard prisms in Awater analysis and the valuation of color in potable waters, A. R. Leeds (Jour. Amer. Chcm. Soc, IS (1S9G), No. 6, pp. 484-491). Determination of organic matter in water by means of chromic acid, J. Barnes {Jour. Soc. Chcm. Jnd., 15 (lS9G),p.83 ; abs. in Bui. Soc Chim. Paris, ser. 3, 15-lG (1S9G), No. 13, p. 1209). Concerning the various methods of estimating cellulose and the pentosans of cotton, IL Strixgar (Inaufi. Diss. Cottinfjcn, 189G, pp. 57 ; ahs. in Bof. Ceuthl., OS (1S9G), No. J, pp. 44, 45). On the action of Wagner's reagent upon caffein and a new method for the estimation ol caffein, M. Gomberg (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, IS (1S9G), No. 4, j)p. SSl- 342). The action of chloroform on starch, F. Musset (T'harm. Centralhallc, 37, p. 5S7 ; ahs. in Chem. Centbl., 1896, II, No. 14, p. 703). Concerning the foriuation of galactose, A. ]5au (Neue Ztschr. Biiheuz. Inch, 37 (189G), No. 13, pp. 159-lGG). Distinction betw^een beet and cane sugar (Sugar Cane, 28 (1896), No. 328, pp. 580- 582). — Prof. F. G. Wiechmanu states iu a letter wliich is quoted that there is no fixed relation between the amounts of soda in tbe ashes of beet and cane sugars. "As a rule, the ash of beet sugars contains but a small amount of calcium and magnesium as compared with the (juautity of potassium and sodium. Iu cane-sugar asli the amount of tbe all^aline earths compared with the alkalies present is greater." A simple and convenient extraction apparatus for focd-stuff analysis, J. L. Beeson (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, IS (1896), No. 8, pp. 744, 745, fig. 1). The presence of amins in sugar-cane juice, J. L. Beeson (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 18 (1896), No. S, pp. 743, 744). A chemical-physiological examination of the sugar cane, Went (Deut. Zuch- erind., 21 (1896), p. 1760; ahs. in Chem. Ztg., 20 (189G), No. 78, Bcperi., p. 244). Products of condensation of phloroglucin with sugars, etc., C. Councler (Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 59, p. 685). The inversion of sugar by salts, II, J. H. Long (Jour. Amcr. Chem. Soc, 18 (1896), No. 8, pp. 693-717). The gravimetric estimation of sugars w^ith Fehling's solution, H. Elion (Bee. trar. Chim. Pags- lias, 15 (1896), p. 116; ahs. in Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 78, Bepert., p. 243). Annual report of the official analyst of the Island of Jersey, F. W. Toms (Bap. ann. L'auahjstc OJfuiel Vannce ierminant le 25 Mars, 1896, pp. IS). — A brief report of the work of the year, including analyses of alcoholic liquors, waters, milk, butters, petroleum, etc. BOTANY. 287 The development of the periodic law, F. P. Yexaui.k (Easfon, Pa.: Chemical Puh. Co., 1S9C, PI). .!JI, 2)ls. IS). The hygienic laboratory, H. B. Kexwood (Methods of bacterial research by R. Iloyoe) (J'hiJa(lcl2>hia: J'. Blakiston, Son <>• Co., 180.}, pp.l7,491,fi(j!i.ll6).—k labo- ratory manual of the analysis of v/ater, soil, air, gas, food, etc. Chemical experiments, general and analytical, R. P.Williams ( Hoaioii and Lon- don : Ginn cf- Co., 1SD'>, pp. XV, 111, figs. 40). — Detailed directions are given for per- forming experiments with 102 different elements — salts, acids, etc. The book con- tains much information of a general nature relating to the performance of chemical experiments. Notes on qualitative analysis, AV. P. Masox (Easton, Pa. : Chemical Pub. Co., 1896, pp. 50). — A laboratory manual. Chemistry for beginners, E. Haut {Easion, Pa. : Chemical Pub. Co., 1806, pp. 245, figs. 62, pis. 2, 3d ed., revised and enlarged). BOTANY. Assimilatory inhibition in plants, A. J. Ewart {Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot, 31\1896), No. 217, vp. 364-461).— The author lias given the results of a iH'olouged series of experiments carried on under the direction of Pfeffer, of Leipsic. The method adopted for determiniug oxygen evo- lution was by the use of the Bacterium tcrmo of Cohn. The cultures used were always under 2 weeks old in order to secure actively motile forms. The agents studied were heat — dry and moist — cold, irrespira- ble gases, ether, acids, alkalies, antipyrin, accumulation of assimilatory products, and insolation. The age of the leaf cell or chlorophyll grain at which assimilation begins was also studied. The experimental mate- rial covers quite a range of ])lants representing phanerogams, mosses, lichens, etc. The author's conclusions are as follows: "By the operation of a variety of agencies a condition of assimilatory arrest or inhibition may be induced in living chlorophyllaceous cells and tissues. These are : dry heat, moist heat, cold, desiccation, iiartial asjihyxiatiou, etherization, treatment ■with acids, alkalies, and antipyrin, accumulation of the carbohydrate products of assimilation, imniersalin very strong plasmoly tic solutions, and prolonged insolation. "The inability to assimilate is, if the cell remain living, only temporary, being followed sooner or latei- by a more or less complete recovery of the power of assimilation. '■'During the whole time in which the ]>ower of assimilation is absent the cell continues to respire. By the direct effect of each particular agency, the res])iratory activity may in some cases be but little affected (etherization, overaccumulatiou of carbohydrates), in one case is increased (nu)ist heat), but in most is diminished (cold, desiccation, immersion in strong plasniolytic solutions). The question, whether or not an after effect may also be produced on respiration, does not sensibly afifect the results obtained as regards assiniilatiim. If the inhibition of assimila- tion experimentally produced be permanent the cell tinally dies and ceases to respire. "In tlie great majority of cases no visible change in the chlorophyll or the chloro- phyll grain is associated with the stoppage of assimilation. In such cases assimila- tory arrest probably originates in the plasmatic stroma of the chlorophyll corpuscle, and maybe due to some breakage in the necessary vital connection between the assimilatory pigment and the assimilatory plasma. 288 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "Most of the above inhibitorj'^ agencies operate by checking or arresting the initial stages or primary processes of assimilation (tlecomposition of CO- and formation of carbohy), No. 91, pp. 303-305).— Th^ author gives a resum«3 of his own work,' and that of J. Kanlin- and A. Miintz' relating to this snbject. The inlinence of moisture and drought have akeady been considered in these pages at considerable length (E. S. R., 8, j). 3). The investigations of Raulin with Miieat were conducted in two unlike situations, Lyons and Ardennes, and the effect of changes in soil and climate noted. The seed harvested at each station was divided and portions from each place planted the succeeding year. In general, the average weight of 100 grains of wheat grown at Lyons was less than that grown at the other station. Three factors were found to influence variation: (1) weight of seed, (2) local conditions, and (3) the ancestry of the seed. One of the factors easily recognized is change of soil for each generation, it being shown that a change in the chemical nature of soil is favorable to increased production, and that there is a maxi- mum and a minimum iniiuence dependent upon the succession of the various soils. For example, the maximum for wheat is as follows : Seed sown upon humus soil should have been grown on clay soil for the best results; those sown on sandy soil should have been grown on cal- careous soil; for clay and calcareous soils, the seed should have been grown on sandy soils. Minimum results follow sowing wheat on humus soil that has been previously grown on humus or calcareous soils, on sandy soil where grown on humus or sandy soils, on clay when coming from humus or clay soils, and on calcareous soils when previously grown upon humus or calcareous soils. The principles here enunciated are thought to probably apply to all kinds of plants, and this variation is believed 'Ann, sci, nat, Bot,, ser, 7, 20 (1895), p. 63 (E, S. R,, 7, p, 366). ■= Ann, Sci. Agron, ser, 2, 1 (1896), No. 2, p. 311- 3 Ibid., p. 161. BOTANY. 289 to offer a field for practical exi)eriiiieutation. It may further be seen that the most fertile soil does uot always produce the most prolific seed, since in the examples cited the njaxiinum result was not attained where seed was grown contiiuiously upon the same soil nor upon luTinus soils of great fertility. From this it appears that what may be best for the individual may not prove the optimum for the race. It is urged that in the selection of seed the chemical nature of the soil where it is grown should be considered as an imi)ortaut factor. Continually growing seed upon the same soil under identical (!onditions is liable to produce a degenerate race, and to this factor is due the necessity of a renewal of seed from time to time. This also will account for the otherwise unexplained disappearance of rare plants from their known habitats. In general, seed grown in a more northern latitude when transferred to a given region will produce varieties more adapted to maintain them- selves and produce larger yields than those grown in that region. Continued reproduction in situ is unfavorable both as regards the yield and stability of the race or types, since the number and average weight of seed tends to diminish. "Natural i)henomena, even those apparently of slight consequence, may, through their continued and general application, produce a considerable effect upon plants and animals.'' Concerning a new system of plant classification, F. Delpino (Mem. EeaU Accad. Set. Bologna, ser. 5, G (ISDG), pp. 8G-110; ahs. in Bvt. Centbl., 67 {1S06), No. 12, pp. 370-374). Comparative anatomy of some species of Carex and their hybrids, G. Marg- GRAFF {Leipzig, 1S90, pp. 09, jj/s. 4; ahs. in Boi. Centbl., OS {1S9G), No. 2, pp. 50-52). A new species of grass in Great Britain, G. C. Druce {Jour. Linn. Soo. Bot., 32 {1896), pp. 426-430). — Bromiis interruptus, n. sp., is described. Roseanthus, a new genus of Cucurbitaceae, A. Cogxiaux ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Botany, Contrihniions from V. S. National Rerharium, vol. 3, No. 9, pp. 577, 578, pi. 1). — Roseantlius albiflorus is described and figured as new. The plant came Irom AcapulcOj Mexico. A revision of the genus Silene, F. N. Williams {Jour. Linn. Soo. Bot., 32 {1896), pp. 1-196). Crepis occidentalis and its allies, F. V. Coville {U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Botany, Contributions from U. S. National Herbarium, vol. 3, No. 9, pp. 559-565, ph. 6). — A critical study is made of this polymorphous species and souie of the forms are separated as new species. Liebergia, a new genus of Umbelliferae, J. M. Coulter and J. N. Rose {U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Botany, Contributions from U. S. National Herbarium, vol. 3, No, 9, pp. 575, 576, pi. 1). — A new umbellifer from the Columbia River region is figured aud described. Notes on Uromyces amygdali, a synonym of Puccinia pruni, 1). McAlpixe {Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, In {IS9i!), No. 3, pp. 440-460, pis. 3). New species of fungi, C. H. Peck {Torrey Bui., 23 {1896), No. 10, pp. 411-420).— Twenty-five new species are described, most of w^hich are from the United States. Redescriptions of Berkeley's types of fungi, (4. Massee {Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot., 31 {1896), No. 218, pp. 462-525, pis. 3). 290 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Biological studies of Saccharomycetes and Oidium spp., C. Fermi aucl E. POMPONI (Centhl. Jiakt. und Par. AJhj., 2 {ISOd), Xo. IS, pp. 574-578). The morphology and development of certain pyrenomycetous fungi, Mary A. Nichols {Hot. Ga:., 22 {180G), No. 4, pp. 301-338, ph. 3). Investigations of the physiological anatomy of fungi, -writh special reference to the conductive systems of Hydnei, Telephorei, and Tomentellei, G. aon ISTVANFFi (I'l-ingsheim's Jahrh. wiss. Hot., 29 {1896), No. 3, pp. 391-440, pis. 5). Organs of attachment in Botrytis vulgaris, Margaretha E.G. Horn {Bot. Gaz., 22 (1896), No. 4, pp. 329-333, pi. 1). Concerning the physiology and biology of evergreen plants, a preliminary paper, B. Lidforss {Bot. Centhl., 68 {1896), No. 2, pp. 33-44). A contribution to the structure and function of stomata, H. C. Schellenberg {Bot. Ztg., 54 {1896), No. 10, pp. 169-185, pi. 1). Osmotic pressure, W. C. D. Whetham {Nature, 54 {1806), No. 1407, pp. 571, 572). Concerning root secretions, F. Czapek {FringsJteiin's Jahrh. wiss. Bot., 29 {1896), No. 3, pp. 321-390). Etiolation as a phenomenon of adaptation in plants, F. Darwin {Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc, 19 {1896), pt. Ill ; abs. iu Bot. Ztcj., 54 {1896), II, No. 19, pp. 297, 29S). The mechanism of movement and transmission of impulses in Mimosa and other sensitive plants, D. T. MacDougal {Bot. Gaz., 22 (1896), No. 4, pp. 293-300, pi. 1). — A review, with account of some recent experiments. Sensibility iu plants, F. Noll (Ber. Senchenhergische natur. Ges., 1896, pp. 169-257). On the decomposition of albuminoid substances during germination, D. MOROSOV (Anu. Sci. Jgron., ser. 2, 1 {1896), No. 3, pp. 425-427). Formation of carbon bisulphid by Schizophyllum lobatum, F. A. F. C. Went (Ber. deut. hot. Ges., 14 {1806), ])p. 158-163; ahs. in Jour. Boi/. Micros. Soc, 1896, No. 114, p. 548). — The author claims to have established by chemical means the fact that, this fungus growing upon dead bamboos and sugar canes is able to produce carbon bisulphid. On the simultaneous occurrence of laccase and tyrosinase in the juice of certain fungi, G. Berth and {Compt. Bend., 123 {1896), No. 11, pp. 463-465). Localization of the alkaloids of Solanaceae, P. Molle (Mem. Acad. Boy. BeUjique, 1895; ahs. in Bot. Centhl., 67 (1806), No. 12, pp. 368,369). The tannin of some acorns, H. Trimble (Amer. Jour. Pharm., 68 {1896), No. 11, pp. 601-604, Jigs. 2). — Notes are given of the tannin content of the acorns of 7 species of oaks. Bud variation in the Concord grape, W. Paddock (Garden and Forest, 9 (1896), No. 456, pp. 464-466). On modification and variation, C. L. Morgan (Science, n. ser., 4 (1896), No. 99, pp. 733-740). A microscopical study of germinated barley grains, J. Gruss (Wochenschr. Braucrei, 1806, No. 28, p. 730; ahs. in Centhl. Bakt. und Par. Allg.,2 (1896), No. 18, pp. 585-588). On the effect of water currents on the assimilation of aquatic plants, F. Dar- win and Pertz (Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, 9 (1896), II; abs. in Bot. Ztg., 54 (1896), II, No. 19, p. 296). The temperature limits of mold fungi in various nutrient media, R. Thiele (Inaug. Diss. Leipzig, 1896, pp. 37; ahs. in Centhl. Bakt. und Par. Allg., 2 (1896), No. 18, pp. 583-585). Chemical and experimental investigations on the poisonous properties of juniper berries, L. T. Delval (Lille: Dauel, 1896, pp. 75). — A thesis. On the abiUty of bacteria to adapt themselves to different genera of Legu- minosee (Deut, landw, Presse, 23 (1896), No. 77, pp. 685, 686, figs. 3). BOTANY. 291 Rontgen rays applied to the study of flower buds and seed vessels, G. J. BuKCii {Gard. Chvon., sir. 3, 20 {ISr/d), Xo. ''13, p. 4:>l,Ji(/s. .'). Experiments on the influence of the variation of climate on vegetation, J. Eailix {Attn. ^ci. Aijtoti., .so-. J, J. (1S90), Xo. J, pp. Sll-S.V). Distribution of plants on the south side of the Alps, J. Ball ( Ti-attx. JAnn. Soc. Bol., set: ;.', o {ISOO), Xo. 4, pp. 119-JJ7). Contributions to the arboreal flora of Java, III, S. H. Kookdeks and T. Vale- ton {Mcdcl. 'sLatids Platttetitu'ut, Xo. 1(1, pp. 3J0). — Tec-liiiical and economic notes, together with descriptions of new species of trees of Java are given. Some New South "Wales plants w^orth cultivating for shade, ornament, etc., J. n. Maiuex {Dept. Ayr. N. S. Wales, 1S96, June, pp. 39). — Economic notes are given of numerons species of plants in A'ew South Wales. Contributions to Queensland flora, F. M, Bailey (QiicetisJand Dcpt. Afjr. Hot. Bill. 13, pp. 34, pis. 4). — Descriptive notes are given of some additions to the llora of Qneeuslaud. The grasses of Uruguay (continued), J. A ve( ha valeta (.-!/(«/. mns. nacional Mon- ii'video, 1S90, Xo. 5, pp. 373-432, pis. 14). — Descriptions and ilhistrations are given of some of the grasses of the region designated. Geographical distribution of medicinal plants, G. Plaxchon {Jotir. J'harm. et Cliiitt., sir. 6, 4 (lS96),Xo. 9, pp. 389-397). — This paper gives the distribution of the principal medicinal plants of the United States. The myxomycetes of the Miami Valley, Ohio, A. P. Morgax (Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Xat. Hist., 10 {1S9<;), Xo. 1, pp. 44, pis. 3). Flora of southwestern Kansas, A. S. Hitchcock {V. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Botantj, Contrihiiiions frotn U. S. Xaiional Herbarium, vol. 3, Xo. 9, pp. 537-557). — A report on a collection of plants made by C. H. Thompson in 1893. Flora of the Black Hills of South Dakota, P. A. Rydberg ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Botantj, Contributions from U. S. Xational Herbarium, vol. 3, Xo. 8, pp. 463-540, pis. 4). — A critical rejiort is made on the flora of the Black Hills region as observed by the author on a collecting trip made through that region in 1892. The distribution of the plants as aflected by the geological, topographical, and meteoro- logical conditions is discussed and a catalogue given of the 2)lauts collected. Sev- eral new species and varieties are described. First report on the flora of Wyoming, A. Nelson {JVyoining Sfa. Bnl. 2S,pp. 47-213, figs. 3, map 1). — A jireliminary report is given of the flora of Wyoming, based upon extensive collections made during the seasons of 1894 and 1895, represented by about 1,600 numbers. A descriptive report is given of the itinerary of the expedi- tious, together with critical notes on the different local floras, and a list of species with critical notes. Sixteen new species and varieties are described. Plants from the Big Horn Mountains of "Wyoming, J. N. Rose ( [". S. Dept. Agr., Division of Botany, Contributions from U. S. Xational Herbariutn, vol. 3, Xo. 9, pp. 567-574). — A report is given of a collection of plants made in 1893. An illustrated flora of the Northern "United States and Canada, etc., I, N. L. Brittox and A. Browx {Xetv York: Chas. Seribner's Sons, 1896, pp. XII, G12, figs. 1,425.) — An illustrated manual of northeastern United States arranged in the main according to the system of Eugier and Prautl and the uomenchtture of the Roches- ter rules. "Vegetable physiology w^ith special reference to agricultural plants, A. B. Frank (Lehrbuch dressure. and rainfall for the period from May 17, 1888, to December 31, 1894, and a daily summary of observations on humidity for the 6 months ending September 30, 1890. Notes on climate, J. D. Conlky ( rr(/'>'""*fi' Sta. Rpt. 1895, Appen., pp. 85-96). — A reprint of Bulletin 23 of the station (E. S. K., 7, p. 286). WATER— SOILS. The number of inches of water required for a ton of dry matter in Wisconsin, F. H. Kmcr ( ^y^H(■()mill Sta. Kpt. 1S!)I, pp. M0-24S).— Experiments similar to those already reported (E. S. K., 7, p. 507) were 8708— No. 4 3 294 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. made with potatoes and oats. The i><>tatoes were yrowu in 8 <;'alvan- ized iron cylinders 18 in. in diameter and 42 in. deep, 2 of which were sunk flush with the ground in the open fiehl and the otliers stood above ground where they coukl be sheltered. The experiments differed from previous ones in the method of aiiplying water and in not allowing any rain to fall upon the i)ots. "The iiietliod of watering adopted was to set up within each cylinder a column of 3-inch drain tile close against one side and to add water liy pouring it into this tube from time to time as needed, talcing care always to add no larger quantity at a time than would raise the water in the tile 6 in. ahove the hottom. All the water these potatoes received was therefore procured through capillarity and root action from a dei)th equal to or exceeding 3 ft." The results obtained in these experiments were as follows: Amounts of wafer used by the potato. No. 1 No. 2 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 Dry matter ^aterused i./r oTiin '**' pound ''^^- ter. Pound. 0.5130 .5258 . 3338 .5007 .4505 .5020 .3596 .5425 Pounds. 430. 4 415.0 586.9 480 9 510.8 472.1 497.3 458.4 Dry matter per acre. Pounds. 12, 650 12, 960 8,248 12, 340 11,110 12,370 8,865 13, 370 Total water used. Inches. 24.02 23.74 21.31 26.20 25.33 25.78 23. 37 27.06 Acre-iuclies of ^yat(■r per ton of dry matter. Inches. 3.80 3.66 5.17 4.25 4.56 4.17 5.27 4.05 The potatoes were injured by blight, and for this reason the produc- tion of dry matter was not as high as it otherwise would have been, but— " It is evii. S). 306 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Cereals and other field crops ( Wijoming Sta. Bpt. 1895, Jppen., pp. 63-73). — Reprinted from Bulletin 22 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 210). Gotten in British Central Africa ( /i6it' Misc. Bui. No. 113-114, pp. US, ii5).— Brief notes are given of a seuiiwild cotton growing in Central Africa, the fiber of which is of a woolly character, from 1^ to 1,'^; in. long, but rather weak. It is rated as worth about 4:^- (J. (8i cts.) i)er pound in Manch('8t<'r, England. Flax fiber microscopically and chemically considered, A. Herzog (Die Flaclis- fciser ill mil'roslcojyischer iind rhemischer Bezieh ung. TraniexciH : lS9G,pp. SG,Jlf/s. 3). — In this publication the author considers microscopically the flax stalk, the bast fibers of the ilax, and the recognition of flax fibers in fabrics and papers. On the chemical sidehe treats of the water, crude f;it, crude protein, crude fiber, ash, and the nitrogen- free extract of the flax fiber, also the bearing these considerations have on the prepa- ration and use of the fiber. Fiber flax in Washington, A. W. Thornton ( Washington Sta. Bui. 20, pp. 11). — lliis is a popular bulletin discussing the advisability of growing flax in the State and giving full directions for its culture. Experiments -with fiber plants (Gard. Chron., sir. 3, 20 {1S96), Xo. 515, p. 558). — A brief account is given of experiments with sisal hemp in Egypt. Tropical fodder grasses (Ktw Misc. Bui. No. 113-114, pp. 115-118). — Notes and analyses are given of Andropogon i^ertusus, A. caricosiis, Chloris harhaia, Punicum colo- num, and P. pri)Siratum. Forage plants ( Jryoming Sta. Rpt. 1S95, Appen., pp. 60-63). — Reprinted from Bulle- tin 22 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 209). Fodder and forage plants exclusive of the grasses, J. G. Smith ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Agrostology Bui. 2, pp. 58, Jigs. 50). — A popular bulletin on the sub- ject, the species being arranged alphabetically according to the scientific names, with an alphabetical index of the English names appended. The remarks under each species, while brief, are designed to include the most important information of practical value. In the United States there are over 200 native or wild species of plants aside from grasses which are regarded as good forage i)limts. Among the wild native sjiecies nienticmed by the author as worthy of more extended cultivation in regions where they thrive are wild vetch (Hosaclia purshiaiia), deer weed (H. glabra), Beckwitli clover {TrifoUum heckwithii), Buffalo pea (Astragalus caryocarpus), winter fat {Eurolia lanafa), and sotol (Dasylirioii tesannm). Native and introduced forage plants in South Dakota, J. H. Siiepaud and T. A. Williams {South Dakota Sta. Rpt. 1894, BuUefius, pp. 208, pis. 55).— Bulletin 40 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 403) is bound with the Annual Report. Some New Mexico forage plants, E. O. Wootox {Nnv Mexico Sta. Bui. 18, pp. 57-95, pis. 1?). — A botanical description, with remarks on the economic value, is given of galleta grass (Hilaria mutica), joint grass (Pasjialum disiichum and Eriochloa puyictaia), barnyard grass, grapevine mesqnite (Panicum ohtusum), Texas drop seed grass (Muhlenhergia texana and Lycurus phalaroides), hunch grass (Sporobolus airoides), blue grama (Bouteloua oiigostachya), six weeks grama (B.polystachya), woolly jointed grama {B. eriopoda), tall grama {B. curtipendula and Ercmochloe kingii), salt grass {Distichlis spicaia), millo maize, Kafir corn, Italian millet, pearl millet, alfalfa, mein\\\\te {Prosopis juliflora),\,ovm\\o (P. pubescens), prickly pear, and sotol (Dasy- lirioii wheelcri). Forage plants with tabular r6sum6 of their culture, P. Masseh ft. apart and usually 50 ft. long. They were allowed to form matted rows, given good culture and a fair allowance of stable manure, and were well \)vo- tected during the winter. The results given are averages of crops of 1893 and 1894. Test of varieties (pp. 327-330). — Only such varieties were planted as seemed for sjjecial reason to merit trial. The results are given in grajdiic form for 45 varieties tested, Warfleld, Enhance, Bederwood, Parker Earle, and Boynton leading in productiveness in the order named. The length of fruiting season of these varieties is shown graphically, the season extending from June 12 to July 5. Test of leejying quality (pp. 330-332). — In 1893 sample boxes of the freshly picked berries of the different varieties were ijlaced on a shelf in a north room, and examined and classified after 24 and 48 hours. At the end of the test 12 varieties were still in a fair salable condition, 20 still usable, and 9 unfit for use. The three varieties leading in productiveness were among those in the first class, Parker Earle and Boynton being in the second class. Irri(j<(tion (pp. 332-337). — The irrigation apparatus used by the sta- tion in 1894 consisted of an ordinary threshing engine and rotary pump for raising the water from the lake and forcing it to the strawberry plantation through a 2^-inch pipe, and V-shaped wooden troughs sup- ported on crossed stakes. These troughs extended across the rows and had openings guarded by simple homemade galvanized iron gates by which the water could be let into furrows between the rows. The beds were irrigated June 11, when there had been no rain for 18 days. The plants were just beginning to show the eftect of drought but "resumed their fresh and vigorous appearance and yielded a fine crop of excellent fruit." Eain on June 16 rendered further irrigation unnecessary, but the irrigated and check plats showed yields of 49G.6 and 252.8 quarts, respectively, thus indicating a gain of 243.8 quarts for the one irriga- tion even when followed by rain. As a result of after-harvest irri- gation upon a plantation that had borne two full crops and had been mowed and burned over and thinned out "the plants made a most vig- orous growth . . . looking far more promising than spring set beds that had not been irrigated, [while] the check rows were nearly ruined, long vacant spaces api)earing whence every plant had perished from the protracted drought." Breeding experiment (pp. 337, 338). — This is in continuation of work reported in the Annual Report of the station for 1892 (E. S. E., 5, p. 490). In the spring of 1892 2 rows of 25 i)lants each of Wilson straw- berries were set, the plants being "grown from other plants set the HORTICULTURE. 311 preceding- spring-, and whicli had consequently not borne fruit" and of which "the ancestors had been grown for many successive genera- tions in the manner described, . . . One row was i)hinted with the same variety, but with i)lants taken from a bed that was known to have borne two crops, and which was originally planted from a bed known to have borne one crop." The two rows contained in the spring of 18D3 an average of 19.3 plants for each one originally set, and the single row contained an average of but 13.3 i^lants for each set. The difference in fruit produc- tion was not so marked, perhaps, because of overcrowding in the more vigorous rows. In the spring of 1893 one row of 25 plants was set from a strain of Wilson strawberry, Avhich had been diminished in vigor by "spot dis- ease," and another row from the healthy strain so long propagated from young plants. In 1891 the latter row had produced almost twice as many plants as the former, and yielded nearly twice as much fruit. An unsuccessful attempt was made to control "s^iot disease" {Ramii- laria tulasnei) by use of Bordeaux mixture, four applications being made to half of an affected plat, "but not the slightest difference was discernible between the si)rayed and unsprayed parts." Fruit brevities, L, H. Bailey {Few York Cornell Sta. Bui. 117, pp. 351-390, figs. IS). — This consists of several short articles on horticul- tural subjects, none of which is considered of sufficient length to justify separate publication, Pacl-imj houses for fruit (pp. 351-301). — This discusses the packing of fruit, especially apples and grapes, in the State. Two stjdes of pack- ing houses are commonly employed, one furnished with a basement or cellar for storage of the fruit, and the other being a packing house only, without cellar. The methods of sorting and packing grapes and apples are described and illustrated from ])hotographs. The forms of different grape-packing tables, one of which revolves on a central pivot, are figured. The methods followed by different packers are quoted from their replies to inquiries. History of the Ohio raspberry (pp. 301-365), — Tliis discusses the variety Ohio at some length, and shows that in is not the variety Ohio Everbearing of various horticultural books. The present variety Ohio was originated about 30 years ago, probably in the State of that name. The ^^ mistletoe disease'''' of the hlachherry {\)\\. 305-307). — Brief notes ii[)on an affection of blackberry canes in which small, dense bunches of foliage occur, accompanied with curling of the shoots. The malforma- tion is caused by a i3sylla known as the blackberry tlea louse {Trioza tripunctata). Cutting out and burning the infested tips as soon as dis- covered is recommended as the best remedy, although spraying with kerosene emulsion will keep the psylla in check. 312 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Boot galls (pi). 367-375). — This treats of irregular excrescences on the roots of fruit trees, or on the main stems just below the ground. The size varies from that of a pea to several inches in diameter. Several authors are quoted to show the varying opinions as to the nature of such galls which are not believed to be due to the attack of any organ- ism, i)lant, or animal, but rather consisting of malformation following- some injury of the root or uncongenial condition in soil or treatment. As the galls may seriously interfere with the nutrition of the tree, the cutting off of all galls when nursery stock is i)lanted is recommended. Are dewberries icorih groicing (pp. 375-383) ? — This consists of informa- tion supplementary to Bulletin 34 of the station (E. S. Ti., 3, p. 523). The varieties Lucretia and Bartel are considered the most desirable of the several varieties that have been introduced. The Lucretia dew- berry in particular is recommended on account of its earliness, and if given careful culture and trained on stake or wire trellis it is believed to be a profitable fruit. The goumi (pp. 383, 384). — A brief descriptive account of Elcvagnus Jongipes, citing its botanical characteristics and horticultural possibili- ties. The bush is hardy in western New York and yields such abun- dant crops of red gold-flecked berries of agreeable piquant flavor that the extensive cultivation of the plant is recommended. TJie winter injuries (i)p. 385-392). — This briefly recounts the effects of the winter of 1895 upon vegetation throughout the State, much injury being done. All stone fruits were especially injured, pears also suffer- ing. It is thought that the injury produced by the cold weather was augmented by the drought of the preceding summer, by means of which the trees were weakened in vitality, and the dryness of the ground pre- vented the trees making up the moisture evaporated during the winter season. Cut twigs were placed in living rooms to ascertain the loss by evaporation. During the 3 days occupied in the experiment the rate of evaporation was constant, averaging i cgm. jjer hour. Notes are given on the condition and injuries of peaches, pears, plums, apricots, dwarf cherries, chestnuts, and walnuts. Crimson clover in orchards (pp. 302-390). — This cites experiments with crimson clover to ascertain its hardiness and value as a green manure crop in orchards. Crimson clover is recommended only for orchards and not for forage or hay croj^s, the common clovers, spring-sown, being more useful for this purpose. It is believed that if crimson clover is sown the last of July or first of August the best results will 1)e pro- duced. The ground should be prepared by previous pulverizing. Onions, B. C. Bui<-fum ( Wtjoming Sta. Bpt. 1895, Appen.,pp. 31-46, ph. 2). — Reprinted from Bulletiu 22 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 211). Garden peas, B. C. Buffum (Wyoming Sta. Bpt. 1895, Appen., pp. 159-167). — A reprint of Bulletin 26 of tbe station (E. S. R., 8, p. 48). Squashes, L. C. Corbett {South Dakota Sta. Bpt. 1895, Bulle,tinii,pp. 77-92, figs. 2). — Bulletin 42 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 403), Louiid with the Annual Report. HORTICULTURE. 313 Tomatoes, L. C. Cohrett (Soiilh Dal-ota Sfa. llpt. lSD.I,BuUet.in8,pp. /c*).— TJuUetiu ?~i of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 51), bound with tlio Annnal Report. Truffles of Greece, A. Ciiatix (Compt. Eetid., 1^3 (1S96), No. 14, pp. 537-541).— Several sorts of trullles are described. Yams (Dloscorea spp.), J. H. Haht (/>'((Z. /.'<>//. Hot. dardeus, Trinidad, 3 (189(1), iVo. S, PP.20G-21,'). — Several species of Dioscorea are cultivated under the name of yam, of ■which the author mentions 5 with varieties under eacli. The yield at the Gardens was at the rate of 23,600 lbs. per acre. Vegetables in Washington, J. A. Balmeu ( Wasliirujion Sin. Bui. If), p. SO). — This bulletin comprises cultural and comparative notes on 1!) varieties of cabbage, 22 of onions, 26 of peas, 10 of cauliflower, 10 of celery, 6 of sweet corn, 2 of Lima beans, 12 of beets, 2 of spinach, 10 of carrots, 7 of turnips, 3 of okra, 3 of rhubarb, 14 of squashes, 15 of tomatoes, and 45 of potatoes, and on one or more varieties of broc- coli, cardoon, lentils, leeks, kohl-rabi, radishes, parsley, chicory, brussels sprouts, lettuce, watermelons, muskmelons, eggplants, and tobacco. The majority of the vegetables thrived well and gave crops of good quality, but watermelons, musk- melons, peppers, eggplants, and tomatoes are regarded as failures in this region. Peas, lieans, root crops, and potatoes gave particularly fine results. Hrief direc- tions for the care and cultivation of the vegetable garden are appended. Some recent Chinese vegetables, L. H. Bailey (Xeiv York Cornell Sia. Ilpt. 1S94, Appen., pp. 177-201, pis. 3, figs. 9).— A reprint of Bulletin 67 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 217). Apricot gro-wing in western New York, L. H. Bailky (New York Cornell Sta. lipt. 1S94, Appen., pp. 371-29:', fif/s. 11).— A. reprint of Bulletin 71 of the station (E. 5. R., 6, p. 420). The native dw^arf cherries, L. H. Bailey (New York Cornell Sta. Bpt. 1S94, Appen., pp. 259-3G5, figs. 5). — A reprint of Bulletin 70 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 421). Impressions of the peach industry in western New York, L. H. Bailey (New York Cornell Sta. Rpt. ISOJ, Appen., pp. 3G1-3SG, pi. 1, figs. 12). — A reprint of Bulletin 74 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 545). A dwarf stock for the peach, E. S. Goff (Garden and Forest, 9 (1S9G), No. 454, p. 448). — Xotes are given on the use of Prunns japonica, P. hesseyi, P. subcordata, and a dwarf form of P. maritima. The peach buds failed to form a union in the first case, the others being still under investigation. The American persimmon, C. S. Plumb {Garden and Forest, 9 (1S9G), No. 454, pp. 443,443). The Japanese plums in North America, L. H. Bailey (New York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 1-3G, ph. 3, figs. 12).— A reprint of Bulletin 62 of the station (E. S- R., 5, p. 983). The quince in v^estern New York, L. H. Bailey (New York Cornell Sta. Bpt. 1S94, Appen., pp. 609-G31, pis. 2, figs. 10).— X reprint of Bulletin 80 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 899). Orchard fruits for family and market, H. E.Van Deman (Eiiral New Yorker, 55 (1S9G), No. 243S, pp. GSG, GS7.) Notes on orchard fruits, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 343-347).— Briei descriptions and notes upon value of seedlings and new varieties of plum and apple. Hints on the planting of orchards, L. H. Bailey (New York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 242-354).— k reprint of Bulletin 69 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 420). The cultivation of orchards, L. H. Bailey (Aeio York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 297-314, pi. /).— A reprint of Bulletin 72 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 546). Strawberry culture under irrigation, E. C. Barkeu (Irrigation Age, 10 (1896), No. 4, pp. 131, 132). Varieties of the strawberry, L. H. Bailey (New York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 583-GOO, G02, G03, pi. /, figs. 9). — A reprint from Bulletin 79 of the station (E. .S. R., 6, p. 901). 314 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Small fruits at Laramie {Wijoming Sta. llpt. ISDo, Appen., pp. SO, SI, pi. 1). — Reprinted from Bulletin 22 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 215). The grafting of grapes, E. G. Looe.max (JN'ew Yorl: Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 4o9-47<'>,fi(js. 40). —X reprint of Bulletin 77 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 724). Fruits and their preservation for exhibition purposes, G. F.Payne (Georgia Dept. Afjr. Bid. .:>?, jtp. 17-19). — This is a reprint from the Druggists' Circular. The author recommends the use of a solution of the same specific gravity as the juice of the fruit for the preservation for exhibition purposes. The average specific gravity of the juice of a number of fruits is given, and several formulas for the preparation of preser\ati\ e solutions. Five ornamental oaks, S. C. Masox {Garden and Forest, 9 {1S96), Xo. 453, pp. 432; 433). — Notes are given of 5 species of oak adapted to street and park planting in Kansas. They are Qiterciis rubra, Q, relutina, Q. palustris, Q. imhricaria, and Q. plieUos. Conifers on the grounds of the Kansas Agricultural College, II, F. C. Sears {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 450, j). 462). — Finus strohus has not proved an entire success, F.jmngens appears to be perfectly hardy, and P. humilis is valuable for orna- mental purposes. The cultivated poplars, L. H. Bailey {Xew York Cornell Sta. Fpi. 1894, Appen., pp. 205-2SS).—X reprint of Bulletin 68 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 425). Bacteria in gardening {Gard. Chron., acr. 3, 20 {1896), No. 514j pp. 528-530). — Edi- torial mention is made of Dr. Voelcker's report on "Nitragiu" with a brief account of experiments begun in England. Utilizing coal ashes, W. E. Britton {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 453, pp. 434-430). — Notes are given on the use of coal ashes in horticultural aud other practice. Notes on ornamental trees and shrubs, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Bpt. 1894, j>2). 340-342). — Notes are given as to the hardiness of the pur2)le leaf plum {Prnnus pissardii), ginkgo or maidenhair tree {Salisburia adiantifolia), Teas weeping luul- berry {llorus alba), ainure tamarisk {Tamarix amurensis), golden elder (Sambucus nigra var. aurea), golden-leaf syringa {Philadelphus coronarius), Deutzia crenata, aud D. gracilis, Vihurnwii plicatum, Elvagnus longipes, Hosa riigosa. Van Houtten's S}»ir;i'a {Spirwa ran houttci), large pnnicled hydrangea {Hydrangea paniculata grandifiora) , yel- low wood {Cladrastis tinctoria), Jai>an ivy {Ampelopsis Iricuspidata), Abies concolor, and Picea englemanni. FORESTRY. The Douglas fir {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), No. 509, p. 371). — Notes are given on the growth of this tree in Great Britain and on the Continent. Snver maple, white maple, or soft maple, .1. T. Rothrock {Forest Leaves, 5 {1896), No. 11, pp. 168, 169, pis. 2). — Notes are gi^'eu on Acer dasycarpum. The red or Norway pine, J. T. Rothrock {Forest Leaves, 5 {1896), No. 10, p. 152, 2)ls. 2). — Notes on Finns resinosa. Product of ■white pine per acre, E. Hersey {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 450, pp. 402, 403). An experimental grove of w^hite pine, J. D. Lymax {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 449, pp. 392, 393). Pruning timber trees, A. C. Forbes {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), No. 508, p. 333). — The desirability of pruning forest trees is pointed out, and attention called to the liability to fungus attacks where the pruning is not properly done. The removal of dead leaves from forests, A. Visart {Bui. Soc. cent. Forst. Belgique, 3 {1896), No. 9, pp. 612-650). — A report is given by a commission appointed by the Minister of Agriculture to investigate the effect of removing dead leaves from forests aud in general the practice is condemned. "What kind of trees to plant in the Middle and New England States ( Forest Leaves, 5 {1896), No. 11, pp. 172, 173). — The trees recommenaed for forest ijlantiag in DISEASES OP PLANTS. 31.") the region imlicated aic AVliitc^ pine, red cedar, jack pine (I'iiiiia rigichi), bald cypress, white cedar, spruces, hemlDck, white oak, chestnut, hickory, and bhick oak. A list of secondary vahie includes the locust, rock oak, sugar maple, heech, birch, and cherry. Forest studies in Minnesota ((Uirden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 451, ][>. 413). — An editorial note is given of proposed studies to be undertaken by the University of Minnesota on second growth timber on stump lands. A new fir from Arizona, C. H. Mkkkiam {Proc. Biol. Soc, Wushingion, 10 {1896), pp. llo-llS.figs. 2). — Ah'ies arhonica n. sp. is figured and described. So fur as known this tree is conlined to the San Francisco and Kenilrick ^lountaius in Arizona. Facts gathered by observation and experience relating to the ■white pine, E. llEK'SKV (/;*(/. Jlussei/ Inst , 2 {1890), pt. 5, pp. 373-385). — Notes are given relative to the rate of growth of Finns strobns. Willow culture, L. Pkcioli {La cnltura del salicio. Firenze: S. Landi, 1896, pp. Til, 24:, jigs. 40: ahs. in AUg. Forst. undJagd. Ztg., 1890, pp. 321, 322). The Canada poplar in Belgium {BuJ. Soc. cent. Forst. Belgiqiie, 1890, Oct., pp. 696-099). Native shrubs and trees of South Dakota, T. A. Williams {South Dakota Sta. Bpt. 1895, BnUetins,pp. r-»5-i,?.?). —Bulletin 43 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 507) is bound with the Annual Report. Forestry, L. C. Corbett {South Dakota Sta. Bpt. 1895, Bulletins, pp. 127-151). — Bulletin 41 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 507) is bound with, the Annual Re^jort. Tree growth, A. C. Forbes {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), Xo. 513, p. 502).— Koies are given of the relation of flow of sap to growth, and the statement is made that a larch trunk cut during the summer and branches trimmed off continued to make considerable additions to the year's ring of wood. Growth of trees in New Zealand, T. W. Adams (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), Xo. 512, p. 458). — Tabulated informatiou is given as to the growth of more than 80 species of artificially })lanted trees. Reforesting w^aste lands in Holland, J. Gifford {Garden and Forest, 9 {1890), Xo. 452, p. 423). Draining woodlands, A. C. Forbes {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1890), Xo. 511, pp. 428, 429). The forests in the vicinity of Crater Lake, Oregon, F. Y. Coville {Forest Leaves, 5 {1890), Xo. 11, p. 103). Interesting foreign trees for propagating in France, P. Mouillefert {Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), II, Xo. 39, pp. 454-400, figs. 4). The practical value of forestry to the surface of the country, F. H. H^un {For- est Leaves. 5 {1890), Xo. 10, pp. 154-150). DISEASES OF PLANTS. Bordeaux mixture, its chemistry, physical properties, and toxic effects on fungi and algae, W. T. Swingle ( TJ. H. Dept. Agr., Division of Ycgeiahle rhij.siology and J*((iJtoIo<]y Bid. 'J, j^P- 37). — The iiuthor pre- sents Ji summary of our present knowledge regarding this valuable fungicide, and draws conclusions from Lis owu and others' observations in which he points out lines of work whose further investigation is thought to be desirable. Freshly made Bordeaux mixture is said to consist essentially of ('U]ui<; hydroxid and calcium sulphate in solid form, suspended in a lu^arly or quite saturated solution of calcium sulphate and calcium hydroxid in water. The most soluble constituents are calcium sul- phate and calcium hydroxid, which are present in considerable amount 316 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. where there is an excess of lime. Probably no cuiiric hydroxid or other copper salt is present in solution where the mixture is properly made. The cux)ric hydrate in freshly made Bordeaux mixture is in the form of precipitation membranes, probably of a colloid nature, containing large quantities of imbibed water. Upon standing, especially if the mixture is agitated occasionally, the precipitation membranes disappear and are replaced by crystals of copper hydroxid. The crystals are often in the form of sphterocrystals. The calcium sulphate is thrown down in the form of amorphous granules which upon standing often appear as twin crystals. The character of the cuticle of the plant, whether easily wetted or not, and fineness of the spray are factors which influence the adherence of the mixture. Upon the evaporation of the mixture the calcium sul- phate crystallizes out, cementing the precipitates together and to the leaf. The calcium hydroxid, by absorbing carbon dioxid from the air, gradually changes to calcium carbonate, which being very difficultly soluble aids in cementing the precii)itates to the leaf. The colloid pre- cipitation membranes by drying also aid in fixing themselves to the surface of the leaf. Through the adhesiveness and difficulty of solu- tion of the cementing substances the great adhesiveness of Bordeaux mixture is secured. The cui)ric hydroxid is not dissolved until the calcium hydroxid has been changed into a carbonate through the action of rains, dew, and moist air. Small auiounts may be dissolved by the carbon dioxid of the air, ammonium carbonate, nitrate, and nitrite, together with sub- stances absorbed from the cells of the host, or possibly by substances secreted by the fungus. The action of copper upon the germination of various fungus spores and upon algte as reported by various observers IS given, in which it is shown that many of them are very susceptible to extremely dilute solutions. The following suggestions are given regarding the possible action of copper on fungi: "(1) The spores may he prevented from germinating by inhibitory action; (2) the protoplasmic content of the spores may be killed outright in a short time before germination has commenced ; (3) throngh negative chcmiotropic action of the cojiper hydroxid the germ tube maybe prevented from entering the plant; (4) the germ tube maj- be so vreakened l)y copper in solntion as to Ije nnaT)]e to enter the host plant; (5) the germination tnbes may be prevented from growing or be killed only upon contact with solid particles of copper or its compounds, or with the cuticle or other parts of the host impregnated with copper; (6) the germ tube may be so much injured soon after germination as to cease growing before attempting to effect an entrance into the host plant, or may be killed outright soon after appearing; (7) the effect of the copper contained in Bordeaux mixture may be exerted at a later stage of development of the fungi ; (8) the presence of a thick coating of copjier salts might impede the fruiting of a fungus already wathin the tissues of the host plant." Report of the botanical department, J. 0. Arthur {Indiana 8ta. R2}t. 1895, pp. 21-28). — Among the most important investigations car- ried on during the year were pot experiments with fertilizers on DISEASES OF PLANTS. 317 diflereut types of soils. It is expected to publish soon some of the results obtained. Corn smut was also studied, and it was found that the spores are able to iierminate as soon as they mature, in this way rapidly disseminating- the disease. Germination can be largely i)re- vented by spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture, but the economic phase of the subject remains to be studied. The study of potato scab was continued, the results of which were given in Bulletin 50 of the station (E, S. 11., 7, p. 408). Considerable attention has been given the subject of weeds. In this connection it was found that the two seeds in the cockle bur germinate at difiTerent times. The cause of this difterence in the activity of the two seeds is to be given in a future bulletin. Report of the botanist, A. D. Selby {Ohio Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. XXXIY-XLJI, maps ;J). — The work of the i^ast year has been concerned principally with investigations on plant diseases and on weeds. The study of peach diseases revealed the presence in the State of peach leaf curl, yellows, fruit spots, peach rot, root or crown gall of peach, and a twig spot, and incidentally the presence of the root aphis {ApMs persicw nujer). A Bordeaux mixture containing 2 lbs. of copper sulphate to 50 gals, of water was found not to injure the peach foliage. In spraying experiments with this solution it was found to be very efiti- cient in combating the brown or i)ustular spot of the fruit. The operation of the law relative to black knot and yellows disclosed the distribution of the latter disease, and its spread is shown by a map. Suggestions are offered for the prevention of these diseases and for the better enforcement of the law. Investigations on grain smuts were carried on, the results of which were incorporated in Bulletin G4 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. -5o8). The study of weeds was continued throughout the year. In response to the inquiry in Bulletin 59 of the station (E. S. E., 7, p. GOO), relative to occurrence and distribution of weeds, numerous replies and many specimens were received. The occurrence of the more noxious weeds is shown by a map on which is platted the distribution of the Russian thistle, horse nettle, buffalo bur, field peppergrass, pennycress, bracted plantain, spiny amaranth, spiny clot bur, and golden hawkweed. The detailed responses await publication. On the appearance of a new potato disease, C. Sa.to (Ztschr. Sjyiritusindnstrie, 19 {189G),Xo.JJ,p.2>JJ). Observations on combating the heart and dry rot of beets {Xeue Ztuchr. Ihthenz. Ind., 37 {ISDi;), Xo. 1-1, pp. l-'r.-l.-Q). Concerning methods for preventing heart and dry rot of beets ( FiiJdhufs landiv, Ztg., 45 (ISOG), Xo. 21, pp. -679-083). Sugar cane disease in British Guiana (A>«' Miac Bid. Xo. 113-114, pp. lOG-lOS). — Notes are . II. Bailey {Xew York Cornell Sta. Pipt. 1894, Appen., pp. 600-604, fig. 1). — A reprint from Bulletin 79 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 910). Black knot of plums and cherries and methods of treatment, E. G. Lodeman {Xew York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 635-656, pis. 2, figs. 4). — A reprint of Bulletin 81 of the station (E, S. R., 6, p. 908). Experiments in controlling black rot, Lambel {Prog. Agr. et Tit., 26 {1896), Xo. 43, pp. 469-474). Practical treatment for black rot, J. Ducos {Prog. Agr. et Tit., 26 {1896), Xo. 40, pp. 389-393). — Bordeaux mixture and a powder of lime, sulphate of copper, and sul- phur are recommended. Prevention from black rot by coal smoke in Aveyron, J. Ducos {Prog. Agr. et Fit, 26 {1896), Xo. 44, pp. 493-496). Concerning the appearance of gum in grapevines and bacterial gummosis, E. Rathay {Jahresber. k. k. oenol. und pomol. Lehranstalt Klosterneuhurg, 1896 ; ahs. in Bot. Centbl., 68 {1896), Xo. 2, pp. 54-56). Some grape troubles of western New^ York, E. G. Lodeman {Xew York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 413-454, figs. 6). — A reprint of Bulletin 76 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 732). Why, when, what, and how to spray, L. C. Corbett {West Yirginia Sta. Bui. 43, PI). 229-244, figs. 6). — This bulletin is a sort of spray calendar, in which the advantages of spraying are shown and directions given for ajiplication of various fungicides and insecticides. SiJecific directions are given for the prevention of attacks of fungi and insects upon the principal orchard and garden crops, and vari- ous forms of apparatus are described. Formulas for 20 fungicides and insecticides are also given. Report of the bacteriologist, H. H. La:\isox {Xcw Hampshire Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. i^7-i52).— Reprinted from Bulletins 22 and 27 of the station (E. S. R., 7, pp. 140, 223.) ENTOMOLOGY. Two shade tree pests, C. M. Weed {Xew Hampshire Sta. Bid. 33, pp. 9, Jigs. 4). — This bulletin contains illustrated, descrijitive, and reme- dial notes on the wliite-marked tussock motli {Orgj/ia lencostigma) and tlie sugar-maple borer {Glycohii(s s2)eciosi(s). The tussock moth is seri- ously injurious to elm trees in early summer, only one annual brood ENTOMOLOGY. 319 existiiio-. It is advised tliat the egg- masses of the moths be eolleeted b^' baud during the winter and destroyed. The natural parasites will destroy many of the caterpillars that might liatch from eggs which are overlooked. The ravages of the caterpillars may be checked by spray- ing with Paris green. The sugar-maple borer has done considerable damage in the central region of the State, producing holes as large as load pencils iii the bark of the trunks and rapidly causing the foliage to yellow and the trees to appear unhealthy. The beetles emerge in July and August, soon lay- ing eggs that quickly liatch. The larvic burrow obliquely upward through the bark in which they remain until spring, when they bur- row into the wood, which they mine in all directions. The attacks of the insects seem to be confined to the sugar maple {Acer saccharinum). Indication of the borers is generally shown by the brownish sawdust- like casting thrown out of the hole, by means of which the larvic can be located and may be dug out with a sharp knife during the hibernat- ing season. Seriously injured trees should be cut down and burned before the larviie mature. The use of arsenites on tobacco, H. Garman [Kentucly Sta. Bid. 63, pp. 68-80, pis. 2). — The author has conducted a series of experiments on the effect of spraying tobacco with different preparations of Paris green. From 1 to 8 applications were given the different plats, begin- ning July 3. The amount of injury done by the worms to the plants in the different plats is tabulated. The quantity of liquid used and the amount of Paris green which each plant received are given. The amount of arsenic acid found in a sample of tobacco from the different sjirayings is shown in the following table, compiled from the averages of 2 sei^arate determinations: Arseitious oxid in dnj tohacco. Times sprayed. Arsenioiis oxid. Araenious oxid in lib. 1 Per cent. Trace. 0.0139 Trace. . 0002 .0010 .0034 .0041 .0069 .0093 Grains. Trace. 0.973 Trace. .014 .070 .238 .287 .503 .651 21 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ' These plants were (ait as soon as they were dry from the second spraying. The question whether or not any danger to the consumer would accrue from the practice of using arsenites is still open to discussion, but it is thought that the small amount found even in the samples giving the largest content would not do any serious injury. Numerous experiments Avere conducted to ascertain the proportion of Paris green necessary to be used. 320 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Observations relative to the life liistory of the tobacco worm are given, in which it is shown that at the station there is evidence of 3 annual broods instead of 2, as hitherto believed. From the grower's standpoint the broods appearing one early in July and the other early in August are of the most consequence. A summarj^ by the author shows that it is not necessary to spray tobacco more than 3 times, provided the times of api)lication are well chosen. Based upon his experience, the proper times of applying Paris green would be early in July, again early in August, with a third application about the middle of August. One part of Paris green to 160 gals, of water is of sufficient strength if properly aDplied, and under no circumstances is a strength greater than 1 part to 120 gals, advised. Some good form of knapsack sprayer with an agitator is recommended for use where tobacco is grown on a sufficient scale. To those dislik- ing the use of Paris green, a solution of cobalt placed in flowers ot jimson weed is recommended. Grasshoppers have been found to cause considerable damage to tobacco when other herbage becomes scarce in the latter part of sum- mer, and it is recommended that all unnecessary growth which would harbor these pests should be kept down around the tobacco fields. Foul brood, its natural history and rational treatment, W. R. Howard (Chi- cago: Gr. W. York ij"- Co., lSD4,pp. 4S,fi(js. ;?). A fowl-infesting tick, C. Fuller {Agl. Gaz. K S. Wales, 7 {1896), No. 9, pp. 690-597). Forms of the so-called potato scab caused by insects, A. D. Hopkins {West Virginia Sta. Sjiecial BuJ. 2. pp. 07-111, Jigs. 11). — Illnstrated iK)tes are given of Epi- dapiis scabies aucl Sciara sp., which the author considers the cause of certain forms of potato scab. The usual methods for preventing the disease are recommended. Leaf insects of sugar cane in Java, I, L. Zehxtner {Med. Proefsta. East Java, n. ser.yXo. 27, pp. 12, pi. 1). — Illustrated descriptions are given of 2 new leaf borers, JSispella wakkeri and Eulophus fcmoralis. Plant lice on sugar cane, L. Zehntner {Med. Proefsta. East Java, n. ser., Xo. 29, pp. 14, pi. 1). — Illnstrated descriptive notes are given of Aleurodes iergi, a pest on sugar cane in Ja\ a. Life histories and methods of combating cane borers, L. Zehntner {Med. Proefsta. East Java, n. ser., Xo. 25, pp. 20). — Notes are given of Schirpopoga intacta, Ckilo infuscatellus, and Grapliolitha schistaceana. Lawn and grass infesting insects, I, J. B. Smith {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), Xo. 456, 2)p. 463, 464, figs. 5). — Illustrated notes are given of Cramhus vulvivagellus and several click beetles and their larvse. On certain grass-eating insects ; a synopsis of the species of Crambus of the Ithaca fauna, E. P. Felt {Xeio York Cornell Sta. PjH. 1894, Appen.,pp. 47-102, pla. 14, figs. 5).— A reprint of Bulletin 64 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 62). The cabbage root maggot, -with notes on the onion maggot and allied insects, M. V. Slingekland {Xew York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen.,2}p. 481-577, figs. 18). — A reprint of Bulletin 78 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 911). The pear tree slug (Eriocampa cerasi), C. P. Lounsbury {Agl. Jour. Cape Col- ony, 9 {1896), Xo. 20, pp. 520, 521, figs. 5). A plum scale in -western New York, M. V. Slixgerland {Xew York Cornell Sta. Ept. 1894, Appen., pp. 681-690, pi. 1, figs. 4).—K reprint of Bulletin 83 of the sta- tion (E. S. R., 6, p. 1004). FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 321 Another plum scale, T. 1). A. Cockekeli. {(iartlvn arid Forest, 0 (JSO(]), Xo. 4'>4 pp. -141). — Notes ;ire uiven of a new plum scale from Orej^ou. It is thought to bo the Eiiropeau Lccanlnin Jiitiihefciilafiim, which attai'ks the hawthorn. Insects of the year, J. Trooi- {Indiana Sfa. lipt. 1895, p. 20). — This consists of a brief report of the insects especially injurious in Indiana in 189ij, with mention of issuing of newspaper bulletins concerning the treatment of some of the species. The following species iirodiaced most damage: The apple tree plant louse {Aphis vuili), several species of cutworms, especially tlie clay-backed, cutworm {Afjrotis (jladiavia), the fruit bark beetle {Scolijtus rugulosus), the Hessian fly {Cecidomi/ia deslriictor), the potato stalk borer {Trirhoharis trinotata), and the chinch bug {/Sliasiis leucoptcrus). Attempts to inoculate chinch bugs with white fungus disease were not successful, owing to the dry atmospheric conditions. The insect record for 1895, C. SI. Weed {Xew Hampshire Sta. Bid. 31, pp. 12-18, fiijs. 6). — This lists the insects a]ipearing especially injurious during the year, brief life history and remedial notes being given for the following species: Tent cater- pillar, cankerworm, Colorado potato beetle, zebra caterpillar {Ceranica picia), rose chafer, oyster-shell bark louse, tomato worm {rhler/etlioniius celeus), striped cucumber beetle, squash bug, and sixteen-legged majile borer {^geria acerni). Insect pests of the garden, farm, and orchard, C. V. Pipek {JVashington Sta. Bui. 17, pp. GG, figs. G4). — Popular illustrated notes are given on the most common insect pests of the garden, farm, and orchard, together with suggestions for their destruction. Formulas for insecticides and illustrated descriptions of spraying apparatus are also given. Italian scale insects infesting citrus fruits, A. Berlese {Eir. pat. rug., J {1S96), Xofi. 1-4, pp. 1-73, pis. 7). Some dangerous fruit insects, C. M. Weed {Xew Hampshire Sta. Rpt. 1S94, pip. 132-171, figs. IS). — Eeprint of Bulletin 23 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 143). Notes on destroying red spider, W. Taylor {Jour. Hort., n. ser., 189G, Xo. 854, 2>p. 440, 441). — Notes are given of the use of gunpowder, sulphur, and carbolic acid. Experiments ■with Rovarin in combating Cleomis punctiventris, F. Rovaka {Oesterr. iiiigar. Ztschr. Zuckerind. uiid Landw., 1S9G, p. 407; rt&.y. in Centhl. Bakt. und Par. AUg., 2 {1896), Xo. IS. pp. 501, 592). Laurel, mustard, and kerosene as insecticides, G. Abbey {.Jour. Hort., n. ser., 189G, Xo. 854, pp. 441). Petroleum as an insecticide, F. Krugeu {Gartenfiora, 1896, pp. 99-125; ahs. in Bat. CtntbL, 67 {189G), Xo. 12, pp. 375-377). Analysis of insecticides, F. W. Morse {Xew Hampshire Sta. llpt. 1894, pp. 121, 122). — Analyses of 2 patented articles are reported. FOODS— ANIMAL PRODUCTION. The influence of the addition of fat and starch to a ration upon the digestibility of the nutrients of the food and upon the metabolism of nitrogen, A. Wicke and H. Weiske {^Ztschr. physiol. Cliem., J2:J (1896), ^^o. 2, pp. 137-152). Synopsis. — In an experiment with sheep it was found that the addition of starch to the ration diuiinished the digestiltility of ]>rotcin and fat; the addition of fat did not aftect the digestibility and resorption of protein and fat, but diminished that of nitrogen-free extract. Starch was found to be a better i)rotector of protein than isodynamic quantities of fat. The expeiiuient, wliich is a coiitinuatioii of work previously reported,' was made with 2 sheep weighing 52 k,u. and 41 kg., respectively. The iZtschr. physiol. Chem., 21 (18!).")), p. 42 (E. S. R., 7, p. 336). 322 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. experiment was divided into 3 periods. The plan was to feed the basal ration of period 1 throughout the experiment, adding a moderate quan- tity of starch to the ration of sheep aSTo. 1 in the second i)eriod and an isodyuaniic quantity of fat to the ration of sheep No. 2, and reversing- these additions in the third period. It was found that sheep No. 2 could not eat as much as No. 1, so a somewhat smaller basal ration was fed, and owing to lack of time the third period was omitted with sheep No. 2. The basal ration of sheep No. 1 consisted of 800 gm. of meadow hay and 200 gm. of flaxseed from which the fat had been partially extracted by pressing, etc.; 174 gm. of starch was added in the second period and 60 gm. of olive oil in the third. The basal ration of sheep No. 2 consisted of 050 gm. of meadow hay and 200 gm. of the flaxseed, and 50 gm. of olive oil was added in the second j^eriod. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed. Tables are given showing the amount and composition of the urine and feces, the amount and percentage of the nutrients digested, and the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen. The coefficients of digestibility for each period for each sheej) are shown in the following table: Coefficients of digestihilitu in experiments with sheep. Ration. Animal. Hay and iiaxseed ^Do Hav, flaxseed, and olive oil.. ^bo Hay, flaxseed, and starch ISTo. 1.. No. 2.. No. 1.. No. 2.. No. 1.. Dry matter. Per cent. 64.18 64.07 63.44 64.67 67.28 Organic sub- stance. Per cent. 67.49 67.44 66. 53 67.76 70. 27 Protein. Fat. Per cent. Ti. 15 71.47 71.58 72.02 69.19 Per cent. 76. 85 81.46 87.78 86.45 78.08 Crude fiber. Per cent. 62.67 . 62. 13 62.10 65.66 Nitro- geu-free extract. Per cent. 65.50 64.79 58.77 59.81 72.39 Aeh. Per cent. 26.15 24.60 25.10 25. 63 26.55 The conclusion is reached that the addition of starch to the ration diminished the digestibility of protein and fat, while the addition of fat did not affect the digestibility and absorption of protein and fat in these experiments, but diminished the digestibility of nitrogen-free extract. The average amount of nitrogen consumed i)er day and excreted in the urine and feces and gain in nitrogen are shown in the following table : Average daily nitrogen balance in experiments with sheep. Ration. Animal. Nitrogen in— Food. Urine. Feces. Gain. No.l.... No. 2.... No.l.... No. 2.... No.l.... Grams. 22.04 19. 39 22. 04 19. 39 22.04 Grams. 15.16 13.11 14.75 12.58 13.59 Grams. 5.92 5.53 6.27 5.43 6.81 Grains. 0.96 Do .75 1.02 Do 1.38 1.64 The conclusion was reached that when isodyuamic quantities of starch and fat were added to a ration the starch was a better protector of protein than fat. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTTOX. 323 Tlie author quotes at length from his i)revioTis experiments on this subject and states that further experiments are in progress. The use of sugar in feeding animals, Malpeaux {Ann. Agron., 22 {Ls!h;), Xo. (J, pp. 281-2!>ii). — Tlie author gives a short review of the use of sugar in feeding animals. The experiment here reported was made by the author with 2 lots of young cattle, and was divided into 2 periods of 25 days each. Each lot consisted of 1 bull and 1 heifer. A basal ration consisting of 2 kg. of clover hay, 5 kg. of oat straw, 30 kg. of green corn fodder, 1 kg. of cotton-seed cake, and 1 kg. of mixed rye and horse-bean meal was fed per head daily. Two animals received in addition 500 gm. of brown sugar daily in the first period, and in the second period the other animals received the sugar. The animals were at pasture during the day. On the ration containing sugar the bulls gained 7 kg. more and the heifers 8 kg. more than on the same ration without sugar. The bulls sold for 13 cts. and the heifers 14 cts. per kilogram, live weight. The sugar fed was worth 34^ cts. per kilogram. The author concludes that the feeding of sugar gave a total profit of 11 cts. in the case of the bulls and 32 cts. in the case of the heifers. A second experiment, with practically the same ration and of the same duration, was made with 4 milch cows. During the period when sugar was fed with the ration the cows gained somewhat more in weight than when no sugar was fed. Xeither the yield nor composition of the milk was materially affected by tlie addition of sugar. Definite conclusions were not drawn, but the author l)elieves that in a general way sugar tends to increase the production of meat and fat. On the comparative digestibility of -whole oats, rolled oats, and crushed oats, P. Gay {Ann. Aijron.^ 22 {1890), jSfo,s. 4, pp. 145-160; 5, 2)p. 225-244). — The first experiment reported was made with a sheep, and was divided into 3 periods. During the first period, from June 6 to 20, 500 gm. of whole oats and 750 gm. of lucern hay were fed daily; during the second period, from June 20 to July 4, the same amount of rolled {(ipatie) oats and hay were fed; and during the third period, from July 4 to 18, the same amount of crushed {concassee) oats and hay. The animal Aveighed at the beginning of the first period 80,7 kg., and at the end of the period S0.2 kg.; at the end of the second ])eriod it weighed 79.5 kg.; and at the eiul of the third period, 80 kg. The experiment is discussed at length and the results given in detail in tabular form. The coefficients of digestibility of the rations for the 3 i)eriods are given in the following table: Coefficients of digestihilUy in exjyeriment with a sheep. Period 1 (whole oats and liay) . . Period 2 (rolled oats and hay) . . Period 3 (crushed oats and hay) Total. Per cent. G6.24 66. GO 67. OH Protein. Ether extract. Per cent. Per cent. 73. 03 .58. 31 74. 02 64. 81 73.59 I 72.20 Nitrogen- free extract. Per cent. 75.10 78.55 76.99 Cellulose. Per cent. 45.55 45. 01! 44.75 Ash. Per cent. 36.68 26.55 27.14 324 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The author eooclndes tliat it is useless to grind grains wliicb are fed to sheep. He believes that the results which he has obtained with oats can be applied to other graius, but suggests that grindiug grains would jjrove of advantage in feeding cattle. The second experiment, which was made with a horse, was divided iuto 3 ijeriods, the first extending from November 22 to December 5, 1895, the second from December 5 to 10, and the third from December 19 to January 1, 189G. During the first period the horse received a daily ration of 3 kg. of whole oats and 2 kg. of meadow hay, during the second period the same quantities of rolled oats and hay, and dur- ing the third period the same qnantities of crushed oats and hay. During a preliminary period of 6 days the animal was fed 3 kg. of entire oats and 2 kg. of cut hay daily. At the beginning of the first period he weighed 333 kg., and at the end of this period his weight was the same; at the end of the second period he weighed 342 kg., and at the end of the third period, 350 kg. The experiment is discussed at length, and details are given in tab- ular form. The coefticients of digestibility of the 3 rations are shown in the following table: Coefficients of digesiibiliti/ in experiment with a horse. Period 1 (whole oats and hay) .. Period 2 (rolled oats and hay). . . Period 3 (crushed oats and liay) Total. Protein. Per cent. 64.53 68.58 72.73 Per cent. 71.30 79.15 94.11 Tjii „_ LNitrogen- exM ^■'■ee Cellulose, extract, ^.^^^^^.t. Per cent. 40.90 59.46 54.78 Per cent. ' Per cent. 74.70 I 42.00 74.99 i 48.87 75.19 I 63.60 Ash. Per cent. 27.78 31.97 42.71 The rolled and crushed oats were found to be more digestible than the whole oats, 92 kg. of crushed oats and 9() kg. of rolled oats having the same feeding value as 100 kg. of entire oats. The cost of milling, however, must be taken iuto account. Eingelmann's work ou this sub- ject is quoted at length. Experiments in swine feeding, W. A. Henry ( Wisconsin Sta. Ept. 1894, pp. 5-27). Food required during growth by fuJl-hlood Poland- China and BerJcshire pigs (pp. 5-S). — Three tests were made with Poland-China and Berkshire pigs, 1 boar and 4 sows of each breed. The test began August 18 and continued 224 days. It was divided into 3 periods of 154, 35, and 35 days. During the whole test the pigs were fed a grain ration, consisting of wheat shorts and corn meal in equal parts, sejiarator skim milk, and whey. During period 2, 2 sows from each breed received half a i)ouud of cotton-seed meal daily, and the 2 remaining sows and the boar received the same amount of linseed meal. During period 3 these foods were reversed. The sows had the run of a short blue-grass pasture until winter. They Avere then confined in a roomy j)eu and separated only at the time of feeding. FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 325 The results are expressed iu tabular form. During the whole test the 5 Poland-Chinas gained 1,168 lbs. and tlie 5 Berksliires 1,1<)7 lbs. The amount of each sort of food reciuired for 100 lbs. of gain by the 2 breeds is shown iu the followiug table : Food rci] Hired for 100 Ihs. ffaiti in lire weight. Grain (wheat, shorts and corn meal) Cotton-soed meal and linseed meal. Skim milk Whey Poland- Chinas (1 boar, 4 sows). Berk- shires (1 boar, 4 sows). Pounds. 340 15 558 589 Pounds. 327 15 560 584 Practically the same gains were made by each lot. This fact is further shown in discussing the results by substituting for skim milk and whey a calculated equivalent amount of grain. Cotton-seed meal and linseed meal as a ]i)artial grain food for pir/s (pp. 9-11). — The 2 periods in the above experiments during which cotton- seed meal was fed are discussed in detail. A table is given showing the amount of food consumed by each lot, the average weight at the beginning, and the gain in weight. "Giving to wbey and milk their grain equivalent as used in the previous trial, we tind that for 100 lbs. of gain, live weight, it required 492 lbs. of meal or its equiva- lent, with the pigs getting cottou-seed meal, and 516 lbs. of meal or its equivalent, with the pigs getting linseed meal. Our pigs receiving linseed meal therefore ate 24 lbs., or 5 per cent, more of feed than did those getting cotton-seed meal. . . . No deleterious effects were noticed with our pigs, but it should be remembered that the experiment lasted only 7 weeks and that the quantity of cotton-seed meal fed was very small. It is probable that cotton-seed meal can be fed to pigs successfully as in our case where the (quantity of meal so given is small, not over one-quarter of a pound daily for each hundredweight of animal." The relative value of cooked and, iincoolced feed for swine (pp. 11-20). — This work is a continuation of that given iu the Annual Kei)ort of the station for 1886. It includes a brief summary of the work done at the station and elsewhere on this subject. The results are given of 5 tests, in each of which one lot was fed corn meal which had been cooked into a thick mush, another lot corn meal which had been moistened with hot water and fed at the same temi)erature as the mush (100°). In 3 tests a third lot was fed a ration of equal parts of cooked and uncooked corn meal. The first test was made with 15 full blood and 0 grade Berkshire pigs, divided into 3 lots of 7 each; the second test was made with 12 Berkshire pigs, divided into 3 lots of 1 each; the third with 0 crossbred Berkshire- Yorkshire pigs, divided into 3 lots of 2 each; the fourth with -I Poland-Chinas and 10 Berkshires, divided into 2 lots of 10 each; and the fifth with 2 crossbred Poland-China-Berkshires and G Poland-Chinas, divided into 2 lots of -t each. In each case a preliujinary period of 1 week ])receded the test. 8708— Kg. 4— 5 326 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Detailed results for eacli pig for each test are given in tabular form, including weiglit at beginuing, gains in weight, and food consumed. The average amount of cooked food consumed per 100 lbs. of gain during the 5 trials was 439 lbs. and of uncooked food 454 lbs.; and the average amount of mixed food (cooked and uncooked) consumed during the 3 trials was 448 lbs. "As a result of these trials we may say that under the most favorable conditions we have been able to secure and with the greatest care in the preparation of the cooked feed we were enabled to make a saving of 3.4 lbs. of meal for each 100 reiiuired when feeding cooked and uncooked meal to swine. With the number of pigs fed on an ordinary farm it would not be profitable to attempt such a saving; in very large establishments it might pay." Wheat as a food for fattening hoys (pp. 20-23). — Three tests were made with Berkshire pigs to compare the relative value of wheat meal, corn meal, and a mixture of both. Tests 1 and 2, which were made with 2 lots of 3 pigs each, were divided into 2 periods of 5 weeks. In ea(;h case lot 1 was fed wheat meal and lot 2 half wheat meal and half corn meal. In each case the meal was made into a slop with water. Test 3, which was made with 3 lots of 3 pigs each, was divided into 3 periods of 3 weeks. Lots 1 and 2 were fed as in the previous test, and lot 3 was fed corn meal alone. Each test was preceded by a preliminary period of C days on the feed used in the test proper. Detailed results for each test are given in tabular form, including w^eight at beginning, gain in weight, and food consumed. The average amount of wheat consumed per 100 lbs. of gain in the 3 trials was 512 lbs., wheat meal and corn meal (1:1) 493 lbs., and corn meal 499 lbs. The following conclusions are drawn : "In the third trial the mixture of wheat meal and corn meal was more effective than either wheat meal or corn meal when these two were fed separately. "These trials are too few in number to warrant any general conclusions.'' Tlie value of pUjeon- grass seed for swine feeding (pp. 23-27). — Pigeon grass is a common Aveed in the Northwest. Its seed is often found in wheat and is separated at the mills and elevators, where it accumulates in large (juan titles. That used in these tests cost |4 per ton. Two tests of 5 weeks' duration were made with 3 lots of 3 pigs each. Those used in the first test were Poland-Chinas, and those in the sec- ond Berkshires. In each test lot 1 was fed a ration of J ground pig- eon-grass seed and § corn meal uncooked; lot 2 a ration of § cooked pigeon-grass seed and J uncooked corn meal ; and lot 3 uncooked corn meal. The pigs were fed all they Avould eat up clean. The pigeon- grass seed was stirred into boiling water and cooked for about 15 min- utes and a little salt was added. The pigs ranged in weight from 218 to 258 lbs. at the beginning of the trials. Detailed results for each test are given in tabular form, including weight at beginning, gains in weight, and food consumed. The aver- age amount of corn meal consumed per 100 lbs. of gain in the 2 trials FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 327 was 53.") lbs.; uncooked pigeon-grass seed and corn meal, 566 lbs.; and cooked pigeon -grass seed and corn meal, 522 lbs. In each trial the lot on cooked pigeon-grass seed and corn meal made considerably the largest gains, followed by the lot on corn meal alone. The following conclusions are drawn : "The hogs which eousnmetl the most food gave the best returns for the food cousuuied. ''From our ])re]imiuary investigatious aud these trials we conclude that hogs will not take kindly to a feed where more than one-third of it consists of pigeon-grass seed meal, and that with a ration of one-third pigeon-grass seed meal and two-thirds corn meal somewhat more feed is required for a given gain than with corn meal alone. When, however, the pigeon-grass seed meal is cooked, as much as two-thirds of the ration may consist of this material, and that when two-thirds of the ration is cooked pigeon-grass seed meal and the other third corn meal a gain may be pro- duced with less pounds of the mixture than on corn meal alone. " By comparing the results of these trials with those where wheat meal was fed to pigs it will be found that our pigeon-grass seed meal compares very favorably with that highly prized food article." Rape for feeding sheep, J. A. Craig ( Wiseonsiu Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp^ 2S—il,pls. 3,Ji(/s. ;?). — The author discusses the culture and harvesting of rape. Three tests were made with rape for fattening lambs. The first, which lasted from October 13, 1893, to ISTovember 7, was made with IG wethers. Eight had been shorn and the remainder were unshorn. They were hurdled on Vf, of an acre of rape. For the first week the lambs were fed i lb. of oats per head daily, aud for the rest of the i)eriod the grain ration consisted of i lb. of a mixture of corn and oats, 1 : 1. The total weight of the lot at the beginning of the test was 1,260 lbs. aud at the end 1,4:09 lbs., a weekly gain per head of 2.6 lbs. The lambs cost 3i cts. per pound and sold for 4 cts. per pound at the end of the test. Valuing the oats at $18 and the corn at $15 per ton, the --^^ acre of rape was worth $10,14, or at the rate of $14.18 per acre. The second test, which began August 15, 1894, and lasted 10 weeks, was made with 22 wethers. One died shortly after the beginning of the experiment. The lambs were turned into ^ acre of rape, which had been sown June 18 at the rate of 3 lbs. per acre in drills 30 in. apart, and had received 2 cultivations. In addition they were given daily an hour's feeding on ordinary blue-grass pasture. For the first 4 weeks they were fed a ration of ground wheat. For the next 5 weeks they were given a ration of 2 parts ground wheat and 1 part oats, awd for the remainder of the test a ration of equal parts by weight of oats, wheat, and linseed meal. The amount of grain fed i)er head daily was about ^ lb. at the beginning and li lbs. at the end of the test. At the beginning of the test the lot weighed 1,622 lbs. and at the end 2,035i l))s., or a gain of nearly 2 lbs. per head a week. Valuing the lambs at 3 cts. a pound at the beginning of the test and 3.1 cts. a pound at the end of the test, and considering wheat worth $16.60, oats 328 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. $18, and linseed meal |25 per ton, the rape Avas worth $10.12 for the half acre, or $20.24 per acre. The third test was made with the lambs used in the second. They were put on j\, acre of rape, which had been sown July 6 at the rate of 4 lbs. per acre, but owing to an exceptionally dry season had not made a good growth. The test lasted from October 24 to l^fovember 7. In addition to the rape the sheep had the run of a pasture a short time each day and received per head daily 1.6 lbs. of grain consisting of equal parts of ground wheat, oats, and linseed meal. The weight of the lot at the beginning of the test was 2,035i lbs. and at the end 2,177i lbs., or a weekly gain per head of 3.3 lbs. In the author's opinion " this high rate of gain was undoubtedly largely con- tributed to by the heavy grain feeding, the pasture they received, and in some degree to their previous management." It is pointed out that in feeding rape there is danger from bloating and diarrhea, as the sheep eat too much of the rape at first, and the author advises that at first the sheep be allowed to eat the rape only a short time each day. Breeding early lambs, J. A. Craic^ {Wisconsin Sta. B2)t. 1891, pp. 42-52, fills. .7, ^;^.s'. 2). — In the first week of June, 1891, experiments were undertaken Avith 20 Shropshire ewes to test several methods of inducing breeding ewes to take the ram earlier than the customary time, as follows: For 5 days they were kept ou dry hay, followed by 4 weeks' feeding on green clover ad libitum. In July they were fed oat straw for 2 Aveeks, followed by 2 weeks ou green clover; for a week they were driven each day on the road ; and they Avere kept for 2 weeks in a building where the temi^erature was maintained at 55° F. All these methods were unsuccessful. Nine grade Shroi)shire ewes, previously shown to be good breeders and the result of about 10 years' breeding on a Merino foundation Avith Shropshire rams, Avere bred to an imported Dorset ram, weighing 268 lbs. at 4 years 9 months. Of the ewes, 9 averaged 116 lbs. in Aveight; 3, 150 lbs. ; and 2, 184 lbs. They had full mouths. The 9 ewes produced 1 set of triplets, 6 of twins, and 2 singles, 17 in all. The autlior says that in these lambs the influence of the ram is most prominent. The 9 ewe lambs Avere kept for breeding and weighed on the average as shearlings 153 lbs., and 7 at 2 years averaged 185.5 lbs. June 16, 1893, at 1 year and 4 months old, these CAves, Avith their sire, were together i^ut in a small i)asture. By July 9 all had been bred once ; later 3 were served a second time; and 3 failing to become pregnant were served in the fall. By December 21, 5 ewes had dropped 7 lambs, of which 2 died. The author states that "these lambs show the Dorset traits very strongly, as would be expected from the fact that they are second cross Dorsets. . . . "The chief j)oint of the experiment up to this time lies in the fact that the characteristics of the Dorset to breed fully 3 months earlier POODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 329 than other breeds is transmissible tlironj^h tlio male line to the first cross. This sug>>'ests an economical and commendable iiu^thod of establisliino^ a tlock for breeding' early lambs." Fall shearing lambs before fattening, J. A. Ckaig ( Wisconsin Sfa. lipt. /(S'A/, pp. ',3-:')!i). — This is a. continnation of work j^iven in the Annual liei)orts of the station for I8!»l and 1892 (E. S. li., 4, p. 1.S4; 5, ]). r>04). The article contains references to jirevious work, and reports 2 new exi>eriments — one made in 1892 and one in 1893. In tbe 1892 test 10 grade Shropshire wethers were divided into 2 lots. The conditions of feeding' were the same for both lots, one lot being shorn October Hand the other lot was left unshorn. In the 1893 test 1(5 Shropshire wethers were divided into 2 lots. The conditions of feeding were the same for both lots. Lot 1 was shorn October (! and lot 2 left unshorn. From these exi)eriments and those previously reported the following conclusions were drawn : "(1) Fall slieariug is a beneficial practice to ju'epare lambs that are 6 nioutbs old for the early winter market. "(2) To secure the benefits of fall shearing it should be done early in the season, at least not later than October. "(3) AVhen done under such circumstances the removal of the fleece hastens the fattening, and the gain is made at a slightly cheaper rate. "(4) The results show that by shearing in the fall and ngain in the spring more wool is obtained than from a single spring shearing, but the market value of the 2 clippings is not any greater than that of the single clipping in which the fibers of the fleece are longer. " (5) When the lambs are to be fattened during three or four of the winter months, there appears to be no practical advantage iu fall shearing." Breeding experiments, E. 0. Chilcott {South Baloia iSta. Rpf. 18!)4^ 2>p. 17, i'S). — Experiments have been undertaken to test the value of the Horned Dorset to cross on grade Shroi^shire ewes from a Merino foundation. The records kept at tlie station include the effect on the weight of fleece, size of carcass, and time required for maturity. The offspring of Duroc Jersey sows and Poland China boars have proved ecpial to if not superior to jiure-bred animals for pork, and the cross-bred sows have given good results as breeders. Pood and diet, W. (). Atwatek {[!'. S. J)ept. Agr., Office of Exjieriment Stations, Charts I-IV, nize 26 hy 40 in.). — These include the following 4 colored charts: Chart I. Nutrients of Food and Their Uses in the Body. This shows in tabular form the comi)Osition of food materials as purchased, with examples of the different nutrients and functions of each. The delinitiou of food is also given. Chart II. Composition of Food Materials. This shows by means of colored lines the percentage composition and fuel value of a number of connnon food materials, ])oth animal and vegetable. Chart III. Pecuniary Economy of Foo91). Diet in sickness and health, Mrs. E. Haut {London: The Scientific Press, 1S96, pp. 219, figs. 17). — A clear and careful siiiumary of the subject, with practical appli- cation. The introduction is by Sir Henry Thompson. Foods and food values, alco- hol, cocoa, tea, coft'ee, chocolate, and similar products are discussed at length, and diets and dietaries suited to dift'ereut conditions and jiractical directions for prepar- ing many of the foods suited to various forms of disease are given. Analyses of some substances sold as cream of tartar, G. F. Payxe (Georgia Dept. Agr. BitJ. 3 J, pp. .M-.'JS). — This article is reprinted from the Druggists' Circular. The author reports analyses of 11 substances sold as cream of tartar. Out of 10 samples purchased 5 contained iJbsoli;tely no cream of tartar, 2 contained less than 57 per cent, and 1 less than 80 per cent. The economic value of cotton-seed hulls as a feeding stuff, G. F. Payne (Georgia Dcpt. Agr. Bitl. 33, pp. 36-38). — This is an address delivered before the Georgia State Agricultural Society at its meeting at Augusta, Georgia, February 15, 1893, briefly suuuuiug up the subject. Analyses of feeding stuffs, F. W. Mouse (New Hampshire Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 118- 120). — Tabulated analyses of Nutriotone, gluten meal, gluten feed, Thorley food, oat feed, corn silage, apple pomace, and oat-straw silage and apple pomace. Microscopical examination of concentrated feeding stuffs {Sachs, landiv. Zfschr., 1890, yo. 20, pp. 220, 227). — Statistics of Pomeranian analyses. Feeding experiment -with fresh grapevine leaves, .J. Samek {Tirol, landiv. Blatter, 15 (1890), Xo. 13, p. 118).— A cow with a calf 1 week old was fed 16 to 48 kg. of fresh grapevine leaves per day for 9 days. No bad effects on the cow or calf were observed. Principles of stock feeding and some Ne'wr Mexico feeding stuffs, A. Goss (Xew Mexico Sta. Bid. 17, ^rp. 23-54). — The author discusses the use and composition of foods, and comparison and valuation of feeding stuffs, quoting the results of a number of investigators. The average composition and digestibility of a number of American feeding stuffs are quoted, and the composition and the computed digestible nutrients of some New Mexico feeding stuffs are also given. These include prickly pear, sotol, alfalfa, corn stover, millo maize stover, white Kafir corn stover, pear] millet stover, tornillo beans, mesquite beans, ordinary gramma grass, black gramma grass, 6 weeks' gramma grass, tall gramma grass, bunch grass, barn- yard grass, vine mesquite grass, salt grass, corn, millo maize, white Kafir corn, red Kafir corn, Egyptian corn, pearl millet, German or golden millet, and wheat bran. A detailed descrii)tion of some of the lesser known feeding stufl's is given. Feeding standards are quoted and metluHls of compounding rations explained. The control of feeding stuffs in 1895, F. Barxstein {Sachs, landw. Zischr., 1896, No. 37, pp. 447-449). Farm foods, or the rational feeding of farm animals, H. H. Cousixs (Translated from- E. von Wolff's Landwirtschaftliche Futterungslehre. London: Gurneij i^- Jackson, 1895, 6th ed., pp. XVI, 305). Protein metabolism when antipeptone is consumed, C. Voir (Sitzungshcr. heijer Acad. JVissensch., 25 (1896), Xo. S, pp. 443-446; abs. iti Vierteljahr. Chem. Xahr. und Genussmtl., 11 (1896), Xo. 2, p. 165). — Feeding experiments showed that while albu- mosc could replace protein, anti])eptone could only act as a protector of protein. The author believes that this does away with the theory that protein must be changed to peptone before it is absorbed in digestion. Antipei)tone must be regarded as a more complete cleavage protluct of protein. Uric acid and diet, A. Haki (Brit. Med. Jour., 1896, A'o. 1866, pp. 915-917, dgms. 5). — The author shows the effect of diet on the uric acid content of the urine and discusses uric acid in its relation to disease. 332 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Pathology of metabolism ; a text-book for physicians and students, C. von NooiiDEX (Lehrhiicli (Itr Patholof/ie dis Stoffwichneh fiir Acrzle und Stndlrendc. JSerlhi: August Hirarliwidd, lS9o, pp. XIII, 492). — The book includes extended chapters on normal metabolism and metabolism in fever, diseases of the digestive and circula- tory systems, diseases of the kidneys, and other pathological conditions. Bibliog- raphies are given at the end of each chapter, and summaries of the results which have been obtained by various investigators. Communicability to man of diseases from animals used as food, H. Beurexd (Jeicish Chroii.; Diet, and Hyg. Gaz., 12 {1890), Xo. 10, pp. 67i-6i4).— Thisis apopular article showing that disease can be communicated to man from animals and insist- ing on the need of inspection. Tuberculous infection from food, C. E. Winslow^ {Jour. Amer. Med. Assn.; reported in Diet, and Hyg. Gaz., 12 [ISOG), Xo. 10, pp. 621-624). — In a lecture the author points out the danger of infection from milk, meat, and other articles, and insists on the need of inspection. Poisoning by potatoes (Ztschr. Xahr. Untersucli. vnd Hyg., 10 {1S9G), Xo. 17, p. 296). — Three hundred and tifty-seven soldiers in a battalion of the Austrian army showed symptoms of solanin poisoning. The potatoes used for food were examined. Fresh potatoes contained 0.04 to 0.046 per cent solanin, while sprouted potatoes con- tained 0.08 to 0.116; those with sprouts 4 cm. long, 0.212 jjer cent. The sprouts themselves contained much more. Old potatoes (1 year) or those which have laid in a cellar aud shriveled and small jiotatoes which were air-sprouted were considered to be particularly poisonous. Such should not be eaten. Relative efEciency of animals as machines, M. Miles {Amer. Xat., 30{1S96), Xo. 35S, pp. 784-795). — Apajjer read at the Buffalo meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The author does not think it sufficient to formu- late diets and nutritive ratios in terms of the chemical constituents of foods. Feeding wheat to hogs, E. C. Chilcott {South Dakota Sta. 7?j^i. 1894, Bulletins, pp. 16, pis. 5). — Bulletin 38 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 161), bound with the Annual Report. Grain feeding lambs for market, J. A. Craig ( JVisconsin Sta. lipt. 1894, pp. 60-85, pis. 2, dgm. i).— This is a reprint of Bulletin 41 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 661). California Angora goats {Amer. Cultivator, 58 {1896), Xo. 42, p. 1). — A po^mlar article with some shearing statistics. Annual reports of the live stock associations of the province of Ontario, 1895-96 {Ontario Dept. Agr., pp. 166, figs. 10). Practical poultry feeding, Mrs. L. Rawson {Dept. Agr. Brisbane, Bui. 8, 2d ser., ])p. 44, figs. 2). — This bulletin discusses at length poultry houses, feeding, care, dis- eases, food value of eggs, caponiziug, and incubators. Attention is given to ducks, turkeys, geese, aud guinea fowl as well as chickens. Red saddled Yokohamas {Dent, landw. Fresse, 23 {1896), p. 727, i)l. 1).—A description is given of this l>reed of poultry. Amiual reports of the poultry and pet stock association of the province of Ontario, 1895 {Ontario Dept. Agr., pp. 63, figs. 7). VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. On the efficiency of tuberculin as a diagnostic agent in tubercu- losis, H. L. liUSSELL {M^sconsin Sia. Bpt. 181)4., pp. 106-195, ^figs. 4). — In this article are reported tests made witli tabercnlin upon 4 herds and some isolated cases. The tabulated data show the temperatures before and after injectionj and autopsy records are given of 28 animals in the station herd. VKTERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. 333 111 the test of the station lieid tu))er('uliii from this Department and from lieiiin was used, but the (quantity of the latter was too small to permit a ftiir eomparisou. In the first iuoculatiou of the station herd, 22 of the 30 animals treated responded to the test. "Xino were inoculated with Department tuberculin, of which 6 showed reaction temperatures. Of the 21 inoculated with imported tuberculin, 10 were mature and 11 were young stock. Of the 10, 7 were diagnosed as diseased; and of the young animals, 9 out of the 11 showed a diseased condition by the test."' After about 7 weeks a second test was made with the full grown animals, using in all cases a different kind of tuberculin from that which was hrst emph)yed. "In this second test of the 9 animals that were inocuhited with imjiorted tuber- culin only 2 showed a reaction fever, while of the 9 treated with Department tuberculin 7 were diagnosed as diseased. . . . "In two instances reaction temperatures were noted upon the second injection after they were declared healthy by the first. As the lapse of time between the two inoculati(ms in these cases was 7 weeks, it is possible that they might have contracted the disease during this interim, especially as they were kept under the same condi- tions as before with a herd two-thirds of which were known to be tuberculous." It was noted that in several instances animals failed to react with a light dose of tuberculin that had reacted upon the first injection Avith a full dose 7 weeks previous. In every one of the 25 animals diagnosed as diseased tuberculous lesions were present, and in one instance a tuberculous condition was found in an animal that had given no reac- tion. The results of the tests of all herds are summarized in the following table : SiiviDiari/ of results of tiiherculin tests. nerd. Number of animals tested in each herd. Number diagnosed by test as diseased. Number found dis- eased at autopsy. Failures in diagnosis. I . 30 20 23 12 8 25 4 1 0 0 26 1 ir . ... . Ill 1 0 IV v 93 30 27 1 ■ Isolated cases are included under Herd V. In conclusion, the author states that the tuberculin test has failed in only 1 case. Out of the 30 animals condemned by the test only 7 had been recognized as tuberculous by the physical examination; and it has detected nearly 5 times the number of cases discoverable by the f)rdinary method. A full set of anteinoculation temperature readings is considered necessary to make a correct diagnosis more certain. Additional report upon tuberculin tests, H. H. Lamson {New Hampshire Sta. Bui. 31, pp. 19-21). — Notes and tabulated data upon 334 EXPERIMENT STATION KECORD. tuberculin tests upon tlie station lierd. Ten head of younj? cattle were tested for the lirst time, and 10 other cattle, 0 of which had been in quarantine. Three of the cattle were condemned as being tuberculous, while the others were decided to be free from the disease. The tables show the temperature records of the test. The infectiousness of milk from tuberculous cotvs, H. L. Rus- sell {Wisconsin Sta. Bpt. 1894, 2)}). 196-200). — The author states that while some experimenters believe that the tubercle bacilli are only pres- ent in the milk where there is a demonstrable lesion in the udder caused by the disease, others hold that tuberculous animals produce infectious milk, even though the disease may not be present in the lacteal organs. Rabbits and guiuea pigs were inoculated with milk from a number of tuberculous cows in the station herd, using the fresh milk or the sedi- ment in the bottom of sterilized Erlenmeyer flasks in which the milk had been treated centrifugally. The results are tabulated. The experi- mental aniBials were infected by the milk of one animal only. Her udder was badly swollen, and a microscopic examination revealed the presence of numerous tubercle bacilli in it. The author's conclusions are as follows: "From these limited experiments the conclusion in this case seems warranted that the milk from these tuherculoiis animals was not infectious Avhere the disease was not localized in the udder. Even where the udder was possibly aliected the bacilli were not present in the milk in sufiftcient quantities to call forth a diseased condition in the susceptible animal inoculated with small quantities (1 to 4 cc), except in a single instance, where the animal had the disease in an aggravated form. These results add somewhat to the data on this subject, but the amount of evidence must be consider- ably augmented before definite conclusions are drawn as to the infectiousness of milk from tuberculous animals where the disease does not affect the udder." Relation of separator slime to tuberculosis in hogs, IT. L. Russell ( ^yucons^n Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 201-204). — The author men- tions the observations of some German writers to the effect that in Germany and Denmark the percentage of tuberculous hogs is much greater where the cream is raised by separator than where it is raised by gravity. August 23 four G-weeks-old pigs from the same litter were divided into 2 lots and fed on skim milk and grain — equal parts of shorts and corn meal. One lot received in addition the separator slime from the University creamery, amounting to 7 or S lbs. a week, or 5.4 per cent of the whole amount of food consumed. The test ended N"ovember 10 and the pigs were killed November 13. The autopsies showed no signs of tuberculosis. According to the author the experiment shows that the separator slime when fed in the proportions stated did not have infectious prop- erties when introduced into the digestive tract of the animal. Check list of the animal parasites of chickens, A. Hassall ( V. S. Dept. Ar/r., Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 0, xtp. 7). — This list is intended to contain all of DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 335 the aniin.il jjarasites of the barnyard fowl recorded uj) to the present time. Sixty- seven siiecicsare listed, classified under Protozoa, Trematodes, Cestodes, Nematodes, Arachnids, and Insects, A synonomy of the dilferent species is given, and in addi- tion the habitat in the host. Check list of the animal parasites of turkeys, A. Hassai.i, {('. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 12, 2>P- ^)- — This consists of a list of 14 species and their synonyms, classified nnder Protozoa, Treniatoda, Cestoda, Nematoda, Arachnida, and Insecta. Concerning the recognition of splenic fever in the blood and animal tissues by microscopical examination, G. MARrjiANX (Zlschr. unp. llo-130). — This experiment was made witli 12 cows divided into 3 lots of 4 each. After a preliminary period of 1 week, the exiieri- ment was begun January 2, 1893, and was divided into 3 periods of 4 weeks each, separated by preliminary periods of 1 week. All the cows received througliout the test a basal ration consisting of 8 lbs. of oat hay, 4 lbs. of shorts, and yellow dent corn silage ad libitum (about 39 lbs. per head). In addition 4.2 lbs. of linseed meal, 4.1 lbs. of corn meal, and 4.1 lbs. of wheat bran per head per day were compared with each other in alternating periods. The composition of the feeding stuff used is given, together with full data for each cow for each period, including analyses of the milk. All the cows gained in live weight during the experiment from 6 to 79 lbs. jier head. "There was a gain in live weight on corn meal and on wheat bran over the weight of the cows while on linseed meal ; as regards the water drank, tht^ figures show that the cows drank most water while on linseed meal, less while on wheat bran, and least while on corn meal." Concerning the composition of the milk, the author states that — "On the average corn meal produced milk containing a lower ]»ercentage of fat and solids and a higher percentage of solids-not-fat than linseed meal ; and produced 336 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. milk containing a lower percentage of solids, solids-not-fat, and fat than wlieal- bran ; wheat bran produced milk containing a higher percentage of solids and fat and a lower percentage of solids-not-fat than linseed meal." For tlie solicLs-uot-fat the results were less nuiform and the changes less marked. Considering the effect of the different rations on the yield of milk and milk fat, the author says : "These results do not show any material difiereuce in the influence of the 3 con. centrated feeds on the production of milk and fat Tinder the conditions present in this experiment. Linseed meal gives a slightly better result than corn meal or wheat bran, and the latter 2 feeds give practically the same results, the main difference lying in the somewhat higher fat content of the milk on the bran feeding." Microscopic examinations of the milk were made during the first 3 days of the first and fourth weeks of each period. The globules in 0.0001 cmm. and their relative size were determined. " The results would indicate that both wheat bran and linseed meal have a tendencj^ to increase the size of the fat globules in cows' milk.'' The following general conclusions are drawn: "The data given show that under the conditions present in this experiment there was practically no difl'erence in the immediate effect of the corn meal and the wheat bran on the yield of the milk, and that there was a small difference in favor of the linseed meal ; as regards the production of fat, both linseed meal and bran give better results than corn meal, neither of these differences being, however, very marked. "The jilan of the experiment precludes a study of the effect of these foods beyond the time when they were fed.'' The results are also discussed from a pecuniary standpoint, and the opinions of other investigators regarding linseed meal are quoted. The author believes that under the conditions ordinarily existing in the State linseed meal should only be fed in small quantities to cows, the bulk of the grain ration being made up of cheaper grains or refuse products from them. Tests of dairy co-ws, J. W. Becker, ( Wisconsin Sta. Bjjt. 1891, pp. 205-319). — During 4 years the station nmde over 90 tests of cows, lasting from 1 to 7 days, for breeders and agricultural associations. The results of these tests are grouped in different ways and discussed: " [In regard to the effect of age upon the quality of milk] the iuference is that the diffei'ence between different ages is very small, if, indeed, there is any at all. In some cases where the same cow has been tested at different ages there is found a considerable difference in the percentage of Ait in the milk, but the richer inilk is sometimes found in the first and sometimes in the second test. If in such cases the influence of advancing lactation in improving the quality of milk is considered, most of the difference will disappear." The record is given of 1 Jersey cow tested morning and night for o days, which showed wide variation : "During the second day she gave 2^ times as much fat as upon the first day, although the quantity of milk was increased ouly one-third. The greatest difl'erence between any two railkings was found on the evening of the first day and tlu^ next morning, where the difl'erence amounted to 5.8 jier cent fat." DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 337 A lieicl of 8 cows, to whicli the above belonged, was tested morning and niglit for 5 days, the interval between the morning and night milkings being the same. The morning's milk was rielier in 17 cases, the night's milk in 21 cases, and in the 2 remaining cases the morning's and night's milk were the same. A number of tests were made of herds ;it home and at fairs. In the tirsr, on a herd of 8 cows, which had only been brought some 3 miles to the fair, the yield of milk was practically the same at the fair grounds as at home, and the average fat content was 0.69 per cent less at the fair than at liome. Two did better at the fair than at home, while with the others the reverse was true. The second trial was with 2 Holstein cows which were taken by rail to fiiirs at different places in the State. There was practically no dif- ference between the yield and composition of the milk at home and at the fair. A week later these cows were taken to the Indiana State Fair, and the week following to the Illinois State Fair. At the latter place they were tested. The results show that " there had been a great falling off both in yield of milk and in the per cent of fat, probably due to the fatigue and excitement of the journey." The case is mentioned of a Jersey cow which gave 11 lbs. of milk with 10.7 per cent of fat at the fair grounds, and the next morning gave only 8.0G lbs. of milk with 7 per cent of fat. Another Jersey cow taken only a short distance to a fair gave during the night and morn- ing following this 41.13 lbs. of milk with 2.16 lbs. of fat. In a 7-day test the following week the same cow averaged in 21 hours 41.71 lbs. of milk with 1.97 lbs. of fat. "At no time during the Iiohih test did her milk contain as high a per cent of fat aa at the fair, although the quantity of milk was about the same iu hoth cases. The yield of fat during the week's test at home was 13.81 lbs. If she had given milk which averaged as rich as her test at the fair showed, she would have yielded 17.22 lbs. of fat during the week." Cases showing the effects of other irregularities in treatment are mentioned. The fat globules in cows' milk, F. W. Woll ( Wisvonsiu ^Sta. l\'pt. 1801, pp. ;J23S-J9). — The results are given of microscopic? examinations of the milk of cows in the World's Fair dairy test at Chicago and of the station herd. The work in connection with the World's Fair dairy test was done between August 26 and October 18, 1893. Tlie official sam- ples were used for this examination. Samples of the mixed morning's and evening's milk of the herd were examined daily for 4 consec- utive days, and composite samples coveringl-day periods were examined in the case of the milk from single cows. The results of tliese examina- tions, together with other data relative to the yield of milk and fat and the iiercentage of fat from official sources, are fully tabuhi ted for the 90-day butter test, the ^O-day butter test, and the heifer test. The results are summarized, 338 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "The data were obtained from 99 cows in all, and tliose of single determination from 5S cows. The average determinations of the milk from the different herds have been calcnlated, and ^vere as follows : Summary of examination of fat globules. Number of cows. Average number of daya from calv- ing. Number of glob- ules in 0.0001 cmm. Relative size. Average diameter of jjlob- ules. Breed test Xo. :2 {90-day butter test) ; examinations made Aug.26-W. Jersey Guernsey Shorthorn • 156 166 151 190 150 194 290 217 177 0. 00395 . 00358 . 00335 Average Breed test No. 3 (30-day butter test) ; examinations made Aug. 30-Sept. 2 and Hept. 35-^8. Jersey Guernsey • Shorthorn Average Breed test Xo. 4 (heifer test) ; examinations made Oct. 1-4. Jersey ■ Shorthorn Average Average for all breeds and tests . 142 121 132 66 107 . 00363 144 164 162 1.56 80 337 267 214 . 00415 . 00384 . 00357 309 504 . 00403 . 00479 , 00391 "Twelve new cows were included in the test No. 3, and the number on the test decreased to 15 cows from each herd. In tests Nos. 2 and 3 the average size of the globules in the milk from the different herds was largest with the .Jerseys, the Guernseys couiing next, and the Shorthorns last. In the heifer test, on the other hand, the Shorthorns had the larger average globules, in spite of the fact that they were 41 days further advanced in the period of lactation than the Jersey heifers, which would naturally bring a diminution in the size of the globules. The aA'er- age results for all herds and tests were 157 globules in 0.0001 cmm. and a relative size of 289, corresponding to an average diameter of 0.00391 mm., the results having been obtained with cows 128 days in milk." Attention is called to the case of a Shorthorn cow apparently in good health, whose milk contained only 19 globules per 0.0001 cmm., the average relative size being 1982, i. e., the average diameter of the glob- ules was 0.00749 mm. "If Ave calculate the average data of the determinations of the globules in the milk for the individual cows, considering the quality of milk produced by eacli ani- mal in each case, Ave have the following statement : " Average number and size of globules in milk of different breeds. Breed test Xo. 3. Herd milk (average of Aug. 30-Sept. 2 and Sept. 25-28) Average for milk from single coavs (average of examinations made Aug. 30-Sepl. 23) Breed test Xo. 4. Herd milk (average Oct. 1-4) Average for milk from single cow (Oct. 1-4) Number of globules cmm. in 0.0001 Relative size of globules. Jersey. Guern- sey. Short- horn. Jersey. Guern- sey. Short- horn. 144 164 162 337 267 214 144 160 1.->1 343 2(i2 241 156 HO 79 309 316 504 147 499 DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 339 "The results are remarkably uiiifonii and illustrate emphatically the correctness of the Babcock method of enumeration of fat globules in cows' milk." The microscopic examinations of tlie milk of the university herd were commenced in 1888 (E. S. E., 2, p. 454:), and were continued to the spring- of 1894, when they were suddenly terminated by tuberculosis in the herd, which necessitated killing all but 2 of the cows. The main object was to study the influence of advancing age on the size and number of the fat globules. The data for the individual cows are tab- ulated in detail and are summarized for the beginning and end of lac- tation for different breeds and for different ages. The data for the beginning and end of the period of lactation are summarized below. Fat {/lobules in cowh' milk at beginning and end of period of lactation. At beginning of lactation period. At end of lactation period. Num- ber of Kum- Aver- Aver- Kum- Aver- Aver- Kaoie. lacta- tiou ber of glob- Rela- age yield age fat Days ber of glob- Rela- age yeild age fat Days po- ules tive of con- calv- ules tive of con- calv- ing. i-iods per size. milk tent per size. milk tent in- 0.0001 per of 0.0001 per of clud- ed. cmm. day. milk. cmm. day. milk. Lbs. Pr.ct. Lbs. Pr. ct. Sylvia 4-2 3-2 137 125 360 366 21.38 27.40 4.76 4.41 17 29 298 291 185 138 11.55 15.21 5.28 3.98 268 Topsv 284 3-2 6-4 2-2 164 124 172 363 359 210 19.45 30.83 27.02 4.85 3.92 3.55 25 27 20 404 356 404 151 99 101 6.90 7. .39 15.15 5.78 3.38 3.45 263 281 Mattie 204 5-1 1-3 193 103 220 450 24.78 24.10 4.16 4.62 15 21 575 308 89 197 10.02 9.16 5.09 .5.75 294 Sylvia 2(1 302 Governor's Heifer 1-1 108 454 26. 26 4.90 12 231 244 2.66 5. 75 396 Daisj' 2d - - - 3-2 145 325 29. 84 4.54 18 396 141 6.78 5.23 323 Rosette 4-2 131 423 17.14 4.96 15 271 198 3.87 5.33 299 Bessie 2d 3-1 150 352 21.83 5.15 16 337 188 9.48 6.24 331 Gav 4-2 112 483 20. 42 4.89 15 220 203 7.73 4.38 257 Galena 4-1 179 272 28.45 4.73 13 404 115 15.56 4.33 288 Aaggie 3-2 115 260 37.88 2.92 13 376 109 2. 55 i 4. 13 395 Clothilde 2-2 159 198 38.54 2.69 12 767 64 12. 88 f 2. 77 203 3-1 2-1 1-1 1-1 193 107 93 118 216 417 542 353 15.75 23.97 33.40 29.80 4.15 4.39 5.04 4.15 22 21 15 18 411 315 259 343 93 136 230 148 4.08 3.75 268 10. 60 6.82 15.24 4.25 6.22 4.98 379 355 254 138 348 26. 22 4.26 18 367 149 9.14 4.64 297 "The average nuraber of globules per 0.0001 cmm. for all cows is, at the begin- niug of the lactation period, 138, and at its end 367; the average relative size of the globules is 318 and 149 for the beginning and the end of the lactation period, respectively; the latter figures correspond to a diameter of the average sized globules of 0.00419 and 0.00316 mm., respectively." The milk of 0 cows was examined for fat globules at the beginning of 4 consecutive periods of lactation, that of 12 cows at the beginning of 3 periods, and that of IG cows at the beginning of 2 periods. At the end of the lactation period the milk of 2 cows was examined for 3 years and Oif 11 cows for 2 years. " [The results as tabulated] fail to disclose any striking ditferonco as to the influ- ence of advancing age on the fat globules in milk. The tendency seems to be toward fewer globules and a somewhat larger size with increasing ago at the beginning of the i)eriod of lactation, and at its end the opposite seems to hold true. The dill'er- ences found are, however, not very marked." 340 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD, The data obtained in connection with the World's Fair test are also tabulated according to the age of the cows. Although there was con- siderable difference in the average time since calving, " the general tendency seems to be toward a slightly increased number of globules per unit of milk with increasing age, and a similar decrease in the average size of the globules." The sources of bacterial infection and the relation of the same to the keeping quality of milk, 11. L, Uussell ( Wisvonsrn iSta. Ept. 1894, pp. 150-165, figs. 3). — The sources of infection are discussed in a popular way under the heads infection from unclean vessels, from foremilk, fi^om animal and milker, and from the barn air, and some experiments are given bearing on these points. As showing the advan- tage of sterilizing milk vessels with steam, covered milk pails were used, one of which had been cleaned in the ordinarj^ way and the other sterilized with steam for half an hour, TLe udder of the cow was thoroughly washed, the hands of the milker cleaned, and the first por- tion of the milk was rejected. Gelatin cultures of the milk drawn in each pail showed 165 germs per cubic centimeter in the milk from the sterilized pail and 4,205 germs per cubic centimeter in that from the pail cleaned in the ordinary way. The latter soured in 23 hours, while that in the sterilized pail remained sweet 5i hours longer. ''Numerous repetitious of the same method of procedure ofteu showed still greater difterences, iu some cases there beiug a difference of 15 hours in the leugth of time before the milk hegau to turn. • These experiments were confined entirely to the milking vessels, hut the same influences are at work in connection with all other kinds of dairy utensils. Cans in which the milk is set for creaming, all dippers, and strainers should be rendered as germ free as pos3il)le, so that the number of organ- isms added to the milk will be reduced to a minimum. Under average conditions, it may be confidently asserted that, with this simple precaution alone, the market- able period, t. e., the length of time during which milk remains sweet, may be extended from 6 to 10 hours." In another experiment the milk drawn first from each duct was kept separate in a sterile tlask. This was found to contain 2,800 germs per cubic centimeter, while the remainder of the milk averaged only 330 germs. "The character of the bacteria in each sample presented marked differences; those in theforemilli belonged to a single species of the lactic acid group of organ- isms, while those in the mixed milk were included under several difi'erent forms, the majority of which belonged to the rennet-forming si^ecies that produce such pro- found changes in the character of the milk." The cow and the milker are shown to be important sources of infec- tion, and it is recommended that the udder and flank of the cow be well carded and brushed, the udder washed, and the hands of the milker cleaned with soap and warm water immediately preceding milking. "It is also well to have the milker, espe(;ially the upper portion of his body, clothed in an outer garment kept for this purpose." Numerous experiments are reported in regard to this matter, the method being to expose a gelatin culture dish underneath the cow at DAIRY FARMING — DAIRYING. 341 the height of the milk pail aud in close proximity to the same while the milking is in progress. The results of some of these experiments are summarized below: Effect of icxshiufj udder on the bacteria in milk. November 6 . . November 10 November 24. February 20 . March 3 August 23 Date. Treatmeut of cows. Stabled . . do ... do... do... do... do ... Pastured Estimated number of bacteria de- posited per min- ute on 78 sq. in. of surface (10- iuch milk pail.) Ordinary condi- tions. 16, 400 4,010 1,700 4,165 1,800 2,700 3,260 Udder and flank washed. 2,600 1,860 560 1,370 1,300 330 114 Reduc- tion of organ- isms. Per cent. 85 54 66 69 27 88 96 During the last trial the germs due to those floating in the air were checked by exposing a plate to the air under similar conditions. "While 114 germs were deposited under the cow, 65 were found on the plate exposed simply to the air. The extent of diminution is therefore really greater than would appear from the foregoing table." In feeding hay, straw, or coarse dry fodder the barn air is much infected witii dust particles to which bacteria are attached in large numbers. A gelatin plate exposure made in the stalls during the feed- ing showed that over 160,000 organisms were deposited in a minute on an area covered by an ordinary milk pail. " These settle with tlie dust, and in doing so inevitably gain access to the open milk vessels. In this Avay the hay bacillus and allied forms that are of a resistant char- acter find their way easily into the milk. This source of danger can be eliminated by feeding moistened feed during the milking, or the dry feed immediately subse- quent to this operation but after the milk has been removed from the stable." It is stated that by observing the precautions as to cleanliness men- tioned above " the keeping quality of the milk may be increased to such an extent that it will remain sweet from 24 to 48 hours longer than it otherwise would." "The following example shows to what extent the bacteria of the milk can be con- trolled by rational methods of milking: In October the mixed milic taken in the ordinary way was found to contain 15,500 germs jier cubic centimeter, while the average of the total yield of a cow that had been carefully cleaned and the milking done in the manner already suggested contained only 330 bacteria for the same vol- ume. In February, imder winter conditions, a rei)ctition of tlie same experiment revealed a. still smaller number, there being 7,G!^0 germs per cubic centimeter in the mixed milk, while that received in open sterile pails, but with greater care, had only 120 bacteria for the same volume. . . . "At room temperature there was a difference of 24 hours in time before both soared in favor of the milk secured with this extra care." 8708— No. 4 (i 342 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The relation of temperature to the growth of geruis is pointed out, and it is recommended that milk be cooled immediately after it is drawn from the cow and kept at the lowest possible temperature, at least below 50 to 00° F. Effect of salt upon cheese, J. W. Decker ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1894, p2). 220-222, Jig. 1). — Two experiments are reported on this point. In the first 31.5 lbs. of curd was divided into 3 equal portions, the first receiving no salt and the second and third salt at the rate of 1.5 lbs. and 3 lbs. of salt per 100 lbs. of curd, respectively. The yield and composition of the cheese are shown in the following table : Effect of salt upon composition of cheese. Weight ^of curd. Amount of salt per 100 lbs. curd. Weight of green cheese. Weight of cheese when aualyzed. Water. Ash. Salt. Ash not salt. Cheese Xo. 1 Lbs. 10.5 10.5 10.5 Lbs. None. 1.5 3.0 Lbs. 10.00 9.75 9.50 Lbs. 9.4 9.2 8.9 Fer ct. 34.12 31.35 29.82 Per ct. 2.38 3.15 3.85 Per ct. 0.05 .65 1.17 Per ct. 2 33 Cheese No. 2 2 50 Cheese No. 3 2.68 The difference in yield " is due to the more thorough expulsion of moisture from the salted curd." When 4 weeks old these cheeses were cut. No. 3 was found to be the best and had cured more slowly. A second experiment made in the same way, except that 'No. 2 was salted at the rate of 2 lbs. per 100 lbs. of curd, gave practically the same result as the first experiment. "At my suggestiou a former student in this school conducted experiments by dividing curds and saltiug them at rates from 2.2.5 to 3 lbs. per 100 lbs. of curd. In every case the judgment of the buyer was that the last lot was best, both in texture and flavor. "As a result of our experiments we conclude : "(1) Only a trace of the salt originally in the milk is retained by the cheese. "(2) Salt applied to curd diminishes the yield of cheese by expelling moi.sture. "(3) Increasing the amount of salt makes the cheese cure more slowly, and up to about 3 lbs. of salt per 100 lbs. of curd cheese of better texture and flavor is obtained." Experiments in the manufacture of cheese, S. M. Babcock ( Wis- consin Sta. Ept. 1894, pp. 131-149). — These experiments were mostly made in connection with the Wisconsin Dairy School, the work being largely done by students under the direct supervision of an instructor. Influences of fat upon the yield of cheese (pp. 131-134). — Seventy trials were made in different years, in each of which a lot of mixed milk was divided into two parts, a portion or all of the cream from one part being removed by a separator, and sometimes a portion of it added to the other lot of milk. Cheddar cheese was made from both lots, the treatment being as nearly uniform as i)0ssible. "The average result obtained in this way in 70 trials in which the fat in the milks compared differed by one or more i^er cent, gives 1.07 lbs. of green cheese as . the apparent yield of 1 lb. of fat. The range was from 0.81 lb. to 1.52 lbs., but most of the trials gave figures which were near the averaare. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 343 "TLe actual ainuuut of greeu ilieese wbich 1 U). of fat in these milks has con- tributetl is greater than this by the amount of cheese made from 1 lb. of milk serum. This is evident because 1 lb. of serum in the poorer milk has replaced each pound of fat removed from the rich milk, and in the calculation the cheese produced from the serum has been subtracted from the yield of the rich milk. In these experiments each pound of serum has yielded a little less than 0.06 lb. of green cheese, which added to 1.07, the apparent yield from 1 lb. of fat, gives 1.13 as the actual amount of cheese produced from 1 lb. of fat, which is approximately the same as the yield of batter from the same amount of fat. As only about nine-tenths of the fat in the milk is recovered in the cheese, it follows that 0.9 lb. of fat holds mechanically in the greeu cheese a little more than 0.2 lb. of whey, which is very nearly the same relation that exists in butter between the butter fat and the other constituents." Assuming- that the milk used in these tests contained 2.4 per cent of casein, the yield of green cheese was 2^ times the casein; ''that is, each pound of casein in the milk will produce on the average 2J lbs. of green cheese, li lbs. of which is whey held mechanically in the curd." Apply- ing the above values to fat and casein, the following rule is worked out for calculating the yield of green Cheddar cheese from the comijosition of the milk: "The yield of green Cheddar cheese from 100 lbs. of milk is equal to 1.1 times the per cent of fat added to 2.5 times the per cent of casein in the milk. This rule was suggested by the writer to Dr. Van Slyke nearly 2 years ago, and it has been used by him in all of his cheese work since with most satisfactory results. "The rule is applicable to all milks, even when they are watered, skimmed, or enriched by adding cream. "The yield of greeu cheese from 100 lbs. of milk may be roughly estimated without a complete analysis of the milk by adding 5.9 to 1.1 times the per cent of fat in the milk. The cured cheese 30 days old may be found approximately by adding 5.7 instead of 5.9 to 1.1 times the per cent of fat. This last rule does not apply to watered milk; it also will vary some with the season of the year and with the per cent of fat in the milk." Infiuence of fat on the quaJity of cheese (pp. 134-137). — Several experi- ments were made to determine the relation between the fat in the milk and the quality of the cheese as measured by the price it commands in the market. In each case two separate lots of milk were used, cream being added to one portion to make a difference of 2 or more per cent in the fat. The trials were made in March, and the cheeses were kept until October, when they were C or 7 months old, and were then shipped to Chicago where they were Judged as to value. There was so much difference in the value fixed by different judges that the results were not altogether satisfactory. "In general, it may be said that the cheese made from the richer milk was valued 1 or 2 cts. per pound higher than that made from the poorer milk. In 2 cases there was enough rich milk to make 2 cheeses weighing about 60 lbs. each, only one of which was scored by the Judges. The extra cheesees were sold to a retail grocer for 15 cts. per pound, and were sold by him to customers at 20 cts. per pound. We could have sold tons of such cheese at the same rate; one grocer in Chicago would have taken a large quantity, and a number of requests were received from individuals for cheese of this kind." 344 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The results of the exj^eriments, together with the values i)laced upon the cheeses by an expert who examined them a day or two before they were sent to Chicago, and whose figures were quite consistent with the prices actually obtained, are given in the following table : Tield of cheese and loss of fat per 100 Ihs. of milk, and value of cheese from rich and poorer milk. No. Date. Fatcon- tent of milk. Fat in whey. Total loss of fat in whey and press drain- Yield of cheese. Green. Cured. Fat con- tent of cheese (calcu- lated) . Value of cheese per pound. Price per pound of fat in milk. Value of add- ed fat ])er pound. 1891 Mar. 27 ...do... Mar. 28 ...do... Mar. 30 ...do ... Mar. 31 ...do ... Per ct. 2.70 4.35 2.90 4.55 3.15 6.20 3.00 4.85 Per ct. 0.25 .40 .28 .40 .32 .59 .37 .46 Lbs. 0.270 .398 .268 .379 .295 .583 .529 .635 Lbs. 8.375 10. 550 8.823 10. 708 8. 937 12. 500 8.882 10. 936 Lbs. 7.53 9.50 8.00 9.77 8.00 11.14 8.06 9.99 Per ct. 32.3 41.6 32.7 42.6 35.4 50.4 30.6 42.2 Cents. 8.0 12.5 8.0 12.5 8.0 12.5 8.5 12.0 Cents. 22.3 27.3 22.1 26.9 20.3 22.4 22.8 24.7 Cents. ' 35.4 35.2 24.6 27.8 " From the figures given it is apparent that in every case the quality of the cheese has improved with the increase of fat in the milk, and that this improvement has more than compensated for the valne of the extra fat in the richer cheese. It is not, however, proven by this that it paid to add cream to milk for the richer cheese. . . . "It does show that skimming the milk resulted in a loss, as the fat abstracted was worth more in cheese than it would have been in butter. At this time butter was worth in Chicago about 29 cts. per pound. It is probable that with the prices given, viz, 10.5 cts. for cheese and 29 cts. for butter, it would have paid better to have skimmed off all of the cream and made butter of it than to have made the milk iuto cheese. It may be stated as a general rule that it never pays to skim off part of the cream and make both butter and cheese, and further that whenever the price of Itutter exceeds 2\ times the price of cheese it will pay better to make butter than cheese, no account being taken of the difference in value of the skim milk and whey. If the relative value of skim milk and whey be taken into account, butter should pay better than cheese whenever its price exceeds 2\ times the price of cheese ; under other conditions cheese should pay better than butter." The yield of cheese in factories from different qualities of milk and in different seasons of the year (px). 137-144). "All students who are candidates for dairy certificates from our school are required to send to us monthly reports of their work for one or two seasons. The reports from cheese factories give, along with other data, the average percentage of fat in the milk and the average yield of cheese. During the past 4 years there have been received 347 reports irom cheese factories iu which both the percentage of fat in milk and the yield of cheese are given. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 345 " In tlio following t.ible are given averages of these reports, arranged according to the percentages of fat and also according to the season of the year: Yield of cheese in factories according io jiercentage of fat in milk. Number of reports. Fat content of milk. Average yield of cliee.se per 100 lbs. milk. Yield of cheese for 1 lb. fat. Group. Range. Average. No. 1 24 90 134 43 46 20 Per cent. Under 3.25 3.25-3.50 3. 50-3. 75 3. 75-4. 00 4. 00-4. 25 Over 4. 25 Per cent. 3.126 3.382 3.600 3.839 4.090 4.447 Pounds. 9.194 9. 235 9.407 9.806 10. 300 10. 707 Pounds. 2 941 No. 2 2.730 No. 3 2 613 No. 4 2.562 No. 5 2.512 No. 6 2.407 347 3.64 9.566 2 628 Yield of cheese in factories by months. Month. April Miiy June July August September October November Whole season Number of re- ports. Average fat con- tent of milk. Per ce7it. 3.480 3.493 3.497 3.554 3.634 3.836 4.076 4.254 3.64 ^rddff ^'^idof 'cheese .^^^T'^^ per 100 I ll^^-^ot lbs. milk. ^'^'^• Pounds. 9.154 9.447 9.367 9.231 9.335 9.955 10. 562 10. 947 9.566 Pounds. 2.630 2.704 2.679 2.593 2.568 2.594 2.591 2.573 2.628 "If the figures can he depended upon they indicate that the yield of cheese is greater frona rich milk than from poor milk, that if the season he left out of con- sideration the yield from rich milk is not as large in proportion to the fat as it is from poor milk, and finally that both the fat in the milk and the yield of cheese increases in nearly the same proportion as the season advances. "Because most cheese factories are closed during the winter it is customary in cheese districts to have, so far as practical, cows fresh in the spring. Such being the case, the increase in the percentage of fat in the milk and the increase in the yield of cheese from month to mouth, shown in the second of the above tables, may be attributed to advancing lactation." The data are also arrauged so as to comj)are milk containing different amonnts of fat at the same season of the year, and the conclusion is reached that — "At the same season of the year rich milks do not yield as much cheese in propor- tion to the fat which they contain as do poor milks, but that a rich milk toward the end of the season may do as well as a much poorer milk earlier in the season. "Dr. Van Slyke, from a long series of carefully conducted e.\periments at New York cheese factories, has concluded that the yield of cheese from 100 lbs. of normal factory milk is very nearly proportional to the percentage of fat in the milk. "It appears to the writer that the discrepancy is only apparent, and arises from the fact that in Dr. Van Slyke's experiments the poor milks used have nearly all been early in the season and the rich milks toward the end of the season, the 346 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. gradation from one to the other having been gradual, so that when the results are arranged according to the fat in the milk they are virtually arranged according to season, as is done in the second table above with the students' rei)orts. . . . "With this explanation there is nothing inconsistent in the work done by Dr. Van Slyke and the results arrived at from the students' reports. In fact the two tend to confirm each other.'' The relation of these facts to the payment for milk at cheese factories is discussed and a table is given showing the yield, composition, and value of cheese from milk containing different percentages of fat, and the amount to be paid for such milk according to the "pooling" i)lan and the relative-value plan. In the relative-value plan payment is made on the basis of 26.8 cts. per pound I or the fat in the milk, this being the value obtained by dividing the total value of the cheese by the amount of fat in the milk. The cheese is valued according to its rich- ness in fat, rating fall-cream cheese at 10 cts. per pound, and for each 4 per cent less of fat in the lower grades deducting 1 ct. x)er pound of cheese. "The close agreement between the value of the cheese calculated from the market reports in the manner described and that given by the relative-value plan is strong evidence that the latter is approximately correct. . . . "The justice of the method is no longer questioned in creameries, in which it has been almost universally adopted, and it is believed by the writer that the plan will be equally acceptable in cheese factories so soon as its relations to all sides of the question are better understood." Loss of cheese in curing (pp. 144-146). — This gives a summary of the observations made at the dairy school on the loss in weight of 1,235 cheeses during curing under favorable conditions. The cheeses were all made by the Cheddar process, and were mostly pressed in flat hoops and had an average weight of about 30 lbs. when green. A summary by groups according to the time of curing is given as follows: Average loss of cheese in curing. Group. Period covered. Average age. No. of cheese. Total weight. Loss. Green. Cured. Pounds. Per cent. No.l Days. 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-60 Over 60 Days. 6 16 25 41 141 99 242 298 417 172 Pounds. 2,812.0 7, 356. 9 8, 530. 5 12, 353. 3 S, 244. 4 Pounds. 2, 741. 5 7, 077. 0 8, 160. 4 11, 084. 4 5, 736. 0 70.5 279.9 370.1 6(J8.9 508.4 2.51 No. 2 3.80 No. 3 4.34 No.4 5.41 No. 5 8.11 "The table shows that the loss in a given time is very much greater in the early stages than it is later, it being fully half as much during the iirst week as for the whole month and more than one-quarter as much as for 5 months." Cleaning milk with a centrifugal separator for cheese production (pp. 146-149). "In the manufacture of cheese all solid matters contained in the milk are entan- gled in the curd and finally carried into the cheese, and it is reasonable that removal of slime from milk used for this purpose would be especially beneficial." TECHNOLOGY. 347 Experiments were made to test tliis poiut, nearly 100 cheeses being made from milli cleaned in this way. In experiments in the winter it was found that any tendency to gassy or pin-holey curds was either entirely removed or greatly improved by cleaning the milk; but during the summer gassy or pin-holey curds were not prevented by this cleaning. In experiments in which milk was cleaned with a separator and the slime removed from 2 lots of milk achled to 1 lot, the curds from both lots were practically free from pin-holes, and " it seems likely that the suppression of jjin-holes by passing milk through a separator was due to the aeration, and not to removal of gas-producing organisms in the slime." Although cleaning the milk by means of a separator has not accom- plished all that was hoped, it is believed to have been of great benefit, and in nearly every case it improved the quality of the cheese, the improvement being more marked with tainted milk than with milk in good condition. " Especially has it been of benefit for long-keeping cheese. All such has retained its flavor much better when made from separator-cleaned milk." "The yield of cheese hy this process is a trifie smaller than from untreated milk, it being on the average about 0.2 lb. less from 100 lbs. of milk. The loss of fat in whey is also a little higher. The difference is, however, more than balanced by the better quality of the product." One hundred rations for dairy cows, F. W. Woll {Wisconsin Sta. Bpt. 1894, pp. 86-112).— This, is largely a reprint of Bulletin 38 of the station (E. S. R., 5, p. 884). Hygiene of domestic animals in the production of milk, C. Pages (Paris: G. Masson, Lihraire de V Academic de Afedecine, 1896, pp. 324). Test of cream separators, H. H. Wing (^Yew York Cornell Sta. Rpt. 1894, Appen., pp. 161-174,2)1. 1).—A reprint of Bulletin 66 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 245). The Babcock milk test, W. J. Spillman ( Washington Sta. Bui. 18, pp. 27, figs. 5). — This is a working description of the Babcock test and method of using it, the appli- cation of the test to paying for milk at creameries, and the relative-value plan. Compiled data are also given of the average composition of dairy products, the dis- tribution of ingredients in butter and cheese making, etc. The percentage of fat in the milk of 2 cows tested morning and night for 2 weeks is given, showing the variation. Analyses of milk and cream, F. W. Morse (Neiv Hampshire Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 120, 121). — The percentages of fat in 30 samples of milk of unknown origin, and in 78 samples of Ayrshire milk classified according to fat content are reported, together with solids and fat in .5 samples of Holstein milk, 2 samples of mixed-herd milk, and 2 samples of cream from a coiiperative creamery. Dairy experiments, A. H. Whkatox {South Dakota Sta. lipi. 1804, Jiullefins, pp. 20).—Bn\l(itiu 39 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 338) is bound with the Annual Report. TECHNOLOGY. Maple sap studies, F. W. Mouse {Xeir Hampshire Sta. Bnl, 32, pp. 16, figs. 2, dgms. ;J). — The studies of maple sap, which were reported In Bulletin 24 of this station (E. S. R., 7, p. 92), were continued by the author, assisted by E. P. Stone. The results given in the i)resent bul- letin are in accord with those expressed in the previous one and serve 348 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. to emphasize the statement that more sap flows from a deep hole than from a shallow one. The common practice of retapping trees toward the end of the season in order to secure a longer flow of sap seems to be sound, as shown from experiments detailed in this bulletin. The study of the composition of the sap from different depths in the tree gave contradictory results. Determinations were made of the glucose and ash, from which it ajjpears that the average glucose content in one tree was 0.0075 jjer cent, and in another 0.0123 per cent. The maximum results were obtained in the early part of the season. Ten estimations of the ash of the sap were made from 2 trees, and the average amount present was found to be 0.051 and 0.052 per cent, respectively. Investigations of maple sap, sirup, and sugar, A. H. Wood and F. W. Morse {Neiv Rampshire 8ta. Rpi, 1894, pp. 132-151).— T\n^ is a continuation of work published in Bulletin No. 25 of the station (E. S. E., 7, J). 162). The tabulated data includes the general range in per- centage of saccharose found in sap of various trees during 3 years, relation of saccharose to total solids, variation in composition of sap from different sides and parts of a tree, and from outer and inner wood, relation of depth of tapping to flow of sap, flow of sap from north and south sides of trees, effect of tapping trees once and twice, and compo- sition of maple sirup and sugar. The range in percentage of sugar was very wide, the richest sap com- ing from fully developed Trees. There was a decrease in the percentage of sugar as the season advanced. The average of 9 determinations of the specific gravity of sap in 1893 was 1.0143; the average of 10 deter- minations of the reducing sugars in 1S92 was 0.0064 per cent, and of 12 determinations of ash was 0.0247 per cent. In the trials so far the sap from the north side was richest, and sap from the trunk was richer than that from the branches. Deep tapping gave more sap than shallow, and tapping on the south side gave more than on the north side. Tap- ping twice close together showed no advantage. Sirups from soft maples were inferior in color and flavor to those from rock maples. Cotton-seed industry in the South, E. L. Johnson {Sci. Amcr., 75 {189G), Ko. 20, 2). 363).— A. popular article. On the artificial addition of carbonic acid to ordinary still ■wines, E. Mach {Tirol, landtv. Blatter, 15 {1S96), Xos. 10, pp. 14G-14S, figs. 3; 17, pp. 157-159). Studies on vinification and on the refrigeration of musts, A. Muntz and E. RoussEAUX {Ann. Sci.Agron., aer. 2, 1 {1896), No. 3, pp. 321-373, fig. 1). Analyses of cider, F. W. Morse {New Hampshire Sta. Ept. 1894, pp. 125, 126).— The specific gravity, solids, alcohol, sugar, free acids, albuminoids, ash, and car- bonic acid are reported lor 6 samples of bottled cider, some of which had been treated to retard fermentatiou. Improved processes in cider making {Amcr. Agr. {mid. ed.), 1896, Sept. 26, pp. 266, 267). General meeting of the Union for Beet-sugar Industry in the German Empire at Munich, June 11 and 12, 1896 {Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 52, pp. 512, 5i5).— The following points were discussed: (1) What is the cause of the dark coloring of the juice 80 often noticed in the last season, and has this auy couuectiou with the strik- AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 349 iiiji increase in alkaliuity during ovajtoration? (2) Does the use of sulphurous acid in the thick juice insure without disailvantagcs a lighter color of the first product? (8) "What may be expected of the new Steffens method of handling heet .juice? (4) The limestone material of the German sugar factories. (5) The causes of the decrease in sugar liy long storage. (6) Relation of the sugar and ash content to the purity coeilicient in sirups and molasses. (7) Molasses production. (8) The normals in sugar-beet seed trade. (9) The result of feeding experiments -with beet leaves (E. S. R. 8, p. 252). Beet sugar, methods of producing, etc., by a number of countries (Southern Cnltivator, 15 (ISDG), Xo. 10, p. 3). — Statistics on the beet sugar production of Germany, France, and the United States. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Surface and subirrigation out of doors, F. W. Rane {New Hamjh shire Sta. Bid. 31, p]). 27, Jigs. 8). — This is an accoaut of a continuation and extension of the work of the author on subirrigation in the green- house, reported in Bulletin 33 of the West Virginia Station (E. S, R., 5, p. G80), undertaken in view of the growing importance of outdoor irrigation in the East and the lack of definite information on the sub- ject. The reasons for irrigation, sources of water supply, and economy of water are discussed. The relative merits and disadvantages of sur- face and subirrigation are explained and experiments with each in the greenhouse and out of doors are described, with directions for the lay- ing of tiles in the latter method and suggestions regarding cultivation, mulching, and drainage. "Where jdenty of water is available -vve believe the best and most satisfactory- results are secured by applying the water where needed through ditches. . . . "Three thousand six hundred and thirty cubic feet, or about 800 bbls., of water is the amount estimated to cover 1 acre of ground to a depth of 1 in. — the amount rec- ommended per acre for reservoir capacity. . . . "There are many instances where surface irrigation will be found the most eco- nomical, not ojily where plenty of water is to be had, but where economj^ of water is necessary. There are more advantages in favor of this method than are attributed to it. After having exjierimented with subirrigation at various depths and upon different soils, I would recommend caution before going into irrigation on a very extensive scale, l)elieving that the extra expense in purchasing and laying tiles will more than offset the expense of labor in surface irrigation. "Experiments with celery upon a clay loam, with water applied both through ditches for surface irrigation, and through tiles below the reach of the plow for sub- irrigation, showed that the latter sj'stem required much more water than the former for the same results. "By taking advantage of the cloudy portions of the day and as well the shade from the foliage of the plants, the loss from evaporation in surface irrigation is greatly lessened. "The percentage of water saved in subirrigation out of doors is greatly reduced on account of its soaking off in the soil below. "The fact that the tiles are out of siglit and their action unknown makes ordinary subirrigation a little uncertain." [A method of tile irrigation which the author has found to possess decided advan- tages over ordinary subirrigation] "was to place common porous 2A-in(;h drain tiles in a continuous row, end to end, on the surface of the soil, vegetables being planted 350 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. ou either or both sides of the line. The tiles were 1 ft. long, and by pouring in the water at one end of the line it was distributed at the joints throughout the length desired when the opposite end was stopped up. Take celery as an example crop for irrigation on uplands. We plant the celery as above stated, and while it is young we have simple surface irrigation ; b)it as the crop grows we bank it up, and finally have the tile covered, and thus have subirrigation. The tiles are cheap and last indefinitely. When the celery is harvested, the tiles are dug out also and piled up or used for subirrigation in the greenhouse beds. Potatoes and A'arious other crops can be grown in the same way. The celery watered this year grew well and did not rust. Besides this, we were able to water 20 times as much space in the same time as in the ordinary way with ditches. Besides saving time, this plan deliv- ers water where it is most needed, and we have reason to believe is fully as econom- ical with water as with time." Experimects daring 2 seasons have shown that with this method " the plants did fully as well as in the other systems and with less water." " Onion seed sown upon upland, with and without irrigation, gave marked results in favor of irrigation, [but] to get the best results cultivation goes hand in hand with irrigation. Mulching and subsolling are milder forms of irrigation which can be resorted to with good results to counteract drought. "Many soils need drainage, perhaps, rather than irrigation, while in some others there is a medium which gives best results."' Money value of good roads to farmers, W. C. Latta ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Road Inquiry Circ. 33, pp. 4). — " Letters of inquiry were sent to 00 of the most intelligent fanners in 40 counties located in the central and northern i)arts of the State.'' From the 40 replies received the following approximate averages were obtained: " (1) The average estimated increase in the selling price of land due to existing improved highways is $6.48 per acre. Tlie estimates from which this average is made refer inmost cases to lands near the improved roads; but in a few instances they apply to all the lands of the county. The average increase, therefore, of $6.48 per acre is lower than was intended for the lands near the improved roads. " (2) The estimated average increase per acre that would result from improving all the public roads is $9. " (3) The estimated average cost of converting the common public roads into Improved highways is $1,146 per mile. " (4) The estimated average annual loss per 100 acres from poor roads is $76.28." Small lateral pressure of silage after settling has ceased, F. H. King ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt.l894,pp. 289,290, fig. 1).—A.n account of 2 burned silos is given, whose contents still remained in place after all support had been thus removed. This shows the absence of lateral pressure after settling and the necessity of rigid silo walls to prevent the formation of air spaces between silage and walls and the conse- quent loss by fermentation. Scales used for heavy weighing ( Wisconsin Sta. Bpt. 1894, p. 291, fig. 1). — The scales used in weighing cylinders of soil are described and figured. It consists of a steelyard of 1,000 lbs. capacity, having a beam graduated to tenths of a i^ouud and provided with a knife-edge at the end of which to hang additional Aveights. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 351 Farm drainage, C. G. Ei.iaott (F. S. Ihpt. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 40, jip. 24, figs. 6). —A j)0])nlar treatise on this subject, iiicliKliug tlic following topics: Texture of soils and its relation to their drainage; natural and artificial drainage; surface drainage and Tinderdraiuage; tile drainage, including distance apart and depth of underdrains, kind of tiles, size of tiles to be used, how to locate drains, surveys and grades, dig- ging and grading the trench, grading from a survey, laying the tiles, filling the trenches, action to be expected from underdraiuage, cost and profit of tile drainage; open drains, cost, and classification for assessment purposes; and construction of open ditches. What quantities of ^vater should be carried off by drainage ? E. Fi:aisixet {Fiihling's Landir. Ztg., 4'> {ISDG), Xo. 14, pp. 4-ll-4o5). Drainage in practice and theory; different methods of digging ditches; drainage of water courses (Anal. Sockdad Rural Argentina, 30 {ISDG), Xo. 1, pp. 9-16, figs. IG). Protecting the banks of streams, A. Roxxa (Jour. agr. Prat., GO {1S9G), II, No. 35, pp. 300-312, figs. 4). Experiments -with water lifts, A. Chatterton (Dept. Land Records and Agr., Madras, Bui. 32, pp. 14, pis. 2). — This is a report of official tests of 3 forms of animal- power windlasses in common use in India for raising water for irrigation and other purposes. The proper time to apply w^ater — cultivation, T. S. Vax Dyke (Irrigation Age, 10 {1S9G), Xo. 4, pp. 12G-129). The South Dakota artesian basin, F. F. B. Coffin (Irrigation Age, 10 (1896), Xo. 2, pp. 71-73). Storage reservoir sites and canals, F. C. Fixkle (Irrigation Age, 10 (ISDG), Xo.2, pp. 77, 78). The irrigation of hillsides — ^vinter irrigation, T. S. Van Dyke (Irrigation Age, 10 (1896), Xo. 2, pp. 74-77). The influence of irrigation on climate and health, W. L. Woodruff (Irrigation Age, 10 (1896), Xo. 2, pp. 67-70). Method of constructing macadamized roads ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Road Inquiry Circ. 21, pp. 12). — This is an abstract of a report by the chief engineering inspector of the Local Governing Board of England, prepared in compliance with the request of the California Bureau of Highways for information regarding "the methods employed in England in the matter of highway improvement." Good roads for Pennsylvania, J. Hamilton (Pennsi/lrania Dept. Agr. Bui. 12, pp. 42, figs. G). — This article "is in no sense an exhaustive discussion of the question, but is intended simply to call the attention of supervisors and others interested in road construction to some facts and methods which the writer has found by expe- rience to be practicable under our present conditions, and which it is believed will, if carried into operation, speedily bring about a change for the better in the roads of the Commonwealth.'' The following topics are briefly discussed: How much road does Pennsylvania have? What is a good road? How to maintain a good road; suggestions; how to construct a clay road; material for ballast; implements for road building and repairs; wide tires; breakers; table of grades; table of traction; repairing; man- agement in winter; mortgaging township; cost of crushing and distributing stones; cost of earth roads; road taxes levied in the townships of Pennsylvania; and ajipro- priatious by counties for roads and bridges. Various machines useful in road con- struction are illustrated. The preservation of posts, L. Danger (Zrtxrfic. Wochcnhl. Schles. Hoist., 46(1896), Xo. 34, pp. 4S.l-48'i). — The application of crude petroleum and chlorid of zinc, petro- leum alone, and suli)hate of copper, or charring is recommended. Self-acting drinking contrivances, Schacht (Landw. Wochenbl. Schles. Hoist., 46 {1896), Xos. 30, pp. 435-442, figs. 19; Xo. 37, pp. 530-535, figs. 13; Deut. landw. I'resse, 352 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 23 {ISOO), Xo. 77, p. G91, figs. 7). — An illustrated article giving various iiioeiiioiis devices for supplying stock continuously and automatically with clean drinking water. The electric ploTV and sugar manufactories, F. Bkutschkk {Dent, landw. Presse, 23 (1S96), No. 79, pp. 706, 707). — The author says that the problem of the electric plow is solved. More about stock scales {Breeders' Gaz.,29 {1896), No. 19, jyp. 345, 346). A furrow maker, J. ^iiO:^ixKY.v^ {Irrigation Age, 10 {1S9G), No. 2, pp. SO, SI). The cultivators and -weeders at the provincial agricultural fair at Moulins, M. RiXGELMAXX {Jour. agr. Prat., GO {1S9G), II, No. 34, pip. 2G9-273, figs. ,'?). Report of experiments carried on at the station for testing agricultural machines, M. Eixgeljiaxx {BuJ. Mm. Agr. France, 15 {1S9G), No. 3,pp. 302-42S,figs. 5, dgms. 16). — These experiments embrace 137 trials with 5 kinds of grain drills, grain grader, apparatus for cooking food for stock, apple crusher, press, investi- gation of the transmission of pressure in presses, force pump, and mechanism for barometric indicator. STATISTICS. Crop reports for June, July, and August, 1896 {U. S. Bept. Agr., Dirision of Statistics Ilpts., 11. ser., 13S, pp. 4 ; 139, pp. S ; 140, p>p. S). — These reports include the usual summaries of condition of farm crops and fruit, with reports from European countries. Manual of instructions to crop correspondents, IT. A. Ror.ixsox" ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Dirision of Statistics, j)}*. 23). — This is a revised and corrected copy of a manual designed for the guidance of the crop correspondents in replying to the circulars of inquiry sent to them. Its purpose is to secure a systematic and uniform method of crop reporting. General suggestions are given as to the persons to whom returns are to be made, followed by instructions as to the method of reporting for each month, and closing with a general discussion of the meaning and application of the standard 100, and a comparison with Ihe standard of India, which is 16. Sixth Annual Report of Arizona Station, 1895 {Arizona Sta. Bui. 19, pip. S). — This includes a financial report for the year ending June 30, 1895, list of all bulletins issued by the station, and report of the director upon work of the year, bulletins issued, and donations and exchanges received. Eighth Annual Report of Colorado Station, 1895 {Colorado Sta. Ppt. 1S95, pp. 65-164). — This includes a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, the director's rei)ort and criticisms of the methods of station work, brief reports by the heads of the different sections, and more detailed accounts of work done at the substations. Annual Report of Idaho Station, 1895 {Idaho Sta. Ilpt. 1S95, pp. 5). — Report by the director on jirogress of work at the station, and a financial statement for the fiscal year ending Juno 30, 1895. Annual Report of Indiana Station, 1895 {Indiana Sta. Ppt. 1S95, pp. 44). — This contains reports by the director and heads of . Liiulsey and G. A. liilliuj^s 437 Low teiiipcrature pastenrizatiou of milk at about 08"^ C. (155^^ F.), K. (J. Freeman 437 Facts about milk, E. A. Pearson 438 Milk as an agency in tlie conveyance of disease, K. G. Freeman 439 Dairy products, J. B. Lindscy cl al 442 TECiixoLO(iv — .\(iuierfecting legislation contributing to the suc- cess of the stations and in formulating regulations for the conduct of control work and other operations directly aft'ecting the farmers. The voluntary system of control of seeds, fertilizers, and feeding stuffs, while it has certain difticulties which seem to hinder its application on a wide scale, has brought the stations into the most intimate relations with both the farmers purchasing such materials and the dealers sell- ing them. The wise and just leadership which the stations have had in this enter])rise has raised them to a high position in the coutideuce and esteem of practical men. DAIRY AVORK AT Till: EXPERIMENT STATIONS.' K. W. Allkn, I'h. I)., Ai^si-'itinif liircclor, Office of Experiment Stations. Work in dairying and dairy farining- has forined a more or less proniiiuMitpart of the work of several of theexi)eriiiiL'nt stations almost from the beginning. The increasing interest in dairying has led one station after another to take up this line of work, until now it is carried on at about half the stations, being a rather prominent feature in at least ten of tliem. Perlia]is in no otlier line has the work been of greater practical value or reflected more credit on the stations as a wliole. It has I >een instrumental in improving the character of the stock and the (juality of the product, and in making the enterprise more prolitablc. 8ome of the more striking results of station work have l)eeu thera])i(l methods for testing milk, the application of the relative-value plan in paying for milk, simple tests of the acidity of rii)euing cream, a material advancement of practical information along the line of dairy bacteriology, the use of pure cultures in butter making, cleanliness of the stable, and in the handling of milk in relation to the kee])ing of milk and qualities of the butter, sterilizing and pasteurizing of milk, the effect of food on the qualities of the product, the economy of various coarse and concentrated feeding stuffs, more exact knowledge of the processes of cheese making, and the variation in the comi)osition of dairy products in general. The stations have aided in devel()[)ing the dairy industry in many States and in the establishment of cooperative creameries, while in others they have just commenced the work. A large amount of pioneer work has been done, and n)any of the simpler practical jiroblems have been settled. While in several cases the work is gradually assuming a more technical ami scieutitic character, in many cases, notably where the work is new, the idea is a[)pare7itly to follow (piite largely what is believed to be the popular demand for severely ])racti(;al work. This we infer from visits to the stations and a study of their pnblislied work. It frequently consists in establishing a dairy herd of considerable ' This ])aper wiis orii;init]>y prepared for preseiitiitiDn at tlio recent convention of tlie Association of American Agricnltnral Colleges and Experiment Stations, but was crowded off the propframrne by the press of routine business. Inasmucli as it con- tains reasonable criticisms of th develop this in- vestigational side. We must recognize this as the line along which 362 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. advanceiiieut is to be made, aiul if this plan is not followed the station will before long lind itself threshing over old straw and reaching the limit of its usefulness in this field of inquiry. That it is possible to make this combiiuition of work is satisfactorily shown by the history of dairy investigation at a number of stations. Starting with work which was largely practical, but included from the first some more advanced studies, there has been a gradual change in the character of the work, without at any time losing sight of its ultimate practical application, until the investigations have, from a scientific standijoint, been of interest and application far beyond the boundaries of the States in which they were undertaken, and have been most valuable contribu- tions to dairy science and practice. It is work of this character which is of the most far reaching and permanent value, and some of it, at least, should be encouraged by every station which makes dairying a feature. To load down the agriculturist or dairyman with the routine work of running a large dairy or creamery is unjust to the worker and a short-sighted policy for the station. It is well to remember, too, that a great deal of the work already done is entirely applicable to the conditions of other States, and has already passed beyond a point where it needs further corroboration. An extended series of experiments repeating such work is an expensive way for a station to get these established facts before its farmers and dairymen. Much good work has been done and corroborated at other stations and become a part of our science of dairying. It seems extremely desirable that in this, as in other lines, certain matters should be recognized as settled, and that instead of multiplying still further the experiments on such points, even under the guise of instructing the farmers, the facts should be accepted and presented in a plain, concise manner. An example of such repetition is the comparison under ordinary conditions of the creaming of milk in shallow pans, in deep setting, and by separator. Experiments galore on this question have already been made in many States and under a variety of conditions, and we have only to look into the European text-books on dairying to find that it has been a subject for experiment for many years. As an illustration, such work can hardly be held to be worth the while, as comparatively few farmers visit the station and see the work in progress. For this purpose a few simple tests of the eflficiency of creaming, as practiced by typical farmers in a community, would, it is believed, be more con- vincing and bring the matter home more closely to the farmers of that community. The case is quite different where the specific effect is to be studied of particular feeding stuff's or rations, as will be mentioned later. Another instance of repetition is the testing of different kinds and sizes of separators. This has constituted a prominent part of the dairy work at several stations for a number of years, until now the trials with DAIRY WORK AT THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 3G3 the more common forms are numbered by liundreds. Many of these tests have been made in connection with dairy-srliool work. Consider- ing that under these conditions the nmchines are run by inexperienced persons for practice, although under the general supervision of an instrnctor, it can hardly be expected that very reliable results will be secured, and such work can certainly not be regarded as of very high character for an experiment station. The dairy school is usually of short duration and its function is essentially educational. Kesults obtained incidentally under such circumstances as to the efhciency of dairy ai)paratu-^, can hardly be said to constitnte a fair trial of the apparatus or to carry any considerable amount of conviction. They are usually not satisfactory to the manufacturers aside from those whose machines have made the best showings, and they involve the stations in altercations and submit them to charges of doing unreliable work, which they may have dilticulty in refuting. As far as the published work is concerned, it seems far better to divorce entirely the station work in this line, as in others, from the instructional work of the col- lege. In regard to the testing of separators and other dairy apparatns, it may be questioned whether the time has not come when this nmy be discontinued, as far as the common makes and forms are concerned, and limited to new forms or improvements which make their appearance. Beyond doubt the work which has been done has been extremely use- ful in enabling the stations to give advice as to the kinds and sizes of separators, and in keeping out of the market or limiting the sale of inferior makes. The relative merits of the different kinds have been quite generally determined uiuler a variety of conditions, and the data already accumulated have been compiled and summarized, making it possible for any station to intelligently give advice in the selection of apparatus as called upon. It has been apparent for some time that the method of handling the machine influences the results, and some recent work has brought out marked ditFerences between individual separators of the same make and model. Moreover, the machines are undergoing modification from time to time, and new forms make their appearance, which give the figures obtained only a transient compara- tive value. For the more advanced experimental work, at least, the cor»peration of the agriculturist or dairyman Avith other members of the station staff" is very desirable, and indeed almost essential to thorough work. Tills is too often overlooked, and Ave find the agriculturist or dairyman carrying on experiments without the aid or cotiperation of the (diemist or bacteriologist. This frecjuently accounts for deficiencies in the work, and lays it opeii to criticism, for thorough as may have been the train- ing of the agriculturist or dairyman, he can hardly expect to carry on himself the chemical analysis necessary to exact work, and it is expecting too much of the I>abcock test to rely upon it as the sole aid in such experiments. 3G4 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. There is often, unfortunately, what appears to be a jealousy among the station workers in diiferent lines which i)revents their joining in carrying on investigations. One fears that by accepting the cooperation of another he will sacrifice some of his dignity or credit for the work. But, on the contrary, a thorough investigation, worked u]) from the different sides, is a greater credit to each one participating in it, and contributes more to the reputation of the workers and the station than numbers of one-sided experiments of indifferent value. Working together, the dairyman, chemist, and bacteriologist can conduct experi- ments which would be impossible for either one working single-handed, and the results need be none the less practicnl in their application. It is believed also that there is ojiportunity for much to be done through cooperation between stations located in the same region and where the same general conditions prevail. Cooperative feeding experi- ments with cows have been successfully carried on in Denmark for a series of years, the cooperators being the owners of large estates, and the whole experiment being under a general direction. There are many questions which might with advantage be studied by a number of stations in unison and on a common plan. The results would in the end be more conclusive and of wider application, and the tendency would be toward more thorough work. As a matter of fact, the station work in dairying, as in other lines, is frequently open to the criticism of having too local a cast, and this is, of course, one of the tendencies of purely practical work. We have whole groups of States which are no larger in area than some single States, and aside from purely local questions, results obtained in one locality will generally be applicable in the localities immediately adjoining. The much discussed question of the applicability to our conditions of Wolft's standard for cows, and its physiological accuracy, suggests itself as a theme for such cooijer- ative work. As to the character of the work of a station in general, this will nat- urally depend to a considerable extent on the status of dairying in the State and its probable development. Including dairy farming under the general scope of this paper, there is still room in most States, especially those where dairying is comparatively new, for work on forage crops adapted to dairy farms, systems of rotation for this purj^ose, tlie sup- plying of green crops, the storage of green food, and the value of local waste products. In the Southern States, where dairying has onl^- recently been taken up, the problems of this sort are numerous. Tlie value of corn stover for these States has been only imperfectly studied, under a few conditions, and with somewhat conliicting results. Here also there is opportunity for raising the standard of the product of the farm dairy. The proper use of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal is but imperfectly understood, and its effect on the butter when fed in differ- ent ways and differently prepared has not been sufficiently studied. The method of butter making commonly practiced in the South, of DAIRY WORK AT THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 365 allowino- the milk to sour and then churning- the whole milk, may be studied tVoin all sides, in comparison with imi)roved methods, and the dittereiices brought out as to the recovery of the butter fat, the compo- sition of the butter, its qualities, grade, marketability, and behavior on keeping. The improvement of dairy stock and its management should also prove a profitable line of work, and in this, coiiperation with lead- ing farmers in testing the milk of their cows and studying their rations suggests itself There is thus far a deficiency of exact work to show the relation between the food and the creaming of the milk, the churning of the cream, and the genei-al (qualities of the butter. As a rule, feeding experiments with cows stop with the yield of milk and its average composition. Enough work has been done to show that certain feeding stuffs have a marked effect on the butter. This is noticeably true of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal, and we have a few experiments indi- cating- the superior effect of steamed cotton seed. Systematic study along these lines is to be desired, for just such knowledge is of import- ance in fixing the real value of different coarse and concentrated foods for butter making and in indicating the best dairy foods to grow and to purchase. A few years ago Prof. Adolf Mayer reported experiments on the effects of various feeding stuffs on the volatile fatty acids, the hardness, etc., of butter, and gave a list of coarse and concentrated feeding stuffs arranged in the order in which their effects were apparent. On the basis of this work he advanced the hypothesis that rations rich in car- bohydrates have the effect of increasing the volatile fatty acids. This interesting work has never been corroborated or carried further. There is a broad field for study of the specific effect of the food or its constit- uents on the milk and butter, and such work would form an interesting contribution to the science of the subject and to our knowledge of the physiological function of milk secretion. Furthermore, the question as to the best ration for dairy cows, as far as comi)osition is concerned, is a very live subject. The question is not so much whether the percentage of fat in the milk can be increased by feeding, but relates to the amount of protein and other nutrients which in the long run will give tlie best results, as far as the yield of milk and butter and the health of the cow are concerned. There has been con- siderable work upon this with varying results; and the study of the ])ractice of intelligent dairy farmers in different parts of the country has developed the fact that they have widely different opinions as to the amount of nutrients, as expressed in the amounts of feeding stuffs, which the cow can use to the best advantage. The experiments have been of far too short duration to settle this question. We have learned, for instance, that by feeding rations rich in protein we can crowd the cow to her utmost (•a])acity, for a time at least, but how long this can be kept up and what the final effect will be on the health of the cow 8908— No. 5 2 366 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. has not been demonstrated. Unquestionably the individuality of the animal is an important consideration; but experiments with a number of animals continued tlirough a series of years would contribute mate- rially to our information on this point, especially if such experiments could be carried on at a number of stations. It would require time, but such work would in the end be of the greatest practical interest. The matter is far from clear, either from the scientific or the practical standpoint. Dairy bacteriology presents a most i)romising field for investigation, and has already cleared up many points as to the cause of good and poor butter and cheese and suggested many improvements and safe- guards in the handling of milk. The proper management of the ripen- ing of cream, the use of pure cultures and of pasteurized cream, the numerous sources of contamination, the relation between the bacterial flora of the foods and the quality of the product, and the causes of various so called "milk faults," with remedies for the same, are ques- tions u])on which the bacteriologist can profitablj^ devote much study and give most useful information. The importance of bacteriology in dairying has only Just commenced to be appreciated, and we have only made a beginning in this direction. For a station where dairying is made a prominent feature the bacteriological side can not be overlooked. It compares in importance with chenustry and animal nutrition. It has contributed some of the greatest advances in dairying of modern times, and the problems for its solution touch every stage of dairy work from milking to the finished product. It has recently been claimed that the incompleteness of churning sweet cream may be overcome by making the cream acid with dilute hydrochh)ric acid. Experiments have been made at several (German experiment statiims and creameries with quite satisfactory results. A rather shorter time was required for churning, and the butter was usually (luite normal in taste and appearance, though lacking in aroma. The results were, on the whole, quite promising, and it was claimed that the butter would keep longer than sweet-cream butter, but the matter has hardly passed beyond an experimental stage. Taken in connection with Dr. deSchweinitz's proposition to use the products of the desirable bacteria of ripening cream instead of the cultures them- selves, the use of an artificial acid and aroma in sweet cream suggests itself as possibly within the bounds of practicability and a not altogether visionary theme for experiment. The breeding of cows especially adapted to local conditions, the sanitary arrangements of stables, ventilation, heating, cleanliness, and allied questions may, in many cases, be studied incidentally. In addition to the regular dairy work, and often in connection with it, there is opportunity for special studies on milk and dairy products. We have, for instance, very little exact chemical knowledge as to the constituents of milk, especially the nitrogenous constituents. The DAIRY WORK AT THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 367 exact nature of these coustitiients and their chemical and physical properties as they exist in the milk, the way in whicli they vary during the period of lactation and during- successive periods of lactation, the changes they undergo in souring and curdling, in boiling, and in making into cheese, tin; reaction of milk, the dift'erences between the constituents of human milk and cows' milk, the chemistry of the ripening of cream and of cheese, and the nature of the aroma and flavor of butter are questions of much scientific interest. The work on these subjects is fragmentary, and it is possible that nuich of it might be negatived by investigation with improved methods and apparatus. Although of difficult nature, it is well worthy tlie eflbrts of the chemist who can find time for some advanced scientific work. Whatever the particular line of dairy work undertaken by fhe station, it is well to remember that the operations of experimenting, even along the most practical lines, are essentially different in details from those followed by the farmer, and require close supervision and attention to the minor details. Such work can not be left to students or ordinary laborers unless a close oversight is maintained. No matter how simj)le the work the results should be obtained in a scientific manner and not be a matter of inference. It is in this respect chiefly that the simpler experiments differ from the experience of the farmer. The station should expect to keep some distance in advance of the ordinary practice of the community, for it should lead rather than follow. And the station, which, from the nature of the conditions, feels the necessity of doing j)ioneer work, should not make the mistake of undertaking to run a model creamery or dairy farm for illustration or of going over ground which has been thoroughly traversed in other States with results which are quite generally applicable. It should endeavor rather to select those special themes which are suggested by its local conditions and which have not been settled by previous study, Eeal progress comes only in this way. Let what is done be thoroughly done and with a view to the real status of knowledge on the question. Then the work of one station will supi)lement that of others and the science and practice of dairying will be slowiy but surely advanced. RECENT WORK IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. CHEMISTRY. The chemical nature of diastase, T. B. Osborne and G. F. (Camp- bell {Connecticut !Staie Sta. lipt. 18'J5,2W- 233-238). — A contiunatioii of studies reported in the Annual Report of the Station for 1894 (E. S. R., 7, p. 182). "As yet no preparations of diastase liave been realized more active than those there described. The results given in the former paper, however, have been confirmed, and details of the process for obtaining highly active diastase have been determined more exactly." After studying more thoroughly the conditions under which diastase may be separated from the other malt proteids, considerable quantities of diastase were prepared from a malt extract rich in diastase obtained from the Maltine Manufacturing Company. All efforts to get a dias- tase of greater power tlian 300 by fractional precipitation with alcohol failed. Several hundred tests were made of tlie influence of various conditions on the diastatic action, but "in the majority of instances no such uniform results were attainable as wcmld lead to safe conclusions in regard to the circumstances that insure a high degree of diastatic activity." "From our experionce in testing these preparations it would seem that the purer the diastase is made, the more sensitive it is to external conditions, and that the method of testing the purity of the ferment by its maltose-producing power thus becomes of uncertain value and perhaps fails to furnish a safe criterion of the purity of the enzym. That the proteid is not the only factor involved in the amylolytic action of diastase is indicated by (he great influence on its activity that often accom- panies the addition of various substances to its solution. In view of these facts, it is not at all improbable that in thus attempting to purify diastase we remove some substance that favors, or is essential to its action, and that we may have in hand what may be properly termed the enzym itself, which is feeble in its operation through the absence or deficiency of some accessory substance. Thus the addition of sodium chlorid in many cases increases the diastatic action several fold. That the albumin is an essential factor in diastatic action could not be positively proved, but the results of further experience have tended to strengthen this belief. Of all the prei>arations that we have made, none from which albumin was absent showed amylolytic power, and those containing the most albumin were the most active. It was always possible to roughly judge of the diastatic jiower of a preparation by heating a portion of its solution to 6.5° C. and observing the amount of coagulum formed. "The fact that active diastase was obtained only from solutions whose alcohol 368 CHEMISTRY. 369 coutent lies between 50 and 60 per cent, may, wo think, bo regarded as probable evidence that the enzyui is not something carried down mechanically with the pvoteid." The proteids of malt, T. B. Osborne aiul G. F. Campbell {Con- necticut jStdte Sta. Rpt. i.s.'AT, pp. 239-254).— ThQ details are given of an extended investigation of this snbject, inclnding the derivation of the preparations, their elementary ('omi)osition, characteristics, etc. The main points of especial interest are given in a summary, from ^Yhich the following is taken: "In the malt nsed in this investigation we have fonnd: "(1) Bynedestin,' re;ulily soluble in very dilute salt solution, therefore largely passing into the aqueous extracts because of the soluble salts of the seed. This globulin contains 2 per cent more carbon and 3 per cent less nitrogen than edestin, the globulin of barley, and is much more soluble in very dilute salt solutions than edestin. "The composition of this globulin, as shown by the average of 11 analyses, is: Bynedestin. Per cent. Carbon 53. 19 Hydrogen 6. 69 Nitrogen 15. 68 Snlphnr 1. 25 Oxygen 23. 19 100. 00 "Bynedestin, dissolved in 10 per cent sodium chlorid solution, gives a turbidity at 65- anil a llocculent coagulum at 84"^, but, even after heating for some time at 100°, the coagulation is far from complete. "This proteid is not precipitated by saturating its solutions with sodium chlorid, and but partlj' jirecipitated by saturating with magnesium sulphate. "(2) Lencosin, an albumin, identical in composition and properties with the leu- cosin found in wheat, rye, and barley. The composition of this proteid was found to be: Malt alhiimin, leucosin. Per Cent. Carbon 53. 07 Hydrogen 6. 72 Nitrogen 16. 71 Sulphur I .,.^ -,) Oxygen ' 100. 00 "Leucosin is intimately associated with diastase.- Heated to 50^, solutions of this proteid become turbid, anil at 58^ a llocculent coagulum occurs. Coagulation, however, is incomplete unless the solution is heated for some time and the tempera- ture raised to aliout 70^. Saturation with sodium chlorid or with magnt-sium sulphate partly ])recipitate8 leucosin. "(3) A protoproteose readily precipitated from aiiueous solution by adding an etpial weight of alcohol. No ])reparations of this body were obtained free from albumin. Its composition is nearly the same as that of leucosin, since preparations ' From fivvr), malt, and EdF.droi, edible. ■^Conu. State Sta. Kpts. 1894, pp. 202, 204; 1895, p. 238. 370 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. coutaining from 90 to 50 per cent of it, together witli from 10 to 50 per cent of leiicosin, are not distinguishable by analysis. "(4) A piotoproteose less readily precipitated by alcohol than the preceding, and of a different comj»ositiou , as shown by the following figures: Malt protoproteoiic . Per cent. Carbon 50. 63 Hydrogen 6. 67 Nitrogen - 16. 69 S"lP^"^ !■ 26.01 Oxygen . I 100. 00 "That this is not an imjinre preparation of the preceding, is indicated by the fact that the aniouut of nitrogen is alily 2 per cent. This difference would probably not be caused by nou-proteid impurities. It is pos- sible that the dcnteroproteose, next to be described, may not have lieen completely separated by the process employed. "(5) A deuteroproteose which could not be separated froui non-proteid impu- rities. "(6) A heteroproteose in extremely small amount. "(7) Byniii, aproteid insolul)leiu water and saline solutions, but readily soluble in dilute alcohol. About 1.25 per cent of this proteid was obtained from the malt, having tin; following composition : Jiynin. Per cent. Carbon 55. 03 Hydrogen 6. 67 Nitrogen 16. 26 Sulphur 0. 84 Oxygen 21 . 20 100. 00 "(8) A proteid insoluble iu water, in salt solution, and in alcohol, amounting to 3.80 per cent. The couipositiou and properties of this proteid we have been unable to determine. "Assuming 21 per cent of the total niti'ogen of the malt to exist in non-proteid bodies, and admitting the malt proteids to contain on the average 16.3 per cent of nitrogen, we have, in the malt investigated, a total of 7.84 per cent of proteids. Per cent. Proteid, insoluble in salt solution and in alcohol 3. 80 liynin, soluble iu dilute aliohol 1. 25 Bynedestin, leucosin, and i)roteose8 soluble in water .and salt solu- tion: Coagulable 1. 50 Uncoagulal)le 1. 29 Total proteids 7. 84 "The results of this study show: That, in germination, the proteids of barley undergo extensive changes without acquiring, or before acquiring, the properties of proteoses; that hordein disappears and an alcohol-soluble proteid of entirely differ- ent composition takes its place; that edestin also disappears and a new globulin is formed, very different both in composition and properties. The albumin, on the other hand, appears to be unchanged in its characters, but its quantity is increased. It is to be noted also that hordein and edestin are both rejilaced by proteids much richer in carbon and poorer in nitrogen." CHEMISTRY. 371 The proteids of the potato, T. J>. Osborne and G. F. Campjjell [Connecticut iStatc iSta. l\pt. 1805, pp. 255-:2(il). — Brief ref'ereuce i.s made to previous work on this subject by other investigators. The details of the niaiiipulation of the pulp and isolation of the proteids are described. In general, these methods were similar to those followed by the authors in previous investigations. The proteids were found to consist of a globulin, for which the name tuberin is proposed, and a i)roteose, occur- ring only in very small amount. The properties of the tuberin are described as follows: " [Tuberin] is precipitated l>y s.aturatiug its solutions with sodium clilorid, sodium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, or ammonium sulphate. By acetic acid or nitric acid a precipitate is given readily solu)>le in an excess of acid even in the piesence of salts. I'otassium fcrrocyanid gives no precipitate until acetic acid is added. Mer- curic chlorid gives no precipitate, but picric acid or tannic acid throws down the globulin. With the biuret, Millon's, and the xanthoproteic tests the usual reactions are giveu. "Tuberin is soluble in very dilute saline solutions, and therefore the juice of the potato contains the greater part of this proteitl. By dialysis it is precipitated slowlj' and incompletely because of the difficulty of removing all soluble salts by this process. Like other easily soluble globulins, it readily changes to the insoluble modification, so that preparation's made by dialysis are to a great extent insoluble in saline solutions. In contact with alcohol it very quickly loses its solubility. "\\'heu . 2(J2-:3S7). — "In recent literature legumin is most commonly referred to as a substance extracted from seeds by caustic alkalies, and more or less altered by the action of the solvent; but nothing has been done, to our knowledge, to show the nature of the original proteid. "The object of our investigation has been to examine the seeds in which legumin is said to exist, and to determine as delinitely as possi- ble the composition and character of this substance." The literature of legumin is reviewed, and the details are given of the authors' investigations on the legumin and other jjroteids of the common garden pea and the common vetch. The results of these in- vestigations are concisely summarized l)y the authors as follows: "(1) So far as we have investigated, peas and vetches contain the same proteids, which are nearly if not entirely soluble iu 10 jier cent sodium chlorid solution. 372 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "(2) The greater part of these proteids consists of a f>;lobuliu, the legumiu of Braconnot, which is readily precipitated by dialyzing its salt solutions. "The prevalent idea that legumiu is 8(duble only in acids and alkalies is errone- ous, it having been proved, notably by Kitthausen, to be a true globuliu. The com- position of legumin, as shown by the average of our accordant analyses of 31 preparations obtained from the seeds of peas and vetches, is the following: Per cent. Carbon 52. 15 Hydrogen 6.96 Nitrogen 17. 98 Sulphur 43 Oxygen 22. 48 100. 00 "Legumin is abundantly soluble in solutions containing above 5 per cent of sodium chlorid; in those containing less salt it is not so soluble, the amount held in solution decreasing as the salt content diminishes, so that it is but sparingly solu- ble in solutions containing less than 1 per cent of salt. By dilution with water, strong saline solutions of legumin are abundantly precipitated, "By saturation with sodium chlorid or magnesium suljihate, its sodium chlorid s(dutions are not precipitated; by saturation with sodium sulphate at 25° they are not precipitated, but at higher temperatures more or less is thrown down, and by saturation with sodium sulphate at 34", precipitation is very nearlj' complete. With nitric acid and Millon's and Adamkiewic's reagents it gives the usual proteid reactions. "With strong solutions of legumin the biuret test gives a violet color at tirst, which on stauding becomes crimson red, similar to the color produced by peptones. "The legumin obtained by us from the vetch is not coagulated by heat nor even rendered turl)id by prolonged lioiling of strong solutions. "The legumin prepared l)y us from the pea is partly coagulated by heating strong solutions in a boiling water bath, and sets to a firm jelly after thus heating for some time. These ditterences in their behavior on heating, and a greater tendency of the vetch legumin to cohere in semisolid lumj^s when precipitated by dialysis, are the only points of dissimilarity which a rigid comparison of preparations from the 2 seeds has revealed. "These differences, in our opinion, are due to the substances with which the proteid is associated in the 2 seeds, for saturation of the -pea, extracts with sodium chlorid, before preciiiitating the legumin by dialysis, greatly diminished the amount of coagulum given by the pea legumin. "(3) Besides the legumin, the pea and vetch contain another proteid in small amount, either an albumin or a globulin, soluble in extremely dilute salt solutions, and coagulated by heating its solutions to 80^. This substance we have not studied further than to make 2 preparations for analysis from the pea and 1 from the vetch. These were obtained in an insoluble form by coagulating with alcohol, so that the properties and reactions were not determined. The composition of this proteid is shown by the following average of 3 closely agreeing analyses: Proteid of pea and vetch. Per cent. Carbon 53. 48 Hydrogen 6. 89 Nitrogen 16. 43 Sulphur 1. 01 Oxygen 22.19 100. 00 CHEMISTRY. 373 "(4) lu addition to the foregoing proteids, a very little proteose was found in the extracts of both these seeds. "(5) No attempt has yet been made to detiu'mino the total (piautity of pruteids in these seeds, nor to study minutely the proteids that occur in them in small pro- portion.'' Conglutin and vitellin, T. B. Osborne and (1. F. Campbell {Couiicctieuf State Sta. Rpt. 1895, 2)p. 288-301.)— '''Review of tlie litera- ture relatiufi" to the plant proteids hitherto described as conglutin and vitellin, shows that the subject is in great confusion. . . . "With the object of determining, so far as may be practicable, the true relations of the globulins found in the various seeds hitherto alleged to contain conglutin and vitellin, this investigation was under- taken." Several preparations were made of the globulin in the almond and peach kernel, and these were analyzed and compared in various ways. The indications were that "the two are identical in all respects, and there can be no doubt that they are the same substance. . . . Having thus, as we believe, established this proteid as a chemical spe- cies quite distinct from all others hitherto investigated, it is j)roper to restore the designation amandin given it by Proust, its discoverer, and to discard for it the names vitellin and conglutin, which are associated with many erroneous statements as to its occurrence, comx)osition, and characters." The composition of amandin is given as follows: A ma ml ill. From almonds. From peach. Carbon .. Hydrogen Nitrogen. Sulphur . Oxygen.. Per cent. 51.41 6.86 19.47 0.39 21.87 100. 00 Per cent. 51.49 6.85 19.16 0.44 22. 06 Per cent. 51.18 6.99 19.33 0.48 22. 02 Per cent. 51.86 6.95 19.34 0.45 21.90 Per cent. 51.04 6.83 19.28 0.44 22. 37 Per cent. 51.30 6.90 19.32 0.44 22.04 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 100.00 100. 00 The characteristics are given at some length. The gh^bulins prepared from the English walnut and filbert were also found to be identical in composition and properties, and "entirely distinct from either amandin or edestin. We therefore i)ropose the name corylin, from the generic name of the filbert, ConjJits tidmlosa, in which this proteid was first found by Dumas and Cahours."' 1 Jour, prakt. Chem., 28, p. 398. 374 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The proi)erties of coryliu are enumerated, and its comi)osition is given as follows: Corylin. Carbon . . . Hydrogeu Nitrogen . Sulplinr . . Oxygen. . . From En disli w alnuts. From 1 Alberts. 1 6. 7. ! «• 9. Per cent. Per cent. ! 1 Per cent. Per cent. 50.32 50.83 i 50 76 50. 72 6.69 6.79 ! 6 89 i 6.86 19.09 19. 05 19 06 11). 17 I 23. 90 / \ 0.89 22.44 } ^^ 29 7 0. 83 \ 22. 42 Previous work by Osborne ' on the globulin of the Brazil nut, which was described by Weyl as vegetable vitellin, has shown it to be " evi- dently different from all others hitherto examined," and the author i)ro- poses for it. the name of excelsin. Osborne- also obtained from the oat kernel " a crystallized globulin very similar in composition to excelsin, but different in its reactions as well as in crystalline form. This globulin might be classed as a vitellin, and for that reason is here referred to. As yet this proteid has received no specific name, and we now i)ropose to call itavenalin." Proteids from the seeds of hemp, squash, and castor beans have also been described under the names of conglutin and vitellin, but Osborne^ has shown that the seeds contain as their chief and characteristic pro- teid one and the same substance, and has named it edestin. " [Edestiu] has been lmiiieen em- ployed in physiological investigations. Tiiat it is a different substance from the proteids already described in this article appears to have been mostly overlooked.'' The i)roteid of the cocoanut described by Chittenden^ as phytovi- tellin agrees with edestin in composition, and as he obtained it jmrtly crystallized in octahedra it probably is edestin. Kitthauseu called the principal proteid of lupine seeds conglutin. Some unfinished investigations of the authors show it to be " distinctly difierent in composition and properties from the proteids which weliave hitherto noticed, and we take especial pleasure in couflrmiug to it the name conglutin proposed by its veteran discoverer." Investigations still in progress indicate that the proteid of santiower seed is also edestin. "We have, accordingly, at least 0 perfectly distinct proteids which have been confounded together under the names vitellin or conglutin," ' Amer. Chem. Jour., 14, p. 662. 2 Conn. State Sta. Rpts. 1890 and 1891 (E. S. R., 3, pp. 11, 766). 3 Amer. Chem. Jour., 14, pp. 671-689. * Med. Eec, 45, p. 450. CHEMISTRY. 375 i. e., amandin, corylin, excelsin, avenalin, edestin, and conglutin. The composition and distinguisliiug cliaracteristics of these proteids are brought together in a table. The chemistry of honey, O. Kiinnmann and A. IIilger (Fortick. n. Jjebciismfl. loid llyij. Chem., 3 [1S!H))^ p.211 ; ahs. in CIteiii. (Untbl., ISOd^ II, No. 9, p. 470, and Cliem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 72, ReperUp. 229).— 'Mha statements concerning the dextrinons bodies present in dextrorotatory honeys and the fermentation of lioney by yeast are very variable. The authors have conducted extended investigations with pure yeasts and have attempted to disclose the chemical nature of the dextrin. Fermentation experiments. — All levorotatory honeys contain only traces of dextrin, and the amounts i)resent in tlie dextrorotatoiy forest honeys have a direct relation to this dextrorotation. If, therefore, large amounts of yeast are used with the former, inactive residues are easily obtained. Von Raumer and jMader showed that press yeast acts more strongly on the honey dextrin than Iteer yeast. To obtain an exact measure of the fermentative energy of various yeasts, the authors started with accurately determined amounts of a dextrin which had been isolated from dextrorotatory honeys. The artificial solutions used had the following composition : Honey dextrin 1 gm., levulose 5.5 gm., dextrose 4.5 gm., and the concentrated aqueous extract (pre])ared by boiling) of 10 gm. beer yeast. The solution was then made up to 100 cc. with water. The yeast extract was added for the purpose of producing a smoother fermentation. One hundred and lifty cubic centimeters of this solution was mixed with 10 gm. of yeast and fermented at 25° C. for 140 hours. The beer yeasts were previously deprived of most of the water pi-esent by squeezing in a cloth, and were carefully washed with water to remove wort. Three beer yeasts from different sources gave slight dextrorotatory residues. Two press yeasts gav^e inactive residues, but as such yeasts are never pure, it was thought best to prepare a pure culture of one of the species i)resent. This showed much less energy and left a I)lainly dextrorotatory residue. This i^roved plainly that all the pre- vious work was inexact, and that to obtain good results all materials must be sterilized, the fermentation carried on with well-characterized, easily controlled j)ure cultures of yeast, and all extraneous infection avoided during the fermentation. Wine yeasts were unable to ferment the dextrin. During a period of IG to liO days only 8.7 to 13.1 per cent of the dextrin present was fer- mented. Beer yeasts showed more energy than wine yeasts, but only the variety Saccharoinyces-rombe was able to ferment all the dextrin, while with the others the amounts varied from 40 to 25 ])er cent. It was further found that only extended fermentation would remove the last portions of invert sugar. The honey dextrin was isolated by fractional i)recipitatiou with 376 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. alcohol and was found to be identical with the diastatic achroodex- trin isolated by Lintner and the achroodextrin found in beer wort by Mittelmeier. It could not be crystallized, and by the freezing method gave the molecular weight 1,962, corresponding to the formula (C,2H2oOin),iH,0=l,9G2. Prejmration of the disaccharid. — All fractions remaining from the preparation of the dextrin whose rotation did not exceed +145° were united and the disaccharid separated by precipitation with alcohol and dialysis. The dialysate gave an osazone consisting of light yellow needles, 0.32 gm. of which, dissolved in 100 cc. absolute alcohol, gave [a] D =+54o. The melting point was 184 to 186°. Although maltosa- zone has [a] D = +61° and a melting point of 202 to 206°, the disac- charid of honey dextrin is probably maltose. — w. h. kritg. Contributions to the analysis of honey, E. Beckmann {Ztschr. analyt. Chem,, 35 {1890), Ko. 2, p.263 ; ahs. in Cheni. Ztg., 20 [1896), ¥o. 70, Iiepert.,p. 221). — Konig's method for the detection of glucose in honey does not alwaj's yield reliable results, as many honeys can contain from 15 to 20 per cent of starch sirup or starch dextrin without showing dextrorotation after precipitating with alcohol. The author uses ace- tone or methyl alcohol and tinds that all, even dextrorotatory honeys, are tahen up by these solvents, while a honey mixed with glucose sirnp gives a copious precipitate of dextrinous substances. The reaction of such a honey with an iodin solution is also characteristic. It becomes intensely red, or even violet, while a pure honey is colored only slightly. To detect adulteration witli glucose the following method is proposed: Five cubic centimeters with a 20 per cent honey solution is mixed with 3 cc. of a 2 per cent barium hydrate solution and 17 cc. of methyl alcohol and well shaken. The presence of even slight amounts of glucose,or glu- cose sirup, is shown by the resulting turbidity. When a clear solution of honey can not be obtained, the polarization must be united with this test. — Av. n. KRua. The determination of sugar in chocolate, Kocques [Ann. Chim. anal, appluj., 1 {1896), p. 288 ; ahs. in Chem. Zf(/.,20 {1890), N^o.72,Repert., p. 229). — Fifteen grams of the powdered chocolate is heated to 40° C. with 90 cc. of water until the cocoa butter has melted, and the mixture is well stirred. Fifteen cubic centimeters of a 10 per cent basic lead acetate solution is then added, the li<]uid filtered, and the lead removed by adding to 70 cc. of the filtrate 30 cc. of a solution consisting of 20 cc. of a 20 per cent sodium sulphate sokition and 10 cc. of glacial acetic acid. This gives a very clear filtrate, which can be easily polarized. — w. ii. KRUG. The estimation of tannin, B. Weiss {Der Gerber, 22 {1890), p. 02; abs. in Jour. 8oc. Chem. Ind., 15 {1890), No. 8, p. 020).~T\\(i author finds that it is essential to use a constant weight of extract dissolved in a constant volume of water and to work at the same temperature. It is shown that hide powder which has been washed and dried as CHEMISTRY. 877 recomineiidod by Cerych at-aiii yields a solution wliicli oives a turbidity with tanuiii wlieu soaked in water, as tlumgli the hide liber were con- verted into gelatin by tlie action of water at the ordinary temperature. This is prevented to some extent by treating- the hide powder with an antiseptic such as lysol or mercuric chlorid. Thirty-live grams of pure unsized tilter i)aper is pulped in 2 liters of 2 \)ev cent lysol solution ; 100 gm. of hide powder is added and allowed to remain several hours. The mass is drained on a funnel, pressed, and treated, once with juire water, once with dilute alcohol, and once with strong alcohol. The mixed powder and paper are then allowed to dry over night and pulverized. — w. H. krxtg. Division of chemistry of Kentucky Station, A. M. Peter {Ken- tucky Sta, Rpt. 1805^ pp. XI-XXV). — Analyses are given of sorghum cane, butter, distillers' grains or dried distillery slop, sugar beets, min- eral waters, saltpeter made from tobacco stems, coal, iron ore, limestone, niter earth, "White Burley tobacco, tobacco stems, tobacco ashes, ash of corn stover, corundum, cider, and phosphatic fossil shells. In 4 samples of butter the fat varied from 75.15 to 82.09 per cent, and the water from 11. SO to 14.41 percent. The samj)le of "dried distillers' grains" contained water 8.60 j)er cent, crude jirotein 29.94, albuminoids 28.88, fat 8.94, nitrogen-free extract 39.': 9, fiber 11.02, and ash 1.51. The salt|:)eter from tobacco stems was obtained as a by-product in tlie man- ufiicture of tobacco extract. It contained from 40.92 to 45.02 i)er cent of potash and from 11.59 to 12.90 per cent of nitrogen. The cleavage products of albumen, S. G. Hedin (Zfschr. physiol. Chem., 22 {1S96), No. 2, pp. 191-196). — The author describes a base isolated by liim from casein, from albumen of white and yolk of ei^g, from blood serum, and from horn. The author thinks it is A-ery likely that the chlorohydrate of the base is identical with that described by Sieuiried. ' Researches oa arabinose, Berthelot and G. Axdre [Compt. Rend., 123 {ISDG), No. 17, pp. 625-631), — A study of the action of hydrochloric acid and phosphoric acid on arabinose under varying pressures. Concerning lucifererase or photogenetic zymase of animals and plants, R. Driiois (Coiiipt. Ilnul., 123 {1S9G), No. 17, pp. 653, 654). The accuracy of Winkler's method of determining oxygen in solution in drinking -water, G. W. Chlopix {Arch. JIyroper generic; name in sevc^ral instances, it being a disputed ([uestion whether some of our American grasses maj' not have been wrongly referr<'d. Of tho fll2 species described in this work, many of them for the first time, 809 are native and 103 introdmed grasses. In aed. A bibliography of about 100 works relating to \orth American grasses and a very full index complete the work. Phyllotaxy as a guide to plant analyses, A. L. Benedict {liid. Torrey Hot. Clnl, 23 {1S90), No. 11, pp. 435-439). A systematic account of the Phalloideae of the United States, l'.. A. Burt {Bot. Gaz., 22 {1S9G), Xo. 5, pp. 379-391). A rearrangement of the North American Hyphomycetes, li. Pound and F. E Clements {M'ntnemia Bot. Studies, Bui. 9,pt. 9, pp. 644-673). Concerning a new micromycete, F. Tognini {Bend. li. lunt. Lomh. scL c hit., sir. 2,29 {1S96); ahs. in Hedwigla, 35 {1896), No. 5, p. 119). — Notes are given oi Acremoniella verrucosa, which is probably the cause of a new grain disease. New species of micromycetes, F. Tassi {Atti. della B. Jcad. Fisiocrifici, ser. 4, 8 (1890), p. 10; «'w. in Crnthl. Bakt. und For. AUg., 2 {1896), Xo. 19, pp. 616-618). Remarks on the inflorescence of Ro.sa, F. Crkpin {Bui. Soc. Boy. Bot. Belgique, 34 {1S95), II, pp. 32-53). Investigations on the anatomy of the Betulaceae and Corylaceae, A. M. Boubier {Coutr. Bof. Lah. Unir. (iencre, ser. 3, 6 {ISOi',), pp.91, jigs. 24). — Anatomical studies were made of Betula, Aluus, Corylus, and Carpinus. Investigations on the growth and anatomical structure of the ash (Fraxinus excelsior), F. Schneider {Forsil. naturw. Ztschr., 5 {1890), Xo. 11, pp. 421-438). A study of some anatomical characters of North American Gramineee, VII, T. Holm {Bot. Gaz., 22 {1896), Xo. 5, pp. 403-406, pi. -?).— Notes are given on Amphi- carpum Jloridanum and A. pursliii. A contribution to the biology of Myxomycetes, C. Lippeut ( Verhandl. zool. hot. Ges. Weiu, 1896, p. 235; ahs. in Hedwigia, 35 {1896), Xo. 5, p. 100). — An account is given of the sporangia of Fhysarum cinereum oroideum, Didymium microcarpuvi, Choudriodcrma diffonue, ami Crihraria sp. On the stem anatomy of certain Onagraceae, F. Ramaley {Minnesota Bot. Studies, Bui. 9, pi. 9, pp. 674-690, 2}ls. 3). — The author was una'ble to find any charac- ters of sufficient constancy to use in systematic determination. Concerning the relation of the form of the leaves of Campanula rotundifolia to light intensity, K. GoEREL {Sit:ungsher. math, physikal. Akad. TVissmsrli . Miinclten, 1895, Xo. 3, pp. 331-335). On the correlation of heliotropism and geotropism, F. Czapek {Sitzungsher. kgl. Akad. TTi.vSfjisc/i. IVien, vol. 104; ahs. in Bot. Centbh, 68 {1896), Xo. 4, pp. 117-119). Ascent of water in trees, F. Darwin {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), Xo. 509, 2}p. 374, 3751. — A brief abstract is given of a jiaper read by the author before Section K of the British Association at its meeting Sei)tember 18, 1896. Influence of continued electric currents on the decomposition of carbonic acid in aquatic plants, M. Thouvenix {Bev. gen. Bot., S {1896), Xo. 95, pp. 433-450). Abnormal formation of resin ducts and other anatomical changes in the wood of diseased conifers, A. P. Andeiison {Forsil. naturw. Ztschr., 5 {1896), Xo. 11, pp. 439-454). Unnatural colors in foliage {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), Xo. 457, pp. 471, 472). Green and blue colors in leaves and flowers, H. Moliscii ( Wiener Illus. Gart. Ztg., 20 {1896), Xo. 8-9, pp. 287-301).— The author gives a resume of information relative to chlorophyll and anthocyan. External characteristics of root tubercles of Leguftninosae, D. Clos {('ompt. Rend., 123 {1S96), Xo. 9, pp. 407-410). METEOROLOGY. 381 Recent investigations on the bacteria of the tubercles of legumes and the fixation of nitrogen through their agency, Stutzek (Cciitbl. Halt, nud I'ar. AUg., 2 {1S06), Xo. 20, pp. 050-053). — A rcsuiutS is jiiveu of a fow works which appeared during the past year or two. Present position of morphological botany, D. H. Scott (Xalure, 54 {lS9i;), Xo. 1405, j)j>. 5S5-54S). — Presidential address hefore Section K of the meeting of tlio British Association Septeniher 17, 189G. On the use of gelatin in preparing large material for demonstration, J. "Woirr- MAXX {Hot. Ztg., 54 (ISHC), II, Xo. 2.', pp. 357-54(1).— k method is yivcu for the use of gelatin in preparing large specimens for microscopical examination. Son\e aqueous media for preserving algae for class material, W. A. Setchkll and J. Y. Osteriiout (Amer. Micros. Jour., 17 {1896), Xo. 11, pp. 378-384). — Direc- tions are given for the i)reparation and use of solutions of chrome alum, formalin, and camphor water for different groups of alga-. Report of the botanist, G. E. Stone {Massachusetts Hatch. Sta. lipt. 1SD5, pp. 173- 170). — The author mentions the recstablishment of the botanical department of the station and briefly outlines the work begun or to be investigated. METEOROLOGY. Meteorological observations, 1895, C. S. Phelps {Connecticut Storrfi fSta. Bpt. 1895, pp. lll-li:i). — This includes comments on the weather during the season; monthly summaries of observations at Storrs on atmospheric pressure, temperature, rainfall, relative humid- ity, precipitation, and cloudiness; and a record of rainfiill at 21 local- ities in the State during the 0 months ending October .■>!. "The total jirecipitation for the year (45.7 in.), as measured at Storrs, was nearly up to the average for the State. The average for this State from observers having observations covering 10 years or more prior to 1890, is 49.1 in., and the average at Storrs for the past 7 years is 44.7 in. The precipitation was least during the months of February, May, and June. The early part of the growing season was exception- ally dry, and the hay and strawberry crops were considerably reduced in yields below an average crop. During the remainder of the growing season, light rain- falls Avere frequent and most crops were fairly Avell supplied with moisture. . . . "The temperature for January was about the average, Avhile February was exceptionally cold. March gave a low average temperature, but April was mild and favorable for farm work. Severe frosts occurred as late as May 14 and 17, doing some damage to early vegetables. The temperature for the summer months was not high. The highest temperature occurred early in June and the third week in September. Light frost occurred on September 15, but the first killing frost came October 15, thus giving a growing jieriod of 150 days siuc<\ tiio last severe frost in the spring, The average growing season at this station for the past 7 years has been 144 days. The last 3 months of the year were comparatively mild, but gave an unusually large amount of rainfall." Meteorological summary for 1895, V. PL MuNOY {Kentucky 8tn. Rpt. 1895. pp. LX-LXVI). — Meteorological summaries are given of observations on temperature, pressure, precipitation, cloudiness, wind movement, and other phenomena. The annual summary is as follows: Temperatxire (degrees F.). — Maximum, 05, September 20; mininuim, — 13, Februarys; mean monthly, 54.1; mean daily range, is.l. Pres- sure (inches). — Highest, 29.42, November 27; lowest, 2S.24, January 25; 8908— No. 5 ;i 382 EXPEEIMENT STATION RECOED. mean, 29.01. Precipitation (inclies). — Total, 35.32; number of clear days, 95; i)artly clondy, lOS; cloudy, 102. Wind (prevailing direc- tion).— SW. Kuuiber of days on which thunderstorms occurred, 19; snow, 21; hail, 2; fog', 2. A resume of solar observations made at the royal observatory of the Roman College during the first half of 1896, P. Tacchini {Compt. Bend., 12?, (IRW), Xo. 7, pp. 375-377). Weatlier record at Newport (Arkansas) Substation for the season 1894, (1. B. Irby {Jrlansas Sta. Itpt. ISU'i, p. ,??). — Rejirinted from Biilletiu 31 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 878). Meteorological observations at Camden, Arkansas, 1894, C. L. Newman (Arkansas Sta. Ilpt. 1805, p. i;?,?).— Reprinted from Bnlletiu 34 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 97). Meteorological summary for 1895 {Maryland Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 220, 229).— Gen- eral notes on the weather cuuditions of the year and a summary of observations on temjierature and precipitation. The precipitation for the year was 35.54 in., the mean temperature 53.1^ F., the maxinmm 101"^' (Sept. 23), minimum 7^ (Feb. 3), and daily rangf 22.5^. WATER— SOILS. The Florida parishes of east Louisiana, W. W. Clendenin {Lou- isiana 8tas. Special Rpt.pt. 3,xrp. 163-256). — This is a continuation of the work of O. Lerch on the geology of north Louisiana (E. S. R., 5, p. 282), and deals with the greater part of the State of Louisiana south of the thirty-first degree, including the Florida i)arishes of east Louisiana and the bluff hill and prairie sections of southwest Louisiana. "The section lies between the Mississippi River on the west and the Pearl River on the east, and is bounded on the south liy Lake Ponchartraiu. Lake Manrepas, and Bayou Manchac. It includes 8 parishes . . . and comprises an area of about 4,500 square miles. . . . " The purely alluvial parishes are not here considered, inasmuch as they, being (up to the present) the chief agricultural lands, it was thought best to make a sep- arat(3 report upon them. Only those alluvial soils that lie in proximity to the older soils, iu parishes that contain both, are here treated. . . . "The object l)eiug to make an agricultural rather than a purely geological report, particular attention was given to the origin, nature, and depth of soil ; to water supply and fjuestious of drainage, and especially to the character of the natural or virgiu growth upon the lands, where obtainable, as being one of the truest indices of tlieir nature and possibilities." Different chapters of the bulletin are devoted to description of area, including geography and history, topography and drainage, the mounds, natural ponds, geological history, brief history of the Lafayette forma- tion, brief history of the Columbia formation, soils, economic products, including mineral and vegetable products, climate, the 5 islands, and some geological sections (pine hills, pine tlaf s, prairies, and bluff), with an appendix by W. R. Dodsou on the i)riucipal plants of economic value in this region. A i»ecnliar topographical feature of this region is the mounds, which "attain their greatest development in the prairies around and near the sulphur mine iu Calcasieu Parish." WATER SOILS. 383 The formation of these mounds is ascribed not to the activity of ants but to the escape of gna throuiih fractures produced by earthciuake shocks in tlie strata, the gases, in their passage tlirougli the water, car- rying up from below the sand which is the peculiar constituent of these mounds. As regards the geological history of the region, it is stated that — ''The Florida parishes are a part of the coastal i)lain that borders the Atlautic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico from New England to and bej'ond the Rio Grande. The coastal lowland, averaging about 150 miles in width, maj- everywhere be divided into 2 and often 3 distinct types of topography. ''The 'low grounds' of the Caroliuas and the ' pme meadows" and 'pine llats' of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, constituting the seaward division of the coastal plain, are, as has been described, topographically young. Their illy drained areas extend up all the transecting primary streams and many of the secondary. ''The landward division of the coastal plain is topographically mature. Its per- fectly drained surface is made up of a succession of hills and ridges whose even crests show them to be the tattered remnants of a former peneplain. " The third type of toi)ography is found as bordering zones along the great streams whose tributary' sources were in the regions of the northern continental ice sheet. While the sediments constituting the strata of this type were deposited quite as late as those of the pine Hats, yet the attitiule of the laud is such that topographic forms have been of rapid development, and the topography of these areas is not inaptly styled adolescent. "This coastal lowland, constituting the most recent important addition to our continent, belongs to the Lafayette and Columbia formations. These fornuxtious, recent subdivisions of the Orange Sand of llilgard and other geologists who studied this region, while not fully determined as to exact geological position, are probably late Tertiary and Quaternary. Being almost destitute of fossils, biologic criteria can not be used in fixing them in the geologic section, and resort must be had to the ])rinciple that ' geologic history may be read from the configuration of the land as readily as from the contemporaneous rocks and fossils.' This being the case, a geologic province should include alike the areas of degradation and concurrent dei)osition." Applying this method, a brief history of the Lafayette and Columbia formations is worked out. In the Florida parishes sandy, clay, and humus soils are distributed over large areas. "From the nature of the deposit the greatest amount of humus is found in the soils of the river bottoms, especially the tirst bottoms, that are subjei-t to overtlow. "The 'second bottoms' and 'pine flats' while containing considerable amounts of humus are more especially characterized by the development of that ilistiuctly clayey group of strata, the Port Hudson, which produces a heavy soil. "Moreover, much of the soluble plant food from the liill soils has been deposited there. "These all combine to make these soils inherently fertile or strong. This has long been rec(jgni/,ed in the modern alluvial deposits over the Hood plains of streams, hut as yet unappreciated in the 'flats' and 'second bottoms' that constitute nearly one- half of those* parishes east of the Amite. "In their present nndrained condition these soils are soni- and unproductive. This can be completely corrected by tliorougli drainage and some addition of lime to assist in clianging the brown, solnble humus into thc^ true black humus desired. "When tliis is done these lands will become among the most valuable in the State. '•Over the hills of these parishes, east of the zone of 'bluff' bordering the 384 f:XPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Mississippi River, is spread a thin coating of brownish-yellow, clayej' loam that is highly productive. Immediately underlying it at a depth varying from a few inches to a few feet is the much more sandy Lafayette, which, when it liecomes the upper soil from removal of the yellow loam by erosion, loses its solul)le plant foowells as a means of -water supply, W. G. Cox {Brishane: Capsford Jl' Co.; Xew York: Van Nostrand Co.). Typhoid fever in Indiana and its possible connection Twith •water supplies, S. BuRRAGE {Purdue UnirersUy Monographs, Puhllc Health Series, No. S and 4, pp. 3l-2'>). — The nature and dissemination of typhoid fever is discussed and precautions to be observed to prevent contamination of water supply are explained. On the purification of -water supplies of cities and to-wns, S. Bukrage {Vnr- dite I'niversilii Monograjjhs, Piihlic Health Series, No. 3 and 4, pp. 1-30, jigs. 4, p\. 1). — This ia a i)opular discussion of the impurities commonly found in drinking waters, and some of the latest methods for purilication of w.ater. A study of the vrater of different springs in the park in Grignon, .). Cruciie- TKLi.E (Ann. Agron., 33 (ISOG), No. 10, pp. 4i:0-4S4, Jigs. ;?).— The aumuut of nitric nitrogen carried off in the natural drainage is estimated. A study of the ^waters along the railw^ay from Sfax to Loued Seldja, E. Ber- TAiNCHAUi) (Jiiil. Agr. et Commerce, 1 (1896), No. 1, pp. 30-41). Water analysis, .T. B. Lind.sey et al. (Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Rpt. 1805, pp. 233-325). — The method followed in water analysis is described, and instructions for sending samples are given. Analyses have been made of 124 samples. Sample analyses of difiterent waters are given. The absorptive povsrer of humus soil, M. Lacuaitd (Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, ser. 3, 386 EXPERIMENT 8TATI0N RECORD. 15-lG {1896), No. 18-19, itp. 1108-1110).— Tests of the alisorptive power of sterile and hiimris soil for dextrin and gelatin are reported, showing tliat the presence of hnmus greatly increases this pr(>i)ert> in soils. The conservation of moisture in the soil {(iarihn and Forest, 0 (1S96), Xo. 450, pp. 401, 402). The influence of growing plants upon soil moisture, E. D. .Sandehson {Souilurii Itiiralist; Florida Farmer and Fruit (irotoer, 8 (189G), No. 41, pp. 045, 640). — A popular article based upon experiments made in Germany and hy the stations in the United States. FERTILIZERS. The assimilability of nitric and anmioniacal nitrogen by plants, Pagnoul {Ann. Ayron., ;J;J {J89(i), Xo. 10, pp. 485-490).— These two forms of nitrogen were compared with each other on beets, cameline {Camelina stifiva), clover, and oats grown in pots of about 25 liters capacity filled with sterile sand. Three pots were devoted to each test, the first receiving no fertilizer, the second phosphate of soda and nitrate of potash, and the tliird ])liosphate of soda, muriate of potash, and sulphate of ammonia. Tlie sulphate of ammonia proved decidedly superior to the nitrate, giving yields nearly double the yield of beets, clover, and oats, and over three times tlie yield of cameline produced by the nitrate. The unfertilized plants contained a small amount of nitrogen, but the proportion was largely increased when fertilizers were ai)plied. No trace of nitric nitrogen was found in the unfertilized plants. It was abundant, however, in plants which had received nitrates and in much less but still appreciable quantities in those which had received sulphate of ammonia. The indications are that the ammonia salt was directly assimilated and was more rapidly taken up than the nitrate. Examinations of the crops on June 6 and 22 showed that during that period the nitric nitro- gen had greatly decreased in the cases where nitrates were used, and it is inferred that this nitrogen was used to build tissue. Ammoniacal nitrogen was also determined. Very small amounts were found, on the average a little more in the plants to which nitrates were ap])lied than in those receiving the ammonia salt. The water content of the plants receiving sulphate of ammonia was smaller than that of those fertilized with nitrates. The method used in determining nitric nitrogen in these investiga- tions was as follows: Dry the material at 105° 0. and grind fine while still warm. Place 2 gin. of the powder in a porcelain dish with a little water and heat to boiling for a few minutes. Cool and add 6 to 10 drops of subacetate of lead, mix, and then add 1 gra. of animal black which has been washed with acid. Let stand for 1 hour, shaking from time to time, filter into a 50 cc. Hask, and make up to mark. Evaporate 5 cc. of this solution to dryness, add a dozen drops of i)henol-sulphuric acid (10 gm. phenol in 70 of acid), mix thoroughly, add aJittle water, and then ammonia. A yellow coloration due to j^icrate of ammonia appears if nitric nitrogen was present in the origiiuil material. The amount of FERTILIZERS. 387 nitric iiitrogiMi originally present is (leterniined by e()mpariii«^- tlie tint obtained with that of a type solution of picrate ot ammonia, (1 mg. per liter). For the determination of ammoniacal nitrogen grind 10 gm. of the fresh i)lant in a mortar and i)la('e it in a Ihisk with 50 cc. of water, 0.5 gm. of magnesia, a few pieces of pnmice stone, and a small cpiantity of paraffin. Connect the flask with a condenser aner ton of the 24 brands ol' bone manures aualyzt;d has l^een $32.09, and the average valuation $31.03 per ton. . . . "Cotton-seed meal has been by far the cheapest source of available nitrogen, dur- ing the past season. Experiments indicate that it is as rapidly and fully avail- able as the best forms of animal matter. It has been extensively used this year in home-mixed fertilizers and has giveu perfect satisfaction. . . . "Castor pomace is an expensive form of organic nitrogen at present prices, and is used chiefly by certain tobacco growers who still prefer it to cotton-seed meal. The Poijuonockexjieriments indicate that cotton-seed meal in equivalent (jiiautity yields tobacco of the same quality in all respeits as castor pomace, and at a much lower cost for fertilizers. . . . "In acid rock x)hosphate available phosphoric acid has cost on the average very considerably less than in dissolved boneblack. Those who have tried the acid phosphate in home- mixed fertilizers report very favorably, finding little or no trouble from caking or 'setting' after mixing. There is no reason in the claim that the 'available' phosphoric acid of the dissolved rock phosphates is any less valuable agriculturally than that of dissolved boneblack. . . . " Potash in the 8uli)hates, both high and low grade, has cost about 1 ct. more iier pound than in the muriates. ... "Allowing 6, 5^, and 2 cts. per pound respectively for soluble, reverted, and insoluble phosphoric acid, the price of actual potash in 20 samples of cotton-hull ashes has ranged from 4.3 cts. to 13 cts. per pound, the average being 6.1 cts. . . . "The fact that cotton-seed meal and dissolved phosphate rock sold at very low prices during the last winter and spring induced many farmers to mix their own fertilizers who had not previously done it. "Fifteen samples of these home mixtures have been analyzed at this station. . . . "These fertilizers as a rule have a higher percentage of nitrogen and of potash than the average of factory-mixed goods and considerably less phosphoric acid. . . . "The mechanical condition of these home mixtures has been uniformly good, and not noticeably dili'erent from that of factory-mixed goods." The experieace of the farmers was favorable to the home mixtures as regards both effectiveness and economy. Commercial fertilizers, E. B. Voorhees ( U. S. iJept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 44, pp. 24). — A popular bulletin on the composition and use of commercial fertilizers, in which the following topics are discussed : The need of commercial fertilizers; ferti- lizer requirements of different soils and crops; forms, sources, and comjiosition of fertilizing materials — nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash; agricultural vs. com- mercial A'alue of fertilizers; variations in the composition of manufactured ferti- lizers ; the purchase of fertilizers ; conditions under which fertilizers niiiy be profitably used; the kind of fertilizer to use; and the systematic application of fertilizers. The principal features of this bulletin are brought out in the following summary: "(1) Commei'cial fertilizers are mainly valual)le because they furnish tlie ele- ments— nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and ])otash — which serve as food, not as stimu- lants. "(2) The kind of farming in the past and the demands for special products in the present make their use necessary in ]iroii table farming. "(3) In order to use them profitably the farmer should know — "(fl) That nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the essential manurial constituents; " {h) That the agricultural value of these constituents depends largely upon their chemical form ; "(c) That these forms are contained in specific products of a well-defined character and composition, and may be i)urchased as such from dealers and manufacturers and may be mixed successfully ou the farm. FERTILIZERS. 891 "(4) Tho a2;ricultural value of a fertilizer bears no strict relation to the eomiiior- cial value; the one is deteriuined by soil, crop, and climatic conditions, the other by market conditions. "(5) The variations in the composition and A-alue ot manuractiired I'ertili/.ers which contain the three essential constituents are due to \'ariations in the character and in the itroi»ortion of the materials nsed. "(6) The ton basis alone is not a safe guide in the purchase of these connnercial fertilizers. Low ton prices mean either low content of good forms of plant food or the use of poorer forms. Fertilizers, high grade both in quality and ((uantity of plant food, can not be purchased at a low price per ton. "(7) The best fertilizers can not exert their full effect on soils that are too dry or too wet, too compact or too porous. They can furnish but one of tlie conditions of fertility. "(8) The kind and amount to use should be determined by the Aalue of the crop grown and its power of acquiring food. "(9) Adetinite system or jtlan should be adopted in their use; ' hit or miss ' meth- ods are seldom satisfactory, and frcciueutly very expensiv(\" Tile best economy of concentrated fertilizers, 8. W. .Johnson {ConiiecHcitt State Sta. lipt. 1S05, pp. 102-165). — A general discussion of this subject intended simply "to illustrate the fact that tlu) interests of those who buy as well as of those who sell commercial fertilizers can be best promote92). — Nuuicrous instances arc reported in which cereals (rye and occasionally wheat) were unhealthy on fudds to which nitrate of soda had been applied. It is suggested that there was a deiiciency of water as the season advanced and the soil solution ol' nitrate l)ecamc too concentrated. On the microbiology of nitrification processes, S. AVinogradsky {('cnlhl. lUtkt. und Par. AlUj., 2 (ISOO). Xo.s. 1.1, pp. 415-428; 14, pp. 449-45S). Concerning nitrate destroying bacteria, A. Stftzer and 1\. Matt. {f'ev11)l. Ilakf. and Par. Allg., 2 (1890), Xo. 15, pp. 473, 474). The proper management of stable manure in the stable, in the manure heap, and in the field {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 (1S96), Xo. 89, p. 791). The preservation of stable manure, P. Waonrr (Landhote, 17 {189i]), Xo. 27, p. 244). Sewage disposal in cities and towns, S. BiRRACiK {Purdue Unirersity Mono- fjraphs, Public Health -SVrie.s, Xo. 5, pp. 16). — This is a popular discussion of the nature and composition of sewage ; of old methods of sewage dis]»osal ; and of modern meth- ods of sewage purification, including liroad irrigation, intermittent filtration, sedi- mentation, subsurface disposal, mechanical filtration, and chemical precipitation. Sewage disposal on the farm,- T. Smith ( U. S. Dcpt. Af/r., Farmers' Bui. 43, pp. 20, figs. 8). — A popular treatise intluding the following topics: Disposal of niglit soil, liquid sewage, kitchen and chaml)cr sloi)s, and waste and garbage ; and jjrotection of drinking Avater, including ways of contamination and construction of wells. Without attempting to make any definite suggestions applicable to all conditions it is urged that "the ]»rinciples to be kept in tiie foreground are the disposal of sewage iu the superficial layers of the soil in not too great <|uantity, the disinfection of the stools of the sick with lime before such disposition is made, the digging of wells in places kept permanently in grass and at somt; distance from barnyards, and, above all, their thorough protection from contamination from the surface and from the soil immedi- ately below tlic surface." Analyses of commercial fertilizers, M. A. Scovkll, A. M. Pktkr. and 11. E. Curtis (Keniuek}i Sta. lipt. 1895, pp. 59-72; XXt-i-ifi').— Reprints «>f liulletins nc and 60 of the station (E. S. R., 7. p. 491; 8, p. 40). Composition of commercial fertilizers, II. 1!. McDoNXKr.i, kt at,. {Miinjlaud Sta-, Bui. 40, p2>. 69-121). — This bulletin incdndcs a schedule of trade values of fertilizing 392 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. ingredients; a list of fertilizers licensed for sale in ^Maryland for the year ending January 31, 1897; and tabulated analyses and valuations of 390 samples of fertilizers examined during the period from March to .July, 189(). Official inspection of commercial fertilizers and general chemical -work in 1895, C. A. GOESSMAXN (Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Jipt. 1S95, pp. 313-328).— K brief account is given of the work of fertilizer inspection and of the general work in the laboratory of the chemical division of the station, accompanied by a list of the fer- tilizer manufacturers complying with inspection laws in the .State, and tabulated analyses of 14 samples of ashes from a crematory furnace at Lowell, Massachusetts. Compilation of analyses of fertilizing materials, H. U. Haskins {Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Upt. 1S95. pp. 3JS-345). — Tables show the composition (maximum, mini- mum, and average for the 3 essential ingredients) of fertilizing materials analyzed at Amherst, Massachusetts, since 1868 in percentages and in pounds per ton. Analyses of fertilizers, C. A. Goessmaxx (Massachuseits Hatch Sta. Bui. 40, pp. 20). — A schedule of trade values is given, together with tabulated analyses of 189 samples of fertilizing materials, including sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, ashes, tankage, bone, natural phosphates, cotton-seed meal, and mixed fertilizers. The royal Saxon agricultural experiment station at Mockern. Report of the "work of the fertilizer control in 1895, < >. Bottcher {Siichs. landw. Ztscltr., 44 (1896), Xos. 34, pp. 415-418; 35, pp 429-43:2). FIELD CROPS. Observations on the gro-wth of maize continuously on the same land for 8 years, E. H. Jenkins {Connecticuf State St((. Bpt. 1S!)5, pp. 21i>-:J2:j). — This is a contiuuation of work published in the ATiiiiial Eeport of the station for 1894 (E. S. R., 7, p. 198). Beginning with 1890, 3 plats were annually fertilized as follows: One with 10 cords per acre of cow manure, another with V.\h cords of hog manure, and another with 1,700 lbs. of a commercial fertilizer; a fourth received no fertilizer. Tabulated data are given for the gross yield and the yield of dry matter for 1895, the relative yield of dry matter for 0 years, yield of food ingredients in 1895, the percentage composition of the field-cured maize, kernels, and stover for each plat, the loss or gain in soil fertility after 8 years' manuring and cropping with Indian corn, and the yield of dry matter and shelled corn for 8 years, and composition of dry matter. The following table shows the results of 8 years' cropping and manuring: Gain or 1o»s of soil fertility ]>er acre hij S years^ manuring and cropping tcith Indian corn. Treatment of soil. Cow Tnamire Hog inamue , Cheiiiic al fertilizers No fertilizer Nitrosen. ^''S*"''1 ^"t^^^- Pounds. +1,117.9 Pounds. + 788.1 + 1,870.8 ! +3,446.0 -1- 520.2 i + 971.6 — 316.6 I + 53.8 Pound*. 'r799. 1 + 63.9 + 177.4 — 66.0 Taking the plats in the order given in the table, the first receives annually about 3,207 lbs., the second about 5,440 lbs., and the third about 200 lbs. of organic matter. FIELD CROPS. 303 The author states that "excess of iiitrogeu has not made tlic crop ' run to leaves,' nor has deticiency of plant food strikingly affected the relative proportion of ears and stalks/' During 0 years the Urst and second plats (cow manure and liog manure) have yielded on the average the same amount of water-free crop, the third plat (chemical fertilizers) has yielded more than eight- tenths as much, and the fourth plat (potash) between five and six tenths as much as the first two. There was a general falling off" in the yield of all the plats during 5 years. As to food ingredients, the crop both of kernels and stalks on the first 2 plats has been practically identical as regards chemical com- position. The kernels of the crop on the third plat contained some- what less mineral matter and fat and about 0.5 per cent less protein than the crops on the first 2, with correspondingly more nitrogen-free extract. The kernels in the crop on the jilat not manured had 2.3 per cent less proteids than the first 2 j)lats, somewhat less ash and fats, but more fiber and nitrogen-free extract. Mixed forage crops, C. A. Goessmann [Massachusetts Hatch. 8ta. Ept. IS'J-'j^ pp. :JS8-;293). — The following mixtures were grown on well- manured land: Vetch and oats; vetch and barley; oats, vetch, and horsebean; and oats and lentils. The yields are tabulated and analyses (food constituents) of all the mixtures are given. The author concludes that these croi)s comi)are favorably in value with clover hay. Fertilizer experiments on oats, C. A. Goessmann {Massachusetts Hatch. ^St((. Rpt. 18!)(>, pp. 27S-:28S). — This is a continuation of previous work published in the Annual Report of the State Station for ISO! (E. S. R., 7, p. 298). In a preface the author reviews his previous work in this line. On 11 tenth-acre plats a uniform application per acre was made of i)otash and phosphoric acid, and on 8 of the plats 45 lbs. per acre of nitrogen was added in the form of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, or dried blood. The plats were sown to oats. The yields are tabulated and com[)ared with those in 1893. The author states that the condition of the different plats has apparently not been materially changed by raising soja beans. The comparative effect of muriate and sulphate of potash on the potato crop, E. H. Jenkins (Connecticut State Sta. Rpt. 1895 .^ pp. 117-127\ pis. ;J). — This is a report on 1 cooiierative experiments carried on in the State under the supervision of the station and 1 in coopera- tion with the German Kali Works of New York on the effect of potash salts on the potato crop. Nitrogen and phosphoric acid in different forms and potash as sulphate or muriate were used in varying amounts. The tabulated data give the yields, starch content, and analyses of samples of the crops raised. The author states that the results reported naturally differ with the character of the land, quantity of nitrogen ai)plied, weather conditions, etc. ; that in general when muriate of jjotash was applied the potatoes 394 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. contained less starch by 0.5 per cent or less than those raised with sul- phate of potash; that muriate may be used where yield alone is sought; that the unfavorable effect of the muriate on the quality of the tubers may probably be lessened by applying it to the land early, even the fall before ; and that for growing seed potatoes or those of extra quality the sulphate should be used. Observations on the agricultural chemistry of sugar cane, T. L. Phipson {Barbados Bat. Sta. Misc. Bui. 7, pp. 1-9), — This is a po^Hilar article treating of the demands that plants in general, and particularly sugar cane, make on the soil. Analyses are given of 13 samj^les of soil from the West Indies and 1 from Queensland. With reference to lime in soils for growing cane the author says: " Wheu the liuautity of lime has diminished so much by prolonged culture as to be present to the extent of only 0.1 per cent, and then only one-third that of the magnesia present (knowing that in the origin the lime was not only equal to but higher than the magnesia), we may rest assured that the crojis of cane ou this soil will fall off year by year, and that the most careful system of manuring will be necessary to place it again in its former lucrative condition. "Such a state of things actually exists over a very considerable portion of British Guiana and Barbados." Stable manure is considered the best of all for cane. The mixing of acid superphosphates with Peruvian guano and cane ash is recommended for cane soils. The application of sulphate of ammonia is advised only when accompanied by a relatively larger quantity of other manures. The author says : "There are, indeed, 3 special agricultural difficulties in the direct path of the cane grower in the West Indies. The first is that Jie is dealing almost everywhere with a stiff claj^ soil, difficult to work even were labor more plentiful than it is ; the second is a remarkable deficiency of lime in many districts; and the third is the very imperfect nature of the manures hitherto imported, and the implicit faith placed in the restoration of the begass ashes." Report of the results obtained with sugar cane on the experi- mental fields at Dodd's Reformatory, 1895, J. P. D'Ai^Euc^UERcii e {Barbados: 18!H), pp. 13). — The fertilizer experiments were arranged to show the eflt'ects ou the sugar cane of applications of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash in different forms and proportions and at differ- ent times. The element tested was in each case combined with the other two, so that a complete fertilizer was used. Applications were made in January and July. The cane was planted in December on 26 plats about one-twentieth of an acre in size and was harvested in April. Tabulated data are given for each group of tests. For nitrogen the highest yield was obtained with the application of 15 lbs. per acre in January and 25 lbs. in July, in the form of ammonium sulphate, and the juice was distinctly richer than in cane from the dried-blood plats. For phosphoric acid 100 lbs. in the form of basic slag gave best results. For potash 100 lbs. gave the highest yield. Applying potash, part early and part late, gave better results than when all was applied early. FIELD CROPS. 395 A test Avas made of 12 varieties. Caledonian Queen, Striped Singa- pore, and St^edlin^' 1*7 liuric acid, the low grade con- tains about twice as much of each of these ingredients as the high grade. The soda is over 6 times as much as in the low grade, the chlorin is about the same, but the insoluble matter in the high grade is 6 times as much as in the low." In one county the potash in the crop of 1891 was about li times that of 1890, the magnesia and chlorin nearly twice as much, and the insol- uble matter about \ as much. The analyses of manufacturing tobacco FIELD CROPS. 397 P'owu ill Viioiniii agreed very well in their asli conieiit excei)t in one county, where it was much lower. The potash did not agree except in 1 or 2 cases. The lime content varied considerably in all cases, and in chlorin and in insoluble matter there was very little agreement. The shipping tobaccos from the Virginia Department of Agriculture c(m- tained ab;)ut ^ more potash, about :\ less lime, and about 4 times as mnch cldorin as the other. In the samples from West Virginia and North Caiolina the ash con- stituents agreed fairly well; the chlorin varied considerably, ranging in the ash from 2.22 to 8.08 per cent. The percentage of ash, nitrogen, and potasli was higher and that of lime nuich lower in the samples from West Virginia than in those from North Carolina. Percencage of nicotin in tobacco, R. -T. Davidson ( Virfjlnia Sta. linl. 52^ pp. 1)7-72). — The percentage of nicotin is given for 3 varieties of tobacco at 5 stages of growth — in the plant bed, at topping, at cut- ting, partly cured, and cured; also in 21 samples of different grades of manufacturing tobacco grown in different counties of Virginia, West Virginia, ami North Carolina, including in some cases the crops of different years. The data are tabulated. Comparing the varieties Burley, Prior, and Oronoko, ''we see that in the case of the plant taken from the plant bed there is very little differ- ence [in the nicotin content]. At time of top])ing, in case of the leaf, the agreement is very close. ... In the stalk the agreement is not so close, the Burley containing about twice as much as the Prior, and nearly three times as much as the Oronoko. In the root the difference is very slight. ... At time of cutting the leaf does not show the same agreement e\cei)t in case of the Pryor and Oronoko, when it agrees fairly well, the Burley being lowest, over 0.5 per cent less than the Oronoko and over 1 per cent less than the Prior. The percentages in the stalk agree much better at this time, being very nearly the same in the 3 varieties.'' Among the different grades of manufacturing tobacco the author states that the light tobacco contained the lowest and the dark the highest percentage of nicotin; it ranged from 1.54: in high-grade bright tiue cured to 5.5G in English shipping. A comparison of phosphatic slag and nitrate of soda \vith ground bone on oats and corn, C. A. (Ioessmann {M((ss(ichusctfs Hatch St((. Rpt. /iS'.'AJ, pp. 308-310). — This is a continuation of work pub- lished in the Annual Ileport of the State iStaticui for 1894 (E. 8. K., 7, p. 291). Two plats were used, 1 and 1.8 acres in extent. One received line ground bone, the other phosphatic slag, and both muriate of potash. 8908 — No. 5 4 398 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. In 1894 one was sown to oats and the other to corn; the order was reversed in 1895. The following table coutaius the summary of tlie yields per acre of both crops : Summary of i/ieldii for 1S95. Oats, hay Corn, ear.s ' . . . Corn, stover 2. I Phosphntio Bone and ! slag, nitrate muiiato of i of soda, and. ))otash. ' niuriatpof I potash. Pounds. I Pounds. 3,580 I 5,134 H, 410 ' 4,231 2,000 •■ 3,091 • Moisture, 28 per cent. ^Moisture, 19.1 per cent Avhon harvested. The anthor concludes that for two successive seasons phosphatic slag used in connection with nitrate of soda has been a very efficient substitute for gronnd bone. Field experiments -with fertilizers, C. S. Phelps {Connecticut Starrs 8ta. Rpt. 1895, 2>p- 101-110). — These consisted of special nitrogen experiments on corn, cowpeas, and soja beans, and soil tests at the station and on one other farm. Special nitrogen experiments (pp. 101-107). — May 30, uniform applica- tions of dissolved bone black and muriate of potash were made on 8 fiftieth-acre plats, to 7 of which nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia in varying amounts were also added. Two plats served as checks. May 31, 2 varieties of corn, differing considerably in content of pro- tein, were planted on the plats in check rows 3 ft. each way. The data are tabulated. The author states that there was a marked increase in the yield on the nitrogenous plats over the plat to which only mineral fertilizers were used, and that the latter gave but slight increase over the check plats. On a- like series of plats similarly fertilized cowpeas were planted in 3-foot drills May 31. The yields are tabulated. A])plicatious of nitrogen did not increase the yield. The author concludes that the crop can be readily grown on soils of moderate fertility withont the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Two series of plats similar to those upon which the corn and cow- peas were grown were planted to soja beans. Soil on which soja beans had grown the previous year was sprinkled over one series of plats. The results are tabulated. But few tubercles were found on the inocu- lated plats and none on the others; and there was no material differ- ence in the yields attributable to this treatment. Soil-test experiment (pp. 107-109). — The results are given for the sixth year of a rotation soil-test experiment on the station farm. The crops in x)revious years had been corn, potatoes, oats, cowpeas, and corn. Potatoes were grown in the present case. Two half acres were divided FIELD CHOPS. 399 into 10 plats each, witli spaces betAveen adjacent plats. The usual fer- tilizers and combinations were used. The potatoes were attacked by bligiit in July, and the yields, which are tabulated, were "quite light on all of tlie plats." Plants on plats fertilized witli potash withstood the blight best. The yields on these plats during the 0 years of the test are tabulated. Soil test ivith fertilizers on corn (p. 110). — A coiiperative fertilizer experiment with corn was continued on the farm belonging to the Ekonk Grange. Previous work in this line was published in the Annual Report of the station for 1894 (E. S. R., 7, p. 571). Tabulated data are given for the kind, amount, and cost of fertilizers, yield of shelled corn, percentage of dry matter in shelled corn, Aveight of shelled corn jier bushel, proportion of good and poor corn, and weight of stover per acre. A report of progress is made in experiments in green manuring with different kinds of leguminous crops for tlie purpose of studying their value for improving wornout, sandy lands. Owing to the dry season in 180."> the results were inconclusive. So far cowpeas have given the best results. Field experiments vrith different commercial fertilizers, C. A. G0ESS3IANN [MassachmetU Hatch tSta. Ept. 1895, pp. i^.'W-^-'y.s). — The results of experiments begun in 1800 (E. S. R., 7, p. 292) with dis- solved bone black, South Carolina j)hosphate, Florida phosphate, Mona guano, and phosphatic slag are reviewed, and the data for 1805, with rye as the crop, are reported. A summary is given of the yields of crops from 1800 to 1805, inclusive, and a tabulated statement of the phosphoric acid applied to and removed from the field. The author states that the amount of phosphoric acid in the soil at the close of the season in 1805 was lowest in the plat where dissolved bone black was applied. Report of the agriculturist, W. P. Brooks {Massachusetts Hatch iSta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 177-208). — Cooperative experiments with fertilizers on corn were carried out on o farms in the State, and the results in two cases are rej)orted, in which the yields were larger where either muriate of potash or nitrate of soda were applied. At the station the yield of rye where barnyard manure or complete commercial fertilizers were employed was increased, and wliite nuis- tard sown July 31, after the rye, made the largest growth on plats that had previously received applications of i)hosphates. In a comparison on 1 quarter-acre plats of muriate and sulphate of potash as a source of potash for i)otatoes the fertilizers were api)lied broadcast and in the drill. The author states that the plats receiving the sulphate of potash have given the largest yield in every instance except one, and the .average difference in favor of drill application amounted to 22.1 ]»u. of merchantable ]»otatoes per acre. The difference in yield between Maine-grown seed potatoes and seed grown at the station from Maine-grown seed of the year previous was 36.5 bu. in favor of the former. 400 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A test wp. 39-0.3). — Reprinted from P)ulletiu5r)ot' thestatiou (E. S. R., 7, p. 201). A reported iie-w variety of cotton, A. Piienis (Tlie Southern State.x, ISOd, Xor.,pp. 35.'>-359, .i72,Jlfi>^. ;?). The manuring of cotton, L. Grandeau {Ann. Sci. Jgron., scr. J, 1S9G, II, Xo. 2, pp. :.!.'>3-264, fujs. 3). — This is principally a review of the work of the Alabama .Station. Cotton, R. L. Bennett and G. B. Iuby {Arkansas Sia. Jipt. isn5, pp. ,?.?, :J4). — A eprint from Bulletin 31 of the station (E. 8. R., 6, p. 898). Cowpeas, It. L. Bkxnett and G. B. Tuny {Arkansas Sta. Upt. 1S9.',, pp. ll-li;). — A reprint from Bulletin 31 of the station (E. S. E., G, p. 898). Vegetable textiles of the French Colonies, II. Lk Comte {Ann. Sci. Agron., srr. ,?, ISHO, IT, Xo. 1, j>p. 1-11..'). — This is a report on cotton, jute, malvaceous li))er I)lauts, Sida, Papilionaceu', Urticacete, Thymeleaeeie, Abaca (or nianila hemp), Lili- acea' {Phormia ten ax ami Yucca), Sanseviera, Bromeliaceai (Ananas and Tillandsia), Amaryllida> (Agave, Fourcroya, and palms), Raphia, and Graminea^. Forage plants, C. L. Newman {Arkansas Sta. lipt. 1895, pp. 12G-12S). — Reprintef from Bulletin 34 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 121). Forage plants at Wagga "Wagga, G. Vai-deu {Agl. Gaz. X. S. Wales, 7 {1S9G), Xo. 9, pp. 602-008, Jigs. 5). — Notes are given on the culture of lucern, tagosasto {Ci/tisiis proJiferns all)us), Bokhara clover, Lathyrus Kglrestris. sachaliue, piickly comfrey, serradella, and Jersey tree kale. Tagosaste is spoken of as a most valuable plant in time of drought, but one not to be recommended on a large scale as a forage plant. Planted 4 ft. each way, in 12 months the plants were 10 to 12 ft. high. The author considers it ini'erinr to the S'lltbush {Atriplix niiinmi(laria). Sachalinc, prickly comfrey, and serradella are not n>eommended. The .Jersey tree kale is considered a valuable fodder jjlant. Experiments with fodders and pasture grasses at the Richmond River Experiment Farm, (i. M. McKeown {Agl. Gaz. X. S. Wales, 7 {1S9!), Xo. 8,2>p. 528- 532). — The season was very dry and hot. The following species and varieties were grown: Sorghum, jnillet, teosinte, lucern, tagosaste, {Cytisus proJifcrus «?/»»«), alfalfa, clovers (red, crimson, alsike, Dutch, Japanese, Egyptian, and Bokhara), sulla, serra- della, trefoil, Hat i)ea, hairy vetch, barley, I'aspahim eonjngatnm, P. dilaiatnm, P. pnhes- cens, Natal redtop {Trkhlana rosea), Panicnm x>Uvatum, guinea grass (/'. maximnm), P. sjxctahile, P. effnsnm, barnyard grass, Elcusine str'icta, Setaria maerostachya, prairie grass {Ilromiis nniohndes). smooth brome grass, perennial rye grass, t>rehard grass, rough-stalked meadow grass, an, pp. 311, 311'). — The yields of hay for 2 cuttings in 1895 are tabulated. Fertilizer experiments on hemp {Kentucky Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 54,55). — Reprinted from Bulletin Tio of tlie station (E. S. R., 7, p. 201). Oat experiments {Kentucky Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 84-80). — Reprinted from Bulletin 57 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 758). Peanuts, C. L. Newman (Arkansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 19-23, 124-126). — Reprinted from Bulletins 31 and 34 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 8.S9; 7, p. 117). Jerusalem artichokes, turnip.s, and mangel-wurzels, R. L. Bexnett and G. B. Ii;i5Y (Arkansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 24-28). — A reprint from Bulletin 31 of the station (E. S. R.,6, p.X90). Sugar cane in South Florida, S. W. Caksox (Florida Farmer and Frnit drawer, 8 (1896), Xo. 42,, pp. 078, 079). — A popular article discussing conditions and noting a favorable test. Progress in the study of the chemistry of tobacco, R. Kisslixg (Cheni. Zltj., 20 (1896), Xo. 74, pp. 715-717). — A careful review of investigations on this subject during recent yeais. Hairy vetch, G. Barbut (Prog. Ar/r. et Fit., 26 (1896), Xo. 40, pp. 550-556). Wheat experiments (/vf'HfHcA?/ Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 75-83). — Reprinted from Bulletin 57 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 763). The improvement of -wheat from a commercial and milling standpoint in con- nection •with its chemical and physical properties, A. Richtei! (FnhVuufs landw. Zt(j.,45{/896), Xos. 10, pp. 320-326; 11, pp. 353-361; 12, pp. 392-395; 13, pp. 424-429; 15, pp. 491-497; 18, pp. 576-588; 19, pp. 607-623).— kn extended discussion of the subject. Note on silage, N. Minangoix ( Ihil. Agr. et Commerce, 1 (1890), No. 1, pp. 29-35). Experiments at Borsbeke-lez-Alost, Belgium, P. be Vuyst (CnUiires Speciales, Borshil,e-lez-Alost, 1890, pp. 12). — Experiments with fertilizers, tests of varieties, and methods of culture during 1895 and 6 preceding years are summarized. The crops experiuiented on during this period include wheat, oats, rye, mixed cereals (masliu), potatoes, beets, turnips, hax, clover, and meadow grasses. HORTICULTURE. On the use of commercial fertilizers for forcing-house crops : Tomatoes, E. H. Jenkins and W. E. Beitton {Connecticut State Sta. Rpt. JS!).j^ pp. 7r>-90). — The object of tliis series of trials was "to deter- mine with all possible accuracy how much plant food various forcing- house crops take from the soil during their growth, and whether commercial fertilizers can be used instead of stable manure, wholly or in i)art, to supply this plant food." In this first experiment the nitrogen requirement and nitrogen supply of tomatoes grown under glass were studied. Five plats on a forcing-house bench, each containing 13.87 sq. ft. and about 8 in. deep, were filled with an artificial soil consisting of anthra- cite coal ashes and peat moss with a small amount of carbonate of lime to make the mixture alkaline. One plat received no fertilizers, but the remaining 4 were supplied HORTICULTURE. 403 witli ])hosplu)ric acid in the form of dissolved bone black and potash as iimiiate at the rate of 8,1 and 20.3 gni., respe(;tively, i)er plat, and with nitiogen as nitrate of soda at the varying rates of 10.0, 18.2, 25.4, and 32.7 gm. Two ])laiits of eacli of the varieties Iguotum, Acme, and Dwarf Chain[)ion were planted in e.ach of these 5 plats abont Jannary 1, at which time, they were somewhat "leggy," but develoi)ed into fairly normal, thrifty specimens. They were trained npon the "single-stem" system, and the flowers were artificially pollinated. By January 8 the plants on the unfertilized ])lat were lighter in color than the others, and this diflerence increased through the season. The first fruits were harvested February 27. An accurate record of each plant was kept, with the weight and measure of each tomato produced and notes regarding form, color, etc. Fruits taken from the plants when bearing freely, the \ines and leaves at the close of the experiment, and trimmings removed during the growing season were all analyzed for fertilizer ingredients; but the roots could not be readily separated from the ashes and peat, so they were not considered. Tables are given showing for each plat the fertilizers aj)i)lied, yield of each variet\^, average number and Aveight of fruits i)er plant, num- ber of double fruits, number and percentage of perfect-shaped fruits, and average yield per square foot of bench area; the composition of vines, leaves, and fruits; and the (piantities of fertilizer ingredients taken from each plat in fruit and vines. The data are discussed from both the chemical and horticultural standpoints. A rough comparison is made between the plants grown on the artifi- cial soil and others grown on natural soil in the same forcing house, but under slightly difierent conditions. It is thought that the artifi- cial soil contained very little nitrogen available to the tomatoes, as the G [)lants grown on the plat without fertilizer contained only half a gram of nitrogen, part of which came from the young plants and the soil adhering to their roots when transplanted. The authors also believe that the i)lied in the fertilizer and taken from each i)lat in the crop: Phosphoric acid aud potash applied in fertilizer and remorcd hi/ tomato crop on artificial f<0il. Plat. Phosphoric acid. I'ot a.sli. Applied. Kemoved. Applied. lleiiioved. 5 Grams. 8.14 8.14 8.14 8.14 Grams. 5.50 6.70 7.76 8.95 Orams. 29.30 29.30 29. 30 29. 30 Grams. 26. 85 6 39. 55 7 50. 16 8 46.46 404 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The 4 plats with regularly increased amounts of nitrogen show an increasing yield of limit, of the average number of fruits per plant, and of nitrogen, i)hosx)horic acid, and potash in the crop, as shown in fol- lowing table: Fruit (jrowH and fertilizer con>,2)p. 93-95). — All experiment similar to tlie above with tomatoes was made with lettuce, but extended notice is to be deferred until fur- ther tests are completed. Some data which are thought to have inde- pendent value are given. Beds containing 11.6 sq. ft. were tilled with a mixture of 190 lbs. anthracite coal ashes and 10 lbs. peat moss, and plants of Simpson White Seeded Tennis Ball lettuce were set 8 in. apart each way. At harvest the lettuce heads were cut close to the surface of the soil, weighed, and dried for analysis, and the roots separated as mcU as possible from the soil and analyzed. Tables show the amounts of ferti- lizer applied and crop harvested, composition of fresh plants, and fer- tilizer ingredients taken up by crops. The authors give the following conciusions: "(1) Lettuce of good qnality can be grown under glass in an artificial soil such as we have described with the use of commercial fertilizers. "We are not prepared to say at present that its (piality is as good as the l)est let- tuce grown in rich, natu; al soil. "(2) A crop of forcing-house lettuce raised as above descrilied takes from the soil in roots anerimeut, it was necessary to add to the soil the following ([uantities of fertilizers per 1,000 plants, or per 387 sq. ft., the area used in our experiment for 1,000 plants: Fvrtilizcr.i requind by 1,000 Itttace plaiils. Weight. Cost. Lh». Ozs. 9 13 2 15 3 8 Ci-nts. 25 4 Muriate of potash 7 Total . The use of artificial soil and commercial fertilizers in forcing houses, V^. H. Jenkins and W. E. I>ritton [Connccticnt State >Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 91, 92). — In counectiou with the experiment with tomatoes 406 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. described above (p. 402), some points are noted iu favor of artificial soil of coal ashes and peat moss as a substitute for natural soil, but tlie exjierieuce is considered too limited to aftbrd conclusive results. This experiment tended to show that with artificial soil the benches can be filled at less cost, that i)lants are not so liable to attacks of root insects or nematodes, tliat the croj) will mature earlier, and that the benches do not decay as rapidly. Field experiments ^vith commercial fertilizers on garden crops, C. A. GoESS]MAT\'N {Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 2!)9-o()7). — A general resume is given of experiments along this line begun by the State Station in 1891 and described in the Annual Reports of that station for 1893 and 1894 (E. S. E., 6, p. 296: 7, p. 302). The crops upon which different forms of nitrogen and potash were tested in 1895 were onions, sweet corn, beans, and tomatoes. Notes and tabulated yields per plat are given for each crop, and summaries for crops raised for several years in succession. The author draws the following conclusions from the summarized data: "Sulphate of potash in counection with nitrate of soda has given in every case but one (onions) the best results. ''Nitrate of soda as nitrogen source has yielded in every case, without reference to the form of potash, the best returns. "Suliihate of aiymonia as nitrogen source, in connection with muriate of jiotash as potash source, has given the least satisfactory returns. "The influence of the difference in the general character of the weather, whether normal or dry, during succeeding seasons on the yield of cro]»s has been greater than that of the ditlerent fertilizers used u2)on different plats during the same season." The nitrogen and mineral matters in a peach crop, E. H. Jenkins [Connecticut ^tatc 8ta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 15?, 158). — Tables are given showing the nitrogen and ash in the air-dried flesh and stones of 2,000 gm. of peaches, and the proximate constituents of the ash. The pulp of the fruit contains the greater part of both nitrogen and mineral matters, onlj" one-fourth of the nitrogen and one-tenth of the ash elements being contained in the stones. From the data given it is estimated that the following amounts of nitrogen and ash ingredients are removed by a peach crop of 390 baskets per acre : Xitrotjen and ash ingredients removed per aere hij i)eaeh crop. Nitrogen 19. 7 Potash 21.9 Soda 1.2 Lime 1. 0 Magnesia 1.0 Iron oxid 4 Phosphoric acid 4. 2 Siilphuric acid 1. 0 Chlorin 4 HORTICULTURE. 407 On fertilizing orchards, S. \V. Johnson {Connecticut State Sta. Ii2)f. 1895, pp. ir>'.)-iiil). — A <;eiieial discussion of the subject is given, based upon data obtained from the analysis of peaches (see p. 406). The author thinks tlie ligures given indicate that an average crop of ^leaches requires about 20 lbs. of nitrogen, 22 lbs. of potash, and ."> lbs. of phos- phoric acid per acre; and a maximum crop about 27 lbs., 30 lbs., and 7 lbs., respectively, of these ingredients; but considers that the growth of young Avood, the limited amount of soil accessible to the assimilating rootlets, the change in availability of fertilizers in the soil, and the loss by leaching must all be taken into account; and that the amount of any fertilizer ingredient necessary can be known only by experience or experiment. Lime is thoughit to be a very necessary addition to many soils, as it is a chief ingredient in the ash of the trees, though scarcely noticeable in the fruit. Horticulture : Results for 1895, W. 0. Stubbs, F. H. Burnette, and E. Watson {Louisiana Stas. Bui. 42, pp. 1503-1544). — This bulletin contains general remarks on truck growing in the State and tabulated data and notes on the following crojis grown at the stations: Vegetables — asparagus, snap beans, Lima beans, beets, cabbages, cauliHowers, carrots, sweet corn, cucumbers, eggplants, potatoes, sweet potatoes, kale, kohl-rabi, leeks, lettuce, cantaloupes, okra, peppers, peas, radishes, ruta-bagas, squashes, tomatoes, turnips, and water- melons; Fruits — api^les, nectarines, figs, grapes, pears, |)eaches, Japanese persimmons, plums, quinces, oranges, grape fruits, raspberries, straw- berries, Japanese wineberry, and goumi. Seeds of the same variety of nearly every vegetable tested were obtained from Northern and from Southern seedsmen and comparison made to ascertain if there was any advantage in the use of Northern grown seeds. The sources of the seed are noted in the table for each crop, but no conclusions are drawn. The origin of the bean and of its name, H. Daitthenay {Rpi\ Hort., OS (IS96), No. IS, 2)2). 432-434). — Review of a paper by G. Gibault published in Jour. Si>c. Xnf. Tlort. France. The original habitat of the beans (Wien. iUus. (larl. Ztg.,20 {1S96), No. It>, 2H>- S.->4-35€). Intensive cultivation of celery, W. H. Jenkins {Amer. durd., 17 (ISDH), Xo. 103, 2>.7Sn,J}{,.l). Culture of the sea kale (Crambe maritima), N. Schneit)ki{ (/•'<''. Iforl., OS (1896), Xos. 1S,2>}>. 430-439; 19, pP- 4-'S-401 , jig. 1). Mushrooms, edible and poisonous, W. C. ]>atks ( Tr, pp. 79-81). — Popular siotes are given for the recognitiou of edible mushrooms. Edible fungi, E. F. Wallis {Xnt. nist. Jour., 20 {1890), Xo. 179, 2)p. f .'4-1 27).— Poimlar notes are given of a mimlter of edible mushrooms. Svreet potatoes, R. T>. Br.xxETr and (J. B. Iuhy {Arkansas Sta. J^pt. 1S:>',, 2)p. iC- 75). —Reprinted from r.nll.-tin 31 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 902). 408 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Pollination and reproduction of Lycopersicum esculentum, P>. Eink (Minne- sota Bot. Studies, Jiiil. 9, jit. 9, pp. GSG-CA-l). Vegetable gardening and tests of vegetables, C. L. Newman (Arkansas ,Sta. Bpt. 1S95, pp. 90-124).— Rein-inteA from Bulletin .'U of the station (E. S. E., 1, p. 123). Notes on vegetables, C. W. ]\Iathews and A. T. .Iordax {Kentuclaj Six. Rjii. 1S95, 2)p- S-3G).—A reprint of Bulletin 54 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 212). Hardy garden plants, E. O. Orpet (Trans. Massachusetts Hort. Soc, 1S9G, J, pp. 18-29). The compost heap for pot culture (Amer. (iard., 17 {1S9G), Xo. 103, pp. 793, 793, fuj. 1). — Directions for niakini;- and utilizing compost heaps and compost. Movable and combination greenhous3 benches, W. H. Wittk (Florists' Ex- clmnfje, S (1S9G), Xo. 41, p. 924,fujs. 7). The Rochelle apple ( Canadian Hort., 19 (1S9G), Xo. 12, p. ^i^).— Historical notes are given of this new apple, which on account of its far northern origin is lliounlit to ho valuahle for colil regions. Six varieties of cider apples, G. Heuze (Rw. Hort., GS (1S9G), Xo. IG, pp. 37G-379, pj_ 7). — Descriptions of the varieties are given, with compai'ative chemical data relating to their suiiahility for cider making. The Vermont apple crop, F. A. Wai'Gii (dardcn and Forest, 9 (1S9G), Xo. 45S, p. 48S). The Claude Blanchet pear, C. ]\Iathiei: ((iartcn flora, 45 (1S9G), Xo. 23, pp. G17, 61S,pl. 1). The Howell pear (Canadian Hort., 19 (1S9G), Xo. 12, p. 411, pi. 1). Orange dropping and its causes, C. B. Messenger (California Fruit drower, 19 (1S9G), Xo. i.T, p. 2S1). Orientation of young trees in transplanting, A. CHAUCiUEnAUi) (/.'cr. Hort., 68 (ISOG), Xo. 19, pp. 4r,(i, 4:>1). Suggestions for setting out fruit trees, Perscke (Dent, landiv. Presse, ..'3 (189G), Xo. 91, p. S09). Irrigation for apricot and other fruit trees (Af/l. .Tour. Cape Colony, 9 (1S9G), Xo. 22, x>I>- 5G.'i, oGG). — Notes are given on the ])roper time for the apjilic'ation of water. Manuring orchards, E. B. Voorheks (Trans. Massachusetts Hort. Soc, 1S9G, J, pp. 15U-lGo). Passiflora edulis, J. Roberts (Garden, 50 (189G), Xo. 1305, pp. 414, 415, j)l. 1, fitj. 1). — Directions for cultivation of this plant, which is considered valuahle hoth as a decorative climber in conservatories and as a producer of fruit. Chemistry of the strawberry plant, J. J. Willis (Card. Chron., ser. 3, 20 (1S9G), Xo. 51G, pp. 590, 591). On the choice of fertilizers for grapevines, E. Degrully (Fron. Agr. ef Vit., 26 (IS9G), Xo. 4G,pp. 541-543). The early Victor grape (Canadian Hort., 19 (1896), Xo. 12, p. 41S,fi. 1//SJ). Comparative merit of different geraniums, ][. Daitiiknav (Her. ITort.jCS {ISOU) No. 17, pp. 410-41^). — A table is given Kbowing classilicat ion of (12 varieties with respect to rt'sistancc to extremes of wind, drou<;:ht, and moistui-i; ; freedom of llower- iu<;, general vigor, and form of flower clusters. The ash of orchids (Florists' Exchange, S {1S96), Xo. 44, p. DSO). Stove plants in their native tropics, G. L. Goodale ( Trans. Massachttscits JTorf. Soc, ISOU, I, pp. ''i'i-r,4). — An illustrated lecture on some tropical plants. The chemical tripod in floriculture, E. C. Kedzik (Florists' Exchange, 8 (1S9'1), Xo. S'',p. 770).— \ paper presented by the author at the meeting of the Society of American Florists at Cleveland, Ohio, August 20, 1896. The author discusses the gen- eral principles underlying the use of fertilizers and suggests the possibility of retard- ing flower production by the use of nitrogen to stimulate vegetative activity and of hastening the flowering period by the ai)plicati()n of superphosphates. Au editorial u a later number of the periodical (Xo. 43, p. 962) suggests work by the stations along this line. Experiment stations and the florist trade, A. C. Tkue (Ftorisli' Exchange, S (1890), Xo. 4.', p. 100:). Ornamental planting for parks and public grounds, W. S. Egemtox (Trans. Mas.sachnsetts Ilort. Soc, 18.90, I, pp. 119-133). Report of horticulturist, S. T. Maynaud (Massachusetts Hatch Sta. llpt. 1803, pp. 213-216).— Owing to the rearrangement of station work and the almost complete destrnction of late crops by a hail storm, the author is able to give only an outline of the work undertaken in this department of th(5 station. Compilation of analyses of fruits and garden crops, C. A. Goessmann and 1 1. D. Haskixs (Masmchnsctts Hatch Sta. L'pt. 180.;, pp. 34G-3.'>2). — Tables show the average percentages of fertili:dng constituents and the relative proportions of phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen (phosphoric acid l)eing taken as 1) in a large number of fruits and vegetables botauically classified. SEEDS— WEEDS. Kansas -weeds, III, A. S. Hitchcock and J. B. S. JSToiiton [Kansas SUi. Jiul. .■57, pp. (id., pis. 17). — Tliis bulletin is in continuation of t he weed studies begun in Bulletin 50 of the station (E. S. B,, 7, p. 407). In tLe present number a descrii^tive list is given of all the weeds of Kansas, so far as inforiaation was at hand. By means of keys, illustrations, and brief descriptions, the easy identification of almost any weed is rendered possible. The order of arrangement is that of the usual manuals covering that region, and each si)eeies is numbered referring to the figure and also to a map showing its distribution by counties throughout the State. In all 200 species are described, illustrated, and their distribution indicated. Contributions from the seed testing section of Hamburg Bo- tanical Laboratory, O. Burciiard {Miftheiluiujen ans dem Botanis- clicn Lahorator'nuit mit Sftmcn-PrufiingsdnsiaU zn Hiiniburg, JS97, IT, PP' ^^j P^' 1)' — -^ report is given of the work in the laboratory for the 410 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. year endinr;- June 30, 1896. Studies have been made of blue grass seed, 10 s})ecies of wliicli are described and figured. The report of seed test- ing shows an increase of nearly 20 per cent in the number of samples tested and about 21 per cent of increase in the number of tests for purity, germination, etc. Tlie ^tercentages of purity and germinative ability show in most cases an increase over those of the i)revious year. A brief report is given on samples of barley bran and oil cakes examined during the year. l*]at exiwriments with red clover, summer wiieat, and several legu- minous forage i)lants are briefly reported. Seed raising, R. Fyfk {(lard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896), No. 516, p. 6%.').— Brief notes arc given on seed raising, and the belief that seed from certain jtortious of the plant are better or truer in character is denied. G-ermiiiation of'iree seeds, A. C. Forbes (Gard, Chron., ser., S, 20 {1896), Xo.515, 2>2). ^'>oS, 559). — Practical notes are given on the germination of various tree seeds. Investigations of forest seeds by the experiment station at Bonn in the year 1896 {Ihul. landir. I'res-se, 23 {1896), No. 87, p. 779). Seed control: Its aims, methods, and benefits, G. H. Hicks (7'jj. 28). — An address delivered before the JNlassachnsetts Horticultural Society February 8, 1890. Tumbling mustard, L. II. Dewev ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Dicisio)) of Boiann Circular 7, P2>. 8, fi'js. 3). — Illustrated descrijjlive notes are given of the tumbling mustard {Sisym- brium altissimum), a troulilesome introduced weed. The methods of disseminatiou are descril)ed and its distribivtion shown by means of a map which shows the plant to be widely distributed thi'oughout the northern and eastern United States and Canada. Methods arc suggested for its eradication. Tumbling mustard has been proscribed by law in Minnesota. Brassica juncea, L. H. Bailey {Bat. Gaz,, 22 {1896), No. 5, p. 401).— Tim (question is raised whether this weed is a direct importation from the Old World or a spontane- ous derivation from gardens, the ])lant being somewhat cultivated under the names Chinese mustard ov brown uuistard. "Weed destruction, A. Akxstadt {Die Belampfxng dts Uiikrautcs. Marslehen-Hal- herstddt: J. Briest, 1896, pp. 43). DISEASES OF PLANTS. Fungus diseases and their treatment, W. C. Sturgis {Connecticut State St((. Kpt. isfhj, pp. 106-190, jjls. 3, tables 2). Siinopsi:^. — Notes are given on experiments for the prevention of potato scab, trans- l)lanting as a preventiA'e of onion smut, a leaf curl of Japanese plums, and miscellaneous notes on powdery mildew of grapes, a melon disease, plum leaf spot, hollyhoclc rust, winterkilling of peacli trees, and frost injury to jiears. The ex])eriments on the i)revention of potato scab reported in the Annual Eeport of the station for 1894 (E. S. E., 7, p. 219) were con- tinued and their sco])e somewhat extended. The effect was studied of lime on the prevalence of scab, of treatment of seed planted in infested soil, and of bai*nyard manure on scab production. In addition the effect of corrosive sublimate on the vitality of si^routed seed potatoes was investigated. In this experiment, although treated for an hour or more, the sprouts are said to have been uninjured and all such plants were fully a week in advance of those from unsprouted seed. DISEASES OF PLANTS. 411 A summaiy of the experiments for the prevention of thepotiito scab shows that the addition of lime in small quantities to the soil of the experimental held increased the amount of scab; that the jiresence of the organism in the soil tends to increase the infection of succeeding crops of potatoes, beets, and turnips, and the treatment of the seed with corrosive sublimate before planting in infested soil is of little avail in preventing scab; and that fresh barnyard manure exhibits less tendency to induce scab than composted manure. The author states that too nnich stress must not be laid ui)on this last conclusion, since it is based on a single experiment. Experiments were conducted on the value of transplanting onions for smut prevention, and although the general results are horticultural rather than mycological tlie author's summary shows that — "(1) This method insui-es ii clean crop eveu iipou smutty land. "(2) Transplanted onions are less lialile to the attacks of cutworiys than onions sown in the lield. "•(3) The crop matures earlier by 3 or 4 weeks. "(4) The crop is larger by an average of 50 per cent or more with native varieties, and the average increase with large foreign varieties may exceed 100 per cent. "(5) The individual bulbs are larger and mature more evenly. " (6) The increase in the size and quality of the crop, the earlier ripening, and the lessened expense incident to the care of the plants after tran.splantiug, offset in a measure the cost and labor of raising and transplanting the seedlings. •'(7) This method may bo applied with certain protit wherever it has been the custom to grow onions from sets upon smiitty land, or in small quantities for home use or small sales." A report is given of a leaf curl of Japanese plums. Fully 80 per cent of the trees in the infected orchard were diseased, almost every terminal shoot of the season's growth being aflected. Close pruning and burning of diseased branches and spraying the trees with Bordeaux mixture are recommended as possible means for eradication. The cause of the disease is thought to be ExoaficuH mlrnhilh. A serious attack of tlie ])owdery mildew of grape ( Uncinula spiralis) is reported, and thorough spraying of the vines is advised, the first application to be given before Howering, the second immediately after the fall of the flowers, and others at intervals as reiiuired. A melon disease is described, which is considered due to a si)ecies of Alternaria that is probably the same as that described by E. F. Smith.' The disease is "characterized by a wilting of the leaves, followed by the a])pearance of small yellowish spots and blotches; these increased rapidlj^ in size, the surface of the diseased areas became marked with dark, concentric rings, the tissues became dry and brittle, and upon all the older spots there was a copious growth of black mold distinctly visible with a lens." Applications of Bordeaux inixture were appar- ently without effect in checking the disease. A brief report is given of a severe attack of leaf spot of plums 'Jour. Mycology, 7, p. 373 (E. S. R., 6, p. 557). 412 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. [GyJin(h'osj)orium padi) in nn unsprayed oreliard. The injury could have been prevented by the proper use of fungicides. The hollyhock rust {Pnccdnia maJraceariim) h descri])ed, and the use of a wash of potassium i)erniangauate is recommended for its prevention. Attention is briefly called to winterkilling of peach trees and frost iujury to i^ears, both of which w^ere attributed to unusual climatic con- ditions, against which there seems no practical means of protection. Note on Plasmodiophora brassicae, M. C. Potter {Nature, 55 {1896), Xo. 1411, J). S3). — The occnrreuce of clnb root ou Capsdla tursa-pastoris in England is re- ported. Experiments of the author show that the fungus can maintain its A'itality for at least 3 years in the soil. Scabby potatoes {A(jl. Jour. Cape Colony, 0 (1S9G), Xo. 22, p. 559). — Compiled notes are given on the use of corrosive f^ublimato and copper sulphate for the preven- tion of potato seal). The treatment with corrosive suhlimate was the more successful. Rotting of turnips and swedes, M. C. Potter Jonr. [7>/-)7;.s/(] Bd. Agr., ,? {1896), No. 3, i)p. 120-131, fi(js. 13). — Xotes are given on attacks of Botrytis on stored roots, and care is urged in securing thorough ventilation and drainage for the pits. The fungus diseases of African cereals, P. Hennings {Notizhl. M. hoi. (iard. iind Miis. lUrVm, 1S96, No. 4, p. 117; aJ>s. in nedwigia, 35 {1S95), No. 5, p. lOS). — Compiled notes are given of the diseases of sorghum, rice, and maize. The rusts of grain, their history, nature, and means of combating, .1. Eriks- son and E. Henxings {Die G etreldcrostc ihre Geschichte tind Natnr soivle Massrci/eln gei/en dleselhcn. Stoclholm: P. A. Nor-stedt und Siiiier, 1896, pp. 463, ph. 14, figs. 5). The i-usts and mildews of cereal crops {Card. Chron., ser. 3, 20 {1896). No. 516, j)_ ,757). — An abstract is given of Eriksson and Hennings's Die Getreiderosfe. A new smut, J. J. Davis {Bot. Gaz., 22 {1896), No. 5, pp. 413, 414). — linrriUia glohiilifira is described as a new species of smut found on culms of GJyceria fluitans. Experiments for checking apple rot and codling moth in 1895, H. Garmax {Eeniuclg Sta. FqH. 1S95, pp. 113-129, lyls. 4).—K reprint of Bulletin 59 of the station (E. S.R., 8, p. 61). A fungus disease of apple, G. H. Powelt, {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 457, pp. 474, 475). — Xotes are given oi Leptothyrium pomi, which causes small black spots on apples. Black rot and grape cuttings, A. Carr6 {Prog. Agr. et Tit., 26 {1896), No. 46, pp. 556-559). Bacteriosis of w^alnuts, X. B. Pierce {California Frwit Grower, 19 {1896), Nos. 13, p. 243; 16, p. 316). Carnation anthracnose {Amer. Florist, 12 {1896), No. 444, p. 434).— k brief note is given of an anthracnose attacking carnations, the variety Aurora being especially susceptible. Investigations concerning injuries by smoke, K. Hartig {Ztschr. Forst. jind Jagdw., 28 {1896), No. 11, pp. 680-687). — A controversial article to which Dr. C. Ramann makes a reply. Some tendencies and problems in the evolution of parasitic fungi, G. F. Atkixson {Trans. Massachnsetts Hort. Soc, 1896, I, pp. 98-118). Pathological notes from the Botanical Institute of the University of Liege, A. GRA^'IS {Bui. Soc. Boy. Bot. Belgique, 34 {1895), II, pp. 9-26). — Miscellaneous notes are given on fungi attacking many cultivated plants. Spray calendar, R. H. Miller {Maryland Sta. Bui. 39). — A rejirint of New York Cornell Station Bulletin lU (E. S.R., 8, p. 149). ENTOMOLOGY. 413 ENTOMOLOGY. The honey bee : A manual of instruction in apiculture, F. Ben- ton {U. S. Dept. Ayr., Division of Eyitomology Bid. 1, n. ser,, pp. 118, ph. 11, figs. 7(i). — Tliis treatise is desigued to make tlie practical man- agement of an apiary plain to tliose whose acquaintauce with the subject is limited, and to give a system of management which may be followed on an extensive scale with the certainty of fair remuneration for the labor and capital invested. The anthor has deemed it advisable to treat the natural history of the bee but briefly and to give little attention to matters that are in dispute or such as are only of local application, the intention being to explain apiculture in a way adapted to all conditions. The methods suggested are those which the author has found practicable through an extended experience. Descriptions of different varieties of the common honey bee, Apis melUjica, are given, as well as of A. indiva, A . jiorea, and A. dorsata, East Indian species of probable economic value if introduced into this country. The colony is described and methods for its management are given, together with descriptions of hives and implements necessary. A chapter is given on bee i)asturage, in which quite a number of plants visited by bees are figured and described. Lists are given of the l^rincipal honey plants, and an attempt is made to indicate which are the most important as pollen and honey producers. The manipulation of the brood and its natural or artificial increase is described at con- siderable length. In the chapter devoted to wintering bees brief explicit directions are given, the following of which will prevent any considerable loss. The diseases and enemies of bees are described and suggestions offered for preventing their attacks. The pernicious or San Jose scale, J. B. Smith {Xew Jersey Stas. Bui. IKJ, pp. 15, Jigs. o). — The author reviews the history of the impor- tation of the pernicious or San Jose scale [Aspidiotiis perniciosus), and refers to the work which has already been done by the station in study- ing its life history and means for its prevention. During the past sea- son the author made a tri]) to California to study the insect in that State, and in the present bulletin conclusions from his observations are given, the details being reserved for a later publication. The author states that all deciduous trees in New Jersey are liable to attacks by this insect, and suggests various remedial measures for prevention. Most of these have been tested in California and found to be efficient. The chief dependence is placed on the lime, sulphur, and salt wash, for which 3 modified fornuilas are given. Other formulas are given for washes containing unslacked lime and sulphur (100 lbs. each) and blue vitriol (8 lbs.); and concentrated lye (3^ lbs.), water (7i gals.), and fish oil (1 gal.). Both of these formulas are said to be very efficient. Pure kerosene is said to be fatal to the San Jose scale, but is usually 8968— ifo. a 5 414 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. considered to be extremely injurious to the trees as well. Some experi- ments recently conducted at the Ohio Experiment Station are brieflj'- outlined, in which the experimenter sprayed a]>ple and peach trees with pure kerosene without apparent injury. The author does not recom- mend it, especially on young trees, but in a badly infested orchard it might pay to risk a few trees as an experiment. The codling moth and the apple maggot, C. M. Weed {Xeic Hampshire Sta. Bui. 55, pp. 39-S5, figs. 3). — Popular notes are given of the 2 most destructive insects affecting the fruit of the apple in New Hampshire, the codling moth and the ai)ple maggot. The first-named insect has apparently not increased in destructiveness during the past 20 years, while the apjjle maggot is undoubtedly increasing from year to year. For the prevention of the codling moth, spraying with Paris green is recommended, applying the insecticide when the apples are from the size of a pea to that of a hickory nut. Two, and in case of very wet weather, 3 applications are recommended. For the apple maggot si)raying does not prevent injury, since the eggs are deposited beneath the skin of the fruit, and the destruction of windfalls and general clean culture seems to be the best way of keep- ing this insect in check. Proceedings of the seventh annual meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists {U. iS. Dept.Agr., Division of Entomol- ogy Bui. 5, n. ser.^pp. 100^ fig. 1). — This contains the papers and discus- sions before the meeting at Springfield, Massachusetts, August 27 and 28, 1895. Entom,ologiGal notes and problems, J. B. Smith (pp. 6-18). — Advocates careful cooperation among entomologists by assisting in the study of the same insects and comparing results, deprecates the publishing of incorrect popular articles by newspapers, and urges prompt and con- certed action against insect pests as soon as their presence is known. Notes on insecticides, C. L. Marlatt (pp. 19-26). — Experience with a mechanical mixture of kerosene and water against the euonymus scale indicated that it was not so efi'ective as kerosene emulsion, and that the percentage of oil could not be regulated. Soaps and arsenite of copper were satisfactorily tested as insecticides, and notes are given on arsenate of lead and cyanid of potassium. Some experiments with the Inapsach 'kerosene attachment., If. E, Weed (pp. 26-28). — The author's experience with a mechanical mixture has been most satisfactory both in killing insects and not injuring the foliage. A modification of the lerosene knap sacTc sprayer, CM. Weed, and spray- ing without a pump, J. 31. Aldrich (pp. 28-30). — Authors' abstracts of descriptions of contrivances for the mechanical mixture of kerosene and water, followed by discussions of the papers. '■'■ Raupenleim^^ and ^^ Dendrolene," J. B. Smith (pp. 31, 32). — An ENTOMOLOGY. 415 author's abstract of a paper detailiug experiments to ascertain the actual and comparative value of these insecticides. Both proved advantageous, but Dendrolene is rather preferred. The paper is fol- lowed by a discussion of these and other insecticides. Herbivorous habits of certain Dermcstida', F. U. Chittenden (pp. 36, 37). — An author's abstract, followed by a discussion of methods of treat- ing various household ])ests. Some shade-tree insects of Spriiirj field and other New England cities, L. 0. Howard (pp. 40-47). — The paper treats chietly of the ravages of the elm leaf beetle and woolly maple leaf louse, and urges prompt municipal action on scientific lines as soon as their presence is noted. The use of tire engines for spraying is suggested. The elm leaf beetle in Washington, C. L. Marlatt (i)p. 47-50). — An account of successful treatment, particularly of the trees in the grounds of the Department of Agriculture, by means of several sprayings with arsenate of lead and Paris green, followed by an application of kero- sene emulsion to the bases of the trees to kill the pupje. The elm leaf beetle in Albany, J. A. Lintner (pp. oO-SO). — The ravag'ea of this species in Albany in 1895 are detailed, the English elm suffer- ing most. Spraying was found impracticable, and instead is recom. mended treating the pupte at the bases of the trees with hot water o» kerosene. In the discussion which followed, spraying with arseuatf of lead was strongly advocated. Notes on the gypsy moth in Massachusetts, C. H, Fernald (pp. 59-07). — A general history of the spread, ravages, and methods of treatment ot this pest, with a brief account of the investigations of its life history. In the ensuing discussion the insecticides employed and the importance of constant vigilance were touched upon. The striped cottouwood beetle, J. A. Lintner (pp. 09-74). — An account of Melasoma scripta attacking osier willows in the western part of New York, where both as larva and adult it has caused great damage by eating the leaves and bark. Spraying with the arsenites, supple- mented by collecting the beetles by means of a "bug catcher," resembling a " hopperdozer " in form, has proved of most efficacy. On the study of forest-tree insects, A. T). Hopki}is (pp. 75-78). — This discusses the character and extent of damage to forests by insects, with some estimated figures, the loss in West Virginia for the last 10 years being set down as $25,000,000 annually, chietly due to Scolytids. The need of further work among forest insects is urged. The importation and repression of destructive insects, F. M. Webster (pp. 79-83). — Urges earnest cooperation in dealing with now pests, and preventing their spread by firm (juarantines. In the discussion great caution was insisted upon in pronouncing a nursery free from dangerous insects. Insects of the year in Ohio, F. M. Webster (pp. 84-91). — The Hessian fly, cutwormsj chinch bug, and plum scale were the most injurious, 416 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. although other insects showed a tendency to become dangerous in the near future. On the natural conditions which affect the distribution and abundance of Coccidcc. T. D. A. Cocl-erell (pp. 91-95). — A general paper, treating of the adoption of different food plants, individual variations within species, and other factors. Hoiv shall ice improve our collectionsf C. P. Gillette (pp. 95-97). — An interchange of specimens between economic entomologists is suggested, and the greater use of sweep nets for rapid collecting is recommended. Carbon bisulphid for crayfish, H. U. WeefZ (pp. 98, 99). — Pouring an ounce of the chemical into a crayfish hole and at once closing the open- ing almost invariably killed the crustacean. Analyses of three common insecticides, F. W. Morse {New Hampshire iSta. Bui. 36, pp. 37— W). — Analyses are reported of 5 differ- ent brands of Paris green, 1 of London purple, and 1 of white hellebore. The analyses of Paris green showed a variation in the percentage of arsenic trioxid of from 55.35 to 56.69 per cent. These analyses showed no adulteration, the amount of arsenic trioxid present being nearly that required by theoretical composition. The analysis of the London purple showed 37.56 per cent of arsenic trioxid, which is slightly less than the average amount as reported by other stations. The analysis of white hellebore showed 33.13 per cent of ash, with an abundance of iron and aluminum oxids and insoluble silicious mat- ter, indicating considerable adulteration with clay. Four other samples of hellebore were analyzed later, and one was found to be adulterated to a considerable degree. Unless the roots from which this insecticide is made are thoroughly washed before pulverizing, there will undoubt- edly be a considerable amount of earthy matter in the powdered article. Construction of the comb of the hive bee, C. Phillips [Trans. JSfeto Zealand Inst., 38 (1895), pp. 479-490). Foul brood, or bee pest (Jour. IBrilish] Bd.Agr., 3 {189G), No. 3, pp. 132-134).— Notes are given on Bacillus alvei and suggestions for preventing its attacks The tsetse fly disease (Agl. Join: Cape Colony, 9 {1896), No. 14, pp. 358-360). Ne'w Mallophaga, II, V. L. Kellogg {Leland Stanford Jr. Universiti/ Puhlicaiions, Con tr. from Hopkins Seaside Lahoratorij, 1896, No. 7, pp. 429-548, pis. 14). — The author figures and describes 3.3 new species of Mallophaga parasitic on land birds. In addition to these new species, 10 species described by European authors, but now known as parasitic to American birds are given. In the present paper a detailed account is given of the mouth parts of the genera of Mallophaga and comparisons made with those of various groups more or less iutimately connected with them. Contributions toward a monograph of the Aleurodidae, W. M. Mask ell (Trans. Netv Zealand Inst., 38 (1895), pp. 411-449, pis. 12). The army worm in Ohio, J. S. Hine (Proc. Columbus Hort. Soc, 11 (1896), No. 2-3, pp. 59-61). — Notes on an outbreak of Leucania in northwestern Ohio in 1896. The bagworm (Meehan's Monthly, 6(1896), No. 12, p. 233, figs, f).— Notes aregivon on Thijyidopteryx ephenurceformis. Hand picking and the use of arsenites are recom- mended for its destruction. ENTOMOLOGY. 417 The small cabbage moth, C. Fui.lku (A{/1. (ioz. X. S. Wales, 7 (1S9G), Xo. 7, pp. 444-440, pis. ,J). — Notes an^ givi'ii on Pliiiclla crKciferanini aiul its wasp j)arasite. Recent investigations concerning Cnethocampa pinivora, Ai/niM (Ztschr. Forst. und Jalus (Aphis persica'-nlger), grape phylloxera, fruit bark beetle (Scolytus ruyulosus), zebra caterpillar of cabbage (Mam- estra picta), corn fly (Cha'topsis ivnea), harlequin cabbage \n\g(Mur(jantia histrioniea), regal walnut moth ( atheroma rcgalis), throat hot fly of the horse ( (iastrophilus vasalis), common horsefly (Stomoxys calcitrans), black carpet bug (Attagenus piceus), and chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus). Injurious insects and fungi (Jour. [British'] Bd. Ayr., 3 (1896), No. 2, pp. 153-166, figs. 4). — Notes are given of the cherry moth (ArgyrestMa uitidella), the onion fly (Phorhia cepetorum), Carpocapsa pomonella in walnuts, the hop bug (Calocoria fulvo- macuZf/iHs), surface caterpillars (Agrotis spp.), and tomato rot (Cladosporium lycoper- sici), together with suggestions for combating them. Dendrolene as an insecticide, .1. Troop (Garden and Forest, 9 (1896), No. 458, p. 488). — Notes are given on the use of this substance on jjeach and apple trees, and through its action the young trees were A'isibly affected, some being killed. Concerning the causes of plant injuries through the use of insecticides, Carl MOHR (Ztschr. rfianzenlraul-., 6 (1896), No. 4, m). 208, 209).— The injurious eftect of certain insecticides is mentioned and an aqueous solution of calcium sulphite in glycerin is recommended as harmless to plants while efficient against aphides. Analyses of insecticides, C. A. Goessmann and H. D. Haskins (Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Rpt. 1895, p. 353). — Analyses of 21 samples of insecticides, including Paris green, hellebore, tobacco liquor, and several patented articles are tabulated. Some facts about insects, A. L. Quaintance (Florida Farmer and Fruit Grower, 8 (1896), No. 49, p. 780, fig. 1). — Popular notes are given on the life history and classi- fication of insects. On the larvae of the higher Bombyces, H. C. Dyar (Froc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 27 (1896), pp. 127-147). FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 419 Jumping cocoons {Xaturc,f);':{18'JG), No. 1412, p. i!5). — A brief note is jriveii of tbe ability to Jump sbown by some African cocoons. The insect is tliouglit to be an auoiiialons lepidopter, near Adela. Resemblance of an insect larva to a lichen fruit, G. E. Stone (Bui. Torren Bot. Club, 23 {1S9G), No. 11, pp. 444, 445). — Brief notes are given of mimicry in the larv;o of CiOHSiiparia ulmi. Effect of cold on insect life, K. Sa.io {Ilhis. Woclnnsehr. Knt., 1S96, Oct., pp. 457- 4GU). The displacement of species in New^ Zealand, T. Kikk {Trans. New Zealand Inst., SS {ISO.j), pp. 1-27). — Brief notes are given on the displacement of certain species of insects by the introduction of others. On the so-called animal plants, P. Hennings ( Naturw. Wochenschr., lS9G,p. 317). — Some of the species of Cordyceps are described and figured. FOODS— ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Studies of dietaries, W. O. Atwater and G. D, VfooD^i Connecti- cut Starrs Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 1^9-174). — The work here reported is a continuation of that given in the Annual Reports of the station for 1892, 1893, and 1894 (E. S. R. 5, p. 394; 6, p. 443; 7, p. 596). The results of 11 dietary studies hitherto unpublished are reported in full. A summary follows : Results of dietary studies — Food eaten per person daily. Infant (9 months old) : First study Second study Chemist's family Do Do Farmer's family in Vermont Farmer's familv in Connecticut . Do Do Do Do College students in Connecticut. Cost. Cents. 08 08 24 26 24 Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Q-rams. Orams. Orams. 53.4 66.3 48.7 52.9 57.1 81.0 102.0 98.0 378.0 91.0 150.0 399.0 122.0 147.0 410.0 69.0 92.0 444.0 108.0 76.0 635.0 109.0 91.0 608.0 100.0 121.0 501.0 79.0 117.0 354.0 131.0 161.0 433.0 104.0 156.0 494.0 Fuel value. Calories. 1,035 1,080 2,880 3,405 3,550 2,960 3, 7no 3, 785 3,590 2,865 3,810 3,900 Dietary studies at the University of Tennessee in 1895, 0. E. Wait, comments by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods {U. 8. Dept. Agr., Office of E.vperiment Stations Bui. 39, pp. 45). — Three dietary studies, 2 in winter and 1 in spring, were made of a students' club at the University of Tennessee, and 1 of a mechanic's family. The methods followed were those mentioned in Bulletin 21 of this Oftice (E. S. K., 7, p, 148). A number of Tennessee foods were analyzed. The composition of other foods was com{)uted from standard tables. Tables are given which show the amount and kind of food purchased, wasted, and eaten, and its cost, composition, and fuel value. The results of these studies are briefly summed up in the following table: Results of dietary studies — Food eaten per man per day. Fuel value. Colle{je Club: First study Seioiid study. . Third study... Mechanic's family Cost. Protein. Fat. Carbohy- drates. Cents. Orams. Oram,s. Orams. 153 93 132 457 15i 93 122 472 174 88 128 510 14i 110 210 412 Calories. 3, 480 3, 450 3, 635 4,090 420 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. In the cominents ou tliese dietary studies the results are compared with results of similar studies made iu other localities in the United States and with the accepted dietary standards. The Tennessee beef is also compared with that raised in other regions. The following conclusions were reached : '' So far as the analyses which have l)een made are concerned, beef grown near Knoxville, in Tennessee, is much leaner than that urown in the North and Northwest. That this is so is not against hut rather iu favor of the Teuuessee-raised beef. . . . " In general these dietary studies at Knoxville agree with those made elsewhere in implying that the food consumed by the people of the United States contains rela- tively too little of the flesh formers and too much of the fuel ingredients. . . . "The few accurate studies thus far made imply that this one-sidedness is greater in the South than in the North, and accord with the general impression that the com- mon diet in the former region contains an excess of the fatter kinds of meats, such as pork, and of the starchy and sugary vegetable foods, such as corn meal and molasses. What is needed is to use foods better adapted to the needs of the body, in other words, foods which contain more protein. Such are lean meats, as beef and veal and chicken; fish, like salt cod and mackerel, and fresh fish, where they are obtainable; milk, which is of itself an economical and well-balanced food; skim milk, which has all the protein and half the fuel value of Avhole milk and is in most localities the most economical source of animal protein ; oatmeal ; Ijeans, peas, and other legumes, especially cowpeas." The digestibility of tripe by man, P. Solomin {Arch. Hyg., 27 (1896), No. 2, pp. 176-188). — The experiment was divided into two 3-day periods. In the first period the diet consisted of tripe, bread, butter, and a little flour (used in cooking the tripe). In the second an eciuiva- lent amount of meat was substituted for tripe. Beer was used as a beverage. Food, urine, and feces were analyzed. The results are given in detail in tabular form. The total nutrients consumed and those excreted in the feces and the nitrogen in the urine in each i^eriod are shown in the following table: Digestion experiment with tripe. In food. In feces. In urine. Dry matter. Nitrogen. Fat. Ash. Dry matter. Nitrogen. Fat. Ash. Nitrogen. Tripe period Meat period Grams. 1, 665. 41 1, 586. 22 Grams. 71. 12 85.47 Grains. Grams. 377. 2 60. 77 230. 29 75. 43 Grams. 108.4 99.75 ■ Grams. 7.70 8.19 Grams. 17.4 9.29 Grams. 11.17 8.73 Grams. 55. 1 70.8 The coefficients of digestibility for the tripe period were, dry matter 93.49, nitrogen 89.16, fat 95,36, and ash 81.61 per cent; and for the meat period, dry matter 93.71, nitrogen 90.41, fat 95.96, and ash 88.41 per cent. The author believes that in general there is no marked difference in the digestibility of tripe and meat. The author mentions the fact that little of the nitrogen iu tripe is in the form of albumen; most of it is in the form of connective tissue. More chlorin and less phosphoric acid were excreted in the urine dur- ing the tripe period than when meat was consumed. In the author's FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 421 opiiiiou this is due to the fact that tripe is richer in compounds contain- ing,- chlorin (mucous membrane, etc.) and poorer in phosphates than meat. Food preservatives and butter increasers, G. W. Cavanaugh {Xew York Cornell fSta. Bid. lis, pp. 399-104). — Two food preserva- tives, "Preservitas" and "Callerine," and two butter increasers, "Chase's Butter Increaser" and "Gilt Edge Butter Compound" were examined. The "Preservitas" was found to consist of borax and a little salicylic acid and sugar, the "Callerine" of a 7 per cent solution of foriuic aldehyde. The author points out that this substance is sold for a very high price compared with its actual cost, and he believes that the use of formic aldehyde in preserving milk may possibly so alter its composition as to render it less digestible than normal milk. "Chase's Butter Increaser" was found to consist of a 25 per cent solution of acetic acid and a small amount of salicylic acid. The "Gilt Edge Butter Compound" consisted of about equal parts of alum and soda with a little pink coloring matter. These articles increase the yield of butter by precipitating the casein in the milk, and a consider- able portion of it will be included in the butter. The author condemns the use of "butter increasers" as fraudulent. Salt hays and meado-w or swale hay, J. B. Lindsey et al. {MaamehiDietts Hatch Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 240-:246). — Experiments were made with 2 sheep to determine the digestibility of black grass, high- grown salt hay, branch grass, low meadow fox grass, and swale hay. The black grass consisted almost exclusively of June us bulbosus. "The low meadow fox grass appeared to consist practically of what is also called rush salt grass (Spartina Jiincea), and both the high-grown salt hay and the branch grass were composed of this as a basis, mixed with more or less coarse grass, prob- ably S2)a)tina atricta var. glabra. The branch grass contained rather more of the coarse material than did the high-grown salt hay. . . . "Meadow or swale hay grows in the fresh-water meadows, and is composed of fresh-water grasses, sedges, brakes, and wild ilowers." The composition of these hays, with timothy hay for comparison, is given in the following table : Analyses of hay. Black grass High-grown salt liay.. Branch grass Low meadow fox grass Swale hay Timothy "hay Water. > Per cent. 15 15 15 15 15 15 Crude protein. Per cent. 8.08 6.36 7.03 6.06 6.77 6.30 Crude fat. ^'fref °i Crude extract, h^^io^e. Per cent. 2.23 2.13 1.88 2.18 1.59 2.40 Per cent. 42.00 47.14 44.84 49.22 44.97 43.60 Per cent. 22.78 22.45 22.50 22.58 26.40 28.40 Crude ash. Per cent. 9.91 6.92 8.75 4.96 5.27 4.30 ' Assumed. 422 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The coeificients of digestibility found with sheep are shown in the following table: Coefficients of digestibility of hay. Black grass Higli-grown salt hay Branch grass .'. Fox grass Swale hay Timothy hay Total dry substance. Per cent. 59.5 53.0 56.0 53.0 39.0 58.0 Crude protein. Crude fat. Per cent. 63.0 63.0 62.5 57.0 34.0 48.0 Per cent. 41.5 47.0 32.0 24.0 44.0 61.0 Nitrogen- free extract. Per cent. 57 53 54 52 46 63 Crude cellulose. Per cent. 60.5 50.0 52.0 51.0 33.0 53.0 A table is given showing the digestible nutrients in 2,000 lbs. of the several hays, assuming that each contained 15 per cent of water. From these tests the author draws the following general conclusions: "(1) Black grass, high-grown salt hay, brauch grass, and low meadow fox grass are all valualde fodder articles. In the present experiment black grass contained more protein and showed a higher av^erage digestibility, and is therefore snperior to the other 3 hays. There is no wide diilerence, however. Timothy hay shows more total digestible organic matter, bnt is noticeably inferior to 3 of the salt hays in digestible protein. Black grass might be classed as bnt little inferior to average timothy hay. High-grown salt hay, branch grass, and fox grass resemble each other very closely in feeding value. " (2) Salt hays at average market prices are decidedly cheaper to feed than English hay. "(3) Meadow or swale hay is a very inferior article. It contained 150 to 200 lbs. less digestible matter than did the salt hays, and but 39 per cent of digestible dry matter. "(4) Hays containing much less than 50 per cent of digestible dry matter should be regarded as of very inferior quality." Greueral directions are given for feeding salt hays and meadow hays, and some advice on purchasing grains on the basis of their content of digestible nutrients. Digestion experiments -with sheep, C. S. Phelps and C. D. Woods {Connecticut Storrs Sta. Bpt. 1895,, pp. 187-214). — This is a con- tinuation of work given in the Annual Report of the station for 1894 (E. S. R., 7, p. 597). Seventeen new experiments are reported and one is reprinted from the Annual Report for 1894 on account of an error. Each exi^eriment lasted 12 days. Feces were collected during the last 5 days. Six experiments were made with 4 sheep, 6 with 2 sheep, 1 with 3 sheep, and 1 with G sheep. The rations fed consisted of soja beans and timothy hay, crimson clover hay (field cured and barn cured), barley fodder, oat and pea fodder, oat fodder, Hungarian fodder, soja beau fodder, clover rowen, sweet clover fodder, cowpea fodder, rowen (mostly timothy), and Canadian pea fodder. The results are briefly given in the following table. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION Coefficients of dii/atibiliU/. 423 Kind of food. Num- ber of tests. Pro- tein. Soja bean meal and timothy bay . . . Do ; SoJa btan meal ^ Scarlet clover liay (field cured Scarlet clover bay (barn cured) Scarlet cloyer bay (average field and baru cured) Barley fodder Oat and pea fodder Oat fodder Hun":arian fodder Soja uean fodder Clover rowen Sweet corn fodder Oowju'a fodder Rowen, mostly timothy Canada pea fodder Per ct. 77.2 78.2 85.8 68.3 69.3 68.7 71.7 81.5 75.3 65.3 71.0 61.9 61.8 74.0 71.7 82.0 Fat. Per ct. 74.2 73.1 84.9 49.2 34.9 43.0 59.9 7:i. 6 69.8 72.3 54.2 60.8 79.3 59.4 52.0 52.4 Nitro gen-lree extract Per ct. 66.3 66.0 73.4 60.0 61.8 60.8 71.2 66.4 63.1 68.9 72.7 65.3 77.2 84.2 67.8 71.0 Fiber. Per ct. 60.6 62.0 43.8 46.2 44.8 60.7 57.5 60.2 72.8 45.5 52.5 60.0 57.5 63.8 62.4 Ash. Per ct. 48.4 45.7 21.3 47.0 47.5 47.2 54.4 31.2 44.8 .58.5 14.0 43.4 50.4 23.9 45.2 42.3 Organic Fuel matter, value. ■ Per ct. 69.0 69.3 78.0 54.8 57.2 55.8 67.5 67.9 64.5 70.1 64.1 60.8 72.1 76.0 66.4 71.3 Percl. 64.3 64.6 72.5 50.0 51.2 50.5 62.4 63.2 61.1 67.0 59.7 56.5 68.5 71.1 60.3 64.7 ' Percentage of total fuel value which i.s available for the use of the body, i. e., the fuel value of the digested portion minus the fuel value of the urea. (See E. S. K., 7, p. 597). ^ Computed from experiments with soja bean meal and timothy hay. Wheat meal vs. rye meal for pigs, J. B. Lindsey et al. {Massa- chusetts Hatch iSta.Bpt. 18!).''}^ pp. 237-239). — An experimeiit to compare wheat meal aud rye meal fed with skim milk was made with 2 lots of 3 pigs each (2 barrows and 1 sow). It lasted 106 days, and was divided into 3 periods of 58, 13, aud 35 days, respectively. In the first i)eriod the plan was to feed lot 1 3 t)z. of wheat meal and lot 2 3 oz. of rye meal to each quart of milk, the nutritive ratio of tlieratiou being" 1:3.6. Owing to an insufficient supply of inilli, it was necessary to feed some Peoria gluten feed to keep up the nutritive ratio. In the second jieriod each lot was fed 4 qts. of milk daily, lot 1 receiving in addition wheat meal and lot 2 rye meal to satisfy the appetite. In tbe third period 4 qts. of milk was fed, and lot 1 received equal parts of wheat meal and corn meal, and lot 2 equal parts of rye meal and cractically a reprint of Bulletin 15 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 803). The advantage of ra-w goats' milk as food for children, Schwartz {Ahs. in Milch Zig., 25 {IS'Ji'i), No. 44, p. GOD). — Some of the advantages mentioned are that goats are less subject to tuberculosis, that the milk keeps longer, that poor people will not pasteurize the milk for their children, and that goats are within the reach of poor people. Goats' milk in the artificial feeding of children, Ox {Ind. Laif., 21 {ISOG), No. SO, pp. 305, 306; abs. in Milch Ztg., 25 {ISOG), No. 45, p. 716). Contributions to the study of pulque, F. Altajiirando {Ann. Inst. Med, Nacional {Mexico), 2 {1806), No. 2, pp. 32-61). — The article quotes an analysis by D. L. Rio de la Loza of this Mexican beverage. The Imperial Health Department of Germany and the margarin question {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 24, pp. 377-379).— A criticism of the position taken by the German health department on the healthfuluess and other qualities of oleomargarin. The use of leaves as food for animals, A. C. Girard {Ann. Agron., 22 {1896), No. 8,2)p. 375-392). — An extended discussion of the subject. On the rancidity of olive oils in Tunis, R. Mouline {Bui. Agr. et Commerce, 1 {1806), No. 1, pp. 24-28). — Several analyses are given. The prevention of rancidity is discussed. Fattening mature steers on cotton seed and co-wpea hay, R. L. Bennett and G. B. Irby {Arkansas Sta. lipt. 1895, pp. 3-11). — Appears to be a more extended account of an experiment briefly reported in Bulletin 27 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 240) and reprinted in Bulletin 31 (E. S. R., 6, p. 923). The history of European domesticated cattle in its relation to the European people, AVerxer {Dent, landw. rresse, 23 {1896), No. 58, pp. 516, 517, figs. 5). Are there characteristic diflferences in the finer structure of the muscles of the Breitenberger and Angler cattle -which could be regarded as breed traits? C. NoRMER {Bcut. landw. Fresse, 23 {1896), No. 54, pp. 481-483, figs. 5). The Channel Islands breed of cattle, J. L. Thompson {Agl. Gas. N. S. Wales, 7 {1806), No. 0, j)p. 612-618, pis. 2). — A general description of these cattle. Progress in cattle breeding and creamery -work in Tyrol {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 24, p. 380). The question of similarity of purpose in the cattle raising industry in similar districts, A. Arnstadt {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1806), Nos. 75, pp. 666, 667; 70, pp. 677, 678; 88, p. 785; SO, p. 705; 91, p. 811). — A general discussion. Types of Dutch cattle {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 24, p. 380, figs. 2). Slaughter tests and investigations in regard to the quality of the meat at the t^wenty-second fat stock show^ at Berlin, 1896, C. Lehmann {Deut. landw. I'resse, 23 {1896), Nos. 82, p. 736, figs. 9; 83, p. 742; 85, pp. 758, 759, figs. 12; 87, pp. 774, 775, figs. 6; 89, pp. 789, 790, fig. 1; 91, pp. 806, 807). The maintenance of the German sheep raising industry, Alhrkciit {Fiihling's landw. Ztg., 45 {1896), No. 21, pp. 675-679).— A. general discnssiou. Observations on the purity of breeding and descent of the Belgian draft horse, Leyder {Dent, landw. Presse, 23 {1806), No. 78, p. 098). Observations on the purity of breeding and descent of the Belgian draft horse, M. Fischer {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), No. 90, p. 800). — A reply to the preceding article. 428 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Fowls, care and feeding, G. C. Watson {U.S. Dept.Acjr., Farmers^ Bui. 41, pp. 24, figs. 4). — The autliDr discusses at length the construction and arrangement of poultry houses, selection of breeds, breeding, feeding, brooders and incubators, diseases of poultry, and dressing and shipping. Turkeys as hatchers, S. Cushman {Rural New Torlcer, 55 {1S96), Nos. 2438, p. 698; 2430, pp. 714, 715). — A general article stating that turkeys may be trained to hatch several broods in succession. The eggs may be of any sort. Turkeys and capons may be trained to act as mothers to young chickens. Annual reports of the poultry and pet stock associations of the Province of Ontario, 1895 {Ontario Dcpt. Agr., pp. 63, figs. 7). VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. Parturient apoplexy of co-ws, R. R. Dinwiddir {Arlansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. ^55-145).— Reprinted from Bulletin 35 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 249). The production of immunity to hog cholera by means of the blood serum of immune animals. Anti-toxic serums for hog cholera and swine plague, E. A. DE SciiWEiNiTZ {Centbl. Bait, und Par. Med., 20 {1896), No. 16-17. pp. 573-577). Verminous bronchitis, R. R. Dinwiddie {Arkansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 130-138, figs. 5). — Reprinted from Bulletin 35 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 249). Glanders in horses and mules, R. R. Dinwiddie {Arkansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. /55-A«).— Reprinted from Bulletin 35 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 252). Hog cholera and other swine diseases, R. R. Dinwiddie {Arkansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. i^i-747).— Reprinted from Bulletin 35 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 252). The African rinderpest J. Kikk {Nature, 55 {1896), No. 1412, pp. 53,54). Tubercles in pigs fed on raw milk and whey, G. Becker {Deut. Fleischer Ztg., 1896, June 4; abs. in Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 24, p. 384).—Tonv pigs out of 22 from a creamery and cheese factory, which were slaughtered, were found tuberculous and the carcasses were destroyed. The lungs of the others which had not been so long on the diet of raw milk and whey were found infected. Tuberculosis of cattle, R. R. Dinwiddie {Arkansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 147-154). — Reprinted from Bulletin 35 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 251). DAIRY FARMING— DAIRYING. Chicago gluten meal vs. King gluten meal, J. P>. Lindsey et al. {Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Rpt. 1895., lop. 228-230). — An experiment was made with 4 grade cows in different stages of lactation, to compare Chicago gluten meal and King gkiten meal. The test, which was pre- ceded by a preliminary period of 7 days, was divided into 2 periods of 7 days each. Each cow was fed 4.5 lbs. of wheat bran and 18 lbs. of roweu hay per day. In the first period cows 1 and 3 were fed 4.5 lbs. of King gluten meal, and cows 2 and 4, 4.5 lbs. of Chicago gluten meal daily. In the second period the rations were reversed. The composi- tion of the Chicago gluten meal and the King gluten meal is given. The results are expressed in tabular form. "The cows consumed the same amount of digestible matter daily, [and] the daily yield of milk and the cost per quart were practically identical in each period. " The Chicago meal was in its usual good condition. In spite of the fact that the King meal contained nearly 20 per cent of fat, no rancid odor or taste Avas noticed after the meal had been in the barn 6 months. Its mechanical condition was all that could be desired. The objection to feeding by-products especially rich in fat is that, DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING, 429 if they are fed alone iu larjie ([uantities (above 3 qts. daily) or fed in combination with other material of a similar nature, the tendency is to cloy the appetite of the ani- mal, or — in warm weather especially — to produce iuHanimatiou of the milk glands. "In a daily grain ration of 9 lbs. we would not advise feeding over 3 or 4 lbs. of but one by-product having above 7 to 8 per cent of fat." Chicago gluten meal vs. Atlas meal, J. B. Lindsey et al. {Massa- chusetts Hatch iSta. Bpt. 18!J'), pp. L^ol, 23:2). — An experiment to compare Chicago gluten meal and Atlas meal was made with 4 grade cows. It was preceded by a preliminary test of 7 days and was divided into 2 periods of 10 days each. In the first period 2 cows were fed 4 lbs. of Chicago gluten meal and 2 others 4 lbs. of Atlas meal daily. During the second period the feed was reversed. In addition each cow received 4 lbs. of wheat bran, 5 lbs. of hay, and about 40 lbs. of coru-and-soja bean silage throughout tlie experiment. The composition of Chicago gluten meal and Atlas meal is given, and the results are expressed in tabular form. "The cost and quantity of milk and butter fat are so nearly equal in each case as to be considered practically identical. If the quality of the Atlas meal is maintained, it can be regarded as an excellent food for milch cows and neat stock in general." Soiling experiments with leguminous and cereal crops, C. S. Phelps [Connecticut Storrs Sta. Ept. 1895, pp. 77-92). — This is a con- tinuation of work previously reported in Bulletin 9 of the station (E. S. E., 4, p. 479). The object of the test was to compare the relative feeding value of green fodders high in protein with those low in protein. Six ordinary grade cows bought from farms or from the college herd were divided into 2 lots of animals as nearly alike in yield of milk and butter fat as possible. Eight tests were made. The green fodders experimented with were as follows: Oats and peas, soja beans, clover rowen, cowpeas, rowen grass, barley and i^eas, oat fodder, Hungarian grass, and corn fodder. The quantities fed were 80 lbs. of corn fodder and 70 lbs. of the other fodders per head daily. The green fodders were usually cut and hauled to the stable every other day. At the beginning of each feeding test both lots were fed on a legu- minous ration during a preliminary period of 5 days. After this, lot 2 was fed a ration of cereal fodder, while lot 1 received the same ration as at first. These rations were fed for 2 weeks. The exj)eriment proper covered only the last 9 days. At the close of the experiment each lot was fed a ration similar to that used in the preliminary test. The digestibility of the green fodders was determined in experiments with sheep, reported on page 422, since it was more convenient to make digestion experiments with sheep than with cows. The amount of digestible nutrients and fuel value of the rations fed per cow per day were computed from the results of these digestion experiments. Tables are given which show the yield and comjiosition of the milk of 'each cow for each period. 8968— No. 5 6 ..... 430 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The following are the total yields for the 2 lots for the periods during which the feeds were compared : Yields of milk, hutter, etc., on leguminous and cereal soiling crops. Milk. Solids. Fat. Butter. rounds. 2,159 1,933 Pounds. 280 259 Poundi. 95 90 Pounds. lU 106 226 21 5 The following conclusions were drawn : "The best results on quantity of products were obtained where rations with rela- tively large amounts of protein were fed. Although one-seventh larger rations of corn fodder were used than of those rations made up mainly of the legumes, the lattergenerally gave larger yields of milk, of butter fat, and of solids in the milk. . . . "As a rule, the best crops for summer feeding seem to be those rich in nitrogenous matter, or protein. Although smaller crops are usually obtained with the legumes (clover, peas, soja beans, etc.) than with fodder corn, the fodder from the legumes is richer in nitrogen and protein, ami a larger percentage of this protein is digested by the animals, and hence these fodders are of more value in the production of milk, cheese, butter, and beef. "Owing to irregularities in pasture feed, caused mainly by frequent droughts, it becomes necessary to supplement such feed l)y the use of green fodders or silage, in order to prevent serious shrinkage in the amounts of milk, milk solids, and butter fat. A more extended use of fodder crops like the clovers, oats and peas, soja beans, cowpeas, and barley and peas, is a matter that should receive the careful attention of dairymen." A study of rations fed to milch cows, C. D. Woods and C. S. Phelps {Connecticut Starrs Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 41-76). — This is a con- tinuation of work previously reported in the Annual Reports of the station for 1893 and 1894 (E. S. E., 0, p. 458; 7, p. 003). Two 12-day tests were made of 4 herds on iirivate farms, containing from 10 to 14 cows each, there being an interval of 2 weeks or more between the 2 tests. The method was the same as iu previous studies. During the first test the rations fed by the farmers were studied and calculated, and suggestions were then made of changes to make the rations conform more closely to the feeding standards. After these changes had been made the second tests were made. Information was obtained regard- ing the number of animals, breed, age, approximate weight of each cow, number of months since last calving, yield and fat content of milk, and kinds and weights of food used. Samples of the feeding stuffs were analyzed, and the digestible nutrients in each ration were calculated. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 431 The digestible nutrients and fuel viilue of the rations fed, the milk and butter produced, and the cost of the latter for each of the 4: herds are given in the following table: Original and suggested rations fed to cows on 4 farms in Connecticut. Eation. Average daily ration per 1,000 lbs. live weight. Average daily yield of— Average cost of food. Herd. Digest- ible protein. Digest- ible fat. Digest- ible earbo- hy- drates. Nutri- tive value. Ptiel value. Milk. But- ter. Total per cow per day. Per 100 lbs. of milk. Per pound of but- ter. T) .... E .... F .... G.... /Original \Suggested . . fOriginal.... ISuggested . . fOriginal t Suggested .. fOriginal \Suggested . . Lbs. 2.15 3.48 2.18 2.41 1.65 2.79 2.76 2.79 Lbs. 0.76 .86 .81 .59 .82 .94 1.36 l.U Lbs. 15.66 17.28 18.25 14.11 13.57 13.13 12.69 12.89 1:8.0 1:5.5 1:9.2 1:6.4 1:9.3 1:5.5 1:5.7 1:5.5 Calories. 36, 350 42, 250 40, 850 33, 250 31.800 33. 550 34, 50U 33, 850 Lbs. 14.0 13.7 17.9 18.3 17.8 18.5 17.7 15.4 Lbs. 0.79 .76 1.02 1.07 1.01 1.04 .98 .90 Cents. 14.1 15.1 18.4 15.9 15.1 18.0 16.7 16.2 $1.01 1.10 1.03 .87 .85 .97 .94 1.05 Cents. 18 20 18 15 15 17 17 18 In addition to the above tests the results are cited of the previous experiments already referred to. In all these the digestible protein per 1,000 lbs. live weight ranged from 1.35 to 3.48 lbs., the nutritive ratio from 1:4.5 to 1:11.3, and the fuel value from 28,000 to 42,000 calories. The average amounts of nutrients i)er 1,000 lbs. live weight in these 34 rations were as follows: Average of 34 rations fed to cows in Connecticut. Protein. Faf. Carbo- hydrates. Nutritive ratio. Fuel value. Founds. 1.62 .82 Pound. 0.55 .32 Pounds. 4.93 8.76 1: 3. 8 1:11.6 Calories. 14, 500 19 150 Total 2.44 .87 13.69 1: 6.4 33 650 The article discusses feeding standards and quotes at length from the previous experiments mentioned above. From their own exi)eri- euce the writers suggest the following modification of Wolfi"'s standard : Organic matter pounds . . 25. 00 Digestible protein do 2. 50 Digestible fat do 0. 5 to 0.80 Digestible carbohydrates do 13.0 to 12.00 This gives a fuel value of 31,000 calories, and a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5.6. "The experience of the last two years would indicate that in general it is more profitable to feed a cow in 'the flush' rather more protein than the suggested ration calls for. The very decided trend of these experiments is toward nitrogenous feeding." The conclusions drawn from the tests were practically the same as those in previous years. 432 EXPERIMENT 3TATI0K RECORD. "In general, there was the largest yield of milk and the largest butter production with narrow rations, i. e., those rich in protein. Wide rations — low in protein — did not, in these instances, favor large milk or butter production. . . . Narrow rations — rich in protein — were the more economical. "Our farmers need to make a much closer study of the individual cows of their herds and to reject the unprofitable ones. The relative productiveness of cows can be easily and cheaply studied by the use of the Babcock milk test, together with daily weighings of the milk product. "A closer study of the value and economy of the feeding stuffs produced on the farm is important. Such feeds as clovers, corn fodders, corn stover, oat hay, and peas and oats, should be more largely grown. These have little value in the mar- kets, while for feeding many of them are fully equal to, and some more valuable than, the best grades of hay. When first-class hay sells for from $15 to $18 per ton, it is one of the most expensive dairy feeds. "The nitrogenous (protein) feeding stuffs, like clovers, cotton seed, linseed, and gluten meals, should be more extensively used as dairy feeds. These feeds have been shown to exert a greater influence on the quantity and quality of animal products than corn and even wheat feeds, and when the manure is carefully saved they are of great value for keeping up the fertility of the farm." Experiment in warming a stable for cows, W. P. Brooks {Mas- sachusetts Hatch 8ta. Rpt. 1895, p. 205).— A test, lasting from December 18, 1894, to March 8, 1895, was made with 6 cows, divided into L* lots of 3 each, on the effect of a warm stable in winter on the yield of milk and butter. One lot was kept in a stable heated by means of hot water pipes to about 55° F., and the other lot was kept in a stable not heated. The experiment was divided into 4 equal periods. At the end of the first period the lots were reversed, and reversed again at the end of the third period. In each case after the change the first week was regarded as a iDreliminary period. "The apparent influence of the warm stable upon milk and Initter fat production is small. On the average, there is rather more milk and butter fat in tlie warm stable. The most certain effect brought out by our experiments is the lowering of the percentage of fat in the milk in the warm stable. The increased product will not nearly pay the cost of heating the stable. "With moderate artificial heat better ventilation can be secured, without making the stable too cold for the comfort of its occupants, than is possible without artificial heat." A year's experience with Bacillus No. 41 in general dairying, H. W. Conn {Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. i7-i0).— Following the laboratory trials with the author's Bacillus No. 41, the attempt was made to test its applicability in general dairy work. Certain ditticul- ties were anticipated in this, among others the general carelessness in many creameries, mistakes in handling the culture, and the bacteria already present in the cream. It was impossible, except in a few cases, for the author to control the work at the creameries where these trials were made, and it was necessary for him to prescribe certain rules for guidance in the use of the culture, although it was realized that no definite rules could be formulated which would apply to all conditions. The danger was that butter makers would follow the directions so closely and blindly that in certain conditions of weather the cream DAIRY FARMING — DAIRYING. 433 ripening would be a failure. Ko little difficulty has been experienced in preparing the pure cultures on a large scale without their becoming contaminated and in recognizing contaminated cultures quickly. Many of these dilticulties have, however, been overcome. The cultures had been in the hands of dairymen about a year at the time of writing, and the article reviews the successes and failures. "The great majority of the testimony that has reached me as the result of the year's experiments has been of a highly satisfactory character. In some cases, indeed, an improvement is seen from the first, in others the first inoculation has produced no eflect, but a second one has followed and has been successful. Nearly all who have persevered in their use of the organism have obtained satisfactory results. . . . "In the great majority of cases creameries have been able to command a price vary- ing from a half a cent to 2 cents a pound more for the ' culture ' butter than for the butter made at the same time without the culture; and while this is certainly not a universal verdict, it has been obtained in so many cases as to show the possibility that lies in this line of butter making. . . . "Something over 200 creameries have, during the past year of experimenting, used this Bacillus No. 41 with success. The success has, it is true, l>een varied; Bome reaping a considerable financial ])rofit therefrom, while others have been less fortunate. These creameries are most of them still continuing the use of the cul- ture— over 200 using it at the present time. They are distributed all over the dairy section of our country, among no less than 13 States. Some of them have used the organism now for 8 or 9 months, others for 6 months, others for 2 or 3 months, while some have only used it for a few weeks, at the time of writing. It is the most con- clusive evidence of the value of Bacillus No. 41 that those creameries which have used the culture the longest are the most confident of its value. Creameries which have used the culture for 6 or 8 months, until they have become thoroughly familiar with its action and with the proper method of its use, are the most certain that they are reaping a decided and a constant advantage from it. Those that have used it in a single experiment, or only a very short time, are the ones that are the most doubt- ful as to its advantage to them." Aside from the improved flavor, the indications presented appear to be that the culture improves the keeping quality of the butter. This is based on the testimony of commission merchants. "The peculiar, delicate flavor which appears at first does not disappear at once, and commission merchants in New York and Boston have stated that ' culture' but- ter 2 weeks old still retains its fresh, quick flavor, and can be sold at the top of the market, whereas ordinary butter will in that time have lost a little of its delicate flavor and must Ije sold a little under the top price.'' Although the data upon the subject are yet meager, in some instances it has appeared that '^ 'culture' butter after being 2 mouths in cold storage has been actually of a better flavor than when lirst put in.'" In a number of cases bad flavors and tastes in the cream and the result- ing butter have been eliminated by using the culture. As was expected, the use of the culture has not proved of any advantage in some cases. These failures have, so far as the author knows, been confined almost exclusively to trials of short duration. A common method of testing the culture is to divide the cream into two parts, using the culture in one part and allowing the other i)art to ripen normally. The author objects to this kind of test, and states 434 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. that it does not give conclusive results, "since a small lot of this sort does not give the organisms a fair sliowing." Some of the failures have been explained by lack of proper handling of the cultures or too short trials, but in other cases they can not be fully explained, although no failures have occurred in creameries where the author has been able to personally superintend the introduction of the culture. "Many facts in regard to the practical methods of using the culture are being constantly learned. The best temperature for ripening at different seasons, the best temperature for churning, the proper proportion of the culture to add to the cream, the best time to add it, etc. ; all these are matters of practical importance and must be learned by practical experience before perfect success can be expected. Thus far in the year's experience it has appeared that, as the butter makers do learn these facts and get more familiar with the method, the failures in many cases give place to success, and the lack of thorough adaptation of the method to the creamery is the cause of most of the lack of success. Undoubtedly also some of the failures in these 'sample trials' have been due to molds or other contaminations which occurred in the culture and ruined the value of the sample, and thus spoiled the experiment. Such troubles will not occur hereafter, because of improved methods of prepara- tion of the cultures. . . . "There may be creameries and conditions under which this culture will not pro- duce its ordinary effect* and this can only be determined by a continuation of such experiments. The attempt is now being made to keep closer watch of the experi- ments in order to learn, so far as possible, the causes and remedies for the failures. New methods of use are being devised l)y the dairymen, and in a few months it will be possible to determine with more certainty how generally it will be possible to avoid failure and insure success by improved methods of handling." The following is the method which has been adopted for the intro- duction of tbe culture into the cream: Pasteurize 0 qts. of cream by heating (at 155^ F.) and after cooling dissolve in this the pellet con- taining the culture; set in a warm place (70° F.) and allow the culture to grow for 2 days, and then inoculate in 25 gal. of ordinary cream; allow this to ripen as usual, and then use it as a starter in the large cream vats in the proportion of 1 gal. of starter to 25 gal. of cream. The whole is ripened at a temperature of about 68° F. for one day. The experience of butter makers in the past year has taught many secondary facts regarding the best methods of handling the culture in ripening cream. It has appeared, for instance, that cream ripened with this culture should be churned at a little lower temperature than ordinary cream to give the best results as to body, grain, and flavor. A temperature as low as 52 to 54° is sometimes needed. It has been found possible to keep cream sweet for a longer period by the use of the culture than without it. In laboratory trials cream has been kept for nearly 2 weeks without becoming sour. Hence the buttermilk from such cream is sweeter and keeps for a longer time than ordinary buttermilk. Cream from different j^atrons of the same creamery has been found to differ in character, and in some cases it has been found best to use specially selected cream for making up the first starter. In pasteurized cream a higher temperature is required for ripening the cream with DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 435 Bacillus No. 41 than witliout it in order to give the proper flavor and acidity. In some cases of this sort a temperature as high as 80^ has been used with success. The advantage from using Bacillus No. 41 has been sometimes greater in gathered cream creameries than in those where the milk is brought to the creamery for separation, since in the case of gathered cream the cream is not fresh when received at the creamery and the ripening process has already commenced and occasionally the cream is sour. "The use of Bacilhis No. 41 has been found during the last year largely to obviate this irregularity in the gathered-cream system. ... It has been found very advan- tageous to place 2 or 3 qts. of the. Bacillus No. 41 starter in the cream collector's cans before he starts on his rounds, in order that the organism may get a longer chance to grow in the cream. With this procedure the culture begins to do its work as soon as the cream is poured into the cans." In conclusion the author expresses the belief that the experience of the i^ast year has been sufficient to indicate beyond question that the method of using pure cultures or some kind of bacterial starter is cor- rect in principle and will be the coming method in dairying for the pur- pose of producing high flavor and uniform quality in butter. He does not claim it to be proved that Bacillus No. 41 is the best organism that can be used for this purpose, or that some other culture composed of a mixture of two or more different species of tacteria may not be found which will be, on the whole, more advantageous than Bacillus No. 41. Experiments in ripening cream with pure cultures, Sartori {Abs. in Milch Ztg., 25 {18[)(>), No. 43, pp. 6S5, 68()). — These experiments were made at the request of the Italian Minister of Agriculture in the cream- ery of the Koyal Agricultural School at Brescia. The cream was first pasteurized, and as soon as it had cooled to the proper temperature the pure culture was added. As to the extent of ripening, the author finds that an acidity equal to 28 to 30 cc. of ^ normal alkali is best for butter which is to be kept some time, although a lower acidity (25 to 27 cc.) gives more aroma and is preferred for butter that is to be consumed at once. The butter made with pure cultures was of excellent quality, with good aroma, and was preferred by nearly all who sampled it to the com- mon sweet-cream butter. Such butter retained its fresh taste and its aroma much longer than sweet-cream butter. Numerous instances of this are cited. It is suggested that by means of iiasteurization and pure cultures the quality of the butter made from sheep's milk might be improved and its peculiar unpleasant taste removed or prevented. A ne^v fungus in butter, Gr. W. Shaw ( Oregon 8ta. Press Notes, Nov. 23, 1S9G). — "There have been several instances reported in Portland of apparently good butter turning to a bluish-black color on the out- side, beginning in several isolated spots and gradually extending over the entire surface." Three rolls of such butter examined for adultera- 436 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. tion showed no foreign fats; but an unknown fungus was found on the affected portions. It was sent to this Department for examination, where it was identified as a new species of mold, and named Stemphy- lium hutyri. Another instance of its occurrence is noted in some butter from North Carolina. In this case '• the disease seems to have been introduced from the paper used in wrapping." Acidity of milk increased by boracic acid, E. H, Farrington {Jour. Amer. Ghem. Soc, 18 (itical at first, he is thoroughly convinced of its utility. Ten cows are milked at once, requiring about 5 minutes. For milking 82 cows only one man and a boy are required. The milking is entirely satisfactory, and the yield of milk has in- creased over hand milking. No trouble has been had with the machine from the first day. It is believed that it will pay for itself in a year. Butter tests of Jersey cows at the show of the Royal Jersey Agricultural Society {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), Wo. 29, p. 462).— At the show held on the Island of Jersey in May, 1896, 17 cows were entered in the 24- hour butter test. The milk was creamed by a hand separator, and the cream churned the next morning. The results for the 3 cows taking the gold, silver, and bronze medals were as follows : Milk yield— Fancy 8,007, F. S. H. C, 47 lbs. 6 oz. ; Mari- ette 5,535, P. S. C, 47 lbs. 2 oz.; Cunning Fox 6,338, F. S. C, 44 lbs. 10 oz. Butter yield— 3 lbs. 3^ oz., 2 lbs. 12^ oz., and 2 lbs. 8^ oz., respec- tively. Amount of milk required to make 1 lb. of butter — 14.79 lbs., 17.03 lbs., and 17.73 lbs., respectively. The preservation of butter, V. von Klecki ( Oesterr. Molk. Ztg., 1896, Nov.; abs. in Milch. Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 45, p. 7i7).— The author DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 437 describes the Backhaus-Scliachsclie method, as follows: The butter is melted, strongly salted, and packed in tubs. When it is to be marketed, it is emulsified with milk and churned again. The great advantage which would result if butter could be kept in first-class condition for a considerable time is pointed out. The author believes that the preser- vation of the good qualities must be studied scientifically, and that the question of butter faults and the preservation of butter without change offers a splendid field for investigation. What constitutes a "space" of cream? J. B. Lindsey and G. A. Billings {Mmsaclmsetts Hatch Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 233-236). — The milk of G new milch cows was set in cold deep setting (38 to 40° F.) on 2 or 3 days, and the results estimated in spaces of cream, as is customary iu the cream- gathering system. A summary follows: Yield and fat content of milk and spaces of cream. Average Average daily | fat con- yield of \ tent of milk. I milk. Cow No. 1 Cow No. 2 Cow No. 3 Cow No. 4 Cow No. 5 Cow No. 6 Pounda. 25. 80 22. 08 26.30 26.02 29. 31 31.31 Per cent. 4.0 4.0 4.2 5.0 3.0 5.0 Average daily Spaces of cream Average fat ecu- ^f'ff perday I ''^' fat.. 1 i-v/iuaj. ] of cream. Pounds. 1.03 1.10 1.30 7.80 5.57 11.30 8.20 7.05 9.85 Per cent. 16.53 16.45 11.98 21.70 15.95 19.85 Average fat con- tent of skim milk. Per cent. 0.17 .56 .27 .17 .16 .13 ' Added by abstractor. Cows Nos. 1, 2, and 5 produced the smallest number of spaces of cream, containing from 16 to 16i per cent of fat. Cow No. 3 produced over 11 spaces of cream with 12 per cent of fat, No. 6 produced 9.85 spaces with nearly 20 per cent, and No. 4 produced 8.2 spaces with nearly 22 per cent of fat. A simple calculation shows that the space included all the way from 0.63 to 1.03 lbs. of fat in different cases. Low temperature pasteurization of milk at about 68° C. (155° F.), R- G-- Freeman [Arch. Pediatrics, 13 {1896), No. 8, pp. 595-606, Jigs. 4, chart 1). — A carefully compiled table is given of the thermal death point, in a moist medium, of certain pathogenic bacteria. From the evidence the auther concludes that a temi^erature of 65° C. for 15 min- utes is sufficient to kill tubercle bacilli. Accordingly he fixed upon a temperature between iSb and 70° for the pasteurization. He makes the objection to the use of a thermometer in pasteurizing milk that it "gives good results only when very carefully watched. It is moreover very difficult even when watching a thermometer to bring a fluid to any fixed temperature and hold it at that temperature for half an hour." The apparatus which he has devised consists of a pail and a remov- able receptacle for the bottles of milk, consisting of a series of zinc cylinders closed at the lower end. Water is filled in the pail to a mark and then brought to boiling. Meantime the milk is filled in the bottles, 438 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. which are stoppered with cotton and then placed in the cylinders. Sufficient water is poured into each cylinder to surround the body of the bottle, and the receptacle is thenijlaced in the pail, which is removed from the stove, the cover quickly replaced, and the whole allowed to stand for three-quarters of an hour. A support for the receptacle is at such a height that the lower inch of the cylinders is immersed in the water. "During the first 15 minutes the temperature of the milk rises to . . . about its maximum, or above G5°, the point desired for pasteur- izing, and remains there the remaining 30 minutes. During the last 15 minutes it falls about 1°." At the end of the 45 minutes the cover is removed, the receptacle is lifted so that it rests on a higher support, raising the tops of the cylinders above the top of the pail, and cold water run into the pail and allowed to overflow. In about 15 minutes the milk in the bottle is said to be about the temperature of the cold water and the bottles are removed and placed in a refrigerator. A chart is given showing the changes in temperature of the milk during the operation, and the author calls attention to the following points : "(1) The apparent lack of precision in the action of the apparatus, due to the unknown temperature of the milk introduced, is to a considerable extent corrected. The amount and temi)erature of the boiling water used for heating is definite; the amount of cold milk to belieated is definite, but the temperature of tlie milk is such as may be covered by the word cold or by refrigerator temperature. The chart shows that the apparatus will correct a considerable variation of the temperature of the milk used l)y the ability of the boiling water to carry cold milk through a greater number of degrees of temperature than warmer milk; on this account whether the milk is introduced at a temperature of 10° C. (50" F.) or 20° C. (68" F.), the resultant temperature varies only 2° C. " (2) The very rapid rise in the temperature of the milk introduced. It rises about 35 or 40" in the first 5 minutes, about 10" in the second 5 minutes, and about 5° in the third 5 minutes. "(3) The even temperature preserved after the rise; a variation of not more than a degree during the last 25 minutes. "(4) The rapid fall of the temperature in a cold-water bath; a fall of about 35° in the first 5 minutes. This cooling in a cold-water bath takes places 8 times as fast as in a refrigerator." Facts about milk, R. A. Pearson ( (J. 8. Dept. Agr., Farmers'' Bui. 42, pp. 28, figs. S). — This is a popular presentation of certain facts in regard to the extent of the dairy industry of the country; the physical and chemical character of milk; the changes in milk; difiBculties of obtaining pure milk ; adulteration; preservatives; care of milk, includ- ing description of the method for pasteurization previously described in a circular of the Department; various methods for detecting adul- teration of milk ; careof milk on farms; transportation of milk ; audits delivery in cities, together with certain suggestions for improvement. The author advocates selling milk on the basis of its quality, the price being in proportion to the fat content. "The grades of milk should be numbered with the whole numbers nearest to the percentage of fat content. Thus a separator skim milk with but a trace of fat would DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING 439 be '0.' Skim niilkliaviug from A to H iier ceut of fat would be '1,' and so on. Whole milk Avould be of 3 grades, '3/ ' 4,' and ' 5,' and extra rich or ' fortitied' milk (to which cream has been added) wonld be '9' or '10.' Cream would run from '13' to '50.' No more grades of milk and cream need to he carried than is the custom now, but each should be marked with its ai)])roi)riate number. While the idea of the percent- age of fat thus indicated might not be clear to all, it would soon be understood that the higher numbers meant the richer milk. If this practice were observed it would be difficult for the drivers to tell their customers one thing and the milk inspector another about the cjuality of the contents of the same can. The signs should be so attached to the wagon side or can that they could not be easily changed. If bottles were used the number representing the (juality should be attached to each one." Milk as an agency in the conveyance of disease, R. G. Freeman {Med. Rec, 40 {1S96), No. IS, pp. 433-443, Jigs. 7). — The author discusses the magnitude of the milk traffic and the sources of contamination of milk. Three Petri plates 3i in. in diameter, containing a layer of sterilized nutrient gelatin, were exposed for 2 minutes each on the farm of a gen- tleman near ^e,w York, one being exposed out of doors, a second in the barn, and a third under a cow just in front of the milk pail during milking. Subsequent examination showed that the plate exposed out of doors received 0 bacteria, that exposed in the barn 111, and that exposed under the cow 1,800. In an experiment on the effect of temperature on the growth of bac- teria in milk a certain amount of milk was put in 4 sterilized test tubes which were kept for 24 hours at difterent temperatures, and at the end of that time plate cultures were made from a sample from each tube. The following is the number of colonies which developed in each case: Tube kept at 7" C. (45° F.), 45 colonies; at 10° C. (50° F.), 1,362; at 13° C. (55° F.), 67,170; at 20° C. (68° F.), ]34,340. The diseases conveyed by milk are next discussed under the headings (1) Diseases conveyed by milk from a diseased cow, (2) Diseases con- veyed from one human being to another by milk, and (3) Diseases caused by milk which contains poisonous agents developed by bacterial growth. The data are tabulated for 53 epidemics of typhoid fever attributed to milk, 26 of scarlatina, 11 of diphtheria, 2 of foot-and-mouth disease, 3 of throat affection, 2 of acute poisoning by milk, and 1 of Asiatic cholera. Only those occurring since 1880 are included. Cases of the tiansmissiou of these diseases and of tuberculosis, anthrax, and acute enteritis, and tiie danger from this transmission are discussed. "In summing up we may conclude that infection by milk is well established in typhoid fever, scarlatina, diphtheria, tuberculosis, cholera, foot-and-moutli disease, and acute enteritis, and that it may exist in anthrax. Cases of acute poisoning from milk by some undetermined agent also occur. Medical literature furnishes us with reliable evidence of an immense amount of sickness and a considerable death rate caused by milk. The recorded epidemics are but a part of those which occur. Many epidemics are never traced to their source, and some which are so traced are not reported. This sickness and death directly due to contaminated milk is to a great extent preventable by proper legislation concerning the inspection of dairies and the handling of milk. 440 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "A study of these epidemics teaches iis that — "(1) Whenever a case of communicable infectious disease is reported inqiiiry into the source of the milk supply should be made. "(2) Milk traffic should be separated from houses where people live. The dairy building should be at least 100 ft. from either the house, barn, or privy, and should be on a higher level than any of these, and should have a pure water supply of its own. At this dairy building all the dairy work should be done, including the cleans- ing of pails and cans. "(3) It should be unlawful for anyone who has come in contact with a sick person (when this sickness is not positively known to be noncontagious) to enter the dairy building or barn, or to handle the milk. "(■i) All men connected with the milk traffic should be compelled to notify the authorities on the outbreak of any disease in their respective abodes, and to abstain from their work until permission to resume is given them by the authorities notified. "(5) Cities should accept milk only from dairies which are regularly inspected, where all the cows have been tested with tuberculin and those giving the character- istic reaction have been killed and the premises disinfected. "(6) The tuberculin test should be applied to all cattle, and those which react should be killed, tlie owner being reimbursed from State funds. The premises on which such tuberculous cattle have been kept should be thoroughly disinfected. All cattle which are brought into the State should be quarantined until the tuber- culin test has been applied. "(7) The use of one long trough for the purpose of feeding many cattle should be avoided, since it is a ready means for the conveyance of pathogenic germs from one animal to another." At what age should heifers be bred ? A. GouiN and H. George (Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), No. 46, pp. 713, 714). — General discussion of the subject. Bauauas for cow feed, A. H. Polk {Florida Farmer and Fruit Grower, 8 {1896), No. 38, pp. 595, 596). — Cows ate freely the cured leaves, stalks, and roots of bananas which had been injured by a frost. The author recommends feeding the roots of bananas which have ripened fruit. The stumps were sliced for feeding. The cows were fed banana roots during the winter and very little other food. In the author's opinion their milk yield was increased and was of the best quality. The effect of peat-molasses feed and of ruta-bagas on the qualities of the butter, Lassen {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 24, p. 5>, pp. 201, 202). The Thistle milking machine (Milch Zig., 25 (1896), Xo. 42, pp. 669, 670, figs. 2). The profitableness of keeping milch cows, A. AndujS (Dent, landiv. Pressc, 23 (1S96), No. SI, p. 7-',3). Sheep's milk from some non-milk breeds, Huciio (JUilch Ztg., 25 (1896), No. 3.3, pp. i':21, 522). — A number of analyses are ^iveu of the milk of 2 Merinos, 1 Hampshire, 1 Rhimscbaf, and 1 Heidschnucke, taken at different stages of lactation, and these are discussed. Artificial human milk, V. Yieth (J/i7c/( Ztg., 25 (1896), No. 32, pp. 505-507).— GeniTal article on the difference between cows' milk and human milk in composition and in the nature of the constituents, and tlie attempts which have been made to approximate human milk. Distinction between raw and cooked milk, Ostektag (ZtHchr. Fleisch- und Milchhyg., 7 (1896), No. 1, pp. 6-9). The nature of the poisonous action of peptonizing bacteria in milk, A. Lub- BERT (Ztschr. Hijg., 22 (1896), p. 1; abs. in CItem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 66, Eepert.,p. 207; and Mi Ich Ztg., 25 ( 1896) , No. 34, p. 540). The origin of the natural acidity of milk, P. Dornic (Ind. Lait., 21 (1896), No. 41. pp. 321, 322). Preservation and analysis of samples of milk, P. Dornic (Ind. Lait., 21 (1896), Nos. 34, 2)p. 265, 266; 35, pp. 273, 274). Sterilizing milk, Pellerin and Leze (Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 (1896), I, No. 25, pp. 890, 891). A self-regulating pasteurizing apparatus, and the importance of milk pas- teurization from a pathogenic standpoint ( Ugcskr. Landm., 1896, No. 39; abs. in Milch Ztg., 25 (1896), No. 42, p. 670, figs. S). The use of the acidimeter for detecting milk w^hich has undergone or is undergoing change, P. Dornic (Ind. Lait., 21 (1896), No. 45, pp. 353, 354). A convenient milk-sampling tube, M. A. Scovell (Eentucly Sta. Ept. 1895, pp. XXVl-XXXII,pl. 1). — A reprint of a paper read before the Society for the Promo- tion of Agricultural Science and published in Agricultural Science, 8 (1894), No. 6-9 (E.S. R.,6,p.674). Pure cultures for ripening cream (Milch Ztg., 25 (1896), No. 24, p. 382). — The Dairy Institute at Kiel, which has been furnishing the piire cultures in liquid form, will now put them up in solid form, as it is becoming more and more apparent that the solid form is the best. The relation of pure cultures to the acidity, flavor, and aroma of butter, H. W. Conn (Centbl. Bakt. und Par. Allg., 2 (1896), No. 13, pp. 409-415). The role of ripening in butter making, P. Dornic (Ind. Lait., 21 (1896), No. 17, pp. 129, 130). Cooperative creameries in France (Milch Ztg., 25 (1896), No. 30, pp. 475, 476). Progress of the dairy industry in Switzerland, P. Dornic (Ind. Lait., 21 (1896), Nos. 36, pp. 281, 282 ; 37, pp. 289, 290). The development of the creamery industry in Denmark (Milch Ztg., 25 (1896), No. 28, p. 445). Factory records of 2 farm and 7 cooperative creameries in Mecklenburg- Schwerin for 1895, J. Siedel (Mihh Ztg., 25 (1896), No. 27, pp. 427-429). Bacteria in the dairy (Connecticut Starrs Sta. lipt. 1895, pp. 14-16). — A short refer- ence to the work during the past S years by H. W. Conn, published mostly in the bulletins and reports of the station. Trials ■writh the use of different pressure in making Gruy^re cheese, C. Martin (Ind. Lait., 21 (1896), No. 19, pp. 137, 138). 442 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A report on the manufacture of cheese from soft curd (Camembert and Brie), M. DE Metalnikoff and M. V. Houder (Bid, 2Iui. Ayr. Prance, 5 {1896), No. 4, pp. 512-54S, figs. 24). The manufacture of cheese kno-wn as Port-l'Eveque, P. Dornic {Ind. Lait., 21 {ISOG), No. 22, pp. 169, 170; ahs. in Milch Ztg., 25 (1S96), No. 34, p. r>42). Dairy products, J. B. Lixdsey et al. {Massachusetts Hatch Sta. Rpt. 1S05, pp. 226, J,??).— Eiglity-seven samples of milk, 18 of creaoi, and 28 of butter have been analyzed during the year. Instructions for sending milk are given, and the compo- sition of milk, deep-setting and separator skim milk and cream, and buttermilk is quoted. The book of the dairy, W. Fleisciimann, trans, by C. M. Aikmann and R. Patrick Wright {London: Blailie .f- Son, 1S9G ; reriewed in Mark Lane Express, 75 {1S96), No. 3388, p. 382, and Agl. Gaz., London, 44 {1896), No. 1186, p. 258). TECHNOLOGY— AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Sirup and molasses, G. Ij. Teller and J. F. Moore {Arkansas Sta. Kpt. 1895, pp. 181-186).— k reprint of Bulletin 37 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 992). Farm drainage, C. L. Newman {Arkansas Sta. lipt. 1895, pp. 33-54, fig. 1). — A reprint of Bulletin 32 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 942). On the use of iron plow^s in the ceded districts of Madras, C. K. Subba Ras {Dcpt. Land Records and Agr., Madras {Agl. Branch), II, No. 33, pp. 15-17). — Large iron plows were compared with the heavy wooden plows common in this region. The results were very favorable to the iron plows. Heel scrape and scooter, R. L. Bexxett and G. B. Irby {Arkansas Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. ,'?i(l method of detecting it, G. Deniges 45!) Butter examination, C. Aschman 459 The estimation of diastatic power in malt, W. G. Sykes and C. A. Mitchell 459 A method for the determination of the diastatic power of malt, A. R. Ling 459 The estimation of the ready-formed sugars of malt, G. H. Morris 460 The determination of dextrose, levulosc, and saccharose as osazone, C. J. Lint- ner and E. Kr<')ber 460 X II CONTENTS. Page. On the determination and tlie clianges of hop tannin, and on the action of the hop tannin durinu the preparation of wort, J. Heron 461 Eighth annual convention of the German Agricultural Experiment Stations .. 462 The occurrence of arginin in the roots and tubers of some plants, E. Schnlze.. 466 Efiect of cheuucal agents on germination, W. Sigumnd 467 Concerning the activity of fungus-diseased leaves, H. Miiller-Thurgau 467 The adaptability of tubercle bacteria of unlike origin to different genera of Legnminosic, F. Nobbe and L. Hiltner 468 Some recent investigations concerning soil inoculation with pure cultures of tubercle bacilli for culture of legumes, F. Nobbe 469 METEORt>LOGY. On periodicity of good and bad seasons, H. C. Russell 474 Kite experiments at the Weather Bureau, C. F. Marvin 475 Monthly Weather Review, April, May, June, and July, 1896.. 475 Re^jort of meteorologist, W. H. Bishop 476 Meteorological summary 476 AVATEK — SOILS. Ammonia in rain water 482 Mineral waters 482 Clays 482 Marls 482 Soils, H. Snyder 482 Soils 482 The texture of the soil, L. H. Bailey 476 The moisture of the soil and its conservation, L. A. Clinton 477 Soil moisture, 1895, J. B. Weems and W. H. Heileman 477 On the changes which the soil undergoes when sterilized, 1j. Richter 478 Decomposition of vegetable matter in the presence of water and soil, E. Breal. 479 On the cultivation of the soil, P. P. Deherain 480 The influence of irrigation on meadows, J. Konig 480 Tile drains 482 Methods of the mechanical analysis of soils, M. Whitney 481 I-EKTILIZEIIS. On the efl^ectof composting on certain phosphate.s, T. Pfeiffer and H. Thurmann 483 The A'alue of leather refuse, J. B. Lindsey 483 The role of fat in fertilizers, J. H. Vogel 484 Fertilizers 484 The contest of the Holland experiment stations against the adulteration of kainit with chlorids, A. Mayer 484 Report of 1895 of the chemical laboratory of the Agricultural Institute of Alnarp, M.WeibuU... - 484 FIELD CHOPS. Crimson clover, W. H. Bishop 490 Egyptian clover and spurry , W. H. Bishop 490 Fertilizer experiments upon clovers, A. von Liebenberg 485 Corn, S. M. Tracy 490 Corn, C. F. Cnrtiss 490 CONTENTS. Ill Paga Soil test with Jield corn at Dover, W. II. Bisliop 486 Fertilizer test ou sweet corn, W. H. Bishop 186 Maize, A. A. Brigham 486 Cotton, S. M. Tracy 487 Cowjieas at Dover, W. H. Bishop 490 Grasses and forage plants, 8. M. Tracy 491 Experiments with oats, J. F. Hickman 487 Oats, fertilizer test, C. F. Curtiss 491 Varieties of oats, C. F. Curtiss 491 Eestoring pasture, C. F. Cnrtiss 488 Tests of sorghum varieties, C. L. Penny 488 P'ield experiments with wheat, W. C. Latta and W. B. Anderson 489 Winter wlieat, C. F. Curtiss 490 Miscellaneous crops, S. JI. Tracy 492 Silos and silage, D. 0. Nourse 492 Experiments in rotation of crops, W, H, Bishop 492 HOHTICULTURK. Experiments with caulillower in the greenhouse, M. H. Beckwith 492 Tomatoes, M. H. Beckwith 493 Apple culture, L. F. Kinney 493 Varieties of apples, T. . I. Burrill and G. W. McCluer 494 Apples of Tennessee origin, R. L. Watts 496 Varieties of apples for Delaware, M. H. Beckwith 496 Preliminary investigation of the eft'ect of the overtlowof salt water upon the health and fruitfnlness of peach trees. M. H. Beckwith 494 Raspberries, M. H. Beckwith 496 Strawberries, M. H. Beckwith 496 Grapes, M. H, Beckwith 496 Chestnut culture for fruit, W. A. Buckhout 497 Some advances in breeding fruits and shrubs, .J. L. Budd and X. E. Hansen 495 Suggestions for the planting of shrubbery, L. H. Bailey 495 Horticultural work at Mississippi Station 497 SEEDS — WEEDS, Germination of hulled and unhulled timothy seed, W. H. Bishop 497 Copper sulphate and geriiiiuation, W. H. Evans 497 Etfect of bisulphid of carbon on the vitality of seed and plants, M. H. Beck- with 497 Experiments to destroy horse nettle, M. H. Beckwith 498 DISEASES OF PLANTS. Ammoniacal solutions of copper carbonate, C, L, Penny 498 Rust in wheat conference, D. McAlpine and W. Lowrie 498 A leaf blight of the tomato, F. D. Chester 499 Blight ;i fleeting the body of pear and iipple trees, M. H. Beckwith 499 Experiments in spraying, F. D. Chester 500 ENT(»MOL(>(iV. The chinch bug, F. M. Webster 500 Tile San .losd scale, L. 0. Howard and C. L. Marlatt 500 Insects injurious to the seed and root of Indian corn, S. A. ForVies 501 Pests of grain crops, G. McCarthy 507 IV CONTENTS. Page. Report of the eiitomolof;;i8t, M. H. Beckwitli 502 Entomological work for 1895, H. Osboru and C. W. Mally 503 Entomological work 504 Some destructive insects, F. M. Webster 505 Eeport on insect pests, A. Koebele 506 Insecticides 507 FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Examination of food ;irodncts sold in Connecticut, A. W. Ogden, A. \j. Wmton, and E. H. Jenkins 508 Foderties of molds, 11. R. Dinwiddie 524 Shoeing for special purposes, E. P. Niles 525 Veterinary work 525 CONTENTS. V DAIliV FARMING AND DAIUVINCI. Page. Cattle feeding 526 Feeding totton-seed meal to dairy cows, C. F. C'nitiss 526 The southern pea vine 527 Feeding dairy cows, J. Wilson 528 Annual report for 1894-'95 of the dairy and bacteriological di vision of the exper- iment station and dairy school at Kiel, H. Weigmann 529 Methods for rendering cows' milk more nearly like human milk, Backhaus 530 Report for 1895 of the municipal laboratory for examination of foods and con- diments in Nuremberg, Kiimmerer - 530 The cause of the curdling of milk in thunderstorms, H. Gerstmanu 531 Studies on milk preservatives, J. B. Weems and W. H. Heileman 531 Milk testing, C. L. Penny 531 Butter flavor, G. L. McKay 533 STATISTICS. Crop reports for September, October, and November, 1896 .536 Proceedings of the ninth annual convention of the Association oi" American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations 536 Index of Alabama College Statiou bulletins 537 Eeport of treasurer of Delaware Station, 1895 537 Report of the chairman of Minnesota Station, 1895 537 Reports of director and treasurer of Mississippi Station, 1895 537 Fifth Annual Report of Washington Station , 1895 537 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. Experiment Stations in the United States : Alabama College Station : Index Bulletins 1-21 (new series), July, 1888-December, 1890 537 Index Bulletins 22-58, January, 1891-Augu8t, 1894 537 Arkansas Station : Bulletin 40, May, 1896 524,525 Colorado Station : Bulletin 34, May, 1896 515 Connecticut State Station : Bulletin 123, July, 1896 ' 508 Connecticut Storrs Statiou : Bulletin 17,Juue, 1896 520 Delaware Statiou : Seventh Annual Report, 1895 476,486,488, 490, 492, 493, 494, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 502, 508, 522, 523, 524, 525, 527, 531, 537 Illinois Station : Bulletin 43, April, 1896 509 Bulletin 44, May, 1896 501 Bulletin 45, July, 1896 494 Indiana Station: Bulletin 61, August, 1896 489 Iowa Station : Bulletin 32, May, 1896 477, 488, 490, 491, 495, 497, .503, 518, 526, 528, 531, .533 Kansas Station : Bulletin 58, June, 1896 522 Minnesota Station : Annual Report, 1895 . . 476, 482, 490, 491, 492, 496, 498, 499, 500, 507, 520, 521, 537 VI CONTENTS. Experiuieiit Stations in tbe United .State.s — Continued. Mississippi Station : Page. Eiglitli Annual Eeport, 1895 476, 482, 484, 487, 490, 491, 492, 497, 504, 507, 510, 520, 525, 526, 537 New Yorl< Cornell Station : Bulletin 119, August, 1896 476 Bulletin 120, August, 1896 477 Bulletin 121, September, 1896 .' 495 North Carolina Station : Bulletin 126, March, 1896 521 Bulletin 127, May, 1896: 525 Bulletin 128, July, 1896 .507 Ohio Station : Bulletin 67, Februarj-, 1896 487 Bulletin 68, February, 1896 505 Bulletin 69, March, 1896 500 Pennsylvania Station : Bu lie tin 36, May, 1896 497 Rhode Island Station : Bulletin 37, May, 1896 493 Tennessee Station : Bulletin, Vol. IX, No. 1, May, 1896 491 Virginia Station: Bulletin .o3, June, 1895 492 Bulletin 54, July, 1895 525 Washington Station: Fifth Annual Report, 1895 537 United States Department of Agriculture: Division of Agricultural Soils: Bulletin 4 481 Division of Entomology : Bulletin 3 (new series) 500 Office of Experiment Stations : Bulletin 30 536 Bulletin 31 509 Division of Statistics : Report 141 (new series) 536 Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology: Bulletin 10 497 Weather Bureau : Monthly Weather Review, Vol. XXIV, Nos. 4-7, April-July, 1896 475 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Vol. VIII. ■ No. 6. Much serious thought and efibrt are at i)resent beiug devoted to the construction of a true science of agriculture. The application of scientitic methods and principles to the promotion of tlie art of agricul- ture is more and more sought after. Teachers of agriculture are becom- ing thoroughly alive to the importance, if not the necessitj^ of reducing their instruction to systematic form if agricultural courses are to main- tain their proper standing. At this juncture both investigators and teachers in agricultural lines can without doubt learn much from what is taking place in the evolution of other sciences, and especially of the sciences which, like agriculture, deal with complex materials and whose ultimate aims are practical. Such a science is economics, and the recent perusal of a treatise on that subject has brought to our attention a pas- sage Avhich we deem well worthy of consideration by students of agri- cultural science. We quote the following paragraphs from Principles of Economics, by Prof. Alfred Marshall, of Cambridge University: "Though we are bound, before entering on any study, to consider care- fully what are its uses, Ave should not plan out our work with direct reference to them. For by so doing we are tempted to break off each line of thought as soon as it ceases to have an immediate bearing on that particular aim which we have in view at the time; the direct pur- suit of practical aims leads us to group together bits of all sorts of knowledge, which have no connection with one another except for the immediate purposes of the moment, and which throw but little light on one another. Our mental energy is spent in going from one to another; nothing is thoroughly thought out; no real progress is made. The best grouping, therefore, for the purposes of science is that which collects together all those facts and reasonings which are similar to one another in nature, so that the study of each may throw light on its neighbor. By working thus for a long time at one set of considerations Ave get gradually nearer to those fundamental unities Avhich are called nature's laws. We trace their action first singly and then in combination, and thus make progress slowly but surely. The practical uses of economic [agricultural] studies should never be out of the mind of the econonust [agriculturist], but liis special business is to study and interi)ret facts and to find out what are the effects of different courses acting singly and in combination." 445 446 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The account of the last convention of the Association of German Experiment Stations, given in this number, is especially interesting from the fact that the meeting is described from an American standpoint. The previous accounts given from year to year have been prepared from summaries of the proceedings as published in current German periodicals. At the suggestion of this Office the convention last Sep- tember was attended by Mr. Fassig, formerly of the Weather Bureau of this Department, who is studying abroad. His account brings out a number of interesting facts in regard to the organization and conduct of the association which have not hitherto been noted. It will be seen that the association is by no means as broad in its scope or provisions for membership as our Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, or even as our Associ- ation of Official Agricultural Chemists, which it most closely resembles. It has far less points of interest common to its members because the German stations have a greater diversity in organization and general management than those in this country. Some are under the control of the State, others of the province, and others of the agricultural associations, and they are not alike responsible to any imperial or general Government. Consequently the field of operations of the asso- ciation has been rather restricted, and has been quite largely confined to studies on methods for analysis and control of fertilizers, feeding stuffs, and seeds. In this the association is confronted by much the same questions and difficulties which our Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists has to contend with, and it is studying these ques- tions in much the same way. This community of interest has led to the suggestion of cooperation between the associations in the two countries, which, although it has never been successfully inaugurated, would seem to be practicable and helpful. The deliberations of the German association will always possess a special interest to the agricultural chemists of this country, and, in the nature of the case, the two associations will to a certain extent supple- ment each other in their work. THE NINTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE ASSOCIATION OF GERMAN A(;RICULTURAL ENPERLMENT STATIONS, ^1896.' Oliver L. Fassig. By a provision of the constitution of the Association of German Agricultural Experiment Stations its meetings are held in close con- nection witli those of the Association of German Naturalists and Physicians {GeseUsclKift dentsche Xaturforscher und Aerzte)^t'\i2, asso- ciation which in Germany corresponds to our American Association for the Advancement of Science. Whenever possible, a neighboring town is chosen in which there is an experiment station. This year as the naturalists and physicians met at Frankfort on the Main, the station meetings were held in Wiesbaden, distant about half an hour's ride from Frankfort. Wiesbaden is an attractive town of about 60,000 inhabitants situated in the midst of the vine-growing region of the Rhine, and is famous for its mineral springs. It is the home of Fresenius, so well known to all readers of chemical literature. In con- nection with the famous Fresenius laboratory is the Wiesbaden Agri- cultural Experiment Station with Prof. H. Fresenius, son of the above mentioned, as director. The association is composed of agricultural experiment stations in the German Empire, each of which is entitled to send one voting dele- gate to the annual meetings. Membership is restricted to such stations as are under the control of the State, province, or an agricultural society, and conducted in the interests of the public. The association numbers about 50 stations. It does not include all the stations eligible to membership, as it is not a State institution and membership is not compulsory. The method of organization and the nature of the work done are referred to with special emphasis here since these received a large share of attention at this meeting, as will appear later on. The work of the association is largely along chemical lines, corresponding in this respect to our Association of Ofticial Agricultural Chemists. The main pur- pose, as expressed in the constitution, is to secure uniformity in methods of analysis and of control of fertilizers, feeding stufi's, and seeds. The association is governed by an executive committee of 5, chosen for 3 years. The chairman of the executive committee presides at the annual meetings. This committee nauies the members of committees, to which are referred questions relating to methods of analysis. Of these there are apparently at present 4; (1) a committee for the inves- tigation of fertilizers; (2) one for the investigation of feeding stuff's; (3) one for soil analysis; (4) one for seed examination. An important 'An account of the eij^hth annual convention, abstracted from the pnlilished proceedings, is given on p. 4B2. 447 448 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. section of the constitutiou is that which requires favorable action at two consecutive annual meetings before any proposed method of analy- sis becomes the officially recognized method of the association. In qnostions concerning technical analysis only such decisions as are unan- imously supported by the delegates present are binding. In j)urely scientific questions no resolutions are binding. The present meeting of the association, which was the ninth, was held September 18 and 19, 1890. The evening ijrevious to the meeting the delegates, to the number of about 30, met informally in the dining room of one of the hotels, where, after being welcomed by the i)resident. Professor Dr. ^N^obbe, director of the Experiment Station at Thaiand, Saxony, they renewed acquaintance with one another for a few hours in the genial and social way characteristic of German meetings. The following day the formal opening of the sessions took j)lace at 9.30 a. m. in one of the halls of the " Kurhaus." There were about 40 persons present, about 30 of whom were voting delegates. The elder Fresenius was expected to lend his presence at the opening session, but he was out of the city and unable to return in time. After a few introductory remarks, the president gave a brief review of such of the year's hapj>enings as were of interest to the members, and congratu- lated the association on having hapjiily emerged from the " storm and stress" period of its history. The treasurer then presented his report on the financial transactions of the i)ast year. Officers were elected and appointed to fill vacancies occurring during the year. Professor Emmerling, of Kiel, was elected a member of the executive committee; Professor Dietrich, of Marburg, was appointed on the committee on soil analysis, and Br. Rodenwald, of Kiel, on the committee on seed examination. Professor Maercker, of Halle, in behalf of the committee on ferti- lizers, reported the results of investigations authorized at the meeting held in Kiel the preceding year, which may be briefly summarized as follows : (1) The results of cooperative determinations in 5 laboratories of pot- ash in aqueous and hydrochloric acid solutions of carnallit, kainit, sylvinit, and a mixture of kainit and polyhalit, show close agreement, there being practically no difference between the amounts'found in the water and acid solutions. The short method of Fresenius gave good results, provided the potassium-platinic chlorid was dissolved on the filter, evaporated to dryness, and weighed, or the impurities left on the filter were weighed and deducted. The results of tests by the Darmstadt station of alcohol of different strengths for washing the final precipitate are rej)orted. (2) Tests by the Mockern^ and Hildesheim stations of the methods of determining ammoniacal nitrogen in fertilizers by distillation with mag- nesia and soda are reported, showing practically no difference in the results by the 2 methods. 1 Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 17, p. 151 (E. S. R., 7, p. 826). CONVENTION OF GERMAN EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 449 (3) The results of comparative tests by tlie Ilildeslieim and liriins- wick stations and by Macb and Passon' of the citrate and niolybdate methods of determiuiug phosphoric acid in Thomas slag are tabulated without comment. The next business in order was the second reading of certain resolu- tions passed by tlio association at the Kiel meeting. These resolutions were ratified and therefore become a part of the official methods of the association. They are as follows: (1) The determination of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid in Thomas slag meal is to be made in exact accordance with the directions for the P. Wagner method, using a rotary apparatus. (2) Phosphate slag meal should no longer be sold on the basis of its total phosjdioric acid, but the effort should be in the future to have it sold entirely according to its content of citrate- soluble phosphoric acid, dropping the guaranty for fine meal. (3) In determining the soluble potassium oxid 10 gm. of the sub- stance which passes a 1 mm. sieve is heated for a quarter of an hour with 400 cc. of water, made to 500 cc. after cooling, and an aliquot taken for the determination. (4) The ammoniacal nitrogen in commercial ammonia salts and in fertilizers containing the same is determined by distillation with mag- nesium oxid. (5) Magnesia is to be added to the list of ingredients recognized as determining the value of limestone, and is accordingly to be taken account of in examination of such material. (G) Concerning the determination of intrinsic worth of beet seed — (a) The distinction between large and small seed bolls is discontinued. (b) One gram of bolls must produce at least 50 plantlets. (c) Out of every 100 seed bolls at least 75 must germinate in 14 days. {(I) The foreign matter shall not exceed 3 per cent or the water con- tent 15 jjer cent; however, beet seed with as high as 17 per cent of water may be furnished subject to a corresponding indemnity. (7) In the case of feeding stuffs in which the carbohydrates are taken into account, the money value or the indemnity is determined on the basis of the proportion of 3 : 3 : 1, for 1 kg. of protein : fat : carbo- hydrates. It was also voted to exclude from the deliberations of the association the Union of Fertilizer Manufacturers, which was admitted at the meeting at Wiirzburg in 1894. Dr. Kellner and Dr. Loges were appointed to carry out the resolu- tions of the Kiel meeting in reference to the furnishing of reliable and pure reagents by the chemical factories. Upon motion of Professor Maercker it was voted to amend the sec- tion of the constitution relating to the adoption of analytical methods. There was some difference of opinion among members as to whether methods agreed upon should go into effect after the first reading or not ' Ztschr. angew. Cliein., 1896, Nos. 5. p. 129 ; 10, p. 286 (E. S. R., 8, p. 23). 450 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. uutil after the second reading. The decision arrived at was tlnit these methods shoukl go into effect immediately after the first favorable action, provided the committee charged with testing the methods makes known the results to all members of the association at least 2 months before the meeting at which the method is to be first voted upon. By this means all will have an opportunity to test the method thoroughly dur- ing the first year, and the association will be iii i)osition to take intelli- gent action at the second and final reading. Professor Pfeiffer presented a paper upon the determination of phos- phoric acid in precipitates/ previously published.^ It has been assumed that the phosphoric acid in precipitated phosphates was in the form of dicalcic phosphate (reverted). The author found that aside from dicalcic phosphate the precipitates apparently contained consid- erable amounts of pyrophosphates, and that solution in concentrated hydrochloric acid did not give all of the phosphoric acid in the mate- rial. It was found necessary to use nitric acid in addition to hydro- chloric acid in order to completely convert the pyrophosphoric acid into a form which magnesia mixture will precipitate. A general discussion of the paper followed, at the close of which Professor Pfeiffer offered the following resolution, which was subse- quently adopted at the first reading: (1) It is to be desired that in the sale of precipitated phosphates a guaranty be given for the phosphoric acid jjresent in the form of dical- cium phosphate (citrate-soluble). (2) The committee on fertilizers is directed to test the methods for the determination of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid (dicalcium phos- phate) in precii)itated phosphates. Professor Pfeiffer was followed by Professor Emmerling, of Kiel, with a paper on the sand content of certain commercial feeding stuffs. He presented a table showing the sand content of peanut meal, peanut cake, cocoanut cake, palm-nut cake, palm nut meal, linseed cake, rape cake, rice feed, and rye bran as determined by a number of stations. He suggested a classification for feeding stuffs, according to their sand content, into good, medium, and bad, attempting to fix the limits to the sand content for each of these classes. For example, for peanut meal 1 per cent or less of sand would be considered as "good," from 1 to 2 per cent as "medium," and over 2 per cent as "bad." After considerable discussion it was decided to postpone definite action with reference to this classification until the next meeting. At about 3 p. m. the association adjourned for the day. After par- taking of a dinner prepared for them, some of the members visited the Freseuius laboratory and the local experiment station, while others returned to the " Kurhaus " park where a special program of music, ' This product, precipitated phosphates, is not fonnd on the market in this country to any extent. 2Laudw. Vers. Stat., 47 (1896), No. 4-5, pp. 357-360. CONVENTION OF GERMAN EXPEKIMENT STATIONS. 451 illuiniiiatioii, and rtieworks was in store for them. With the brilliant illuniinatiou, the play of fountains and the music, the gardens presented a veritable fairyland scene. At 0 a. m. of the following- morning a meeting of the executive com- mittee was held. The public session began about 10 o'clock. The venerable Fresenius occupied a place by the side of the president and remained during the morning session. Dr. Miiller, of Hildesheim, pre- sented a report upon further investigations in the determination of fat in molasses feed. He was followed by Professor Emmerling, of Kiel, with a committee report upon the presence of free and volatile fatty acids in feeding stuffs. Two other i:»apers were read before the close of the morning session, one a committee report by Professor Maercker on an examination of the Glaser-Crispo method for the determination of sesquioxids in i^hosphates, and tlie other a paper not on the program by Dr. SjoUema, of Groningen, Holland, on the occurrence of perchlorates in Chili saltpeter, and the injurious effects of this upon rye. The afternoon session, which lasted about an hour and a half, was devoted almost exclusively to the consideration of a pamphlet published recently by Prof Adolf Mayer, of Wageningen, Holland, ui)on exi)eri- ment stations as State institutions. ' As this pamphlet excited a lively discussion and a display of considerable feeling on the part of the association, and also as it is an effort to bring about closer interna- tional relations between directors of agricultural experiment stations, a somewhat full account of its contents and of its reception by the German association is here given. Professor Mayer is director of the experiment station at Wagenin- gen, and chairman of the college of directors of experiment stations of Holland. The purpose of the pamphlet, as expressed by the author, is to inaugurate an effort to bring about a more systematic and thor- ough national organization by means of State control, with the ulti- mate result of establishing closer international relations. The personnel of the stations is first considered. A special preparation for the work is deemed necessary; a general university course is not sufficient. Practice in analytical methods in agricultural chemistry and botany is considered a necessary requirement, and the establishment of a State examination for station workers is advocated. The author would have a station force cousist of (1) a director responsible for all the work of the station; (2) a larger or smaller force of scientific assistants with the title of chemist, botanist, etc. ; (3) aids, laborers, etc. This seems to be directed against the (rerman organization, where in general all below the director are classed as assistants, without reference to the character of the work or position. ' The second chai)ter contains a brief history of the origin and growth of the experiment stations in different countries; a discussion of the 'Die landwirthscliaftliche Versiiehsstationen als Staats-Institut. Beitriige zu dor Reform (lieser Austalten. von Dr. Adolf Mayer. Hcidi'll)erg: Carl Winter's, Universi- tatsbuchliaudluug, 189G, pp. 84. 452 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. best methods of mauageineut; a cousideiatiou of the extent to which the State ought to have control, and to what extent the control may be left with advantage to agricultural and other associations ; the advan- tages of a national organization, with examples of the unsatisfactory character of private control ; closing with a report of the Holland com- mission for the establishment of stations under State control. In the next chapter the author describes in detail what a national organization should be in order to secure prompt and reliable analyses for purposes of control. He compares the national organization and methods of analysis of Holland with those of Germany to the great advantage of the former. In the fourth and last chapter the international relations of stations are considered, and the best methods of accomplishing international cooperation. The author points out what he considers defects in the existing organization of certain systems, particularly those of England and Germany, which, in his opinion, stand in the way of any success- ful effort to establish international cooperation and thus further increase the usefulness of these institutions. An international organization is not practicable, the author thinks, until in all those countries which it is desired to include there is a central and ofticial supervisory head. The author further points out what he considers serious faults in the organization of the German association, namely: (1) The association is composed of stations which are dissimilar in many respects. Some are under the control of the State, others of the province, and others of agricultural societies; and some can act inde- pendently while others can not vote upon certain important questions without instruction from their control. (2) In technical analytical ques- tions, only those resolutions which are passed by the unanimous vote of those delegates present are binding; /. c, a single dissenting vote can defeat the majority. This puts too much i^ower into the hands of a few. (3) The stations are not required to join the association, and some stations are debarred from entrance. This results in a great diversitj^ in the competence and reliability of stations with consequent evil results for the agricultural public. The author expresses the hope that his views may be discussed and combated, as "Des chocs des oi)inions resulte la verite." This wish is being gratified in Germany probably beyond the hoi)es of the author. The association took official notice of the pamphlet and its charges by arranging for a discussion of it at the Wiesbaden meeting. The dis- cussion was opened by Prof. H. Schulze, of Brunswick, with a vigorous and scathing reply to the charges of Professor Mayer, which called forth a lively debate. The opinion seemed to be unanimous that Pro- fessor Mayer's criticisms of the association were unjust and uncalled for. They were the result of an inexcusable misunderstanding of the German organization and of the difticulty of securing a central organ- ization, even if desired, in a country with such diverse interests as those CONVENTION OF GERMAN EXTERIMENT STATIONS. 453 of the Germiiii Empire, and of such a complex political character. Opinions dilVered as to the propriety of taking further otlicial notice of the pami)hlet, some believing it would be better to leave the defense to individual members. The matter was finally settled by passing a resolution rebuking Professor Mayer for what was considered an unjust attack upon the association. The following resolutions received their first reading and favorable action, and will be brought before the association again at its next annual meeting: (1) Only water shall be used in making the solution in analysis of Stassfurt potash salts. The short method (Fresenius) for i^otash deter- mination is accepted as the association method, although the potassium- platinic chlorid jirecipitate should be purified by dissolving, etc. (2) In superphosphate the citrate-soluble phosphoric acid as deter, mined by Petermann's method is to be separately determined when requested instead of designating the sum of that soluble in water and in the citrate sokition as *' citrate- soluble" phosphoric acid. (3) The ammoniacal nitrogen in ammonia salts and mixtures of the same with superphosphates or other materials is to be determined by heating 1 gm. of substance with 3 gm. of magnesium oxid as nearly free from carbon dioxid as possible. The question whether thjs sub- stance itself or a solution of the substance is to be used for this deter- mination is to be further investigated by the committee on fertilizers. (4) The designation '"Ammonia-nitrogeu sui^erphosphate (Am. st. Sup.)" customarily used by the Germau Agricultural Society for fer- tilizers composed of mixtures of ammonia salts, materials containing organic nitrogen, and superphosi)hates is undesirable and leads to con- fusion. Accordingly a new designation is to be fixed u])on. (5) The committee on fertilizers is instructed to make comparative studies of the determination of sesquioxids by the methods of Crisj)o, Glaser, and von Griiber. This concluded the business of the general sessions and there re- mained ouly some social features — a dinner at the "Kurhaus," and later in the evening a final and informal gathering at the hotel, similar to that of the first evening. For the following day (Sunday) short excursions to interesting points along the Rhine had been planned, but the rain interfered with these arrangements. The next annual meeting of the association will be held at Bruns- wick in September, 1897. RECENT WORK IX AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. CHEMISTRY. The behavior of paracasein toward rennet, O. Hammarsten {ZUvhr. physioJ. Chem., 2^> {1800), Xo. 2, pp. 103-l:J6).—l\\ 1894 E. Peters' published investigations including among other things a study of the action of rennet on the proteidsof milk. He concluded from these studies that when the paracasein resulting from the action of rennet on casein was dissolved in the smallest possible amount of lime water it could be reprecipitated by rennet, and that this dissolving in lime water and curdling with rennet could be repeated many times. This was contrary to the previous work of the author, who further investigated Peters' conclusions. It was found that the rennet extract used by Peters con- tained considerable common salt, whereas the author had used rennet free from salt; and the author's experiments showed conclusively that salt was callable in a marked degree of curdling solutions of paracasein, both in presence and in absence of soluble lime salts. Eennet free from salt invarial)ly failed to curdle lime water solutions of paracasein, but the extract used by Peters always curdled the solutions, even though the extract was heated to destroy the ferment. Hence it was clear that the curdling action observed by Peters was due entirely to the salt in the rennet extract which he used rather than to the rennet itself. Paracasein prepared under varying conditions was found to have somewhat difl'erent i)roperties, but all ijreparations of it agreed in not being capable of reprecipitation with rennet enzym. This property the author regards as the most pronounced difference between casein and paracasein. Solutions of casein in lime water which failedto curdle with rennet on account of a deficiency of soluble lime, gave a voluminous precipitate of paracasein when the proper amount of lime- free common salt was added. This action of salt is confined within rather close limits, and depends upon the concentration of the casein solution, and also the temperature. On the peculiar relations of solubility of barium sulphate, E. Fresenius and E. Hintz {Ztschr. analyt. Chem., 35 {1S96), Xo. ^-', pp. 170-183). — From 6 series of experiments the authors found that — (1) [a) One part barium sulphate remains in solution after 24 hours' standing in 100,000 jiarts of \}w.ve water, (b) Barium chlorid or free sulphuric acid decreases considerably the solubility of barium sulphate 'UntersnchuDgeii iiher das Lab nud die labiihulichen Fermente. Rostock, 1894. 454 CHEMISTRY. 455 ill water, the latter being more effective than the Ibrnier. In the pres. euee of one of these 1 part of barium sulphate is soluble in about 400,000 parts of water. (2) {(t) Fifty mg. barium sulphate remains permanently dissolved in 500 CO. of an 8 per cent solution of ammonium chlorid, corresponding to 1 i)artof the barium salt to 10,000 i)arts of the solution, {h) Barium chlorid or free sulphuric acid reduces the solubility of the barium salt in ammonium chlorid solution, its solubility in 10 per cent ammonium chlorid solution with moderate excess of sulphuric acid being- 1 part in 400,000 parts (same as in water), while in presence of barium chlorid the solubility is 1 part in r)0,000 parts of solution, (c) From (a) and {b) the conclusion is drawn that while ammonium chlorid in large amounts does not hinder the precipitation of barium by sulphuric acid, which is always added in excess, it does interfere with the coiii])lete ])recipita- tion of sulphuric acid by barium chlorid. (8) {<() While barium sulphate dissolves in dilute solutions of ammo- nium chlorid to a far greater extent than in pure water, it is less soluble ill them than in more concentrated solutions, {h) In the presence of moderate quantities of ammonium chlorid (2.5 parts in 100 cc. of liquid) the precipitation of barium by sulphuric acid is practically complete, whilQ the precipitation of sulphuric acid by barium chlorid is suflB- ciently complete for quantitative purposes. (4) (a) In a 2.3 per cent solution of sodium chlorid 20 mg. of barium suljihate remained dissolved in 440 cc. of the solution, corresponding to 1 part in 22,000, which is practically the same result as obtained with ammonium chlorid, though the latter is remarked to have some- what more solvent power than the former, (b) The solubility of barium sulphate in stronger sodium chlorid solutions corresponds with its solubility in ammonium chlorid solutions of like strength; and barium chlorid or sulphuric acid acts in the same way in reducing its solubility as they do in ammonium chlorid solution, (c) The presence of barium sulphate in mineral waters containing chlorids is explained on the basis of the above facts. (5) (a) About 1 part of barium sulphate is dissolved by 7,300 parts of nitric acid (7 to 8 per cent). (/>) Barium chlorid and free suli)huric acid reduce very materially the solubility of barium sulphate in dilute nitric acid, sulphuric acid reducing the solubility to 1 part in 400,000, while 30 cc. of barium chlorid reduces the solubility from 3 mg. in 100 cc. to 1 part in 33,000. (c) From (a) and (/>) the authors conclude that barium and sulphuric acid can be estimated with sufficient accu- racy for analytical purposes in nitric acid solutions of 10 per cent or less by the addition of an excess of sulphuric acihuric acid added, together with a teaspoonful of kaolin, again thoroughly shaken, and Altered. One hundred cubic centimeters of the filtrate is placed in a porcelain casserole, 20 cc. of indigo solution and 500 cc. of water added, and the titration carried on as before. The amount corresponding to the indigo solution used is deducted, and the result multiplied by 2.5 gives the oxidizable sub- stances not hop tannin ])resent in 100 cc. of the extract. To obtain comparable figures, the author expresses the amount of permanganate use ] in terms of oxalic acid. The gelatin solution must be tested with permanganate and the corresponding correction applied whenever found necessary. CJtanges which the tcmnin undergoes during storage. — The author con- firmed the well-known fact that the hop tannin decreases during storage. This seems to be especially so during the first year, ^o sat- isfactory method of preventing this is known at present, but the author found that sulphured hops kept much better than the nnsulphured. The inflnence of the hop tannin on the wort. — The author showed by experiments that the hop tannin does not precipitate a single soluble proteid during boiling, but that it seems rather to form a soluble com- pound with the peptones of the wort. He calls this soluble compound tannopeptone. As this compound is not changed by fermentation, it must be present in the finished beer, and the tannin in all normal hop beers is therefore not present in the uncombined state. It is therefore incorrect to assume the absence of tannin in a beer which, on the addition of oak tannin, gives a precipitate. — w. H. KRi'G. Eighth annual convention of the German Agricultural Experi- ment Stations [Landw. Vers. Stat., 47 {1896), JSfo. 2-3, pp. 145-253, Jig. 1). — The eighth annual convention of this association was held at Kiel, September 12, 13, and 14, 1895, F. Nobbe presiding. Fifty-one members and visitors were in attendance. The following propositions approved by the previous convention M^ero passed to the second reading and adopted: In the valuation of feeding stuff's protein, tat, and carbo- hydrates should stand in the ratio of 3:3:1; in control analyses phos- phoric acid is to be determined by one of the old and well-tested CHEMISTRY, 4G3 methods. The method projiosod by I'\ Xobbe' for testing- seeds of grasses mid eoiiifers -was also adopted. M. Maercker reported the results of cooperative tests undertaken with a view to determining- the sources of error in the citrate method. The results of tests by 9 institutions on 5 different sami>les of Thomas slag of the Wagner and Xaumann methods are reported. The latter method is described as follows: Digest 100 cc. of the filtered citrate solution obtained by the Wagner method in an l^rlenmeyer Jlask with 30 cc. of concentrated nitric acid over the imked flame until the bulk is reduced to about 20 cc, add 25 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid to separate the silica and boil for 10 minutes, wash into a 2r)0 cc. flask, fill to the mark, Alter, and use 100 cc. of the ftltrate for the subseciuent test by the citrate method. The results reported show a better agreement than in previous years and indicate that the Wagner method gives reliable results when care- fully carried out. It appears also that the allowable 0.75 per cent of variation agreed upon between the German Agricultural Society and the Association of Thomas Slag ^Manufacturers may be considerably reduced. While the Wagner method, using a rotary apparatus, gives reliable results on Thomas slag, it is not considered applicable to other forms of i^hosphate, such as steamed bone meal. The ]^aumann method apparently gave good results also. At a meeting of the fertilizer section at Eisenach, Ai)ril 15, 1800, it was decided that the citrate soluble phosphoric acid of superphos- phates should be determined directly by the Petermann metliod ami not by taking tlie sum of separate determinations of water-soluble and citrate- soluble phosphoric acid. M. Maercker also presented a report on the advisal)ility of requiring that Thomas slag be sold upon the guaranty of content of fine meal and citrate-soluble phosphoric acid. He reviewed investigations tend- ing to show that the citrate solubility of the phosphoric acid is a measure of the fertilizing value of the phosplioric acid in the slag, and that the finer the slag the greater its solubility. The results of experi- ments were also reported, which indicated that not only the citrate solubility but the fertilizing value of slag for oats and alfalfa increased with the percentage of silicic acid which it contained. C. Miiller described a new form of rotary apparatus, wliich carries 8 digestion flasks and is driven by means of a weight and clock-work arrangement. .M. Maercker presented a report faxoring the adoption of a uniform system of charges for determining citrate soluble phosphoric acid in Thomas slag; and a report on the determination of nitrogen in feeding- stuffs by the Kjeldahl method, with special reference to the action of the last convention regarding the time of digestion of organic sub- stances and the use of a mixture of i)hosphoric acid and sulphuric acid. iLauflw. Vers. Stat., 45 (1804), pp. 390, 391 (E. S. K.. 7. p. 15). 464 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The results were not very uuiforin, but the reporter recommeuded the following, which was adopted: lu the exaniinatiou of feeding- stuffs by the Kjeldahl method sulphuric acid containing phosphoric acid is to be used, together with the addition of a sufficient amount of mercury. Digestion for more than 3 hours is unnecessary. The proposed imperial control of the trade in feeding stuffs, fertil- izers, and seeds was considered by the association. While the need of such control was conceded, attention was called to the fact that the l^osition which the experiment stations have long occupied with respect to this work was not properly recognized in the proposed statute. A report of comparative determinations of potash in a normal sample of kainit^ at 31 laboratories was submitted by M. Maercker. The difference between individual determinations is not so large as in previous years, the variation being from 12.72 to 13.61 per cent. The long and short methods of Fresenius were compared and the following conclusions were reached : (1) With the short method the use of 80 per cent alcohol appears to be indispensable, since stronger alcohol gives higher results. (2) In many instances it was observed that the barium chlorid contained potash, and therefore a blank analysis is advisable. (3) Hydrochloric acid solutions appeared to give higher results than water solutions. Further tests of this subject were advised. (4) In the short method it is necessary to dissolve the precipitate in hot water and weigh the residue, since the potassio-platinic chlorid usually contains considerable amounts of imi)urities. For this pur- pose a Gooch crucible is especially convenient. In order to get accurate results it is stated that only a very slight excess of barium chlorid should be used and the solution evaporated with iilatinum chlorid only to a sirupy consistency. The section on fertilizers was instructed to study the question of the water solubility of potash in fertilizers in cooperation with the Kali Syndicate, and those members of the association, Halenke and Wag- ner, who have the greatest interest in the Albert salts were requested to investigate the nature of the jjotash and phosphoric-acid compounds in these preparations and to make vegetation experiments regarding their fertilizing value. In determining the soluble potash it is directed that 10 gm. of material which has passed a 1 mm. sieve shall be boiled for 15 minutes with 400 cc. of water. After cooling the solution is to be made to 500 cc. and an aliquot part used for the determination. G. Loges submitted a report on the determination of ammoniacal nitrogen in ammoniated superphosphates. This is devoted principally to meeting the objections raised against the determination of ammonia by distillation with magnesium oxid. He shows first that the use of magnesium oxid gives as high results on both 1 gm. and one-half gm. 'The discordant results reported at the previous raeoting were attributed to the fact that an abnormal sample of potash salt was used for the tests. CHEMISTRY. 465 samples as caustic soda, th;it the method adopted by the association gives practically the theoretical ainouiits of iimuioiiia in materials containing' from 9.5 to 1(>.8 per cent of soluble phosj)horic acid, and that the amount of magnesium oxid recommended is fully sufrtcieut to set free all the ammonia in pure ammonium salts. With triammonium i:)hosphate and ammonium chlorid the two niethods of distillation gave identical results. The presence of carbonate in the magnesia used was found to lower the percentage of ammonia. The method of distillation with the magnesia, was not i^assed to its second reading at this meeting, because it had not been studied by the analytical com- mittee of the German Fertilizer Manufacturers' TTnion. At a meeting of the section on fertilizers at Eisenach, April 15, 1896, it was decided to retain the method of determining ammonia by distillation with mag- nesia. In case of mixed fertilizers ammoniacal nitrogen is to be deter- mined by distillation with magnesia of a solution obtained by shaking up 20 gm. of material with water for one-half hour. An elaborate report on the fertilizing value of limestone containing magnesia was submitted by (). Kellner. He reported results of inves- tigations that go to show that the magnesia of gray lime is as readily taken up by ordinary solvents as the lime, and that while the lime acts partly in the form of bicarbonate and partly in the form of quicklime the magnesia acts mainly in the form of soluble bicarbonate. It is stated further that soils that are delicient in lime and are benefited by its application are generally deficient in magnesia also, and that mag- nesia acts like lime in combining with humus substances, thus neutral- izing the acid of the soil, promoting the decomposition of organic matter, and favoring nitrification. Like lime, it is also active in break- ing down the silicates and setting free a certain amount of potash, in delaying the reversion of phosphoric acid in the soil, and in improving the texture of the soil. The poisonous effect of magnesia which has been frequently observed is claimed to be exerted only when the sub- stance is used in large quantities unaccompanied by lime. The motion of Kellner that in determining the value of limestone magnesia must be taken into account was adopted. Reports on the determination of fat and sugar in molasses fodder were submitted by C. Midler. After some discussion this subject was referred back to the section on feeding stuft's for further investigation. A report on the determination of ergot in feeding stuffs was sub- mitted by Ulbricht. He showed that the i)resence of roh/f/onum con- volrulus in a feeding stuff destroys the reliability of the Hoffmann method and he describes a method of preparing samples for microscop- ical examination. A report on the testing of feeding stuffs for sand was submitted by Emmerling. The section on feeding stuffs was instructed to collect the individual determinations which have heretofore been made of sand in feeding stuffs and to tabulate them on a uniform basis. 466 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. F. Nobbe reported on the valaatiou of sugar and fodder beet seed, aud the following coiiclusious of the section on seed testing were adopted : (1) The distinction between large and small seed bolls is given up. (2) One gram of bolls must produce at least 50 plantlets. (3) Seventy-five out of every 1<*0 bolls must germinate in 14 days. (4) Foreign constituents must not exceed 3 per cent and the water content 15 per cent, although beet seed containing as high as 17 per cent of water may bo furnished subject to a corresponding indemnity, A detailed description of methods for seed testing is given by F. Nobbe iu an appendix to the report. Concerning a new class of compounds of albuminoid bodies, F. Blum {Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 22 {1896), Xo. 2, jip. 127-131). A contribution to the chemical and botanical study of gums, L. C. Lutz (Thesis, rarl-< : 1S95 ; abs. in Bot. Centhl. Beihe/te, G (1396), Xo. 5, pp. 368, 369). The quantitative cleavage of albumen by hydrochloric acid, R. Coiix (Ztsclir. pliys'wl. (.'hem., 23 (1896), Xo. 2, pp. 1.'j3-175). — Discovery of a pyridiii derivative. The behavior cf casein toAvard pepsin-hydrochloric acid, E. Salkowski (^rcA. Physiol, 63 (1896), p. 401; ahs. in Chem. Ztfj., 20 (1896), Xo. 78, Bepert., p. 24.5).— A. contiuiiation of studies on the exact conditious under which casein is completely dissolved by pepsin-hydrochloric acid. The determination of phosphorus in the ashes of coal and of coke, L. Camp- REDON (Compi. Bend. .123 (1896), Xo. 23, pp. 1000-1003).— It in shown that fiisiou with alkaline carbonates is the only reliable method of obtaining all the phosphoric acid in solution. The quantitative determination of salicylic acid, F. Freyeu (Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), Xo. S3, p. 820). The physical methods of butter examination, N. Wendeu (Ztschr. Xahr. Unter- SHch. undHyij. Waar., 10, pp. 46-49: ahs. in Chem. Cenfhl., 1896, I, Xo. 15, p. 830). Determination of the specific gravity of curdled milk. M. Kuhn (Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), Xo. 73, pit. 708-710). Compendium for food chemists. Vol. 5 : The chemistry and physiology of malt and beer, E. Priou (Bihliothek filr Xahrunf/smittelchemiker. Bd. 5. Chemie und Physiologic des Maizes und Bieres. Leipzig : J. A. Barth). BOTANY. The occurrence of arginin in the roots and tubers of some plants, E. ScHULZE {Landw. Vers. Stat., 40 [1890), Xo. 6, pp. 451-458). — Arginin is a highly nitrogenous substance, C6H14K4O2, discovered by the author in the etiolated seedlings of lu])ine, aud also found by G. S. Hedin' among the products of the cleavage of protein by acids. The autlior now finds this substance iu the tubers of rutabagas and Jerusalem artichokes and the roots of Ptelea frifoliata. The examina- tion was made in the spring, the roots having been kept iu the ground over winter. Four kilograms of ruta-bagas, containing about 500 gm. of dry matter, yielded only 0.9 gm. of arginin, showing that the amount of this substance is small. It was accompanied by glutamin, asparagin, and ty rosin. In the Jerusalem artichoke and the roots of P/^/ea trifoliata 1 ztschr. physiol. Chem., 20, p. 186. BOTANY. 467 the auioTiut of arj^'iiiiii Ibuiid was very small. The author believes it to be ill the ehicory root also, although he has not thoroughly identified it. Effect of chemical agents on germination, W. Sigmund {Landw, Vers. Stat., 17 [189ii), Xo. J,2>l>. /-.:>'^). — The author reports on a series of experiments conducted to test the ett'ect of certain chemical agents on tlie germination of wheat, rye, barley, peas, and rape seed. About 275 solutions of chemically pure agents Avere tested, the seed being soaked for 24 hours in 50 cc. of the solution, and then placed between filter papers to sprout. The maximum strength of solution used was 0.5 per cent. For each lot of seed tested a similar quantity was soaked for the same time in distilled water and germinated in the same manner. The results of the experiments were tabulated, and the following con- clusions drawn from them : (1) Free mineral and organic acids were injurious to all the seeds, although the cereals were able to withstand dilute solutions, 0.1 per cent or less, of free acids. Salts having a strong acid reaction, are poisonous as compared with those having a neutral reaction. (2) Free bases are poisonous, as are alkaline salts with strong basic reactions. (3) The neutral reacting alkaline salts and alkaline earths were with- out injurious effect upon the cereals; in some cases the germination was accelerated up to the maximum concentration used, while peas and rape were able to withstand strengths of solution up to 0.3 i)er cent only. All the salts were injurious when used stronger than 0.5 per cent. (4) Fat and ethereal oils hasten the germination of cereals, but retard that of peas and rape. (5) The anaesthetics and carbon dioxid in gaseous form are very injurious. In liquid form they retard germination and check the growth of the plantlet. Peas have relatively a higher resistance to this influence than the other seed tested. (6) Alkaloids and the physiologically similar artificial antipyretics, and soporifics weaken and retard germination when used in strengths of 0,1 per cent or more. Toward this class of agents wheat is less susceptible to injury than peas. (7) Some of the organic antiseptics were injurious at 0.1 per cent, and all were when a greater strength was used. (8) The anilin dyes w^ere poisonous to seed when used in a concen- tration of 0.05 per cent. (9) Plants are more resistant to the influence of organic than inorganic poisons. Investigations on the effect of these agents upon the germinating plant, upon the soil, and upon the growing seed are to be continued. Concerning the activity of fungus-diseased leaves, H. Mijller- Trvrgav {J<(hrc.sh6), Xo. 1, pp. 3-10). A revision of the genus Zinnia, B. L. Robinson aud J. M. Greenman {Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., 32 {ISOC), Xo. l.jyp. 14-SO). The Gramineae : Descriptions, figures, and uses of the grasses gro'wing spon- taneously and cultivated in France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Switzerland, T. HusNOT {Grantinces : Descriptions, i\(H(res et usuffes des Graminees spontanees etculti- ve'es de France, Bel{/i(j>ic, lies Britani(fue, et Snissr. Cahan : 1S9G, pt. J, pp. 24, ph. S). Notes for the description of Hymenomycetes, M. Britzelmayr {Bot. Centbl., 68 {1896), Xo. 5, pp. 137-145). Mucor proliferus n. sp., W. Schostakowitsch {Ber. detit. hot. Ges., 14 {1896), Xo. 8, pp. 260-263, pJ. 1). — This new sjiecics is described from Siberia, Histological studies of the Uredineae, Sappin-Trouffy {Le Botaniste, ser. 5, 1896, Xo. 2-5, pp. 59-244, Jigs. 69). — Studies are given of the following genera: Uromyces, Pucciuia, Gymnosporangium, Triijhragmidium, Phragmidium, Melam- psora, Theospora, Crouartium, Endophyllum. aud Coleosporiiim, together with a genera] consideration of the nucleus, vegetative and reproductive apparatus, aud fecundation. New species of tropical fungi, J. B. Ellis and B. M. Eyerhart (£wZ. Lah. Xat. Hist. Iowa UniiJ., 4 {1896), Xo. 1, pp. 67-72). — Fourteen new species are described from Mexico and Central America. On the color reaction of the cuticle of Lactarius turpis, V. 11a r lay {Bui. Soc. Mycol France, 12 {1896), Xo. 4, pp. 156-159). The philosophy of species making, L. H. Bailey {Bot. Gaz., 22 {1896), Xo. 6, pp. 454-462). Contributions to the anatomy of grass leaves, A. Grob {Bihliotheca Botanica, 1896, Xo. 36; ahs. in Bot. Cenihl., 68 {1896), Xo. 7, pp. 220-222).— ^t^nVms were made of the leaves of Xardus stricta, Ghjceria jiuiians, Sesleria ccerulea, Olyra latifolia, and Bamhusa rerticiUata. Concerning the alkaloids of the seed of Lupinus albus and L. angustifolius, L. S. Danis {Inang. Diss, ilarhnrg, pp. 68). Investigations on certain organic acids in plants, A. Berg and C. Gerbkr {Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, ser. 3, 15-16 {1896), Xo. 18-19, pp. 1050-1055). On the formation of sugar in beets, F. Strohmer ( Oesterr. ungar. Ztachr. Zucke- rind. nnd Landw., 1896, p. 589; ais. in Bot. Centbl, 68 {1896), Xo. 7, pp. 233-235). On the presence of tyrosin in certain mushrooms, E. Bourquelot and Y. Hak- LAY {Bid. Soc. Mycol. France, 1? (1896), Xo. 4, pp. 153-156, jig. 1). The energy of living protoplasm, 0. Loew {London : Eegan Paul, French, Triibncr 4- Co., 1896, pp. 120). The chemistry of the living cell, A. Gautier {Die Chemie dcr lebenden Zelle. Authorized translation, Wien : A. Hartleben, 1896, pp. IV, 130, figs. 11). Investigations on the division of the nucleus in the plant cell, C. Uegagny {Bui. Soc, Bot. France, ser. 3, 3 {1896), Xo. 7, pp. 332-346). BOTANY. 471 A review of the theories of water movement in plants, M. MriBiis (Biol. Centhh, ir, {1S9G), pp. 561-571). Concerning the increased respiration and heat production after injury to living plants. W. Pfefkkk (/>'«•. maih. phi/a. Classc ki/I. sach>i. Ges. W'tntiensch., 1SD6 July-?). Concerning the influence of light and temperature on turgor, E. B. Coi-kland (Inaiig. Diss. JIallc, ISOC, pp. 59; ahs. in Bof. Ccnthl., 68 (1S96), Xo. 6, pp. 177-lSO). Death of plants at temperatures above the freezing point, H. Moliscii {Sit- zniKjsJier. k, 363). Dimorphism of the branches of Castilloa elastica, F. A. F. C. Went (/i/jn. Jard. Bot Bnitenzonj, 14 {1S96), I, pp. 1-17, pis. 3). Concerning the abnormal formation of resin ducts in diseased conifers, A. P. Andeksox (For-stl. lutiurw. Ztsclir., 5 (1896), Xo. 12, pp. 461-482, Jigs. 7). On the investigation of lignified membranes, F. Zetsciuo (Ztschr. am/ew. Mihros., 2 (1896), Xo. 8, pp. 225-236). On the biology of woody plants in southern Chile, F. W. iSeger (Enfjler's Bot. Jahrh., 23 (1896), Xo. 3, pp. 369-381, pi. 1). On the morphology of some conifer cones, J. Slavicek (Oesterr. Bot. Ztschr., 46 (1896), Xo. 12, pp. 447-464). Internal antidromy, G. Macloskie ( Torreg Bid., 23 (1896), Xo. 12, pp. 536, 537).— Examples are cited of variation iu the phyllotaxy of various couifers as well as Liquidanil)av and Hibiscus. Internal frost injuries, K. Hartig (Forstl. natura-. Ztschr., ■'> (1896), Xo. 12, pp. 483-488, Jigs. 7). Concerning the abnormal growth of grass stems, H. Dinglei; (Ber. dent. hot. Ges., 14 (1896), Xo. 8, pp. 295-30n, Jigs. 2). Contribution to the physiology of the germination of Zea mais, F. IjInz (Prinr,- sheim's Jahrh. iciss. Bot., 29 (1896), Xo. 2, pp. 267-319). Effect of lengthening the peduncle on the dissemination of seed, E. Ule ( Bci . dciit. hot. Ges., 14 (1896), Xo. 8, pp. 255-260, Jig. 1). Some vagaries in strawberries due to bisexuality, P. Macowan (Gard. Clrron. aer. 3, 20 (1896), Xo. 522, pp. 781, 782). A treatise of the anatomy and physiology of plants, L. (Jourchet ( Traits de Botaiiique confenant Vunatomie ef ht physiologie re'r/e'tales et les families natnndles. Paris: J. B. Balliire etjila, 1896, pp. 9oi),JiP- 676, 677). — From the author's experiments he thinks Routgen rays exert uoinlluence whatever upon bacteria. A contribution on the gases produced by certain bacteria, L. H. Pammei, and E. Tammkl {('eiithl. Jiukt. und Par. AlUj., 2 {/S96), Xo. 20, pp. 633-6o0, pi. 1). Concerning crystal formation in nutrient media, J. Nowak and S. Ciechanow- SKI {Cenihl. Jkikt. loid Par. Med., 20 {1S96). Xo. 1S~19, pp. 679, 680). Disinfection by vapors of formic aldehyde, L. Vaillard and G. H. Lemoine {Anu. Inst. Pasteur, 10 {1SD6), Xo. 9, pp. 481-4S7). A self- regulating pasteurizing apparatus, V. Henriques and V. Stribolt {So. Beretniug fra den Kgl. J'eterin. og Landhohojukoles Lahorat. for landolconom. Forsiig.; abs. in Chem. Zfg., 20 {1S96), No. 8S, Bepert.,p. 260). A practical method for preparing agar for cultures (Ztschr. angeiv. Mikroa., 2{1S9G), No. 8, p. 237). Egg yolk as a nutrient medium for bacterial cultures, A. Capaldi (Centbl. liakt. und Far. Med., 20 (1896), No. 22-23, pp. 800-803). A new method of making pure cultures of yeasts and similar organisms, H. Will (CenthJ. liakt. und Far. Allg., 2 (1896), No. 15, pp. 483-497). Concerning bacterial plate cultures, M. Jegunow (Centhl. Bakt. und Far. Allg., 2 (1896), No8. 14, pp. 445-449; 15, pp. 478-482, i)ls. 2). A new culture oven for bacteria, etc., F. Sartorius (Ztschr. angeiv. Mikros., 2 (1896), No. 5, PI). 129-133, figs. 2). Modern theories of fermentation, with notes on the morphology and culture of yeasts, F. Wyatt (.Jour. Franklin Inst., 142 (1896), Nos. 4, p. 286; 5, p. 336). Concerning the nomenclature of the so-called tubercle bacillus, A. Coppex- JONES (Centhl. Bakt. und Far. Med., 20 (1896), No. 10-11, pp. 393-395). The present position of systematic bacteriology, C. Mez (Bot. Centhl., 68 (1896), No. 7, pp. 203-211). The bacteriological examination of water for typhoid bacillus, T. H. Peaemain and C. G. MooK (Analyst, 21 (1896), p. 117). ZOOLOGY. Field experiments devised for the destruction of mice by means of the bacil- lus isolated from the Casan marmot [Spermophilus citillus], S. S, Meresh- KOWSKY (Centhl. Bakt. nnd I'ar. Med., 20 (1896), Nos. 2-3, pp. 85-94; 4-5, pp. 176-187). — The author describes experiments in -which the organism was fed to mice by mixing bouillon containing it with rye flour and distributing this dough cut into small jiieces over tlie area to be infected. On the acclimatization of organisms to high temperatures, C. B. Davenport and W. E. Castle (Arch. Enttvickl. Organismen, vol. 2, No. 2; ahs. in Bot. Centhl., 68 (1896), No. 9, pp. 292, 293). The differentiation of organisms, A. L. Abbe (Rev. Sci., ser. 4,6 (1896), No. 25, pp. 774-779). List of mammals of the District of Columbia, V. Bailey (Proc. Biol. Soc, Wash- ington, 10 (1896), pp. 93-101). — Tiiis is an annotated catalogue of 38 species known to occur within a radius of 20 miles from the Capitol, and most of them witliin the District linjits. Brief observations on the liabits and on some individual specimens collected are included. Taxidermy : How to collect, skin, preserve, and mount birds, B. H. Waruex (Pennsi/lrania Dept. Agr., Dirision Economic Zoiilogg Ilul. 6, pp. 128, figs. 11). — A con- densed account is given of methods for collecting, skinning, i)rcserving, and mounting birds, together with the game and lish laws of the State. The preservation of museum specimens w^ith retention of their natural colors, C. IvAisEiiLiNG (Wiener klin. Wochenschr., 33 (1896), p. 35 ; ahs. in Chem. Ztg., 474 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 20 (ISUG), No. 88, Repert., p. 25S ).—Aa the result of experiments in this direction the author has settled upon the following solution as the best: Formalin 750 cc., dis- tilled water 1,000 cc, kaUum nilricum 10 cc, and kalimn aceticiim 30 cc. Generally 24 hours' treatment in this solution is said to he sufficient. The specimens are then drained and placed in 80 per cent alcohol. They are usually kept finally in a mix- ture of equal parts of water and glycerin and 30 parts of potassium acetate. General principles of zoology, R. Hektwig, translated by G. W. Field (iVew York: Henry Holt if- Co., 1806, pp. 220, fins. 110).—T'h\s volume is a translation of the first part of Hortwig's " Lehrbuch der Zoologie," and treats of general zoology. The history and development of the various branches of zoology are given at considerable length, and also the bearing of zoology upon various theories of evolution. General anatomy, embryology, the relation of animals to each other and to plants, and geo- graphical distribution are each treated iu considerable detail. The broad general- izations of the author can not fail to interest those who are not already acquainted with them from the original. METEOROLOGY. On periodicity of good and bad seasons,' H. C. Eussell {Nature, 54 {1S96), No. 1399, pp. 379, 380). — The dates of recorded droughts, i. e., "periods of months or years when little rain falls,'' have been collected with a view to determining the period of their recurrence. It is first shown that during the 108 years since the foundation of the colony of New South Wales "the most pronounced droughts recur with great reg- ularity; that is, at every 19 years." This period was also found to hold for Indian droughts. "Another set of dry periods, more intense and relatively shorter than the first series, was found also to recur at intervals of 19 years. One of these droughts falls regularly between a pair of the more extensive droughts previously referred to. "History says very little about droughts prior to A. D. 900." It records droughts on 44 of the 52 dates indicated in 19-year periods between that year and the present time, and 6 of the 8 missing droughts o(;cur between 900 and 1000, an interval when history was very incom- plete. "Records of 20 B. C. droughts were found, all of which, with one exception, fit into our 19-year cycle. The intervals between them are multiples of 19 years. . . . It appears that "this law of climate was well known to the Jews, the Egyptians, and other ancient peoples; they at least knew how to fore- cast droughts successfully." The author considers the moon the prime motor in this periodic occur- rence of droughts. Investigations on this subject are still unfinished, but the results thus far obtained indicate that — "When the eclipses congregate about the equinoxes — that is, iu March and Septem- ber— they do so iu the years which give us great droughts. Further, that when the eclipses accumulate in February and March, that is, at the vernal equinox and the month before it, and September, the autumnal equinox, and the month before it, ' Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 3, 1896. METEOROLOGY. 475 August, wo have the iiioro iutt'use aud relatively shorter droughts of the second series, with heat, gales, and hurricanes; on the other hand, when they accumulate aliout March and April, that is, the month of the equinox, and the one following, aud about September, the mouth of equinox, and October following it, we have droughts of the first series that are less severe, but much longer than the droughts of the second series."' Incidentally the recorded dates of "red rain," whicli are evidences of drought, were collected. xVll of the 09 instances found fitted into the 19-year cycle. Kite experiments at the Weather Bureau, C. F. Marvin ( U. 8. Dipt. Ayr., Weather llnreau, Moiitlily Wcedher Ixeview, 31 {1S96), Xos.4, pp. 113-123, Jigs. 26; '>, pp. 156-166, figs. 30; 6, pp. 199-206, figs. S ; 7, pp. 238-255, figs. 16). — The history of the use of kites for the purpose of studying" atmospheric conditions is briefly reviewed. It is shown that probably the earliest attempts to use tandem kites for this j)uriiose were made by Alexander Wilson, of Glasgow, in 1749. The first in the United States to use the cellular kites constructed after the model of Hargrave, of Sydney, Australia, were 0. TI. Lamson, J. B. Millet, and S. A. Potter. A detailed account is given of the scientilic methods pursued by the Weather IVureau in the construction and testing of kites of various kinds. Data for tests of the strength of various kinds of wire and string unknotted and knotted in various ways are tabulated and discussed. A careful analysis is also given of the forces acting on kites — pull, drift, resolution and combination of forces, wind pressure on plane surface, center of pressure, edge pressures, resultant pressure, pressure on thin curved surfaces, effect of waviness or fluttering, whirls or eddy etfects, lateral stability, longitudinal stability, and conditions that modify the angular elevation of the kite, and an elaborate description and discus- sion is given of the forms and construction of various kites experi- mented with by the Weather Bureau, giving mathematical formulas and methods and results of observations on the behavior and efficiency of the kites tested. Monthly Weather Revie^w ( U. 8. Ihpt. Agr., Weather Bureau, Montldy Weather Review, 24 {1896), Nos. 4, pp. 105-144, charts 9 ; 5^ pp. 145-190, charts 12, figs. 3; 6, pp. 191-228, charts 6; 7, pp. 235-255, charts 8). — Besides the usual monthly summaries of observations and lists of recent publications on meteorology, these numbers contain an illus- trated article on kite experiments at the Weather Bureau, by C F. Marvin (see above). In addition, Xo. 5 contains articles on the destruc- tive forces of hurricanes and the conditions of safety and danger, by F. P. Alexander; report on the tornadoes of May 1*5 in the State of Michigan, by N. B. Conger, and notes by the editor on long-range forecasts, frosts in California, total snowfall for the season 1895-90, Pontgeu rays and cloudy condensation, and the tornano of May 25, 1890, in Cook County, Illinois. No. 0 contains notes by the editor on Mexican climatological data, and on kites, balloons, and clouds; and Ko. 7, articles on kites in 476 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Montana, by A. B. Coe ; and sunshine at the Southern California agri- cultural experiment farm, near Pomona, California, and a note by the editor on the St. Louis tornado. Report of the meteorologist, W. H. Bishop {Delatcare Sta. Ept. 1895j 2)p. J?Os-Z-JS). — ]\Ionthly summaries of observ^ations at 6 stations in the State on temi^erature, pressure, and rainfall are given. A sum- mary of temperature and rainfall observations for the year 1894 is given in the following table: Annual summary of meteorological ohservations in Delaware. Temperature (°F.) : Higliest Lowest Mean EainfaU (inches) total Number of days on wliicli 0.01 iucb or more of raiu" fell !Newark. Middle- town. Dover. Milford. Seaford. 96.20 96.00 100. 00 95.50 98.00 4.00 7.00 6.00 10.00 9.00 52.50 54.30 55.10 56.20 55.60 50.49 56.89 45.84 46.88 38.89 101 99 102 111 103 Mills- boro. 97.50 9.00 55.50 46.00 120 Meteorological summary {Mississippi Sta. Bpt. 1895, jyp. 106, 107). — Tabulated monthly summaries are given of observations on rainfall for 7 years (1889-1895) and wind movement for G years (1890-1895), and on temperature, rainfall, wind movement, and cloudiness for 1895. The more important data in these summaries are as follows: Temperature (degrees F.), maximum, 97, June 2 ; minimum, 2, February 8 ; range, 95 (1895), 85.2 (for 6 years). rrecipitation (inches), total, 47.49 (1895), 50.19 (for 7 years); number of clear days, 132; partly cloudy, 186; cloudy, 47; rainy, 91. Wind (prevailing direction), SE. ; total movement, 61,846 miles (1893), 68,201 (lor 6 years). Sunshine, number of hours recorded, 2,515A. The use of kites for meteorological observations in the upper air, H. H. Claytox {Nature, 53 (1896), Xo. 141G, p. 150). — A brief account is given of observa- tions with a meteorograph (which records temperature, pressure, and humidity) carried by a kite to a height of a mile. Meteorological records, E. A. Beals {Minnesota Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 390-392). — Reprinted from Bulletin 46 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 207). Meteorological observations at MUnster, 1884-1895, J. KcixiG {Landw. Vers. Stat. MUnster, Fine Denlsclirift, ISOG, pp. 257-201). — ^lonthly summaries of observa- tions on temperature, barometic pressiue, and precipitation. The Congress of Clermont-Ferrand (1896). Section of climatology {Jour. Byg., 21 {1896), No. 1051, pp. 549-551). WATER— SOILS. The texture of the soil, L. H. Bailey {Neic York Cornell Sta. Bui. 119, pp. 407-412, Jigs. 3). — It is stated that this bulletin and others of the same series "are written for the purpose of giving their readers a few simple and primary lessons in some of the most fuudamental sub- jects connected with the cropping of the land. ... It is their sole ambition to teach, not to discover or to record." The series is pub- lished under recent State legislation (chapter 437, laws of 1896), which WATER SOILS. 477 among- other provisions, appropriates money for " disseminating horti- cultural kno^yle(lge" in the fourth judicial departincut of the State. It is the intention to use these bulletins in the schools of horticulture which are to be held under the auspices of this State grant. The bulletin reports analyses of an unproductive clay on which beans failed to grow, of an adjacent soil on which they grew well, and of a lime rock derived from the same locality. The results were as follows: Analyses of productive and unprodnctlve soils and of lime rock. Unproductive clay. Good bean land Lime rock Moisture. Per cent. 13. 25 15.95 Nitrogen Per cent. 0.08 .11 Phos- phoric acid. Per cent. 0.20 .17 .08 Per cent. 1.10 .75 2.12 Per cent. 0.41 .61 2.55 Organic matter. Per cent. .3.19 5.45 The table shows that the soil upon which the beans would not grow is richer in mineral plant food than the productive soil and that the rock contains an abundant supply of potash and about half as much phosphoric acid as the good bean soil. The unproductive soil, how- ever, w^as in poor mechanical condition and was deficient in organic matter (humus). The bulletin briefly discusses the importance of the physical condi- tion of the soil and the value of chemical analysis in determining the requirements of tlie soil, summarizing as follows: '^Tlie first step in the. enriclimeut of unproductive land is to imiirove its physical couditiou by means of careful and thorough tillage, hy the addition of humus, and perhaps hy underdrainage. It must first be put in such condition that plants can grow in it. After that, the addition of chemical fertilizers may pay by giving addi- tional or redundant growth."' The moisture of the soil and its conservation, L, A. Clinton {New YorJc Cornell iSta. Bitl. 1:20^ pp. 4ir>-l3ii, fuja. 11). — This bulletin is the second of the series published under recent State legislation i^ro- viding, among other things, for "disseminating horticultural knowl- edge." It discusses in clear, popular manner the following subjects: How the soil holds water, the necessity of water for growing plants, the conservation or saving of moisture, plowing to save moisture, har- rowing to save moisture, cultivators and conservation of moisture, the roller in its relation to soil moisture, herbage mulches, humus of the soil, underdrainage, mineral substances as conservers of moisture, wind-breaks to save moisture, selection and management of crops in relation to soil moisture, and suggestions for determining the amount of moisture in soils. Soil moisture, 1895, J. B. Weems and W. II. IIeileman {Iowa Sta. Biil.o:J, pp. r>()r)-'yl')). — The results are reported of determinations of moisture in samples of soil taken each week from April 0 to October 29, 1895, from plats on which clover, corn, oats, beets, and blue grass 478 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. were grown, together with data for rainfall and maximum temperatures during the same period. Samples were taken at the following depths: Top to 4 in., 4 in. to 1 ft., 1 ft. to 2 ft., L» ft. to 3 ft., and 3 ft. to 4 ft. They were well mixed before the moisture was determined. In the clover held the first 2 ft. of soil was black loam of uniform aud good quality, the third foot fine gravel aud grayish clay, and the fourth gravel and clay. In the corn field the first 2 ft. of soil was loamy, the third yellowish clay loam mixed with l)lack loam, and the fourth yellow sandy loam. In the oat field the soil was of the same character as that of the corn field. In the root field the soil was simi- lar to that of the preceding plat down to a depth of 3 ft., the third foot being black loam mixed with yellowish timber clay, and the fourth con- sisting of stiff yellowish clay and fine gravel. In the pasture soil the first 2 ft. was loamy, the third foot fine, sandy, brown loam, the fourth fine, sandy, yellowish loam. The averages of the results obtained on these soils during the 30 weekly periods are given in the following table: Moisture in Ihe soil at dijferent depths. Clover plat Corn plat Oatplat Mangel-wurzel plat Bine-grass plat Moisture at different depths. Top to 4 in. to 1 ft. to 2 ft. to 3 ft. to 4 in. 1ft. 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 21.18 19.59 16.55 14.45 11.73 14.12 15.01 14.22 11.49 9.50 14.07 12.37 10.66 11.50 11.54 17.66 17.21 15.17 14.76 13.85 14.16 13.98 13.75 11.50 10.00 Average weekly rainfall. Inch. 0.84 .84 .81 .84 .84 The difference between the number of tons of water present in the soil at the beginning and end of growth as calculated from the above figures, added to the rainfall, is assumed to be the amount which dis- api)eared from the soil in the production of the different crops. This was estimated to be 1,559.64 tons of water per ton of clover hay, 570.89 tons per ton of air-dry corn fodder, 1,200 tons per ton of oats and straw, 137.49 tons per ton of mangel-wurzels, and 3,223.82 tons per acre of pasture. On the changes ^vhich the soil undergoes -when sterilized, L. EiCHTER [Landic. Vers. ^Stat., 47 {189ii), Xo. -i-.), j^P- 369-374).— Irregularities in the growth of plants in pots of sterilized soil, which could not be explained by the presence or absence of microorganisms, led to a study of the water content, weight by volume, specific gravity, jjoros- ity, capillarity, absorptive power for water and ammonia, total nitro- gen, nitrogen soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, ammonia, and matter soluble in cold water in soil used in pot experiments before and after sterilization. It was found that the capillary rise of water in sterilized soil was irregular on different sides of the soil column. The differences were greater the greater the length of time of the test. They were WATER SOILS. 479 not appreciable at the end of 12 hours, but were as great as 1 em. after 24 hours and 2 cm. after 4S to 72 hours. The same ])eculiarity was shown when an attempt was made to moisten the sterihzed soil, certain well-defined zones remaining dry wliile the rest was thoroughly wet. While the total nitrogen Avas not affected, a i)art of it was changed into readily soluble (soluble in JICl, sp. gr. 1.02G) forms by sterilization of the soil. The amount so changed was increased by wetting the soil previous to sterilizing. Some of the transformed nitrogen was in very unstable condition and was easily driven off as gas. It was observed in the pot experiments carried out that there was a loss of nitrogen in the sterilized soil whether it was subsequently inoc- ulated with soil extract or not, although the loss was generally less in the latter case. The same was true in case of inoculated soils not bearing plants, while the uninoculated soils in no case showed a loss and in some instances a small gaiu. The amount of water-soluble organic matter was increased almost three times in the sterilized soil, and the more vigorous growth of plants in the sterilized soil is thus, in part, explained. Decomposition of vegetable matter in the presence of -water and soil, E. Breal [Ann. Agron., ^>^ (1^96), Xo. 8, pp. 362-375.)— Tlxa character of the organisms found in infusions of dead plants is briefly discussed and investigations on the formation of ammonia by these organisms from nitrogenous matter and on their influence upon the nitrifying organisms are reported, together with a description of the methods used in determining anmioniacal and nitric nitrogen. The character of these investigations and the principal results obtained are shown in the following summary: Infusions of dead plants contain numerous organisms which attack organic matter producing ammonia from nitrogenous matter. Their activity is checked when the ammonia becomes too abundant, the highest amount observed in such cases being 0.2 gm. ammoniacal nitrogen i^er liter. If the infusion contains organisms which destroy ammonia the latter may continue to be formed. This is the case when the nitrifying organism is present. Passing a current of air through tlie medium greatly accelerates nitrification, and as a consequence the lU'oduction of ammonia. Similar results are obtained when a lump of soil is moistened with the infusion. At the surface ammonia disappears and nitric nitrogen takes its place. In the interior ammonia accumulates because the nitri- fying ferment cannot act there, a part of the nitric nitrogen originally jiresent being reduced. A soil treated with an infusion containing organisms which produce ammonia is likely to undergo nitrification more ra])idly than one not so treated. Unusual activity of the nitrifying feriuent seems to be excited under this condition. 480 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Humus, which is iusoluble iu water, was fouud to be soluble in the infusion on account of the amiuouia formed, but the humus was again rendered insoluble by adding to the infusion a little soil containing nitrifying ferments. Less ammonia and more nitrate was found in the soil with which vegetable remains were intimately mixed than in the one on which this matter was simply spread on the surface. The stirring attend- ing the incorporation of such matter in the soil, of course, accelerated nitrification. When the production of ammonia has proceeded to the point of destroying the organisms producing it, fungi aj)pear which convert the ammonia into organic compounds again. In meadows, peat bogs, etc., in which vegetable matter accumulates the nitrifying ferment does not exist, but fungi feed on the ammonia formed and thus enable the organisms producing the ammonia to continue their activity. What is meat for the former is poison for the latter. On the cultivation of the soil, P. P. Deherain {Ann. Agron., 22 (1896), No. 10, pp. 449-469). — This is the first paper of a proposed series and is devoted to the aeration of the soil. Samples of soil were taken by driving down into the soil in situ boxes 7.87 in. square and 5.91 and 7.87 in. deep, and removing the prisms of soil thus inclosed. These were weighed, dried, and weighed again. If A = the actual volume of the soil, B the volume of the water it contains, D the density of the dry soil, and X the air which the soil contains, then A V (original volume of the soil) = yy + B + X, from which X is easily cal- culated. This method was applied to numerous samples representing meadow and forest soils, spaded soil, and soil plowed in autumn and afterwards cultivated in the spring (harrowed and rolled). The results show that the above method gives approximately accurate results, check determinations agreeing closely. It appears that uncultivated soil contains considerable amounts of air. This is true of meadow and forest soil as well as that covered with spontaneous vegetation. While much more air was found in cultivated than in uncultivated soils, this difference was hardly sufficient to explain the utility of cultivation. A light soil left to itself undergoes internal rearrangement of particles which increases the total space. Kolling reduces this space and decreases aeration. Harrowing to break clods is very important because clods exposed to the air lose all of their oxygen, and conse- quently the oxidation of the organic matter is interfered with. Unsea- sonable cultivation which produces clods therefore seriously interferes with the aeration of the soil. The influence of irrigation on meadows, J. Konig {Landtv. Vers. Stat. Miiuste)-, JEine DenTcsclirift, 1896, pp. 142-152).— This is a summary of work in this line at the Miinster station during the last 20 years, upon WATER SOILS. 481 which several reports of progress have been made.' The importance of water in phint growth is discussed, and the warming eft'ect of irriga- tion water in the fall and spring and its cooling effect in summer is jjointed out. It is shown that irrigation water properly applied is a powerful means of oxidation and of purification of the soil from harmful products. This oxidation results in the formation of carbon dioxid, which largely increases the solution of lime. The observations on the extent of oxi- dation and solution of lime in peaty, calcareous, loam, and sandy soils are reported. The action is greater in summer than at other seasons, hence the need of greater caution in the use of water at this time. The fertility which the water contains is a very important factor in irrigation, especially during the growing season. The benefit derived from this source is due chiefly to the fertility taken up directly by the plant and to much less extent to that absorbed by the soil. The benefit is greater on poor soils tban on those of better quality. In fact, on rich soils there is a loss of fertility by irrigation. The amount of the differ- ent constituents so removed does not depend upon their absorbability, nitrate apparently being taken up in as large quantities as ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. The benefit to be derived from the use of irrigation water depends, therefore, largely upon the fertility of the soil and the vigor and extent of plant growth. The poorer the soil and the larger and more vigorous the plant growth the greater the benefit from the fertilizing constituents of the irrigation water. As compared with the other soils experimented with, the sandy soil gave the best results from irrigation. This was especially true when sewage and similar materials which require free access of oxygen for their decomposition were used. Ordinary brook and river water generally furnish sufficient lime, pot- ash, and nitrogen for irrigated meadows. Of phosj)horic acid, 36 lbs. per acre in the form of superphosphate or 54 to 72 lbs. in the form of Thomas slag may be used with advantage, the first in the spring, the latter in the fall. Occasionally potash and nitrogen may be needed, but the latter should be applied very sparingly. Methods of the mechanical analysis of soils, M. Whitney {U. S. l>rpt. A(/r., Division of Agricultural Soils Bid. l,pp.J2I). — This is a detailed description of the methods in use in the Division of Soils of this Department "for the mechanical analysis of soils and for the deter- mination of the amount of moisture in arable soils.'' The bulletin "is intended partly for the instruction of the observers and special agents of the Division, and partly for the information of workers in tlie agri- cultural colleges and experiment stations and other institutions or organizations which are interested in similar lines of work and who 'Landw. .Tahrb., 6 (1877), p. 287; 8 (1879), p. 505; 9 (1882), pp. 151, 158; 11 (1885), p. 177; 22 (1893), p. 801. 482 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. wish specitic iulbrmation as to methods." The topics treated are: Col- lecting sauiples of soil from the field, including where samples should be taken, how samples should be taken, importance of taking samples at uniform depth, sacks for collecting soil samples, and forms for description of samples; methods of mechanical analysis of soils, includ- ing i^reparation of the samples, method of determining the amount of moisture and organic matter, method of mechanical analysis, and inter- pretation of the results; and determination of moisture in arable soils, including how samples should be taken, errors liable to occur in taking samples, time of taking samples, depth at which samples should be taken, form for descrii)tiou of samples, cultivation and cropping, loca- tion of plats, how plats should be laid off and treated, and method of determining the amount of moisture in samples. Ammonia in rain ■water {Mississ'qjjn Sta. Bpt. 7S95, p. 102). — The amounts of nitrogen in different forms in rain collected during 11 months in 1894 and 12 months in 1895 are reported. The total nitrogen found in the rainfall for 11 mouths of 1894 was 2.847 lbs. per acre; in 1895, 3.308 lbs. The domestic filtration of ■water, F. Abba (L'Ingegneria Sanitaria, Torino, 1S95, No. 7-S; rt&.v. in Cenlbl. Bakt. und Par. Med., 20 {1896), No. 22-23, pp. S40-842). Mineral ■waters (Mississii^n Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 103, 104). — Tabulated analyses of 20 samples of mineral water. "Salts of lime are the most conspicuous ingredients in the waters of this State, though salts of magnesium, sodium, iron, and potassium are present in greater or less quantities." Examinations of drinking ■water (Landw. Vers. Stat. Miinster, Eine Denkschrift, 1896, pj). 37-90).— This is a part of the review of the work ol this station from its organization to the present time, and gives in tabular form Ihe results of examina- tions with reference to sanitary quality of a large number of samples of drinking water from a variety of sources, as well as complete analyses of several samples of mineral water, and brook and river waters. A problem of aridity, C. M. Harger (Xorth Amer. Bev., 163 {1896), No. 6, pp. 711-715). — The almost incredible decrease in values and the exodus of settlers from the far West, especially the western part of Kansas and Ne1)raska, and the causes of the same, are discussed. The cultivation of marshes, O. Auhagen {Landw. Jalirh., 25 {1896), Xo. 4-5, pp. 619-874, figs. 5). Clays {Mississi2>pi Sta. Bpt. 1895, p. 105). — Tabulated analyses of 8 samples of clay. "Clay constitutes one of the most valuable minerals in the State, and large beds of excellent pottery and fire claj- are found in different sections." Marls {Mississijypi Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp 98, 99). — Tabulated analyses of 71 samples of Mississippi marls. Marls are abundant in Mississippi, but of rather inferior quality. Soils, H. SXYDER {Minnesota Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 3-79, Jigs. 9, pi. 1, chart 1). — A reprint of Bulletin 41 of the station (E. S. R., 7, pp. 476, 477, 484). Soils {2Iissi8sij)pi Sta. Upt. 1895, pp. 95-97). — Analyses of 47 samples of soils are tabulated. Examinations of peat, J, Konig {Landw. Vers. Stat. Miinster, Eine Denkschrift, 1896, pp. 125-127). — Analyses of peats from a variety of sources are tabulated. Tile drains {Mississippi Sta, Bpt. 1895, pp. 52-55). — This is a brief account of the experience of the station since 1889 on tile-drained laud of different character (E. S. R., G, p. 847). FERTILIZERS. 483 FERTILIZERS. On the effect of composting on certain phosphates, T. Pfeiffer and n. Thukmann Landir. Vers. iSfat., ■J7{Js9(i), So. 4-5, 2)p. 313-356). — Tlie literature of the subject is reviewed, aud as preliminary to the main investigation different metliods of determining x^hosphoric acid weie tested on pure monopotassiuni i)hospliate, and various commer- cial phosphates, some of which are used as manure i)reservatives. With the molybdic method in the first case (with pure phosphate) there was no difference whether the solution was allowed to stand 12 hours or heated 20 minutes in a boiling- water bath. A large excess of mag- nesia mixture gave too high results. Direct precipitation from citrate solution gave good results. Citrate solutions of superphosphate- gypsum, "magnesia-preparation" "precipitate," double superphosphate, and crude phosphate were pre- pared by Wagner's method and tested by various methods. In the cases of precipitate and double superphosphate, the further addition of citrate solution was necessary before exact results could be obtained by precipitation with molybdic solution and magnesia mixture. The eft'ect of varying the amount of solvent used was also tested. The first two dissolved more readily when the proportion of solvent to material was 500 cc. to 5 gm. than when it was 500 cc. to 2.5 gm. With 2 per cent citric acid solution the larger the proportion of solvent to material the greater the amount of phosphoric acid dissolved in every instance. A compost of ground peat and urine was prepared and portions were placed in flasks, to which the various preservative materials M^ere added. The mixtures were weighed and examined June 10 and allowed to stand until December 19, when they were weighed aud examined again to determine changes in both phosphoric acid and nitrogen. Where the crude phosphate and magnesia preparation were used as preserva- tives there was a practically insignificant increase of citrate soluble phosphoric acid. With the superphosphate-gypsum, on the other hand, there was such a great decrease as to indicate the formation of tricalcium phosphate from monocalcium and dicalcium i^hosphate in the presence of the ammonia and ammonium carbonate formed. There was a considerable loss of nitrogen from the compost in every case, but it must be remembered that a large part of the nitrogen was originally in a very easily decomi)osal)le form. It appears, however, that the use of preservatives is at best only one of the means of pre- venting the loss of fertilizing value of manure. The proper construc- tion of the manure heap is probably a more important means. The value of leather refuse, J. B. Lindsey {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 18 {1896), No. 7,p}). 565-575). — This records a continuation of work com- menced in 1894,' and gives the results of experiments on oats during 'Massachusetts State Sta. Rpt. 1894, p. 290; Agl. Sci., 8 (1894), Nos. 2, p. 49j 3, p. 98. 484 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 1894 aucl 1895. The plau of experimeut and the materials used were practically the .same during each year. The conclusion is drawn "that dissolved leather when properly prepared yields as available a source of nitrogen as the average animal matter used for fertilizing purposes. The quantity of nitrogen obtained by the plants from sodium nitrate being represented as equal to 100, the quantity obtained from dissolved leather during 2 years has been shown to be equal to 70."^ The r61e of fat in fertilizers, J. H. Vooel {Deut. lanihr. Presse, 23 (ISIja), No. 74, J). (J'j9). — It is stated that in all fertilizers applied in the fall or early spring a certain amount of fat, such as is present in pou- drette, is beneficial. This is especially true in case of sandy soils in which it is desirable to retard decomposition of organic matter. Only in cases where quick action of the nitrogen is desired is fat harmful. Fertilizers {Mississipjii Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 48-52, 99-101). — This is a general discussion of the jnost economical use of fertilizers based upon the experience of the station in the use of fertilizers on different kinds of soil and analyses and valuations of 1*8 samples: "The first essential in fertilizing laud is to secure and maintain au abundant sup- ply of humus in all soils by the use of leguminous plants; on soils which are rich in lime use jiotash freely with but little phosphoric acid; on soils which are poor in lime use phosphate fertilizers freely with but little potash, and use nitrogenous ferti- lizers only where humus is deficient and plant growth is weak. "When large amounts of fertilizers have been used we have found it more profit- able to apply them broadcast before planting, but where the application is small (300 lbs. or less per acre) w^e found it better to put it in the drill and mix thoroughly with the soil." The contest of the Holland experiment stations against the adulteration of kainit with chlorids, A. Mayer {Landiv. Vers. Stat. 47 [1890), No. 4-5, pp. 377-387). — Sjollema, of the Groningen station, has published analyses of kainit collected in Holland which contained very variable amounts of chlorin, in the majority of cases much more than genuine kainit contains. Subsequently in reporting the results of analyses of such materials the rule was adopted of stating that those sami)les containing an excessive amount of chlorin (over 30 per cent) were not true kainits. This has provoked the opposition of the ferti- lizer manufacturers, but it is insisted that they have no right to sell much of the potash salt at present on the market under the name of kainit. They are justified in using only some such general term as " potash salt" to designate it. Report for 1895 of the chemical laboratory of the Agricultural Institute of Alnarp, M. Weibull {(Jhem. Zt!ta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 170-197, charts S). — A very careful study was made of 6 varieties of sorghum grown from seed sent out by this Department. Over 1,400 separate stalks were measured in length, weighed in gross and stripped, crushed, and specific gravity and sugar content determined in the juice. Tables show summarized data of crop production, composition, and coefficient of availability for all varieties; classification by sugar con- tent and purity for the stalks of each variety; and comparison between richer and poorer halves of each variety. The author believes imi^rovemeut in sorghum nuist come not from richer varieties, but from varieties freer from poor stalks. The resist- ance of the varieties to windstorms is calculated, and charts are given showing graphically the changes in weight of stalks and richness and purity of juice throughout the ripening season. (Iraphic methods for calculation of polaiiscope results and for deter- mination of purity are shown and ,pp. 41-44). — This is a republication of matter found in the Annual Kejiort of the station for 1893 (E.S. R.,0,p.807). The Jack bean {Canamlia eiisiformis) has been grown, ])roducing 30 to 40 bu. of beans per acre on a thin soil. Its value as a fodder plant has not yet been determined. Cornstalks shredded in October and baled in November showed lu) signs of molding. An analysis (food constituents) is given. Exotic vs. native fodder plants and grasses, W. Tyson {A(jI. Jour. Cape Colony, 9 {1S9G), Xo. 22, pp. 570, 571). A useful oat grass, J. H. Maidex {Ayl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 {1S96), No. 9, p. 561, pL 1). — Notes are given of an oat grass, Aniaopogon avenaceua, said to be valuable for pasturage in sterile, stonj" regions. Lime and lupines (Dent, landiv. Fresse, 23 (1S96), Xos. 91, p. S09, figs. 4; 92, p. S16, figs. 0). — The author concludes that where calcium carbonate is present in the soil to the extent of 0.46 per cent it has an injurious effect on lupines. Phosphate of lime and magnesium carbonate are even worse, 0..5per cent of the latter preventing devel- opment. One per cent of Ca.;(P04)2 kills the lupines and 10.5 per cent works injuri- ously. Calcium sulphate was least injurious of the lime compouiuls. "The injurious effect which calcium carbouate exercises on the growth of lui^ines can be prevented either by kainit or potassium nitrate or by both together.'' Studies on the stand of plants in good and bad meadows, R. Buaungart (Fiililiiig's laudw. Ztg.,45 {189G), No. 4, pp. 132-1S5). Thomas slag and kainit on oats, P. Petersen (FUhling's landw. Ztg., 45 {1896), No. 4, pp. 140, 141). — The yield of oats on marsh laud, plowed in the fall and har- rowed in the spring with 268 kg. per hectare of Thomas slag and kainit, costing 18.85 marks ($4,712), produced an increase of 146.82 marks (.$36,705); manured with 568 kg. of the foregoing fertilizers, costing 40 marks ($10), the yield was increased by 174.65 marks ($43,662), showing that a rational application of commercial fertil- izers under the jireseut unfavorable conditions can in many cases still be made to pay. Oats, fertilizer test, C. F. Curtiss (Iowa Sta. llul. 32, p. 463). — An application of a combination of nmriate of potash, gypsum, lime, salt, and wood ashes, in 2 amounts per acre, failed to show any effect in preventing the oats from lodging. Varieties of oat3, C. F. Cuunss (Iowa Sta. Bid. 32, pp. 4r,3-46o). — Of 7 varieties under trial the largest yields were given by Golden, Black Russian, and Calgary Gray. Test of Polygonum cuspidatum and P. sachalinense, E. vox Proskowetz, jr. {^F^tt. Vcr. Ford. Jandw. VerHuehsw. Oesterr., 11 {1896), No. 2, pp. 40, 41). Potatoes, variety tests, S. B. Greex {Mhniesota Sta. Fpt. 1895, pp. 299-307, fig. 1). — Reprinted from Bulletin 45 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 219). Field root crops, ^\. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 356-360). — Reprinted from Bulletin 46 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 223). Separating sunflower seeds from their heads, C. 0. Ormsbee {Anier. Agr. {mid. ed.), 1896, Sept. 26, p. 266). — The apparatus used consists of a wooden Avheel 2 in. thick, through which nails arc driven. The sunflower heads are held against the pro- jecting nails, which biush off the seeds. The geographical distribution of tobacco culture and the amount produced, P. Darmstadteu {Inaug. Diss. Tfallc, 1S96, ]ip. U'.i; ahs. in Hot. Centli!., 68 {/896]. No. 4, i)p. 122, 123). — The author gives tlie total production of the world at 916.6 million kg. ; of the United States, 240 million kg. ; P>ritish India, 175 million ; Russia, 70 mil- lion ; Austro-IIungary, 65 million; China, 50 million, and Germany, 35 million. Seeding to w^heat in fall and w^inter, G. Heuz6 {Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 {1896), II, No. 46, pp. 725-727), 492 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Studies upon seed wheat, A. vox Likbknjjkih; {Mitt. Vcr. Ford, laudw. Versuehsw. Oestcrr., 11 {189G),No. 1, pp. 4.?-oJ). — Tests were made of seed -vplieat plants grown for several years under different conditions as to thickness of sowing in theiield and in pots. The author concludes that other influences, especially fertilizers, affect the crop much more than conditions of seed growth. Wheat, S. M. Tracy {MissisHippi Sta. Bpt. lS95,pp. ^i-i^").— Practically a reprint of matter which appeared in Annual Report of the station for 1893 (E. S. R., 6, p. 806). Variety tests of wheat, W. ]SI. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bpt. 1S95, pp. 342-350). — Reprinted from Bulletin 4G of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 222). Tillage experiments, W. M. Hays (Minnesota Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 384-389).— B.e- printed from Bulletin 46 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 222). The method and cost of grain production in the provinces of Santa Fe and Cordova {Mitt. dent, landw. Ges., 11 {1896), Xos. 15, pp. S; 16, pp. 8; 17, sup. pp. 8). Miscellaneous crops, S. M. Tkacy {Mississippi Sta. Rpt. 1893, pp. 46-48). — Largely matter which appeared in Annual Report of the station for 1893 (E. S. R., 6, p. 807). Ramie planted in 1890 has made fair crops since 1891. Jute has also been grown successfully. Sunn hemp {Crotalaria juncea) has proved of no value by reason of its coarse fiber, since true hemp can be grown so cheaply at the station. Canaigre has been grown at the station for 2 years with unsatisfactory results. Silos and silage, D. O. Nourse ( Virginia Sta. Bui. 53, pp. 75-80). — This is a popu- lar article on the subject, treating of the history of the system, a simple excavation in the ground used as a silo, location of silo, size and form of silos, ^•arieties of corn and amount of seed, cutting and storing, capacity of silos, silos on the station farm, and expense of filling. "While an unwalled pit will preserve the fodder successfully, the author considers a rectangular wooden silo best. Drying grains {Deut. landw. Prcsse, 23 {1896), Xo. 97, pp. 859, 860). Experiment in rotation of crops, W. H. Bishop {Delaware Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 239, 240). — A report of progress is made on a test of the effect of a leguminous crop coming between 2 grain crops. Cross rotation experiments, AY. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 369- 57,3).— Reprinted from Bulletin 46 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 223). HORTICULTURE. Experiments -with cauliflo-wer in the greenhouse, M. H. Beck- WITH {Delcnrare ^ta. Rpt. 1895.^ pp. 124-127). — Ou each of 2 similar green- house benches 32 cauliflower plants were set 12 in. apart in rows 18 in. apart. One bench was given surface watering and the other received the same amount of water through a row of 3-inch horseshoe tile* placed on the bottom of the bench. The weight of each plant at the time of harvesting and of the heads as ready for market are given. The sub- irrigation bench produced 29 heads averaging 12.7 oz. and the surface watered bench 21 heads averaging lO.G oz. One bench of the greenhouse was planted with 64 plants J 2 in. apart each way and divided into 1 equal i^lats for a fertilizer experiment. One plat received no fertilizer and the others 4 oz. of nitrate of soda, 8 oz. of muriate of potash, and 8 oz. of acid phosphate, respectively, the fertilizers being applied in 4 equal portions. The weight of each HORTICULTURE. 403 plant and head are given. The nnmber and avera.Qe weight of heads on each phit are shown in the following table: Effect of different fertilizers on cauliflower. Fertilizer. Number of lie (Is. Average weight. 2 9 8 10 Ounceg. 10.75 10.50 11.00 11.20 None Nitrate (>(• soda Acid pliiisiiliate Muriate ul potash. Tomatoes, ^L 11. Beck with ( Delaicare Sfa. JRpt. is!)',^ pp. 127-131). — To ascertain how much nitrate of soda can safely be applied to i^lants in setting out, solutions of different strength were used to water the plants. One group of plants received 3.5 grains of nitrate x)er plant, in one-half pint of water poured directly about the roots, and the plants of the other groups received 7, 14, and 21 grains, respectively. One group served as a check, the plants being given water oidy. The plants were set on June 10, and on June 25 all of those watered with the strongest solution were dead, only 1 plant of each of the next two groups was living, 7 were alive in the group receiving 3.5 grains, and all in good condition in the check group. The author concludes that "only a small amount of nitrate of soda can be ai^plied directly to the roots of tomato plants when transplanting." Quite heavy applications can be made without injury to the plants if applied to the surface of the ground or worked into the soil. Kotes are given upon 51 varieties of tomatoes grown at the station. Apple culture, L. F. Kinney {Rhode Island Sta. Bui. 37, pp. 31-45, Jigs. 8). — This bulletin consists mainly of popular directions for the cultivation and care of established orchards. The author urges the necessity of fertilizing apple trees as much and as regularly as the other cultivated crops. He recommends crimson clover as a nitrogen gatherer, but finds that it can be depended on only as a summer or catch crop, as it frequently winter kills in the State. Directions are given for culture of the plant in orchards and fignres illustrating its habit of growth. The need of a good supply of water when the apples are maturing is emphasized, and cultivation and mulching are recommended as moisture con servers. To show the need for the apple of light and air, two branches of equal size were cut from each of 10 trees in different parts of an orchard in which the trees were planted too close. ''The limbs selected were about 1 in. in diameter, and in each case one was taken that was fully exposed to sunlight and the other where partially shaded. When the limbs were taken to the laboratory, where the buds were counted, the 494 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. actiou of tlie siinlio-Lt in proiuotiiig the formation of fruit buds was apparent/' In every case but one tliere were more buds upon the branch exposed to the light, and the averages were : Limbs in sunlight, 182 clusters of flower buds; limbs in partial sliade, 136 clusters. By skillfully shortening in and thinning tl'e branches of flat-topped trees in crowded orchards their tops can be restored to a more nearly conical form, light and air more freely admitted, and bearing capacity of the trees often greatly increased. The author considers spraying essential to success in apple growing, and gives a formula for Bordeaux mixture with Paris green which has worked well at the station. The apple maggot is very injurious to ai^ples in the State, appears to be increasing rapidly in numbers, attacks all varieties, and renders worthless the fruit on thousands of trees of the subacid varieties. From beneath -S trees in different localities soil was collected, sifted, and examined for pupa^ of this maggot, and the numbers found in areas 6 in. square and 1 in. in depth varied from 0 to 0. Tlie fruit was worth- less in all cases where 5 or 6 jjupa? were found and only slightly wormy where 1 pupa was found. It was estimated that 12,500 pup?e were secreted in the soil beneath the tree of Yellow Bellflower where 5 pupae were found in the area examined. The author believes that poultry confined beneath the trees would materially lessen the number of pupse. Varieties of apples, T. J. Burrill and G. W. McCluer [Illinois Sta. Bui. 45, pp. 297-348). — A brief history is given of the orchard of the university from 1869; remarks upon pests, soil treatment, life of trees, and identity of varieties; descriptions of 18 varieties which have given most promise of usefulness and of 550 varieties (including syn- onyms) which have fruited on the station farm, and a list of 304 trees which were planted but did not live to bear fruit. The 18 selected varieties, arranged according to season, are William Prince, Ked Stripe, Ilicks, Cole (Quince, Large Yellow Siberian Crab, Jefferis, Sharp, Utter, Jonathan of Buler [ ?], Sweet Bellflower of Wyan- dotte County [ ?], McLellan, Higby Sweet, Mansfield liusset, Westfield, Coon Red, ISTed, Indiana Favorite, and Boyal Limbertwig. Preliminary investigation of the effect of the overflo-w of salt ■water upon the health and fruitfulness of peach trees, M. H. Beckwith {Delaicare ISia. Rpt. isorj^pp. 150-1^2). — High tides have at different times overflowed many j)each orchards in the State, aud it was claimed that such orchards were fruitful when the others in the State were barren, and that they were free from yellows. The author inves- tigated the subject and found it to be a fact "that orchards in the vicinity of large ponds and streams of water were the ones i)roduciug a crop of peaches and in very many instances the land had been over- flowed by salt water,'' but he thinks this due to the protective presence of the water during a general freeze which occurred at the time of one overflow aud which injured the trees not thus protected. HORTICULTURE. 495 The trees exposed to the action of the salt water were vigorous and healthy and the foliage of a deeper green color than that of trees on higher land, though in one instance the fruit appeared decidedly lighter in color. "There was no indication that such trees were any more exempt from the yellows." Some advances in breeding fruits and shrubs, J. L. Budd and N. E. Hansen {Towa Sta. Bui. 32, pi). dsG-l'js^ jUjs. /). — This is a prog- ress report upon experiments made at the station in the cross fertiliza- tion of roses, gooseberries, strawberries, grapes, plums, pears, and apples. In most cases flowers and fruits have not yet been produced, so that final results can not be given, but apparently successful crossing has been accomplished with the production of healthy plants. The work upon roses is in continuation of that recorded in Bulletin 22 of the station (E. S. R., 5, p. 985), the crosses being the best garden roses upon the Russian Rosa ruf/osn. The pollenization was made in 1892, and during 1895 the resulting plants "have made a rampant growth which has been unfavorable for the blossoming of such young idants. As a rule, the hybrids showing most variation from the Bosa ruf/osa mother have not bloomed, while those following more nearly the mother in leaf and habit have given more bloom." Descriptions are given of 2 seedlings resulting from fertilization with pollen of General Jacquiminot, one producing a larger, more perfectly double flower than the General Jacipiiminot and the other having a very profuse au«l long-continued blooming habit, and blossoms of vivid color and great fragrance. Figures illustrate these seedlings and the parents. Descriptions are given of 11 i)lum hybrids which "have given some evidence of value." The work upon apples is in continuation of that reported in Bulle- tin 14 of the station (E. S. R., 3, p. 223). The only seedling that fruited "^vas from "Silken Leaf crossed with Osceola pollen, and it con- firms the belief expressed in 1891, viz, that the hardiness follows largely the mother variety, and that the fruit most frecpiently is modified by the male parent. The tree appears to be a true iron-clad, and the fruit closely resembles the Osceola in size, shape, color, quality, and season." Suggestions for the planting of shrubbery, L. H. Bailey {J^ew YorJc Cornell 8ta. Bui. 121, pp. 441-446, fign. 20).— X discussion in popu- lar form of landscape gardening "for the betterment of home grounds in rural communities." The author emphasizes the idea that each yard should be a picture with a distinct individuality, and treats of the proper handling of foliage masses and the greensward for the securing and retaining of natural eft'ects. Some specific examples of artistic planting are given, with diagrams and figures. Variety tests of beans, W. M. Hays (Minnesota Sta. lipt. 1895, p. 355). — Reprinted from Bulletin 46 of the station (E. S. K., 8, p. 231). 496 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Grooving castor beans (Florida Agriculturist, 24 (1896), Xo. 1, ]>. 6). Mushroom growing, G. C. Watson (Amer. Florist, 12 (1S9G), JSo. 44S, p. 515, fig. 1). Notes on mushrooms, E. Roze (Bui. Soc. Mtjcol. France, 12 (1896), Xo, 4, pp. 143-148). — Directions are given for distinguishing between edible and poisonous mushrooms. Tomatoes, S. B. Green (Minnesota Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 313-320, figs. ^).— Reprinted from Bulletin 45 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 225). Tomatoes under glass, W, E. Britton (Garden and Forest, 9 (1896), No. 462, pp. 526, 527). Care of frames in winter, W. X. Craig (Garden and Forest, 9 (1896), No. 460, pp. ' 50G-508). Apples of Tennessee origin, R. L. Watts (Tennessee Sta. Bui., Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 34, figs. 20). — By means of letters and circulars sent to farmers and frtiit growers throughout the State the location has been ascertained of abont 100 seedling apple trees of more or less merit. Fruit from many of these trees was studied, described, compared with well-known varieties, and photographed at the station. Twenty- seven varieties considered valuable, at least in the vicinities of their origin, are described, and 20 of them figured in the bulletin. Extended notes are given upon the history of the Ben Davis :lnd Paragon varieties. Varieties of apples for Delaware, M. H. Beckwith (Delaware Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 154-158). — Some remarks are made upon the necessity for careful testing of varieties for culture in the State, and a list given of 180 varieties growing from scions in an orchard uuder station control. Pineapple, analysis and manure, J. J. Bowrey (Bui. Bot. Dept. Jamaica, n. ser., 3 (1896), No. 10, p. ^5C).— Analysis of the ash gave potash 49.42, magnesia 8.80, cal- cium carbonate 12.15, and phosphoric acid 4.08 per cent. Suggestions are given for the proper manuring of tliis crop. Pineapple growing under glass, N. Buttehbach (Amer. Gard., 17 (1896), No. 105, pp. 817-819, pi. 1). Culture of the prune, J. E. Gordon (California Fruit Grower, 20 (1896), No. 1, p. 1). French prunes, methods of their preparation, E. Conner (Gard. Citron., ser. 3, 20 (1896), No. 522, p. 780). Hints on starting an orchard, W. W. Stevens (Amer. Gard., 17 (1896), No. 105, pp. 823, 824). Transplanting large trees, E. A. Long (Amer. Gard., 17 (1896), No. 105, pp. 819, 820, fig. 1). Raspberries, M. H. Beckwith (Delaware Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 149, 150). — Notes are given on 10 varieties of raspberries, 1 variety of blackberry, and the Japanese wineberry. Strawberries^ M. H. Beckwith (Delaware Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 140-149). — Notes are given upon 9)^ varieties grown at the station, with an indication of the amount each suffered from blight. The 10 varieties selected as best for home use are Beverly, Bomba, Brandywine, Bubach, (Jandy, Greenville, Harmon, ]\Iichel Early, Shixster, and Smelzer; for market: Bubach, Brandywine, Greenville, Harmon, Michel Early, Mrs. Cleveland, Muskingum, Pearl, and Phillips. Small fruits, variety tests, S. B. Green (Minnesota Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 321-325, figs. 2). — Reprinted from Bulletin 45 of the station (E, S. R., 8, p. 231). Packing and handling grapes (Bural New Yorker, 55 (1896), No. 2436, p. 355). Fifteenth congress for w^ine culture at Heilbronn, September 12-16, 1896 (Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 77, pp. 743-745). — Questions relating to manuring, inju- rious insects and fungi, and fermentation were discussed. Grapes, M. H. Beckwith (Delaware Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 134-139). — Notes are given upon 53 varieties grown at the station. Choice of grape stocks, L. Ravaz (Bev. Fit., 1895; abs. in Ztschr. Bfianzenkrank., 6 (1896), No. 5, pp. 236, 237). — Discusses and classifies American grapevines according to their resistance to phylloxera. SEEDS WEEDS. 497 Chestnut culture for fruit, \V. A. IU'CKiiout (Pennsylvania Sla. Bid. 3G, pp. 13, pis. 3). — A popular hulletin contaiuiug general remarks upon the chestnut industry, the chestnut tree and its habits, and native and Ibroign varieties ; and directions for selection of location for orchards, for sprouting seeds and trans])lanting young plants, grafting, and harvesting. The rose, its culture and care, R. Betten {Die Bose, Hire Anzucht und Pjtei/e. Frank- furt a. (). : Trowit:sch nnd Sohn, 1S9G, pp. 332, fujs. 138).— k practical handbook of rose growing. Our window gardens, G. W. Carver {lou'a SUi. Bui. 33, pp. r>lG-.',2o, jigs. 3). — Detailed d.escriptions are given lor culture of the calla lily, freesias, and white- flowered tobacco {Xicofiana a(}iuis); directions for rooting cuttiugs by different methods, for raising plants from seed, and for watering, and notes upon diseases. Horticultural work at Mississippi Station (Mississi2)l)i Sta. Bpt. 1895, jyp. 62-69). — Brief notes without detailed results are given upon 10 varieties of apples, 16 of pears, and 3 of Japanese plums grown at the station. The methods of the station in the culture of grapes and strawberries are outlined and lists given of varieties succeeding best. Mention is also made of unsuccessful attempts to raise Japanese persimmons, goumi, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries. An outline of a course in horticulture, V/. M. jMunsox (Garden and Forest, 10 (1897), Xo. 463, pp. 3, 3). — An outline is given of a course of horticulture that is based upon the Cornell course. Horticulture in the five divisions of the world, C. Baltet (U Horticulture dans hs cinq parties du monde. Troi/er : Lacroix, pp. 776). — Reviewed in liev. Sci., ser. 4, 6 (1896), Xo. 3.5, p. 785. SEEDS— WEEDS. Germination of hulled and unhulled timothy seed, W. H. Bishop [iJelaivare Sta. B})!. ls9.5.,p. 340). — Gerniinator aud plat tests were made of timothy seed to ascertain the eftect of the removal of the hulls from the grain. In the germination apparatus the original sample gave 63 per cent vitality, while the hulled seed gave 56 aud the unhulled 72 per cent. Four samples of each were tested. In the plat trials no difterence coukl be detected either in the germination or subsequent crop. The slight depreciation in the germination of the hulled seed is thought to be due to injury to the seed during threshing. Copper sulphate and germination, W. H. Evans ( U. S. Dept. A[/r., Division of Vegetable rhysiology and Pathology Bui. 10., pp. 24). — A sum- mary is given of numerous reports on the effect of solutions of copper sulphate on various kinds of seed treated for the prevention of fungus diseases. A detailed report is also given of experiments conducted by the author in which is shown the eftect of different strengths of copper sulphate solution on the germination of oats. Soaking seed for more than 15 minutes in solutions of greater strength than 1 ])er cent was found to retard and destroy germination to a considerable degree. Experiments tended to show that previous soaking of seeds for a short time in water prior to treating them with the fungicide would prevent much of the injury arising from the use of even the stronger solutions- Effect of bisulphid of carbon on the vitality of seed and plants, M. H. Beckwith {Delaware Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 152, ioo*).— The effect of 498 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. treating wheat witli carbon bisulphid before planting was tested and tlie germination in 2 lots of 1,000 seed each was not influenced to any practical extent. Strawberry plants were subjected to the fumes for 1 hour before planting and they suffered considerable injury. Plants may be treated while growing without injury. Experiments to destroy horse nettle, M. H. Beokwith {Dela- ware iSta. Bpt. 1S95, pp. 153, 15-1). — Experiments were conducted to destroy Solannm caroUnense, locally known as Sodom apple, sulphuric acid and kerosene being employed. The results showed that they were efficient only so far as they penetrated the roots, which was but a few inches, the i^lants readily sprouting from below. Only frequent culture and digging out the roots proved certain means of eradication. A ne-w germinating apparatus, H. F. Jonkman (Bot. Ceniil., 6S {1S9G), Xo. 8, pp. 254-256, fig. 1). Weeds in our fields, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sta. Bpt. 1S95, pp. 373-383, jj?8. 2).— Eepriuted from Bulletin 46 of the station (E. S. R.. 8, p. 234). DISEASES OF PLANTS. Ammoniacal solutions of copper carbonate, C. L. Penny [Dela- tcare Sta. Rpt. 1S95, pp. 206, 207). — The author calls attention to the economy of using dilute solutions of ammonia in the preparation of ammoniacal copper carbonate solutions. Dilute ammonia will dissolve more copper carbonate than the stronger solutions. In general prac- tice in preparing this fungicide the author recommends diluting the ammonia nine-fold before applying it to the copper carbonate, this solu- tion to be still further diluted one hundredfold before using. Rust in wheat conference, D. McAlpine and W. Lowrie {Agl. Gaz. N. iS. Wales, 7 {1890), No. 7, pp. 438-443).— A.t the meeting of this conference held in Melbourne in May, 189G, the committee made a final report in which the general work attempted was outlined. The oppo- sition of the millers to rust-resistant wheats is shown to be inapplicable to the recommendations of the conference since the varieties suggested as resistant are not to be classified with the maccaroni wheats, but are of the same grade as the best Minnesota and Hungarian varieties of bread wheats. The work of the nomenclature committee in determining and classi- fying varieties of wheat into rust resistant, rust escaping, and rust liable is commended, and it is recommended that it be continued. Although no effective means can be advanced for preventing rust in wheat, yet the risk from loss may be lessened by following as far as l)ossible these suggestions : Early ripening varieties should be cultivated. Where late varieties are used early sowing should be adopted, and the grain should be DISEA&ES OF PLANTS. 499 sown tliinly, -vrith due regard to the liabit of tillering and local condi- tions of climate and soils. East-resistant and rust-escaping- varieties should be grown more extensively. When sowings are unavoidably late, early ripening varieties should be sown and phosphatic fertilizers used to hasten the maturity of the plant. The sowing of varieties espe- cially liable to rust should be abandoned, and where new- varieties are introduced the farmer is advised to sow them only on a small scale to test their adaptability rather than risk the whole harvest. The conference gave the following general conclusions: "It is of opinion that there is uo i)o.s8ible treatment of tlie seed tliat will protect the plants growing from it from the attacks of rnst. Fnrthermore, that the notion that rust-shriveled seed can ho sown with as good results as plump seed is erroneous. Of the many yiractical details which have been demonstrated experimentally as cal- culated to diminish the prevalence of rnst the conference emphatically recommends the follo\Ying : "That seed wheat be allowed to ripen fully, and be carefully stripped or threshed. ''That seed wheat be graded, and the larger and heavier grains selected for seed. •'That the utmost care should be adopted to insure that the A'arieties of wheat selected for seed be pure and true to name." A leaf blight of the tomato, F. 1). Chester {Delaware Bta. Rpt. l&9o, p. 133 J Jigs. ;J). — The author figures and brieiiy describes a leaf blight of tomato which was first observed during the summer of 1894. The fungus spores are said to be the same size as those described by Saccardo from Argentina uuder Septoria lycopersici. Its identity is not affirmed. Blight affecting the body of pear and apple trees, M. II. Beck- wiTH {Delate a re Sta. Ept. 1895, pp. 158, 159). — Brief notes are given of a blight of apple and pear trees, the diseased trunks of which gave every appearance of being attacked by the common j^ear blight {Micro- coccus amylovorns). Thorough washing of the diseased portions of the trees with Bordeaux mixture seemed beneficial in arresting the progress of the disease. Investigations on the sulphuring of hops, J. I^eherxs ( Wocheimchr. Brauvrei, 1S90, pp. 946-D4S). The diseases of sugar cane, .1. Kay (Bnl. Soc. Mycol. France, 13 {1896), Xo. 4, pp. 139-143). — A resume is given of some of the more important publications relating to sugar cane diseases. Notes on sugar cane diseases, F. A. F. C. Went {Ann. Hot., 10 {1896), pp. 583-600, pi. 1). — Notes are given of the red smut {CoUetolrichum falcatum) and the pineapple disease {Thielaviops'ts ethaceticus). Both fungi are saprophytic but are apparently wound parasites producing the two diseases. The author dissents from the opinion of Massec! relating to Trichoaphari xaccluiri and Melanconium sp. The latter is said never to be found on other than dead canes. Smut in wlieat, W. M. Hays {Minnesota Sla. Bpt. 1895, pp. J6'.'-,W5).— Reprinted from Bulletin 40 of the station (E. S. E., 8, p. 237). Strawberry rust {Garden and Forest, 9 {1896), No. 462, p. 530). — A brief note is given of the successful use of borax lye as a spray for preventing strawberry rust. One can of the lye was used in 40 gal. of water. The sprayed plants kept bearing for 10 days after the uus]irayed ones hail ceased. 500 EXPERLMENT STATION RECORD. Report of the interdepartmental commission on black rot at the Bordeaux Congress, F. Yassillieke {Prog. Agr. et Fit., 26 (1S96), Xo. 50, pp. 655-667) .—The report shows the efficiency of Bordeaux mixture in controlling black rot if properly applied. Results obtained by the Rassiguier treatment of vine chlorosis, J. ^I. Guil- LON (I'rog. Agr. et Tit., 26 {1S96), Xo. 4S, jyp. 006-608). — The author reports ou his inspection of numerous viueyards Avhere this treatment had been successfully employed against chlorosis. Winter treatment of sooty mold of grape, Degkully {Prog. A'gr. et T'it., 26 {1896), Xo. 48, ^yp. .55'7-<559). — Wiuter treatment is said to be efficien»t as a prevent- ive treatment. Mildew on roses, .1. N. May {Amer. Florist, 12 {1890), Xo. 448, p. .517).— Sulphur mixed with liuseed oil and painted on flow pipes, using only enough to give a per- ceptible odor of the sulphur in the house, is recommended. Ou the injury to -woodwork by Merulius lacrymans, P. Dumee {Bui. Soc. Mycol. France, 12 {1890), ^o. 4, pp. 159-161). Destruction of Heterodera schachtii, Willoi {Compi. Rend., 123 {1896), Xo. 23, pp. low, 1020). On the prevention of beet nematodes, 1)()KINg {l)er Landwirt., 32 {1896), Xo 59, p. 349). Treatment for potato diseases, S. B. Green {Minnesota Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 307-312, figs. ^).— Reprinted from Bulletin 45 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 239), Experiments in spraying, F. D. Chestei; {Delaware Sta. Bpt. 1805, pp. 121-123). — A brief report is giveu of experiments conducted in 1894 for the prevention of apple scab and peach blight aud rot. Owing to unusual conditions resulting ia the almost complete failure of the fruit crops the work was di8coi>tinued before the end of the season. Spraying apparatus, S. B. Greex {Minnesota Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 326-328, figs. 2). — Reprinted from Bulletin 45 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 240). ENTOMOLOGY. The chinch bug, F. M. Webster {Ohio ma. Bui. 69, pp. 59-80, pis. 3). — The author has compiled and reviewed some of the more important literature relating to the life history and distribution of the chinch bug {BUssus lencopterus), and he gives the results of his inves- tigations on its suppression. The use of fungus jiarasites depends on meteorological conditions which are not always present, a serious drought greatly interfering with the efficiency of the method. It is preventive rather than remedial, and so far as known can not be depended upon when a serious out- break is imminent. Where the chinch bug has appeared, its further migration may be jnevented by the use of kerosene emulsion. Ditching in front of their advance, plowing, harrowing, and rolling the ground will destroy many of the insects. Old grass leaves and rubbish in winter should be burned in order to destroy the hibernating adults. The San Jos^ scale, L. O. Howard and C. L. Marlatt ( U. S. Bept. Aijr., Bivision of EntomoJogij Bui. 3, n. ser., pp. 80, pis. 2, figs. 8). — This bulletin records the history of Aspkliotns perniciosus, its present status, its life history and habits, its parasites and other natural enemies, ENTOMOLOGY. 501 and remedies and preventives that may be used against it, together with an account of various experiments with insecticides, a general summary of treatment, a discussion of (quarantine, and an appended bibliography of the species. It is believed to have come either from Australia, some part of east- ern Asia, or some of the Pacittc islands. The history of its introduc- tion to the eastern United States is briefly treated and a summary is given bj" States of its introduction and i^resent condition. The San Jos4 scale is now found in 14 States east of the Eocky Mountains, and in at least 12 nurseries, from several of which it has been sent out on trees for 7 years, thus affording a wide distribution. The effect of climate on its spread is discussed and a map of life zones in the United States is given showing that the present distribution of the scale is limited to the Upper and Lower Austral regions. In the latitude of Washington, District of Columbia, occur 4 annual generations of 30 to 40 days each, with probably a fifth generation. Careful experiments to ascertain the fecundity of the species revealed the estimated number of 3,'J1C,080,400 descendants from a single female in one year. For the eastern United States the following recommenda- tions are made: Promptly destroy affected stock in case of recent or slight attack, while in older cases of wide extent cut back the trees affected and treat with winter soap wash, always using the utmost care to prevent introduction of infected trees or cuttings. Strong whale-oil soap washes kill the insects with no iujurious effect upon the foliage of the trees. Prompt action of State legislatures in passing quarantine measures and enforcing insecticide work is urged. Insects injurious to the seed and root of Indian corn, S. A. Forbes {Illinois tSta. Bui. 14, pp. X^09-290, fig.s. 01). — This bulletin is an abstract of the more economic parts of a previous report.^ Corn insects now recognized as being to some extent injurious number 214 species, of which 18 infest the seed, 27 the root and subterranean j)art of the stalk, 76 the stalk above ground, 118 the leaf, 10 the tassel and silk, 42 the ear in the field, 2 the stacked fodder, and 24 the stored grain either whole or ground. The injury caused hy many of these is so slight as to be of but little economic importance. The general indications of injury to seed and roots are described and a synopsis given l)y which to recognize the cause of the injury. In the synopsis the primary grouping is into (1) injuries to the seed in the earth and (2) injuries to the roots. The chief injuries to seed in the earth are due (1) to attacks of ants, (2) small beetles, the principal ones being Af/onodcnifi 2)aUip('s, Apho- cliiis f/ranarinSjUiid Clivina inqrrcs.si/rons^ (3) footless maggots, the larvixi of the seed corji maggot {Phorhia fuscipes) and of the black headed grass maggot {Sciara sp.) and (4) injuries by G-legged larvic the princii)al of which are the pale striped flea beetle {Systena ta'tiiata), the banded ips {Tpsfasciatus), and various wire worms. iRpt. Illinois State Entomologist, 7 (1895). 502 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The principal injuries to the roots are caused by the corn root aphis {Apliis m<(diradici)i), the grass root louse {Schizoiieura panicola), white grubs {Lach nosier na and CijclocephaJa spp.)? priouus grubs [Prionus imbricornis and P. laticollis), Southern corn root worm {Diahrotica 12- punctata), Northern corn root worm (D. longicornis), and wireworms. The life histories, natural enemies, and preventives and remedial measures to be observed against these several insects are given in considerable detail. Extensive studies are reported on the corn root aphis, white grubs, the Southern corn root worm, and the IsTorthern corn root worm, these insects having been especially investigated by the author. For the economic procedure against the root aphis the following recommen- dations are given : "Our present knowledge of eifective economic procedure for the corn root aphis may be summarized in the form of the following recommendations: (1) That the fertility of the ground should be maintained as a general safeguard, and that culti- vation should be so managed, especially that of the lower parts of the lield, as to l>revent so far as practicable the seeding of pigeon grass and smartweed among the corn; (2) that infested iields should be plowed deeply and thoroughly harrowed late in fall or during some suitable early winter interval; and (3) that a somewhat rapid rotation of crops should be systematically followed, corn usually being allowed to grow on the same ground but 2 years in succession. While some work remains to be done with reference to the precise value of these methods in practical application, there is no longer any doubt of their substantial usefulness, at least as a means of holding in check the injuries of the corn root aphis." Direct remedies against the white grubs are given, but their eco- nomic use seems rather improbable. Preventive measures by means of fungus parasites, the value of which is not fully established, are considered Avorthy further study. The life history of the Southern corn root worm is so little known that preventive measures can not be given. It seems to be more liable to attack sweet corn, and the proximity of cucurbits and the other more common food plants of the beetle may account for its pres- , ence. For the Northern corn root worm by rapid rotation and main- taining a high degree of fertility the plant is able to withstand minor injuries with relatively little loss. Report of the entomologist, M. H. Beckwith [Delaware Sta. Rpt. ]895,pp. 160-175, figs. 5). — Notes are given of the San Jose scale and other scale insects in Delaware, the imported elm leaf beetle, the use of carbon bisulphid on cucurbits and for granary insects, arsenites for the curculios and blister beetles, and poisoned baits for cutworms. The presence of the San Jose scale in DelaAvare was first noticed in February, 1895, and it has since been observed in different sections infesting pear, peach, ])lum, and crab apple trees. The life history and means for the destruction of the insect are giren in considerable detail. Brief notes are given on additional species of scale insects which have been observed within the State, as follows: Oyster shell bark louse, scurvy bark louse, rose scale, currant scale, and plum scale. ENTOMOLOGY. 503 Illufstrated notes are given of tlie imported elm leaf beetle {Galeruca xanthomehvn<(), and spraying the trees with London purple or J^iris green, 1 lb. to IGO gal. water, to which 1 gal. kerosene emulsion may be added, is recommended as the best means for combating this pest. There are two or more broods each year, and spraying must be regulated accordingly. A report is given of the successful use of carbon bisulphid for ridding cucurbits and caulitlower of plant lice and for the destruction of insects in stored grain. Effectual experiments are reported on the use of arsenites for destroy- ing blister beetles and curculio. Cage experiments were conducted with baits impregnated with arsenite of soda, arsenite of lead, L(mdon purple, Paris green, Fowler's solution, sulphate of strychnia, and white helle- bore for the destruction of cutworms. All were effectual except the last two. When applied to field tests it appeared that there was little value in the use of poisoned baits for destroying the cutworms. Where such means are employed it is advised that the baits be used jmor to planting the corn on other crops. Entomological work for 1895, H. Osborn and C. W. Mally {loica Sta. Bui. 32, pp. 361-407, pi. 1, figs. 11). Synopsis. — Notes are given on tlie chinch bug, four-spotted pea weevil, the early stages of the imbricated snout beetle, the ground cherry seed moth, and insects occur- ring in water tanks and reservoirs. The authors give charts of the distribution of the chinch bug {BKssus leucopterus) throughout the State and the more general facts relative to the life history and habits of the insect. Various remedies andjire- ventive measures are suggested for keeping it in check, and numerous insects resembling the chinch bug are figured and briefly described. The control measures suggested consist of burning during hibernation and the arrangement of crops with reference to catch crops in infested fields 5 early cutting with burning or plowing of stubble; maintenance of barriers between wheat, barley, or rye and oats or corn, and the use of fungus parasites where possible. During the year an extensive experiment was conducted with the white fungus disease of the chinch bug, in which 33 per cent of the cases reported were considered highly successful. By earlier and more complete distribution it is thought that the fuugus may be made effective in a large number of cases. The four-spotted pea weevil [Bruchus quadri-maculatus) is figured and described, the life history of the insect being given in considerable detail. Experiments were conducted in treating seed with carbon bisulphid for the destruction of the insect and to observe any possible effect on the germination of the seed. The contained larva;, pupa', and newly formed adults were not all destroyed by the treatment, and to be most effective there should be 2 or 3 applications about 3 or -i weeks 110G8— Xo. 0 5 504 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. apart. The germinating power of the seed was not affected in any perceptible degree by the fumes of the carbon bisulphid. Experiments were conducted to ascertain whether the weevil can live on other seeds than those of peas and beans, and it was found that the insects did not live on any other seed than those above mentioned. The authors have added many facts of importance to the life history of the imbricated snout beetle {Ejricwrus imhricatvs). Although this insect has been known to be economically important since 1863, but little is known of its early stages except a record of its egg laying. Attempts were made to breed the beetle on the strawberry ])lant, and while not fully successful in tracing the life history the partial develop- ment of the larvtB was ascertained. The fragmentary results obtained show that the eggs are deposited in dry and rolled leaves of the food plants of the adult, and that the larv?e immediately enter the ground to feed upon the roots. This would indicate what measures of control must be adopted against this insect. Illustrated notes are given on the ground cherrj^ seed moth {Gelcchia sp.). Out of 130 berries containing pupte but 4 specimens of moths were secured. This low percentage of adults was due to the fact that a large percentage of the jjupte were destroyed by a fungus similar to Sporotrichum, and the remainder were attacked by a hymenoijterous parasite. The insect under consideration closely resembles Geleeliia qtiercifoUella., but is said to be quite distinct from it. Apparently the most effective remedy for this si^ecies would be the destruction of the larvi« or jjupje during the autumn. Infested berries should be gathered and disposed of. The fungus and parasite already mentioned have proved sufficient to keep it in check. In Sei)tember, 1895, a weevil {Baris conjinis) was found working extensively in the root stalks and base of the large branches of cosmos, causing destruction of the plants. Specimens were collected and kept under observation in order to ascertain what was i)0ssible relative to the life history of the insect, and illustrated descriptions are given of the larvne, pupae, and adults. Collecting and burning the old root stalks and stems of the cosmos early in autumn is the most effective treat- ment so far as our present knowledge of the species is concerned. Inquiries concerning the occurrence of an insect in water tanks and reservoirs led to an investigation of this subject, and it was found that large numbers of Chironomus sj). were present in the water supply of several places in Iowa. The larvte and adults are figured and described, and the following suggestions are offered for their exclusion : ""Where practicable [the adults] may be kept out by the u«e of ordinary mosquito netting or wire gauze. Where this is impracticable the providing of an inlet to distributing pipes that will draw water from a few inches above the bottom of the reservoir, which might further be protected by a fine screen, will, it is believed, avoid the distribution of the worms in the mains." Entomological work {Mississipjn Sta. KjJt. 1895, pj). 69-78). — Among the subjects which received special attention during the past year were ENTOMOLOGY. 505 the mechanical niixirg of kerosene and water, insects injurious to corn, a new ehn beetle, preventives for the horn tly and for mos([uitos, treat- ment for peach rot, and work in making a collection of the insects of the State. In experiments regarding the effect of mechanical mixing of kerosene and water it is found that the proportion of li parts of kerosene to 10 of water is needed for thorough work with most caterpillars, while 1 : 10 will kill many of the young. For most plant lice 2 : 10 is needed for thorough work. The results of exi)criments regarding the effects of kerosene on the foliage of various plants showed that most of them will stand a strength of 3:10 without injury. It is observed that in mechanical mixtures more kerosene is needed than where emulsions are made, but the cost is no greater than the soap required to make the emulsion, and the insecticidal value is fully equal to that of the latter. Brief notes are given on a new corn insect, which has already been described in Bulletin 30 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 878). A report is given of a serious elm pest which proves to be Monocesia coryli, and spraying the trees with Paris green is recommended for its destruction. This beetle, the author suggests, should be known as the "greater elm leaf beetle,'' to distinguish it from the smaller "imported elm leaf beetle." Kerosene is recommended as a remedy for tlie prevention of attacks of the horn fly on cattle, and to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes in water tanks. The station insect collection received numerous additions during the year. Experiments were conducted with Bordeaux mixture for the preven- tion of peach rot during 1891 and 1895. The experiments in 1894 were terminated by heavy frost killing all the fruit buds early in the season; and those in 1895, although beneficial in some cases, are not con- sidered conclusive, and must be continued before their real value can be determined. Some destructive insects, E. M. Webster {Ohio ^Sta. Bui. 68, pp. 19-58, j^Zi'. 4). — Notes are given on some particularly destructive insects of Ohio, spraying with arsenites vs. bees, and the carnivorous habits of slugs. The following insects are popularly described, figured, and remedies suggested: The cankerworm {Ankopteryx vernnta), the fruit bark beetle {Scoiytus riif/Hlo.si(s), the ring-legged tree bug {Ihochymena annu- lata), the clover leaf weevil (Phyfoiiontn.s punct((fus), the clover root borer [Hylastes trifolU), the strawberry sawtiy {Harplphoriis maculatus), the harlequin cabbage bug {Murganila histrionica), the squash plant louse {8i2)honophora vucurbittv), the western corn root worm {Biahrotiva longicornis), white ants {T er mes jiavipes), th.e hostile leaf hopper [Delto- ceplialus inimicuii), webworms {Cranihus zeellus, C. lafiueafellus, C. hitcr- minellus, C. viutabilis, C. liiteoldlua), and the i)owder post worm {Lyctiis striatus). 506 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. In cooperation witli Dr. J, A. Lintuer, State entomologist of New York, and Jas. Fletcher, entomologist of Dominion of Canada, experi- ments were carried on to ascertain the effect on bees of spraying trees with Paris green while in bloom. The anthor conducted a series of experiments, spraying plum, apple, and crab apple trees and raspberries, with a solution of Paris green 4 oz, to 50 gal. of water. The trees were sprayed while in full bloom and in some cases bees were colonized under the trees, their escape being prevented by mosquito netting. Dead bees were soon noticed, and when examined traces of arsenic were found in them. It was also found in the contents of their abdomens, and there is evidence that the sudden death of larv* was due to the introduction of arsenic from without. The author thinks the proof conclusive that spraying arsenites on trees while in bloom is injurious to bees in i^ro- portion as the weather is favorable for their activity. The danger will not be jiassed until all bloom has fallen from the trees. On this account spraying should not be done while trees are still in bloom. Notes are given on the feeding habits of slugs [Limax campestris), in which it appears they destroy many plant lice in greenhouses and conservatories. Report on insect pests, A. Koebele {Hawaiian Planters'' Monthly^ 15 {1S90), i\^o. 12, pj). 590-598). — An important report submitted to the chair- man of the committee on diseases and insect pests of the sugar cane. The Hawaiian Islands are fortunate with regard to plant diseases and insect pests of the sugar cane when compared with the Fiji Islands and cane- growing regions in Australia. The cane borer [Splienopliorus ohseurus) is the most injurious enemy of the sugar cane present in the Hawaiian Islands. Its ravages exceed those of all other insects combined. Its attacks seem confined to the moister localities. It is recommended to burn the trash as soon as possible after the cane is cut, and trap the mature beetles with pieces of split cane placed about 10 ft. apart in spots most affected by the beetles. By this latter remedy enormous numbers of beetles were collected by children in Fiji, who were compensated at the rate of a small sum per pint. The larva of a Lamellicorn beetle {^J^gosoma rejiexum) has damaged coffee trees by feeding upon the roots. Prolonged irrigation is recom- mended as a remedy. The cocoa palms are injured by the destruction of the leaves by the larva of a moth of the genus Botis. The same insect also feeds upon sugar cane, banana, and other plants. Large numbers of a parasitic hymenopteron [Chalcis ohscuraia) were introduced in 1895 from China and Japan. This parasite is said to have established itself and to have done a great deal of good by destroying the Botis. The com- mon grass worm of the southern United States {Laphygma frugiperda) does considerable damage in Hawaii. It is also found in Brazil. A species of mole cricket {Gryllotalpa sp.) has appeared in very large numbers in some of the moist valleys on the island of Oahu. The author thinks it an Asiatic introduction. It destroys seed cane. The ENTOMOLOGY. 507 white louse of the sugar caiie ( JMctylojnun calceolaria) has been practi- cally destroyed by an introduced ladybird {Crxiptolwmuti montrouz'wri). A plant louse of the genus Aphis damages some iiekls, but has been lim- ited by au introduced ladybird {Coccinella repanda). — l. o. iioavard. Constitution and development of termites, B. pUASSi ami A. Sandias {Quart. Jour. Micros. Scinire, u. scr., S'J {1S9G), Xo. 3, pp. 245-322, pU. r,). Description of the botfly of the cottontail rabbit in New Mexico, ('. H. T. TowxSEND {Fsychc, S {1S97), No. 249, pp. S, 9). — Cittercbra lepusculi is described as a new species. Ravages caused in Algeria by caterpillars of Sesamia nonagrioides, J. K. d'Hkrcvi.ais {Cumpt. llend., 123 {lS9(i), Xo. 20, pp. 842-845; Jour. Agr. I'rat., CI (1897), I, Xo. 3, pp. 104-106). — Au account is giveu of the injury i)roduc6d ujion maize, sugar cane, sorghum, etc., iu Algiers, with suggestious for their prevention. The red-headed flea beetle, F. Thomas (Ztsclir. Pflanzenhrank., 6 (1896), Xo. 5, pp. 270-275; Eni. Xachrichten, 22 (1896), Xo. 17-18, pp. ;2.57-559).— Notes are giveu of HalticKS saltaior, which is e.specially injurious to cucumbers in greenhouses. The -woolly aphis or American blight (Leaflet 34, Board Agr. London, England, 1896). — Notes are given of Schlzoneura lanlgera. Fruit bark beetle, F. M. Webster (Ohio Hort. Soc. Ppt. lS95-'96, pp. 94-98).— Notes on Scohjtus rugidosus. The red scale of Florida, E. E. Bogue (Ohio Sort. Soc. Rpt. lS95-'96, pp. 137, 138). — Notes are given of As-pidiotus ficus, a new horticultural iusect enemy iu Ohio. A destructive plant parasite, H. Levay (Bev. Scient., ser. 4, 6 (1896), Xo. 4, pp. 124, 125). — A report is given of the ravages and distribution iu Tahite of Aspidiotua vastatrix or A. ijerniciosus. Eumolopus vitis on grape stock, K. Sa.jo (Illus. Wochenschr. Ent., 1 (1896), Xo. 32, lip. 501-506). Bookworms in America, A. C. Fryer (Proc. Bristol Xat. Soc, S (1896), Xo. 1). Pests of grain crops, G. McCarthy (Xortk Carolina Sta. Bui. 128, pp. 147-155). — This is a popuhxr bulletin in which formulas are giveu for fungicides and insecticides, and the principal fungus and insect pests, with recommendations for their preven- tion, of the following grains : Barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, millet, oats, rice, rye, sorghum, and wheat. Meadow insects, Y.Mayet (Prog. Agr. et Vit., 26 (1896), Xo. 50, pp. 668-671).— Notes are given of Charwas graminis, Melolontha vulgaris, lihizotrogus sohtitialis, E. cicatricofius, and i?. rufescens. Insects injurious in 1895, O. Lugger (Minnesota Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 99-244, pis. 16, figs. 44).— X reprint of Bulletin 43 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 144). Report on the introduction and dissemination of injurious insects, F. M. Web- ster (Ohio Hort. Soc. Bpt. 1895-' 96, pp. 190-195). Injurious insects and fungi (Jour. lBritish~\, Board of Agr. 3 (1896), Xo. 3, pp. 273-293, figs. 7).— Notes are given on the army worm, woolly aphis, corn moth {Citotroga cerealella), a lily disease (Polyactis IBotryiis'] cana), a disease of snow- drops, the narcissus fly {Merodon narcissi), smut of brome grass ( Ustilago hromivora), and the mildew of hops. On legislation pertaining to the introduction and spread of injurious insects, O. W. ALDRicn (Ohio Hort. Soc. Bpt. 1895-96, pp. 200-202). Report on the best legislation regarding the introduction and spread of weeds, insects, and fungi, W. K. Lazenmjy (Ohio Hort. Soc. Bpt. lS9'>-'96, pp. 202-205). Insecticides (Mississippi Sta. Bpt. 1895, p. i05).— TaV)ulated analyses of 4 samples of Paris green. A contagious disease of white grub, .J. B. Smitm (Oardcn and Forest, 9 (1896), Xo. 461 p. 519). — A brief note is giveu on the dit'liculty and apparent uselessness of dis- seminating the disease. 508 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. FOODS— ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Examination of food products sold in Connecticut, A W. Ogden, A. L. WiNTON, and E. H. Jenkins {ConneeHcut State Sta. Bui. 123, pj). 7^)). — The pure-food law and the Connecticut laws regarding the adul- teration of food and drugs are quoted. Maple sirup, maple sugar, sirup, sugar, strained lioney, comb honey, cream of tartar, lard, pepper, mustard, milk, cheese, coffee, and cereal foods were exaiuined. The methods of testing sugars and sirups, pepper, mustard, cheese, and coffee, and of detecting lard adulteration, are given at length, and the results of the various investigations are discussed in detail. The num- ber of specimens of each article examined and the numbers which were pure, doubtful, and adulterated are given in the following table: liestilts of examination of foods and condiments. Maple sirup. Maple sugar — Sugar Sirup Strained honey. Comb honey Lard Pepper Mustard Cheese Coftee Milk Cream of tartar Cereal foods Total .... Examined. Pure. Doubtful. Adulterated, 61 7 16 4 48 12 118 102 69 72 124 1(15 103 43 32 54 254 Fodder analyses, 0. L. Penny {Delaware Sta. Rj)t. 1895, pp. 197-199). — Analyses are given of bran, corn-aud-cob meal, cotton-seed meal, cowpea-vine silage, sweet-corn silage, green rye for silage, oats, Canadian peas, a mixture of oats and Canadian peas, corn silage, mixed clover hay, and beets. The composition of some of these samples is given in the following table: Analyses of silage and green fodder. In fresh or air-dry material. Water. Cowpea-vine silage Do Sweet-corn silage Green rye for suage Mixture of oats and Cana- dian ijeas Per ct. 80.24 76.56 70.26 74.92 76.13 Pro- tein. Per ct. 2.57 3.42 2.56 2.30 2.61 Per ct. 0.60 1.07 .54 .92 ^i^- frTe Nitro- gen- free extract. Per ct. 6.43 6.24 7.22 8.37 7.58 Per ct. 8.18 10.15 17.19 11.84 11.32 Ash. Per ct. 1.98 2.56 2.23 1.65 1.50 In dry matter. Pro- tein. Per ct. 13. 02 14.63 8.61 9.18 10.94 Fat. Per ct. 3.05 4.57 1.85 3.69 3.60 Fiber. Nitro- gen- free extract. Per ct. 32.52 26.62 24.27 33.34 31.76 Per ct. 41.37 4:^.27 57.76 47.21 47.41 The 2 samples of cowpea-vine silage were from the same source, tlie first being taken February 8, and the second April 26. The green rye was sampled May 3, and the oats and peas the latter part of June. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 509 Dietary studies at the University of Missouri in 1895, and data relating to bread and meat consumption in Missouri, H. B. (Jib- son, S. Calvert, aud D. \\\ May; commeuts by A\". O. Atwater and C. D. Woods ( U. S. Dept. Ayr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 31, pp. 24). — Two dietary studies were made of a students' (ilub at tlie University of Missouri. The methods followed were those mentioned in Bulletin 21 of this Office (E. S. R., 7, p. 148). A number of Missouri foods were analyzed. The comj)osition of other foods was computed from standard tables. Tables are given which show the amount and kind of food purchased, wasted, and eaten, and its composition and fuel value. The results of these studies are briefly summed up in the fol- lowing table: Results of dietary studiea^'ood eaten per man per day. First dietary study . - . Second dietary study Nutrients. Protein. Pat. Carbohy Grams. 96 Grams. 155 165 Grams. 417 404 Fuel value. Calories. 3,540 3,585 In the comments on these dietary studies the results are compared with the results of similar studies made in Tennessee and Connecticut. Statistics were gathered regarding the kinds of bread and meat con- sumed by j)eople of different classes in Missouri. The results are expressed in tabular form. ''There is relatively miich less raised bread and more corn bread and biscuit eaten in the country than in the town. It would seem natural to assume that the larger proportion of yeast-raised bread in the cities is due to bakers, to the ease with which good quick-acting yeast can be obtained, and to the f;ict that city people have more convenient markets to buy in and more ready money. The effect of supply upon the kinds of meat eaten is even more evident. Pork is easily raised on the farm, and in the form of salt pork, bacon, and ham is readily preserved for later use. On the other hand, city people can always have fresh beef, veal, and mutton from the mar- kets. That this accounts largely for the fact that pork constitutes 57 per cent of the meat supply of the farmers' families and only 27 per cent of that of families living in the large towns is hardly to be doubted, though, of course, the relative cost may be a factor also. The fact that beef, veal, and mutton make more than half of the total meats eaten by well-to-do people in the cities and less than a quarter of that used by thrifty farmers is naturally explained in the same way." Composition and digestibility of corn silage, cowpea silage, soja-bean silage, and corn fodder, C. C. Hopkins {Illinois Sta. Bui. 43, 2)p. 181-308). — TLe digestibility of corn silage, cowpea silage, soja-bean silage, aud corn fodder was determined in experiments made with 4 grade Shorthorn steers, about 2 years old, weighing on an aver- age 1,100 lbs. Each experimental period was of G days' duration and was preceded by a preliminary period of 1 week. The steers Avere fed twice a day and were given all they would eat up clean. "Three composite samples of the feed were analyzed in each experiment, thus showing the average composition of the feed for 2 periods of 2 days each . . . Two composite samples were made of tlie refuse [aiid of tlie manurcil from each steer, one for a period of 2 days and the other for a ])eriod of 4 days." 510 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The results of the experiments are expressed iu full in tabular form. In the following table the coefficients of digestibility are given : Coefficients of digestibility in experiments with steers. CoiD silage: Steer 1 Steer2 Steer 3 Steer4 Average . . Cowpea silage : Steer 1 Steer2 Steer 3 Steer4 Average . . Soja-bean silage : Steer 1 Steer 2 Steer 3 Steer 4 Average .. Corn fodder: Steer 1 Steer 2 Steer 3 Steer 4 Average . . Dry matter. Nitrogen- Protein. Fat. Fiber. free extract. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 61.7 51.3 80.9 55.6 69.4 61.9 51.7 78.9 58.0 67.6 59.8 52.6 80.2 53.2 66.1 63.5 54.2 80.2 60.1 69.4 61.7 52.4 80.1 56.7 68.1 59.9 57.5 63.6 51.0 73.1 59.5 56.7 62.2 52.7 72.1 59.0 57.5 62.2 50.2 72.6 60.1 58.2 62.2 53.8 72.3 59.6 57.5 62.6 52.0 72.5 49.8 55.2 46.9 44.1 60.9 49.8 55.2 48.5 42. 2 01.4 49.4 54.8 47.7 42.1 61.4 50.1 56.2 52.5 43.2 61.3 49.8 55.3 48.9 42.9 61.2 66.1 41.5 77.4 67.7 70.9 57.2 30.5 64.7 67.0 61.2 58.0 35.1 72.9 61.4 60.7 64.8 41.9 74.6 68.0 69.7 61.5 37.2 72.4 66.0 65.6 Ash. Per cent. 28.9 35.0 31.9 32.0 32.0 32.0 30.4 29.1 29.7 30.3 27.2 29.4 27.5 27.7 28.0 24.0 21.4 14.1 18.3 19.4 The coefficients of digestibility of corn silage, soja-bean silage, and corn fodder are compared with similar results obtained in other Ameri- can experiments. The author draws the following conclusions : •'' The composition of cowpea silage corresponds very closely to that of clover hay, the most important difference heing iu the higher percentage of fat fonnd in the clover, but the digestibility of the cowpea silage is so much greater that it furnishes an equal amount of fat and much more protein and total energy than the clover hay. " Soja-bean silage resembles clover hay l>oth in composition and digestibility. It furnishes an equal amouut of protein, more fat, but less total energy than clover hay. . . . "Corn fodder and corn silage have about the same digestibility for total dry matter and furnish nearly equal amounts of energy. The fodder furnishes more digestible carbohydrate extract, but the silage slightly more of the other nutrients. "As comimred with cowpeas and soja beans, the corn fodder and corn silage have a much higher value for energy or fat jiroduction, but the cowpea silage and soja- bean silage are far more valuable for animal growth or the production of milk." In an appendix the author discusses briefly the comi^osition, digesti- bility, and uses of foods, and gives in tabular form the composition and digestibility of some American feeding stuffs. Wolff's feeding standards are also quoted. Digestion experiments {Mississippi Sta. Bpt. 1895, 2>P- 79-89). — Seven tests are reported with sheep to determine the digestibility of vetch (fed green), red clover hay, hairy vetch (fed green), crab grass hay, Johnson grass hay, and a mixture of 1 part of cotton-seed meal and 15 parts of crab grass hay. Five lots of 2 animals, one of 5, and one of 6 were used. Full data for the experiments are tabulated, including analyses of the feeding stuffs, and uneaten portions, and of the dung. FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 511 "In collecting the excreiuent duck bags 6 by 12 in. in size were used. The bottom of those bags was so coiistriicted as to l)e closed by means of one side extendin"- longer than the other and buttoning up over the opening; thus furnishing a means of c(dletting the excrement of the day without removing the bags from the sheep.'' The coefficients of digestibility for each slieep with each feeding stuff are given in the following table : Coefficients of digestibility of rariom feeding stuffs in trials with sheep. Red clover hay : Sheep 1 . . ". Sheep 2 Average Tetch, fed green : Sheepl Sheep2 Average Hairy vetch, fed green, first saiii]ile : Sheep 1 Sheep 2 Average Hairy vetch, fed green, second sample Sheep 1 Sheep 2 Sheep 3 Sheep 4 Sheep 5 Average Crab grass hay : Sheep 1 *. Sheep 2 Average •Tohnson grass hay : Sheep 1 Sheep 2 Average Cral) grass hay and cotton-seed meal : Slieep 1 Sheep 2 SheepS Sheep 4 Sheep 5 ' Sheep 6 Average Dry Crude matter, protein. Per cent. 56.4 54.6 55.5 61.6 62.1 61.8 67.7 07. 2 78.5 73.9 75.8 7e.6 72.4 75.0 57.2 55.7 56.5 58.0 58.7 58.4 57.1 55. 4 58.7 64.8 60.1 02. 1 59.7 Per cent. 61.2 58. 1 59.7 71.2 71.7 71.4 82.7 79.6 81.1 88.5 85.8 85.5 86.7 85.2 86.3 55.7 54.6 55.1 38.8 37.4 38.1 61.3 56.8 58.8 62.3 64.7 67.8 01.9 Crude fat. Per cent. 50.9 45.9 48.4 57.2 60.0 58.6 62.6 70.9 66.7 81.2 79.5 76.9 81.6 75.6 78.0 52.0 49.8 50.9 37.9 36 4 37.2 48 0 47.9 56.9 64.6 58.8 63.7 56.6 Crude fiber. Per cent. 57.0 55. 1 56.1 45.8 42.5 44.2 54.8 51.8 53.3 68.6 65.7 70.3 64.1 68.3 58.1 61.3 59.7 72.1 74.8 73.5 62.4 62.6 61.4 08.5 62.8 6.5.5 64.4 Nitrogen- free extract Per cent. 59.3 58.6 58.9 74.8 77.4 76.1 75.0 81.5 78.2 83.0 77.0 80.1 82.1 78.8 80.2 58.9 57.1 58.0 58.6 59.9 59.3 59.4 57.7 60.8 68.0 62.5 64.2 62.1 Ash. Per cent. 34.1 31.4 32.7 17.2 17.5 17.3 45.7 48.9 47.3 55.4 49.5 47.3 50.6 44.6 49.5 32.2 2D.0 30.8 7.3 2.4 4.8 23.9 23.0 28.0 38.4 29.8 31.3 29.1 An experiment was also made with 2 lots of 5 and C sheep to test the relative digestibility of hairy vetch (fed green) and hairy vetch hay. The methods followed were in general those described above. The results are briefly summarized in the following table: Coefficients of digestibility of hair i/ vetch {fed green) and hairy vetch hay in trials with sheep. Hairy vetch, fed green : Sheep 1 Sheep 2 Sheep3 Sheep 4 Sheep 5 Average Hairy vetcli hay : Sheep 1 Sheei(2 SheepS Sheep 4 Sheej) 5 Sheep 6 Average Dry Crude Crude matter. . protein. fat. Per cent. Per cent. Percent. 66.5 79.4 66.3 68.9 81.8 69.1 65.9 79.8 65.7 06.8 80. C 70.4 72.2 83.7 74.5 68.0 81.0 09.2 69.1 81.0 69.8 69.2 82.3 74.0 69. 0 82.5 69. 7 68.0 81.8 69.9 71.2 83.2 09.4 69.2 83.2 69.3 69.4 82.3 70.3 Crude fiber. Nitrogen- free extract, Percent. Percent 59.7 62.5 59.4 02.1 65.5 61.8 61.1 61.4 60.6 60.0 63.0 60.4 61.1 69.0 73.3 69.6 68.1 73.2 70.6 72.8 71.4 73.0 72.4 75.1 72.5 72.9 Ash. Per cent. 41.6 30.3 33.0 35.4 46.6 38.5 43.1 42.8 45.6 34.0 46.3 41.8 42.2 512 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A tliird experimeut was made witb red clover hay to comi)are the relative digestive power of steers and sheep. Three steers and 5 sheep were used in this trial. Analyses are given of the amount eaten and digested and of the dung. "The excrement was collected by a detail of assistants, who remained with the steers constantly and used every precaution to prevent the excrement reaching the floor." The coefficients of digestibility for each animal are given in the fol- lowing table: Coefficients of digesUMlity of red clover hay in trials with steers and sheep. Dry matter. Crude protein. Crude fat. Crude fiber. Nitrogen- free extract. Ash. Steers : Ko 1 Per cent. 61.0 52.3 55.9 56.4 67.3 64.8 62.9 60.8 63.3 63.8 Per cent. 61.5 50.5 56.9 56.3 65.0 68.0 64.3 59.4 63.9 64.1 Per cent. 70.1 62.6 65.2 65.9 67.8 68.3 64.5 62.0 67.9 66.5 Per cent. 55.4 48.4 54.0 52.6 70.0 62.9 59.5 62.1 62.7 63.4 Per cent. 69.5 62.0 63.8 65.1 71.6 70.2 70.5 66.5 69.4 69.6 Per cent. 20.5 Uo 2 0 If 0.3 16.2 12.2 Sheep : No 1 41.0 jf o 2 36.5 If o 3 33.2 No. 4 30.4 Ko. 5 31.6 34.5 "The great variations in these results were undoubtedly due to the individuality of the animals. Steer No. 1 was in good health and readily ate all that was given him, and gained weight during the experiment. . . . The coefilicient of digestibility of Steer No. 1 we believe comes nearer representing the true relative digestive power of steers as compared with sheep." Report for 1895 of the agricultural station at G-embloux, Bel- gium, A. Petermann {Chem.Zfff., 30 {1896), Xo. 6I,i).037).—T\iis is a very brief account of the work done by this station during 1895. Among the things enumerated are studies on the composition of some fruit wines, the water in honey, the questions whether the chemicals used to sterilize excrements act injuriously on cultivated plants, the injuriousness of certain oil cakes, the warming and cooling of sandy clay soils, effect of the seed bed on the germination test, examination of peat rich in nitrogen, examination of glucose sirups, gummosis in sugar beets, and the composition of pumpkins. In most cases no accounts are given of the studies or results. The composition of pumpkins (not described) is given as follows: Water 91.83, fat 0.14, crude protein 1.15, carbohydrates 5.50, cellulose 0.94, and ash 0.44 per cent. The ash of pumpkins grown on a sandy clay soil contained 43.83 per cent of potash and 15 per cent of phos- phoric acid. The seeds contained in dry state 36.02 per cent of an edible oil, liquid at ordinary temperatures and similar to almond oil in taste. It is characterized by a refraction of 82 at 15.5° C, 73.3 at 30° C, and 70 at 37° C. The residue from the extraction of this oil is said to be an exceptionally fine feeding stuff' of high digestibility. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 513 The nutritive value of casein, Gr. Marcvsf. {PJiUger^s Arch. Physiol., 64{189G),Xo.5-6,i)i).223-2i8). — The author gives au extended review of the attempts made to determine the nutritive value of casein and reports a number of original experiments. The subjects were 2 dogs. Eight experiments were made in all. Six of these maybe divided into series of 2 experiments each. In series 1 and 2 a period on meat diet was followed by a period on casein. In series 3 the order was reversed. The amount of nitrogen consumed daily was practicall}' the same in each case. In experiments 7 and 8 casein and casein-calcium were fed. Fat and starch were fed with the meat and casein ; meat extract was generally added to make the food more palatable. With the casein a mixture of salts approximating milk ash was also fed. The water drunk was recorded. The feces were usually separated by feeding infusorial earth or sometimes small porcelain beads in capsules. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined. The urine was collected with a catheter. The results of the experiment are briefly summarized in the follow- ing table : Besults of feediny meat and casein. Food consumed daily. JOO gm. of meat with lard, starch, and meat extract.. 27 gni. of casein, with hird, starch, and meat extract. 100 gm. of meat with lard, starch, and meat extract.. 27 gill, of casein with lard, starch, meat extract, and sodium hicarbouate 27 gm. of casein with lard, starch, and salts 100 gm. of meat with lard, starch, meat extract, and sodium bicarbonate 30 gm. of casein, 9 gm. casein-calcium, with bacon, .starch, and salts 22.5 gm. of casein, 9 gm. casein -calcium, with bacon, sodium bicarbonate, and salts Ex- peri- ment No. Dura- tion TOri-' gen con. ilient. «--«d Total nitro- Days. 12 7 5 5 5 Gm. 44. 679 25. 863 18. 155 18. 660 17. 780 25. 007 67. 521 30.771 Total nitro- gen in urine. Gm. 51. 080 24. 276 18. 531 18. 302 17. 895 23. 634 59. 007 26. 472 Total nitro- gen in feces. Gm. 1.955 2.109 1.106 .747 1.167 .909 1.051 Gain (-f) or loss(— ) in nitrogen. Gm. —8. 356 — .522 —1. 482 — .389 — .787 + .206 -f7.605 +3. 248 The conclusion is reached that casein has the same nutritive value as the albumin in meat. Experiments on the nutritive value of the horse-chestnut, P. Gay {Ann. Agron., 22 {1S9(J), So. u, pp. 101-423). — By analysis and by feeding experiments with sheep, pigs, and a cow the following conclu- sions were reached : Horse chestnuts have a feeding value about 3 times as great as beets; cooking adds to their value; sheep and cows eat them readily; the quality of the milk is not aft'ected and it was consumed by calves without bad results; pigs do not relish horse-chestnuts. The formation of pentoses and their behavior in the plant and animal organism, K. Goetze and T. Pfeiffer [Landir. Vcm. Stat., 47 {1896), Xo. 1, pp. 58-93). — The authors made a number of experi- ments with oats, beans, and peas to find (1) at what stage of growth pentoses are formed, (2) the relation of pentoses to the formation of other substances, and (3) the influence of light on the formation of 514 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. pentoses. In the belief that pentoses were concerned in the forma- tion of hipi)uric acid a feeding experiment, divided into 4 periods, was made with a sheej). A basal ration of 1 kg. of alfalfa hay was fed. The experiment Avas preceded by a preliminary period of 8 days. In the first period (8 days) nothing was added to the basal ration; in the second period (10 days) 50 gm. of cherry gum (yielding arabinose) was added; in the third period (5 days) 100 gm. of pure arabinose; and in the fourth period (3 days) 11*0 gm. of pure arabinose. The total nitrogen and hipjiuric acid in the urine, and tlie pentoses in urine and feces were determined. The coefficients of digestibility of the pentoses were 44.6 per cent in the first period, and 54.3 per cent in the second period. The following conclusions were reached : The formation of pentoses begins with the growth of the plant, and the pentoses, analogous to true carbohydrates, may be used as a reserve material when plants are kept from the light and the power of assimi- lation is thus removed. The formation of pentoses is intimately con- nected with the formation of crude fiber, /. e]aivar<' St((. Bpt. 1895, p}}. 118-121, Jig. 1). — The author investigated the germicidal power of menthol, using in his experiments a spore- forming bacillus, Bacillus anthracis, and a nonspore form, B. coli communis. The cultures were made on agar slants. Anthrax spores were not killed after 11 days' exposure to menthol vai^or. The vapor prevents the formation of S])ores and repeated growth under the action of menthol vapor resulted in a degenerate form of sporeless anthrax in which involution forms predominate. Cultures from such sporeless forms will under normal conditions produce spores. The tests with Bacillus coli communis showed that menthol vapor does not appear to prevent or even check its growth. Tetanus or lockjaw in horses, A. T. Neale et al. {Delaware Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 51, 5,2). — A horse receiving a nail puncture in the foot suffered 5 days later from an attack of tetanus. He was treated to subcutaneous injections of the blood serum of a horse which had recovered from tetanus. At the end of 22 days the horse convalesced. It required 1 lb. of serum per 1,000 lbs. of live weight of the subject. The expense for the serum in this case was $50. Bovine tuberculosis, A. T. Neale et al. {Delaware /Sta. Bpt.l895j pp. 52-60). — Herd testing in Delaware is discussed, followed by remarks on tests of the efficiency of the tuberculin prepared at the station and on the question as to whether the effect of tuberculin on incipient bovine tuberculosis is curative. Under the latter head an instance is given of a Guernsey heifer 2 years old, condemned by the tuberculin test in 1893, which was subjected to repeated injections of tuberculin until she wholly ceased to respond and in 1895 was in excellent condi- tion, having been vaccinated in the meantime with attenuated anthrax virus. Tuberculosis, bacteriological work, F. D. Chester {Delaware Sta. llpt. 1S05, pp. 9S-llti, fuj. 7).— The method of preparing and test- ing tuberculin at the station is described in detail, lieef peptone 524 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. bouillon in sterilized flasks was inoculated with a culture of the tuber- cle bacillus and kept at 38 to 39° C. for G to 8 weeks. The culture flasks were then heated at 70° C. for 3 hours, the contents filtered, and the filtrate evaporated at 00° to one-tenth the original amount. This preparation was tried on cows with satisfactory results, but the effect on guinea pigs was not so encouraging. The milk of a tuberculous cow, with no external evidences of any tuberculous lesion of the udder, was fed to guinea pigs in the form of scum from the separator bowl, mixed milk and cream, whole milk, and whole milk sterilized 1 hour, from November 7, 1893, to January 2, 1894, with negative results. In an examination of about 30 samples of milk for tubercle bacilli the results were negative, except in one case, and the author says, "The simple apparent detection of tubercle bacilli [in the absence of a biological examination] is not sufficient ground for condemning a milk sample." In an examination of nodular cheesy matter from the lung of a cow no tubercle bacilli were found, but a guinea pig died of general tuber- culosis from an abdominal injection of this cheesy deposit. Weights of cultures of tubercle bacillus, C. L. Penny {Belaware 8ta. Bpt. 1895, p. 207). — The author separated and weighed the bacilli in 13 cultures made in the preparation of Koch's tuberculin. The sep- aration was made by means of Gooch crucibles i^acked with asbestus. The cultures had been made in 50 cc. glycerin bouillon and the weights obtained ranged from 0.1502 to 0.2806 gm., with an average of 0.1939 gm. On the toxic properties of molds, R. R. Dinwiddie {Arl-ansas Sta. Bui. 40, pp. 35, 36). — A 2-year-old colt was fed for 3 weeks about 12 ears a day of badly molded and worm-eaten corn along with hay. From January 3 to March 1 artificial cultures of molds on bran, mixed with dry bran were fed with good hay. No harmful results were observed. A second colt, after having eaten moldy corn for 6 Aveeks, was fed jjure cultures of Fenicillum glaucum for 5 weeks with no apparent ill effects. Experimental and clinical studies of Aspergillus fumigatus, A. Lecet (Becueil Med. Veterin., 1S9G, No. 16,i)p. 575-014). Notes on the nodes found in the lungs, caused by Actinomyces bovis, Micro- coccus botryogenus, Strongylus, Echinococci, and Aspergillus, J. T. Glennon {.Tonr. Comp. Med. and Vet. Arch., ISOG, No . 6, pp. 4i2-464). Concerning the physiological conditions for spore formation in the anthrax bacillus, H. BucHNER (Cenibl. Bait, und Far. Med., 20 (1S9G), No. 22-23, pp. 80G,S07). Bacteriological -work upon anthrax, F. D. Chester {Delaware Sta. Mpt.lS95,pp. 64-9S). — The writer discusses the bacillus and its detection, the vitality of the anthrax organism, the jjroper disposal of anthrax carcasses, and the preparation of atten- uated virus at the station. Under the last head are given in detail the experimental tests of the virus. Cerebro-spinal meningitis in horses, A. T. Neale et al (Delaware Sta. Ept. 1S95, pp^ 60-62). — This is a continuation of work published in the Annual Report of the VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. 525 station for 1893 (E. S. R., 6, p. 843). The investigation of an outbreak of cerebro- spinal meningitis near tlie station, and a test of oats from Pennsylvania said to have produced the disease, failed to P- 299-309). — This article treats at leugtli tbe composition and cliemistry of cows' milk and human milk, and the methods which have been sug- gested for treating cows' milk so as to make it more nearly resemble human milk in composition and general effect, dividing these methods into 11 groups. The author describes a new method devised by him- self, which consists in removing the cream from whole milk by sepa- rator and treating the skim milk with a mixture of rennet, trypsin ferment, and sodium carbonate at 40° C. for 30 minutes. This changes a part of the casein, giving 1.25 per cent of soluble albumen, and curdles the rest of the casein. The heat is then increased to check the action of the ferments, the curdled casein removed by straining, suffi- cient cream of the right concentration added to give 3.5 jjer cent of fat and 0.5 per cent of casein, and about 1 x>er cent of milk sugar is added. The preparation is then i^asteurized. The ferments used are sui)plied in powdered form, and it was found that mixtures of the rennet, trypsin, and sodium carbonate could be kept for several weeks without any i^articular detriment. The propor- tions of the mixture must be determined experimentally for the skim milk of different herds, so as to furnish the products (soluble albumen and casein) in the right proportion. The treatment diminishes the ash, but makes it nearer in amount to that of human milk. As to the digestibility of milk prepared in the above way, the trypsin whey gave the biuret reaction for peptones, while, as is well known, common milk contains no peptone; and a number of experiments with Stutzer's method of artificial digestion showed 91.5 per cent of the pro-^ teids in the prepared milk to be digested, on an average, while the average was 87.22 per cent of those in a cream mixture of like albumen' content, and 75.175 per cent of those in whole milk. However, there were quite considerable differences between the results of separate trials. The prepared milk has been tried on a large number of children with good success thus far,^and is being made at several creameries on a commercial scale. Report for 1895 of the municipal laboratory for examination of foods and condiments in Nuremberg, Kammerer {Chcm. Zttj., 20 {1890), No. 78, pp. 758, 759). — The examination of beers, butter, oleo. margarin, milk, vinegar, honey, flour, mineral waters, etc., are briefly reported upon. Fifty-two samples of butter were examined. The acidity of the butter ranged from l.GG to 21.4, and averaged 10.5; the acidity of the butter fat ranged from 1.08 to 20.75, and averaged 7.55; and the Kottstorfler saponification equivalent of the butter fat ranged DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 531 from L'20.7 to 232.C, averaging 225.3. The rauge of these samples in compositiou was as follows: liange in tomposition of butter samples. Highest. Lowest. Per cent. Per cent. 16.45 6.330 91.75 82. 160 3.74 .240 1.40 .030 .25 .035 Average. Water Fat Proteids... Milk sugar Ash Per cent. 9.920 87. 550 1.230 .530 .176 The high average acidity is attributed to the fact that a large proi)ortiou of the samples were conntry butter. The cause of the curdling of milk in thunderstorms, II. Gerst- MANN (Electrotech. Ztschr., 1896, p. 74; abs. in Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), JSFo. 37,1). J<^^)- — The statement is made that every flash of lightning causes an induction current in the milk, which decomposes the constituents soluble in water. The acid suddenly developed by this curdles the milk. In support of this view the rapidity with which milk often curdles is noted. No experimental evidence is presented. Studies on milk preservatives, J. B. Weems and W. H. Heile- MAN {loica 8ta. Bui. i>^^, pp. 499-501). — In numerous trials a 40 percent solution of formic aldehyde was compared with corrosive sublimate, l)Otassium bichromate, and no preservative. In each case 400 cc. sam- ples were used and varying amounts of the preservative formic aldehyde were used alone and mixed with methyl alcohol. The number of days before the samples curdled was noted and frequent tests were made with the Babcock test for fat. The latter showed no loss of fat due to the preservative. The results of the trials are tabulated. A summary is given below. "(1) From the above experiments there is reason to believe that 'formic aldehyde 40 per cent' promises to become a preservative for composite samples ; while indicat- ing that it has good preserving jiowers, it has in its favor the following facts: It is not poisonous, though it may l>e disagreeable if taken into the mouth in its strongest form. It is readily measured and handled. "(2) One cubic centimeter gives premise to be sufficient to preserve the usual quan- tity for the time that a composite 8ami)le is usually kept at ordinary temperatures, while 2 cc. insures the sample during very warm weather. "(3) The condition of samples with formic aldehyde 40 per cent appears to be much better for testing than those preserved by other substances. In some cases the casein appears to be less readily soluble in the acid, but this is during the tirst ]ior- tion of the experiment, while after keeping for some time this disappears and then there is a favorable comparison with the other samples." Milk testing, C. L. Penny {DeUdvare Sta. Fpt. 1895, j^P- 199-206).— The difl'erence between paying for milk by weight and by test is illus- trated by the record of a creamery in the State for the month of Decem- ber, 1894. In this the milk is valued at $1,034 per 100 lbs. and the fat at 532 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 27.3 cts. per pound. The amount to be paid each of tlie 49 patrons on the 2 bases is shown, together with the gain or loss from paying by test. "It appears that iu consequence of the change from the old basis to the new, or 'test/ basis, 31 persons gained, in the aggregate, $-18. 11; that 18 persons lost, in the aggregate, !f!48.45, and that the creamery pays practically the same aggregate sum for the milk received. The gains and losses fail to balance completely because of small fractions not counted. This means that over $48, or more than 4 per cent of the month's business, is taken from people to whom it is justly due and paid to people to whom it is not due. Many samples of milk are so near to the average 'test,' in this case 3.787 [per cent], that they neither gain nor lose materially. In the present instance one half of the persons gain or lose less than a dollar. Were all samples thus near the average it would make but little diiference on which of the 2 bases the payment •juight be made. But with the better or poorer grades of milk the difference becomes more considerable, in one case over 23 per cent of the true value of the milk." Eeference is made to the confusion which has arisen from expressing the result of the test in terms of butter in some cases instead of in fat. For instance, a sample of milk containing 4 per cent of fat is reported by one creamery as testing "400" and by another as testing "444." While in reality the tests are identical, the one being fat and the other butter, this is not understood by the producer, and it is often impossible for the station to say, when appealed to, whether the "test" is too low or too high because it is not defined and may mean either fat or butter. "Again, where the creamery reporting the test in butter offers 20 cts. per pound, the creamery reporting the test in fat can ofier 23 cts. per pound, and still actually pay a little less. . . . The test should uniformly designate the number of pounds of fat in 100 lbs. of milk." The author also points out 2 possible errors in operating the Babcock test, namely, inaccuracy in the calibration of the test bottles, and the temperature at which the fat column is measured. Out of one lot of 57 test bottles bought by the station, 28 bottles, or 49 per cent, were found to have an error greater than 0.1 per cent; and out of a second lot of 59 bottles, 25, or 42 per cent, had a similar error. "About 7 per cent of the entire lot had an error exceeding 0.2 per cent. These errors do not indicate carelessness on the part of the maker, as it is a difficult thing to attain greater accuracy without a considerable increase in the cost of manufac- ture; but they do show conclusively that the same customer's milk ought not to be tested repeatedly in the same bottle." As to the effect of the temperature at which tlie fat column is read off, the variations in the reading of a 4 per cent milk at temperatures from 15 to 100° C. are given, together with the excess or deficit at tem- peratures above or below 55° C. (131° F.), assumed to be the tempera- ture at which the fat is normally read ; and the results are i^resented of a number of trials showing the rapidity with which the column of fat in the narrow neck of the bottle cools off in the air. For instance, DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 633 with an initial temperature of 96° C. and a room temperature of 31° C. (87.8° F.), the column had cooled to 74° C. in 1 minute, to 60° in 2 min- utes, to 54° in 3 minutes, and to 42° in 6 minutes. " With somewhat rapid working a bottle might be taken from the steam centrifugal machine, where such is used, and read at SO'^ ; on the other hand the last bottle of a series of 10 or 20 might cool by standing down to 45°, or in cool weather lower. These extremes would make a ditt'ereuce in the results of 0.13 per cent, equivalent, if constant, to 47 lbs. of butter-fat or $9.40 on the yearly business assumed above — 36,000 lbs. of milk. Now this difference may easily be constant and doubtless it often is so. Where each person has the same bottle it is natural to read in a uniform order, so that out of the 10 or 20 bottles whirled at the same time the first bottle will usually be the first read and some other one will usually be the last read, according to the series. It is evident that this is a material injustice. It is to be obviated by reading the bottles in a uniform order, giving each person a ditTerent bottle for his successive tests." Butter flavor, G. L. McKay (Iowa iSta. Bui. 32, pp. 470-485).— Experiments were made during the winter to study tlie effect on the butter flavor of different methods of treatment of the cream, and of ripening the cream with diflerent kinds of '^starters." In the majority of cases the milk was that furnished by the i)atrons of the college creamery. This was separated at the creamery. The butter was made under well-delined conditions, and was scored by 2 or 3 persons on a scale of flavor 450, grain 300, color 100, salt 100, and package 50. In scoring the butter sent away from the station a somewhat different scale was used, but in stating the results these have been calculated to the above scale. In one series Conn's Bacillus 41 was compared with buttermilk as a starter, and in another series the same was compared with skim milk. The results of these trials are summarized below : Comparisons of Conn's Bacillus 41 with buttermilk and ski^n milk "starters." Starter. Acidity Tempera- ture of churning. Time oc- cupied in churning. Fat in butter- milk. Flavor of butter.2 Grain of butter.* cream.' McKiiy. Moore. McKay. Moore. Conn's Bacillus 41 35 34 34J 35 Beg. F. 56 56 55 .54 Minutes. 80 33 30 30 Per cent. 0.1 .1 Trace. .1 415 400 405 410 410 400 395 410 300 300 300 300 295 300 Conn's Bacillus 41 300 295 ' Cubic centimeters of deci-normal alkali required to neutralize 50 cc. of cream. 'On basis of 450 for perfect. 3 On basis of 300 for perfect. Several trials were made in which a starter of pasteurized cream was used in comparison with Bacillu.s 41, stirring the cream r8, uot iiuliuliug the writer, on the 7 lots where the acidity was from 36 to 38 and the cream ripeued at a temperature above 70 degrees [averaged], 47.28. "In 7 more lots of the same exj>eriment where the acidity ranged from 31 to 3.5, the average score by different scorers, on the same basis, was 44.5)2, or a difterence of 2.36 in favor of high acidity. During the latter part of the experiments, some of the butter was overworked to see if it would have any etfect on the llavor. Some lots were worked for 10 minutes witli no bad results, except injuring the grain. "It would seem from above experiments that the right degree of acidity largely governs the Havor of butter, all other conditions being favorable. "Another essential feature in making good butter is that the cream should be frequently stirred during the ripening process, as many of the lactic-acid gi^rms are ai;robic and require free oxygen. Where the cream is warmer than the surrounding atmosphere odors are given otf, where the cream is cooler odors are taken on. We have found the best results to be obtained by quick ripening with frequent stirring. Our high(!st flavored ])utter was produced when the acidity was about 37 and the cream ripened at a temperature above 70'-^. . . . "It was found when the cream was ripened to an acidity above 40 that it took on a bitter flavor. The same results were noticeable when the cream was ripened for a long period at a low temperature, without much stirring. Low temperatures seem to be favorable to the growth of germs that impart a lutter (lavor to cream." The Ennsthaler cow, F. Kaltkn'Ecgkr ( Wiener laiidw. Zhj., ISOU, Aug. 15; reprinted from Milch Ztg., 25 {1S9G), Xo. So, p. 555, fg. 1). 110G8— No. r, 7 536 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "Astor," a feeding stuff for cows, E. Pott (Oesterr. ATolk.Ztg., 25 (1S9G), Xo. 33, p. 523). — The coiistitueuts and the composition of this comiuercial feed are given, together with feeding trials-Avith several cows. The latter indicated that the material increased the How of milk, temporarily at least. Feeding of milk cows, J. Gesche {Rev. Arjron., 5 (1S9G), Xo. 1, pp. 42-50). — Experiments were made with milch cows to compare the ration ordinarily fed in the region, having a nutritive ratio 1 :8.1 with two other rations having a nutritive ratio 1 : 6.8 and 1 : 4.9. The ration with a narrow, nutritive ratio gave the most satisfactory- returns. The effect of "work or of motion of cows on their milk production {Milch Ztg., 25 {ISOG), No. 37, pp. 5S5, 586).— K review. The "Working of cows, O. Stillich {Die Arheit der Kiihe. Leipsic: Hugo Voigt, 189G, pp. 62; abs. in Milch Ztg., 25 {1S96), No. 34, p. 545). — A review of the literature on the effect on the yield and composition of the milk of using cows as draft animals, and an account of experiments on this subject with 2 cows. A new^ method for rendering cows' milk more similar to human milk, Back- HAUS {Milch Ztg., 25 {1S9G), No. 33, pp. 522-525). — A shorter account of the method described elsewhere (p. 530). The nature of the poisonous action of peptonizing bacteria in milk, A. Lub- BERT (Ztschr. Hug., 22 {1S96), p. 1 ; nhs. in Chan. Ztg.. 20 {1896), No. GG, Ilepert.,p. 207). Milk "vegetable," E. Spaeth {Fharm. Centralhalle, 17 {1896), p. 542; abs. in Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 78, Rcpert., p. 243). — Analyses of this commercial condensed product. The radiator vs. the separator of De Laval {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 25, pp. 393-395). The present status of the milk control in the principal cities of Germany, H. ScHitOTT {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), Nos. 38, pp. 601-604; 39, pp. G18-620 ; 40, pp. 634-637). Milk inspection {Diet, and Hyg. Gaz., 12 {1896), No. 12, pp. 774, 775). — In an arti- cle ([uoted from the Pacific Medical Jotirnal the need of thorougli inspection of cows and their surroundings is ])ointed out. Butter making in Australia {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 25, p. 395).— k descriptive article. Refrigerator storage rooms on E-tsamships for transporting butter {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 37, pp. 588, 580). The exportation of butter to China, C. Boysen {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), No. 35, pp. 553, 554). STATISTICS. Crop reports for September, October, and November, 1896 ( U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Statistics Jipts. {n. ser.) 141, pp. 7; 142, pp. 7; 143, p)p. 4). — These include the usual notes and summaries of crop conditions, with reports from the European agent. Crops and live stock in Ontario, 1896 {Ontario Bureau of Industries Bui. 60, pp. 16). Statistics of Ontario {Ontario Bureau of Industries Bui. 50, pp. 24). — Annual pro- duction 1891-'9.'i (with averages for 1882-'90 and 1882-95), of fall and spring wheat, barley, oats, rye, peas, buckwheat, beans, potatoes, mangel-wurzels, carrots, tur- nips, hay and clover, and corn; numbers and values of horses, cattle, slieep, hogs, and poultry; statistics of cheese factories, and data relating to farm in-ojierty, mortgages, and taxes. Proceedings of the ninth annual convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations {I'. S. Dept. Agr., Office of F.tperi- ment Stations Bui. 30, pp. 100, dgms. 5).— This is the proceedings of the convention STATISTICS. 537 hold at Denver, Colorado, July 16-18, 1895. In addition to the general bnsiness and discussion, the following papers arc- given : "Methods of instruction in teaching agri- culture,*' T. F. Hunt ; "Permanent elements in experiment station work," A. C. True; "What studies should he embraced in the four-year Bachelor of Science course?" A. Ellis; "How shall we teach horticulture?" W. R. Lazenby; "The distribution of salts in alkali soils," E. W. Ililgard; "Some undefined duties and methods of sta- tion horticulturists,"' F. W. Rane; "Cheese-curd iutiatiou : its relation to the bacte- rial flora of foremilk," H. L. Bolley; "Form, size, arrangement, and treatment of plats in field experimentation," W. C. Latta; "Methods of plat experimenting," "\V. M. Hays, and "Late progress in soil analysis," E. W. Hilgard. An account of this convention has already been given (E. S. R., 7, p. 169). Index of Alabama College Station bulletins (Alahama College Sta. Index, Vols. II, pp. 20; III, pp. 24). — These contain subject lists of the 58 station bulletins issued between July, 1888, and August, 1894, and a combined subject and author index to the matter therein contained. Report of treasurer of Delaware Station, 1895 (Delaicare Sta. lipt. 1S05, pp. 4, ■'>). — A financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 80, 1895. Report of the chairman of Minnesota Station, 1895 (Miinie'tota Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. IV-XIJ'). — This includes a list of the bulletins issued during the year, remarks on general progress of station, and a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Report of director and treasurer of Mississippi Station, 1895 (Mississippi Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 1-G). — This includes a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, and report by the director indicating lines of work pursued and giving a list of the bulletins issued by the station during the year. Fifth Annual Report of Washington Station, 1895 ( Washington Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 29). — Reports by director and heads of departments and a financial report for the fiscal year ending .June 30, 1895. The imperial agricultural-chemical experiment station at Vienna, W. Beksch {('hnn. Ztg., 20 {1806), No. 03, pp. 010-018, figs. 3). — Plans and description of the new station bviildiug. Sixty-eighth congress of the Association of German Naturalists and Physi- cians {('hem. Ztg., 20 {1S90), Xos. 78, pp. 757, 758; 79, pp. 765-707 ; 80, pp. 7S1-790; 81, pp. 791-801 ; 82, pp. 805-811 ; S3, pp. 821-823 ; 84, pp. 839-847).— A. quite full account is given of the proceedings of the various sections of this association at the meeting at Frankfort on the Main, September 21 to 26, 1896. The following papers, among others, were read: The results of new investigations on upland moor soils — (1) effect of the water content on the yield, (2) relations of phosphoric acid in such soils, and (3) effect of deepening the surface soil on the yield and the lasting effect of manur- ing, by Dr. Tacke; Results of eight years' experience with the green manuring sys- tem without cattle, by G. Dehlinger; Dependence of moss and me.'ulow moors on the lime supply of the subsoil, by Drude; New observations iu vegetation experiments, by Wilfarth; Some recent investigations concerning soil inoculation with pure cultures of tubercle bacilli for culture of legumes, by F. Nobbe (see p. 469); Pres- ervation of blood with molasses by the method of Friedrichs and Claussen in Copen- hagen, by H. Fresenius ; The advantages of raw goat's milk as food for children, by O. Schwartz; A simple method for the determination of zinc in foods, by .Tauke; The importance, production, examination, and inspection of Hungarian wines, by Bein; Importatice of salts in nutrition, by Kiippe; Investigations on the determina- tion of the fat content of milk, by H. Fresenius (satisfactory test of Babcock and Gerb(;r methods in comi)arison with gravimetric); and Determination of boric acid, by Schneider. NOTES. Alabama College. — A biological siirvey of Alabama has been organized and put in operation. The survey will be carried on nuder the auspices of the college, and will be made by sjiecialists at that institution in the various lines of biological investigation. It will have for its object the study in tield and laboratory of all plants and animals occurring in the State. In connection with the survey an exchange bureau has been founded, from which duplicate 8i)eciniens of plants and animals (especially insects) will be distributed. Correspondence relative to this work should be addressed to the Alabama Biological Survey, Auburn, Alabama. Arizona Station. — M. G. Samaniego, of Tucson, has been appointed a member of the board of control of the station, vice J. G. Hilzinger, of Tucson. Harry G. Wolfgang, of Leetonia, Ohio, has been made foreman of the grounds at Tucson. California Station. — A. V. Stubenrauch has resigned the foremanship of the Paso Robles substation and has been appointed clerk to the director at Berkeley in place of William Winterhalter, resigned. Farmers' institutes aie being held at 50 localities in the State during the months of December to March under the ausi)ices of the College of Agriculture. Dr. J. H. C. Bonte, secretary of the board of regents of the University, died on November 24, 1896. Georgia Station. — The station is about to undertake investigations and experi- mental work in irrigation, beet culture, and swine breeding and feeding. The necessary buildings for the latter purpose will soon be provided. The work of this station has been in progress nearly 8 years, with but one change in the staff, and that was caused by a death. South Carolina Station. — W. J. Quick has been elected professor of agriculture in the college and agriculturist of the station. Vermont Station. — D. H. Howe, farm superintendent, has resigned to take effect February 1, 1897, and Cassius Peck, of Brooktield, has l)eeu elected as his successor. 538 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, KDITEI) BY A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director, E. W. Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director — Chemistry, Dairy Farming, and Dairying. W. H. ]?EAL — Meteorology, Fertilizers (including methods of analysis). Soils, and Agricultural Enginee^uug. Walter H. Evans, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants. Horticulture. F. H. Hall— Field Crops. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. F. C. Kenyon, Ph. D. — Entomology. With the cooperation of the scientific divisions of the Department and the Abstract Committee of the Association of Ofticial Agricultural Chemists. CONTENTS of Vol. VIII, No. 7. Editorial note : Report to Congress on the work and expenditures of the experi- ment stations 539 Tenth annual convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, W. H. Beal 541 Recent work in agricultural science 559 Notes 638 SUBJECT LIST OF ABSTRACTS. CHEMISTRY. A new method for the determination of ses(]uioxids in phosphates and super- phosphates, von Grueber 559 Solubility of phosphates in citric acid and ammonium citrate, O. Foerster 560 Natural and industrial pho-sphates: III. The insoluble residue, H. Lasne 560 The determination of phosphoric acid in potable water, C. Lepierre 560 The determinati(m of albumen in cows' milk, L. L. Van Slyke 560 Potassium chromate as a milk preservative, J. Froidevaux 561 Analyses of ores and minerals, M. B. Hardin 563 Report of chemical division of Rhode Island Station, H. .1. Wheeler 563 Rejiort of the chemist of South Carolina Station, M. B. Hardin 561 BOTANY. Fertile crosses of teosinte and maize, J. W. Harshberger .563 Inlluence of nitrogen on root lormation, H. Miillcr-Thurgau 564 The role of bacteria in the nutrition of insectivorous plants, N. Tiscluikin 564 I II CONTENTS. METEOROLOGY. Page. The climate of Geneva, New York, P. Collier 567 Meteorological report, 1895, Khode Island Station , N. Helme 567 WATER — SOILS. Analyses of water, H. J. Wlieeler 574 Analyses of waters, M. B. Hardin 574 Alkali, B. C. Buffiim 568 Investigations on the water capacity of the soil, R. Ulrich 569 A contribution to the study of nitrification, Marcille 569 Nitrilication, E. Golde wski 569 Forestry -meteorological observations, E. Wollny 570 The recognition of the acidity of upland soils and its bearing upon agricultural practice, H.J. Wheeler, B. L. Hartwell, and G.M.Tucker ' 571 Further observations for the purpose of determining in how far the results secured in a soil test with a given plant are applicablfe to others, H. J. Wheeler and G. M. Tucker 571 North Dakota soils, E. F. Ladd 572 Soils from Kamerun, Senegambia, and German East Africa, and an improvefl method of soil analysis, F. Wohltmanft and H. Kratz 573 A hrief discussion of the cultivated soils of Courland and Livonia based on examinations made by the Riga Polytechnic Institute, C. Thorns 573 Texture of some important soil formations, M. Whitney 574 The climate of Geneva, New York. Soil temperature observations, P. Collier. 573 FERTILIZERS. The sources and cost of fertilizing materials, C. E. Thorne, J. F. Hickman, and W. J. Green 584 The home mixing of fertilizers, C. E. Thorne, J. F. Hickman, and W. J. Green. 584 The value of the manure from animals fed on linseed meal, H. Snyder 575 The so-called " natural-plant food "' a soft phosphate, A. D. Selby 575 The role of sulphate of iron, Coste-Floret 575 Ammonium thiocyanate as an impurity in ammonium sulphate, H. J. Wheeler and B. L. Hartwell 575 Field experiments with fertilizers, C. E. Thorne, J. F. Hickman, and W. J. Green 576 On the substitution of soda for and its value in connection with. potash, H. J. Wheeler and G. M. Tucker 579 Further observations upon the growth of various plants upon an upland acid soil before and after liming, H. J, Wheeler and G. M. Tucker 580 Experiments with various kinds of barnyard manure alone and compared with nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and urine, ^laercker 581 Comparative action in granitic soils of dift'erent phosphatic fertilizers on the cultivation of potatoes, G. Battanchon 581 Commercial fertilizers, P. Collier and L. L. Van Slyke 582 Fertilizer analyses, R. C. Kedzie 584 Analyses of fertilizers and fertilizing materials, M. B. Hardin 584 FIELD CROPS. On the relative growth of common sorrel {Eumex acetoscllay and clover upon an upland acid soil before and after liming, C. O. Flagg, H. J. Wheeler, and G. M. Tucker 584 Indian corn experiment, C. O. Flagg and G. M. Tucker 585 Crimson clover, F. W. Rane 586 The draft of flax on the soil and the compositiou of flax soils, H. Snyder 586 CONTENTS. in Pace. Forage crops, J. F. Hickman 587 Forage plants ' 587 Small grains, L. Foster 588 Legnnunous and other plants grown without and with different quantities of nitrogen 588 Experiments on permanent grass in Gloucestershire, 1896 588 The residual value of manures applied to the hay crop, as shown in the effect ou a second hay crop, R. P. Wright 589 Exjierimeuts on the manuring of oats in 1895, R. P. Wright 590 Report ou experiments on the manuring of turnips in 1895, R. P. Wright 591 Report on the composition of turnips, J. Hendrick 592 Residual value of manures applied to the turnip crop in 1893, as shown in the etiect on an oat crop in 1891, R. P. Wright 593 Experiiuents with wheat, C. C. Georgesou, F. C. Burtis, and D. H. Otis 594 Wheat experiments, 1895-'96, G. E. Morrow 594 Farm crops, C. O. Flagg 595 Exi^eriraeuts in planting at difterent distances, J. Raulin 595 HORTICULTURE, Trial of 4-inch cast iron and lA-inch wrought iron pipes for the circulation of hot water in forcing-house heating, L. F. Kinney and G. E. Adams 597 Analyses of mushrooms 600 Composition of melons, W. Berscli 597 Fertilizer experiments with pot plants, H. Miiller-Thurgau 598 Variety test of apples, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock 600 Variety test of pears, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock 601 Pollination of j)lums, F. A. Waugh 598 Strawberries, R. L. Watts 600 The fertilization of flowers in orchards and vineyards, especially in its relation to the production of fruit 601 Fruit growing in Oklahoma, H. E. Glazier ^ 601 Report of horticultural work, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock 602 FORESTRY. Timber pines of the Southern United States, C. Mohr 602 Notes ou the structure of the wood of the Southern jjines, F. Roth 604 Tree culture, C. B. Waldron 604 DISEASES OF PLANTS. Experiments for the prevention of potato rot, J. Hendrick 606 Bordeaux mixture, its use in the potato field, L. F. Kinney 605 On the prevention of smuts, L. Foster 606 Club-root experiments, J. R. Campbell 606 Poach rosette, E. E. Bogue 607 Pea( h yellows and l)lack knot, A. D. Selby 607 Report of horticultural work, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock 608 Legal enactments for the restriction of plant diseases, E. F. Smith 607 KN'TOMOLOIIV. The laying of a queen 608 The army worm in New Hampshire, C. M. Weed 608 Notes on the recent invasion of the army worm, V. H. Lowe 609 Tile tent caterpillar, C. M. Weed 613 Iklelon louse, E. E. Bogue 613 IV CONTENTS. Page. A Lecaninm scale infesting plum trees in western New York. V. H. Lowe 613 The San Jose scale, F. M. Webster 613 The palmetto scale, T. D. A. Cockerell 609 Dactylopius or mealy hugs, T. D. A. Cockerell 603 Biologj' of the cockchafer 610 lusects injurious to stored grain and cereal products, A. L. Qiiaintance 610 Some Mexican and Japanese injurious insects liable to l)e introduced into the United States 610 Eeport of entomologist, T. D. A. Cockerell 611 Annual report of the zoiilogist for 1896, C. Warburton 611 An emulsion for chicken lice 612 Practical entomology, A. D. Hopkins and AV. E. Rumsey 612 Bibliograiihy of the more important contributions to American economic ento- mology, S. Henshaw 614 FOODS — ANIMAL PROinC'TION. Dietary studies at Purdue University in 1895, W. E. Stone 614 Composition and digestibility of linseed meal, H. Snyder 615 Analyses of bean straw, stalks, and pods 623 Sugar in cornstalks 623 The food value of corn scorched by hot winds, G. L, Holter 615 Analyses of feeding stuffs, M. B. Hardin 623 On the influence of the addition of fat and of starch to the ration upon the assimilation of nutrients and upon the metabolism and gain of nitrogen in the animal body, A. Wicke and H. Weiske 616 On the influence of the addition of increasing quantities of fat to the ration upon the metabolism and gain of nitrogen in the animal body, A. Wicke and H. Weiske 617 The distribution of nitrogen in meat, Salkowski and Geiske 618 The protein compounds of muscle plasma, von J^iirth .• 619 Relation of sex in thoroughbred calves, P. Collier 619 Sheep-feeding experiments with different nitrogenous feeding stuffs with and without the addition of salt, E. Wolff, J. Mayer, Sieglin, and Kreuzhage . .. 620 Sheep-feeding ('X])erinients with molasses, Ramm 621 Experiments with geese, S. Cushman 622 VETERINAKY SCIEXCE AND PRACTICE. Crimson clover hair balls, F. Y. Coville . = . = . 623 Charbon, or anthrax, S. B. Staples and W. H. Dalrymple 625 Distemper in horses and mules, W. E. A. Wymau 625 Founder in horses, W. E. A. Wyman 625 Red water in cattle, W. E. A. Wyman 625 Texas cattle fever, W. M. Miller 625 BoviiiB tuberculosis in North Louisiana, W. C. Stubbs. S. B. Sta|)les, and W. H. Dalrymple 625 Tuberculosis in cattle, E. A. A. Grange 625 The application of tuberculin in the suppression of bovine tuberculosis, B. Bang 624 Tenth and Eleventh Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry 626 DAIRY FARMING AND DAIRYING. Investigations on the effect of the seed of common vetch on milk secretion, W. J. Quick 626 CONTENTS. V Page. Cattle feeding. W. P. Wheeler 634 Winter foediug experiments with dairy cows, F. B. Liufield 627 Comparison of diftereut breeds of dairy cows with reference to the production of cheese, L. L. Van Sly ke 635 Dairy herd record for 1894-'95, F. B. Linfield 628 Some points from feeding milch cows, P. Collier 629 A preliminary bulletin on the pasteurization of milk, C. D. Smith 630 The testinjj of rennet preparations, and the curdliug of milk with cheese reia- net, A. Devarda 630 Dairyman's report, J. W. Hart 633 The investigation of different breeds of dairy cattle, P. Collier 634 Suggestions on the building and equipment of creameries, F. B. Linlield 636 Building creameries and organization of cooperative creamery companies, J. M. Trueman 636 STATISTICS. Reports of treasurer and of director of New York State Station, 1894 636 Reports of the director and treasurer of Rhode Island Station, 1895 636 Eighth Annual Report of South Carolina Station, 1895 636 Sixth Annual Report of Utah Station, 1895 636 Index to Wyoming Station bulletins 636 The world's market for American products, Sweden 637 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. Experiment Stations in the Ignited States: Florida Station : Bulletin 36, October, 1896 610 Kansas Station : Bulletin 59, August, 1896 594 Louisiana Stations: Bulletin 43 (second series) 625 Bulletin 44 (second series) 625 Massachusetts Hatch Station : Bulletin 41, August, 1896 624 Michigan Station : Bulletin 133, June, 1896 625 Bulletin 134, June, 1896 630 Bulletin 135, July, 1896 584 Minnesota Station : Bulletin 47. July, 1896 575, 586, 615 Montana Station : Bulletin 10, June, 1896 588,606 Nevada Station: Bulletin 31, December, 1895 625 New Hampshire Station: Bulletin 37, July, 1896 586 Bulletin 38, August, 1896 613 Bulletin 39, September, 1896 608 New Mexico Station: Bulletin 19. April, 1896 611 New York State Station: Bulletin 104 (new series), July, 1896. 609 Thirteenth Annual Report, 1«94 ' 560, 5(57, 573, 582, 600, 601, 602, 608, 613, 619, 623, 629, 634, 635, 636 VI CONTENTS. Experiment Stations in the United States — Continued. North ];)akota Station : Page. Bulletin 24, June, 1896 572 Bulletin 25, September, 1896 604 Ohio Station: Bulletin 70, April, 1896 587 Bulletin 71, April, 1896 576,584 Bulletin 72, August, 1896 607, 613 Oklahoma Station : Bulletin 20, June, 1896 594, 601, 607, 613, 615 Ehode Island Station : Bulletin 38, June, 1896 605 Eighth Annual Report, 1895 563, 567, 571, 574, 575, 579, 580, 584, 585, 587, 588, 595, 597, 622, 636 South Carolina Station: Bulletin 25 (new series), June, 1896 625 Bulletin 26 {new series), September, 1896 625 Sixth Annual Report, 1895 561, 563, 574, 584, 623, 633, 636 South Dakota Station : Bulletin 46, February, 1896 636 Tennessee Station : Bulletin, Vol. IX, No. 2, July, 1896 600 Utah Station : Bulletin 43, May, 1896 627, 628 Sixth Annual Report, 1895 636 Vermont Station : Bulletin 53, August, 1896 , 598 West Virginia Station: Bulletin 44, April, 1896 612 Wyoming Station : Bulletin 29, July, 1896 568 Index Bulletin A, July, 1896 637 United States Department of Agriculture: Division of Agricultural Soils: Bulletin 5 574 Bureau of Animal Industry : Tenth and Eleventh Annual Reports, 1893 and 1894 626 Division of Entomology : Bulletin 4 (technical series) 610 Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American Eco- nomic Entomology, V 614 Office of Experiment Stations : Bulletin 32 614 Section of Foreign Markets: Bulletin 8 637 Division of Forestry : Bulletin 13 602, 604 Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology: Bulletin 11 607 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Vol. A^III. No. The Secretary of Agriculture recently transmitted to Congress a report on the work and expenditures of the agricultural experiment stations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 189G. Tliis report, prejiared in this Office under instructions from the Secretary in accordance with the act of Congress making* appropriations for this Department, con- tains brief statements and statistics regarding the work and expendi- tures of each of the stations. The following paragraphs, taken from the introduction to the report, may be of interest, especially in connec- tion with the account of the convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations given in this number of the Record. The general causes which have hitherto weakened the operations of our stations have of course still continued to work to tlieir disadvan- tage, and will undoubtedly hamper them more or less in the years to come. There have, however, been many encouraging indications during the past year that clearer notions of the proper functions of experiment stations as organizations for the apidication of scientific research to the practical needs of agriculture are beginning to prevail, even in quar- ters where hitherto there has seemed to be the most misapprehension regarding their rightful work. As new officers are ai)pointed in the stations, there is a closer scrutiny of tht'ir previous training and experi- ence as related to the work they are expected to undertake. lu secur- ing chief officers to plan and conduct the more important researches there is a growing competition to have the best men. While this is bringing into bolder relief the scarcity of the thoroughly competent material for this purpose, it is stimulating the ambition and activity of station officers, who can now more confidently look forward to a rea- sonable degree of success if their efforts in agricultural research are strenuous and well directed. We can thus hope that the ranks of well- trained and efficient administrators and investigators will more speedily be filled. There are evidences that the wisdom of concentrating the work of individual stations on a few subjects which can be thorouglily treated is being more deeply impressed on station managers. During the ])ast year the establishment of substations, to be supported with tlie national funds, has been st()i)ped, a number of those already organized have been closed, and arrangements are being made to withdraw from others 539 540 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. as fast as the best interests of the work will permit. On the other hand, through the liberality of State legislatures and local conmiunities, some stations have been enabled to wisely extend their operations on the basis of adequate financial support, and in general it may be said that the stations are striving to find out what are the most important agricultural needs of their respective regions which can be aided by scientific research, and are directing their efforts toward supplying these needs in a broad way and for the good of the greatest number. It is also gratifying to note that the necessity for i^ermanency in the personnel and operations of the stations is being more generally recog- nized. In some places, it is true, during the past year radical reorgan- izations of the station staffs have occurred. Here and there changes have apparently been due to political influence or to an unreasonable spirit of restlessness more difficult to account for. These, however, are manifestly the weak spots in our station system. The stations Avhich are doing good work and accomplishing the best results are holding steadily to the lines of work which they have marked out, and are changing their forces only as necessity or good and sufficient reasons compel. As the stations where vacillating policies prevail fall more distinctly behind their fellows, it is to be expected that local pride and the demands of an awakening public spirit will compel a readjustment of their affairs on a proper basis. On the whole, the station enterprise in this country has enjoyed a year of i)rosperity. Its work has been regularly pursued, new fields of use- fulness have been occupied, much helpful knowledge has been acquired, and a great mass of useful information has been broadly disseminated. On all sides we hear of increased demands from the farmers for the information which the stations have to give. Station officers are con- stantly being urged and tempted to interruj)t the search after new truth in order that they may set forth more clearly and systematically in the language of the people the results of previous investigations in the realm of agricultural science in this country and abroad. It is more necessary now than ever before to urge that the stations be left to carry on their legitimate work of research. As the investigations of the sta- tions develop in thoroughness and complexity, there is increasing danger of failure and disappointment if they are interfered with or diverted. We are glad to be able to say that thus far the station workers have been able to extend their inquiries year by year, while at the same time they have in large degree met the demand for immedi- ately practical information. That the benefits of station work are realized by increasing numbers of our farmers is well shown in the general disposition of the States and local communities to supplement the funds given by the National Government. Wherever stations are doing thorough work there is a rising tide of popular support for their enterprises, and we may confidently expect a greater development of this movement iu the not distant future. T1:\TII AXXUAL CONVEXTIOX OF THE ASSOCIATIOX OF AM1:RICAX a(;ricultural C0LLE(;FS AXD EXPERniF.XT STATIOXS. w. ir. beal. Office of Experlmcnl Stations. The tenth anuiial convention of tlie Association of American Agri- cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations was held at Washington, D, C, November 10-12, 1890. About 140 delegates and visitors were present, representing 38 States and Territories, the Department of Agriculture, and the Dominion of Canada. The States and Territories not rei)resented were Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, Montana, Oklahoma, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming. The convention was called to order by the president, S. W. Johnson, of Connecticut, and i)rayer was offered by 11. H. Jesse, of Missouri. The report of the executive committee, submitted by the chairman, H. H. Coodell, of Massachusetts, reviewed briefly the work of the committee during the year and made a number of recommendations which are noted later in this account. The treasurer's report was submitted by J. H. Washburn, of Rhode Island. This showed a balance in the treasury of the Association of $475.45. The dues for the next year were fixed at $10 for each member of the Association. In the absence of the chairman of the section on college work the report of that section was submitted by the vice-chairman, J. E. Stubbs, of Nevada. In this report it is maintained — "(1) That the higher education, so called, has become absolutely essential to the prosperity and welfare of those who choose agriculture as a business or life calling. . . . "(2) That the interest in athletic sports, such as football, baseball, and tennis, in our colleges, though but incidental to the life and work of these institutions, has nevertheless au ethical and thereby an edu- cational value which is worthy of high regard." (3) That the correlation of the subjects of instruction and discipline in colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts is based upon the same pedagogic principles which obtain in the college courses usually termed liberal. The entrance requirements and number of courses offered in the dif- ferent institutions are summarized from replies to a circular of inquiry : "Out of 46 colleges reporting, 30 have preparatory tlejiartments, 1(^ Lave no sub- freshniau classes. In these preparatory schools 10 colleges have a one-year course, 641 542 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, 8 have a two-year course, 6 Lave a three-year course, 1 has a four-year course, and 5 are indefmite, merely reporting a sub-freshman class. . . . Institutions which have no preparatory departments are chiefly the universities in the wealthy and populous States where there are first-class high schools in all the cities and towns. In the newer and less populous States a well-equipped preparatory school of high- school grade with courses of studies covering a period of 3 or 4 years is a necessity and will continue to he a necessity for many years to come." C. C. Georgesoii, of Kansas, preseuted a report from tlie section on agriculture aud chemistry, in wliicli lie summarized tlie replies to a circular of inquiry sent to the dilferent agricultural institutions of the United States regarding education and experiments in agriculture and chemistry. The data obtained indicate that <'03 per cent of the insti- tutions which have agricultural courses in their curricula gave instruc- tion in agriculture and agricultural chemistry in their restricted sense to 3,888 students during the past year." The 38 experiment stations replying to the circular reported the employment of 153 workers in agriculture, 8!) of whom are superin- tendents or directors and 6t assistants, 100 performing college duties in addition to station work. These 38 stations employ 107 workers in agricultural chemistry, 47 of whom are superintendents or chiefs and 60 assistants, 47 having college work in connection with the station work. A summary of the lines of work pursued at the diU'erent sta- tions was also given. The rej)ort of the section on horticulture and botany was submitted by F. W. Card, of Nebraska. Attention was called to the lack of systematic courses of instruction in horticulture in the institutions represented in the Association. Reports from these institutions indi- cate that horticulture is often taught simply as a business, not as a science. Station work has been devoted mainly to the growing of fruits and vegetables, largely variety testing, although some attention has been given to plant breeding, greenhouse construction and management, the propagation of plants, and crossing. There is a marked tendency, however, to make variety testing and similar work incidental rather than a main feature, and a review of experimental work of the year indicates that the stations are covering a much broader field than formerly and that there is a growing appreciation on the part of the public of these horticultural and botanical investigations. The report of the section on mechanic arts, by J. W. Lawrence, of Colorado, discussed the character of the courses offered in the various institutions represented in the Association. These were found to vary from those scarcely better than the courses ottered in some high schools to those requiring a iirst-class school training for admission. Many institutions which undertook to raise the courses have been forced to lower them because of the insufficient preparation of students applying for admission, and have attemi)ted to ])artially overcome the difficulty by the introduction of i)reparatory and sub- freshman courses. It is insisted that the greatest advantage from the courses CONVENTION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. 543 oflfered in tlie colleues rei)resented by the Association is obtained by students who have had a broad general education. The attendance on the mechanical courses is good as compared with that in tlie other departments when separate and distinct courses in mechanic arts are l)rovided. That this separation is desirable is being increasinyly appreciated, and there is an evident tendency to raise the course to the highest grade and admit only well-trained students, lieports from the diftereiit institutions indicate that the courses are generally being strengthened, equipment improved, and attendance increasing. Experimental laboratories are being introduced. In the annual address of the president, S. W. Johnson, the extent and importance of agricultural education and experimentation were pointed out and progress nnide in these lines was reviewed. It was stated tliat the work of American experiment stations is on the whole " not less efficient and not less useful than that of the Old World.'' The importance of adapting the work to those who are to be immediiitely benefited is insisted upon. "Our duty ia to aim as high as possible without overshooting- the mark. We can not succeed with instruction that is too purely disciplinary, because our constitu- ents will not relish it. Neither will success bo attained by the cramming process. The young pupil and the parent must be brought to see that profttable education demands first of all enlargement of mental capacity as an essential prerequisite to extensive acquisitions of knowledge, and that if a man is well exerci.sed and devel- oped in all around intellectual athletics, his appetite, his digestive and assimilatory powers may be fully trusted to iiud abundant nourishment and to make rapid and healthy growth." The speaker advocated some familiarity with the dead languages as a preparation for scientific studies, and commended the introduction of shorter courses in agricultural colleges. He claimed that the teacher should always be a student and if possible an investigator. "Just as in our colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts we should be careful at the outset to fit discipline and instruction to the actual needs of the students, so in tlie experiment stations Ave ought at first to give prouunence to those lines of work which our constituencies can most plainly see are to them directly useful, are in fact to them indispensable." The advantage which the investigator derives from the support of a highly educated constituency and from the introduction of elements of l)ermanency in scientific research was illustrated by the successful work of the German investigators. "I would urge the younger scientists of our colleges and stations to place them- selves, if for but a few months only, under the influence of the great European teachers, and I hold it to be a most wortliy use of any fund that maj' be available to send college teachers and station workers abroad to gather inspiration and finish at the Old World shrines of science. Considered as mere tools our chemists, botanists, and all who adopt coll"ge and station duty as life work arc worth sending to be sharpened, adjusted, and polished where that business has been transacted longest and most efficiently." Tlie adoption of a uniform system of publications to be strictly fol- lowed by all the stations was advocated. The confusion that results 544 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. from the systems of issuing publications followed in some of the sta- tions was clearly brought out and means by wliich they may be sim- plified were explained. The following recommendations of the executive committee were adopted : (1) That the Association calls the attention of all concerned to the limitations of the franking privilege granted experiment stations. The law is explicit, providing only for the franking of bulletins and college reports containing the annual reports of stations. Great care should he observed by station officers not to abuse this valu- able privilege so very necessary to the work of the stations. (2) That the chairman of the section and the editors of the proceedmgs of the convention be constituted a committee to pass on the papers from each section, and that the Department [of Agriculture] be urged to print the papers recommended by this committee. (3) That the station directors drop from their mailing list the names of workers in other stations and depend entirely upon the list furnished at Washington, sending for a fresh copy at the time of issuing each bulletin. ' (4) In view of the large and increasing nvimber of measures which are introduced in Congress affecting the interests of the colleges and stations, and the frequent lack of cooperation among those interested concerning such measures, whereby the influ- ence of the Association and the interests it represents are liable to be materially weakened, the committee respectfully recommends that institutions members of the Association and their officers refrain trom advocating measures affecting the interests of all until such measures shall have been considered and approved by the Association. (5) That hereafter no committee acting under the appointment of this Association shall incur any expense without the specific authority of the executive committee. A committee, consisting of G. W. Atherton, of Pennsylvania; A. Q. Holladay, of North Carolina; and H. n. Goodell, of Massachusetts, was appointed to wait on the War Department and adjust relations between it and the colleges. Consideration of the formation of a j)ermaneiit section on irrigation was postponed until the next convention. A brief report was submitted by the committee on indexing of agri- cultural literature, appointed at the last convention. In view of the incompleteness of the work and the extensive field to be covered the membership of the committee was increased to 5, and it was instructed to continue the work. The committee consists of A. C. True, of this Ofiice; W. M. Hays, of Minnesota; the librarian (W. P. Cutter) of this Department; H. P. Armsby, of Pennsylvania, and E. Davenport, of Illinois. The report of the bibliographer was submitted by A. C. True, accom- panied by a list^ of 1,450 books and pamphlets on agriculture and the associated sciences which have appeared within the last four years. By a resolution offered by G. E, MacLean, of Nebraska, the executive committee was authorized to take steps looking to the adoption by Congress of the metric system of weights and measures. The amendment to the constitution offered by II. P. Armsby at the 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Circular 31. CONVENTION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. 545 last meetiug of tlie Association, to the effect that "no delegate shall vote in more than one section and each delegate Shall when presenting his credentials designate the section in which he intends to vote,'"' was indeti- iiitely postponed. A report from the special committee on seed testing of the section on horticulture and botany was presented by G. ^McCarthy, of North Caro- lina. He reviewed the advance nnide in seed testing in recent years and called attention to the prevalence of fraud in the seed business. A new form of bacteriological oven, well adapted to use in the germina- tion of seeds, was described. The German methods of testing seeds were declared to be quite satisfactory, and the standards adopted by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Il^orth Carolina Station were claimed to have been used with good results. The impor- tance of uniformitj^ of methods in this country was strongly urged. The ibllowing memorial, signed by 37 station directors, was presented: The imdersiiijned directors of American experiment stations, recogniziuij the bene- fit to be derived to agriculture from an improvement in the quality of seed merchan- dise and by enabling seedsmen to offer a guarantee of specified quality, request the Association to appoint a committee of experts in seed testing to devise and adojit a standard form of seed-testing apparatus and method of procedure for use in all American stations which shall hereafter publish seed tests, to the end that all such ■work shall be strictly comparable and that seedsmen may guarantee the quality of their seeds according to the official methods. Said committee to report at the next annual convention. The following committee was appointed by the president to take charge of the matter: E. H. Jenkins, of Connecticut; G. H. Hicks, of this Department; G. McCarthy, of IS^orth Carolina; F.W. Card, of Nebraska, and W. li. Lazenby, of Ohio. (See p. ooG.) A resolution was adopted which recommended a revision to date of the Handbook of Experiment Station Work' and the incorporation in it of summaries of the investigations of this Department, and which set forth further that "there is, in the judgment of this Association, great need of a general index of the publications of the Department, and as the preparation of such an index would almost necessarily pre- cede the niaking of summaries of the Department publications for the Handbook, it is hoped that it will be practicable for the Department to at once undertake the preparation of this index." The question of the uniform indexing and consecutive paging of sta- tion publications was referred to the executive committee, which was instructed either "directly or indirectly, by proper reference to commit- tee, to consider it during the year and report at the next convention such method as may seem practicable." The privileges of the floor were granted to J. Hamilton, Deputy Sec- retary of Agriculture of Pennsylvania, who addressed the Association on the need of a systematic and complete course of instruction adapted to the use of farmers, and embracing the latest and best infornmtion ' U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Exi)eriment Stations Bui. 1.5. 646 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. witli regard to their occupation. He suggested that the Secretary of Agriculture be requested "to consider the advisability and propriety of arrangiug for the editing, under the direction of tbe National Depart- ment of Agriculture, of such a series of books as the necessities of our farming interests seem to require." The suggestions of this paper were referred to a committee of three, consisting of 0. W. Dabney, jr.. Assistant Secretary of Agriculture; W. H. Jordan, of New York; and W. A. Henry, of Wisconsin, to report at the next convention. A progress report of the committee on methods of teaching agricul- ture was presented by A. 0. True, of this Office, as secretary of the committee. As the result of a preliminary study of data collected by the committee from the agricultural colleges throughout tlie country, it appears that "there exists at present in this country no standard for instruction in agriculture. There is a bewildering variety as regards the topics taught, the time devoted to each toj^ic, the order in which the different toi)ics occur in the course, the relative amounts of class- room work and laboratory or practical exercises, etc." To afford a basis for further discussion of this matter the committee proposed a tentative scheme for the division of. what is commonly des- ignated agriculture in courses of study into several distinct branches or subdivisions, and for giving each of these branches a definite name, as follows: '1. Agronomy, or agricul-|' Climate, soils, fertilizers, and crops — tare (technical). { phint production. , Zoiiteebny, or animal in-J Animal physiology and animal pro- dustry. \ duction. Agrotechuy, or agricul-| Agricultural industries, e.g., dairying, Agriculture..-^ tural technology. 1 sugar making. Rural engineering, farmf -r. i i • • • i- ^ j- mechanics, or" iarm Roads, drains irrigation systems, larm ,' buildings, etc. equipment. [ =" ' Rural econimiy. or farmf Geueralpolicy of farm management, ru- mauagement. [ ral law, agricultural bookkeeping,etc. Accompanying the report' were papers on " Some features of Euro- pean institutions for agricultural education," by A. C. True, and "Agri- cultural education in the Scandinavian countries," by F. W. Woll. C. S. Murkland, of New Hampshire, submitted the report of the com- mittee on entrance requirements, courses of study, and degrees, which was ordered i^rinted. The principal conclusions of this report may be summed up as follows : (1) That two series of entrance requirements, a standard series and a minimum series, be approved by the Association. As a standard series of entrance requirements, to be adopted as soon as possible, ■we recommend the following: Physical geography; United States history; arith- metic, including the metric system; algebra, to quadratics; English grammar and composition, together with the English requirements of the New England Associa- tion of Colleges and Preparatory Schools ; plane geometry; one foreign language; one of the natural sciences ; ancient, general, or English history. 'The report and accompanying papers have been published as Circular No. 32 of this Office. CONVENTION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. 547 From a careful exaiuiiiatiou of the catalogues wo believe it to be practicable, either now or in the near future, for these institutions to unite in requiring as a uiiuiiuum for ailinission to their lowest collegiate class: I'liysical geography; United States history; arithmetic, including the metric system; algebra, to quad- ratics; English gnunniar and composition, together with the English requirements of the New England Association of Colleges and I'reparatory S(diool8. (2) That approximately 15 hours be devoted to recitations or lectures each week, for 3G weeks eacli year; that 10 hours laboratory work or practicums be addeorted in analyses of feeding stufis, and the second reports the deter- mination of galactan in 48 samples of coarse fodder and concentrated feeding stufts and seeds. This investigation reveals two facts — "(1) that galactan is not nearly so generally distributed as the pentosans, and (2) that it occurs more particularly in leguminous plants and seeds, the non-leguminous jdants being comparatively free." Other papers presented were "Irrigation for Eastern agriculturists," by F. W. Rane, of ]Srew Hampshire, "Imi^rovements in laboratory methods of teaching agriculture," by T. F. Hunt, of Ohio, and "Im- provements in and further tests of the laboratory methods for teaching agriculture," by C. S. Plumb, of Indiana. SECTION ON HORTICULTURE AND BOTANY. In the section on horticulture and botany G. E. Stone, of Massachu- setts, read a paper on "Physiological botany in agricultural colleges," in which the development of American botany was discussed. The author claimed that physiological botany is the fundamental basis of agriculture and horticulture, and should follow a comprehensive course in histology. The normal functions of plants must be known in order to recognize many diseased conditions and discover means for their prevention. The author thought physiological botany should have a wider field in the curriculum of every agricultural college and that wherever possible the experiments should have a i^ractical bearing. The discussion following the reading of this paper brought out the fact that while less physiological botany is taught than was considered desirable, yet the importance of the study is fully appreciated. A paj)er on the "Place in the curriculum of botany, time, phase or phases of work, and relation to other subjects," by L. H. Pammel, of Iowa, was read by the temi)orary secretary, F. S. Earle. The author outlined the botanical course of the Iowa Agricultural College. No botany is required for admission, but it is provided for in required and elective courses, covering a considerable period of the college course. The use of text-books for teaching elementary botany was advised. Laboratory work should be kept under the guidance of assistants or those in charge, and the economic features should be kept in the fore- ground, while not neglecting the training value of the subject. The teaching of industrial horticulture in agricultural colleges was 556 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. outlined by S. 0. Mason, of Kansas. The author thought tliat indus- trial horticulture offers great advantages in that it gives manual train- ing and presents unusual opportunities for teaching by advanced students. Such a course should be preceded by some botanical work. The horticultural course in the Kansas Agricultural College was outlined. The paper on "Laboratory methods in horticulture," by E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin, was read by the temporary secretary. The author out- lined the course provided in the University of Wisconsin and gave in detail the laboratory work and implements used. L. 0. Corbett, of West Virginia, read a paper on " Systems of note taking in experimental horticulture.'' A modification of the loose-slip method of note taking was shown which was claimed to have the advantages of a permanent form for filing and convenient size and shape for field use. The books are so constructed as to admit of the insertion of new slips. The discussion following the paper disclosed about as many systems of note taking as there were persons taking part in the discussion. A paper by E. G. Lodeman, of New York, on the "Position of botany in horticultural education," was read by L. C. Corbett, in which it appeared that the author considered systematic botany of little impor- tance in horticulture except from a theoretical standpoint. The other fields of botany were given very slight consideration. Upon motion of L. C. Corbett, of West Virginia, a committee was appointed to consider the question of providing a bureau of plant reg- istration. The committee appointed consisted of L. C. Corbett, of West Virginia; W. A. Taylor, of this Department; L. 11. Bailey, of New York; F. S. Earle, of Alabama; and C. H. Shinn, of California. The objects of such a bureau were stated to be (1) to prevent duplication of names and the renaming of old sorts; (2) to form a national herbarium of economic plants; (3) to simplify nomenclature; (4) to aid the student of varieties and variation under cultivation, and (o) to secure to the originator his discovery as is now done for the inventor. It was gen- erally considered that such a bureau should be attached to the Division of Pomology of this Department. The section appointed a committee on seed testing, consisting of G. McCarthy, of North Carolina; F. W. Rane, of New Hampshire; and G. H. Hicks, of this Department, which was made a subcom- mittee to the one appointed in general session of the convention (see p. 545). SECTION OX ESTOMOLOGV. The sessions of the section on entomology were opened with the dis- cussion of the need of better legislation against injurious insects in the difterent States (see p. 548). The matter was referred to a committee of three consisting of W. B. Alwood, of Virginia; L. O. Howard, of CONVENTION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. 557 this Department, and W. (r. Johnson, of MaryLind, wlio reported the following resolutions: Whereas in cousidoration of the recent alarmiujf spread of the 8au Jos«' scale in the Atlantic and Middle States, and the further fact that we believe its suppression can only be accomplished by carefully framed laws, which should be enacted in the several States: Therefore be it Jiesolved, First. That the section of entomology of the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations indorses the principle of special leg- islation for the suppression of this pest. Second. That a committee of ten be created, with Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, as chairman, which shall carefully prepare such memoranda as they deem best in relation to legislation deal- ing with the pest, and when so prepared this matter shall be submitted to the authorities of the several States concerned for such action as the legislatures thereof may choose to make. Third. That it is the sense of this section that State inspection for the control and prevention of the dissemination of this i)est upon nursery stock is imperative. In a paper entitled "Notes from Auburn, Alabama," C. F. Baker gave a record of observations on various insects injurious to crops in that region during the past season. F. A. Sirrine, of New York, read a paper on "Termites {Termites flavipen) as a forcing house pest," in which he noted the damage done by these insects to chrysanthemums in a forcing house at Floral Park, New York, during August, 1896, and by Epitrix cneumeris to j^otatoes, and described experiments on the effect of burying the cocoons upon the vitality of Melittia ceto. In a paper entitled "Experiences with white muscardine and the chinch bug," W. G. Johnson, of Maryland, gave a review of observations and experiments on this subject, summarizing with the statement that he recognized the fungus as a facultative parasite and a slight natural reducing agent of insects, but beyond this experience did not lead him to claim for it any economic value whatever. The experience of W. B. Alwood and O. Lugger tended to confirm tbe conclusions of this paper. W. B. Alwood, of Virginia, in a paper on the "Dissemination of the San Jose scale in Virginia," reviewed the history of the dissemination of this insect in that State and reported progress made under State law in its repression. W. G. Johnson, of Maryland, reviewed the present status of the San Jose scale in Maryland and gave a brief account of attempts to rej^ress it. He expressed the opinion that the pest could never be completely suppressed on account of its wide distribution and firm foothold in that State, but could be kept in check by persistent and energetic fighting by a thorough and harmonius State organization on the part of the nurserymen and fruit growers. A paper on "Economic entomology in North Carolina," by G. McCarthy, noted the prevalence and destructiveness of various inju- rious insects occurring in that region during the past year. 558 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A paper on " Some results of recent studies of grass feeding Jassi- dje," by H. Osborn and E. D. Ball, gave more or less detailed notes on some 34 members of this family of insects and discussed methods of repression. It was shown that while the loss from these insects must be enormous, they may to a great extent be destroyed by the use of a tar pan or hopper-dozer. Up to the present time, however, our knowl- edge of the life histories of the species involved has been too meager to furnish a certain basis for remedial measures. The paper gave the results of studies of the life history of a number of species, the range of their food i^lants, especially in the larval state, and the study of the specific limits of a large number of species. A paper on "The use of steam apparatus for spraying" was read by L. O. Howard. After describing a number of machines devised for this purj)ose since 1882 the opinion was exiiressed that such apparatus will seldom be constructed by the owners of even large orchards for their own individual use, but that for community orchard work they are valu able and will come more and more into use. They will prove most valuable, perhaps, for spraying shade trees in cities and large towns. SKCTIOX ON MECHANIC ARTS. In the section on mechanic arts the first paper read was one by E. Kidwell, of Michigan, entitled " Requirements for the proper govern- ment of an educational institution." This paper i)rovoked sharp dis- cussion, the criticisms of governing boards of these institutions being vigorously combated. A paper on "Some lecture-room experiments in lubrication "was read by A. Kingsbury, of New Hampshire. It was illustrated by means of apparatus and diagrams. Other papers presented were "The engineering laboratory in its rela- tion to the public," by W. F. M. Goss, of Indiana; " Some road tests with a bicycle dynamometer," by C. A. Perkins, of Tennessee; "The mechanic arts in the schools of the South," by H.C Powers, of Florida; "Shop training in its relation to engineering courses," by L. S. Ran- dolph, of Virginia; "Education in mechanical engineering and the arts," by R. H. Thurston, of New York. A report on the efforts made to promote the passage by Congress of the bill establishing engineering experiment stations was submitted and discussed. RECHXT WORK IX AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. CHEMISTRY. A new method for the determination of sesquioxids in phos- phates and superphosphates, von Geiieber {Eine nene Methode/iir die Bcatimmnngen dcr tScsquioxyde in Phosphaten und Superphosphaten. Goslar: J. Jdyer c(; Sohn, 1896, pp. 7; Ztsclir. angew. Chem., 1896, N'o, 24, pp. 741, 742). — It is stated ou the basis of a number of analyses reported that the Glaser method for the determination of sesc^uioxids iu jihosphates is sufficiently reliable for ordinary purposes, but it has the disadvantage of not distinguishing between the oxids of iron and alumina. To overcome this objection the author proposes the follow- ing method: Mix 10 gni. of crude phosphate or superphosphate in a porcelain dish with 150 cc. of water and 20 cc. of concentrated hydro- chloric acid, cover the dish with a watch glass, aiul warm in a water bath until the ])hosphates are dissolved. Evaporate to dryness, take up with hydrochloric acid and water, warm until redissolved, and wash into a 500 cc. flask. When cool fill the flask to the mark, mix thor- oughly, and Alter off aliquot parts for the determinations. For the determination of alumina, heat 50 cc. of the tiltrate (corre- sponding to 5 gm. of substance) iu a 200 cc. flask, add 20 per cent sodium hydrate solution until a slight precipitate appears, then add 30 cc. of the soda solution, heat to boiling, and allow to stand for 10 minutes in a warm jjlace, with frequent shaking. Cool, All the flask to the mark, shake thoroughly, and filter off 100 cc. of the solution into a beaker. Acidulate this solution slightly, heat to boiling, add a slight excess of ammonia, and boil again. Filter off the phosphate of alumina, wash thoroughly, dry, ignite, and weigh. Multiply the weight of sub- stance obtained by the factor 41.8. For the determination of iron, place 100 cc. of the hydrochloric acid solution in a 250 cc. flask, add some pure zinc, a little dilute sulphuric acid, and allow to stand about 1 hour in a warm place in order to reduce the iron oxid. Cool, fill the flask to the mark, and filter oft" 50 cc. of the solution into a beaker containing 50 cc. of 20 per cent sulphuric acid and 200 cc. of water, and titrate with permanganate solution. A second, third, and even fourth titration may be made in the same solution. Determinations are reported which show that the method gave results closely agreeing with the theoretical percentages in a phosphate 559 560 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of alumina of known composition. The sum of alumina and iron shown by this method was somewhat lower than that given by direct deter- mination in the Glaser method. This is explained by the fact that in the Glaser method no account is taken of the difference in molecular weight of the iron and aluminum oxids in calculating the results of analysis. Solubility of phosphates in citric acid and ammonium citrate, O. FoERSTER {Glieni. Ztg., 20 [1890), No. 103, pp. 1020, 1021).— It has been generally observed that calcium phosphates as well as aluminum and iron.x)hosphates are more soluble in ammonia-free citric acid than in ammonium citrate. This has also been observed in the case of slags, and is ascribed especially to the presence of iron and alumina phos- phates. These general conclusions were confirmed by the author in examinations of tricalcium and tetracalcium phosphate, iron phosphate, alumina phosphate, and 8 samples of Thomas slag, the results of which are reported. In only two cases did the slag show a greater solubility in ammonium citrate than in iiure citric acid. It is suggested that the unusual results in these two cases may be explained by variations in the conditions of solution and in composition of the dissolved matter. It is proposed to make this the subject of further investigation. Natural and industrial phosphates : III. The insoluble residue, H. Lasne {Ann. Ghim. Analyt., 1, p. 207; ab.s. in Analyst, 21 [1890), Sept., p. 216). — The residue from the hydrochloric acid solution is cal- cined and silica driven oft" with hydrotiuoric acid, the residue being recalciued and weighed. The new residue is dissolved in sulphuric acid and tested for alumina, alkalies, phosphoric acid, titanic acid, and zirconium, the presence of the latter indicating the origin of the.iihos- phate. Barium should also be looked for, its presence indicating adul- teration with plaster of Paris. The determination of phosphoric acid in potable Avater, C. Lepierre [Bui. Soc. Cliim. Paris, 15-16 {1896), No. 23, pp. 1213-1217, Jigs. 2). — It is maintained that the method in which the phosi^horic acid is determined by weighing the phosphomolybdate is unreliable on account of the solubility of this compound. A method based on the color of a nitric acid solution of the phos- j)homolybdate is proposed as follows : Evaporate 1 liter of the water to dryness in a platinum dish, with the addition of nitric acid, and heat to separate silica. Take up in dilute nitric acid and evaporate to dry- ness again to eliminate the last traces of silica. Moisten with nitric acid and filter the solution, washing the filter until the filtrate amounts to 50 cc. Add 2 cc. of molybdic solution and compare the coloration, in the cold, with that of standard solutions of phosphomolybdate, pre- pared by adding molybdic solution to water solutions of phosphate containing from 0.1 to 25 mg. of phosphoric acid. For exact work the temperature should be in all cases about 30° C. The determination of albumen in cows' milk, L. L. Yan Slyke [Neiv York State Sta. Bpt. 1894, pp. .522-526).— In the Annual Ileport of CHEMISTRY. 561 the Station for 1893 (E. S. K., 0, p. 960) a description is given of the deteiniination of casein in milk. In the method here described for determining' albumen tlie filtrate from the determination of casein with acetic acid is digested in a boiling water bath until the albumen coag- ulates and settles to the bottom, leaving the supernatant liquid clear. Ten or 15 minutes is said to usually sutiiee for this. The nitrogen is determined iu the washed precipitate by the Kjeldahl method, and the amount of nitrogen multiplied by the fiictor 6.25 gives the albumen. To determine the eftect of continued digestion, trials were made in which the solution was digested for from 5 minutes to 10 hours. The conclusions from these trials were as follows: "(1) In one case lieatiug for 5 minutes gave low results; in two other cases, good results. "(2) Iu general, the results varied little with increased length of time of heating. "(3) There was a slight tendency to higher results with increased length of heat- ing, bnt such increase was more or less irregular and at most amounted to only 0.002 or 0.003 per cent of nitrogen. "(4) It would, therefore, appear that entirely satisfactory results can be obtained by heating the solutioii containing albumen under the given conditions for 10 or 15 rainntes, while au increased length of time of heating does not practically change the results. "It may be stated that the precipitate formed always filters readilj' and washes easily." A brief summary is given of the method employed by the author for the separation and determination of the different nitrogenous com- pounds of cows' milk based on the method as described. Potassium chromate as a milk preservative, J. Froidevaux {Jour. Fharm. et Chint., ser. 6, 16 (ISOd), pp. 155-158 ; abs. in Analyst, 21 {1896), ^^oi\,x>. ^^<55).— The author finds that at least 0.2 gm. of neutral potassium chromate per liter is necessary for preserving milk apprecia- bly, and this amount gives the milk an abnormal color. For the detec- tion of chromates in milk the method of Denigos (addition of 1 cc. of 2 j)er cent silver uitrate to 1 cc. of milk) is satisfactory where over 0.01 gm. per liter is present. The following method is preferred: Dis- solve the ash from 10 cc. of milk in a few drops of water acidified with nitric acid, neutralize with magnesium carbonate, and add silver nitrate (preferably a 20 per cent solution). Another test given is as follows: Dissolve the ash from 10 cc. of milk or water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and add tincture of guaiacum little by little. An intense blue color which rapidly disappears is produced when chromates are present. The reaction is said to detect 0.02 to 0.03 gm. of chromate per liter. Report of the chemist of South Carolina Station, M. B. Hardin {South Carolina l^ta. lipt. 1S05, pp. 51-6.!). — Analyses are given of cottonseed meal, "brewery feed,'' "corn chops," sugar beets, sweet potatoes and millet seed for starch, acid phosphate tloats, Pamunkey phosphate, Florida i)liosphate, muriate of potash, suli)hate of potash, kainit, mixed fertilizers, water, phosphate rock, wood ashes, ores, and minerals. 562 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Four samples of sweet potatoes contained in the dry substance 52.3, 56.28, 63.69, and 67.12 per cent of starch. Two samples of millet seed contained in the dry substance 53.76 and 70.75 per cent of starch. With respect to the analyses of commercial fertilizers, the analyses of which are not given, the statement is made that — "Twenty-three of the 206 samples, or 11.16 per cent, are below guarauty. "These results show an improvement in the commercial fertilizers on onr market; for while the manufacturers have in some cases made lower guaranties this year the average percentages of fertilizing ingredients actually found this year are for the most part higher than those of last year. The only marked exception is in the case of cotton-seed meal, in which the average of ammonia is somewhat lower. "It should be added that all fertilizers of last year which fell below guaranty in any ingredient were classed as 'deficient,' while for this year only three are 'defi- cient' under the present law, which requires only that the commercial value based upon results of analysis shall not fall 3 per cent below the commercial value based upon guaranty." The action of phosphorus on platinum, A. Granger (Compt. Rend., 123 {1896), No. 26, pp. 1284, 12S5). The estimation of potash by the Caruot method, E. Goutal {Ann. Chim. Anahjt., 1, pp. 89-91; abs. in Analyst, 21 {1896), Aug., p. 216). A ne^w reagent for asparagin, L. Moulin {Jour. Pharm. et Chim., ser. 6, 16 {1896), p. 543; ahs. in Anah/st, 21 {1896), Dec, p. 332). The estimation of starch in sausage, F. Mayrhofer {Forsch. ii. Lebensmtl. und Eyg. Client., 3 {1896), Xo. 13, pp. 429, 430). A color reaction for peanut oil, A. Van Engelen {Bui. Assn. Beige, 10 {1896), pp. 161, 162; ahs. in Analyst, 21 {1896), Oct., p. 258). Examination of the oil of linseed cake, B. A. Van Ketel and A. C. Axtlsch {Ztschr. angew. Chan., 1896, pp. 581-583; ahs. in Analyst, 21 {1896), Nov., p. 299). Measurement of rancidity of fats other than butter, A. Scala {Staz. Sper. Agr, Ital, 28, p. 733: ahs. in Analyst, 21 (1896), Nov., p. 298). The detection of borax in butter, Planchon and Vuaflart {Jour. Pharm. et Chim., 1896, pp. 49-51; ahs. in Analyst, 21 {1896), Nor., p. 286). Detection and estimation of sodium bicarbonate in milk, L. Pade {Ann. Chim. Anahjt., 1, p. 328; ahs. in Analyst, 21 {1896), Nov., p. 286). Detection of formic aldehyde in milk, C. Deniges {Bui. Soc. Pharm. Bordeaux, 1896, July, p. 212; aha. in Ann. Chim. Analyt., 1, p. 316; and Analyst, 21 {1896), Nov., p. 285). Value of various chemicals for preserving milk -which is to be kept a long time for investigation, ,J. Klein {Milch Ztg., 26 {1896), No. 47, pp. 745-748).— Aa a result of trials of a large number of preservatives the author recommends ammo- niacal copper sulphate. From 0..5 to 1 per cent is added to the milk, which is well shaken. Where possible the milk should be tested within a mouth. For keeping milk a short time the copper salt of formalin is recommended. Detection of foreign coloring matters in red -wines, A. Belar (Ztschr. analyt. Chem., 35 (1896), p. 323; ahs. in Analyst, 21 (1896), Nov., p. 289). The determination of free lactic and succinic acids in -w^ines, J. A. Muller (Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, 15-16 (1896), No. 23, pp. 120.3-1206). Lactic acid in Algerian -wines, J. A. Muller (Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, 1.5-16 (1896), No. 23, pp. 1210-1213). The detection of nitric acid in -wine, E. SiLZ (Rev. Chim. anal, appliq., 4 (1896), p. 477 ; ahs. in Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 104, Repert., p. 314). Estimation of phosphoric acid in medicated -wines, F. Glaser and K. MOhle (Chem. Ztg., 20 (1896), No. 75, p. 723; ahs. in Analyst, 21 (1896), Nov., p. 292). Optical analysis of urine and the exact determination of proteids, glucosids, BOTANY. 563 and unfennentable saccharine substances, F. Laxdoli'u {Covipt. llend., 123 {1S96), Xo. ..'C, pp. 1301, 1302). Analyses of ores and minerals, ^I. B. Haudix (South Carolina Sia. Ilpt. 1895, p. 62). — Kxaminatioiis of 3!) sainples of gold, iron, and other ores are briefly reported. Report of chemical division, 11. J. Wheeler {Tlhodc I.slainl Sta. Bpt. 1S95, pp. 287-293). — This ineludes statements regarding the fertilizer insjiection in the State, tests of methods of determining potash, field and pot experiments, correspondence, etc.; and tabulated analyses of 25 samples of fertilizing materials, including fine- ground kieserite, Epsom salts, dissolved phosphate rock, slag meal, lloats, dissolved bone black, tankage, leather, dried blood, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, double superphosphate, fine-ground bone, wood ashes, limekiln ashes, muriate of potash, carbonate of potash, air-slacked lime, land plaster, muck, and clay. BOTANY. Fertile crosses of teosinte and maize, J. W. IIaeshbeegee, [Garden and Forest, !) [ISOd), Xo. 462, j)p. 532,533). — An account is given of the probable origin of Zea. canina described by Watson.^ This plant, which is known in Mexico as 2Iaiz do Coyote, Teodnthc, Asese, or Cafe de Tabasco, is said to be tlie result of crossing Euchlicna mexicana and the common maize. The author quotes correspondence from prom- inent Mexican scientists who have investigated the subject, in which it is stated that the Zea canina may be produced by planting teosinte and maize at distances of about 80 cm. and removing the staminate flowers from the teosinte, allowing the pistillate ones to be fertilized by th6 pollen of the maize. A detailed account of the effect of this process is given as follows : "When teosinte is crossed with maize by the use of maize pollen the hybrid progeny of the first generation shows a shortened branch in the axil of a leaf with 3 or 4 ears clustered together and surrounded by leaves which are commonly called husks. These ears resemble very much those of teosinte, in that they are 2-ranked, with the kernels in the hardened depression of an enlarged zigzag rhachis, which shows the beginning of a cob-like axis, on which, in this case, the grains are disposed in a distichous manner. The kernels are larger, sharp-pointed, and protrude between the chatly scales (glumes) from the cup-shaped depression of the axis, which is, in this case, shallower than in teosinte. The outer glume, which is hard in teosinte, becomes larger and softer in the hyln-id progeny. The axis is still firm, glossy, and chitinous. The second year maize pollen is again used to cross with the hybrid plants of the first generation. The result of this cross is a ibrm of ear in which the kernels are larger, fuller, and more rounded, while the corneous basin-shaped depres- sion has become smaller and more shallow. The kernels in this generation are usually arranged in a distichous manner. The third year pollen of Indian corn is again used, and the resulting ears are found to differ in the increase of the number of rows of grains, 4 or more being present; tlie pithj' axis, or cob, now becomes demarcated, and is seen when the ear is broken transversely. The plants of this year and of the fourth are evidently those described by Professor Watson under the name of Zia canina." This hybrid was considered by the author, in his botanical and economic study of maize published in 189-4, as probably the primitive form of our cultivated maize. . ^ ' Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 26, p. 158. 564 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Viewed in the li^lit of these cross-breeds or hybrids it may be con- sidered (1) that maize is generically and specitically a distinct plant; (2) that it owes its origin to a crossing of teosinte, as one of the parents, with pollen of an extirpated closely related grass, and that the progeny of this cross by variation under cultivation produces ears of considera- ble size with kernels of great nutritive value, or (3) that it is a result of a cross between teosinte and a race or variety of that plant i)roduced by successful cultivation of the wild plant until its characteristics as a variety or race have become fixed. The author thinks that if we consider Indian corn to have arisen as a cross-breed or hybrid, the appearance of many of the teratological forms frequently found in cultivation will be explained. In conclusion, it is thought that the wild ancestor of maize is teosinte; but if this view is not accepted, the fact that the two plants may be crossed and produce fertile progeny shows that they are united by very close relatipnshii). In a supplemental note ^ the author states ihat W. Trelease reports corn smut, which is commonly believed to confine its attacks to maize, as growing parasitically on teosinte. Influence of nitrogen on root formation, H. Muller-Thurciau {Jahresher. Vers. iSta. WiidensH-eil, 4^ pp. 48-52; ahs. in Bot. Gentbl., 68 (1896)^ No. 9, p. 298). — The author reports upon a series of experiments on the effect of nitrogen on the secondary roots of common vetch, red clover, grapes, maize, sunflower, gDurds, beans, alfalfa, and Lathyrus superbus. The ijlantlets were grown for a short time in distilled water, after which 2 of each kind were placed in vessels. One was fed with a normal nutrient solution, while the other was given the same solution except that there was no nitrogen present. In every experiment the effect of the nitrogen was the same. In the solutions containing nitrogen the secondary roots made a more vigorous growth and were much more abundant. There also appears to be a direct and an indirect influence of the nitrogen supply. All the grow- ing parts while richer in nitrogen are able to form more protein and the root system being more developed conveys more material to the other parts of the plants. The author believes his experiments show the ability of roots to form albuminoids. The role of bacteria in the nutrition of insectivorous plants, N. TiSCHUKiN {Acta. Hort. Fctropol, 12; ahs. in Bcv. Mycol, 19 (1897), No. 73, pp. 18, 19). — The author believes that bacteria play a very impor- tant part in the digestion of albuminoid substances in these plants. His conclusions are as follows: Albumin is not dissolved by the plant juices in the especially differentiated receptacles, but by the microor- ganisms, principally bacteria, abounding in the liquids. These organ- isms are always found present in the normally developed plant juices of the insectivorous plants. The dissolution of albumin begins only when the microorganisms are sufficiently developed and abundant. ' Garden and Forest, 10 (1897), No. 467, p. 48. BOTANY. 565 The name "insectivorous" sliould be applied to plants capable of absorbing the material i>repared lor them by the lower organisms, the role of the plant being that of a secretor of juices adapted to the nutrition of niicroiirganisms. The survival of the unlike, !>. H. Bailey [New York: The Mncmillan Company, lS9ti, pp. .'il'i, Jhju. :.'l). — This volume consists of a collection of 30 essays on evolution, su.iigested by the study of domesticated plants. All of them have hitherto appeared as addresses before horticultural and other scieutiiic bodies, or as special articles contributed to various publications. Although prepared and delivered at various times extending o\'cr a period of nearly 4 years, their ultimate collection was con- stantly in mind, so that there should be a sort of continuity to the whole. As the author states, there are necessarily repetitions, but such do not detract from the work as a whole. The motive underlying the collection of essays is that of unlike- uesa. According to the author, heredity is an acquired force, and normally unlike produces unlike. He maintains that unlikeness in plants is ''(1) the expression of ever-changing environmental conditions in which plants grow, and of the incidental stimuli to which they are exposed; (2) the result of the force of mere growth; and (3) the outcome of sexual mixing." Plants survive liecause they are unlike their neighbors, and in this way encounter less resistance in the field of competition. The essays are grouped into 3 categories: (1) Those touching the general fact and pbilosophj' of evolution, (2) those expounding the fact and causes of variation, and (3) those tracing the evolution of particular types of plants. The author is strongly opposed to Weismannism, and in the discussion of the theories of evolution, as well as in the essay on bud variations, seems to advance arguments strongly substantiat- ing his position. Numerous examples are cited of plants which from their characteristics would ful- fill the conditions of the most exacting systematic botanists as to species were their origin unknown, yet all such species are rejected by the taxonomist on account of their being the result of direct and in some cases designed experimentation. The author believes that the garden fence plays too imjiortant a part in species making, and that many botanists are disposed to look upon species as fixed entities rather than plastic groups designed for more or less temporary convenience. The assist- ance given nature by man in evolving new species is said to differ only in degree and not in kind from the processes that are everywhere going on. The extended obser- vations and experimentation of the author show that tomatoes, beans, and other garden plants can be made to vary in certain desirable lines, producing progeny unlike themselves. In his contributions to the philosopbj' of evolution, and the record of the evolu- tion of certain types of plants and the causes underlying their production, the author has furnished much information to all stixdents of evolution as well as of horticulture and botany. Systematic arrangement of the beeches, F. Kra.sser (Ann. Jc. k. natur. Hist. Hof- museitms, Wioi, 11 (189']), Xo. 2, pp. 149-163). — According to the author there are 2 genera, Fagus represented by 4 species and Xothofagus by 17 species. The systematic arrangement of the Protophyta, C. E. Bessey {Amcr. Nat., SI (1S97), Xo. 30, ])p. 63-05). — A provisional arrangement of the families and genera of protophytes is given b}' the author. The .slime molds are excluded from the classiticatiou, the author considering them zoological and not botanical. Concerning the parallelism between the Tuberaceae and Gastromycetes, E. Fi.sciiEU (Ber. deul. hot. Ges., 14 (1890), Xo. 9, pp. 300-311). Parallel forms of Uromyces scutillatus in different countries, P. Magnus (Ber. deul. hot. Gcs., 14 (1890), Xo. 9, pp. 374-377). Concerning Cladothrix dichotoma and C. odorifera, W. Kullmann ( Centhl. Bakt. und Par. AUg., 2 (1890), No. 22, pp. 701-706). 12G94— No. 7 3 566 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Concerning Cinctractia seymouriana, P. Magnus {Ber. deut. lot. Ges., 14 (1896), No. 9, i)p. S91, 59^").— This parasite was first described as UsHlago crus-galli n. sp. by- Tracy and Earle (Torrey Bui., 2.2 {1S95), p. 175), hence the name becomes, with the change necessary in transposing it, Cinctractia crus-galli. The common Ustilago of maize, J. C. Akthuh (Bot. Gas., 23 (1897), No. 1, jijp. 44-4:Q).—'Y\\& author has investigated the synonomy of the common corn smut and states that the name shouhl be written Ustilago zco'. Some observations on Uredineae, H. T. Soppitt {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 21 {1897), No. 520 pp. 67, GS). — Notes are given of Puccinin historta, the a'cidial host of which is Conopodiiim deiiudatitm. Contributions to the anatomy and physiology of the lower organisms, E. Crato (Beitrdge Biol. Pflanz., 7 (1896), No. 3, p. 407; abs. in Naturiv. Bundschau, 12 {1897), No. 1, pp. 7-9). Some recent biological investigations, F, Hildebrand {Ber. deut. bot. Ges., 14 {1896), No. 9, p. 325). — Notes are given of the sterility of certain crucifers to their own pollen and changes observed in various plant stocks, as dahlia, petunia, and cyclamen. Effect of bacteria on germination, A. Lagervall {Red. verks. Ultuna landtbruk- inst, 1895, pp. 49-52; abs. in Centbl. Bakt. und Par. Allg., 2 {1896), No. 22, pp. 714, 715). — Experiments are reported on the effect of bacteria on the germination of rye, wheat, and peas. Sound seed and some that had their seed coats punctured were inoculated and then germinated. In each case the check Jots gave the highest per- centage of germination. Where the seed coats were injured the germination of the inoculated seed was lowered considerably below that of the check. Investigations on the formation and regeneration of periderm, epidermis, cork, and cuticle, H. Tithmann {Pringsheim's Jahrb. w/ss. Bot., 30 {1896), No. 1, pp. 116-154). Contributions to the knowledge of artichokes, G. Meyer {Ber. deut. bot. Ges., 14 {1896), No. 9, pp. 347-362, pi. 1). — Studies are given of the morpliology, anatomy, and physiology of artichokes, Helianthus tuberosus. On the structure of the fundamental protoplasm of a species of Mortierella, L. Matrxjchot {Conipt. Bend., 123 {1S96), No. 26, pp. 1321-1323). On the correlation of grow^th as a consequence of the mechanical checking of growing, F. Hering {Pringsheim's Jahrb. tviss. Bot., 29 {1896), pp. 132-170, figs. 4; abs. in Bot. Centbl., 58 {1896), No. 12, pp. 405-408). Pollen bearing vs. plant vigor, M. G. Kains {Garden and Forest, 10 {1897), No. 466, p. 38). — Notes are given of some experiments in emasculating llowers that seem to indicate au increased vigor in the plants thus treated. Notes on the fertilization and embryogeny of conifers, J. M. Coulter {Bot. Gas., 23 {1897), No. l,pp. 40-43, pi. l,fig. 1). The changes in fat during germination and their significance, M. Wallerstein {Forsch.ii. Lebensmtl. undHyg. Cliem., 3 {1896), p. 372 ; abs. in Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 104, Bepert.,p. 314). The absorptive power of soluble starch, M. W. Beyerinck {Centbl. Bakt. und Par. Allg., 2 {1896), No. 22, pp. 697-699). A contribution to the chemistry of the red coloring matter of plants {Ztselir. Nahr. Uniersuch. und Hyg. Waarenk., 10 {1896), No. 24, pp. 393, 394).— A rt^sume of con- clusions of a paper by L. Weigert is given. The amount of copper taken up by vegetables from a coppery soil, K. B. Lehmann {Arch. Hyg., 27 {1896), No. l,p. 1; ab:^. in Analyst, 21 {1896), Nov., p. 290). On protein formation in plants, B. Hansteix (i)e/-. deut. bot. Ges., 14 {1896), No. 9, pp. 362-371). — A preliminary paper in which literature is reviewed. Concerning the influence of strain and pressure upon the direction of par- tition walls in plant cells, L. Kny {Ber. deut. hot. Ges., 14 {1896), No. 9, pp. 378-391, figs. 2). METEOROLOGY. 567 Investigations of the assimilatory organs of the Leguminosae, J. Rkinke (PriiKjsheim'n Jahrh. iciss. Hot., JO (lS9i>), Xo. 1. pp. l-W, Jigs. 47). — The studies are of the leaves and young biauches. Studies of some leaf galle, IT. Focken {Rev. gen. Hot., S (ISOO), Xo. 90, pp. 401- 50r>,ph. 12). Plant galls formed by insects, C. Fuxi.kr (Aan(ho>i'ui glabra. Need of instruction in experimental plant physiology, F. W. Cakd {Garden and Forest, lu {1S97), Xo. 464, p. IS). METEOROLOGY. The climate of Geneva, New^ York, P. Collier {New York State Sfa. lipt. Js!U, pp. loS-lI(j, 770-779). — Meteorological observations at tlie station during 12 years on air and soil temiieratures, precipitation, and sunshine are summarized in tables and notes. The station is located 175 ft. above Seneca Lake, the latter being 567 ft. above the sea level. The average annual rainfall at the station during 12 years has been 27.73 in., the maximum 36.88, and the mini- mum 22.29. It has generally been uniform and very nniformly dis- tributed. In the same i)eriod the average monthly rainfall during the 7 months, April to October, inclusive, has been 2.86 in., and there have been but 2 years when the rainfall has been less than 1 in. in Aj)ril, May, and September, and but 1 year when it has been less than 1 in. in October. The average monthly precipitation during the period from November to March, inclusive, has been 1.47 in., the maximum 1.77, and the minimum 1.21 in. During 10 years of the period the average sunshine for the 7 months from April to October was 45.7 i^er cent of the possible amount, the maximum 54.5, and the minimum 38.8 per cent. During the 5 months from IsTovember to March the average has been 27 per cent, the maxi- mum 33.7, and the minimum 19.1 per cent. The average temperature of the months from April to October, inclu- sive, as recorded by standard air thermometers during 10 years, was 60.7° F., while for the months from November to March, inclusive, it was 28.9^- F. Detailed daily aud monthly summaries of observations during 1894 on sunshine, wind movement, and temperature are added. Meteorological report, 1895, N. ITel^te [Rhode Island Sta. Rpt. ISO')., pp. 3:')'.i-:!0:j). — This includes a summary of observations on tem- perature, precipitation, and cloudiness for 0 years (1890-'95) and a tab- ulated record of temperature, pressure, precipitation, cloudiness, and 568 • EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. direction of wind for each month of 1894 and 1895. The summary for 1895 is as follows : Temperature (degrees F.)- — Mean, 48.2; maximum, 95, Jime 2; minimum, — 7, Feb- ruary 6; annual range, 102; Lighest monthly mean, 69.4, August; lowest monthly mean, 21.7, February ; highest daily mean, 79, June 2 ; lowest daily mean, 1, February 8. Precijnto/tOH (inches). — Total (rain and melted snow), 49.28; greatest monthly, 7.89, October; least monthly, 1.29, September; mowfaU — total, 40ig; reatest monthly, 16, January ; least monthly, 5, March. Weather. — Number of clear days, 128 ; number of fair days, 114; number of cloudy days, 123; number of days ou which 0.01 in. or more of rain fell, 108. Air pressure (inches). — Maximum, 30.56, December; min- imum, 28.49, February ; mean, 29.83. WATER— SOILS. Alkali, B. 0. Buffum ( Wyoming Sta. Bui 39, 2)p. 319-353, pZ.s. 6).— This bulletin contains a brief discussion of the character and occurrence of alkali in ^Yyoming and of its effect upon soils and plants; reports experiments on the influence of different amounts of alkali on the ger- mination and growth of turnips, barley, rye, oats, wheat, and alfalfa, and gives suggestions regarding the reclamation of alkali soils. The ger- mination tests were conducted in plates in a greenhouse, the seeds (100 in each case) being placed (1) in soil from which the alkali had been leached, (2) between blotters and filter papers, (3) in alkali soil which had been leached until it contained only 1 per cent of alkali, (4) in natural alkali soil containing 2.24 per cent of soluble salts, (5) in extracted soil (like 1) to which 2.25 per cent of soluble salts mixed in the same proportions as the natural alkali was added, and (0) extracted soil containing 5 per cent of this mixture. Experiments were made with the same croi>s and soil mixtures in 5-inch x)ots (containing 1 kg. of soil mixture). The results are summarized as follows : "The white alkali of general occurrence in Wyoming consists principally of sul- phates of sodium and magnesium. "One per cent or more of these salts in the first 2 in. of surface soil will make it unproductive for any but plants which naturally inhabit saline soils. "Small amounts of alkali in the soil retard germination and growth in i)roi)ortion to the amount present. This effect is physiological. "Alkali soil may be reclaimed by leaching out the salts, where there is drainage naturally or artificially supplied. "The rapid rise of alkali may be checked or iirevented by hindering surface evap- oration through cropping and proper cultivation. "Plants that thrive comparatively well on alkali soil are sugar beets, white sweet clover (Melilotus alba), 'salt sages' {Atriplex spp.), and alfalfa under certain condi- tions. Eye does better than other cereals. "To determine whether the soil is colder when it contains large amounts of alkali a careful series of the soil temjieratures in the pots was taken, but no ditt'erence in the warmth could be detected between the soil free from alkali and that containing 5 per cent of the salts. However, in this connection it should be stated that in the experiment the moisture was controlled so that each soil contained the same amount. In the field a soil containing alkali will retain more moisture than one free from salts, Avhich might make the alkali soil have a lower mean temperature for the growing season." WATER SOILS. 569 Investigations on the Tvater capacity of the soil, K. T^Liiicn {Forscli, Gel). a(j)\ Phys.^ 19 {1S9<;), No. ]-'2, pp. :'}7-r,G). — Mineral soils — kaolin, clay, calcareous sand, and quartz sand; humus soils — liunuis calcareous sand, hotbed soil, and Russian black soil; and different kinds of humus — sugar humus and peat, were placed eitlier in glass beakers, with ground ends and covers, 5.5 cm. in diameter and 8.8 cm. high, or in zim; cylinders (also with covers) 12 cm. in diameter and 7 cm. high, and saturated with water. The beakers and cylinders were kept at the desired temperature in a closed zinc box on a water bath, or surrounded by a water coil, for 24 hours, and weighed. The bot- toms of the cylinders were then allowed to dip into water while they were kept at the desired temperature for another 24 hours. They were weighed after the excess of water had dripped away, and this treat- ment was repeated for successive 24-hour periods until the weight was constant. With the mineral soils the higher the temperature the smaller the amount of water retained. The reverse was true with the humus and humus soils. In a similar manner the influence of sodium and potassium hydrates and sodium, potassium, and ammonium carbonates; monosodium, monopotassium, monocalcium, monomagnesium, and diammonium phos- phates; sodium, potassium, ammonium, magnesium, and iron sulphates; sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, and magnesium nitrates and chlorids; and calcium hydrate and sulphate in amounts of 0.025, 0.05, 0.075, and 0.1 gm. upon the water capacity of kaolin was determined. The results show that (1) the hydrates, carbonates, and phosphates lowered the water capacity; (2) the sulphates exerted practically no influence; and (3) the nitrates and chlorids and calcium hydrate increased the water capacity. The influence of the first and last classes of compounds increased with the amounts present. A contribution to the study of nitrification, Marcille {Ann. Agron., 22 {1896), No. 7, pp. 337-3 U). — In comparative tests it was found that while the nitrogen of ammonium jihosphate was not so readily transformed into nitrous acid as that of ammonium sulphate, the phos- phate appeared to furnish a much more favorable medium for the transformation of nitrites into nitrates than the sulphate. It was also found in comparative tests that nitrification was much more rapid in a soil from Guadeloupe than in one from Eure-et-Loir. Since no increase in nitrification was noted when the latter soil was inoculated with organisms from the former the author concludes that the difference was not due to the greater energy of the organisms of the Guadeloupe soil but to differences in physical and chemical properties of the soils, especially to the nature of the organic matter present. Nitrification, E. Godlewski {Anzeuj. Akad. Wissensch. Krakau, 1895, pp. 178-192; aba. in Ann. Agron., 22 {1896), pp. 303, 304; Jour. Chem. 8oc., 1896, Dec, II-) P- 66S). — Previous experiments by the author had indicated, contrary to the observations of Winogradsky, that the 570 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. nitrifying organisms derive their carbon from carbon dioxid and not from carbonates. To further test this matter 3 experiments were instituted in Avhich solutions containing hke amounts of ammonium sulphate and magnesium carbonate were inoculated with nitrifying organisms. In 2 of the experiments the apparatus was filled with air containing carbon dioxid ; in the other with pure air. In the first case there was a reduction of volume which was not noticed in the latter case. The magnesium carbonate was not utilized as a source of carbon. In the presence of carbon dioxid the nitrifying organisms converted almost all of the ammonia into nitrous acid, although no nitrates were formed and a variable amount of the nitrogen was lost in the free state. Forestry-meteorological observations, E. Wollny {Forsch. Geb. agr. Phys., 10 {1S96), No. 1-3, pp. 151-171). — These include studies of the influence of plant cover on the carbon dioxid content of soil air, on the organic and mineral constituents of the soil, and on the productive capacity of the soil. Data for observations on the carbon dioxid con- tent of the soil air, and on the carbon, humus, and nitrogen in the cases of soils covered with pines (with and without cover of litter), with birches, and with grass, and manured and unmauured plowed land are tabulated. The yields on bare soils and on soils which had been covered in previous years with several difierent kinds of plants are also given. The results show that soils covered with plants contained more car- bon dioxid than bare soils, the conditions being otherwise the same. This was not true of soil to whi(;h manure had been applied. In this case the carbon dioxid content was much greater than in any other case. There was a larger percentage of carbon dioxid in the air of the soil covered with grass and with birches than in that bearing pines. In the case of the pines the amount was greater where the soil was covered with litter than where the litter had been removed. Soils covered with living plants contained considerably more carbon, humus, and nitrogen than the bare soil, other conditions being the same. Of the soils covered with vegetation, those in grass and pines with a cover of litter contained more of these constituents than simi- lar soils in birches and pines without litter. In the soils covered with j)lants the increase of carbon was relatively higher than that of nitro- gen. In 7| years there was a marked increase of these constituents in soils covered with plants, and a decided loss of organic matter in bare soils of similar character. Soils covered with vegetation contained a larger amount of mineral matter soluble in hydrochloric acid than those remaining bare, the con- ditions being otherwise the same. This difference was most marked in the case of lime, the other constituents being affected to a much less extent. The soils in grass and in pines with a cover of litter contained a larger amount of mineral matter, especially of lime, than those in pines without a cover of litter and in birches. The yield on soils which had previously been for a number of years in forest was considerably greater than on those which had remained WATER SOILS. 571 bare. Those soils which liad been in i)ines with a cover of litter were more i)ro(lnctive than those which had been in pines without a cover of litter or in birches. The recognition of the acidity of upland soils and its bearing upon agricultural practice, II. J. Wheeler, B. L. Hartwell, and G. M. TrcKER {Rhode Island Sta. Rpt. 1805^ pp. 232-280, pJs. 5).— Pre- vious experiments (E. S. E., 7, p. 377) had shown that on certain upland, well-drained soils ammonium sulphate exerted a poisonous effect. This result appeared to be due to acidity of the soil. The literature of this subject is exhaustively reviewed and the results of all experiments bearing upon the subject conducted under the super- vision of the station are discussed, the conclusions being summarized as follows : "The removal of plants from the soil aud the use of certain fertilizers doubtless exhaust the lime aud other basic iugredients of the soil more rapidly than would be the case were nature allowed to take her course. ''That an acid condition is liable to result in consequence of the above-mentioned operations, particularly in the case of soils derived from rocks deficient in basic ingredients, wo believe to be a reasonable assumption. "While some plants like clover, timothy, and beets appear to be injured by a lack of carbonate of lime or b^^ the resulting acidity of the soil, others appear to thrive best under such conditions. "A strongly marked reddening of blue litmus paper seems to be a simple and effective indication of the condition of a soil in the above-mentioned particulars. "The value of a satisfactory method for determining the relative acidity of soils would seem to be great. "A dangerous degree of acidity or at least a fatal lack of carbonate of lime appears to exist in upland and naturally well-di'ained soils, and is not confined to muck and peat swamps and very wet lauds as most American and many other writers seem to assume, in view of which it appears that the test for acidity should be more gener- ally applied to such soils. "That this condition of u])land soils has not been more fully recognized hereto- fore is not surprising for tlie reason that the failure or partial failure of certain crops has been attributed to Avinterkilling, poor germination of seeds, drought, excessive moisture, or attacks by insects or fungi. Upon soils where certain plants are injured only to a limited extent by acidity others would be expected to thrive best of all, in consequence of which it is not surprising that the cause for the partial failure of certain crops upon them has not been suspected. "The inefficiency of land plaster as compared with air-slacked lime in the culture of beets and in overcoming the ill effect of sulphate of ammonia, as well as the highly beneficial results from the use of caustic magnesia and carbonate of soda, all tend to further strengthen the position that the fault of the soil in question is a lack of basic ingredients, to which the presence of noxious compounds which may partly or wholly give rise to the acid reaction, is attributable." Further observations for the purpose of determining in ho^v far the results secured in a soil test -with a given plant are appli- cable to others, H. J. Wheeler and Cr. M. TucivEr {Rhode Island Sta. Rpt. 1805, pp. 200-204).— In a soil test made in 1894 with 37 kinds of plants and described in the Annual Report of the Station for 1894 (E. S. K., 7, i». 851), it w-as found that all but 3 kinds (white bean, sun- flower, and summer squash) indicated the soil to be more deficient in phosphoric acid than in nitrogen or potash. The test was continued 572 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. in 1895 with 10 kinds of plants, increasing the number of rows of tlie 3 kinds whicli the previous year had indicated a greater deficiency of potash than of pliosphoric acid. "Theresnlts with beans iu 1895 have not been conclusivejbut those with the sunflower and the summer squash show a greater deficiency of phosphoric acid than of nitrogen or potash, and contradict, therefore, the indications afiorded by the test with 2 rows only in 1894. When it is considered, however, that 16 rows each of sunflowers and of summer squashes were employed in 1895, aud but 2 rows of each in 1894, it will be seen that strong evidence is afforded that the 1894 results were merely incidental, and that of the 37 jilants which have been tested in the 2 years probably not one would fail, under satisfactory conditions, to show a deficiency of jihosphoric acid in the soil. For the purpose of arriving at fully definite conclusions in regard to this point it is hoped to continue the experiment, particularly with beans, and perhaps with sunflowers and summer squashes, for at least another season." North Dakota soils, E. F. Ladd {N'orth Dakota Sta. Bui. 34, pp. 57-73). — Mechanical aud chemical analyses of 10 samples of soil from the Red Eiver Valley, 4 from the James River Valley, 2 from the Shey- enne River Valley, 2 from Mouse River Valley, 6 from the Devils Lake region, 5 from the northern counties and Turtle Mountain region, 1 each from Welles County and Sisseton Reservation, and 2 from west of the Missouri are tabulated and discussed. "The soil of North Dakota is a drift or alluvial loam ranging from 6 in. to 3 ft. deep, and in color from black to grayish-brown. The soils for difl'erent parts of the State diff"er considerably both in physical and chemical properties, but successful agriculture is more influenced by meteorological or climatic conditions than by any difiference in the chemical properties of the soil. The western half of our State lies within the great semihumid belt lying east of the Rocky Mountains, aud extending from north to south across the United States, aud underlaid by the great artesian basin, where irrigation may be possible. , . . "Some of the samples of soil have been taken from the unbroken virgin prairie, and others from fields for 15 years or more under cultivation, mainly in wheat. . . . "The soils having the finest mechanical condition are outside of the Rod River Val- ley, and in the so-called semihumid belt. These soils are exceedingly retentive of moisture, as is shown by their capacity to hold water, and by experiments. -For this reason the small annual rainfall suffices to produce a good yield of grain crops. Prob- ably the better increase of wheat observed after bare summer fallow, when the soil is frequently cultivated, is not due so much to resting the laud or making available plaut food as to conserving the moisture in the soil, storing it up so that a larger supply is available for the growing crop of the succeeding year." Examinations of the humus in 32 of the soil samples, showing i>er- centages of humus and ash and phosphoric acid in humus, are reported, and the character and importance and loss of this substance from soils under cultivation (especially bare fallowing) are discussed. "On the College farm the unbroken prairie showed 109 tons of humus per acre, while similar land under cultivation on the same farm showed but 63 tons per acre. "In 1891 a field showed 5.35 per cent of humus, and 0.79 per cent of phosjihoric acid was in the humus. Crop rotation was adopted, aud in 1894 the field showed 6.82 per cent of humus and 0.091 per cent of phosphoric acid in the humus, showing that it is possible to increase the humus in the soil by crop rotation and diversified agriculture." WATER SOILS. 573 Soils from Kamerun, Senegambia, and G-erman East Africa, and an improved method of soil analysis, F. Wohltmann and H. Kkatz {Jour. Lamlir., ii {isOU), Xo. 3, j)}). 211-234). — Analyses of 5 Kamerun, 3 French Senegambia, and 17 German East Africa soils are reported and the results are discussed at some length. The Kamerun soils were found to be much superior to the others. The essential features of the method of analysis used are as follows: Put the soil through a 2-millimeter sieve, reducing the lumps with the hand or with a wooden pestle. To 450 gm. of this fine soil add 1,500 cc. of cold hydrochloric acid (1.15 sp. gr.) and let stand 12 hours in the cold, shaking hourly. Then let stand over night and repeat the same treatment during the next 24 hours. Filter oft" 1,000 cc. of the solution and determine the acid soluble constituents in the filtrate in the usual manner. In these analyses determinations were made of silica, lime, mag- nesia, phosi>horic acid, potash, iron, and alumina in the acid extract, and water, volatile and combustible matter, and total and ammoniacal nitrogen in the original soils. A brief discussion of the cultivated soils of Courland and Livonia based on examinations made by the Riga Polytechnic Institute, C. Tho3IS {Jour. Landw., 44 {1S96), ^^^o. 4, pp. 311-332).— This is a review and continuation of previous investigations along this line (E. S. E., 7, p. 663). The additional data relate especially to the phosphoric acid of Livonia soils. The results of examinations of these soils confirm those obtained on the Courland soils, viz, that produc- tiveness runs parallel with the phosphoric acid content of the soils. The climate of Geneva, New York : Soil temperature obser- vations, P. Collier {Xeic York State Sta. Bpt. lS94,pp. 138-140, 147, 148, 7S0-7S5).— Observations at 8 difterent depths (1-24 in.) during the growing season (April-October) of the past 12 years are tabulated and compared with air temperatures of the same period. It was observed that the average monthly temperatures at each depth were approxi- mately the same and not materially different from that of the air. "The average daily temperature taken at 12 m. is higher for depths of 1 and 2 in. than the observations at 6 p. m., but at depths of 3 in. and more the 6 p. m. observations are the highest of the day, and this is true whatever the month of observation. "At depths of 18 and 24 in. the temperatures are constant throughout the day, whichever month is considered. "While the general daily average of all the months is nearly the same for each depth, it is found that there is a general increase, though slight, in the temperatures as [the depth increases]. . . . "An excess of temperature beyond a depth of 3 in. was found in the months of August, September, and October, thus showing that in the latter portion of the season a large reserve of heat has been stored up in the soil." A detailed daily summary of observations at the different depths during 1894 is given. 574 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Analyses of water, H. J. Wheeleu {Rhode Island Sta. lipt. 1S95, p. 394). — Tabu- lated analyses with reference to sanitary condition of 12 samples of water. Analyses of waters, M. B. Hardin (South Carolina Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 58-61). — Complete mineral analyses of 15 samples of mineral water, and examinations with reference to sanitary quality of 26 samples of drinking water. Influence of climate on agricultural soils of Tunis, L. Makcassin {Bid. Agr. et Commerce, Tunis, 1 {1S9G), No. 1, pp. 16-23).— X general discussion of the climatic and soil conditions of this region, with suggestions as to needed investigations bear- ing on the relation especially of water to i>lant production in this drj^ climate where irrigation is a necessity. A new^ contribution to the study of fallowing, P. P. Deiiekain {Ann. Agron., 22 {1896), No. 11, pp. 515-523). — Experiments during the last year indicated that there was much more water as well as a larger production of nitrates in the soil lying fallow than in that bearing plants. The oxidation of the organic matter of the soil, P. P. Deherain and E. Demoussy {Ann. Agron., 22 {1896), No. 7, x)p. 305-337, fig. 1). — A detailed account of experiments previously briefly reported (E. S. R., 8, p. 208). Concerning nitrate formation, A. Stutzeh and R. Haktleb {Centhl. Bakt. nnd Par. Allg., 2 {1896), No. 22, p. 701).— K preliminary note. Denitrifying bacteria, A. Yogel {Apoth. Ztg., 11, p. 704; abs. in Pharm. Eev., 24 {1896), No. 12, pp. 279, 280). On denitrification, G. Ampola and E. Garino {Centhl. Bait, nnd Par. Allg,, 2 {1896), No. 21, pp. 670-677, fig. 1). The distribution of salts in alkali soils under different conditions, E. W. Hil- gard {Forsch. Gel. agr. Phtjs., 19 (1896), No. 12, pp. 20-36, figs. .5).— The main points of this article have been covered by the author in previous papers (U, S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 30, p. 66: U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, p. 103; California Sta. Bui. 108 (E. S. R., 7, p. 568); Pop. Sci. Monthly, 48, p. 602). The conditions of the formation of natural soda, II, P. Melikoff (Aba. in Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, 15-16 (1896), No. 23, p. 1866). Texture of some important soil formations, M. Whitney (U. S. Depf. Agr., Division of Agricultural Soils Bnl. 5, pp. 23, pis. 35). — This bulletin gives a brief dis- cussion of the relation of soils to crop jjroduction, pointing out especially the importance of physical condition and water sup2>ly, and a number of photographs illustrating in a graphic way the texture of some important types of soil, with a brief descriptive text. The jilates show the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay in truck lands of East Hartford, Connecticut; Marley and Salisbury, Mary- land; Boston, Massachusetts; Jamaica, Long Island, New York; Newbern, North Carolina; Providence, Rhode Island, and Norfolk, Yirginia; wheat land of David- sonville, Maryland; grass land of Hagerstown, Maryland; upland loess of Virginia City, Illinois; loess of Nemaha County and Geneva, Nebraska; plains marl of Chey- enne County, Kansas, and Ogallala, Nebraska; tobacco lands of East Hartford and Poquonock, Connecticut; Hatfield, Massachusetts; Lititz and Marietta, Pennsyl- vania; Yuelta Abajo district, Cuba; and Rimboeu estate, Sumatra; bright tobacco lands of Granville County, North Carolina; Lancaster, South Carolina; Green County, Tennessee, and Danville, Yirginia; shipping tobacco lands of Newstead, Kentucky, and Clarksville, Tennessee; White Burley tobacco land of Lexington, Kentucky; Remedies tobacco land of Camajuani, Cuba; and barren clay hills of the Potomac formation, near Baltimore, Maryland. The appearance of soil particles in flocculated and unflocculated condition, and the ijercentages of water maintained in truck, wheat, and grass lauds are also shown. It is shown that the truck soils examined maintained on an average 6 per cent of moisture, the wheat soils 13, and the grass soils 18. Notes on Hilgard's elutriation process for soils, A. Mayer (Forsch. Geb. agr. Ph^js., 19 (1896), No. 3, pp. 103-211, figs. ^^).— The comparative merits of the methods of Hilgard and Schone are discussed. FERTILIZERS. 575 FERTILIZERS. The value of the manure from animals fed on linseed meal, H. Snyder {Minncsoia iSfa. UnL 17, pp. ;J3, 2i). — In a pig-feeding experimeut witli liiiseed-oil meal and potatoes, mentioned elsewhere (p. 015), 2 lbs. of manure and 6 lbs. of urine were produced daily per \}\'^ (weighing- 175 lbs). This dung and urine contained 0.09 lb. of nitrogen, wbile the food eaten contained 0.1 lb. It is stated that under i^resent systems of management only about one-tenth of this nitrogen would be returned to the soil, but that with projier care the greater portion of it might be utilized. Under such conditions, it is claimed, flax raising, like wheat raising, might be made the means of keeping uj) the fertility of the soil instead of exhausting it. "The linseed meal should be fed at home, and this fertility, as well as the fertility in bran and shorts, retained." The so-called "natural plant food" a soft phosphate, A. I). Selby {Ohio Sta. Bui. 71, pp. 178-184). — Analyses are reported which clearly indicate that the "base" of this mixture is "Florida or possibly the Tennessee soft phosphates." As bearing upon the claims of the manufacturers that the material hastens germination, experiments were made in a greenhouse with wheat planted in unfertilized soil and soil to which soft phosphate, dissolved South Carolina phosphate, Thomas slag, and dissolved boneblack were added. " The soft pbospbato evidently retarded germination slightly, while some of the other fertilizers used showed a more marked retarding effect upon seed germination compared with germination of seed in unfertilized rows. There is a suggestion of possible value in these results." The role of sulphate of iron, Coste-Floret [Proy. Agr. et Vit.., 26 {1890), Xos. 42, pp. 434-440; 43, pp. 463-467; 44, pp. 496-504).— This is a review of work on sulphate of iron as a fertilizer and as a remedy or preventive for i^lant diseases. It is claimed that the results favorable to this substance as a fer- tilizer have always been obtained on calcareous soils. The sulphate has very corrosive properties, which cause large applications of it to destroy vegetation and smaller applications to retard root absorption. The latter may explain its eflectiveness in certain cases against chlorosis. Ammonium thiocyanate as an impurity in ammonium sul- phate, H. J. Wheeler and B. L. Hartwell {Rhode Island Sta. Bj^t' 1895, pp. 281-286). — Schumann, Wagner, Krauch, Sigmund, Wollny, and Juneau have called attention to the poisonous ett'ects of sulphate of ammonia containing ammonium thiocyanate. This article records the results of comparative tests on oats in galvanized-iron pots (8 in. in diameter and 14 in. deep) of white ammo- nium sulphate and brown ammonium sulphate (containing traces of thiocyanate) with and without the addition of lime and thiocyanate 576 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. (1 gm. and 0.5 gin. of the latter iu case of the white sulphate and 0.5 gm. in case of the brown sulphate). "[The results show that] -without lime the yield where the brown ammouium sul- phate was used was practically the same as from the white lot, so that if any ill effect had resulted from the use of the white product it is obvious that the ill effect from the brown lot was no greater. In fact no positive ill effect was noticed in either case. Comparing the two kinds again, where lime was used with each the results were practically the same, for we have 31.2 gm. from the white ammonium sulphate aud 30.4 and 31.6 gm. from the brown, so that whether used with or with- out lime it gave results fully equal to the product which w;is free from ammonium thiocyanate. Where ammonium thiocyanate was used in connection with the brown ammonium sulphate, even with lime, the yield was seriously affected. The same was likewise true where the thiocyanate was applied iu connection with the white ammonium sulphate and lime, and where the larger quantity was applied . . . the weight of oats was but 7.6 gm. In view of the fact that the growth was excellent except where ammonium thiocyanate was added, and in consideration of the fact that ammonium sulphate has always worked well upon this soil after liming, the poisonous action of ammonium thiocyanate upon plants is again demonstrated." Field experiments with fertilizers, 0. E. Thorne, J. F. Hickman, and W. J. Green {Ohio Sta. Bid. 71^ pp. 109-1G4). — A preliminary dis- cussion is given of the amount of fertility removed from the soil by average crops of corn, oats, wheat, clover, and timothy grown in a 5-years' rotation ; the quantity and cost of fertilizers used in the State iu 1894, and the most economical means of restoring the fertility removed in crops. "To return the fertility removed by the average crops of the rotation under con- sideration would require : 1,157 pounds nitrate of soda, costing $26.00 354 pounds dissolved bone black, costing 3.20 272 pounds muriate of potash, costing 6.80 Total cost 36.00 "It will be observed that there is a wide margin between the cost of these mate- rials and that of the ordinary mixed fertilizers as sold in Ohio, but even this cost would consume the greater part of the value of the crops produced if it were neces- sary to return to the soil all the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash which the crops carry away. ... " However, no one believes that it is necessary to return to the soil all the nitrogen which the crops have carried away, however it may be with regard to the phosphoric acid and potash." The experiments of the station were undertaken to determine (1) whether one of the essential constituents may be economically omitted from a fertilizer mixture, (2) the most economical proportion of these ingredients, (3) to what extent the use of nitrogen may be reduced by growing clover, (4) the relative powers of different crops to secure their own supplies of plant food, (5) what proportion of the fertilizing con- stituents applied to the soil is recovered in the crop, and (6) the best forms of the fertilizing constituents. Following is the general plan: "Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, as carried in nitrate of soda, dissolved boneblack, and muriate of potash, are applied singly, by twos, and all three FERTILIZERS. 577 together and in varying proportions, on plata of land selected for its natural uni- formity, and so treated, by drainage and tillage, as to increase this uniformity to the utmost possible extent, these plats being duplicated on typical soils of different for- mations, in widely separated regions of the State. "Nitrogen is applied to one plat in quantity sufficient to supply the full require- ments of the crops to be grown, and to other plats in smaller quantity. "The cereal crops, corn, oats, and wheat, are grown continuously on the same land, both with and without manure and fertilizers, in order to study their feeding habits, while the same crops, with the addition of potatoes, clover, and timothy, are grown in different rotations, in order both to study this question and to learn the limit of possible recovery of plant food applied in fertilizers; and finally, the con- stituents of fertility are ai)plied in various forms — nitrogen in nitrate of soda, sul- phate of ammonia [60-120 lbs.], slaughterhouse refuse [dried blood, 100-200 lbs.], linseed meal [250-500 lbs.] and barnyard manure [4-8 tons] ; and pliosphoric acid in dissolved boneblack, raw bone meal [55-118 lbs.], acid phosphate [85-170 lbs], basic slag [65-130 lbs. j, wheat bran [500-1,000 lbs.] and manure.'' The fertilizers were applied on tlie basis of 1 part of nitrogen to 1.5 parts of phosphoric acid, this being calculated to be the narrowest ratio permissible in a plan which undertakes to return the fertilizing coustituents removed in the 5-crop rotation given above. The actual rates per acre were as a rule 320 lbs. of superphosphate, 480 lbs. of nitrate of soda, aud 2r»0 lbs. of muriate of potash, it being estimated that these amounts " would furnish as much phosphoric acid and nearly as much nitrogen as are coutaiued in an increase of 1.3 bu. of wheat, 27 bu. of corn, aud 28 bu. of oats, with their straw and stalks, and phos- phoric acid to spare sufficient for 4,000 lbs. of mixed clover and timothy- hay, leaving the nitrogen in the hay crops unprovided for." The proportions were varied somewhat in different cases, and the other fertilizing materials named were substituted in some cases. "The work is now located in four sections of the State, as follows: " (1) At the central station at Wooster, on a light, yellow claj' or clay loam, lying over AVaverly shales. About 30 acres of land are now under experiment with fertil- izers here, all being divided into plats containing one-tenth acre each, the plats being 16 ft. wide aud sejiarated by vacant spaces 2 ft. wide. Under every second vacant space a tile drain is laid, the drains thus being 36 ft. apart. They are laid about 30 in. deep. "Two rotations are in progress here, one of the 5 crops, corn, oats, wheat, clover, and timothy, and one of potatoes, wheat, and clover, each crop being grown but 1 year in the rotation. In addition to these rotation experiments, 1 acre each is devoted to the continuous culture of corn, oats, and wheat, both with and without manure. Neither of these rotations has yet been completed, the first having been begun in 1893, the second in 1894. "(2) The work on the farm of the Ohio State University, begun by the station in 1888, is still continued under the station's management, through the cooperation of the farm department of the University. lu this work about 7 acres are used in the continuous culture of corn, oats, and wheat, and about 3 acres iu a rotation of these crops with clover and timothy. " The soil here is a heavy clay, the portions devoted to wheat and to crop rotation lying upon the impervious Huron shale, while that in contiuuous culture of oats and coru is underlaid with gravel. The whole tract is platted and underdrained as at the central station, excejit that the rotation jilats contain but one-twentieth acre each. 578 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. ''(3) An experiment in the continuous culture of corn on the same land was begun under direction of the station in 1888 in Columbiana County, on a tract of thin clay- lying over porous shales, and is still continued. "(•1) A substation for field experiments has been located in Fulton County, near the corners of Lucus and Henry counties, the post-office being Neapolis, Lucas County. The soil of this substation is the barren, yellow sand of the ancient lake beach, and the region in which it is located is celebrated for its sterility, lands being offered for sale as low as $.5 to $10 per acre. It is locally known as the '*Oak Openings," the timber being a scattering growth of oak. Forty acres of new land have been taken Tinder lease and cleared of timber, and about 10 acres divided into plats of one- twentieth acre each, on which a 3-crop rotation of potatoes, wheat, and clover was begun in 1894. "In this region one of the main problems seems to be to amend the physical con- dition of the soil, as in its natural condition its fertility leaches rapidly and its loose sands are badly drifted by the wind. When first brought into cultivation the yellow sands of this region produce extremely meager crops, but when farmed in rotation with clover, and especially if sheep are kei>t, they improve in productiveness. "This is known as the northwestern substation. "(5) A northeastern substation has been established in Strongsville township, Cuyahoga County, this being the southwestern township of the county, and near the boundaries of Medina and Lorain counties. The soil here is the heavy, white clay, which characterizes a large portion of the Western Reserve region — a soil which, in its natural state, is one of the least responsive to culture of any in Ohio. A tract of 100 acres, lying a mile west of Strongsville village, has been leased, and work was begun on it in the Spring of 1895. Part of this land is an old field which has not been cultivated for many years, and which was covered with a dense growth of spiked wild oat grass (Danihonia sjyicafa) locally known as 'poverty grass,' and con- sidered almost absolutely worthless, either for pasture' or hay — a grass which has established the reputation of growing on 'hard clay lauds where nothing else will.'' " On this section has been commenced a 5-crop rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover, and timothy, while on another part of the tract, which has been in regular cultiva- tion, has been started a 3 crop rotation of potatoes, wheat, and clover, the first crop on each rotation being grown in 1895. This tract, like those at the central station and on the University farm, is being underdrained with tile drains laid 36 ft. apart and about 30 in. deep. "In all this work every third plat has been left continuously unfertilized, begin- ning with the first in each series." The yields (during 1894 and 1895) are given for the different crops grown continuously and in rotation. These include oats, corn, wheat, and clover in rotation at Wooster and Columbus ; potatoes and wheat in rotation at Wooster and in Fulton and Cuyahoga counties; wheat, oats, and corn grown continuously on the same land at Columbus and in Columbiana County (E. S. R., G, p. 211). The crops were seriously injured in 1894 by drought and other unfa- vorable conditions, and the effect of fertilizers was therefore not appar- ent. In 1895 the crops also suffered some from drought, especially on uplands. The results at Wooster during this year show that '^ there was an increase in yield wherever superphosphate was used, the increase being generally small and irregular. Nitrate of soda and muriate of potash, 'U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 1879, p. 355. FERTILIZERS. 579 when used alone or in combination with each other, but without phos- phoric acid, seem to have reduced the yiekl, but when either or both of these were added to .snperi)hosi)hate the yield was generally increased beyond that from the superphosphate alone."' The superphosphate appeared to increase the proportion of straw in the case of wheat. The general results of these experiments are summarized as follows: "The experiments herein reported, which have now extended over 8 seasons on 2 separate tracts of land, and over 2 seasons on 2 other tracts, all widely diverse in location and character of soil, indicate that the highest efficiency of a fertilizer for cereal crops or potatoes is only attained Avhen it contains all three of the chief constitnents of fertility, nitrogen as well as i)hosphoric acid and potash. "In the absence of clover or other legnniinons crops, the niaximnna increase has been produced when the quantity of nitrogen applied was eqvial to or greater than that of phosphoric acid. "The Avork has not yet gone far enough to give definite information concerning the effect of clover or other leguminous crops in the rotation, but at the present stage of the work it seems doubtful whether clover can be relied upon to furnish sufficient nitrogen for maximum crops, grown in rotations of 5 years or more. "It appears that corn, and jjossibly potatoes, have a far greater capacity for obtaining plant food than wheat or oats, the statistics of crop production showing that an average crop of corn may obtain nearly twice as large a total quantity of nitrogen, jihosphoric acid, and potash as an average crop of wheat or oats, grown under the same conditions of soil and climate. "Where the cereal crops have been grown in continuous culture for 7 or 8 years in succession, the total recovery of plant food, applied in chemical fertilizers, by the crops to which they were applied, has been about one-third the nitrogen and one- eighth the phosphoric acid and potash. Where they have been grown in rotation with clover, 50 per cent more nitrogen was recovered in the increase than was applied in the fertilizer, but only one-sixth as much jihosphoric acid and half as much potash. "The immediate increase from barnyard manure has been much smaller in propor- tion to its chemical constituents than from the chemical fertilizers used in these tests; but the residual eftect of manure is shown to be much greater than that from chemicals. "Nitrate of soda has been the most effective carrier of nitrogen in these experi- ments, with sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, and linseed-oil meal but little inferior. Of the various carriers of phosphoric acid, dissolved boneblack, acid ])hosphate, and basic slag seem to produce jiractically equal results, ])ound for pound of phosphoric acid contained. . . . "With fertilizers rated at the prices which Ohio farmers have been paying for them, and with the increase valued at the average market prices of recent years, the cost of the fertilizer has never been recovered in the direct increase, when used on cereal crops, except in a i'ew instances which have not been rejieated in subsequent crops. "When the cereals have lieen grown in rotation with clover tlicre has been a larger increase, from one-third to one-half tlie total recovery of plant food being found in the hay crops, and when fertilizers have been used on potatoes there has been a gooil profit, with ordinary yields and average prices of potatoes.'' On the substitution of soda for and its value in connection with potash, H. J. Wheeler and G. M. Tucker {Uliode Island Sta. Rpt. isOo^xip. 21~j-;j:il). — Investigations in this line commenced in 1894 (E. S. E., 7, p, 840) were continued in 18U5. 580 EXPERIMENT STATION KECORD. "The results of the experiments have shown in 1895 even more conclusively than in 1894 that applications of soda without potash have been upon our soil far less beneficial than applications of potash without soda. The indications of this season's results, like those of 1894, are to the effect that increasing quantities of potash when ai>plied in connection with a given amount of soda show a greater benefit than increasing quantities of soda applied in connection with a given amount of potash. In the case of niangel-wurzels and lettuce a slightly greater advantage seems to have been derived from the use of the carbonates of potash and of soda than from the chlorids of the same, a difference which there is every reason to believe would have been much greater had the api>lications of potash and soda been largely increased. Air-slacked lime, as has been observed in other experiments, has had a wonderfully beneficial effect in connection with certain plants, which has been attributed by us not only to its direct fertilizing action, but also largely to its having overcome the acidity of the soil, or to its having effected the decomposition of constituents of the same which exerted an injurious influence upon the growth of certain plants. . . . "In the experiment with sodium salts a trial was made of the relative efl^ectiveness of chlorids of potassium and sodium, and of the carbonates of the same. Since nitrate of sod.i is an ingredient of most commercial fertilizers, and because special claims have been made for the fertilizing value of the soda which it contained, it has been thought desirable to compare its action with that of nitrate of potash. In order to do this upon a jiroper basis, it was necessary to use an amount of nitrate of soda which would furnish an amount of nitrogen exactly equal to that contained in the nitrate of potash, and also to use a quantity of potash in connection with the nitrate of soda which would be identical with that contained in the nitrate of jiotash. As a source of potash for this purpose the muriate of potash was employed. The experi- ment was also 80 arranged that comparisons as above mentioned could be made upon unlimed jdats, upon those which had received laud plaster (gypsum) and air-slacked lime." The results of these experiments (ou beets) are tabulated, but are inconclusive. The experiments are to be continued. Further observations upon the groTvth of various plants upon an upland acid soil before and after liming, H. J. Wheeler and G. M. Tucker {Rhode Island Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 205-214, ph. 3).— These observations were in continuation of those recorded in the Annual Eeports of the station for 1893 and 1894 (E. S. K., 7, pp. 377 and 850). "Some modifications of the previous manuring were made in 1895, as follows: Owing to the known deficiency of phosphoric acid in this soil, the amount of dis- solved boneblack was increased from GOO to 800 lbs. per acre; the amount of muriate of potash was increased from 180 to 350 lbs. per acre; the amount of nitrate of soda remained the same as in 1894, while the quantity of ammonium sulphate, which varied slightly in composition from that previously used, was so modified that the amount of nitrogen furnished by it would be identical with that applied in the nitrate of soda." The 2 limed plats of the series received 5,400 lbs. per acre of lime in 1893 and 1,000 lbs. in 1894, but no further application in 1895. "In 1895 sulphate of magnesia (epsom salts) was applied to all at the rate of 200 lbs. per acre. This was done for the reason that previously Ijetter results were ob- tained from the limed plat which received nitrate of soda than from the other limed plat, which received sulphate of ammonia— differences which might have in part been attributed to the liberation of magnesia by the soda. The particular feature of the experiment as conducted in 1895 has been the introduction of the test of the effect of liming upon the development of a number of the more important grasses which are already, or might, perhaps, be grown to advantage in this State. . . . FERTILIZERS. 581 "A number of miscellaneous jilants which have been grown on one or two previous occasions have been rotestod iu order that the data in relation to them might be increased to such an extent as to render the conchxsion drawn of greater value than would otherwise be possible." The results are tabulated and lllustiated. Tlie folio wiug summary is giveu : "The following vegetables have shown this season beneiit from liming, decreasing In the following order: Ouious (Egyptian), celery, onions ("Barletta), pumpkins, mangel-wurzels, muskmelons, carrots, table beets, dandelions, cabbages, kohl-rabi, and tlat turnips. " Carrots and pumpkins, which showed an apparent injury from lime in 1894, have given an increase upon the limed plats iu 189.5. It is possible that these two j^lauts should be introduced into a rotation a year or two after the lime has been applied in order to secure the be.st results, a point which can only be ascertained with cer- tainty by further experiments. "The watermelon showed a decided injury from liming in 1894, which was even more marked in 1895. In this particular the watermelon stands in marked coutrast to the muskmelon, which was practically a failure both years except upon the limed plats. "Alfalfa, like clover, has shown a decided beneiit from liming, while serradella and blue lupiuo have, on the contrary, been injured thereby. The injury to the lupiue has been observed in each of the 3 years of the experiment, though it was greatest in 1894, immediately following the second a]iplication of lime. "Common sorrel has shown an injury from liming during both of the years in which it has been grown, though the injury was greatest iu 1894, immediately follow- ing the second application of lime. "The observations with the different grasses indicate that timothy, Kentucky blue grass, awnlcss brome grass, and others may be benelited by lime iu varying degrees, while the sweet vernal, soft grass, Rhode I.sland bent, and sheep's fescue indicate less or no benefit from its use. These results with grasses, as has been stated previously, are those obtained from the first season's growth, and can not therefore be so conclusive or satisfactory as the results of succeeding seasons. It appears probable, however, that the individuality of the grasses in respect to their benefit or injury from liming may be as great as that of the individual members of the leguminous, melon, and other families of plants." Experiments -with various kinds of barnyard manure alone and compared -with nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and urine, Maercker {Jahrh. Agr. Chem. Fer,9. Stat. Halle 1895, irp. 57-69 ; ahs. in Dent, landw. Presse, 23 {1890), JSTo. 98, p. 871, Jig. 1).—A summary is given of pot experiments with 2 samples of deep stall sheep manure and 4 samples of ordinary barnyard manure. The sheep manure approached the ideal in composition ^ and compared very favorably with sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda on oats. The barnyard manures, on the other hand, were either without effect or lowered the yield. It is suggested that this was due to the reduction of nitrates by the organisms of the manure.-' Comparative action in granitic soils of different phosphatic fer- tilizers on the cultivation of potatoes, G. Battanchon {Prog. Agr. et Vlt., 20 {1890), Xo. :jo,pp. .v^-'AV).— Two mineral phosphates, Thomas slag, precipitated phosphate, and superphosphate were tested on plats, all of which had received a dressing of barnyard manure and a basal ' Having 70 per cent of its nitrogen readily available, i. e., furnished mainly by urine. "See also E. S. R., 7, p. 754. 12694— No. 7 4 582 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. fertilizer of nitrate of soda and muriate of potasli. The experiments were in two series, one on coarse granitic soil and the other on finer granitic soil. The slag and mineral phosphates produced only insignifi- cant results on the first soil, but were more effective on the second. Commercial fertilizers, P. Collier and L. L. Van Slyke {New Tori- State Sta. Ept. 1891, pp. 149-170, 536-569).— This includes the text of the State fertilizer law as amended May 9, 1894; discussions of the quality of wood ashes offered on the market, of the amount and average composition of the fertilizers sold in New York during 1894, and of the advantages of home-mixing fertilizers; notes on valuation; a list of manufacturers offering fertilizers for sale in the State in 1894, and tab- ulated analyses of 330 samples of fertilizers, reprinted from Bulletins 73 and 85 of the station (E. S. E., 6, p. 287; 7, p. 211). From replies to a circular of inquiry addressed to fertilizer manufac- turers it is estimated that the total amount of fertilizers sold in the State in 1894 was 59,528.9 tons, 48,350.5 tons of which was complete fertilizers. Wood ashes. — Compiled analyses from different sources are reported, to shovr the wide variation in the commercial product. In order to determine the amount and the quality of the ashes pro- duced by different kinds of woods "in a manner comparable with actual practice, about an equal weight each of 19 varieties of air-dried hard and soft woods were taken, and each lot was burned in a furious fire in an open hearth." The results obtained were as follows: Amount and composition of cashes of hard and soft wood. Ashes. Composition of ashes. Kind of -nroocl. Phosphoric acid. Potash. Availahle. Insoluble. Total. Per cent. 0.64 .51 Per cent. 1.25 1.47 Per cent. 0.75 .63 Per cent. 2.00 2.10 Per cent. 13.09 6.94 "In order to determine the approximate loss by burning at the high temperature of the hearth, approximately equal quantities of the same woods were taken and incinerated at a very low temperature, and there was found in the ashes of the hard woods 17.35 per cent of potash and in the ash of the soft woods 9.61 per cent of potash. "From the above results it will be clearly seen that pure, unleached, hard-wood ashes, of which we hear so much, is an evanescent dream and a fiction, for there is nothing approaching it found in the markets. "While it is probably true that ashes are bought for, and their beneficial eft'ects is mainly due to, the potash they contain, it is clear that the potash is thus obtained at an excessive price as compared with its commercial value in the several potash salts of the German mines, but it must not be forgotten that the other constituents of ashes have an agricultural value, direct or "indirect, which may often justify their application even at their present prices and average composition; but it is important for the purchaser to remember that there is really no significance in the terra 'pure, unleached ashes,' and a guaranteed percentage of potash, as also freedom from any adulteration, should be insisted upon, since it would be an easy matter to increase the percentage of potash by admixture with a sufficient quantity of the cheaper potash salts," FERTILIZERS. 583 Composition and valuation of the fertilizers sold in the State in 1894. — The following table shows the average actual and guaranteed composi- tion of all fertilizers examined by the station during the spring of 1894, and also of the 179 brands of which the selling price was ascertained: Average composition and selling 2}^<'^ of" fertilizers in Xew York, 1894. Nitrogen, maximnm amount guaranteed Nitrogen, uiiniiuum amount guaranteed Nitrojren, amount found by analysis Aval able phuspborio acid, maximum amount guaranteed . Available iibci.spbdric acid, minimum amount guaranteed . Available phosiihuric acid, amount found bj' analysis Total pbosphoric aiid, maximum aTuouut guaranteed Total pliosijboric acid, miniiiiiim amount guaranteed Total phosphoric acid, amount fouml by analysis Potash, maximum amount guaranteed Potash, minimum amount guaranteed Potash, amount found by analysis Average selling price to farmers 253 anal- 179 anal- yses. yses. Per cent. Per cent. 3.597 3.507 2. 827 2.753 3.021 2.942 10. 149 10. 137 7.992 8.059 8.334 8.333 13. 000 12. 509 12. 325 10. 221 12.943 10. 830 5.700 5.576 4.905 4.862 5.317 5.279 132. 25 Giving to each constituent its maximum market price, viz, nitrogen 18| cts., available phosphoric acid 5^ cts., insoluble phosphoric acid 2 cts., and potash 4i cts., the average valuation of the 179 fertilizers is $25.80, 25 per cent less than the average selling price, $32.25. "Recent quotations show that pota.sh as high-grade muriate can be hxnded in Geneva, by the ton, at not exceeding 4y cts. per pound, nitrogen as nitrate of soda at 15;t cts. per pound, and soluble phosphoric acid at 5 cts. per pound. "At these prices our average fertilizer ^vou]d cost $21.77 per ton instead of $2.5.80, and there •would be a saving of $10.48 per ton, which would well pay for the cost of mixing. . . . "It is obvious that there is room for a very considerable saving in cost provided a few enterprising farmers unite and mix their own fertilizers." An examination of 41 brands of so-called special manures for pota- toes, 8 for tobacco, and 12 for cabbages showed that there was nothing approaching agreement in the composition of different brands designed for the same purpose, except the presence of all three fertilizing con- stituents. Formulas are given by which fertilizers approximating in composi- tion the averages of the above classes may be compounded. Using the cost of these mixtures as a basis and allowing $3.50 for freight to the central part of New York, the following average results in selling price, cost of making, and amount saved per ton are obtained: Average selling price and cost of fertilizers. A verage of 235 fertilizers Average of 41 potato manures . . Average of 8 tobacco manures. . Average of 12 cabbage miinures Selling price. $32. 25 35. 34 32. 33 36.88 Cost of making. $24. 58 23.60 23.54 30.70 Differ- ence. $7.67 11.74 8.79 6.15 " It is of course to he kept in mind that in the above mixed fertilizers, the prepa- ration of which has been explained, there have been used in every case the very best chemicals to be found in the maket." 584 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The sources and cost of fertilizing materials, C. E. Tiiokne, J. F. Hickman, and W. .1. (tKEEN {Ohio Sta. Bid. 71, pp. 1G4-170). — A popular discussion of this subject. The home-mixing of fertilizers, C. E. Thorxk, .1. F. Hickman, and W. J. Green {Ohio Sta. Bid, 71, pp. 170-178). — "It is shown that persons may save from 30 to 50 per cent of the cost of their fertilizers by purchasing- the materials and mixing them (when mixing is necessary) at home." Directions and formulas are given. A critical discussion of the more important methods of preserving manure, F. Taukke {FidiUiufs Undw. Ztg., 45 {1896), No. 22, pp. 696-710). A nevy preservative for manure, Gerlach {Laridiv. Centbl. Posen, 24 {1896), No. 42, p. 234). — An account is given of tests of a proprietary compound containing from 87 to 90 per cent of gypsum, 10 jier cent of crude acid (5 per cent sulphuric acid), and 1 to 3 per cent of soluble phosphoric acid. Used in the amount recommended the preservative was not efl'ective, but was very expensive. The effect of lime in slag, W. Somerville {Agl. Gaz. {Loudon), 44 {1896), Dec. 28, p. 567). Marl and marling, Heixrich {Mergcl und Mergeln. Berlin: Parey, 1896). Lime and marl, Tancre {Landtv. Wochenbl. Schles. Hoist., 46 {1896), No. 51, pp. 735-740). Phosphatic fertilizers, L. Vandenbercii {Belg. Hort. et Agr.,S {1896), No. 34, pp. 375, 376). — A popular article. Ordinary vs. dried superphosphate, L. Decoux and L. Drumel {Ing. Agr. Gemhloux,7 {1896), No. 4, p. 110; abs. in Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No, 102, Ilepert., p, 307). — In exi)erimeut8 on oats both gave a decided increase of both straw and grain. The ordinary superphosphate gave as good results as the dried and was much cheaper. Field experiments with Thomas slag from different sources, E. Proskowktz {Mitt. Ver.Ford. laiidw. J'ersucliswcaens. Oesterr., 11 {1896), No. 1, pp.36-39). — Theresults of comparative tests of 3 samples of slag with different amounts of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid on sugar beets, clover, and meadows show that the largest yields were obtained where the' slags containing the greatest amount of citrate-soluble phosi)horic acid were used. Manurial experiments in Staffordshire {Agl. Gaz. {London), 44 {1896), Dec. 28, p. 567). Fertilizer analyses, E. C. Kedzie {Michigan Sta. Bid. 135, pp. 15). — The usual explanatory notes, including the text of the fertilizer law, and tabulated analyses of 60 samples of fertilizers collected in Michigan in 1896. Analyses of fertilizers and fertilizing materials, M. B. Hardin {South Carolina Sta. Pipt. 1895, pp. 54-58, 61-63). — Tabulated analyses of 16 samples of fertilizing materials, including acid jihosphate, mineral phosphates, floats, cotton-seed meal, cotton hull, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash, kainit, and wood ashes, and the average composition in 1894 and 1895 of the acid phosphates with and without potash, nitrogenous superphosphates, kaiuit, and cotton-seed meal examined by the station. FIELD CROPS. On the relative growth of common sorrel (Rumex acetosella) and clover upon an upland acid soil before and after liming, C. O. Flagg, H. J. Wheeler, aiicl G. M. Tucker {Rhode Island Sta. Rpt. 1895^ 2)p. 193-199, figs, 4).— The 11 twentieth-acre plats discussed in this article had annually received since 1890 equal amounts of potash and phosphoric acid. Nitrogen had been applied in the form of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and dried blood in from one-third to full applications. In 1893 the southern tliird of all the plats had been limed at the rate of 2^ tons per acre. Corn had been grown on these plats FIELD CROPS. 585 for 4 years previons to 1804, when it was seeded to oats and clover. The weights of clover, with some timothy grown on the southern third or limed ends of the plats, are tabulated ; but on the unlimed portions there was little or no timothy and very little clover, "the land being .oecu])ied by weeds, consisting- chiefly of sorrel." From the tabulated yields of clover "and the accompanying illustrations the almost marvel- ous effect of lime upon the growth of clover upon this soil is readily seen." The relative amounts of clover, sorrel, timothy, and miscellaneous weeds on different plats was determined from small representative areas. "Upon the unlimed portions there was 3A^ times as mucli sorrel with a full appli- cation of sulphate of ammonia as with full applications of nitrate of soda and dried blood." Many volunteer clusters of timothy grew on the limed portions, but none on the unlimed sections. "The value of lime in connection with timothy upon our acid soil was therefore most strikingly manifest and was in full accord with the results secured with it in the experiment with grasses upon limed and unlimed soil described elsewhere in this report." The author concludes as follows : "The growth of clover upon the plats which had received no nitrogen in any form, at least for 5 and probably for a dozen years, was nearly if not ([uite as good as upon those which had received a large annual application from 1890 to 1894, inclusive, a result decidedly in contrast to those secured with Indian corn and oats upon the same plats. " The injury liable to result to a clover crop owing to the smothering of the young plants by the lodging of the accompanying grain crop, the necessity for thin seeding, and care not to employ too much nitrogen in such cases is pointedly illustrated. "Fresh applications of lime have appeared in other experiments to be unfavorable to the growth of sorrel. It appears probable, however, that the chief value of lime in eradicating sorrel is attributable to the fact that it brings about physical and chemical soil conditions, one or the other or both of which are so highly favorable to the growth of clover and many other agricultural plants that they are able to occupy the land, thercbj^ preventing sorrel from gaining a foothold." Indian corn experiment, C. O. FLAGa and G. M. Tucker {Rhode Island ma. Rpt. 1895, jyp. 312-316, figs. 5).— November 23, 1894, 25-pound samples of each of 5 varieties of unshelled corn were hung in a corn- crib; March 25, 1895, these samples were weighed. The results are shown in the following table: Shrinkage of unshelled corn from fall till spring. Isame of variety. Rhode Island Capped, White Flint Huron Pure Yellow, Dent MiunCHOta King, Dent Conqueror, Dent Early Mastadon, Dent Weight Novem- ber, 1894. Pounds. 25 25 25 25 25 Weight March 25, 1895. Pounds. 20.00 19.75 23.00 23.25 19.50 Shrink- Per cen t. 20 21 8 7 22 Weight of shelled corn March 25, 1895. Pounds. 17.25 IG. 00 18.50 18.50 15.00 Proportion of- Shelled corn. Per cent. 86. 25 •81. 01 80. -i;) 79.56 77.44 Cob. Per cent. 13. 75 18.99 19. 57 20. 44 22.56 586 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The Ehode Island Cai^ped corn gave the largest proportion of corn to cob and the shelled corn was much drier, both at time of harvest and when shelled. The authors state that with equal amounts in the fall this variety will yield more shelled corn than the others. Extra early Leaming corn planted May 11 on well manured land and cut September 27 yielded 115.7 bu. of shelled corn and 6.3 tons of stover per acre, while lihode Island Capped corn ou land not so rich produced 02.27 bu. of shelled corn aud 1.1)0 tons of stover per acre. Tabulated data are given on the shriukage of Leaming and lihode Island Capped corn during 4 mouths, which for unshelled corn was 13.50 and 7.50 per cent respectively, and for shelled corn 14.40 and 7.40 per cent. It required in October 82.10 and 73.50 lbs. of ears respec- tively to give r)Q lbs. of shelled corn in February. Crimson clover, F. W. Eane {N'ew Hampshire Sta. Bui. 37, pp. 41-44). — A popular bulletin on the subject. The difiQculty in crimson clover culture in New Hampshire arises from winterkilling. In the experiment reported, during an open winter, about 22 jier cent of the plants lived. From 10 to 16 lbs. of seed per acre are recommended. The author mentions sowing the seed in cornfields after the cultivation is finished, in gardens and orchards, and on stubble lands. It is valu- able for green manuring. The draft of flax on the soil and the composition of flax soils, H. Snyder {Minnesota ^ta. Bui. 47^ pp. 3-20, 29, 30,fi(js. 4, d(jm. 1). — Previous work in this line has been reported in Bulletin 13 of the station (E. S. E., 2, p. 406), At the station and at 2 other places in the State the draft of the flax crop on the soil was determined. "Plants were analyzed at different stages of growth to determine the approximate time in the plant's development when each element was taken from the soil. Differ- ent types of both Minnesota and imported seeds were analyzed, ."is well as samples of the straw aud flax when cut and cured as hay. Tlie amount of oil yielded by different samples of seeds was also determined. The composition, dij;estibility, and food value of the linseed meal, and the loss of fertility in oil making, as well as a study of the soils best suited to flax culture [are discussed]." Tabulated data show the amouut of fertilizing ingredients removed from an acre by flax, a comparison between the fertility removed by this crop and by 9 of our common crops, and the composition of the ash of flaxseed, flax straw, and the entire plant. The following table gives the composition of the ash of flaxseed, straw, and entire plant : Composition of the ash of flaxseed, straw, and entire plant. Pure ash. Composition of ash. Potash. Soda. Lime. Mag- nesia. Iron. Phos- phoric acid. Sul- phuric acid. Silica. Average of 6 samples of imported seed Per ct. 3.47 3.73 2.98 5.34 4.89 3.33 Per ct. 27.81 25.27 34.86 Per ct. 1.25 1.22 4.41 Perot. 10.45 9.15 23.69 22.46 21.55 20.92 Per ct. 17.04 15.80 11.85 15.23 13.66 Per ct. 0.92 1.11 3.37 2.00 Per ct. 40.09 43.14 6.15 8.93 19.38 20.05 Per ct. 2.03 2.23 3.54 4.80 5.32 Per ct. 0.81 .88 6.05 4.45 Average of 6 samples of American seed ... Average of 5 samples of flax straw ( Americaii) . . . Entire plant: . Seeds well formed When ripe (average of 3 samples) 33! 32 ........ 32.13 L. 1 FIELD CROPS. 587 By the time that 40 per cent of the vegetable matter was formed GO per cent of the total mineral matter and 53 per cent of the nitrogen required by mature plants had been taken from the soil. At the period of full bloom 88 per cent of the mineral matter and 80 j^er cent of the nitrogen had been taken up by the crop. The period of growth and maturity of the crop is ordinarily from 65 to 70 days after seeding. "From 70 to 90 per cent of the principal elements of plant food are taken from the soil during the first 45 or 50 days. In order to furuisli this plant food in so short a time the soil must be in the very best condition as to fertility." "The best flax soils are those that contain about 25 per cent of medium sand, 20 to 25 per cent of fine and very fine sand, 35 to 40 per cent of silt, and about 12 per cent of clay." This soil should also con- tain from 15 to 20 per cent of available water. When tiax is cut in early bloom and cured it makes excellent hay. The seed contains on an average about 35 per cent of oil, of which 7 to 8.5 per cent remains in the cake in the old process of extraction. In his summary the author states that flax does not remove an exces- sive amount of fertility from the soil; that it possesses but little power of obtaining its food from the soil; that home-grown seed is equally as rich in stored up plant food as imported; that when flax is cut "on the green side of bloom," and before seed development, and cured as hay, it makes a valuable fodder; and that a yield of 15 bu. per acre will produce about 270 to 280 lbs. of crude oil by pressure process. Forage crops, J. F. Hickman {Ohio Sta. BuL 70, pp. 81-107, pi. 4). — In this bulletin are given the general results of experiments with forage crops at the station since 1888, including methods of soil preparation, quantity of seed used, manner of growth, length of season required, and other data. The author recommends the following: Alfalfa for lands having open or porous subsoils, cowpeas only for green manuring on impoverished land, soja bean for forage and green manuring, Canada peas and oats for forage, Indian corn as the foremost forage crop grown in Ohio, Hungarian and German millets for catch crops when the hay crop is short, and rape for forage. The hairy vetch has not been suf- ficiently tested. Crimson clover is regarded as of doubtful value. The flat pea, spring vetch, sweet clover, Brazilian flour corn, Kafir corn, millo maize, Jerusalem corn, teosinte, Japanese and Russian millets, sachaline, and spurry are not considered of sufficient value in Ohio to justify their recommendation. Forage plants {Rhode Island Sta. Rpt, 1895, pp. 316-319). — Repeated sowings of alfalfa have been made at the station, thus far without suc- cess. Early maturing varieties of cowpeas have been sown and have made a good growth, producing pods containing apparently mature seeds which will be planted another season. Crimson clover has proven satisfactory as a catch crop and for green manuring, but it must be sown annually as it will seldom live through the winter. Egyptian lentil was grown and is considered of little value as a grain crop as 588 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. compared with Canada peas. Tlie flat pea made an uneven growth the second season. The tops when cut were readily eaten by cattle. Small grains, L. Foster {Montana Sta. Bui. 10, pp, 27-40). — After describing the methods of wheat culture in common use in Montana the writer gives the details of a test of varieties of wheat. Six rows, 14 in. apart and 8 rods long, were sown to each variety tested, of which there were 86. The results are tabulated. Analyses are also given of 29 varieties, showing the percentage of water, nitrogen, and crude pro- tein. The Ladoga wlieat is especially mentioned. The yields of 50 varieties of oats and 27 of barley are tabulated. The seed of both grains was treated for smut by dipping in a solution of copper sulphate. There was no smut in the barley and only an occasional head in the oats. Beginning August 9 a small plat was sown to spring wheat each week until November 19. Only the latest sowings were free from win- terkilling. The first 0 plats averaged 3.3 bu., the next 5, 12.7 bu., and the last 4, 38.5 bu. Leguminous and other plants grown -without and -with difTer- ent quantities of nitrogen {Rhode Island Sta. Bpt. ls95,pp. 319-326, Jigs. 10). — The trial was on 3 plats which for two seasons had received like amounts of potash and phosphoric acid, 2 receiving also 150 lbs. and 450 lbs. of nitrate of soda, respectively. Leguminous crops had been grown, but in the present trial various nonleguminous crops were grown. The results are tabulated. The plat with no nitrogen pro- duced more than half as much spring rye, oats, field corn, and Golden Wonder millet as the plat with the full application of nitrogen. The plat with the smaller application of nitrogen produced more than 80 per cent of the amount yielded by the plat with the full application in the case of every crop except barley. In the case of Japanese millet the plat with the smaller application of nitrogen gave fully one-fourth more crop than the plat with the full application. With regard to leguminous plants only one, the Japanese bean called "Edamame," gave greater yields upon the no-nitrogen plat and the plat with the smaller application of nitrogen than upon the plat with the full appli- cation. The author concludes that the larger amount of nitrogen was generally not profitable. Experiments on permanent grass in Gloucestershire, 1896 {Agl. Students^ Gaz., n. ser., 8 {1896), Xo. 2, pp. 41-43). — Comments and ' tabulated details are given for experiments on 32 twentieth-acre plats of permanent mowing land with rape-cake meal, basic slag, nitrate of soda, ammonium sulphate, guano, superphosphate, kainit, and salt, singly and in various combinations. Fourteen of the plats had received a dressing of 7 tons per acre of colliery dung in the previous December and were partially flooded by the overflow of a stream about the middle of May. " [On this series of plats] superphosphate alone had no effect, but kainit alone was beneficial; kainit and superphosphate together more so; rape-cake meal gave FIELD CROPS. 589 only a small increase, bat of frood (luaiity; gun no gave an excellent crop of fine qual- ity; and aiiunonium snlphato alone a splendid crop of good nuxed grasses. . . . Common salt at the rate of 200 lbs. per acre gave au increased yield of 500 lbs. of hay, and favored the finer grasses." The other series of plats were upon drier land and were affected by drought. Upon these plats superphosphate and kainit, singly or together, produced little effect. "Guano gave a small increase, but of good bottom and fine grasses; rape-cake meal gave a good increase of fair quality; sodium nitrate alone and ammonium sul- phate alone in equivalent quantities gave the same amount of increase, but the qual- ity of the produce of the ammonium sulphate plat was rather better. The best results were obtained by a mixture of cinereals with nitrogenous manure, and gen- erally the mixtures containing ammonium sulphate gave heavier crops and of a rather better quality than those containing sodium nitrate."' The residual value of manures applied to the hay crop, as shown in the effect on a second hay crop, K. P. Wright {Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Agl. Dept. E2)ts. 1895, pp. 60-67). — Tabulated details and discussion are given for experiments carried out in different seasons on li farms. Similar fertilizers were used in both cases, but comparison is limited by difference iu seasons and in soils. The following general conclusions were reached : All the manures employed, soluble as well as insoluble, had a decided influence upon the second year's crops. The application of muriate of potash exerted a marked effect, increasing the yield greatly the first year in both cases, and in the second year somewhat in one case and more than the first year in the other case. This fertilizer improved the clover and the author believes that the increase in the second year may be partly attributable to the effect of the clover iu enriching the sur- face soil with nitrogen. On the plats to which larger dressings of mixed manures were applied the residual effects were clearly marked, though the increase was slight. On both farms mineral manures with- out nitrate of soda gave smaller crops in the first year, but in the sec- ond year showed a larger increase over the unraanured plat, this being due to the exhausting effect of the heavy crop of the first year upon the plats receiving nitrate of soda. The application of salt alone gave disappointing results the first year, but a moderate increase over the unmanured plats in the second year. Barnyard manure in moderate (piantity with nitrate of soda proved more i)rofitable than twice the amount of manure alone. From these experiments and those with oats following turnips (p. 593) the author draws the following general conclusions: "(1) Potassic manures, and all phosphatic manures, whether of a soluble or insol- uble character, even when applied in small quantities, have a distinct effect in pro- ducing increase of crop in the second year as well as in the year of application. " (2) The effect on a second crop as well as on a first confirms tlie conclusion derived from other experiments, that much more profitable returns are to be obtained from barnyard manure by apjilying it to crops iu small rather than in large dress- ings, and by supplementing the small dressings with suitable artificial manures." 590 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Experiments on the manuring of oats in 1895, R. P. Wright {Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Agl. Dept. Rpis. 1895, pp. 33-41). — Cooperative experiments were made on 15 farms, 12 tweutietb-acre plats differently fertilized being used in each case. Tables are given showing the kinds and amounts of fertilizers applied, location and soil of the farms, and yield per acre of oats and straw from each plat. The effects of the different combinations are discussed separately. The following table shows the average yields of grain and straw and the increase over un manured plats for each fertilizer. Results of experiments with various fertilizers on oats. Amount of fertil- izer per acre, Yield per acre. Grain. Straw. Increase in yield per acre over un- manured plats. Grain. Straw, TJnmanured ' Xitrate of soda Snlpliate of ammonia. Superphosphate Muriate of potash Kainit Nitrate of soda Muriate of potash Nitrate of soda Superphosphate Nitrate of soda Superphosphate Muriate of potash Sulphate of ammonia. Superphosphate Sulphate of ammonia. Superphosphate Muriate of ])otash Barnyard manure Pounds. 112 85 224 112 386 112 112 112 224 112 224 112 85 224 85 224 112 22, 400 Pounds. 1,358 1,473 1, 683 1,657 1, 622 1,712 \ 1, 595 \ 1, 763 1,716 1,812 1,891 1,963 Pounds. 2,654 3,000 3,110 2,859 2,883 3,032 2,994 3,159 3,141 3,017 3,139 3,603 Pounds. Pounds. 115 325 299 264 354 237 405 358 454 533 2632 346 456 205 229 378 340 505 485 2 678 'Average of 2 plats on each farm. ^Compared with the average of the un manured plats on the 7 farms only, on which barnyard manure ■wasapplied. This is 1,331 lbs. grain and 2,925 lbs. straw per acre. The author gives the following conclusions: "(1) Even in adverse seasons the produce of the oat crop can be largely increased by suitable applications of manures. "(2) Even at the present low value of the oat crop, manures, judiciously applied to it, will give a A-ery profitable return. "(3) Not only can the total produce be largely increased by manuring, but the proportion of straw to grain can be considerably modified. "(4) The date of ripening and of harvest can be either hastened or retarded by the employment of particular manures. " (5) Potassic manures applied alone act effectively in a year of drought, but tend to retard ripening. "(6) Superphosphate gives profitable returns, whether applied alone or in combi- nation with other manures. It hastens ripening and increases the proportion of grain. "(7) Nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, applied alone, retard ripening, but give large and profitable, though rather irregular, increases of crop. "(8) These nitrogenous manures are more uniform and more reliable in their action when applied with a soluble phosphatic manure, and give, as a rule, larger, more profitable, and earlier crops when applied with superphosphate. FIELD CROPS. 591 "The most successful oouibinatious of niaunres employed in the experiments, taking into aecouut the results foi- the two years ISl) 1 and 1895, have been the follow- ing: (rt) 112 lbs. nitrate of soda, 224 lbs. superphosphate; (b) 85 lbs. sulphate of ammonia, 224 lbs. superphosphate; (c) 85 lbs. sulphate of ammonia, 224 lbs. super- phosphate, 112 lbs. muriate of potash." Report on experiments on the manuring of turnips in 1895, E. P. Weigut {Glas(/oic and West of Scotland Technical College, Agl. Z*ept. Rpts. 1895, pp. 11-22). — These experiments are in continuation of the series of 1803 and 1804 and the general conchisions are based npon the experience of tlie 3 years. In 1805 13 plats were used upon each of 31 farms in the southwestern and central portions of Scotland. Two plats of eacli series received no fertilizer and npon tlie others were applied superphosphate, basic slag, bone meal, and barnyard manure, alone and in different combinations with nitrate of soda, sul- phate of ammonia, and sulphate of potash. Where comparison was made between one or two elements in different combinations the amounts of these elements on the plats were made equal. Tables are given showing the location and soil of the different farms, variety of turnips used, and yield of roots per acre for each plat. The effects of the different combinations are separately discussed and illustrated by tables. The average results are given in the following table : Effect of fertilizers upon turnips. Pertilizer. Unmanured ' Siiperjihosphate Basic slaa; Bone meal Basic slag Nitrate of soda Superphosphate Nitrate of soda Superphosphate Sulphate of anmionia. Superphosphate Nitrate of soda Sulphate of potash . . . Superphosphate Bone meal Nitrate of soda Sulphate of potash... Barnyard manure Do Superphosphate Barnyard manure Superi)liosphate Nitrate of soda Amount of fertili- zer per acre. Lbs. 672 688 ;i75 088 93« 072 112 072 85 072 112 112 072 418 112 112 44, 800 22, 400 448 22, 400 448 112 Eoots per acre. Tom 8 15 14 12 . Lbs. 1,064 448 140 1,960 Tops per acre. ' Tons. Lbs. 14 1,540 1,932 2,100 1,792 28 644 1,708 224 \ 18 588 19 672 3 1, 120 3 1, 036 3 1, 400 3 1 , 800 3 2, 044 3 1, 204 Increase of roots over check plats. To7is Lb 1,624 1,316 896 476 644 1,428 280 9 1, 036 1,932 1,764 10 1, 828 ' Aver.age of 21 fai-ms onlJ^ ' Average of 2 plats on each farm. The author draws the following conclusions from the experiments: "(1) Good crops of turnips can be grown either with farmyard manure alone, or with artificial fertilizers alone. " (2) A much better return can bo obtained for barnyard manure by applying it to the crop, in a moderate dressing, along with suitable artilicials, than by applying it in larger quantity alone. 592 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "(3) When turnips are grown with artificial manures only, the manure used should contain all the 3 important ingredients— phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potash. "(4) The combination most successfully employed in these experiments was 672 lbs. superphosphate, 112 lbs. nitrate of soda, and 112 lbs. sulphate of potash. "(.')) The use of a eomiilete manure containing the 3 important manurial ingre- dients gives more certain and more uniform results than the use of incomplete manures, and the complete manures render the crops less susceptible to unfavorable influences of weather or season. "{&) The omission of jiotash causes, on the majority of farms in the west of Scot- land, a considerable, and in many cases a large, reduction of crop, and a diminution of profits. "(7) On a number of farms good crops can be grown with superphosphate alone, and the addition of nitrogenous and potassic manures does not on them produce a profitable return in the first crop. "(8) Superphosphate is a more generally effective and reliable manure than basic slag when applied alone in spring to the turnip crop." Report on the composition of turnips, J. Hendrick {Glasgoic and West of Scofland Technical College, Agl. Dept. lipts. 1895, pp. 23-27). — The soil on which these experiments were made was very uniform in quality and was in such poor condition that almost no crop was iiro- duced without manure. The plats were differently fertilized and planted with the same variety of turnips. Care was used to select representa- tive samples and from 14 to 19 roots were analyzed from each plat. Tables are given showing the yields per acre of roots and tops upon each x)lat and the composition as affected by the different fertilizers. The principal data are shown below : Effect of fertilizers upon the composition of turnips. Amount of fertih- zer per acre. Aver- age weight of roots. Composition of roots. Fertilizer. Water. Dry matter. 1 Albu- gen. Sugar. Fiber. Ash. Unniannretl Lhs. Ozs. 1.5 2.0 1.4 } ■■' 1 2.3 I 3.2 3.9 i 2.9 Per ct. 82.38 88.52 86.53 86.17 87.46 87.82 88.46 87.13 Per et. 17.62 11.48 13.47 13.83 12.54 12.18 11.52 12.87 Per ct. Per ct. 3. 71 0. 24 1. 00 . 12 1. 19 . 15 1. 13 . 13 Per ct. 7.33 6.12 7.11 7.75 7.38 7.07 6.37 7.53 Per ct. 2.34 1.18 1.45 1.54 1.24 1.30 1.23 Per et. 1 12 672 .57 688 688 94 672 112 672 448 112 112 44, 800 22, 400 448 112 .67 Do .62 1.18 1.06 1.21 1.16 .10 .09 .09 .09 Nitrate of soda .65 .62 Sulphate of pota.sli Barn vard manure Do .64 1.34 .65 Nitrate of soda The turnips from the unmanured plat were very small and contained much more than tlie normal amount of dry matter and of nitrogenous substances. The author believes that the excess of nitrogenous mat- ters in these stunted turnips proves that the turnip is quite capable of obtaining a sufiBcient supply of nitrogen from a soil moderately sup- plied with this element and that the stunting is due to lack of ash FIELD CROPS. 593 constituents. The total i^ercentage of nitrogen does not appear to be increased by the api)licatiou of nitrogenous manures, and where manures rich in this constituent are used the percentage of albuminoid nitrogen decreases so that even when such manures increase the weight of the crop they decrease its feeding quality by lowering the amount of albu- minoid nitrogen contained in it. The presence of a moderate amount of soluble nitrogenous constituents, however, somewhat increases the percentage of sugar. Residual value of manures applied to the turnip crop in 1893, as shown in the effect on an oat crop in 1894, K. P. Wright {Glas- gow and West (>/ iSvotland Technical Collajc^ Agl. Dept. Rpts. ISO'j^ pp. 28-32). — In 1893 turnips were grown on 12 twentieth-acre plats of clay loam dirterently fertilized, both roots and leaves removed, Oats were sown the following spring, one-half of each plat being left unmaiuired and the other half receiving nitrate of soda at the rate of 112 lbs, per acre. Tables are given showing statistics of fertilizers applied and crops of oats and hay jiroduced on the unmanured half plats, and of oats on the half plats receiving nitrate of soda. Each of the fertilizers showed a large residual value and every plat yielded a crop of oats much greater than that from the unmanured plat. Most of the fertilizer on 8 plats consisted of i)hosphates at the rate of 672 lbs. of superphosphate per acre, yet the residual eft'ect of these moderate quantities not only fully recouj^ed the land for the exhaustion caused by the removal from the fertilized plats of from 10 to 20 tons of turnips more than from the unmanured plat, but gave an increase of nearly GO per cent in the oat crop. The soluble superphos. phate produced a better subsequent eft'ect than basic slag, as well as a better immediate eftect. Bone meal did not give as large yield of turnips as superphosphate, but its slow-acting nitrogen produced a marked eftect on the succeeding oat crop. The addition of a nitroge- nous fertilizer to plats which had received only phosphates largely increased the yields, and the author concludes that "a comparison of all the plats where only artificial manures were applied in 1893 with plats to which barnyard manure was applied, shows that where turnips are grown with (juickly available, and, perhaps, incomplete artificial manures alone, and where the whole crop is removed from the field, it is absolutely necessary to apply manures to the succeeding crops also if a full yield is desired." The largest oat crops, both in graiu and straw, were obtained from the barnyard manure plats, as were also the largest turnip crops in the preceding year: but 10 tons of barnyard manure with 33G lbs. of super- phosphate and 112 lbs. of nitrate of soda produced a greater eftect on the croi)s of both years than 20 tons of barnyard manure alone. The addition of nitrate of soda to the half plats resulted in a profit- able increase in every case. 594 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Experiments with wheat, C. C. Geokgeson, F. C. Burtis, and D. H. Otis {Kansas Sta. Bid. 59^i)-p. 89-105). — Tbis is a coutinuatiou of work reported in Bulletin 47 of tlie station (E. S. R., 6, !>. 538). Tabu- lated data are given for the experimental work noted under eack sub- title. Wheat grown continuously without manure (pp. 90, 91). — With an aver- age on the experimental acre of 25.25 bu. for 13 crops harvested during IG years the yield for 1896 was 24.85 bu. The authors state that the yield is falling off. EarJy and J ate plowing (pp. 91, 92). — Laud was plowed July 20 and September 3, and seeded September 18. The plats plowed in July averaged 23.G6 bu., and those plowed in September, 19.74 bu. SuhsoiUng vs. surface plowing (pp. 92-94). — The yield was larger where subsoiling was done 6 weeks before seeding than on plats plowed in the ordinary way. Plats subsoiled a year before seeding and which had borne a crop of peas in the interim gave no increase over the plowed i)lats. Time of seeding wheat (pp. 94, 95). — The results are given for 4 plats seeded on 8 different dates from September 13 to November 1, inclusive, with intervals of 7 days. Seeding on September 20 gave the best average yield. Seeding at different rates (pp. 95-97). — Seven series of 5 plats each were used. Seed was sown at the rate of from ^ to 2 bu. per acre, the unit of increase being 1 peck. The thin seeding tillered more than the thick seeding. The highest yield was given by the 2 bu. rate. Grading seed wheat (pp. 98, 99). — Wheat from the thresher was sep- arated into light and heavy grades, and these were compared with the ungraded seed. The light, common, and heavy seed weighed 44.75, 52.75, and 58 lbs. per bushel, respectively, and the corresponding yields were 34.89, 36.19, and 35.39 bu. The average of 4 years shows a slightly larger yield from the heavy wheat. Effects of pasturing wheat (pp. 99, 100). — Ten out of 15 plats were grazed in the fall during 12 hours and in the spring during 10 hours by one cow on each plat. The pasturing apparently did no harm. Wheat in rotation (pp. 100-102). — Twenty tons of manure seemed to be excessive for wheat, as the yields averaged smaller than with con- tinuous cropping without manure. Test of varieties (pp. 102-104). — On 47 twenty-fifth-aere plats 35 vari- eties were tested. The Turkey wheat is promising because it yields well and is hardy. On an average of several years the 6 varieties giving the largest yields are Andrews No. 4, Turkey, Valley, Tasmanian Red, Ramsey, and Currell. Wheat experiments, 1895-'96, G. E. Morrow ( Oldahoma Sta. Bui. 20, pp. 1-9). — Sixty- five varieties of wheat were tested. Hybrid Medi- terranean, Nigger, and Missouri Blue Stem, among the bearded varieties, and Michigan Amber, Early Red Clawson, and Fultz, among the smooth, FIELD CROPS. 595 gave the highest yiekls. The weight per bushel was light among all varieties. In experiments with different quantities of seed per acre 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 pecks were sown, with little difference in yield. The comparison of sowing in drills 6 and 8 in. apart was inconclusive. Farm crops, C. O. Flaog {Rhode Island Sta. R2)t. 1895, pp. 183-188, Jiijs. 2). — This is a record of a number of trials on the station farm in which the growth of timothy and clover was very much benefited by heavy applications of lime. Clover failed where no lime had been applied. On a 4-acre piece of sod 1,580 lbs. of a complete fertilizer and 2,300 lbs. of air slacked lime were applied per acre. Corn was planted and the yield per acre was 62.43 bu. of shelled corn and 3,909.75 lbs. of stover. Experiments in planting at different distances, J. Raulin {Ann. Sci. Agron., ner. 2, 1 {1896), Xo. 3, pp. 391—103, pjs. 2). — After discuss- ing the tabulated results of experiments made in 1893, 1S94, and 1805 with beets, potatoes, wheat, and barley, the author states that the best distance for planting varies for different kinds of plants; that there is an interval for each kind more advantageous than any other, and that in determining this it is necessary to bear in mindthat diminishingthe distance increases the total weight of the crop but lessens the weight of the product of the individual plant, and conversely, and that this takes place in different proportions for each kind of plant. The best distance, then, is the least distance beyond which increasing the dis- tance does not improve the development of the plant, and so increase the value of the crop. In general, the author concludes as follows: The total yield i)er acre increases as the distance between the hills diminishes, but this increase becomes less and less as the minimum limit is approached, and entirely disappears or even becomes negative below a certain limit. These variations depend much on the nature of the plant, on the develoi>ment of its roots, and, in a certain degree, on the richness of the soil. Under given conditions the most favorable distance for each kind of plant is the one which returns the largest net profit per acre; and this depends on the total weight of the crop, the pecuniary value of the unit of weight (individual beet, tuber, kernel of grain, etc.), the weight of the seed sown, and the manual labor. The pecuniary value of the individual beet, tuber, etc., depends on the weight and richness in starch and gluten of the grain, on the proportion of starch for the potato, and of sugar for the beet. Investigation of the 1896 crop of barley in Wiirtemburg, Behrend ( Wiirt. WochenhJ. Landw., 1S96, No. 51, pp. 747-75J).— Tabulated analyses with reference to moisture and protein content of 20 samples of barley grown iiniler varied conditions of location, soil, and manuring; and discussion of results. Sea Island cotton in peninsular Florida, G. E, Macy {Florida Farmer uud Fruit Grower, S {16'00), No. 51, pp. 805, SUC). 596 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A cotton bush, J. H. Maiden {Agl. Gaz. X. S. Wales, 7 {1S96), No. 10, p. 649, p.. 1). — Notes are gi^■ell of Kochia villosa, available salt bush for fodder, although inferior to Atrijilex. Manuring winter grains, L. Vaxdenberch {BeUj. Sort, ct Arjr., S {1896), No. 23, pp. 35S, 359). Report on experiments on the manuring of hay conducted in the southwest of Scotland in the year 1895, R. P. "Wright {Glasgoir and Went of Scotland Tech. College, Agl. Dept. Bpts. 1S95, pp. 51-59). Lathyrus sylvestris, Bonnet {Jour. Agr. Prat., 61 {1897), I, No. 1, pp. 18, 19).—Ati argument in favor of extending cultivation of this plant, with notes upon a field and feeding test. Cultural experiments with different lupines, von Graevenitz (Landw. Centbl. Poaen, 24 {1896), No. 50, p. 281). — Preliminary test on a small scale of Lup'inus criick- shanksii, L. mutahills, L. alius, and L. nanus. All seemed indiflerent to marl, and L. nanus had a very short period of gi'owth. Effect of lime upon lupines {Landw. Centbl. Posen, 24 {1896), No. 47, pp. 265, 266), The prickly pear as a forage plant, P. Boukde, translated by J H. Maiden {Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 {1896), No. 10, pp. 651-657). — Notes are given upon the use of this plant and its fruit as food. The author believes its nutritive value, ability to with- stand drought, and ease of cultivation make it worth further consideration, and that a valuable nonprickly variety may be developed. Experiments of the German potato culture station in 1895 (Sachs, landw. Ztschr., 1896, No. 51, pp. 617-623). — Variety tests with special reference to starch con- tent of 14 varieties. Distance for planting potatoes, W. Paulsen {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), No. 103, pp. DIG, 917). Report on experiments on seaweed as a manure for potatoes, J. Hendrick {Glasgow and West of Scotland Tech. College, Agl. Dept. Rpts. 1S95, pp. 44-48). Sheep bushes and salt bushes {Kew Bulletin ; Agl. Jour. Cape Colony, 9 {1896), Nos. 25, pp. 638-641; 26, pp. 663-665). Trials of salt bush at Wagga Wagga, G. Valder {Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 {1896), A'o. 7, pp. 609-611, figs. 2). — Notes are given on the culture of Atriplex numinularia, A. halimoides, A. leptocarpa, A. semibaceata, lihogodia hostala, and Kochia aphglla. Different methods of raising sugar beets, P. Neumann (Fiihling's landw. Ztg., 46 {1897), No. l,pp. 16-19). What factors influence the sugar content of sugar beets {Dent, landw. Presse, 24 {1897), No. 7, pp. 52, 53). — Results of experimental work by B. Schulze in 1895 and 1896 are cited to show that climatic conditions, preparation and mauiaring of soil, and selection of seed influence sugar production in the order given. Soil wastes in the cane field, E. M. Shelton {Queensland Dept. Agr. Bui. 11, 2d ser., pp. 19). Tobacco on the east coast of Florida, H. PL Harman {Florida Farmer and Fruit Grower, 8 {1896), No. 51, p. 805). Tobacco culture, II, H. Curtis {Florida Farmer and Fruit Grower, 9 {1897), No. 4, pp. 53, 54, fig. 1). Chemical fertilizers for tobacco, S. Peacock {Florida Farmer and Fruit Grower, 9 {1897), No. 4, p. 54). A bearded square head wheat, Edler (laHdw. Wochenhl. Schles. Hoist., 46 {1896), No. 40, pp. 580-582). — This variety originated as a sjiort, and by selection and culti- vation has been developed into a prolific yielder, possessing many desirable qualities. Wire grass, J. H. Maiden {Agl. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 7 {1896), No. 10, p. 650, pi. 1).— Aristida stirpoides is figured and described. The grass is said to furnish fodder while quite young, but it soon becomes too hard for stock to eat. The root growth of plants in its physiological and cultural relations, IV, C. Kraus {Forsch. Geb. agr. Phys., 19 {1896), No. 1-2, pp. 80-129). HORTICULTURE. 597 Agricultural experiment work, N. A. Coiiu {Agl. Gas. N, S. Wales, 7 {1S9G), No. 10, pp. (U:.]-i;S!t,Jies as when the other system was in use." Composition of melons, W. Bersch {Landw. Vers. Stat., 4G {1896), No. 0,2)p. 473-170). — Analyses were made of the whole fruit and the edible pulp of ''sugar melons" {ZucJcermelonen), Persican melons (Per- sicaner melonen), and watermelons, and the sugar was determined in tlie fresh substance and in the expressed juice. The sugar was found in every case to be dextrose. The "sugar melons" averaged 3,184 gm. in weight, and the "Per- sican" melons 821 gm. Both were smooth and of a yellow color. The watermelons averaged 1 .110 gm. in weight. It is stated that watermel- ons are grown extensively in Hungary, and in many districts supply nearly all the drink of the people during the hot season. 12G91— Xo. 7 5 598 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The analyses are as follows : Analyses of melons. ' ' Sngar ' mfih>us. "Persican " melons. Watermelons. EdiWe portion. "Whole fruit. Edible portion. Whole fruit. Edible portion. Whole fruit. Proportion of parts: Per cent. Per cent. 37.10 46.52 16.38 Per cent. Per cent. 42.39 49.03 8.58 Per cent. Per cent. 35.19 60.37 4.44 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 Composition of fresh fruit : 95. 150 .649 .082 3.430 .014 .331 .344 92. 852 1.592 .481 2.596 .927 1.064 .488 95. 900 .484 .076 2.700 .141 .346 .353 93. 870 1.270 .806 1.850 .275 1.321 .608 93. 690 .614 .067 4.210 1.070 .123 .226 93. 440 .902 j'at .452 2.450 1.426 1.011 Ash .319 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 Composition of dry matter: 13. 394 1.694 70. 632 .289 6.897 7.094 22. 250 6.728 36. 320 12. 970 14.870 6.842 11. 800 1.854 65. 850 3.439 8.439 8.618 20. 710 13. 140 30. 180 4.485 21.550 9.935 9.731 1.062 66. 730 16. 946 1.949 3.582 13. 740 I'at 6.890 37. 360 21. 740 15.410 Ash 4.860 100. 000 100. 000 100.000 100. 000 100. 000 100.000 The percentage of juice obtained by a pressure of 300 atmospheres was 70.09 from the " sugar melons," 72.03 from the " Persican " melons, and 87.60 from the watermelons, so that although the 3 kinds of mel- ons contained nearly the same percentage of water, the watermelons were much the juiciest. They were also the sweetest, which may have been due to their being the freshest. Investigations on the organic acids and the albuminoids are promised later. Fertilizer experiments with pot plants, H. Muller-Thurgau {Jahresher. Vers. Sta. Wadcnsiveil, 4, pp. 52-54; ahs. in Boi. Centbl., 68 {1896), iVo. ,9, 2^V- 2^^i -399). — The author experimented with fertilizers upon various pot plants in cold frames. The mixtures used were: (1) Potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate, ammonium sulphate, and ammonium nitrate in the proportion of 30, 25, 10, and 35 parts of each, respectively, and (2) the same substances with the exception of the ammonium nitrate. It was found that the first mixture should be used when a luxuriant growth of the plant is desired, and the second when it is sought to cause the ])lant to bloom. Pollination of plums, F. A. Wafgh ( Vermont Sta. Bid. 53., pp. 47-64, figs.5,pJ.l). — The author discusses briefly the general relations between cross fertilization and fruitfulness, as shown in the strawberry, pear, and grape, and considers that the failure of the plum to fruit under seemingly favorable conditions, the instances of success in practical plum culture by mixed planting and intergrafting of different varieties? HORTICULTURE. 599 and observations upon plums by Bailey^ and Heidemau indicate the necessity of cross pollination for this fruit also. The author believes that each of the six modifications of the typical flower by which cross pollination is insured and self-fertilization pre- vented may exist in jjlum blossoms, particularly in varieties of the Americana group, but does not consider any variation of great signifi- cance except that of defective pistils. Figures are given showing typical pistils of 12 varieties of plum and comparisons of sound and defective pistils of Primus amerieana. About 2,000 plum blossoms were examined and compared as to percentage of defective instils and relative abundance of pollen production. The data are shown in the following table: Percentage of defective pistils and abundance of pollen in plum hlossoma. Samples. Blos- soms. Defect- ive pistils. Pollen bearing. Group. Scant. Medium. Abun- dant. Very abundant Pniniis amerieana, varit'tie.s 60 7 6 73 17 18 4 30 9 550 85 53 688 159 171 46 292 72 Per et. 27.8 40.0 5.7 27.6 15.1 24.6 50.0 5.1 15.9 Samplet. Samples. Samples. Samples, Prunua amerieana, type, wild Primus amerieana, nigra Prunus amerieana, consolidated.. 7 5 2 3 6 4 23 6 11 0 7 4 20 3 3 0 I 10 Prunus hortulana, varieties 2 0 Primus domestica, varieties 0 Q ^'From this it appears that about one-half of the pistils of the Marianna were defective ; over one-fonrth in Primus amerieana (the common wild plum), only a little less in Prunus hortulana (tlie Wild Goose grouji), about one-sixth in the Chicasaws and Japanese plums, and only one-twentieth in the European varieties {Prunus domestica). The great discrepancy between the wild forms of the typical Prunus amerieana (mostly Western) and the variety nigra (mostly Eastern) is a point of considerable interest. . . . "Different varieties vary greatly in the amount of pollen produced. This varia- tion seems also to follow somewhat the specific parentage of the varieties. Thus plums of the Americana group are generally more abundant pollen bearers, though they seldom show serious deficiency. The Japanese plums are still weaker, while the Marianna is distinctly lacking in quantity and perhaps also in the quality of pollen produced." In connection with the estimates of pollinating efficiency the author notes the facts that such estimates must be very rough, that there is a very decided difference in the quality of pollen, and that pistils of many varieties api)ear to have a pronounced selective ability for pollen; so that care must be exercised in drawing conclusions. To gain some evidence as to the theory advanced by Goff^ that the severity of Northern climates accounts for much of the defectiveness of i)istils, a tabulation by sections is made of the varieties examined. The results do not sustain the theory as, except at one location which 'New York Cornell Bui. 38, p. 43 (E. S. R., 4, p. 164). 3 Minnesota Hort. Soc. \i\\t., 1895, p. 187. 3 Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1894, p. 350. 600 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Lad ii uuiformly high percentage of defective pistils, the percentage rather decreases than increases northward. An experiment was made in protecting from cross fertilization the blossoms of 14 varieties, from 25 to 300 blossoms of each variety being covered by paper bags. Fruit did not set in G cases, and only ranged from 4 to 10 in number in the others, although the trees bore moderate or full crops. Work in crossing was limited to 21 experiments with 11 varieties, 319 pollinations being made, and the results tabulated. '^Beyond an indication that the typical Western forms of Prunus americana can be pollinated by the Eastern forms — var. nigra — these experiments show nothing." The author believes that the limits of cross fertilization and the lines of affinity among plum varieties follow closely the botanical boundaries of the parent species, and he gives a conspectus showing the natural relationships of the various groups. Strawberries, K. L. Watts ( Termessee Sta. BuL, Vol. IX, JSfo. 3, pp. 13, pis. 6). — Notes and tabulated data upon 54 varieties tested at the station, a compiled table of information from 24 growers in different parts of the State, and descriptions of 4 varieties of local origin which received favorable comment at a strawberry show. The reports from growers indicate that the most popular varieties in the State are: Ea7'ly, Michel; medium early, Bubach and Crescent; late, Gaudy; the most productive variety, Crescent or Haverland ; and best all-purpose and shi])i)ing variety. Crescent. Old asparagus roots, C. Anschicks {Amer. Gard., IS {1897), No. 108, p. 40).— Notes are given of the uusuccessful use of old roots iu starting a new bed. The author states that good 1-year-old roots are the best to use. Forced culture of beans, A. Nys {Belg. Hort. et Agr., 8 {1896), No. 24, p. 372). Sulphate of ammonia vs. nitrate of soda for cabbages {Farming World, 15 {1806), Jan.l). Analyses of mushrooms {New York State Sta. lipt. 1804, p. 134). — Analyses of several sorts of mushrooms grown at the station are given. Forcing rhubarb, G. Wythes {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 21 {1897), No. ,536, p. 64). — Gives varieties best adapted to forcing, and methods of culture. Irrigation in the garden, W. H. Jenkins {Amer. Gard., IS {1S97), No. 110, p. 71). — A description is given of an irrigation plant and notes on liquid manure for the garden. Variety test of apples, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock {New York State Sta. lipt. 1894, pp. 578-593). — Descriptions and notes upon 21 varieties, and table showing yield in 1894, age of tree or graft, and season of fruiting of 155 varieties of apple and 16 of crab-api)le. The choke cherry in cultivation, F. W. Cakd {Garden and Forest, 10 {1897), No. 467, pp. 47, 48). — Notes are given which seem to indicate that the choke cherry has been under cultivation for a considerable time in northern Pennsylvania. The guava, G. S. Rowley {Fndtman's Guide, 2 {1897), No. 52, p. 6).— Notes are given on the culture and uses of this fruit. Report on the olive tree and olive oil in Tuscany, Chapman {Dept. Agr. Queens- land Pill. 10, n. ser., pp. 7). — An account of the practices followed in Tuscany in the culture and preparation of olives and olive products for the market. HORTICULTURE. 601 Classification of varieties of peaches, R. H. Prick (dardni and Forest, 10 {1S97), No. 404, pp. v., 1.1, fig. 1). Variety test of pears, S. A. Beach aiul W. I'addock {Xtw York State Sta. Bpt. 1S94, pp. GOS, GOD). — List of 180 varieties growing iu the station orcliard. Pineapple culture, uses, and probabilities, G. L Russeix {Florida Farmer and Fruit Grower, S {ISOG), Xo. M, p. S'/)4). The fertilization of flo'wers in orchards and vineyards, especially in its rela- tion to the production of fruit {Xew York State Sta. L'pt. ISM, pp. GS3-G4S,fi(js. G). — riiis paper, wliicli was jiresented before the Ontario Fruit Growers' Association Decenilter 6, 1894, treats in a poijular way of cross and close pollination. Extensive experiments with grapes are reported, the essentials of which have appeared in the Annual Report of the station for 1892, pp. .")97-606 ( E. S. R., 0, p. 46). Removing and transplanting fruit and other trees ( Gard. Chron . , .sec. 3, 21 {1S97), Xo. 524, pp. 20,21). Close root pruning for trees, J. Tkoop {Garden and Forest, 10 {1S97), Xo. 467. p. 46). — Experiments were conducted with 4 trees each of dwarf and standard pears, cherries, prunes, peaches, and quinces. The roots were pruned until only about an inch remained. The results were considered very satisfactory. The season was very favorable, and it is thought possible that a dry season might give different results. On the care of trees, J. Phillipe {Behj. Hort. et Agr., S {1896), Xo. 24, pp. 374, 375, figs. 5). — Describes implements for cleaning and pruning trees and vines. Protecting trees against rodents {Denver Field and Farm, Xo. 575, p. 12). — Advises an application of axle grease to the tree or a wash made of lime, bluestone, sulphur, and water, to which glue has been added to make it adhesive, and also the use of wire netting. The fruit garden, T. Holloway {Amer. Gard., 18 {1S97), Xo. 108, p. 36). Fruit growing in Oklahoma, H. E. Glazieii {Oklahoma Sta. Bui. 20, pp. 15-20). — Popular directions are given for locating orchards, with special regard to the danger from late frosts; for selecting, planting, cultivating, and root pruning the trees; and for preventing injury by borers, mice, and rabbits. Variety test of blackberries, de-wberries, and raspberries, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock {Xeio York State Sta. lipt. 1894, pp. 504-600, 610-616). — Reprinted from Bulletin 81 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 33). Notes on strawberries for 1894, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock {Xeiv York State Sta. FqH. 1894, pp. 617-032, pi. 1).—A reprint of Bulletin 76 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 817). The sweet edible service berry as a tree for cold climates and dry soils, A. ScHliLTE {Deut. landw. Presse, 23 {1896), Xo. 101, p. 901, fig. 1). — Notes are given on Sorbus aucuparia fructii dulci. Growing grapes from cuttings, C. C. Nash {Amer. Gard., 18 {1897), Xo. 109, pp. 50, 51). — Notes are given on the size and length of cuttings, number of buds, storing, planting, and cultivation. Grape growing under glass, W. Scott {Amer. Gard., IS {1897), Xo. 109, pp. 49, 50). — Notes are given for house construction, planting, cultivation, etc. Will bees destroy grapes ? J. Troop {Amer. Gard., 18 {1897), Xo. 110, p. 67). — A colony of Italian bees was confined for 21 days under a Worden grapevine and received no food except what they got from the hive and from the grapes. At the end of that time careful examination failed to reveal any injury to the grapes. Variety test of grapes, 8. A. Beach and W. Paddock {Xew York State Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 001-007). — Notes upon 2.1 varieties. Propagation of hardy bamboos {Florists' Exchange, 9 {1897), Xo. 2, p. 25).— Directions are given for ])ropagation by seed, division, cuttings of base of culms and cuttings of the rhizomes. Concerning carnations, A. IIerrington {Amer. Gard., 18 {1897), Xo. 108, p. 35; 110, p. W).— Notes on cuttings, seedlings, and general treatment, together with the origin and historv of the different races. 602 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Propagation of carnations {Amer. Gard., 18 {1S97), No. 110, pp. 65, 66, fig. 1). ^ Hardy palms in Florida, T. L. Mead {Florida Farmer and Fruit Grower, 9 {1S97), Xo. 5, p. 67). Classification of sweet peas (Florists' Exchange, 9 [1897), No. 1, p. 6, figs. 12).— This classification is bused ou form of llower, especially of the standard, instead of on the color. Some problems in experimental horticulture, W. M. MUNSON {Am,er. Gard., IS (1897), Xo. 108, pp. 41, 4..'). — Notes are given on plant breeding, acclimatization, domestication, etc. Report of horticultural work, S. A. Beach and W. Paddock (Xew York State Sta. Ilpt. 1804, pp. .572-7(16). — Brief outline of the work of the year, reprints of bulletins, and investigations noticed elsewhere. The nursery book, I^. H. Bailev (Xew York: The Macmillan Co.. 1896, pp. XI, 365, figs. 152). — This is a revised and enlarged edition of this work, first published in 1891. In the present edition it is deemed best to treat fully the prevalent assump- tion that grafting is necessarily a devitalizing process, and also to analyze the unclassified knowledge respecting the mutual influences of stock and scion and the respective peculiarities of root-grafted and bud-fruited trees. In the nursery list, which has been considerably extended over that of the pre- vioiis editions, the author has incorporated many notes and suggestions from corre- spondence, as well as the results of experiments of tlie past 5 years. A chapter ou pollination, which was included in tlie first edition, is omitted from the x^reseut one, since a similar one was incorporated in tlie author's work on "Plant Breeding." Both the "Nursery Book" and "Plant Breeding" are included in the " Garden Craft Series "' of the publishers. FORESTRY. Timber pines of the Southern United States, C. Mohr ( TJ. 8. Dept. Agr., Dirision of Forestry Bui. 13, pp. 1-130, pis. 20, Jigs. 12). — A series of monographs is given relative to the more important timber pines of the South, viz, the long-leaf j)ine [Piniis palustris), the Cuban pine (P. heterophylla), the short-leaf pine (P. echinata), the loblolly pine (P. tcvda), and the spruce i:)ine (P. glahra). The geographical distribution, characteristics of distribution in dif- ferent regions, supply and production of products, nomenclature and classification, physical and mechanical characteristics, development, enemies, natural reproduction, and forest management are givdu for each species. Of the different kinds enumerated the long-leaf pine is of the greatest economic importance. Unlike some of the other species, the locality where grown seems to have no effect on the qualitj- of this pine. The rate of growth, reference to which has already been given (E. S. E., 7, p. 773), is slower than for the other s])ecies. This applies to growth in both height and diameter. The visible supply of long-leaf pine is given, and at the present rate of exploitation it will be exhausted in 40 to 50 years unless some system of forest management be adopted. The slow rate of growth and light requirements of the tree make rational man- agement especially desirable, otherwise this valuable timber will soon be exhausted. FORESTRY. 603 The enemies of this, as well as the other species, are enumerated and more or less fully described. Among the more important are forest fires, indiscriminate pasturing, insects, and fungus diseases. Suggestions are given for the prevention of these injuries. In addition to the foregoing, an extended account is given of the tur- pentine and related industries and the effect of such industries upon the quality of the timber and the condition of the forests of long-leaf pine, that species probably furnishing the greatest quantity of these substances. Associated with the long-leaf pine in its more southern range is the Cuban pine, the timber of which is said to be little if any inferior to that of the long-leaf species. This tree abounds in resin, and is also valuable on this account. The lumber of these two pines is said to be sawn and shipped rather indiscriminately, the two species being closely related, and to the casual observer identical. The rate of growth of the Cuban pine is much more rapid than that of its congener, resulting in a somewhat coarser structure of the wood, the durability of which is still to be ascertained. The short-leaf pine has a more extended range than either of the other species mentioned. In commercial importance it is said to rank next to the long-leaf pine. This species is said to be less sensitive to a deficiency of liglit than some others, and on this account it becomes very aggressive whenever openings are made in forests. On account of its very rapid growth and the readiness with which it establishes itself, this species is destined to take an important position in systems of reforestation. The loblolly pine produces timber a little inferior to the others, but on account of its rapid growth it will probably become an important factor in the future forests of the region where it abounds. There are several distinct grades of loblolly which are recognized by lumbermen under the names rosemary pine, swamx) or slash pine, and old field pine? their relative value being in the order enumerated. Where strength and durability are not the prime requisites, loblolly pine ranks as of very great value. The last species described is the spruce pine. It is much less com- mon than the other species, and is confined to the subtropical portions of the United States, where it is frequently confused with the short-leaf pine. As it nowhere. forms forests of any considerable extent, it is of little importance to the lumber industry. The timber is said to be rather poor in quality, light, soft, and easily worked, but is probably well adapted to certain uses. An introductory chapter to the bulletin furnished by the Chief of the division, B. E. Fernow, consists mainly of a resume of the contents of the various monographs. Especial attention is drawn to the necessity of rational methods of management of forests. Statistics of supply, consumption, rate of growth, etc., are plentifully supplied, which must prove valuable to any student of tlie subject. 604 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Notes on the structure of the wood of the Southern pines, F. EoTH ( r. 8. Dept. Agr„ Division of Forestry Bui. lo^iri). 131-150, pis. 7, Jigs. 6). — The autlior lias made an elaborate study of the structure of the woods of the 5 principal timber pines of the South, viz : Long- leaf pine, Cuban pine, short-leaf pine, loblolly pine, and spruce pine. The investigations failed in establishing any macroscopic or microscopic features that could be used for specific determinations. The results of his investigations on the characteristics of the wood structure are given in detail. Tree culture, C. B. Waldron {Xorth Dalota Sta. Bui. 2.5, pp. 77-8ti,2)ls. o). — Directions are given for forest planting and the subse- quent care of the trees. Compiled descriptions are given of the fol- lowing trees, which are more or less adapted to the region indicated: White, soft, or silver maple {Acer dasijcarpum), silver or white birch {Betula papijracea), cut leaf weeping birch {B. alba laciniata pendula), hackberry {Celtis occidentalis), white ash {Fraxinus americana), green ash {F. viridis), box elder [Xegundo aceriodes)^ cottonwood {Fopnlus monilifera), Russian poplar (P. certinensis), chokecherry {Frunus vir- ginica), wild plum (P. americana), mountain ash [Fyrus americana), burr oak ( Quercus macrocarpa), white or gray willow [Salix alba), golden Eussian willow {8. rifellina rtjervirenti that were measured near Scott, California, last summer, one of which was 230 ft. to the first linibs and 340 ft. in total height. Hardy coniferous trees, A. D. Webster (Hutchinson 4- Co. Reviewed in Gnrd. Chron., ser. 3, .21 (1S97), Xo. 524, pp. 31, S2). Conifers at Kansas Agricultural College, F. C. Sears (Garden and Forest, 10 (1S97), Xo. 465, p. -2.3). — Notes are given on the growth and condition of red cedar, European larch, gingko, several firs, and arbor vita-s. Patton's spruce (Garden and Forest, 10 (1S97), No. 463, pi. 1, fujs. 5).— Editorial notes are given of Patton's sprnce ( Tsuga pattoniana). Remarks on the distinctive characters of Canadian spruces, G. Lawson (Canadian Uec. Sci., 7 (1S96), No. 3, pp. 1(;3-175). On the culture of osier ^willows (Dent, landw. Fresse, 33 (1896), Nos. 42, pp. 367, 368; 43, p. 375). Influence of raising the forest cover upon the growth of plants, G. Huffel (llev. Eaux et Forets, ser. 3, 1<) (1806), No. 33, pp. 546-548^. Notes from the Santa Monica forestry station, J. H. Barber (Garden and For- est, 9 (1896), No. 457, p. 474). — Notes are given of Eucalyptus corymhosa, Parkinsonia aculeata, and Hakea lanrina. Forestry in Pennsylvania (Garden and Forest, 9 (1896), No. 463, pp. 521, 522). Forest conditions in the southern Sierras, F. M. Gallaher (Garden and Forest, 9 (1896), No. 460, pp. 503-505). Types of British woodland, A. C. Forbes (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 20 (1896), No. 522, p. 783). — Describes beech woods and the methods of afforesting. Rhine forests and their management, Eeb.manx (Alhj. Forst. und Jagd. Ztg., 72 ( 1896 ) , pp . 38 1 -386 ) . The aboreal flora of maritime Belgium, L. Berger (/>'«/. Sec. cent. Forst. Belgique, 3 (1896), No. 13, p. 863). On the limits of elevation on forest culture in northern Scandinavia and vicinity, C. Eabot (Eev. gen. Bat., 8 (1896), No. 94, pp. 385-417). The natural renovation of pine forests, B. Borggreve (Ztschr. Forst. und Jagdw., 28 (1896), No. 11, pp. 670-679). Interesting foreign trees for planting in France, P. Mouillefert (Jour. Agr. Prat., 60 (1896), II, No. 46, pp. 717-731, jigs. 4). Forests and forest management in Greece, G. N. Cofinas (Rev. Eaux et Forets, 35 (18.96), No. 31, pp. 508-515). Tlie exploitation of waste land in Holland (Forester, 2 (1896), No. 5, pp. 73-76). Description of the royal fore.sts of Prussia, M. G. Huffel (Bui. Min. Agr. France, 5 (1896), No. 4, pp. 563-610). DISEASES OF PLANTS. Bordeaux mixture, its use in the potato field, L. F. Kinney {Rhode F.sldiid iSYfl. Bui. 3S, pp. 19-58, Jigs. ',). — A report is given of the success- I'lil use of Bordeaux mixture in combating the hite blight of potatoes, yeven applications were given the plants and the disease Avas almost wholly controlled, while all adjoining untreated fields suflered severely. Th(^ strength of mixture recommended is 1 lb. each of copper sulphate ;iii(l lime and 4 to 8 gals, of water. In the experiment referred to above tlie first application was not made until after the disease was generally . A. Cockerell {Garden and Forest, 10 {1897), No. 164, p. 19). — A letter states that the palmetto scale has been observed on the Pacific Coast on the leaves of palms from Mexico. The palms were thought to have come from Mazatlan, where they were growing wild, about 75 to 100 miles inland. These Mexican specimens represent a variety {Mexicana) distinguished from the Florida form by the female (under the scale) being orange yellow, and the ventral grouped glands, numbering in caudolaterals, 11: to 17; in mediolater- als, 11 to 15; and in cephalolaterals, 7 to 10. For horticultural purposes the two forms may be treated as one. Dactylopius or mealy bugs, T. D. A. Cockerell {Sci. Gos., n. ser., 3 {1897), No. 32, pp. 199-201, fig. 1). — A short, semii)opular account of the mealy bugs, with remarks on their study in Europe and elsewhere, and upon books for the student of coccids. Descriptions are given of a new species, Dactylopius Uchensioides, found at Fort Collins, Colorado, on the flowering stem of Artemisia frigida, September 25, 189G, by C. P. Gillette, and of one described originally by Maskell and Newstead in 1893, from specimens found in Demerara and observed by G. C. Davis on palms in a hothouse in Michigan. A very brief descriptive list is also given of 21 species of Dactylopius thus far known to occur 610 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. in Europe, either native or in liothouses. The figure represents the new species in a sac on a twig of artemisia. Biology of the cockchafer (Rev. ScL, ser. 4, 7 {1897)^ No. 1, pp. 27^ 28). — Some observations on the life history of Melolontha vulgaris. Older authors are criticised and the eggs, larva, nymph, and imago described anew. The main point made is that the adult insect lives from 45 to 62 days, much longer than nas previously been described. A few observations are also made on the destruction of white grubs. Insects injurious to stored grain and cereal products, A. L. QuAiNTANCE {Florida Sta. Bui. 30, pp. 358-3S5, fiffs. 10). — In this are given mostly compiled short popular accounts and descriptions of the Angoumois grain moth {Gclechia cerealeUa), the meal snout moth {Py- ralis farinalis), the Mediterranean flour moth {Ephestia l-Hehniella), the Indian meal moth [Flodia interpunctella), the granary weevil [Calandra granaria), the rice weevil {C. oryza), the bean weevil {Bruchus ohtectus), the Chinese cowpea weevil {B. chinensis), the four spotted bean weevil {B. quadrimaculatus)^ the pea weevil {B. pisi), the slender horned flour beetle {Bchocerus maxillosus), the confused flour beetle {Triboliiim con- fusum), the rust red flour beetle {T. ferruginemn), the red grain beetle {Carthartus geniellatns), the corn silvanus {Silvanus surinamensis), the grain eating brachytarsus {Brachyfarsus alternatus), and the catorama flour beetle {Catorama punctulata). Of these the rust red flour beetle and the corn silvanus, besides their usual destructiveness to cereals, etc., are mentioned as serious museum pests. The confused flour beetle is said not to be present in great numbers, but may become so, while the meal snout moth and the Med- iterranean flour moth, which are at present not known to occur in Florida at all, may be expected at any time. The grain eating brachytarsus is reported for the first time as injuri- ous to stored grain ; the larvte have previously been supposed to be l^arasitic on scale insects and coccids. But it has been found feeding in larval and adult condition in stored cowpeas and English peas, and doing serious damage. The most injurious of this list are the Angoumois grain moth and the rice weevil. Fully 20 per cent of all corn stored in granaries, the author esti- mates, is destroyed hy insects, which signifies an annual loss to the State of $492,598.15. As a remedy the use of carbon bisulphid is recommended. Some Mexican and Japanese injurious insects liable to be introduced into the United States ( U. >S. IJept. Agr., Division of Entomology Bui. 4, tech. ser., pp. 50, Jigs. 0). — This bulletin consists of a series of articles, 3 of which relate to Mexican insects, 1 specifically to Japanese insects, and 2 to insects which may enter this country mainly from Japan, but also from other Pacific ports, principally Hawaii and Australasia. ENTOMOLOGY. 611 A report is given by C. H. T. To wnseud of a trip in Mexico to investigate the insects of economic importance. Tlie author visited various regions from wliicli produce is shipped and investigated the injurious insects which are liable to be introduced into this country. Lists of species are given, together with the plants which they frequent and notes on their economic importance. Attention is called to several sjiecies of scale insects which are especially destructive and, in the author's opinion, liable to be introduced into this country. It is suggested that all plants, fruits, stored grain, roots, and vegetable products of any description be inspected before crossing the border into the United States. The insects affecting stored cereal and other products in Mexico are listed by F. H. Chittenden and notes given on their economic impor- tance. Notes and descriptions of new Ooccidae collected in Mexico by C. H. T. Townsend are given by T. D. A. Cockerell, in which 12 sxjecies and varieties are described. A list of scale insects found upon plants entering the port of San Francisco is given by a quarantine officer of the State Board of Horti- culture of California, A. Craw, including the name of the species, country from whence it came, and the trees and plants frequented by it. Descriptions of some Coccidie found by A. Craw in his quarantine work at San Francisco are given by T. I). A. (Jockerell, in which 5 new species are described. Descriptions and notes of some new species of Japanese Coccida' are given by T. D. A. Cockerell, in which new genera and sjiecies are described. Report of entomologist, I, T. D. A. Cockerell {New Mexico Sta. Bui. 19, pp. 99-118, fig. 1). — The author gives an account of the locali- ties visited during the past year and the insects noted at each place. Special attention is called to Howard's plum scale {Aspidiotus hoic- ardi), a description of which is given and characters drawn up whereby it may be distinguished from a nearly related species, A. ancylus. Notes are given on the San Jose scale and its distribution, with directions for preventing its spread, and also notes on the codling moth ( Carpocapsa pomonella), grapevine leaf hoppers ( Typlilocyha coloradenns and Dicraneura coclcerellii), wild cherry webworm [Clisio- canipa fragilifi), sugar beet worm {Loxostege sticticalis), tomato worm {Ueliothis annigera), apple twig borer {Amphicerus hiemcdatus), and small case bearers {Coleophora fietcherella and C. maUvorella). Annual report of the zoologist for 1896, C. Warburton {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. England, ser. 3, 7 {1896), pp. 7(11-772, figs. 3). — A report containing more or less original descriptions and notes on the cutworms {Agrostis segetiim and A. exclaniationis), the apple blossom weevil {Antlionomus pomorum), a leaf-eating weevil {Fhyllohiufi), the apple aphis or green fly, the pear midge {Biplosis pyrivora), the seaside 612 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. weevil or traveling gang {PMlopedon [CucorrMmis) germinatus), a beetle infesting malt sacks {Triholium ferrugineum.)^ the death's head moth {AcJierontiaatropos),t]ie swift moth {Hepialus I H2)ulim(s), the cockroach [FliyUodromia gennanica), the asparagus beetle [Crioceris asparagi), tortrix^ wireworm, the sheep bot tiy {Oestrus ovis), the frit fly (Antho- myia radicum), the pear sawfly {Eriocampa Imiacina), and tlie garden chafer {E. horiicola). As a remedy for cutworms, hand picking, harrowing the ground frequently, dressing with manure just before a rain to push the plants through the attack, and a thorough stirring of the land after harvest- ing the crops, are recommended. For apple pests lie recommends banding the trees in the fall, cleaning the trunks in winter, sprayiug with an arsenic preparation in spring, and attending to tbe ground beneath the trees. For the pear midge he advocates extermination, even at the expense of an entire croj), by stripping off the fruit before the insect has left it, and such treatment of the ground in winter as will destroy the pupte. The seaside weevil, hitherto not recorded as an agricultural pest, is mentioned as found aftecting crops. As remedies are recommended the destruction of the natural food plant, the hound's tougne {Cyjtoglosnuni officinale), from the neighborhood of the fields likely to be affected, or, since the insect is wingless, fencing with tarred boards, also shaking oft" into bags, washing with quassia, infusion, or the introduction of an army of chickens. A decoction of the leaves of foxglove is noted as having been suc- cessfully employed against the asparagus beetle ( Crioceris asparagi). Further, it is noted that in a grove of oaks, badly infected with tortrix, the trees that escaped proved to be Quercns rohnr pednnculata. An emulsion for chicken lice {Indiana Farmer, 32 [1897), No. 4, p. 7). — One and a half gallons of kerosene are soaked through 2i lbs. of pyrethrum and to 1 gal. of the resulting extract 1 lb. of soap is added, and the whole churned until emulsified. Dilute this M'ith 3 parts of water before using. Practical entomology, A. D. Hopkins and W. PI Eumsey ( West Virginia Sta. Bid. 44, pp. 247-325). — This bulletin, which describes the insects injurious to farm and garden crops, the character of the injury, the insect causing it, and the remedy, is designed especially for the practical farmer and gardener desiring a work of reference in which is plainly stated information on some of the more important facts with reference to insects injurious to cultivated plants. It is also intended to be of service to the young student of economic entomology who desires a simple guide to the study of common insects and the nature of their injuries. The insects and injuries are classified according to the plant and part of the plant which they frequent, and the descriptions are clearly drawn without tlie use of any unnecessary scientific terms, the technical names being given in footnotes. ENTOMOLOGY. 613 A chapter is given on remedies, in which iiumerons formulas are iiu'ltuled, witli directions for i)reparatiou and use. To keep out moths, (i. W. Williams (St. Louis Jour. Ayr., .17 {1897), Xo. S, pp. ■2..', 23). — This tlesoribes a screen room for working -with comb frames. Some of the needs of bee keepers of southern California, C. C. Aldrich {I'ltclfic L'liral rres,s, .'•? (1S97), Xo. 3, p. 3S). — Advises the migratory system for nnceitaiu climatic conditions. On the host animals of the Nycteribidee : Strebla and Megistopoda, V. von Rr)i)EK {Enf. Xachr., ..'2 (1806), Xo. 21, pp. 321-324). The tent caterpillar, C. M. Wkkd (Xew Hampshire Sla. liul. 38, pp. 4t]-59, figs. 14). — A jiopnlar bnllotin in which the history and life history of the tent caterjjillar (I'lisiocatiipa amerivaua), its diseases and other natural enemies, and methods for its destruction bj- burning and spraying are giveu. The larger cornstalk borer, L. 0. Howard (U. S. Depi. Agr., Division of Knto- inologij Circ. 16, pp. 3, figs. 3). — The author gives the description, distribution, natural history, habits, and amount of damnge caused by the larger cornstalk borer (Dia- traa saccharalis), and suggests remedies for preventing its attacks. The peach tree borer, C. L. Marlatt (F. S. Depi. Agr., Dixnsion of Entomology Circ. 17, pp. 4, fig. 1). — Description, natural history, aud habits of the peach tree borer (Santiiua exitiosa) are given, with suggestions for its prevention. Borers (Florida Agr., 24 (1897), Xo, 3, p. 35). — Recommends removing borers with wire and coatiug wound with rubber paint or pine tar. Cautious against using carbolic acid or " dendrolene." Lime and sulphur are better. Caustic potash is harmful. Melon louse. E. Y., Bogie (Oklahoma Sta. liul. 20, pp. 22, 23). — Brief descriptive notes are given on the melon louse (Aphis cucumeris), and directions art' given for its destinction either by means of kerosene emulsion or by the use of fumes of carbon bisulphid. A Lecanium scale infesting plum trees in ^western New York, V. H. Lowe (Xexe York Stale Sta. lipt. 1894, pp. 732-734). — A brief description of 8 experiments in the application of kerosene emulsion of different strengths for the repression of this insect. The cost of the different ajiplications is given, but the author's studies were not carried snfQciently far for a detailed account of the life history of this insect, nor for a definite statement as to tlie percentage of scales killed by the treatment employed. The San Jose scale, F. M. Webster (Ohio Sta. Bui. 72, pp. 211-217, figs. 4). — A brief illustrated description is given of the 8an Jose scale (Aspidiotns perniciofius), with notes on its life history, remedies, and a list of trees and other plants known to be infested by it. The act of the State legislature relating to the San ,Jos^ scale is quoted. Oyster sheJl and San Jose scale (Farmers' lieriew, 28 (1897), Xo. 1, p. 5). — Gives a popular method for distinguishing the two. The woolly aphis ( Garden, 6 (1897), No. 1312, Jan., pp. 20, 21).— The ravages of the woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera) have decidedly increased in England within the last few years, and seriously affect the orchard and apple plantations wherever trees have been neglected. Insects affecting late cabbage, notes on the stalk borer, and insecticides, ¥. A. SiRRiNK (Xew York State Sta. Bpt. 1894, pp. 737-705, pis. ,?).— This is a reprint of Bulletin 83 of the station (E. S. E., 7, i>. 144). Seme insects injurious to squash, melon, and cucumber vines, and the aspar- agus beetle, V. II. Lowr, (Xew York Slate Sta. lipt. is:i-i, pp. 711-731, pis. 4, figs. 3). — This is a rei)rint of I'.ullctin ~~> of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 833). An acarine parasite of the vine, J. Perraud (Compt. rend. Soc. Biol. Paris, 1896, Dec. 26). — Relates to Giardius vitia. 12094— is^o. 7 G 614 EXPERIMENT 8TATI0X RECORD. Predaceous and parasitic enemies of aphides (including a study of Hyper- parasites}, H. C. A. Vine {[nternaf. Jour. 2Iicros. and Xat. Sci., scr. 3, 6 (ISOO), A'o. 32, pp. SG9). System of the North American Lepidoptera, A. R. Gkotk (Hildesheim Mitt. Bomer-Musemn, 1S9G, JS'ov., pp. 4). Systematic revision of the European species of the family Culicid^, E. FiCALBi ( r,n\. Soc. Ent. Ital., 27 {1895), p. 3S; 28 {1896), pp. 108-190, pi. i).— In Part I the systematic arrangemcut of the Eurojieaa species is considered; m Part II the anatomy is treated at length; and in Part III, which is not completed, the general relationships of the Ciilicida' and other Diptera are considered. Review cf the kno"wn Palearctic species of the Coleopterous genus Brachy- leptus, E. Keitter {Ent. Xachr., 22 {lS9i;), Xo. 19, pp. 293-29i;), The parasitic hymenopterous fauna of Ottaw^a — Proctotrypidae, W. H. H.xit- RiXGTOX {Ottawa XatitraUsf, 10 {1890}, Xo. 9, pp. 174-178). Contribution to the lepidopterous fauna of the Canary Islands, W. Rerel {Avn. /.-. /.-. Xut. Hist. Jlof museums, 11 {1890), Xo. 2. pp. lO'J-149, pi. 1). The Hemiptera Heteroptera of the British Islands, VIII, J. Edwards ( London : 1896, pp. 12, 225-271, ph. 2). Bibliography of the more important contributions to American economic entomology, V, S. Hexshaw {V. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Entomology, pp. 179). — This is the concluding part of the bibliography of the more important writings of Government and State entomologists and other contributors to literature on Ameri- can economic entomology, and includes the authors Irom L to Z. Brief annotations are given after each reiereuce, indicating the scope of the publication referred to. FOODS— ANIMAL PRODUCTION. , Dietary studies at Purdue University in 1895, W. E. Stone; commeuts by W. O. Atwater aud C. ]). Woods ( T. *S'. JDejJt. Ayr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 32, pp, 28). — Two dietary studies, one of a teacher's family and one of a mechanic's family in Indiana, were made in the customary maimer (E. S. If., 7, p. 148). A number of Indiana foods were analyzed. The composition of other foods was com- puted from standard tables. Tables are given showing the amount of food ])urchased, wasted, and eaten, its cost, composition, and fuel value. The results of these studies are briefly summed up in the following table: Results of dietary studies — food eaten per man per day. Xutrients. Cost. Fuel Protein. Fat. Carbohy- drates. value. Teacher's family Cents. 18 26 Grams. 106 90 Grams. 102 134 Grams. 340 408 Calories. 2 780 Mechanic's family 3 ''85 In the comments on these dietaries the results are compared with results of similar studies made in other localities in the United States and with the generally accepted dietary standards. " [These results] show very plainly that the more costly dietary is not necessarily the more attractive or nutritious. It could not be said that the tinner's dietary FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 615 whifb cost 2(5 cts. per day, Avaa in any way preferable to that of the teacher's family, wliicli cost 18 cts. per day. On the contrary, the latter was the more rational and snbstantial. ... "The dietary of the teacher's family constitutes an exceptionally good example of intelligent and economical management, secxiriug at the same time excellent living. The tinner's dietary was in no way an exception, but is probably quite typical of the manner of living of the great majority of wage earners of the better class." Composition and digestibility of linseed meal, H. Snyder {Min- nesota Sta. Bui. 47, pp. 20-30, fiij. 1). — Two digestion experiments were made with 2 pigs weighing about 170 lbs. each. The ration consisted of 1.;^ lbs. linseed meal (old process) and 9 lbs. of raw potatoes per day. The digestibility of the i»otatoes had been determined in a previous experiment. The linseed meal was mixed with a little water, and the sliced potatoes added. The pigs did not relish such large quantities of linseed meal, and in order to make them eat the ration 4 oz. of shorts per day was added. The average coefficients of digestibility were as follows: Total dry matter 77.5 per cent, ash 10, crude protein 8G, fat SO, crude fiber 12, and nitrogen-free extract 85. Linseed meal is founVicke and H. Weiske {Ztschr. jihysiol. Chem., 23 {189G), No. 2, 2n>- ^30-152).— This is a continuation of work previously reported (E. S. E.., 8, p. 321). The author tested the influence of the addition of fat and of starch to a ration containing an abundance of i)rotein and fat. The experiment, which was divided into 3 periods, was made with the same sheep as the previous series. The sheep weighed at the beginning 52 and 41 kg., respectively. During the whole experiment sheep No. 1 was fed a basal ration of 800 gm. of meadow hay and 200 gm. of flaxseed (from which part of the oil had been removed), and sheep No. 2, 650 gm. of meadow hay and 200 gm. of flaxseed. The experiment proper was preceded by a preliminary test of 8 days. During the first period, which lasted 8 days, the sheep were fed the basal ration only. In the second period, which lasted 9 days, sheep No. 1 was fed 146.4 gm. of starch per day in addition, and sheep No. 2, 50 gm. of olive oil, an isodynamic quantity of fat. During the third period, which lasted 9 days, sheep No. 1 received 60 gm. of olive oil per day in addition to the basal ration. It was the intention to feed sheej) No. 2 an isodynamic quantity of starch during this period, but the authors were not able to complete the experiment. The water drunk Avas recorded each day. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed. The results of the expew- ment are expressed in detail in tabular form. The coefficients of FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 617 digestibility of the rations iu the diflferent periods are given in the following table: Coefficients of digestibility in experiments with sheep. Animal. Dry Oi-Sanic matter. J't,. 1 stance. Protein . Fat. Grade ^'^l"' fiber gen-free °"*''^- ; extract. Ash. Hav and flaxseed . . ■ Do No.l.... No 2.... No.l.... No.l.... No. 2. . . . 1 Per cent. \ Per cent. 64.18 67.49 64. 07 67. 44 67. 28 70. 27 Percent 73.15 71.47 69.19 71.58 72.02 Per cent. 76.85 81.46 78.08 87.78 86.45 Per cent. 62.67 62.13 60.08 62.10 65.66 Per cent. 65. 50 64.79 72.39 58.77 59.81 Percent. 26.15 24.60 Hay, flaxseed, and 26.55 Hav, flaxseed, and 63.44 64.67 66.53 67.76 25.10 Do 25.63 The daily nitrogen balance for each period is shown in the following- table : Nitrof/P)i balance iti experiments with nheep. Animal. Nitrogen in — Food. ; Urine. Feces. Gain. Hav and flaxseed. "Do. No.l. No. 2. Hay, flaxseed, and starch No. 1. Hay, flaxseed, and oil No. 1 . Do I No. 2. Grains. 22. 04 19.39 22.04 22.04 19.39 Grams. 15.16 13. 11 13.59 14.75 12.58 Grams. 5.92 5.53 6.81 6.27 5.43 Gi-ainr. 0.06 0.75 1.64 1.02 1.38 The anthor's conclusions may be briefly summarized as follows: The addition of starch to the ration diminished the digestibility of protein and crude fiber. The addition of fat to the ration exercised no influence on the digestibility and assimilation of protein and crude fiber, but diminished the assimilation of fat. The addition of starch and fat to the ration did not cause as great a gain of nitrogen as when added to a ration containing little fat and protein. Starch was a better protector of protein than isodynamic quantities of fat. The experiment is discussed at length in its relation to the previous work of the authors and of others. On the influence of the addition of increasing quantities of fat to the ration upon the metabolism and gain of nitrogen in the animal body, A. Wicke and H. Weiske {Ztsclir. physiol. Chem., 22 (i' 7^).— The author finds that muscle plasma contains about 20 per cent of paramyosinogiu (Hal- liburton) and 75 to 80 per cent of myosinogiu (Halliburton^, and also, in the case of frog muscle plasma, myogenfibrin. This is sometimes found in smaller quantities in the muscle plasma of warm-blooded ani- mals. In the author's opinion, Kiihue's myosin is the same as Halli- burton's paramyosinogiu. Relation of sex in thoroughbred calves, T. Collier {Xew York State Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 125-132). — To collect data on this subject cir- cular letters were sent to leading breeders of thoroughbred stock of the different breeds. As a result the data are compiled for 68 herds, includ- ing 10 breeds, 769 cows, and 3,614 calves, showing number of calves of each sex produced by the cows of each breed in each period of lactation. A summary of these data is given in the following table: Proportion of calves of each sex. Breed. Jersey Holstein-Friesian Guernsey Shorthorn Red Polled Ayrshire American Holderness Devon Aberdeen Angus Galloway Jersey grade Total Number Number Number Number Per cent Per cent ofcows. of calves, of bulls, of heifers, of bulls, of heifers, 254 209 110 9.5 51 21 3 i 5 10 7 1,273 1,040 451 358 259 140 583 517 211 180 118 77 3 4 7 16 14 3,614 1,730 690 523 240 178 141 63 5 4 9 17 14 1,884 45.8 49.7 46.8 50.3 45.6 5.5.0 37.5 50.0 43.8 48.5 50.0 47.9 54.2 50.3 53.2 49.7 54.4 45.0 62.5 50.0 56.2 51.5 50.0 52.1 The bearing of these data on certain theories is discussed. Dividing the time under observation into 4 periods shows the following in regard to the proportion of males and females : rerceiiiaijes of male and female births in different periods of lactation. Period. First, second, and third periods of lactation Fourth, fifth, and .sixth iieriod.s of lactation Seventh, eighth, and ninth periods of lactation Tenth, eieventh, twelfth, and thirteenth periods of lactation Males. Per cent. 47.7 48.5 46.9 47. 5 Females. Per cent. 52.3 51.5 53.1 52.5 620 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "The above shows a very slight increase lu the percentage of females, with an increase in the age of the cows. "In the data collected no fact is so prominently indicated as the prepotency of the cow in determining the sex of her offspring. As a rule it is seen that the numbers of males and females are nearly alike, the latter being in an excess of 8.9 per cent; but among the returns received many instances point emphatically to the predominating influence of the cow herself. . . . "There were recorded 62 twin calves, or 1.72 per cent of the total number of calves. Of these twins 27, or 45 per cent, were bull calves, and 33, or 55 jier cent, heifers, and 16, or 26.7 iier cent, were free-martins. . . . "In regard to the bearing of twin calves the same evidence is seen of individual- ity of the cow." Numerous interesting- instances of the preponderance of one or the other sex and of twin births are cited to show the influence of individ- uahty. Sheep-feeding experiments -with different nitrogenous feeding stuffs with and without the addition of salt, E. Wolff, J. Mayer, SiEGLiN, and Kreuzhage [Landtc. Jahrb., 25 {1896), i\o. 1, jyp. 175- 193). — These experiments, which are in continuation of work previously reported (E. S. E., 4, \). 974), were made with 4 2-year-old grade Wiirt- temberg sheep, weighing 52, 50, 49.5, and 47 kg., respectively. The nitrogenous feeding stuft's compared were barley and field beans. The beans and barley were usually fed dry, but in some cases were soaked for 24 hours. They were added in increasing amounts to a basal ration of meadow hay. In general each ration was fed with and without salt. The experiment was divided into 0 i)eriods of 32, 21, 28, 20, 37, and 25 days, respectively. Full data for each sheep for each i)eriod are given in tabular form. The arrangement of tlie rations and the coctticients of digestibility for each sheep for each ration are given in the following table: Co'vfficienta of digestihiUty with and tvithout salt. Hay with salt. Do Do Do Average. Hav without salt. "Do Do Do Average . Hay and barley without salt Hay aud beaus without salt Hay and barley with salt 'Do Do Hay aud beans with salt Hay aud barley with salt Do Hay and beans wi th salt Hay. barley, and beaus with salt. Do Sheep No Dry matter. Organ- ic sub- stance. Per. ct. Per. ct. 56.32 I 58.77 56,14 58.35 56.87 58.48 60.51 59.10 56.92 59.22 58.71 60.44 57.37 59.28 61.08 62.51 59.66 61.52 Pro- tein. Fat. I Nitro- j gen free extract. Per. ct. 50.94 49.92 53.31 52.82 51.75 Per. ct. 43.25 42.43 44.66 38.63 42.24 54.50 57.26 54.90 53.51 58.95 83.76 86.91 71.65 71.76 70.57 70.22 74.31 75.56 73.15 71.36 76.45 61. 19 1 55. 04 45.63 46.67 42.85 41.74 Per. ct. 62.83 62.94 64.42 63.70 63.47 64.98 65.67 63. 50 65.55 44.22 I 64.93 86.12 87.03 73.94 73.91 72.47 71.80 76.31 77.23 75.14 72.88 78.28 75.28 86.53 66.01 69.76 71.02 74.07 70.34 76. 80 77.61 73.26 81.98 85. 24 100. 00 58.57 58.21 62. 13 51.30 62. 34 69.68 55.57 56.36 61.70 91.68 93.37 80.55 80.36 79.81 76. 72 82. 97 83.89 81.74 77.67 84.23 Crude fiber. Ash. Per. ct. 55.89 55.20 57.72 55.38 56.05 58.28 60.66 56.12 59.03 58.52 18.34 40.07 59.39 56.27 49.11 60.32 54.94 49.42 53.72 57.62 55.91 Per. ct. 21.66 22.87 27.77 25.27 24.39 22.02 30.08 24. 52 26.42 25.76 90.38 25.46 28.63 31.89 42.16 32.49 39.00 32.98 38.12 36.66 FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 621 The following- couclusions were reached: The opinion of previous years is confirmed that salt has no marked efiect on digestibility. The digestibility of soaked and dry beans and of barley is practically the same. From all the experiments made it is concluded that a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1:7-8 has given as good results as one with a nutritive ratio of 1:4-5. The principal point m feeding full-grown sheex) in medium condition is to fatten them as quickly as possible to produce meat of good flavor. To accomplish this it is essential that the ration should be easily digested and appetizing in order that a relatively large quantity may be consumed. This is most easily accomplished when the nutritive ratio is wide, but in the opinion of the authors the flesh is of best quality when the nutritive ratio is medium, about 1:5-6. The cost of the feeding stufts and their manurial value are not taken into account in this investigation. Sheep-feeding experiments -w^ith molasses, Ramm [Deut. landiv. Fresse, 23 (ISOO), Xo. 73, pp. 051, 053, pJ. 1). — An experiment to learn the maximum amount of molasses which could be fed and to compare molasses with other feeding stuffs was made with 6 lambs, 6 months old at the beginning of the test, divided into 3 lots of 2 each. The experi- ment lasted from August 27, 1895, to March 20, 1896. Lot 1 was fed a ration of 1.4 kg. of hay, 1 kg. of bean meal, and 3.6 kg. of molasses per 100 kg. live weight, and lot 2 was fed 1 kg. of hay, 1 kg. of bean meal, and 4.5 kg. of peat molasses cake. Lot 3 was fed the same amount of hay and bean meal and 2.8 kg. of barley meal. The sheep were slaugh- tered at the end of the test. The average weight at beginning, gain in weight, dressed weight, weight of tallow and fleece, and profit or loss are given in the following table: liesnlts of sheep- feeding experiment. Weight at be- ginning (shorn) Lot 1 (molasses) 26. 00 Lot 2 (peat molasses cake) 27. 80 Lot 3 (bailey meal) '• 26. 58 Weight at end (shorn). Dressed Weight ' Weight weight, of tallow. I of fleece. Kg. 41. 28 45.30 50.07 Kg. 20.75 27.50 25.00 Kg. 1.540 2. 485 2.020 Kg. 2.320 1.905 3.300 Profit (+) or loss (— ). -|-|0. 60 + .14 — 1.09 The dry matter, ether extract, solidifying point, and melting point of the fat and the dry matter, ash, and ether extract in the meat were also determined for each sheep. The following conclusions are drawn : Without injuring the health sheep can be fed 3.6 kg. of fresh molasses and 4.5 kg. of peat molasses cake per 100 kg. of live weight. The nitrogen-free extract in the food being the same, the gains on molasses were 82 ])er cent and on peat-molasses cake 72 per cent of the gain on barley meal. 622 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The production of wool on molasses was 73 per cent and on peat molasses cake 50 per cent of that on barley meal. The ration containing molasses was much more profitable than that containing barley meal, and molasses was moi-e profitable than peat molasses cake. The fat produced by the barley ration had a higher melting point than that produced by the ration containing molasses. The barley ration produced flesh with higher percentages of muscular tissue and materials soluble in ether, whde the fresh molasses produced more dry matter and ash. Experiments -with geese, S. Cushman {Rhode Island Sta. BjH. 1895, ]}p. 327-358, ph. 4). — This is a more detailed account of work pre- viously reported (E. S. E., 7, p. 889), and contains in addition the results of the third season's experiments in breeding geese. The following breeds and crosses were tested: Embden-Brown China, Embden-Tou- louse, Brown China, Embden-African, Toulouse Brown China, Embdeu- White China, African-Brown China, African-Toulouse, Pure African, Pure Embden, and Prince Edwards Island. Detailed records of the egg yields for each pen of geese are given in tabular form. The weight of an average specimen of each cross is given, and the live and dressed weights of the geese as exhibited at the winter show of the Rhode Ishnnl Poultry Association are tabulated. "The Enibdeu-Africau cross were very easy to i)ick, light colored when dressed, and large, plump, and liandsome. The Embdeu-White China cross picked the easiest of these crosses, were white when dressed, and although small were very plump, and presented the most attractive appearance. . . . "White China geese are the smallest and weakest of all breeds, but lay early and late in the season a great number of large eggs, and if mated with the Embden ganders I)roduce vigorous, quick-growing goslings, which are very plump and solid. . . " Tor trade that requires a large goose at Christmas or New Year's the Eml>den- Toulouse would be most suitable of these crosses. Pure Africans, Embden, and Embden-African cros>e8 get their best growth early in the season, and should be sold early. Pure Brown Chinas, African-Toulouse, and African-Brown China crosses should be dressed before fall, in order that they may pick well. . . . The white- plumaged Embden and the crosses that are white are comparatively easy to pick even in the fall."' The following conclusions are some of those drawn from all of the author's experiments with geese : Old geese lay a greater number of larger eggs and are more reliable than young geese. Xevertheless, if geese must be purchased it often saves time to buy young geese rather than to attempt to secure any number of old ones. Young ganders are better for breeding than young geese. Young geese do not lay as many fertile eggs or produce as many goslings the first breeding season as they do the second. If geese are often changed from one place to another, they are apt not to breed well, and the other conditions being e(iual they breed better the third sea.son they are in a locality than the second. " Breeding geese should be secured as early in the fall as possible, not later than October, to insure the l>est results. This gives them sufficient time to become VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. G23 aciiuainted with their uew sunomulinns ami foel thoroughly at home before the breeding season. Breeding geese shouhl be kept active and moderately thin in llesh through the wiutf-r by light feeding, and by allowing them free range, or such facili- ties for swimming as will induce them to take much exercise. If deprived of the latter they must not be fed much fattening food. [In Rhode Island] they require no houses or protection from cold or storm, and seem to prefer to stand out exposed to the wind in midwinter rather than seek the protection of an open shed, except during a heavy snowstorm. ''Geese are grazers, and can be spoiled by too much grain. To insure the fertility of eggs, access to a i)ou(l, puddle, or a tub of water set level with the ground, as well as an abundance of green food, is of the greatest importance. "African and Brown China ganders mate more quickly than other kinds and are the most prolific and sure breeders. Toulouse ganders are sluggish, slow to mate, and as breeders are the least reliable. Toulouse geese are great layers, and some specimens do not offer to sit. Embden geese are more inclined to sit than Toulouse, and make better mothers, but lay fewer eggs. Brown China and White China geese are very prolific layers. Very early laying is not desirable, as goslings hatched before grass is plenty do not do well and cost more than they bring. Goslings do best when put out during the day on short grass with water to drink, no other food but grass being given for two days, and then a light feed of scalded cracked corn three times daily in addition to the grass. The supply of grass should always be ample, and the water dish should never become em])ty. They should always have an opportunity to get into the shade or they are liable to be overcome by the heat of the sun.'' Dictionary of technology and allied sciences {Lexikon der tjesammten Technik loid Hire Helfsicissenschaften, 1896, pt. XVIII ; Deiitsch. rerlaf/s-Anstalt, Stuttgart avd Leip- zig; rcr. in Ztschr. Xahr. UntersHch. und Syg,, 10 (1896), Xo. 24, p. 396). — This contains an article on meat preparations. Analyses of foods, condiments, and some commercial products, M. Mansfkld {Die Untersuchung der Xahnings- und Genussynitfel, sowie einiger (Tebrauchsgagenstdude. Vienna and Leipzig : F. Deuticke, pp. 16S,figs. 24 ; rev. in Ztschr. Xahr. Untersudi . und Hyg., 10 (1S96), Xo. 24, p. 396). — A laboratory manual and text-book. Anadyses of bean straw, stalks, and pods (New York State Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 135, 136). — Analyses are given of bean straw from pea beans and red kidney beans, of beau stalks, and of pods of red kidney beans. Sugar in corn stalks {Xew York State Sta. lipt. lS94,pp. 134, 135). — The amount of sugar in the juice of a number of sorts of corn stalks was determined. Analyses of feeding stuffs, M. B. Hardin {South Carolina Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 52-54). — Tabulated analyses of cotton-seed meal, " Brewery feed," "Corn Chops," sugar beets (sugar content), sweet potatoes (water and starch content), and millet seed (water and starch content). VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. Crimson clover hair balls, F. Y. Coville ( U. S. Bept. Agr., Divi- sion of Botanij Circ. 8, pp. i, firing. In 4 years the number of animals in the reacting division decreased from 131 to 60 and the number in the healthy division increased from 77 to 132, while the number of reacting animals in the healthy division diminished from 10 in the second year to 2 in the fourth year. The author believes these figures show the practicability of eradicat- ing tuberculosis without the complete destruction of the herd. 1 Deut. Ztschr. Thiermed., 22 (1896). VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. 625 Results of the use of tuberculin in the Castlecraig herd, J. Wii^soN (Edinhin-gh: G. r. JohiiKton, IS'JC, pp. L',). — An at'count is given of an attempt to eradicate tuber- cnlosis I'loni !i jirivate herd of about 80 animals without the immediate destruction of all reacting animals. At the first test made in March, 18i»5, 1(5 animals (about 20 per cent of the herd) were found to be tuberculous and were separated from the herd. This testing and separating process has been continued ; the calves born were reared, but all tuberculous animals which showed themselves unfit for breeding pur- poses through udder infection were slaughtered. The test made in November, 1896, showed that tlie percentage of tuberculous animals in the herd of 83 animals had been reduced to 10.84. The author believes that the spread of the disease has been completely arrested. Full records of the tests are given in tables and comments. Charbon, or anthrax, S. B. Staples and W. H. Daluymple (Louisiana Stas. Bui. 44, i^d ser., 2>p. JO, pi. 1). — A popular bulletin giving the history, character, general symptoms, symptoms in the different domestic animals, treatment, and sanitary and hygienic measures. Notes are also given upon experiences of the authors during a severe outbreak of the disease in the State during the spring of 1895. The authors say, "We have nothing new to offer for the enlightenment of the scientific medical world." Distemper in horses and mules, W. E.A. Wyman {South f'arolina Sta. Bui. :J5, n. ser.,pp. 11). — This is a popular bulletin on strangles and influenza, giving symp- toms and treatment for each. ' Founder in horses, W. E. A. Wyman (South Carolina Sta. Bui. 26, n. ser., pp. 3-11, Jigs. 4). — A popular discussion on founder or laminitis of horses, with a description of the parts affected, causes, symi)toms, prevention, and treatment. Red water in cattle, W. E. A. Wyman (South Carolina Sta. Bui. :26, n. ser., pp. 12-h',). — A discussion of tbo cause, symptoms, course, prevention, and treatment of hemoglobinuria or red water in cattle, which is under investigation at the station. Texas cattle fever, W. M. Miller (Nevada Sta. Bui. 31, pp. Li). — This includes a reprint of a press bulletin issued by the station giving a general discussion of the disease, the history of an epidemic originating in the State in 1894, the cause and means of dissemination, symptoms and pathological conditions, treatment, and meas- ures to prevent its introduction into the State; an extract from a bulletin on Texas fever in California; and the regulations of this Dejiartment concerning cattle transportation. Bovine tuberculosis in north Louisiana, W. C. Stubbs, S. B. Staples, and W. H. Dalry.mple (Louisiana Stas. Bui. 43, 2d ser., pp. 20). — An account is given of the unexpected appearance of tuberculosis in the station herd at Calhoun, and of tuberculin tests made upon the animals. Temperature records are given and data regarding yield and composition of milk before and after the injection. Six of the 22 animals responded to the test, but the cow most seriously affected did not react. This animal was slaughtered, and the others isolated. The attempt is to be made to breed out the disease. Tuberculosis in cattle, E. A. A. Grange (Michigan Sta. Bui. 133, pp. 3-13). — A popular bulletin giving a brief historical sketch of the disease; methods of dissemina- tion of the virus, special attention being called to danger of transmission through food manipulation in carelessly managed stables; and the symptoms of the disease and its diagnosis by clinical and microscopical examinations and by the tuberculin test. Some data are given upon cases treated by the author and an outline of the exiieri- mental work upon this disease to be carried out at the station. A particular instance is noted of the probable infection of calves through the milk of a diseased cow, aud details of some inoculation experiments with guinea pigs. Tuberculin tests (/I'jX. Vermont State Bd. Agv. Cattle Commissioners, ISOG. pp. 14-17, 32, 42). — In tests made under the auspices of the Vermont State Board of Agricul- ture 924 animals of 14,155 examined reacted and Avere killed and all but 4 were found to be diseased. 626 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Check lists of the animal parasites of ducks and pigeons, A. Hassall (U. S. Dept. A(jr., Bureau of Animal Indimtrij Circs. 13, pp. 7: l'>, p)p. 4.) — Lists are given of species of Protozoa, Trematoda, Cestoda, Neiiiatoda, Acauthocephala, Arachnida, an«l lusecta infesting dncks and pigeons. The synonymy of genera and species and the location aftVcled by each iiarasite are given. Diseases and enemies of poultry, L. Pearson and B. H. Warrex {Pennsylvania Dept. Agr., pp. 138, ph. G, figs. 32). — The bulletin contains chai>ters on diseases of the skin, the respiratory organs, digestive organs, egg-producing organs, brain and eye, legs and feet, bones, and contagious diseases. There are also chapters on a number of "furred and feathered enemies of domestic fowls." Tenth and Eleventh Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry ( T. S. Dept. Ayr., Bureau of Animal Jndiislrij lijyts. 1S93 and 1S94, pp. 127).^— An account is given of the transactions of the Bureau for 1893 and 1894. The following topics are treated in sjiecial articles: Prevalence of anthrax among domesticated animals; Extirpation of maladie du coif, by G. C. Faville; Prevalence of tuberculosis among cattle in New York, by E. C. Schroeder; Injuries to cattle from swallowing jjointed objects, and Preliminary investigations of unknown diseases in turkeys, by T. Smith ; Black quarter and Actinomycosis or lumpy jaw, by D. E. Salmon; Australian meat trade, by A. and M. Reynolds. Miscellaneous notes are given upon the Florida horse leech, tuberculosis among cattle in Saxony, XantJtiiim ■sfnimarium (cockle bur), meat importation, and stock hogs for market, and additional State laws relative to the control of contagious animal diseases are ciuoted. DAIRY FARMING— DAIRYING. Investigations on the effect of the seed of common vetch on milk secretion, W. J. Quick [Inaug. Diss. Halle, 1896, pp. 44). — Fol- lowing a general discussion of the value of vetch for cows, a feeding experiment with 3 cows is described in which vetch seed was compared with peanut cake during 4 periods varying from 7 to 15 days in dura- tion, with intermediate periods. The cows were of difi'erent breeding and in different stages of lactation. The feeding trial was not made simultaneously with all the cows, and the composition of the rations was not uniform, as one of the cows was near calving. The rations were composed of alfalfa hay, barley or rye straw, beets, palm-nut meal, rice meal, and peanut cake or vetch seed, rye and wheat bran also being added in the case of one cow. The peauut cake and vetch seed were the only varying elements, 5.22 to 5.62 lbs. of vetch seed per 1,000 lbs. live Aveight being fed in comparison with 2.44 to 2.72 lbs. of peanut cake. The peanut-cake ration was fed the first two periods, the ground vetch seed the third, and the peanut cake again the fourth period. The yielil, specific gravity, and fat content (by Soxhlet's aerometric method) of the milk were determined, and in case of one cow other determinations were occasionally made. These data, together with the live weight, are tabulated in full. A summary follows. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 627 Comparison of peanut cake and retch seed on cows. Peanut cake. Period 1. 1 Period 2. Shrink- age I Vetcli between seed, periods 1 Period 3. and 2. Average daily milk vield pounds) : Cow No. 388 20.86 Cow No. 5.54 21.20 Cow No. 556 48.00 Average daily yield of fat (grams) : Cow No. 388 435. 4 Cow No. 554 17 56 20 88 48 04 371 2 337 3 775 2 3.30 .32 .56 64.2 14. GO 20. 60 50.41 283.4 329.6 790.1 Slirink- | age(— )or gain ( r) ! between [ I)eriods2 i and 3. Peanut cake. Period 4. ' Shrink- i age , between ' period.s3 ! and 4. 2,96 .28 2.37 — 87.8 — 7.7 •f 14, 9 11.10 14.17 47.04 228.3 279.2 756.4 3.50 G.43 3.37 55.1 50,4 33.7 Cow No. 388, which was in the thirteenth month of lactation, shrunk the most and suffered from an attack of indigestion in the intermediate period between periods 2 and 3. The author conchides that '-the vetch seed gave either a real gain or a diminished shrinkage over the peanut cake in the preceding or subsequent periods." The live weight was maintained on the vetch ration. The cows with calf showed no ill effects from the vetch seed, contrary to tradition. Incidentally, the Soxhlet aerometric method was compared with the Babcock test, the former being stated as the more exact. Winter feeding experiments with dairy cows, F. B. Linfield ( Utah Sta. Bui. 43, pp. 35-5fi). — These experiments were made with 2 lots of 5 cows each, fed in 8 jjeriods of 3 weeks each. During the first 7 periods lot 1 received alfalfa hay and lot 2 mixed hay ad libitum. In addition both lots received a grain mixture of equal parts by weight of wheat and bran, of which G lbs. per head daily was fed dur- ing the first period. 10 lbs. during the second, 12 lbs. during the third and fourth, 10 lbs. during the fifth, 8 lbs. during the sixth, and 6 lbs. during the seventh. In some cases the cows refused to eat these amounts of grain. In the eighth period the cows were at pasture and received no grain. The milk was weighed morning and evening and composite tests were made. The data are fully tabulated for each animal, with averages by lots, showing amounts and cost of food eaten and the yield and composition of the milk; and these data are fully discussed. The author's summary follows: "(1) This ti'st adds hut another item to the fairly well established fact that an increase in the quantity of concentrated food in the ration of a cow does not increase the richness of the milk, provided the cows are well fed to start with. "(2) An}' increaso in the grain fed over 6 lbs. per day, increased the cost of the dairy products almost without exception; and the test indicates that, with the fodders used, 8 lbs. of grain is the highest limit for the greatest profit. "(3) Considered from the ]ioint of price, alfalfa hay and grain seem to be a more economic ration than one of mixed hay and grain, but considering the weight of food, there i.s very little difference, though the results are sliglitlv in lavor of alfalfa. "(4) It is evident from these tests that, with the price of alfalfa as reported ($3.75 per ton), cows may be fed at a food cost in winter of less than it cts. a day per 1,000 lbs. live weight, even with cows that will ])roduce 1 11). of butter or more a (lay. 628 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "(5) The test also shows that, with the ri.t,^ht kind of cows, Imtter fat may be produced during the winter at a cost of not more than 9 cts. per pound. "(6) The cows which were the largest eaters were, without exception, the largest and most economic producers." Some observations were made on the moruiug and evening milk, tlie composite samples being kept separate for testing. The period between night and morning milkings was lo hours and between morn- ing and night milkings 11 hours, so that the morning's milk was from the longer time. The author states that almost without exception the evening's milk was much richer than the morning's milk throughout the whole winter, while the yield was almost invariably larger in the morning. The largest average variation in comi^ositiou for the whole time was 1.5 per cent in the case of a Jersey heifer. "[In the case of tiiis cow] while the weight of milk gi\en each month is greater in the morning than in the evening, yet the weight of fat is uniformly greater in the evening, or, in other words, there was more fat secreted by the cow during the 11 hours of the day than during the 13 hours of the night." Dairy herd record for 1894-'95, F. B. Linfield ( Utah Sta. Bui. 43, pp. 1-34, figs. 8). — The record is given for 15 cows for 1 year beginning June, 1894. With 2 or 3 exceptions the cows were natives and grades. They were of different ages and in diflerent stages of the period of lacta- tion. The method of keeping the record is described, and the Babcock test and its use in paying for milk, the merits of paying for milk by weight and by test, and the food given the cows are discussed, together with the composition of alfiilfa hay, mixed hay, green fodder (i)rinci- pally alfalfa), wheat, barley, and bran. The data are tabulated in detail, showing for each cow in each month the weight, yield of milk, fat con- tent of milk, calculated yield of butter fat, cost of food eaten, and cost per pound of butter fat, and these data are summarized. The follow- ing table gives a summarj^ for the year of the more important data: Summary of herd record for the year. Cow. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Average 2.. Weight of cow.s. Lhs. 1,191 1,101 976 1,029 1,007 9U 965 992 911 966 989 909 1,035 889 675 Cost of Yield feed. I of milk. $21. 58 17.80 21.65 25.58 20.90 20.07 25.00 24.89 19.71 25.82 18.74 23. 88 26.71 19.61 10.00 Lhs. 148.9 820.3 801.0 912.1 087.9 196.0 424.8 156.1 367.5 479.4 272.0 868.1 720.3 917.7 303.1 991 I 22.28 5,655.1 Cost of 100 lbs. of milk. CU. 41.91 30.58 31.83 52.07 29.48 47.83 46.09 34.78 30.95 47.12 35.55 49.05 39.74 50.05 43.42 Yield \ Yield of but- j of ter fat. butter. 40.50 Lbs. 156. 70 218. 11 313.41 250. 00 258. 87 1.56. 00 227. 77 303. 03 271.89 223. 77 213. 54 203. 32 2811. 26 147. 09 102. 82 Lbs. 182. 81 2.')4. 46 365.64 291. 66 302. 91 182.00 265. 73 353. 53 317.20 261. 06 249. 13 237. 20 326. 97 171.60 118. 79 230. 27 268. 74 Yield I <.f but- Net returns. Cost of!!'™: With •• With 1 Ib.of i}"^!;'^'^ milk at butter butter. ^ ,. ^l^- 70 cts. : at 20 wShtfiU^TV Cts. 11.80 6.99 5.91 8.77 6.91 11.02 9.40 7.04 6.21 9.88 7.51 10.06 8.17 11.42 8.33 Lbs. 15.34 23.11 37.46 28.34 30. 00 19.91 27. 52 35.63 34.82 27. 02 25.18 26.09 31.59 19.30 17.61 $14. 46 22. 94 25.95 8.80 28.71 9.30 12.98 25.20 24.86 12.53 18.16 10.19 20.33 7.81 6.12 $14. 96 33.09 51.37 32.75 29.50 16.33 28.14 45.81 43.73 26.39 31.08 23.56 38.68 14.71 13.75 17.30 31.47 ' Record for six months. * Average without No. 15. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 629 The cost of food is based on the following prices : Alfalfa hay at 83.75, mixed hay at 80.7;"), green fodder (principally alfalfa) 8 1.25, wheat 812.60, barley 8l~>, and bran 8D per ton, and pastnrage 81 per mouth i)er head. "The yearly records of the cows are not phenomeniil, but they present a very fair average, considering the condition of the cows when they came on the farm. The yearly uiilk record ranged from 3,917 lbs. to 7,156 lbs., and averaged 5,655 lbs. The butter fat produced ranged from 147 lbs. to 313.4 lbs., and averaged 230.27 lbs. The butter, which may be calculated by adding one-sixth to the butter fat, ranged from 171.6 to 365.6 lbs. and averaged 26"^. 7 lbs. per cow. In butter production 11 of the 14 cows gave over 200 lbs. of butter a year; 9 of these cows gave over 250 lbs. in a year; of the 9, 5 gave over 300 lbs. and 2 of the 5 gave over 350 lbs. of butter in the year. "Of the conunon cows, 4 gave over 300 lbs. of butter in a year. One gave over 350 lbs., but it is to be noted that she was milked for 365 days. She carried a calf, however, for the last 6 mouths of the year. . . . "With good cows the people of Utah can produce dairj" products cheaper than they can be produced in many of the great districts of the East. . . . "Even at 15 cts. a pound for butter fat some of the cows gave a very fair net return. . . . "At the present prices of dairy products as compared with the price of grains and fodders, one dollar's worth of feed fed to a good herd of cows will return two dol- lars' worth of milk, butter, or cheese." In buying the cows they were tested as to yield and fat content of milk. This was not found to give very reliable information as to the value of the cow for dairy purposes, as there were wide differences in the way in which the cows behaved during the year, some of them showing a tendency to decrease rapidly early in the stage of lactation. "Tests in connection with the weights of the milk morning aud evening, taken for the sixth month after the cow comes in, seem iu the majority of cases to indicate not only the probable value of a cow, but her relative value as compared with the other cows of the herd." Some points from feeding milch cows, P. Collter {New Yorfc State Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 122-12i). — This is a discussion of some of the data obtained in 14 feeding experiments with cows, described in detail ill Bulletin 80 of the station (E. S. E., 7, p. 57). Certain data from these experiments are tabulated, showing the food constituents con- sumed and the milk constituents produced. "The average numljer of pounds of food digested daily was 13.71, and the average number of pounds of milk constituents (fat, casein, aud sugar) produced daily amounted to 3.60 lbs. aud, therefore, there was required 3.76 lbs. of digested food for each pound of milk solids produced; also, for the production of 1 lb. of fat in milk there was an average expenditure of 16 lbs. of digestible food. "In the expeiuliture of energy over and above that needed in the production of milk, there was a daily average suflflcient to raise the temperature of the entire cow 80^= F., or raise 407.4 lbs. of w-ater from 32 to 212° F. "As an average of all the experiments, it .appears that the fat produced in the milk was 11.9 per cent in excess of the fat digested iu the food; that the casein produced in the milk was but 3S.5 per cent of the protein digested in the food, while the non- nitrogenous matter digested in the food was 5.45 times greater than that produced in the milk. 12094—^0. 7 7 630 EXPERIMENT STATION RKCORD. "It will be seen that in the case of these animals, when the production of fat was approximately at its best, the digested fat of their food was nearly sufficient to meet the demand. ... As the result of 4 years' experiment with our seven Ijreeds of cattle, we have as follows : Poiiuds. Crude fat in food fed 24,358 Pure fat iu food fed (82.6 per cent) 20,119 Pure fat iu food between lactation jieriods 631 Fat in milk 17,754 "From which it Avill appear that there was cousumed by these various animals 16.9 per cent more fat than was produced by them in their milk." A preliminary bulletin on the pasteurization of milk, C. D. Smith {Michigan 8ta. Bui. 13L pp. 15-43, Jigs. (J). — This is a popular bulletin on the pasteurization of milk, treating" briefly of the micro- organisms in milk, the sources of infection, iiathogenic bacteria, dis- eases traced to infection through milk, prevalence of tuberculosis among cows, the need of regular official insi)ection of dair}^ herds, and milk preservation. Under the latter head the pasteurization of milk is described iu considerable detail, the requisites to pasteurizing being enumerated, and illustrated descriptions given of several simple meth- ods for household use and of the De Laval and Ivussell apparatus for sterilizing milk on a commercial scale. The description of the latter is reprinted from Wisconsin Station Bulletin 44 (E. S. R., 7, p. 987). Jt is explained that "the chief object of ])asteurizing milk at home is to kill the germs of disease, and this is accomplished in one form of apparatus as well as another if the entire mass of milk is kept at 155^ F. for the requisite time.-' The author has found an ordinary wash boiler filled with water up to the level of the milk in the tin cans entirely satisfactory. Perforated tin pie plates are placed in the bottom of the boiler and the cans set upon these. The water is heated to IGO'^ F. and the cans of milk then placed in it without covers and stirred at frequent intervals until the temperature of the milk reaches 155°. The covers are then put on the cans and the boiler, and the latter set on the back part of the stove. After the milk has been kept at 155° for 20 minutes the cans are removed and placed iu ice water. Repeated experiments have shown that with straight-sided tin cans 3 in. in diameter and 7 in. deep the milk was cooled to below 50° in less than 15 minutes. "For hotels and large boarding houses Ave have no a2)paratus that gives more promise of cheapness, ease of management aud efficiency than simple shotgun cans and a boiler made to order as high as the cans are deep and long enougli to hold at least three of the cans. These cans are 8 in. in diameter and 22 iu. deep, aud hold conveniently 37 lbs. of milk." Two trials are reported on the keeping quality of milk sterilized commercially by the De Laval apparatus. The testing of rennet preparations, and the curdling of milk ■with cheese rennet, A. Deyaeda {Landic. Vers. Stat., 47 {1S96), iV"o. 0, pp. 401-447). — The following method is given for determining the efficiency of rennet preparations, which is a modification of Soxhlet's DAIRY FARMING — DAIRYING. 631 method': Two liundied cubic centimeters of fresh, normal cows' milk is heated in a .'JOO cc. thisk to 35^ C. (not liigher), 2 cc. of rennet solution added and tlie heating continued in a constant water bath with frequent gentle agitation until the milk is curdled. After a few minutes' heating the milk will become thick and will appear cheesy and stringy on the glass. The temperature must be kept at exactly 35°. In preparing the rennet solution for the test 10 cc. of rennet extract or 1.25 gm. of rennet i)owder is made to 200 cc. with water. Representing by t the time required for coagulation the curdling power of rennet extracts is 80,000 , ^ ^ , 640,000 . , and ot rennet powders — :, — -. The author made many experiments to study the effect of various properties of the milk and other factors on the action of rennet and on the rennet test. The results of these are tabulated and discussed at lengtli. I'sing a given rennet solution, the time of coagulation varied with the milk of the same cow at different times, the maximum variation being about 1 minute. On an average the morning's milk required about O.o.l minute less for coagulation than that milked at noon, although the specific gravity, fat content, and acidity were practically uniform. With the mixed milk of several cows the differences were much smaller. The morning's milk was found to be much more regular than the noon milk, and is believed to contain more lime salts. It is suggested that a study of breed differences in this respect would be interesting. Skimming milk (without allowing it to sour) had practically no effect on the rennet test; and likewise the addition of a refined, nearly neu- tral oil of about the same specific gravity as milk fat had only slight effect. Goats' milk curdled in considerably less time than cows' milk. Milk preservatives, as was to be expected, affected the curdling. The acidity of the milk Avas found to be the principal controlling factor. The author recognizes three kinds of acidity of milk, (1) the original acidity attributed to the ability of casein to take up bases leaving acid phos- phates, (2) that due to lactic acid i)roduced in the milk, and (3) that due to carbon dioxid (very small). The effect of the first two is quite different. The first is due to the presence of monopotassium phosphate and casein in milk. The monophosphate is shown by experiment to act principally by rendering more soluble the nearly insoluble calcium l)hosphates of the milk. Trials of adding to milk different amounts of a solution of monopotassium phosphate of known strength showed that in spite of the increased acidity of the milk the time of coagulation of the milk was only slightly decreased, while an ei[uivalent increase in the acidity from adding a free acid affected the coagulation very much. This is thought to account for the great instability in the solubility of the calcium phosphate of milk, which is greatly affected by outside inrtuences, and so affects the curdling of the milk. Milch Ztj,'., () (1877), p. 513. €32 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Exi)erimeut showed that the action of rennet is favored by free acids in the milk, first, hy dissolving the insoluble calcium phosphates of the milk, until the limit of this is reached ; then by their action and decom- position of the calcium-casein compounds in the milk, whereby the casein gradually changes to a form insoluble in milk, and consequently a more favorable proportion for the action of rennet is brought about between the soluble casein and lime salts in the milk. With the increase of lactic acid the curdling power is increased until the milk curdles merely on heating. Free acids do not of themselves affect the action of rennet, which depends not upon the absolute but only the relative amount of casein and soluble lime salts. Hence their action is only indirect. The ability of milk to curdle with rennet bears no relation to its natural acidity; this is clear when it is remembered that the ajipar- ent acidity stands in no relation to the quantity of soluble lime salts in milk. But in this connection it should not be forgotten that the dipo- tassium phosphate in milk slightly increases its acidity and at the same time has an unfavorable action on the solubility of lime salts, which is shown by an experiment. The action of carbonic acid is different from that of other free acids, being similar to that of monophosphates. The addition of water to milk diminishes ils curdling power notice- ably in proportion to the quantity added. This is believed to be due to a diminished solubility of the suspended lime phosphates as a result of the dilution of the dissolving salts; a part of the dissolved lime salts are precipitated by diluting, changing the proportion between the casein and soluble lime salts, and consequently diminishing the curd- ling ])ower of the milk. Heating milk above 35<^ C, and cooling to a low temperature, both have an unfavorable eifect on the curdling of milk by rennet. Con- tinued boiling of milk renders it incapable of curdling in a reasonable time. The cooling of milk from the temperature when milked (about 3(3° C.) down to the air temperature (15 to 17° C.) increased the time of curdling about 0.3 minute. The ability of milk to curdle is at the optimum when it is fresh and warm from the cow; begins to diminish at once, and only becomes constant when the temperature of the sur- rounding air has been reached, after which it increases as a result of the development of lactic acid. In a number of experiments in which milk was cooled to 2° or 0° C. the time afterwards required for curd- ling Avith rennet was increased 0.11 to 0.79 minute. A samxde of milk was kept at 0° 0. for 4 days. During this time the acidity showed no increase, but the time of curdling with rennet gradually increased from day to day. Hence, although the action of bacteria was checked, there was a gradual separation of lime salts, and possibly also a change in the solubility of the casein salts, both of which affect the curdling. Vigorous shaking of milk free from carbon dioxid slightly prolonged the time required for curdling, as did also treatment of partially sour milk with an electric current. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. G33 111 studying: the practical application of the use of a control rennet in testing' rennet pre])arations, it was necessary to determine (1) whether the time required for curdling- normal and abnormal inilk under cor- responding conditions is always exactly inversely proportional to the strength of the rennet solution, and (2) whether the values of 2 dif- ferent rennet preparations bear a constant relation to each other when tested with milk of difterent origin. These questions were studied on various samples of normal and abnormal milk, and the following con- clusion reached: Using ordinary fresh i^ure milk, the time required for curdling with rennet is not exactly inversely i)roj)ortional to the strength of the rennet solution, but is always somewhat shorter than the estimated time, the difference depending upon the length of time required for the curdling. With sterilized inilk, however, this propor- tion is exact, /. e., the time required for curdling (normal and abnormal) sterilized milk is exactly inversely proportional to the strength of the rennet solution; and the values of 2 different rennet preparations, determined with different samples of sterilized (normal and abnormal) milk, always bear a constant relation to each other. Directions are given for the selection, determination of efficiency, and use of a control rennet. A pure homogeneous i^owder of medium strength is selected, and this kept in the dark should not change in two years. In testing its strength fresh normal mixed milk from a large number of cows should be used and the average of at least 12 determinations taken. In determiniDg the strength of commercial rennet preparations with the aid of this control rennet, fresh solutions are to be made up each time of the strength already mentioned: and unless the milk used is known to be extremely clean and free from infection it is to be pasteurized by heating from one-half to three-quar- ters of an hour at 75° to 80° C. The author mentions the application of the rennet test in the milk control, especially its value in detecting the addition of sodium carbon- ate, and in determining whether milk has been sterilized and to what extent. Dairyman's report, J. W, Hakt {South Carolina Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 68-72). — A summarized record is given for each cow in the station herd, showing for one year the yield of milk and of butter fat, the average percentage of fiit in the milk, and the pounds of milk to each pound of calculated butter. Tlie following method is used in paying the students for milking: " Under the present system each milker milks about 8 cows. lie is paid monthly 25 cts. for each cow milked and 8 cts. for each 100 lbs. of milk. In addition, three prizes of $3, $2, and $1 each are paid every mouth to the milkers Avhose cows hold up the best in their milk, as shown by comparing the amounts of milk obtained at the tirst and last of the month. Under this plan the milker? take a keen interest in sustaining the milk tlow of the cows liy every means at their command, while the cost of milking does not exceeouud of butter, and the butter record for each cow in each mouth of lactation. Note on the concentration of condensed milk, A. H. Allex {Analyst, 21 (1896), A'or., 2U'- "^^' ~i^V). — Formulas are given fur calculating- the Avater to be added to condensed milk to dilute it to its original consistence and for calculating the solids and fat in the diluted milk. A table shows for 12 brands the amounts of water to be added for cooking and ordinary use, and for infant's use. Calculation of the yield of butter from milk, E. Saillard (Jour. A(jr. I'rtit., 61 {1897), 1, Ao. 8, pp. 93-ur,). The production and exportation of butter in Finland, G. Grotenfelt (Land- hrukii i I'hnihuKl : extract in M'dch Ztg., 25 (1S9G), Xo. 4'!, p. 732). — The history of the develojiment of butter making is reviewed. In the middle of the present century about one-half million kilograms (over 1,000,000 lbs.) of butter was exported, all of ■which was made by the peasants. The amount made on large estates subsequently increased, and tinaily in about 1880 creameries were established by the peasants. In 1895, 14,115,054 kg. (over 31 million lbs.) was exported. Statistics of the creameries of Mecklenburg-SchTwerin for the year 1895, J. 8IEDEL ( MUcli Ztg., 20 (1S96), Xo. 49, p. 779). Character and extent of investigation relating to the manufacture of cheese during the season of 1894, L. L. ^'AN Slyki: iXew York State Sin. Bpt. 1S04, pp. 452- 622).— X reprint of Bulletin 82 of the station (E. S. E., 7, p. 158). AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. American highways, X. S. Sualer (Xew York: The Century Co., 1896, pp. 293, figx. 16, pis. 11). — In his preface the author states that this work is not intended to constitute a complete treatise on road making from the professional engineer's stand- l)oiut, because such works are already niniierous; but it was prepared with a view to its serving as a guide "for those who wish to understand the general aspects of the highway problem, or who would learn what kind of road may be contrived to meet the needs of the various surroundings, natural and artiiicial, iu which our people find themselves." The author's experience as one of the three members of the JNIassachusetts High- way Commission is largely drawn upon iu the preparation of the book. It is believed that an examination of it will show that it attains the object sought in a very satis- factory manner, and covers very completely a portion of the field of road making which has heretofore been neglected. The scope of the work is indicated by the chapter headings: General history of road building, early American roads, eliect of climate, nature and distribution of road materials and the methods of use, methods of testing road materials, the governmental relations of roads, the relation of pub- lic ways to the ornamentation of a country, methods of constructing roads, methods of administration of roads, machines used inroad making, the cost of road building — sidewalks — parapets — city streets, on education in the science and ai't of road building, and sununary and conclusion. Ap])endices give the Massachusetts laws relating to road building; laboratory tests of road-building stones; contract prices on Massachusetts State roads, 1894-'95, and a list of important works on highway construction. Draft of harrows, C. AV. ]McCui.i,()r(;ii (Agl. Studoif, 3 (1S9G), Xo. 3, pp. 74, 75). Combined w^eed-seed separator and grading machine Universal (I)eul. landw. Presse, 23 (1896), Xo. 78, p. 702, Jig. 1). — The chall', dust, and lighter portions are first 636 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. separated by a blast of air, then tLe grain falls through inclined cylindrical sieves, bj' which the weed seed is removed and the remaining grain graded. Irrigation in Italy and Spain, A. vox Hoi:N {Jour. Lcuidic, 44 {1896), No. 3, pp. 235-254.) — A discussion of the extent and importance of irrigation works in these countries, especially from the economic standpoint. The irrigation system of the town of Rheims, A. vox Horn {Jour. I.anchv., 44 {1S9G), Xo. 4, pp. 333-336, Ji(j. 1). — The system of sewage disposal is described. The injurious eflfects of the sewage from different manufactories, J. K(tNiG {Landw. Vers. Stat. Miinster, Elne Denkschrift, lS96,pp. 152-191). — Accounts are given of investigations since the organization of the station of the injurious effects on soils, plants, and domestic animals, including fish, of salt (NaCl), calcium chlorid, magnesium chlorid, and barium chlorid solutions, zinc sulphate and iron sulphate solutions, copper sul^jhate and nitrate solutions, and nickel and cobalt solutions; with a chapter on the composition and purification of town sewage, including sewage from rice starch, wheat starch, sugar, straw paper, color, gelatin and bone meal, ammonia, and yeast factories, and from creameries, tanneries, distilleries, fulleries, and electric works. Trials of potato-raising machines at Leicester, J. McCoxxell {Jour. Hoy. Agr. Soc. England, ser. 3, 7 {1806), Xo. 28, 2>p„ 700-704). Suggestions on the building and equipment of creameries, F. B. Linfield (Utah Sta. liul. 43, pp. 60-64). — Popular suggestions on these points. Building creameries and organization of cooperative creamery companies, J. M. Trueman {South Dakota Sta. Bui. 46, pp. lS,fgs. 2). — Articles of incorporation and by-laws of a creamery, together with plans and equipment for a creamery build- ing. Modern farm buildings: Their construction and arrangement, A. T). Clarke {2d ed. London: B. T. Batsford, 1895, pp. 148; rerieived in Jour. Eoi). Agr. Soc. Eng- land, ser. 3, 7 {1896), Xo. 28, pp. 780-783). STATISTICS. Reports of treasurer and of director of New York State Station, 1894 {Xeio York State Sta. Hpt. 1804, pp. 1-8, 136, 137, i7(9-275).— Treasurer's report for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1894, brief outline of the work of the year, new legislation afiectiug the station, and list of gifts made to the station. Reports of the director and treasurer of Rhode Island Station, 1895 {Rhode Island Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 173-102, 366-372). — A comprehensive accoiint of work at the station, list of exchanges and donations, and financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Eighth Annual Report of South Carolina Station, 1895 {South Carolina Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 47-72). — Brief reports are given by the secretary of the board of fer- tilizer control, director, agriculturist, horticulturist, dairyman, and chemist, some work done by the dairyman and chemist being reported elsew^here. A financial statement is made for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Sixth Annual Report of Utah Station, 1895 ( Vtak Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 40-45).— This includes a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, and abstracts of the bulletins issued. Index to Wyoming Station Bulletins {Wyoming Sta. Index Bui. A, pp. 15). — List of the first 26 bulletins of the station and index to contents. The status of the Rothamsted experiments in 1894, K. Bieler {Landiv. Jahrh., 25 {1896), Xo. 2-3, pp. 195-360, figs. 2). — This admirable account is based on a visit made to the Rothamsted Station by the author in the summer of 1894 and a stndj'^ of the numerous publications of the station. A historical sketch and description is given of the station, followed by a detailed account of the experiments in jirogress in 1894. In discussing the latter, the results in these lines in previous years are STATISTICS. * 637 briefly given. Hence the account of the work covers, in a general way, the (idd covered hy Sir Henry Gilbert in his Agricultural Investigations at Rothamsted, Eng- land, during a period of Fifty Years, pul)lishcd as Bulletin 22 of tliis Oflico in 1S9.5. Course of wheat production and exportation in the United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, Russia, and British India from 1880 to 1896 ( U. S. Dept. of A1 The (|iiantitative determination of carbohydrates in food stutils, I, W. K. Stone. 664 'J'he iiuantitative determination of carbohydrates in food stulls, II, W. E. Stone. 665 Method of determining the acidity of milk, A. Devarda 666 Contribution to the knowledge of the rancidity of fats, E. Spaeth 666 On the determination of stearic acid in fats, O. Hehner and C. A. Mitchell 666 The chemical examination of cheese, A. Stutzer 667 Valuation and standardization of XJcrmangauate solutions, E. Riegler 667 I II EXPERIMENT STATION KECOKD. BOTANY. Page. Investigations concerning the formation of albnniinoids in iilauts, T. Kosutany 6QS C'oncerniuy- the varying (■vystallizablc nitrogenous tompoumls iu germinating lilants, E. Schnlze 1569 Concerning the distrilintiou of glutamin in phmts, E. Schulze 669 The botanical garden of the University, W. A. Setchell 671 METEOROLOGY. Experiments on the prevention of night frosts, F. H. King 671 An exijerimental rainfall, L. Errera 672 Instructions for taking phenological observations, L. H. Bailey 672 Hoar frost especially rich in nitrogen, A. Lancaster 675 Weather report for Perris, Riverside County, California 675 Climate of the Foothill Station, California, C. H. Shinn and G. Hansen 671 Meteorological observations at Berkeley, California, A. O. Leuschner and F. H. Scares 675 Monthly Weather Review^ August, September, October, November, 1896 675 WATER— SOILS. Investigations on the drainage vrater of differen t soils, E. Wollny 676 Investigations on the relation of atmospheric precipitation to plants and soils, E. Wollny 676 Analyses of waters 679 Naturally faulty lands and their correction, E. W. Hilgard 679 Perris Valley, Riversidt; County, California 679 The supply of soil nitrogen, E. W. Hilgard 679 The distribution of the salts in alkali soils, E. W. Hilgard and R. II. Lough- ridge 677 Investigation of maticre noire, or humus, M. E. Jaffa 678 Analyses of specimens of alkali 679 Rocks, clays, marls, coals, and plants 679 Examination of soils 679 Late progress iu soil examination, E. W. Hilgard 679 FERTILIZERS. The fertilization of land, E. W. Hilgard 680 Crops for green manuring, E. W. Hilgard 682 On the composition and agricultural value of Thomas slag, (J. Patiirel 681 Analyses of fertilizers, gypsum, etc., E. W. Hilgard 682 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, H. J. Wheeler, B. L. Hartwell, and C. L. Sargent 682 FIELD CROPS. The cotton plant: Its history, botany, chemistry, culture, enemies, and uses.. 686 Notes on canaigre examination, 'G. E. Colby 686 The canaigre, or tanner's dock, E. W. Hilgard 686 Forage plants, E. J. Wickson 887 Useful and ornamental grasses, F. Lamson-Scribner >387 Report on the hay crop at the Foothill Station, G. Hansen and C. H. Shinn. .. 588 Conditions affecting the starch content of potatoes, E. S. Goff 682 Analysis of Australian saltbush (Atrijilcx ncniibaccatum), M. E. .laffa 688 Composition of sugar beets, sorghum, and sugar cane, M. E. Jaffa 688 CONTENTS. Ill I'aj;o. The growing of Hiigar l>cets on alkiili soils, E. W. llilgard and R. H. Lough- ridge ....\ fi83 Experiments with uuueral Certili/.ors npon sugar beets in 1895, A. Vivier (584 Coniiiarative trial of nitrate of soda and sulphate of aniinonia with barnyard manure i"or sugar beets, A. Vivier 685 Proximate analyses of sugar cane, sorghum, Egyptian corn, and niillo maize, E. W. Hilgard and G. E. Colby 688 Experiments iu the culture and curing of tobacco, E. S. Golf 685 Keport of the department of agriculture and horticulture, R. H. McDowell 689 FicM experiments for 1895, J. Clayton 689 The neiessary loss of dry matter in corn silage, F. H. King 686 Distribution of seeds, plants, cuttings, etc., E. J. Wicksou 689 HORTICULTURE. Irrigation for cabbage and cauliflower, E. S. Golf 689 A celery test 690 Report of tests of field and gaiden vegetables, E. .1. Wicksou 700 Greenhouses and grounds of the Central Station, E. ,T. Wickson 701 Analyses of California cheri'ies, prunes, plums, and Logan beiry, G. E. Colby. 690 Results of analyses of olives, G. E. Colby 701 Olives, A. P. Hayne 701 The olive in the Chiuo Valley, J. W. Mills 691 Analyses of California oranges and lemons, G. E. Colby 691 Blossoms of the plum and apricot, E. S. Golf 692 Horticultural experiments at Southern Pines, 1895 693 Experiments with mulches at Paso Robles Station, C. II. Shiun 694 lutluence of north and south slopes on the temperature of the trunks of fruit trees, F. II. King 695 Irrigation of strawberries, E. S. Goff 696 Experiments iu strawberry culture, E. S. Goff 696 Growth of trees, shrubs, and other plants on alkali soils, C. H. Shinn 697 Gaseous fermentation iu the canning industry, H. L. Russell 699 Preparation of fruit specimens for exhibitions, E. W. Hilgard 701 Report of experiments at the San Joaciuin Valley Culture Station, C. H. Shinn. 701 Alcoholic A'apor as a preventive of mold and preservative of fruit, E. S. Goft".. 700 Miscellaneous analyses, G. E. Colby 701 Report of the Foothill Culture Station, C. H. Shinn 702 Miscellaneous horticultural work, E. S. Goff 702 The Marylaiul tree and nursery stock law and other information of special interest to nurserymen and fruit growers, W. G. Johnson 702 FORESTRY. Timl»er physics in Calilbrnia, C. H. Shinn 702 Report of the forestry stations, C. H. Shiun 703 SEEDS— WEEDS. On the structure of the seed coats of certain species of Brassica and Sinapis, < ). Burchard 703 Koxious weeds and how to destroy them, III 703 The Russian thistle in California, C. II. Shinn 704 DISEASES OF PLANTS. A new disease of the peach, W. G. .John.son 704 Plant diseases, C. W. Woodworth 704 Ou the use of Jensen's hot-water treatment for millet smut, K. Aderhohl 706 IV EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. ENTOMOLOGY. Paffa The black sciile, C. W. Woodworth 707 The Lecaniuuis of CaliforuLa, Mary W. Tyrrell 711 Eutomulogy, C. W. Woodworth 708 Dendroleiie, J. B. .Smith 709 Tests of insecticides, E. S. Goff 709 Analyses of Paris green, E. W. Hilgard 712 Ou a bacterial disease of the si|uash luig {Anasa trhtia), B. M. Duggar 709 Notes from the entomological laboratory, C. W. Woodworth 7J0 FOODS — AXI.MAL PRODCCTION. Gluten Hour, M. E. Jaffa 719 The fat iu meat, E. Bogdauow 713 Butter and butteriue, M. E. Jaffa 710 Examination of oil meals, F. W. AVoll 712 Inrestigation of food materials, M. E. Jaffa 713 Grain-feeding lambs for market, J. A. Craig 720 Farm grains for fattening lambs, J. A. Craig 714 Corn meal, bran, and oats for lambs before and after weaning, J. A. Craig 714 Succulent and dry rations for fattening lambs, J. A. Craig 715 A dipping vat for sheep, J. A. Craig 720 Wheat as food for swine, W. A. Henry 715 The value of creamery sejiarator skim milk for swine feeding, W. A. Henry .. . 716 The influence of fine gravel u^jon the digestibility of millet by hens, J. Kalugin. 718 Examination of miscellaneous fodders, F. W . Woll 719 Poultry keeping for profit, F. E. Hege 720 DAIRY FARMING AND DAIRYING. Investigation of the milk of 97 East Fricsian cows from 7 herds iu East Fries- land as to the yield and fat content during one period of lactation, N. Wychgram 721 The relation between specific gravity and solids of milk, S. M. Babcock 721 Notes on pasteurization of milk and cream, H. L. Russell and F. W. Woll 722 Power tests of centrifugal cream separators, A. W. Richter 732 The use of bacterial culture starters in butter making, with especial reference to the Couu culture (B 41), E. H. Farriugton and H. L. Russell 732 A new process for separating butter from cream, B. Grosch 724 The centrifugal separation of casein and insoluble phosphates from milk, S. M. Babcock 725 The relation between milk scdids and the yield of cheese, S. M. Babcock 726 Experiments in cheese making, H. L. Russell, J. W. Decker, and S. M. Babcock. 728 Gas-producing bacteria and the relation of the same to cheese, H. L. Russell .. 730 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. An experiment in draining low-lying marsh lands by means of a dike, a sump or reservoir, tile drains, and a windmill, W. A. Henry 732 Experiments iu irrigation, F. H. King 733 STATISTICS. Reports of director and treasurer of California Station, 1895 735 Report of the Southern California Culture Station, C. H. Shinn 735 Report of the Southern Coast Range Culture Station, C. H. Shinn 735 The -work of the college of agriculture and experiment stations, E. W. Hilgard. 735 Ninth Annual Report of Illinois Station, 1896 736 Seventh Annual Report of Nevada Station, 1894 736 Reports of director and treasurer of Wisconsin Station, 1895 736 CONTENTS. V LIST OF PURLICATIONS ABSTK'ACTED. Experiment Stations in the United States : California Station: Page. Bnlletin 111, September, 1S96 735 Annual Report, 18115 671, 671, 675, 677. 678, 679, 680, 682, 683, 686, 687, 688, 68!», 690, 691. 694, (!97. 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 707, 708, 710, 711, 712. 713. 719, 735 Illinois Station : Ninth Annual K'.'ixu't. 1896 736 Maryland Station : IJnlletin 42, ( )ctol)er, 18<)6 702, 704 Nevada Station : Seventh Annual Report, 1894 6S9. 7.36 North Carolina Station : Bulletin 129, .luly 10, 1896 693 Bulletin 1.30, September 3, 1896 720 Rhode Island Station : Bulletin 39, .July, 1896 682 Texas Station : Preliminary Report, March, 1896 689 Wisconsin Station : Twelfth Annual Report, 1895 671, 682, 685, 686, 689, 692, 695. 696, 699, 700, 702, 709, 712, 714, 715, 716, 719, 720, 721, 722, 725. 72(i. 728, 730, 732. 733, 736 United States Department of Agriculture : Division of Agrostoloj>y : Bulletin 3 687 Office of Experiment Stations: Bulletin 33 686 Bulletin 34 6()2. 664 Weather Bureau : Monthly Weather Review, Vo], XXIV, Nos. 8-11, August-November, 1896 672.675 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Vol. VIII. No. 8. It has been recognized for a number of years tliat the nitrogen-free extract of feeding- stuffs contains a variety of carbohydrates of widely different chemical composition and x^i'operties and of different rates of digestibility. This fact taken in connection witli the uncertain manner of determining- this indefinite and variable group has created a distrust of the value of such determinations, and has made it very api)arent that a more radical treatment of this important group of nutrients is called for by the present status of knowledge, lieference has been made to the recogiution of this by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists and their determination to confine their stndies on methods of fodder analysis to the perfection of methods for deternuning more definite groups of constituents. The interest in this phase of agricultural analysis and nutrition has become more and more widespread with the progress of investigation, and as this research has, for the most part, been confined to compara- tively few investigators and those largely in other countries, a concise, systematic discussion of the nitrogen-free extract, its constituents, their determination, nutritive value, etc., and its relation to other groups of constituents, has seemed desirable. Such a resume by the leading- spirit in these investigations is presented in this number of the Itecord. Professor Tollens has a world-wide reputation for his research on the carbohydrates occurring in nature, and has given close study to this group of constituents in their relation to methods of analysis and to feeding. It is believed that tlie bringing together of the information on this subject from various sources and the treatment of it in its rela- tions to the methods of analysis and research in nutrition will be help- ful to all, and especially to those who have not followed the literature systematically. In his papier Professor Tollens points out the deficiencies and the advantages of the Weende method, and gives a somewhat historical account of its development. One point which he makes very plain is that Professor Henneberg, the originator of the method, understood and recognized its weaknesses quite as well as those who have since criticised it freely. Furthermore, Professor Henneberg urged caution 63y 640 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. against makiug a too wide application of the method devised for fod- der analysis, and recommended the determination of smaller and more definite groups of substances. Professor Tollens recommends that tlieWeende method be continued in use until a better method is elaborated, supplementing it by determi- nations of the aqueous .extract of the i^entosans. He points out that the determination of aqueous extract, which is very simple, would add considerable approximate information wliicli would be of value in judg- ing of feeding staffs. For instance, he shows that the aqueous extract corresponds approximately to the digestible nitrogen-free extract, and that the sum of the digested crude fiber and the digested nitrogen free extract agrees fairly well with the total nitrogen free extract; hence the difference between the total nitrogen free extract and the aqueous extract is approximately equivalent to the digestible cellulose. Where more explicit information is desired as to the various constituents of the nitrogen free extract, he recommends that the sugars, starch, organic acids, etc., be determined by the customary methods. It is gratifying to note that two methods for determining the different constituents of this indefinite grou^) of constituents have recently been described l)y chemists in this country. A method by W. E. Stone, noted elsewhere, enables the determination in the same sample by a proper sequence of the sucrose, inveit sugar, dextrin, soluble starch, normal starch, pentosans, and crude fiber. With this method, som.e- what modified by use, some determinations have been made of the vari- ous carbohydrates of wheat, flour, corn, and bread made from tlie same. Another method, recently described by H C. Sherman, separates tlie carbohydrates in a similar manner into soluble carbohydrates, starch, free pentosans, liguin and allied substances, and cellulose. Neither of these methods has been tested to any considerable extent, and possibly neither of them will be found to entirely answer the pur- j)Ose when subjected to a practical test; but if they serve to stimulate attempts to apply the results of recent investigation to the more rational analysis of feeding stuffs, they will have served an excellent purpose. Tliey open up the way for investigations of this character at the experiment stations, not only in testing and improving the methods, but in making practical application of them in feeding experiments on the digestibility and the nutritive value of feeding stuffs — /. r., in deter- mining the nutritive value and functions, not of an indefinite and vary- ing mixture like the nitrogen-free extra -t, but rather of such definite and widely distributed groups as sugars, starch, pentosans, cellulose, etc. This is highly important if progress is to be made in studying the fundamental problems of nutrition. Subsequent investigations may enable the combining of certain of these groups, but for the present a larger number of more definite groups of ingredients should be taken into account. Till: xrrR(){;EX-FRi:]: i-atract of plants Axn fi-edixg STUFFS. B. TOLLKNS, Ph. D. Director of the .l dissolved in boiling dilute acid, notably starch, mucilages, etc.; and boiling with dilute potassium hydroxid completes the action. CONSTITUENTS OF THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT. The carbohydrates always constitute a large part of the nitrogen- free extract, and this fact has led .some chenusts to designate it as ' Besides the true fats, i. e., the glycerids of the fatty acids, this crude fat contains a variety of other substances, for an acconnt of which seo E. Sfhnlze, Landw. Vers. Stat., 15 (1872), p.«l; and J. Kfinig, Landw. Vers. Stat., 13 (1870), p. 241. 641 642 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD "carbohydrates" instead of by tlie longer and less definite term of "nitrog'eu-free extract." This, however, is not warranted, since the nitrogen-free extract necessarily inclndes various materials which, like the carbohydrates, possess the qualities of solubility in water, dilute acid, and dilute alkali, and which are neither carbohydrates, fat, pro- tein, nor ash. All known carl)ohydrates fonnd in nature may occur in the nitrogen -free extract,' consequently a brief resume of the ])rin('ipal groups of carbohydrates may be helpful in considering its nature. IIEXOSKS AND THEIR DERIVATIVKS.- The hexoses have the general composition OcH] >Ofi. Their derivatives are cane sngar (C12H22O11), hexosans (CeHioOs), etc. The various hexoses (monosaccharids, CcniaO,;). — (1) Dextrose (or glu- cose) occurs in sweet fruits, like grapes, strawberries, raspberries, goose- berries, apples, cherries, plums, etc., in larger or smaller quantities, up to 15 or 20 per cent, and is always associated with levulose or cane sugar. Dextrose and levulose are sometimes present in equal molecules, but usually the one or the other sugar predominates, as in the case of grape juice and apple Juice, according to Kulisch and Berend. l^extrose is found in small quantities in the leaves of various plants, in tlie stems of cereals, in maize, sorghum, sugar cane (together with cane sugar), malt, roots and tubers (potato), and in many other i)arts of ])lants. (2) Levulose nearly always occurs with dextrose, and sometimes in considerable quantities. Levulose and dextrose may be formed sinuil- taneously in leaves from the carbon dioxid of the air, or they may be produced from cane sugar by hydrolysis, the mixture being known in that case as invert sugar. In all probability the sugars in the leaves of plants are produced by the action of light, with the aid of the chlorophyll of green leaves, from the carbon dioxid of the air; oxygen is liberated, and by the simultaneous action of water formic aldehyde (CH2O) is i>roduced, which is polymerized to 0,;Hi2()(, or other carbo- hydrates. (3) Mannose as such has not been recognized with certainty in vege- table materials, although its mother substances, mannan and i)ara- mauuan, occur frequently. (4) Galaetose seems also not to occur in nature as such. It is easily produced from galactan and paragahictan, which are of common occur- rence. (5) /Sorbose has not been recognized as such in unchanged vege- table materials. 'A comprehensive, concise treatise on the carbohydrates with very full bibli- ography is given in B. ToUens' Kurzes Handbnch der Kohlenhydrate, vols. 1 and 2, Breslan, 1888 and 1895, to which the reader is referred. ^The writer nse.s "derivative" in this article in its physiological instead of its analytical sense. That is, starch is regarded as a physiological derivative of hexoso, i)rodnced in the plant by the polymerizing of hexose with the elimination of water. — Ed. THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT OF FEEDING STUFFS. 643 Cane s)((i((r a )>d other (1 i- and tri-sacrJuo-ids — (1) Cone sugar {Ci2B.220n) is very common in nature, and ai)])eai's to be found in larger or smaller quantities almost wlierever it is looked for in vegetable substances. It occurs in leaves of trees, grass, hay, beet tops; in the blossoms of clover and other plants; in the stalks of cereals, nniize, sorghum, and especially sugar cane; and in the trunks of some trees, as the maple, birch, and various palms. It is also a (;oustituent of the seeds of various cereals, maize, soja bean, and the cocoa i)alm, and of unts. It occurs in sweet fruits, accompanied by dextrose and levulose, the amount apparently increasing as the acid in the fruit decreases. Figs, dates, bananas, and melons, for instance, contain considerable quanti- ties of cane sugar. It is found in roots and tubers, a notable exami)le being the sugar beet, but it is also found in unripe and frozen potatoes, in sweet potatoes, cassava tubers, etc. (2) Treltalosc (or mycose, 0i2H2.)Oii+2H2O) is isolated from trehala manna in large quantities. It is also present in various fungi and in ergot. (3) Rajfinose (0i8H32Oifi-+-5H2O) occurs to the extent of about ;> per cent in cotton seed, also in smaller amount in the sugar beet, the s^n'outs of germinated wheat, and perhaps elsewhere. (4) Stachyose (CjsH-.Oie— 3H2O) is a constituent of the tubers of Stack ya t n her if era. Some other substances belonging to this group are, for instance, gen- tianose in the gentian root, lactosin in Silene species, and maltose, which possibly occurs with starch in the cereals, rice, etc. rolysaecharids derived^ from hexoses and hence called he.rosans. — (1) Starch, i?(r,;ITi(iO.-,),' freiiuently comprises the larger part of the nitrogen- free extract. It occurs in the cereals in large quantities. For instance, maize, barley, wheat, and rye contain from CA) to 70 per cent; oats nearly 55 per cent; and rice nearly 75 per cent of starch. Peas and beans contain about 50 per cent. The potato has from 17 to 24 per cent of starch, and many other fleshy tubers and roots have a large starch content. Large quantities of starch are also stored up in the pith of certain trees, as the sago palm. Starch occurs in small huric acid was recov.'red in the form of sugar. Even allowing that the dissolved portion of '' condensed'' carbohydrates was only incompletely hydrolyzed to hexoses by the weak sulphuric acid, the difference between the 48.12 per cent of sub- stance dissidved from rye, for instance, and the 19.21 per cent of sugar found in the solution is very large. These observations give rise to great uncertainty, but show conclu- sively that the percentages of nitrogen -free extract found by the Weende method represent not only the soluble carbohydrates of feeding stuflts, but many other substances as well. OTHEll UNCERTAINTIES AS TO THE FKtURES FOR NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT. Since the nitrogen-free extract is determined by difference, it is evi- dent that all the errors in the determination of the other constituents are accumulated in the nitrogen-free extract. Of the substances deter- mined directly, the ash is in general the least open to objection. Little objection can be made either to the determination of fat or crude fat, although the material extracted with ether is at times of quite a mixed nature.^ More objection can be made to the protein calculated from tbe nitro- gen by the factor G.25, which assumes that the protein substances con- tain 10 per cent of nitrogen. While this assumption holds good in case of some proteids, it does not in case of others. The proteids of •Regarding the nature of the crude fat, see, among others, E. Schulze, Laudw. Vers. Stat., 15 (1872), p. 81; Konig, Landw. Vers. Stat., 13 (1870), p. 241. THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT OF FEEDING STUFFS. 649 leguminous plants (leguniiu aud couglutin) contain, according- to liitt- hauseu, 17 to 18 per cent of nitrogen, and some globulins contain nearly li> per cent. On the other hand, some of the proteids of milk are found to luive only 15 per cent of nitrogen; and other nitrogenous substances, as amids, etc., have still other nitrogen contents.' Ilence, by usiug the average factor 6.25 a greater or less error in the protein content wUl sometimes be involved, which is naturally reflected in the nitrogen-free extract. But the various uncertainties in connection with the determination of crude fiber are of much greater influence on the amount of nitrogen-free extract, as will be seen below. UNCERTAINTIES IN THE DETERMINATION OF CRUDE FIBER. The fact that the crude liber is not wholly insoluble in the reagents used in the Weende method is a disturbing element in the determina- tion of nitrogen- free extract by difference. If some of the crude fiber is dissolved by the dilute acid and alkali the nitrogen -free extract will be too high; and, on the other hand, if the crude fiber is not suffi- ciently j)ure the nitrogen-free extract will be too low. In this connection, the questions arise, What is crude hber, and upon what is its determination based? Heuneberg designated as crude fiber the residue remaining after treating the feeding stuff with 1.25 per cent sulphuric acid, water, 1.25 per cent potassium hydroxid, water, alcohol and ether, and which con- sisted i)rincipally of the cellulose of the plant. He stated' that this name was preferable to woody fiber (cellulose), and furthermore that crude fiber was of a mixed nature. Besides true cellulose, crude fiber contains some of the lignin sub- stances which are entirely different from cellulose in their physiological action. These substances sometimes remain almost comi:)letely intact during the boiling with acid and alkali, but sometimes they are more or less dissolved. This will naturally depend primarily on the exact method of analysis employed; and as Henueberg's original method has been variously modified from time to time, it will be of interest to notice some of the original communications on the method. The methods of crude fiber determination. — Henueberg ' gives the fol- lowing directions for his methods : About 3 gm. of the well ground sub- stance is boiled for ouehalf hour in a porcelain dish with a mixture of 50 cc. of 5 per cent sulphuric acid and 150 cc. of water, the volume being ke])t constant by the addition of water as it e\aporates. In order to keep the volume constant at 200 cc, it was recommended, as a result of the investigations of Wattenberg,^ carried on in Henneberg's 'Conceiuiu!;' this (juestion, see a recent article by Ritthauseu in Lauclw. Vers. Stat., 47(1896), p. 391 (E. S. R., «, p. 279). - Weeiuler I5eitr;i,ne, vol. 2, j). 49. ^Hennebci'g and Stohnianu, Weender Beitriige, vol. 2, p. 48. ■'Jour. Laiidw,, 2S (1880), p. 273. 1178G— i^o. 8 2 650 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. laboratory, to use a dish with a hhie ring on the iuside at the 200 cc. point. After boiling, the solution is allowed to settle and the clear li(|uid removed, according to Henneberg and Stohniann, with a small siphon or, according to Wattenberg, by means of a funnel covered Avith gauze over which lilter paper is placed, the funnel being inverted in the liquid and the stem connected with a suction pum]) or a sii)hon. The residue is boiled for one-half hour with 200 cc. of water, and the water removed as before, and this boiling with water is repeated. (Where the suction tilter is used, Wattenberg states that it is not necessary to bring the water to boiling the second time, but that it can be siphoned oft' immediately.) A mixture of 50 cc. of 5 per cent potassium hydroxid and 150 cc. of ^ater — i. e., a 1.25 per cent solution — is now added to the residue, l)oiled for one-half hour, drawn off as before, and the residue boiled twice with water, as described above. The residue is then collected on a tared filter previously dried at 105° C, washed with hot water until the alkaline reaction disap- pears, several times with hot alcohol and with ether, dried at 105°, and weighed. The crude liber obtained in tliis way contains a little inorganic mat- ter, and usually some nitrogen. Accordingly, it is incinerated and the ash deducted; and in very exact determinations the nitrogen must also be determined, multiplied by 0.25, and the i)rotein deducted. Holdetleiss' proposed to carry on the digestion with acid and alkali in pear-shaped bulbs of about 300 cc. capacity, the boiling being effected by conducting steam into the bulbs. At the end of the treatment the bulbs are dried with the residue at 100 to 105° C, weighed, and the crude liber incinerated in a crucible, and the ash weighed and deducted. To simplify the drying of the crude fiber, Stift- made the bulb in two parts, the substance being collected in the lower part, which was removed for drying. According to the official method in the Uuite. 35. ^Association of Official Agricultural Chemists at Chicago, 1893 (U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Chemistry Bui. 38, p. 190). THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT OF FEEDING STUFFS. 651 A fuitlier cause of difference in results lies in the uuderstandiuo- of wluit is meant l>y 1.25 per cent sulplnuic acid, and 1.25 per cent potas- sium lij^droxid, and this is seldom defined in the description of methods. Do the percentages refer to SO3 or H2SO,, to K2O or KOH ? Henne- berg does not specify in his original description of the method, but in another paper' he states explicitly that he uses "50 cc. of 5 per cent sulphuric acid (50 gm. suljihuric hydrate per liter) and 150 cc. of water," aiul also " 50 cc. of 5 per cent potassium liydroxid (50 gm. of fused caustic potash per liter)." This is further confirmed by Prof. F. Lehmann, Professor Henneberg's successor at the station, who states that in making the 5 per cent stock solutions 255 gm. of concentrated i)ure sulpliuric acid (98 per cent H^SOj) is mixed with 4,74:5 gm. of water, and 300 gm. of potassium hydrate is dissolved in 6 liters of water. E. Wolff,"' in his book on agricultural analysis, directs that in making the 5 per cent potash solution 50 gm. of fused caustic potash be dis- solved in 1 liter of water. From the evidence adduced, the writer believes the correct solutions to be 1.25 per cent ILSO, and 1.25 per cent KOH. In a method whose regularity depends upon using solutions of constant strength, it is very necessary to follow exactly the original directions of the author, or at least the method by which the majority of analyses are made. Experiments made in the United States have shown that sulphuric acid and potash solutions of different strengths leave different amounts of crude fiber undissolved. For instance, Huston and McBride^ found that filter paper treated with 2,5 per cent sulphuric acid and 2.5 per cent potassium liydroxid lost 17 per cent, and even more by other treatment. In other instances linseed meal^ gave with 1.25 per cent solutions 8.13 per cent of crude fiber, and with 2.5 per cent solutions 7.35 per cent of crude fiber, with differences of about 1 i^er cent between the results of different analysts. ^ Cellulose (dicai/s atiach'd in the Weende method. — As cellulose is a principal constituent of crude fiber, the question as to the nature and behavior of crude fiber can be answered at least in part by determining whether in the Weende method the cellulose of feeding stuff's remains intact or whether it is partly dissolved and so goes to swell the nitrogen-free extract. For this ])urpose investigations on pure cellulose treated according to the Weende method will be helpful. Perhaps the first to make investigations along this line was H. 'Laudw. A^ers. Stiit., 6 (1864), p. 4i>7. - Aiileituiijf zur cheiiiisclicu Uutersnchniig- hmdwirtlischaftlicli wichtiger .Stolie, Berlin, 1875, Sd ed., p. 17.",. ■^Associatiou Otilicial Agricultural Chemists at Chicago, 1893, p. 140. 'Ibid., p. 131. 652 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Scliulze,' Avlio, working under Heuueberg's direction with l.^Jo per cent and 5 per cent sulpliuric acid, came to the couchision that the 1.25 per cent acid used in the Weende method did not dissolve any essential amount of cellulose. Of 100 parts of cellulose taken, 99.17 parts remained undissolved — i. e., the acid dissolved 0.83 per cent of the cel- lulose. The 5 per cent acid dissolved 1.4G per cent of the cellulose, and in the solution O.Gl per cent of the cellulose was recognized as dextrose by Fehling's solution. In continuation of these experiments, G. Kiihu, Aronstein, and H. Schulze" found that the cellulose of meadow hay, like pure cellulose, (filtered paper) was slightly attacked by boiling with 1.25 jjer cent sulphuric acid, but only an unimportant amount dissolved. Various samiiles of hay, straw, and dung treated according to F. Schulze's metliod (witli potassium chlorate and nitric acid) showed nearly the same amounts of cellulose whether they had been ijreviously boiled with 1.25 per cent sulphuric acid or not, although there were small dift'ereuces noticeable, as shown by the following table: Cellulose detenuined by F. Svhulzea method. \ Without I Withpre- jprevious boil- vions boiliug iiig witli 1.25 witli 1.25 jier ceutsul- i per cent sul- I pliuricacid. I pliuric acid. Clover hay Oat straw Dung from iiioadow hay. Dung from oat straw. . . . Per cent. Per cent. 25.09 23.70 41.84 41.35 29.57 27.42 28.78 27.92 The action of boiliug 1.25 per cent potassium hydroxid is quite dif- ferent, as this dissolves important amounts of cellulose. Kern^ found that while Swedish filter paper lost only 1 per cent by being boiled with 1.25 per cent sulphuric acid, the same paper when boiled with 1.25 per cent sulphuric acid and 1.25 per cent potassium liydroxid lost 8.G per cent. He concluded from this that paper cellulose was not noticeably dissolved by dilute sulphuric acid but was dissolved by the subsequent treatment with dilute ])otassium hydroxid. Without previous boiling with sulphuric acid, 1.25 per cent potassium hydroxid dissolved only 1.7 per cent. Very similar results have recently been obtained by Suringar and Tollens.^ Filter paper treated by the Weende method gave 92.49 to 93.96 per cent of cellulose. The same paper treated twice by the Weende method gave 95.40 to 95.86 i^er cent of cellulose. Cotton gave 88.18 to 90.8G per cent. 1 Jour. Laudw., 7 (1865), p. 304. 2 Jour. Landw., 8 (1866), i).293. 3 Jour. Landw., 21 (1876), p. 19. ■> Jour. Landw., 41 (1896), p. 343 (E, S. K.,8, p. 741). THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT OP FEEDING STUFFS. 653 Eepeated combustions of the original paper and the product from treating- it witli sulplinric acid and potassium liydroxid, carried on in Ilenneberg's laboratory-, showed the composition invariably to be that of cellulose, the carbon in the product ranging between 44.17 and 44.38 per cent, iind the hydrogen between G.17 and G.19 per cent. Kern found that the cellulose of feeding stuffs was similarly attacked. Orchard grass gave by the Weende method 34 i)er cent of crude iiber, and this product treated by F. Schulze's method (macerating with potassium chlorate and nitric acid) showed 32.8 per cent of cellulose in the hay; but when the hay was treated directly by Schulze's method 35 per cent of cellulose was found. In other words, 0.3 per cent of the total amount of cellulose was dissolved by the AVeende method. It follows from the above experiments that the cellulose is always somewhat attacked and dissolved by the reagents of the Weende method, .and that consequently a part of the cellulose of feeding stuffs is credited to the nitrogen-free extract. This diiliculty is not removed by the modifications that have been pro- posed from time to time, including Wither's modification in which the operation is reversed, tlie substance being boiled first with potassium hydroxid and then with sulphuric a<;id. Furthermore, the experiments by Huston and McBride have shown that with stronger sulphuric acid and alkali the cellulose is atta(;ked to a greater extent than with 1.25 per cent solutions. MIXED CIIAIIACTER OF CUT'DK FIUER AND NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT. From what has been said, it appears that the crude tiber and nitro- gen-free extract, as determined by the Weende method, must be mixtures whose constituents aie changeable and a matter of chance; and that the assumption that the crude fiber is the cellulose of the vegetable substance under examination is incorrect. The nitrogen-free extract obtained by the Weende method contains three categories of substances: (1) True carbohydrates, including the pentosans. (2) A variety of substances which either do not belong to the carbo- hydrates at all, as organic acids, ligniu substances, materials of the aromatic groups, etc., or which, like mannit, are closely allied to the carbohydrates. (3) The cellulose changed and dissolved by the 1.25 per cent acid and alkali. Since several per cent of the cellulose is always dissolved in the Weende method, somewhat less crude fiber is always found than might be expected, and a correspondingly too high amount of nitrogen, free extract. Furthermore, as the cn-nde fiber contains other substances besides cellulose, more crude fiber than cellulose is Ibund. 654 EXPERIMENT STA.TION EECOKD. BEHAVIOR OF THE CRUDE FIBER AND NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT IN THE HUMAN BODY. In f/eneral. — In sijite of the uncertainties in the determination of crude fiber pointed out in tlie preceding- pages, it is a well-known fact that for years thousands of fodder analyses have been made in which crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract have been determined by the Weende method more or less modified. The question is pertinent as to how the constituents determined in this way behave in the animal body, and especially what x>i'oportion of the nitrogen-free extract and the crude fiber are used by the animal and what portion is excreted undigested. Digestion experiments have usually shown that a large proportion, and in some cases nearly all, of the nitrogen-free extract is digested.^ Sometimes, as in the case of leaves, hay, and straw, the figures are low — 40 to 70 per cent — but in case of grains (Hour, meal, etc.) they reach 90 per cent and over. These coefficients have been obtained by digestion experiments with animals (cattle, horses, sheep, swine, geese, etc.). Method of Stufzer and Isherf. — A method by which the digestibility of nitrogen-free extract could be determined in a shorter time than by the natural method was considered very desiriible, and accordingly one was worked out by Stutzer and Isbert.^ In this they attempted to imitate the digestion in the body with the aid of artificially prepared ferment solutions, using the ferments of the saliva (ptyaliir), stomach (pepsin), and abdominal salivary gland (])ancreas) Dui^licate samples of 2 gm. each of the feeding stuff were first extracted with ether, and then heated to boiling with water. After cooling, 200 cc. of the ptyalin solution was added and digested for 2 hours at 37 to 40° C (or 25 cc. diastase solution was added and digested for 2 hours at 00 to 05° C). Tlie solution was then filtered through an asbestus filter, the residue washed, and digested for 12 hours at 37 to 40° C. with 250 cc. of a solution of pepsin from pig's stomach, care being taken that the solu- tion contained 0.1 per cent of hydrochloric acid throughout tlie diges- tions. This was filtered thro'ngh asbestos, washed, and the residue Including asbestus digested for 3 hours at 37 to 40° C. Avith 100 cc. of alkaline pancreas solution. In this way, by the action of ferments (ptyalin or diastase, pepsin, and pancreas) the i:)ortion of the carbohydrates which is digested in the animal body was dissolved, and there remained the undissolved I)ortion of the nitrogen-free extract and the crude fiber (i. e., the cellu- lose and its accompanying substances, lignin), the undissolved portion of the protein substances, a part of the ash constituents, and a consid- erable quantity of asbestos. 'Dietrich and Kouig, Die Znsammeiisetznng nnd Verflauliclikeit der Fnttprmittel. Berlin, 1891, part 2, pp. 1070-1127, 1280-1339. - Ztschr. pliysiol. Chem., 12 (1888), p. 72; Centbl. agr. Cliem., 17 (1888), p. 112. THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT OF FEEDING STUFFS. 655 The ash was determined iii the residue from one sample by incinera- tion and the protein in the other by the Kjeklahl method. The ash and protein deducted from the residue gave the crude fiber and undis- solved nitrogen-free extract; and this plus tlie protein, fat, and ash found in the orig-inal substances, deducted from the amount taken, showed the nitroiien-frec extract digested. Tliis method while not so tedious as a feeding experiment is quite long and complicated. It would j»robably be employed if it always gave correct results, but its accuracy has been questioned by Pfeiffer' who found a large ditference between the results as obtained by Stutzer and Isbert and those obtained in natural digestion trials on animals. Water-soluble 2)ortion of nitrogen-free extract. — Percentaf/e of aqueous extract. — Otlier chemists have undertaken to determine by the direct method the amount of carbohydrates and similar substances in feeding stuffs, and how nuich of this is digestible. nenneberg and Stohraann ' found, for example, that in common feed- ing stuffs (oat straw, wheat straw, bean straw, clover, and meadow hay) the amount of substance soluble in water was approximately equal to the digestible portion of the nitrogen-free extract. Thus the following results were obtained: Jltlalion between digestible u it ro(j en-free extract and aqueous extract. Diicestion Total roi'fticinnt Digestible nitnigeii- obtained nitrogen- Aqueous tree ex- in teediug free ex- extract. tract. oxper- imeuts. tract. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Oat straw 42. 19 45 19.0 19.5 Wlieat straw 38. 9:i 40 15. G i:! 5 Bean straw 39.91 62 24.7 24 2 41 89 68 98 5 28.2 29 6 Meadow hay 46.54 68 31.6 In other cases the agreement was even better. Kiihn, Aronstein, and H. Schulze ' conflrmed this deduction, and J. Konig^ approximately 5 and, although Maerckerand E. Schulze'' obtained less concordant results, the api)roximate agreement of the acjueous extract of feeding stuffs with the digestible nitrogen free extract is at least very noteworthy. Since the determination of water soluble substances — that is, the per- centage of aqueous extract — is comparatively very simple and rapid, it is of very great practical value for the judging of feeding stuffs. It is best carried out by repeatedly extracting the material with water, and 'Centbl. agr. Chem., 17 (1888), p. 115. ^Weendcr Beitriigo, vol. 2, p. 253; Neue Weender Reitriige, p. 344. =' Jour. I.andw., sor. 2, 2 ( 1867), p. 33. ''Dietrich and K(>uig, Dio Zusanimensctziiug und Verdaulichkeit der I'^itteriiiittul, part 2, p. 1163. 6 Jour. Landw., ser. 2,6 (1871), p. 67. QfyG EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. tben either evaporating to dryness an aliquot of the aqueous extract, weighing, and cal(*ulating to tlie original substance; or drying the resi- due from the extraction and determining the substance dissolved by difference. Henneberg and Stohmanu boiled 4 to 5 gm. of the finely ground substance one-half hour with 800 cc. of water, then digested 0 to 8 hours in a water bath, made the volume to 1 liter on cooling, fil- tered, evaporated 500 cc. of the filtrate to dryness, weighed the residue, and calculated it to the original substance. In this aqueous extract the reducing and nonreducing sugars can be determined by Fehling's solution, and the dextrin, starch, etc., after separating with alcohol, etc.^ Other methods. — (Irandeau and Leclerc- tried other methods of extrac- tion for determining the digestible nitrogen-free extract of meadow hay and oats. Thej^ digested the substances first with 95 per cent alcohol and determined the glucose, tlien with diastase to separate the starch, which was inverted with sulphuric acid and determined as dextrose; and finally with 2 per cent sulphuric acid, which dissolved a portion of the cellulose. By this method of extraction, the principal carbohydrates of impor- tance in nutrition aredissolved, but not the less soluble substances which are brought into solution by the action of the digestive fluids of the body. The method also contains other doubtful factors. None of these methods for determining the digestible nitrogen-free extract have come into general use. The determination of the aqueous extract is not only more convenient but also better adapted to furnish an indication of the approximate amount of digestible nitrogen-free extract. Ilenneberg's aqueous extract method shows approximately the nitrogen -free extract digested by the stomach of an animal within 12 to 24 hours. Digest ihility of crude fiber. — As is well kiiown, from 2 to 3 days or even a longer time may elapse before the undigested portion of the food is entirely excreted from the body, and during this time processes take place which can not be imitated by the solvents employed in the Weende method. Digestion experiments with animals have shown that the crude fiber is by no means unattacked in the digestive tract, but is more or less dissolved, and so is not completely recovered in the excreta. During the long x)eriod of digestion within the body the crude fiber under- goes a special fermentation, due to the action of bacteria. As a result a part of the crude fiber, especially of the cellulose, is dissolved with the formation of lactic acid, carbon dioxid, marsh gas, etc. A part of the crude fiber is digested, and consequently less crude fiber is found in the dung than was consumed in the food.-^ ' See Kihiig, Untersuchuug landw. und ueweblicb wicbtiufer Stoffe. I'.erliii, 1891, p. 224. 2 Ann. Sci. Agrou., 1886, II, p. 357. ^Investigntious of Elleuberger and Ilofnieistev, "\Vc,isk<>, Tai)poiiier, 1". Holdclieiss, and others. THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT OF FEEDING STUFFS. 657 In fact, Henneberg- and oMiers liave divided tlie crude fiber deter- mined by analysis into two ])arts, tlio digestible crude fiber and the undigestible crude fiber; and special analytical studies have shown that the digestible portion of the crude fiber has the composition of cellu- lose (C(;II,oOr,), or 44.44 per cent of carbon, 0.17 per cent of hydrogen, and 40..3S per cent of oxygen. In other words, more or less of the cellulose in the crude fiber is dis- solved in the animal body, and it is evident that this dissolved cellu- lose in some way takes part in nutrition, and can not be disregarded in investigations of this character. The matter has been much dis- cussed, and the question as to whether or not this digested cellulose acts in the same "way in nutrition as the nitrogen-free extract has been answered in very different ways. Since the crude fiber which is dissolved in the digestive tract has been found by Ilenneberg and other chemists (notably Konig) to have the composition of cellulose, a carbohydrate, and since the cai-bohy- drates comprise the i)rincipal part of the nitrogen-free extract, it would seem to follow that the digested crude fiber would have the same nutritive effect as the digested nitrogen free extract. This con- clusion appears to the writer to be at least ai)proximately correct. But this belief is not shared by all. The function of the food is not only to furnish materials to repair the waste and to maintain tlie body or produce growth or fat, but also to furnish heat and energy. For the production of heat and energy the carbohydrates (and consequently the nitrogen Irec extract) are well adapted; and for a proper knowledge of their value in this respect, the desirability of knowing the heats of combustion of the carbohydrates and other constituents of the nitrogen-free extract is recognized on all sides. The heat production is the same when a sub- stance is burned rapidly and with a fiame in oxygen as when it is slowly changed by the respiration of the animal into carbon dioxid and water. Frankland, Berthelot, and Stohmann especially, have made large uunjbers of determinations of the heats of combustion of various sub- stances,^ and from the fuel value calculated for 1 gm. of this or that feeding stuff a conclusion can be drawn as to its value in nutrition. In the production of heat by the oxidation of organic niattcr, it is immaterial whether or not in the change to carbon dioxid and water intermediate i)roducts are formed which in turn are oxidized to carbon dioxid. But it is by no means immaterial when intermediate products are formed which prevent a complete oxidation. Tliis is the case with a in'oduct which often results from the decomposition of the carbohydrates, namely, marsh gas, or metlian (CH4), which is formed in large quanti- ties in the stomachs of ruminants and is given ott' into the air unoxi- dized, so that the heat of its carbon is lost. As mentioned above, a part of the cellulose is dissolved in the ])rocess of digestion as a result 'U. S. Dept. Ajj;r., Ofiic(^ of Experiment Stations Hul. 21. 658 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of a- fermentation in which marsh gas is generated, and hence the full fuel value of this cellulose is not realized in the body. It would follow from this that the so-called digestible cellulose has less value than the digested nitrogen-free extract, but this is oul^^ true provided the carbohydrates of the nitrogen-free extract do not undergo a marsh-gas fermentation, or produce any methan. Some authors ascribe to the digested cellulose very little or no value, while others believe it to be fully equal to the digested nitrogeu-free extract. P. Holdefleiss,' who has recently investigated the subject, calculates it to have SO ])er cent of the vahie of nitrogen-free extract. Ul) to the present time it has not been shown that methan, or marsh gas, comes entirely from the digested cellulose. On the contrary, it is very probable that methan also results from decomposed starch, etc., of the feeding stuff, and in this case the decrease in fuel value due to methan formation, mentioned above, would apply equally as well to the nitrogen-free extract as to the digested cellulose. The conclusion appears to the writer to be warranted that the digested crude liber and the digested nitrogen-free extract are not only of similar, but in ail respects equivalent, value in nutrition. Certainly not all of the crude fil)er eaten by animals is recovered in the excre- ment. Of the 40.93 per cent of crude fiber in wheat meal 52 per cent is digested by cattle, according to llenneberg and Stohmann,^ i. e., the meal contains 24 per cent of digestible crude fiber; and of the 42.96 per cent of crude fiber in oat straw 50 per cent is digested by sheep, equivalent to 21.48 per cent of digestible fiber in the straw.' Other data are as follows : Digestibility of crude fiher. jCrnde liber I content. Bean straw Oats a Oats Corn meal 6 Corn menlc Per cent. 41.67 12.07 12.07 1.75 2.15 jMgestion nigestible coefficient cniilo liber j of crude in the fiber. material. Per cent. Per cent. 41.20 17.17 21.04 2.51 29. 88 3. 01 01.89 1.08 1 40.46 .87 Animal used. Sbeep. Horse. Sheep. Do. Horse. a Dietrich and Kiinig, loc. cit., p. 1108. h Wolff, Funkc, Kreuzhage, and Kelluer, Limdw. Jabib., 8 (1879), Sup. I, pp. 96, 97. « Dietrich and Konig, loc. cit. p. 1109. It appears that quite a large part of the crude fiber is digested, and hence the assumption that the portion of a feeding stuff insoluble in 1.25 percent sulphuric acid and 1.25 per cent potassium hydroxid is not dissolved in the body of the animal is incorrect. , ' Landw. Inst. Halle, Bericlite 12, pp. 52, 98. - Weender Beitriige, vol. 2, p. 23; Dietrich and Kunis?, Zusaniiiiensetzung imd Yerdaulichkeit der Fnttermittel, part 2, p. 1097. 3 Hofmeister, Landw. Vers. Stat. 10 (1868), p. 295; Dietrich ;iud Konig, loc cit., p. 1098. THE NITROGEN-FKEE EXTRACT OF FEEDING STUFFS. 659 Since the crude fiber is i)artially digested, and tlie nitrogen-free extract is incompletely digested, and since analysis does not show the actual feeding' value of cither of these constituents, their estimation separately miglit be regarded as unnecessary, Tlie percentage of each found by analysis shows nothing- of nuich importance. Hence, it might be considered sufficient to deterunne the crude fiber and nitrogen -free extract together by dift'erence, deducting the sum of the fat, protein, asli, and water from 100. As a nmtter of fact, I>. Konig considers their separate determination of comparativelj^ little value, and Atwater' groups the constituents of human foods nnder protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrates. TJie nitrogen-free extract approximntcJy equal to the .snm of the digesti- hJe crude fiber and digestible nitrogen-free extract. — Tlie feeding and res- piration experiments of Henneberg and Btohmann, and of others, have shown that the amount of crude fiber digested agrees approximately with the amount of nitrogen-free extract left undigested. Hence the percentage of nitrogen -free extract found by the Weende method is practically equivalent to the sum of the digestible nitrogen-free extract and the digestible crude fiber. Henneberg and Stohmann^ state, for instance, that "the undigested part of the nitrogen-free extract com- pensates for the digestible part of the crude fiber, and is to be regarded as liginn; the digestible part bears the closest relation to the Avater- soluble constituents of coarse fodder." This rule follows with more or less exactness frojn the original data given by Henneberg, as well ns from that furnished from time to time by various investigators, and a study of the data presented in Dietrich and Konig's excellent compilation suffices to confirm the rule. The following data from tliat source will serve to illustrate: lieUiliou hetu-een tlw total nitrofjen-free extract and thr »iim of the iHficsiihle /iher and n itro{/ni -free ejrtracl. liTiiiii- ber in Oiet- ricli and Ko- nig's tables. 0 18 20 24 29 07 129 135 168 176 178 185 225 232 236 249 SiibstiUMc (dry). Bactylia glomoraf a Wbeiit bejiiuuiiij; to sboot Fodder corn ^leado w y ras.s fireen clover Beet leaves ^leadow bay (average) . . . . Mountain bay Wheatstraw Oat straw Corn stover Pea straw I'otatoes Beets Wbeat Corn Fonnd by the Weende metbod of analysis. Crnde liber. Per cent. 27. 02 25. 75 28. 03 33. 12 30. 27 14.35 2!l. 21 27. 12 43. 00 43.04 31.98 41.03 2.75 7.68 2.19 2. 55 Digestible niate- rial.s calculated from feeding experi- ments. Crude iiher. Per cent. 15.93 16.74 16.03 20. 20 16.05 8.32 17.54 10.81 23.65 24. 90 17.59 10.01 1.51 4. 22 1.10 1.28 Nitrogen free extract. Percent. 35. 34 31. 89 34. 43 29.85 29. 40 31. 40 31,83 .35. 18 17. 55 22. 91 23. 88 21.48 82. 18 09. 2(i 75.72 74.60 Sum of digestible ]>nrtions of iriule liber and nitro- gen-free extract. Per cent. 51.27 48.63 50.40 50. 05 46.05 39.72 49.37 51.99 41.20 47.87 41.47 37.49 83.09 73. 48 70.82 75.88 ' U. 8. Dept. A,ii;r., OCfict^ of ICxperinieut Stations liiil. iM. -Weender Beitriijje, vol. 2, pp. 454, 4.5.o. 660 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. It is seen that the sum of the criule fiber and nitrogen-free extract digested bj- animals in many cases agrees ahnost exactly with the total amount of nitrogen-free extract lound by tlie Weende method. In some instances, as in Nos. 129 and 225, the agreement is complete, while in most cases the difference amounts to onh'- a few per cent, being large in only a few cases {'Nos. 24 and 178). As a rule, then, the ]iercentage of nitrogen-free extract found by the Weende method is approxinuitely equivalent to the sum of the digesti- ble crude fiber and tlie digestible nitrogen-free extract. The difference hefn-ecn the nitror/en-free extract anil the aqueous extract gives the digestible ceUnJose. — We can go one step farther and combine the figures for nitrogen-free extract and aqueous extract. As stated above, the aqueous extract agrees approxinuitely with the digestible nitrogen -free extract, and it follows that deducting the percentage of aqueous extract from the percentage of nitrogen-free extract will give as the remainder the percentage of uudigestible nitrogen-free extract. But, as stated above, the undigested portion of the nitrogen-free extract is approximately eijual to the digested portion of the crude fiber; and hence subtracting the percentage of aqueous extract from the percentage of nitrogen-free extract gives the percentage of digesti- ble cellulose. Although these rules are only approximately correct, comparing in some cases very well and occasionally not so well with the results of digestion experiments, the figures obtained by means of them are at least good indications of the value of feeding stuffs, and they can be widely employed since they are derived with much less time and hibor than the more exact figures obtained in digestion experiments. It is recommended to continue the use of Ilenneberg's original Weende method of analysis until a better method is elaborated, and to supplement this by tlie determination of aqueous extract, which here- tofore has not been general. If more explicit information is desired as to the various constituents of the nitrogen-free extract, the starch, sugar, organic acids, etc., they may be determined by the methods referred to above. The pentosans should be more frequently determined than at present, because it is probable, though not entirely certain, that the pentosans have the same nutritive value as the hexose carb(diydrates.' CONCLUSION. From the above discussion of the subject it follows that the Weende method for the analysis of feeding stuffs is not to be regarded as an exact method, since the constituents determined by it are not chemically 'See investigations of Stone and Jones, Ber. deut. cliem. Ges., 25 (1892), p. 563; of Lindseyand Holland, Massachusetts State Sta. Rpt. 1894, p. 186; of Weiske, Ztsehr. pliysiol. Chem., 20 (1895), p. 494; of Pfeiffer, Landw. Vers. Stat., 47 (1896), p. 59; of Tolleus, Jour. Landw., 44 (1896), p. 171. THE NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT OF FEEDING STUFFS. 061 deliuite substances of fixed composition but quite variable mixtures; and the method does not i)ei'mit of the exact separation of these mixtures from one another. The nitrogen- free extract is a comphcated mixture of many difit'ereut substances, in which the carbohydrates predominate; and the sejia- ration of the nitrogen- free extract from the crude fiber, likewise a mixture, is quite incomplete. In spite of all these ditliculties, the Weende method has rendered a great service to the science and practice of nutrition of man and animals, and it may be used in future until a better method is found. ^ In conclusion, a statement made by Ilenneberg himself in regard to the value of his method of analysis may be cited, because it is apparent from it that Henneberg clearly recognized the weaknesses as well as the advantages of his method. In the autograph manifolds of his lectures, which he was accustomed to distribute among the students attending his lectures, Ilenneberg says (p. 43): ''In order to ascertain the value of a feeding stuif for nutrition, it is necessary to determine the content of all the separate constituents, or at least of all the grou^is of similar value, and so far as the cellulose is con- cerned, the various modifications of the same. These requirements the customary analysis of ^■eg•etable feeding stuffs by no means ful- fills." And he adds (p. 44): ''The present method of fodder analysis needs greatly to be perfected, but in many respects accomplishes more than would be expected from its defectiveness." 'In a recent pnhlic.ition (U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. No. 21, pp. 46-48) Atwater makes a similar statement in regard to results by the Weende method. Ho points out the indefinite nature of the crude fiber and the nitrogen-free extract, and their very mixed diameter, and enijihasizes the great desirability of new and reliable metliods for Uie analysis of feeding stufls. RECENT WORK IX A(;RICliETURAL SCIENCE. CHEMISTRY. The action of enzymic ferments upon starches of different origin, AV. E. STO^■E {U. IS. JJept. Ayr., Office of Experiment Siations Bui. 34, pp. 39— U). — The author refers to the differences which have been noticed between starclies from various phints. He reports studies made to compare the susceptibility of ditfereut starches to a number of enzymic ferments, viz, diastase, saU\ary enzyms, pancreatic euzyms, and "Taka-diastase/' Tlie starches were freshly prepared from maize, wheat, rice, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. They were gelatinized by heating- in water. Varying amounts of starch were treated with solu- tions of the enzyms of different strengths, and the time noted which was required for complete solution or saccharihcation, as showu by the iodin reaction. The following conclusions were reached: "(1) The starches of jtotato, sweet potato, maize, rice, and wheat vary jiieatly iu their susceptibility to the action of cuzyiiiic feriueiits. "(2) This variation reaches such a degree that uuder precisely the same condi- tions certain of the starches reiiuire eighty times as long as others for complete solution or saccharification. "(3) This variation is exhibited toward all of the common enzymic ferments studied, viz, diastase, ptyaliu, pancreatin, and "Taka-diasta.se," in the same rela- tive order, with slight exception. "(4) Tins order, beginning with the starch which is most easily changed, is, for malt extract — sweet potato, potato, wheat, and maize; for saliva — potato, sweet potato, maize, rice, and wheat; for jiancreatic Uuids — potato, sweet potato, maize, with wheat and rice nuchaugeil; for 'Taka-diastase' the potato was more (j[uickly changed than any other. •'(5) Certain of the experiments indicate that the rapidity of the change iu par- ticular cases is very clearly projiortional to the concentration of the solution ol the ferment. "(6) It seems reasonable to assume that the same relative degree of snsceptibility exhibited by these starches iu the experiments described would still obtain when they are subjected to the action of the same euzyms in the i^rocesses of digestion. "(7) The facts here presented have very important bearings upon industrial oper- ations involving the use of starches, upon questions of physiology and untrition, and upon the study of the ditferent starches from the purely scientific standpoint." 662 CHEMISTRY. 663 Determinations of alumina and oxid of iron in mineral phos- phates, manures, sulphate of alumina, alum, etc., 11. T. Thomp So.N [Jniir. iSoc. ('Item. IiuL, ir, [is'ju)^ Xo. 1l\ p. so8,8(il>). — The unsat- isfaetoiy character of the methods in use for the precipitation of iron aud alumina as phosphates is due to the fact that all the conditions which tend to cause inaccuracy are not taken into account. It is necessary to consider \\o\\ to obtain the i^recipitate free from calcium phosphate as well as to obtain and keep it in the perfectly normal con- dition. The presence of anunonium acetate favors the precipitation of calcium pliosphate, even in tlie cold. The neutralization process for- merly proposed by the author ' avoids this difiticulty. To the cold solu- tion of the phosphate ammonia is added until it is neutral or only faintly acid to laciuoid paper, when the whole of the aluminum aud iron phos[)hates will be precipitated and the calciuui phosphate will remain in solution. In order that the phosphates of iron aud alumina be normal, at least 1.^ times the amount of phosphoric acid theoretic- ally required nuist be i)reseut, otherwise the phosphates will be basic aud of uncertain composition. To preserve the normal composition of the x^'ecipitate, it is washed with a 1 per cent solution of ammonium nitrate containing- 0.3 gm. of diphosphate of ammonium (XII4HPO4J per liter. The ammonium phosi)hate must be exactly neutral to methyl orange. If tluorids are present, the solution of the phosjihate is to be previously evaporated with nitric acid. The process serves also for the separation of alumina and oxid of iron from cobalt, nickel, zinc, and manganese, as well as from calcium and magnesium. — A. m. PETER. A modification of the Grunning method for nitrates, J. Fields [Jony. Aiitcr. ('hem. iSoc, IS (i^.'^Oj, Xo. i'^,pp. Il0:2-ll()i). — The modi- fication consists in substituting* for the 5 gm. of sodium thiosulphate and 10 gin. of potassium sul[)hate of the official method G to 7 gm. of potassium sulphid, which is added in small i)ortions, the tiask being thoroughly shaken after each addition. It is claimed that with this reagent frothing is avoided and the time of digestion shortened. — f. w. MOUSE. The determination of sulphuric acid or of barium, J. Edmunds [Cliein. Xews, 71 {1^90), Xo. 1!J;J5, p. J 87). — The method is intended especially for determining sulphuric acid in water. Seventy centi- meters of the water is first titrated with an excess of deci-normal barium nitrate, the excess of barium i)recipitated with an excess of deci-normal potassium chromate, and the excess of potassium chrom ate precipitated with an excess of deci-normal silver nitrate. The excess of silver nitrate is deteruiined in the usual way in a portion of the filtrate, and from this data the sul])huric acid is calculated. — b. w. KILGOEE. Jour. S(><'. Cliein. lud., 5 (1886), p. 152. 664 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The carbohydrates of -wheat, maize, flour, and bread, W. E. ISt02^E .{['. ^S. JJi'pt. A(/r., Office of U.qjcrinteiif tStatioiia Bid. oJ, pp. 7-28). — This is a study of the carboliydnites of winter aud si)riiig wheat, maize, Houl- from winter and sprinj;- wheat and maize, and bread made from the same. Analyses are given of the materials by the ordinary Weeude method, and in addition the individual carbohy- drates are determined by a method described in the bulletin. The carbohydrates determined were sucrose, invert sugar, dextrin, starch, Ijentosaus and hemi celluloses, and fiber. The changes in making bread are discussed and data are given for the bread-making exi)erin)ents. "Flour made from wheat undergoes a selective process which leaves the carhohy- drates in dittereut proportions than in the whole grain. Sucrose and crude liber are notably diminished ; invert sugar and pentosans disappear entirely, while the starch and dextrin are proportionally increased. . . . "The combined action of moisture, yeast, and heat, as in i^reparing and baking bread, diminishes the sugar and tends to convert the starch into soluble and ferment- able forms. The actual amount of starch thus changed is, however, much less than is generally supposed, averaging in the materials studied not more than 10 per cent of the total starch present. This change occurs iu the more exposed jiortioiis of the loaf. In the interior the starch practically undergoes i.o change. "The temperature of the interior of loaves of bread baked in the oriliuary way was never found to exceed 99 C. "The total shrinkage iu Aveight during the process of 'raising/ baking, and 'airing' bread amounts to from 12 to 20 i)er cent of the total weight of materials used. This loss is, hov,-ever, almost entirely iu moisture which has been added to the flour, and which is removed by evaporation. The total loss of solid or dry matter will not exceed 3 or 4 per cent on the average. "Bread contains all of the varieties of carbohydrates found iu the original Hour, and in addition more or less of so-called 'soluble starch' produced by the action of heat upon the normal starch."' The imi^ortant feature of these investigations is the attempt made to determine the various carbohydrates directly, instead of groui)iug them together under tlie head of nitrogen-free extract determined by differ- ence. The method has been somewhat changed by further investiga- tion, and in its modified form is given by the author in a more recent paper noted below. The quantitative determination of carbohydrates in food stuffs, I, W. E. Stone {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 19 {189?'), No. 3, pp. 183-197). — After discussing the unsatisfactory character of the determination of nitrogen-free extract by difference the author outlines a method for determining the separate carbohydrates in feeding stuffs. This is based upon the successive treatment of the sami)le (1) with boiling alcohol to remove sugars; (2) with cold water to remove dextrin and soluble forms of starch; (3) with diastase or malt infusion to remove starch; (4) with dilute boiling hydrochloric acid to convert the gums, pentosans, heuii- celluloses, etc., into soluble reducing sugars; and (5) with boiling 1.25 per cent sodium hydroxid, leaving the crude fiber behind. The method is briefly as follows: From 50 to 100 gm. of finely ground or grated material is boiled with 500 cc. of stiong alcohol under a reilux CHEMISTRY. 665 condenser for 2 hours, or is extracted with boiling alcohol in a Soxhlet extractor. The sugars extracted are determined either in the polar- imeter, if only sucrose is present, or by titration with Fehling's solution before and after inversion. The residue from tlie alcoholic extraction is treated Avith oOO cc. of water for 18 to 24 hours with frequent agita- tion, the a([ueous extract evai)orated to 200 cc, and an aliquot part inverted with dilute acid and titrated with Fehling's solution. The residue from the aqueous extract is brought to an air-dry condition, weighed, and 2 gm. of the material boiled thoroughly with 100 cc. of water for 3 minutes to gelatinize the starch. A malt infusion is pre- pared by digesting 10 gm. of finely ground fresh malt with 50 cc. of water at ordinary temperature, with frequent agitation for 2 to 3 hours. The gelatinized starch is treated with 10 cc. of this infusion at a tem- perature not exceeding 05° C. from 2 to 3 hours, or until the iodin reaction disappears, when the solution is filtered on a linen filter and thoroughly washed with hot water. The filtrate is evaporated to 100 cc. and treated with 10 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid at the temperature of a boiling water bath for 1 hour, in order to convert the malt sugar into dextrose, the solution neutralized, made to a volume of 200 cc, and titrated with Fehling's solution. The result is corrected for the sugar introduced in the malt extract. The residue from the malt extraction receives 100 cc of water and 2 cc. of strong hydrochloric acid and is heated to boiling under a reflux condenser or in a water bath for 1 hour, in order to convert the gums and pentosans into reduc- ing sugars which may be regarded as xylose. The solution is filtered, neutralized, made to 200 cc, and titrated with Fehling's solution. The residue is treated with 1.25 per cent sodium hydroxid as in the Weende method for crude fiber, and the remainder taken as crude fiber. In conclusion the author says : "In many cases it is believed that the total amount of carbohydrates thns defi- nitely determined in food materials will be found to be appreciably less than the nitrogen-free extract estimated by dift'eience. If subsequent research should. justify this belief, the character of this non-carbohydrate and non-nitrogenous substance would remain to be determined. This question is now beiug investigated, and for the present the writer desires to reserve the subject of inquiry to this laboratory. "This outline is thought to present an analytical method superior to anything at present available for the estimation of carbohydrates in foods, although it can not be regarded as in any sense perfected. It will have served its purpose if it shall suggest to others the necessity of something better and assist them in the search for it." The quantitative determination of carbohydrates in food stuffs, II, W. E. Stone {Jour. Amvr. Clicin. *S'oc., 1!J {1897), No. I,})}), o 17-319). — In this paper the author gives the percentages of starch in maize, wheat, flour, and bread, as determined by his revised method (see above), and summarizes the determinations made of the different car- bohydrates of these substances. The summary is given on the follow- ing page : 14780— No. 8 3 666 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Carbohydrates in different food stuffs (iu dry matter). Su- crose. Invert sugar. Dex- trin. Soluble starch. Normal starch. Pento- sans. Crude liber. Total carbo- hydrates. Nitrogen- free extract. Wheat 1 Per ct. 0.52 .72 .18 .20 .27 .14 .05 .06 .15 .16 Per ct. 0.08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .10 .32 .37 .38 .19 Per ct. 0.27 .41 .90 1.06 .32 .68 .23 .27 .91 .00 Per cent. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.37 2.36 1.99 1.74 2.80 Per ct. 57.62 56.27 ()7. 99 67.70 65.45 53. 54 53. 62 64.81 64.12 61.74 Per ct. 4.54 4.37 .00 .00 5.14 4.16 4.34 .00 .00 3.54 Per ct. 2.68 2.51 .25 .25 1.99 2.70 2.42 .34 .17 2.22 Per cent. 65.71 04.28 69.32 Per cent. Wheat 2 77.66 Flour 1 83.54 Flour 2 69. 27 84. 54 73.17 62.59 63.34 67.84 67.47 70.75 78.02 Bread (wheat 1) Bread (wheat 2) Bread (flour 1) Bread (flour 2) Corn bread (maize) . . 77.20 77.33 82.94 85.17 77.81 The author states that the discrepancy between the total carbohy- drates and the nitrogen-free extract " is diminished by the later results, but still exists to an extent which can not be overlooked." Method of determining the acidity of milk, A. Devarda {Milch Ztg., 25 {1896), Mo. 49, p. 785, Jig. 1). — The apparatus used in this method is called an acidimeter. It is a glass-stoppered flask of about 100 cc. capacity with graduated neck. One hundred cubic centimeters of milk is placed in the flask, pheuolphthalein added and then decinor- mal alkali added as in ordinary titration. At the end of the reaction the amount of alkali added is read oft" on the graduated neck and the acidity calculated. Several comparisons of this method with Soxhlet's method showed that the two gave nearly identical results. Contribution to the knovrledge of the rancidity of fats, E. Spaeth {Ztschr. anaUjt. CJtem., 35 {1896), p. -171). — The author worked on hog's lard. He found that the fats on standing became rancid and ascribed it to oxidation due to the action of light and atmosj)heric oxygen, the unsaturated oleic acid being chiefly attacked, with the formation of acids with lower percentage of carbon. Aldehyde bodies and oxy-fatty acids were also formed. All the fats contributed to the formation of free fatty acids, aud the volatile fatty acids increased greatly with the increase of free fatty acids. The oxidized fats had a lower iodin number and higher melting point than the fresh fats. — B. W. KILGORE. On the determination of stearic acid in fats, O. Hehner and C. A. Mitchell {Analyst, 21 {1806), Ike, p. 316-332).— The method, which numerous trials on a variety of materials has indicated to be quite reliable, is as follows: Prepare a supply of alcohol (methylated) saturated at 0^ C. with pure stearic acid, or with stearic acid which only contains traces of palmitic acid. Dissolve from 0.5 to 1 gm. of the mixture of the fatty acids to be examined, if these acids are solid, or about 5 gm. if fluid, in about 100 cc. (exact measurement is not neces- sary) of the stearic-acid-alcohol solution. Leave iu an ice bath over night, agitate next morning and allow to stand in ice for a short time, tilter off while the mixture remains in ice, wash with stearic-acid-alcohol CHEMISTRY. 667 at 0° C, dry and wei.uli. Determine the melting- point of the product, which shoiihl not be niucli loss than 08.5° C. — B. w. KILCIORE. The chemical examination of cheese, A. Stitzer {Ztschr. analyt. . Chem., 35 {1806), p. 493). — Ash is determined by ignition in a platinum dish in a muffle furnace. For the other determinations 100 gm. of cheese is rubbed up witli -100 gm. of clean sand. Water is determined in 3 gm. of the mixture by heating in a water batli, and fat is esti- mated in this by extraction with dry ether. Total nitrogen is estimated by the Kjeldahl method. The author uses phosphotungstic acid for separating casein, albuminates, albumoses, etc., from amids, and estimates ammoniacal nitrogen by distillation with barium carbonate. Nitrogen in amido-compounds is determined in the filtrate from the phosphotungstic acid precipitate. — b. w. kilgoee. Valuation and standardization of permanganate solutions, E. Eieciler [Ztschr. analyt. Cheni., 35 {1890), p. 5:2:2). — As permaugauate solutions change on standing, the author uses a solution of chemically pure oxalic acid, containing 9.9G54 gm. of oxalic acid and 50 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid to the liter, for standardizing his perman- ganate each time it is used. One cubic centimeter of the oxalic acid solution is equal to 0.005 gm. of potassium permanganate. For the titration the oxalic acid solution is heated to boiling and the permanga- nate added until permanent rose coloration. — b. w. kilgore. Classification of the chemical elements, Lecoq and de Boisbawdran {Compt, Rend., 124 {1S97), So. 3, pp. 127-130). Lucium, a new element {Clicm. Nctvs, 74 {1SD6), No. 1922, p. 159). The alleged ne-w element, lucium, W. Crookes (Chem. Xews, 74 (1896), No. 1931, p. 259). — The ar.tbor concludes from chemical and spectral analysis that lucia is nothing more than yttria in a rather impure condition. — B. w. kilgore. The unity of atomic weights, K. Seubert {Ztschr. anor(jan. Chem., 13 (1S96), No. 4-5, pp. 229-232). Water in colloids, especially in gelatinous silicic acid, J. M. van Bemmelen (Ztschr. anorgan. Chem., IS (ISO'J), No. 4-5, pp. 233-314, figs. 2). On the alkalimetric determination of metals, H. Lescoeurs et ax (Bui. Sac. Chim. Paris, 17-lS (1S97), No. 2, pp. 119-144). The accurate determination of oxygen by absorption v^ith alkaline pyrogallol solution, F. Clowes (Chem. Neics, 74 (1S9G), No. 192G, p. 109). A nevr method for the quantitative separation of alkaloids suitable for ana- lytical purposes, C. KiPPKNisKmiER (Zlschr. aiialyf. Chem., 35 (lSOG),p. 407). The application of solutions of iodin for the volumetric determination of solutions of alkaloids, C. KirPKNBEKdEU (Ztschr. anah/t. Chem., ,',5 (1S9G), p. 422). The determination of potassium bitartrate in w^ines, II. Gaitier (Comjji. Bend., 124(1897), No. n, pp. 298-300). Note on the analysis of cream of tartar, A. H. Allex (Analyst, 21 (1896), Aug. ]). 209). — This is a correction to a former paper on the same subject.' Recognition of formic aldehyde in milk, K. Farnsteinek (Forsch. it. Lehensmtl. und Hi/;/. Chem., 3 (1896), pp. 363-370; aha. in Chem. Cenibl., 1897, I, No. 2, p. 133). On Chinese vegetable tallow, G. de Negri and G. Sburlati (Chem. Ztg.,21 (1897), No. 1, pp. 5, G). Recognition of pure butter, margarine, and other animal and vegetable fats, and of mixtures of the same (Cicrman patent No. 89440; Chem. Ztg., 21 (1897), No. 'Analyst, 21 (189G), July, No. 244. 668 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, 2, p. 13). — The fat is thoroughly mixed with water or some aqueous alkali-free solu- tion at over 31° C, and from the rapidity with which the fat separates aud its physical properties, its nature is determined. Salt solution can he used in place of pure water ; and various tests can bo made on the separated fat. A color reaction of peanut oil, A. van Engelen {BuJ. Assoc. Beige Chim., 1896, No. 4). Note on the microscopic detection of beef fat in lard, T. S. Gladding {Analyst, 21 {1896), Oct., p. 254). — The author ohtaius crystals of beef stearin of good form and size by crystallizing from a mixture of alcohol and ether (10:5). — B. W. KILGORE. The introduction of standard methods of analysis, H. J. von Jonstorff {Chem.Neics, 74 {1896), Xos. 1917, p. 89; 191S, p. 101; 1919, p. 118; 1921, p. 143; 1922, p. 159; 1923, p. 170). A new form of potash bulb, ^I. Gomberg {Jour. Amer. Cliem. Soc, 18 {1S96), No. 11, pp. 941, 94..', fuj. 1). — Much simpler than Geissler's. It may be easily haudled and wiped, will stand without support, and can be weighed without being sus- pended.— F, AV. morse. A modified form of the ebullioscope, H. W. Wiley {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 18 {1896), No. 12, pp. 1063-1067, ficj. i).— The difficulties attending the use of the ebul- lioscope in determining alcohol in wine and beer are discussed, and a description is given of a form of the apparatus devised to overcome the difficulties. — f. w. morse. A filter flask, W. Diamond {Chem. News, 74 {1896), No. 1933, p. 283). Rapid measuring pipette, E. L. Smith {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 18 {1896), No. 10, pp. 905, 906, fuj. 1). — An apparatus for quickly measuring successive, equal volumes of a solution, when great accuracy is not required ; it may be prejiared from ordinary laboratory stock. — F. w. morse. BOTANY. Investigations concerning the formation of albuminoids in plants, T. KosuTANY {Landw. Vers. 8ia., 48 {1896), ¥0. 1, pp. 13-32).— The effect of assimilation aud its associated processes upon the pro- duction of albuminoids in the plant has been investigated. The mate- rial studied was leaves of a wild riparia grape. In order to get por- tions that would be comparable, the leaf blade was quickly cut along the midrib with scissors and half removed between 2 and 3 p. m., the other portion at about 3 a. m., and analyzed. The combined nitrogen, the albuminoid nitrogen and other nitrogenous compounds, the acid aud sugar content, and the ash were determined, the methods for the analy- ses being given. The exi^eriment was continued from June 21 to August 30, 1894, and the results are given in detail. The total nitrogen compounds fell off about one-fourth between the first and last dates given. The combined nitrogen content was greater at night than in the day, while there was less nonalbuminoid nitrogen compounds at night. Ammonium salts were found more abundant at night. The leaves contained a greater amount of nitric acid in the day than at night. The portions of leaves collected at night were found not to contain any asparagin. It appears that while the raw material for albuminoid formation is most abundant in the day, yet there is a greater conversion of this material during the night. More sugar is present in the leaves during the day than at night, while the greater content of the free acids is found at night. BOTANY. 669 The water content varied with the different periods, and was greater at night than in the day. The ash content increased toward the end, as shown by a second series of experiments. In 1895 simihvr experiments were conducted, the material being col- lected at biweekly periods and examined as before. The results, which are described in detail, confirm those of the previous year already given. Concerning the varying crystallizable nitrogenous compounds in germinating plants, E. Schulze {Ztschr. phiisloJ. Chcm.^L'^ {18!J(i), No. 4-5, pp. 411-131). — The author has investigated the nitrogenous compounds in germinating plants of vetch, and white, yellow, and blue lupines, studying the variations due to the processes of growth. It is shown that different species of the same genus of plants may contain very different nitrogen contents. The cotyledons of young plants of the yellow lupine contain considerable arginin, while it is almost or entirely wanting in the white and blue lux)ines. In a like manner, in etiolated plants of Lupinus angustifolius leucin but no phenylalanin is found. On the contrary, L. lutens and L. albus contain phenylalanin but no leucin. In gourd plantlets as well as those of Fieea excelsa some- times glutamin and sometimes asparagin is to be found. Green plants of Yicia satira and Lupinus hiieus contained only leucin, while the etio- lated plantlets of the vetch contained leucin, amido-valerianicacid, and phenylalanin; the etiolated lupine seedlings contained only amido- val- erianic acid and phenylalanin. Concerning the distribution of glutamin in plants, E. Schulze {Landiv. Vers. Sta., 48 {1896), No. l,pp. 33-55).— In 1883 the author and E. Bosshard^ showed glutamin to be a constituent of the juice ex- tracted from garden beets. In the present paper an extended rejiort is given of examinations made of many plants for the presence of this substance, which is considered homologous with asparagin. The de- tailed methods of separation are reported. The method of treatment gives glutamin, an amid compound which is characterized by small needle-shaped crystals containing no water of crystallization. The crystals are somewhat soluble in cold water but not in absolute alcohol. When heated with caustic soda ammonia is given oft", or with very dilute hydrochloric acid the ammonia is split up. A warm aqueous solution treated with copper hydroxid gives nearly insoluble coi)per- glutamin crystals i eadily recognized under the microscope. The author investigated the roots of garden and sugar beets, carrots, kohl-rabi, celery, and radish; tubers of Stachys tuber if era, etiolated plants of gourd, castor bean, rape, white mustard, and sunflower; and the green parts of growing plants of Saponaria officinalis, garden beets, kohlrabi, Fteris aquilina, Aspidium Jiiix mas, and Asplenium jilix faniina. In each of these IG different species, repre^enting 1) orders of plants, glutamin was found, while the investigation of tubers of arti- choke and dahlia and chicory roots gave negative results. ' Landw. Vers. 8t:i., 29 (1883), p. 295. 670 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The author thinks that glutamin jjlays a role similar to that of aspara- giu iu the plant, and that it is stored up in a similar way and for the same purpose. Concerning a new conidial form of Chaetoniiuni, E. Boulanger (Bev. f/en. Bot., 9 {1S97), Xo. l,i)p. 17-2G.pl8. 3). Investigations on the systematic anatomy of the Betulaceae and the Cory- lace« ( Thesis, Genoa, 1896; ahs. in Bot. Cenibh, 69 [1897), No. 4,pp. 118, 725).— Anatom- ical characters are given for the recognition of the different genera of these families. Comparative anatomy of Echinocactus, Mamillaria, and Anhalonium, P. MiCEiAELis (Iiiaiif/. Diss. Erlanfien, 1896, p)p. 38; abs. in Bot. Centbl., 69 {1897), No. 5, p. 145). Concerning the alkaloids of Lupinus albus and L. angustifolius, L. S. Davis {Inaug. Diss. Marburg, lS96,pp. 666; abt^. in Bot. CenibJ. Beihefte, 6 {1896) No. 6,])p. 454, 455). Concerning the seed coats of Solanaceae, C. Hartwich {Festschrift Naturf. Ges. Zurich, 1896, II, pp. 366-382, pi. 1). Investigations on the extent of the assimilatory tissues of plants, E. Blohm {Inaug. Diss. Kiel, 1896, pp. 44). On the osmotic pressure in the cells of leaves, II. H. Dixon {Proc. Boi/. Irish Acad., ser. 3, 4 {1S96), pp. 65-73). Concerning the changes in the protein in germinating conifer plants vrhich contain nitrogen compounds, E. Schulze {Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 22 {1896), No. 4-5, pp. 435-448). Concerning the influence of temperature on the osmotic processes of the liv- ing cell, G. Krabbe {Pringsheim's Jahrb. wiss. Bot., 29 (1896), No. 3, pp. 441-498). The influence of intense light on the cell division of Saccharomyces cere- visiae and other yeasts, W. Lohmann {Inaug. Diss. Bostock, 1896; abs. in Centbl. Bakt. unci Par. AUg., 2 {1896), No. 25-26, pp. 797, 798). Comparative studies on the poisonous effect of various chemical substances on algae and infusoria, T. Bokgrny {Arch. ges. Physiol., 64 (1896), p. 262; abs. in Bot. Centbl, 69 {1897), No. l.pp. 25-27). Changes in cell organs of Drosera rotundifolia produced by feeding ^vith egg albumen, I>ily Hi.ne (Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., 39 {1897), No. 4, pp. 387-425, pis. 2) The function of potash in assimilation in the plant organism, Mittelstaedt {Neue Ztschr. Euben:. Ind., 37 {1896), p. 93; abs. in Chem. Ztg., 20 {1896), No. 74, Repert.,p. 235). Concerning positive and negative heliotropism, F. Oltmanxs {Flora, S3 {1896), No. 1). The biology of pollen, A. Hansgirg {Oesierr. Bot. Ztschr., 47 {1897), No. 2, pp. 48-52). Concerning spore dissemination by rain, K. Gobel {Flora, 82 {1896), No. 4). Preliminary report on the spermatazoids of Cycas revoluta, S, Ikeno {Hot. Centbl., 69 {1897), No. 1, p>p. 1-3). — The nnthor claims to have observed spermato- zoids in the pollen tubes of Cycas revoluta. Notes on the flowers of crucifers, E. MARcnANi) {Bui. Soc. sci. nat. Vouest France, 6 {1896), No. 3, pp. 159-171, pi. 1). Plants as irritable organisms, .J. B. Farmer {Bui. Pharm., 11 {1897), No. 1, pp. 22-24). — A semipopular lecture on plant response to stimuli. Note on "double rice," D. Prain {Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1896, No. 4, pp. 65, 66, pi. 1). — Notes are given of a sport of rice, which normally produces two, some- times three, grains instead of the usual one to the flower. This is brought about by a proliferation in the gynrecium without any other abnormality in the flower. In the gynajcium of over 150 flowers examined there were from 4 to 7 ovaries present. The sport is said to come true to seed. METEOROLOGY. 671 Analysis of air by a mushroom, T, L. Phipsox {Chem. Xeivs, 74 {18D6), No. 1930, Influence of temperature and food on the respiratory quotient of molds, C. GEiiHKit {Comjyt. Jtend, l.'i (1897), Xo. S, pp. IG2-1G4). Soil inoculation -with pure cultures of tubercle bacteria for the culture of legumes, P\ Xdi-.UK {Tliarand Fomt. Jahrb., 4G (189G), II, pp. 248-275). — The sub- stance of this jiaper has already heeu j;iven (E. S. R., 8, p. 4()9). On the acclimation of different plants to the dunes of Medoc, P. Buffault {Rer. Eaux et Forcts, ser. 8, 1 (1897), Xo. 3, pp. 65-76). Some ne-w fungi, chiefly from Alabama, L. M. Underwood (Torrey Bui., M (1897), Xo. 2, pp. 81-86). — Descri])tions and critical notes are given of the following- new sitecies: Hiidniim vhrysocomum, lepiota mamma' for mis, Leptoylos-'ium alabameni^e, PeronoNpora plantaginis, P. seijmotirli, Pohjporiis dcciirrens, P. earlei, P. flavosquamosus, P. irreiiularis, P. mel\a\ P. rviipis, rnceinla pohjfiova, and Usiilago sparsa. Contributions to the Gasteromycetes of Maine, F. L. Hakvey (Torrey Bui., 24 (,1897), Xo. 2, pp. 71-74). Contributions to the Myxogasters of Maine, II, F. L. Harvey (Torrey Bui., 24 (1897), Xo. 2, pp. 65-71). Ne-w West American fungi. III, J. B. Ellis and B. M. Everhardt (Erythea, 5 (1897), Xo. 1, pp. 5-7). — The followiiin' new species are described: Jstcridium bicolor, HomoHt'uj'm rlioinum, DUhjmosporium rhoinum, Cercospora hyptidis, C. erioyoni, Pnccinia serjanice, P. iransformaiis, and J'xidium (jossypii. Notes on West American Coniferae, IV, J. G. Lemmon (Erythea, 5 (1897), No. 2, pp. 22-25). — Notes are given on the nomenclature of the Douglas spruce. Descriptions of ne-w Australian fungi, D. McAlpine (Proc. Linti. Soc. N. S. Wales, 21 (1896), No. 81, pp. 104-106. pis. 2). — Descriptive notes are given of Meliola fttvierea, Cyuth us plumhadinens, and Phoma stenospora. Contributions to the Queensland flora, F. M. Bailey (Queensland Dept.Agr., Botany Bui. 14, pp. 16, pis. 6). — Descriptions and critical notes are given on additions to the flora of Queensland, and several new species are figured and described. The botanical garden of the University, AV. A. Setciiell (California Sta. Ept. 1895, pp. 312-316). — The ])reseut condition of the botanical garden and herbarium of the University is described and some suggestions are given as to future investigations. METEOROLOGY. Experiments on the prevention of night frosts, F. H. King ( Wisconsin Sta. Bpf. 1895., pp. 253-2G7., Ji{/s. G). — These experiments were planned x)rimarily to test tlie metliod for frost prevention proposed by S. Lemstrom, of Finland,' althongb in 5 ont of the G trials reported other materials than the peat torches recommended by him were used. In 4 trials pint cnps of l;erose»iie were placed at intervals of 10 ft. over the area selected for the test and lighted. In 1 trial 80-pound piles of oak wood were burned at distances of 20 ft. around the margin of the area, while in the interior S other piles were placed in the form of a square 80 ft. apart and 80 ft. from the margin. In the experiment with the peat torches the directions of Lemstriim were followed. Ordi- nary and self recording thermometers were i)laced in different positions inside and outside of the protected areas and their readings carefully noted. ' For description of details of tliis method see E. S. K., 5, p. 660. 672 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The conclusions reacbed are as follows: "While the several experiments here detailed agree in showing that torches placed and burned in the manner described did exert only a feeble influence on the temper- ature of thermometers withiu the protected areas, or none at all, yet the writer feels that these experiments do not warrant the couclusiou that frost torches may not, at times, be used to advautage. They do demonstrate conclusively, however, that there are conditions under which they are of no avail. "It must be remembered, however, that all of these trials except the first, when there was no frost, occurred at times either later in the season or earlier than they are likely ever to be needed. Now it may be shown that during these seasons the temperature of the air does not materially increase upward, and if this were true at the times of the experiments here recorded it is evident that the sucking of the layers of air up from the ground by the torches only helps to bring other air of the same or possibly lower temperature down upon it. In such a case only the smoke and cloud formed above the field could be effective in lessening the loss of heat by radiation. "If, however, it is true that earlier in the fall and later in the spring, when destructive I'rosts do occur, the temperature of the air at night increases rapidly upward, then the influence of the torches might be much greater. But many trials similar to those here described need to be made at such times before the real value of torches and smudges in preventing damage by frost can be demonstrated." An experimental rainfall, L. Errera {del et Terre, 17 [1896), Aug., X). 353; ahs. in U, S. Dept. Agr., Weather BureaUj Monthly Weather Review, 24 {1896), No. 10, pp. 373, 574).— The method pro- posed is as follows: A cylinder of Bohemian glass about 20 cm. in height and 12 cm. in diameter is tilled half full with strong alcohol (92 per cent), covered with a porcelain saucer, and warmed nearly to the boiling j)oint over a water bath until the whole apparatus is in thermal equilibrium. It is then removed from the bath and, without agitating the liquid, placed upon a wooden table. After some minutes the porce- lain cover cools and the vapors rising in the cylinder commence to con- dense in the form of distinct clouds. These condense into very fine drops, which fall steadily, vertically, and in countless numbers into the liquid. The drops were found to have an average diameter of from 0.04 to 0.05 mm., sometimes larger, but more frequently smaller. This interesting spectacle may last for half an hour. At first the vapors rise quite up to the porcelain cover, but as the apparatus cools the level of condensation naturally falls until a clear space is noted above the zone of clouds. "The experiment has been repeated at the Weather Bureau with success, but it should be carried out on a large scale, with a very tall jar and great care as to uniformity of temperature, if one desires to get satisfactory results." Instructions for taking phenological observations, L. H. Bailey {V. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather Review, 24 {1896), JVo. 9, pp. 328-331). — The author states that phenological observa- tions are of two general types, those which simply record the external features of the passing life in x^lants and animals, and those which attempt to discover or construct some vital connection between life METEOROLOGY. 673 events and cliniatal euvironnieuts. The first is coucerned cliiefly with observations, and the other with experiments and philosophy. In the present paper it is the intention merely to indicate i)ractical methods to be ])nrsned in taking? notes which shall have a permanent valne. The observer should take one or more of the following subjects, restricting himself to a definite line of inquiry: "To determine (1) the general oncoming of spring, (L*) the fitful or variable features of spring, (3) the epoch of the full activity of the advancing season, (4) the active physiological epoch of the year, (5) the maturation of the season, (G) the oncoming of the decline of fall, (7) the approach of winter, (8) the features of the winter epoch, and (9) the fleeting or fugitive epochs of the year.'' In selecting plants, those which are convenient for observation year by year, and which will give unequivocal periods, should be chosen. The author quotes Hoffmann's essentials of phenological observations^ as follows : ''(1) As broad a distribution as possible of the given species selected for obser- vation. •'(2) Ease and certainty of identifying tbe definite pbases which are to be observed. "(3) The utility of the observations as regards biological questions, such as the vegetative periods, time of ripening, etc. "(4) Representation of the entire period of vegetation. "(5) Consideration of those species which are found in almost all published observations, and especially of those whose development is not inliuenced by momentary or accidental-circumstances.'' In general, the events which determine the epochs should be observed upon a definite and well-chosen set of plants of limited number, and it is important that the dates should represent the average epoch and not the very first bloom or leaf upon some individual early plant. In choosing dates for record the scheme proposed by Hoffmann, which is essentially that of Linnaeus, is recommended, namely, (1) upper sur- face of the leaf first visible or spread open, (2) first blossom open, (3) first fruit ripe, (4) all leaves, or more than half of them, colored. In choosing the plants for observation care must be taken to select typical average plants which are not unduly exposed either to heat or cold, moisture or dryness. The observer should always state whether the plant is in wild or cultivated grounds. The author considers it best to take notes upon 2 or 3 typical individuals and then average the results. The methods pursued by Hoffmann and other German phenologists are shown by quotations from their records. The author suggests a list of plants upon which observations may be taken in this country. This list, which is not intended to be com- plete, embraces plants for observations in New England and New York, as follows: Apple, ])ear, <|uince, plum, sweet cherry, sour cherry, peach, chokoclierry {Pninu.s riy(/iniana), wild black cherry [P.-scrotina), Japanese or flowering quince {Pyrus japonica), cultivated raspberry, ' Phiinologische IJeobaclitungen aus den ,)ahreu 1879-'82. 674 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. blackberry, and strawberry, lilac, mock orange syringa {Philadelphus coronarius), liorse chestnnt, red pith elder {Sambucus racemosa), com- mon elder {S. canadensis), lowering dogwood {Cornus Jlorida), na^tive basswood, native chestnut, privet or prim {Lignstrum vulgare), red currant, and cultivated grape. In addition to the events to be recorded as mentioned by Hotimann, the author thinks that there should probably be included the date of nearly complete defoliation ibr those species whose leaves color some time before they fall. All unusual flowering seasons should be recorded, but they should be distinctly marked so as not to be confounded with the normal events, and all sudden meteorological changes, as frosts in the fall and spring and high winds when defoliation takes place, should be observed. In conclusion, it is stated that persons spending their summers at resorts on the mountains or elsewhere can make useful records, provid- ing they visit the same i)lace year after year. They can select a few typical plants, and observe their conditions at the time of their arrival and departure. At the same time they can make records of progress of harvests, of hay and grain, and other staple crops. Climate of the Foothill Station, California, C. II. Shinn and G. Hansen {California ISta. Rpt. ISfJo^pp. 358-364, figs. 2). — This station is located in the Sierra foothills, 5 miles northeast of Jackson, at an elevation of a little less than 2,000 ft. above sea level. General notes on observations on climatic phenomena since the establishment of the station are given, with a monthly summary of observations on tem- perature during 1804, 189.'», and a part of 1892, on the top of the highest hill on the station farm and at a point in a valley about 200 ft. below. "The Foothill Station does not possess a climate in any way remarkable as com- pared with numerous localities at similar elevations in the Sierras. It has what is better, a. typical foothill situation, surrounded by peaks, ridges, and depressions of greater or less extent, giving it the general characteristics of a so-called 'thermal belt,' or thermal si>ot, thousands of which exist nndescribed throughout California." It appears that these thermal belts do not occur at a greater eleva- tion than 2,000 ft. above sea level. "The warm air travels from our valleys to the snow-capped Sierras, and the cold air moves from them to the lands below. The path which they travel is varied by every hill and curve in the canons. . . . "Along the canons flows the cold heavy air from the Sierras, frost-killing what- ever is in its path, if too tender for the season. If such cold stream of heavy air is too voluminous, jt has to overflow into a side canon. The space which these cold rivers occupy was previously held h\ warm air, which was lighter, and had to give way, rising above the level of the cold. Wherever it goes is the warm region, the thermal belt. . . . "Thermal belts favor the farmer, because the season of growth is longer thau else- where. While in early spring the sun warms the low places, and forces vegetation into growth, though it is apt to be frosted, the air in a thermal belt is circulating, and growth advances safely." METEOROLOGY. 675 The greatest difference in temperature between day and night regis- tered at the station in 5 years was 13° F. The lowest temperature recorded was 21° F. The number of sunless days is rarely more than about 40 during the year, uotwithLstandiug the fact that the rainfall is from 25 to 54 in. annuall3^ Fogs do not originate at the station but come up from the valley, and snow is little known. Meteorological observations at Berkeley, California, A. O. Leusciinee and F. H. Seares {California Sfa. lip't. 1^95, p. 307). — A sj'nopsis of observations for 3 years ending June 30, 1895, on air pressure, temperature, precipitation, humidity, cloudiness, and direction of wind. The summary for the year ending June 30, 1895, is as follows : Pressure (inches) : Mean, 30.033; highest, 30.435 (Feb. 16) ; lowest, 29.432 (Jau. 16). Temperature (°F.): Mean of the year, 53.8; maximum, 93 (Aug. 26); minimum, 34 (Jan. 24). Precijrtto/fon (inches) : Total rainfall, 39.008; dew and fog, 0.077. Humid- ity (per cent): Maximum, 97 (Oct. 23, Jan. 8, Feb. 12); minimum, 36 (Dec. 12). Weather: Number of clear days, 215; number of fair days, 76; number of cloudy days, 74; number of foggy days, 95; number of days on which rain fell, 55. Agricultural meteorology, F. Marie-Daw {Jour. Agr. Prat., 61 {1S97), I, No. 3, pp. SS-92). — A summary for December and for the year 1896 of observations at Paris on temperature, pressure, humidity, cloudiness, and winds. The year was the wet- test (705 mm. precipitation) in two centuries, 1804, with 703 mm., being the nearest approach to it during this period. The origin of the stratus clouds and some suggested changes in the interna- tional methods of cloud measurement, J. H. Clayton (Nature, 5'> (1S96), No. 141S,pp. 197,198). Hoar frost especially rich in nitrogen, A. Lancastek {Cid et Terre, 17 {1896), p. 54 ; ahs. in U, S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather Review, .'4 {1896), No. 10, p. 371). — Data obtained by Petermann and Graftiau at Gembloux are reported, which show that melted frost contains about 7.5 mg. of nitrogen per liter, and that the amount of nitrogen supplied to the soil by a single ordinary frost may amount to 7 lbs. per acre. In cases of heavy frost the amount is much greater. Weather report for Penis, Riverside County, California {California Sla. Rpt. 189.7, p. 16). — A tabulated daily summary of observations on temperature, rainfall, and casual phenomena for the G months ending March 31, 1895. Monthly Weather Review {U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather Ber'unv, 24 {1896), Nos. 8-11, pp. 281-442, figs. 2, charts 24). — Besides the usual sum- maries of ol)servations, No. 8 contains special articles on experiments with kites at San Francisco, California, by W. H. Hammon, and on the heated term from July 28 to August 7, 1896, by H. A. Hazen ; and notes by the editor on Mexican climatological data and periodicitj' of good and bad seasons. No. 9 contains special articles on the wind rush of September 29, 1896, by H. A. Hazen ; kite experiments at the Blue Hill meteorological observatory and a high kite ascension at Blue Hill, by S. P. Fergusson; instructions for taking phenological observations, by L. H. Bailey (see p. 672); progressive movement of thunderstorms, by A. J. Henry; low pressure in St. Louis tornado, by J. Baier; early experiments in atmospheric electricity, by C. E. West; and the International Meteorological Conference in Pari.s, by R. H. Scott; and notes by the editor on Espy and the Franklin kite club, isobars and their accuracy, the first attempt to measure wind force, and barograni near a hurricane center. No. 10 contains S])ecial articles on tlie International Meteorological Conference at Paris, September 1896; and the International Hydrological, Climatological, and 676 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Geological Conference at Clermont-Ferrand, by A. Ij. Rotch; horizontal atmospheric rolls, by F. W. Proctor; long-range seasonal predictions for Oregon, by B. S. I'ague; and notes concerning the West India hurricane of September 29-30, 1896, by A. J. Henry; and notes by the editor on forms of cloiids, hoar frost especially rich in nitrogen (see p. 675), atmospheric refractions at the surface of water, an experimental rainfall (see p. 672), Mexican climatological data, unreliable popular weather prov- erbs, the effect of shading the soil, and a prize for kite flyers. No. 11 contains special articles on an endeavor to discover electi'odynamic radia- tions from the sun, by J. Trowbridge; sunstroke weather of August, 1896, by W. F. R. Phillips; how the chinook came in 1896, by A. B. Coe; a method of filling a barometer, by E. B. Partridge; and the cold spell of November 16-30, 1896, in Montana and adjoining States, by H. A. Hazen; and notes by the editor on simulta- neous balloon ascensions, the Franklin kite club, the use of the kite in meteorology, the ui)per currents of air above the Indian monsoon region, the origin of typhoons and hurricanes, the low areas of our Pacific Coast, high-level isobars, tlie Tennessee river and flood system, and Mexican climatological data. Summary of solar observations at the Royal College of Rome during the second half of 1896, P. Tacchini {Compt. Bend., 124 {1S97), No. G, pp. 274-276). Meteorology, Island of Mauritius {Bap. Ann. Sta. Agron. lie Maurice, 1895, pp. 1-7), — Observations on atmospheric ])ressure, temjierature, humidity, and precipita- tion during the year 1895 are recorded. WATER— SOILS. Investigations on the drainage water of different soils, E. WOLLNY [Forsch. Geh. agr. rhys., 19 {1eat, loam, calcareous sand, humus-calcareous sand, and quartz sand are reported. From the data given it is estimated that the rate of flow of drainage water from the finest grained soil was 0.8 liter (0.68 pint per acre) per second per hectare. Investigations on the relation of atmospheric precipitation to plants and soils, E. Wollny {Forsch. Geh. ) By prolonged digestion of extremely finely powdered slag in normal alkaline amonium citrate more than four-fifths of the phosphoric acid was dissolved. This result is in accord with the well-known efiect of slag as fertilizer and is an additional indication that it does not con- tain tricalcium phosphate. Crude pliosphates treated in the same man- ner did not give a trace of phosphoric acid. (7) Slags exert a very active influence upon nitrification of nitroge- nous matter in acid soils. The ainoun t of nitrates formed increases with the i:)roportiou of slag used. Since this action is due to the free lime wliich the slag contains it follows that with an ecjual content of phos- phoric acid that slag will be most effective in acid soils which contains 14786— No. S- 4 682 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the largest amount of uncombined lime. The determination of this constituent in slags is therefore of the greatest importance. The geology of nitrate formation from the standpoint of bacteriological chemistry, A. Plagemanx {Geoloyischer iiher Salpeterhildung rom Standpunkt dcr Giihrungscliemie. Uamhurg: G. TV.Seitz). — This is a brochure discussing from per- sonal observatious the formation of the nitrate deposits of western South America. The formation of phosphate deposits, A. Carxot (Echo des Mines, 3.2 (1896), p. 975; ahs. hi Chem. 7Mj., 21 {1S9G), Xo. 3, nepert., p. 6). Theory of the sedimentary phosphorites, S. Meuniek {Ann. Jijron., 23 (1897), JS'o. l,2'>P-5-:'7). Experiments vsrith peat and excrement mixture and v^ith barnyard manure, TaxcPvE (Landiv. Wochenhl. Schles. HoUl., 47 (1S97), No. 5,])p. 01-94). Means of preventing the loss of nitrogen in manure (Prog. Agr. et V\t., 21 (1897), Xo.4,pp.S9,D0). Crops for green manuring, E. W. Hilgard (California Sia. Ept. lS95,j)p. llS-123, pis. 4). — The objects of green manuring are explained and the adai)tability of dif- ferent classes of plants to this purpose is discussed. Plates show the root systems of blue grass, scjuare-pod pea (Tetragonolohus purpureuH), snail clover, and black acacia, the last 3 illustrating especially the root tubercles of leguminous plants. The relative value of green and dry vegetation for plowing in, and of green manuring and stable manure is also discussed. Tests of chemical fertilizers in 1896, C. Dussehe (Chron. Agr. Cant. J'aud,10 (1897), Xo. 3, pp. 69-73). Analyses of fertilizers, gypsum, etc., E. W. Hilgakd (California Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 135-139). — Partial or complete analyses are re^jorted of 10 samjiles of fertilizing materials, including mixed fertilizers, sulphate of potash, bird guano, ostrich manure, lime refuse, and 16 samples of gypsum. Analyses of commercial fertilizers, H. J. Wheeler, B. L. Hartwell, and C. L. Sargent (lihode Island Sta. Bui. 39, pp. 61-68). — A schedule of trade values of ferti- lizing materials and notes on valuation are giveu^ with tabulated analyses and valuations of 41 sam])les of fertilizers. Analyses of commercial fertilizers, T. J. Edge and W. Frear (Pennsylvania Dept. Agr. Bui. 10, pp. 39). — This includes the text of the State fertilizer law, notes on valuation, and tabulated analyses and valuations of 588 samples of fertilizers examined during the year ending December 31, 1896. FIELD CROPS. Conditions affecting the starch content of potatoes, E. S. Goff {Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 317-331). — In this article the author considers the variation in starch content in difierent varieties, in dif- ferent seasons, and between different specimens of the same variety; the inHueuce on the starch content of heredity, the depth at which the tubers grow in the soil, distance in planting, climate, greening, seabbi- ness, and size; also the distribution of starch within the potato tuber, and the relation of starch content to cooking quality. The specific gravity of the tubers was used as a measure of their starch content. Tabulated data are given under the different divisions of the subject. The author concludes as follows : " (1) Different varieties of the potato, grown under the same cultural conditions, may vary in their food value to the extent of one-half or more. "(2) The starch content of the same variety and on the same soil may vary consid- erably in different seasons. FIELD CROPS. 683 "(3) Differenttubersof the same variety, grown under similar cultural conditions, may vary in their starch content to the extent of one-third or more. "(4) This dirt'ercuce does not appear to be a i-esult of heredity. "(5) Prcmged tubers are inferior in their starch content to regular ones. "(6) The tubers that grow deepest in the soil are richest in starch. "(7) In one trial the hilling of potatoes apparently caused a reduction in their starch content. " (8) Potatoes grown rather closely in drills were richer in starch than those grown in rows both ways. "(9) Potatoes greened by exposure to sunlight and those that are very scabby are not necessarily poorer in starch than others. ' * ( 10) Xo relation was apparent between the size of tubers and their starch content. "(11) The higher the starch content the sooner a potato cooks and the more it swells in cooking. "(12) The flavor of potatoes is not necessarily dependent upon their starch content." The author suggests that the market price of potatoes should be based upon their starch content rather than upon their bulk, and describes an apparatus suitable for the rajjid grading of potatoes in order to determine their market value on this basis. The grooving of sugar beets on alkali soils, E. W. Hilgard and 1{. II. LouGHRiDGE {California *SY«. Kpt. 1S95, pp. 71-!)1, pJ. 1). — These experiments were carried out upon a 10-acre tract of land at Chino, located on the borders of the alkali land. The held was first culti- vated and planted with forage plants, but none of them gave promise of a crop, so the greater part of the tract was again plowed, and on May 29 was sown to sugar beets. "These came up quicklj-, though with a somewhat thin stand, right among the alkali efflorescences, and continued to grow without let or hindrance." Owing to the wide dif- ferences in composition of leachings from difierent x>arts of the tract, it was found necessary to discriminate between the different portions, and the entire area was divided into plats 50 ft. square. Chemical and physical analyses of the soil, composition of the leachings from soils of CG plats in different portions of the tract, and of leachings from samples taken from different depths on 3 plats, crop data and composition of beets grown on 6 plats, and classification of beets by varieties and plats according to sugar content, are shown in tables and charts, and are discussed. In some of the plats the alkali was of the ''blackest" kind, contain- ing over 2,000 lbs. of sodium carbonate i)er acre, while in others not far distant the alkali was "white," consisting of neutral salts. Sodium sulphate predominates in the tract as a whole, and common salt is mostly quite subordinate. ''The most remarkable feature is the almost universal i)resence of nitrates, sometimes to the extent of over one-half of the total salt. ... In some cases the total amount of salt- peter in the soil ... is such as to exceed, many times, any fertilizing application ever made." Beets grown on soil containing such an excess of nitrates were use- less f;)r sugar making, being overgrown and sappy and low in sugar 684 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. content. Some of them weighed 2.5 lbs. and yielded onlj^ 10 per cent of sugar in the juice, with a purity coefficient of 07; while the general average weight elsewhere was less than 0.9 lb., with an average sugar content of 15.5 per cent, and purity between 85 and 90. The author draws the following conclusions from the results: "Sugar beets of good aud even liigh grade, both as to sugar aud purity, may be growu ou lands eontaining as much as 12,000 lbs. of alkali salts per acre to the depth of 3 ft. ; provided, that the percentage of common salt in the soil does not exceed an average of 0.04 per cent, or 1,500 lbs., per acre. . . . "As regards the carbonate, inasmuch as it is easily convertible into sulphate by means of gypsum, the tigure for its maximum tolerance is not of first importance; but so far as our experiments go, it seems to lie near 0.076 per cent, or 3,000 lbs., per acre for the first foot^ — implying probably about 4,000 lbs. for the first 3 or 4 ft. Within the limits of our experience at Chino the carbonates do not appear to be more injurious to the quality of the roots than the sulphates, aud not near as much as the chlorids (common salt). "As regards the sulphates, the maximum amount found to be jiresent at any point where good beets were obtained was 0.179 per cent of the soil, or 7,200 lbs. jier acre in the first foot — implying, for the total depth of 3 ft., about one-fourth more, or a total of 9,000 lbs. per acre. . . . "These results emphasize the importance of ascertaining the total of salts present in the soil stratum of 3 to 4 ft., which may ultimately rise to the surface under culti- vation or irrigation; and this is the more important because, as the present example shows, the texture of the soil may cause so great a difierence in the appearance of the surface efflorescence), that lands perfectly capable of being profitably cultivated may, to the eye, be too heavily impregnated for that purpose." Experiments vrith mineral fertilizers upon sugar beets in 1895, A. ViviER {Ann. 8ci. Agron., ser. ;J, :2 {1896), I, No. 3, pp. o74-38i). — These experiments were made upon 12 10-are (119.6 sq. yd.) jilats. The general history of the field for 14 years and detailed data of ferti- lizers applied and crops produced for each year since 1887, the compo- sition of the soil, and meteorological data are given. The fertilizers used were applied at the following rates : Nitrate of soda, 800, GOO, 400, and 200 kg. per hectare; superphosphate 1,000, 700, and 400 kg.; and muriate of potash, 250 and 150 kg. One plat of each group received no application of the special fertilizer tested, but with others of the group was given a medium application of the other two fertilizers. All the plats received barnyard manure at the rate of 35,000 kg. per hectare. The beets were counted when pulled, weighed, aud samples analyzed; and tables are given showing for each plat the total weight of crop, mean weight of roots harvested and analyzed, density of juice, quotient of purity, saline coefficient, and sugar per deciliter and per hectare. From the results of the year and preceding experiments in the same line, the author concludes that the crop increases with increased appli- cation of nitrate of soda and the density of the juice decreases at about the same ratio, so that the amount of sugar is not materially altered; and that applications of i)hosphoric acid show little effect upon either weight of crop or density of juice. The plats receiving FIELD CROPS. 685 muriate of potash showed such irregularities iu yield that it'was unsafe to give conchisions. Comparative trial of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia ■with barnyard manure for sugar beets, A.. Vivier {Ann. Sci. Agron., ser. 2, :2 {H^'JO), i, To. .V, 2)p- o84-3ti(i). — On 5-are (598 sq. yd.) plats, nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia were applied at rates equiva- lent to 30 and GO kg. of nitrogen per hectare. In addition each plat received at the rate of 35,000 kg. of barnyard manure, iOO kg. of super- phosphate, and 200 kg. of plaster per hectare. While the nature of the nitrogenous fertilizer did not noticeably affect the yield, sulphate of ammonia gave a juice of much greater density than nitrate of soda. Experiments in the culture and curing of tobacco, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Up. 1895, pp. oll-316). — This is a continuation of work published in the Annual Eeport of the station for 1894 (B. S. E., 8, p. 303). Influence of distance in planting on the yield and thichiess of the leaf (pp. 311-313). — Plants of the Wilson hybrid variety were set at dis- tances of 1 by 1, 1 by 1^, and 1^ by 2^ ft. The results are tabulated. The author states that with the closeness of planting the yield increased, the size and thickness of the leaves diminished, and the percentage of fillers increased. "Judging from the experiments of the past 2 seasons, no reason is apparent why the growers of the Spanish or Wilson Hybrid tobacco in Wisconsin should not set their plants in rows as near together as is consistent with convenience in cultivation, and as near as 1 ft. apart in the row." Influence of the time of harvesting tobacco upon the yield and thicTtness of the leaf (pp. 313, 314). — Between August 24 and September 2 from tobacco topped August G, upper leaves were i)icked and weighed daily. These were cured on wire lath in the curing house, all taken down at once, the leaves weighed separately, and the comparative thickness determined. The results are tabulated. The author says: "The ten- dency of the leaf to become thick as the time after topping increases is manifest to the extent of something over G sq. ft. of surface to the pound in favor of the leaves from the earliest topped plants as com- pared with the latest;" also in regard to further tabulated data obtained from portions of the main crop, "It is evident that in this trial the thickness and dry matter of the leaf tended to increase up to 32 days after topping. The yield also showed a tendency to increase in like manner." A repetition of the curing experiments of 1894 (pp. 315, 316). — The recommendations given in 1894 are briefly as follows: "Hang the tobacco moderately close, using care to so distribute the plants on the laths that no open spaces or flues will be left for the ready ascent of air from the bottom of the building to the top, and then so regulate the ventilation with the aid 686 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of a psycbrqmeter liung between the i)lants that the -wel bnlb shows a depression below the dry one of not less than 1 or more than 2", nslng fire beat when necessary to accomplish this object.'' This year's results confirm those of 1894. The author recommends a minimum depression of 1J° of the wet bulb thermometer instead of 1°, to provide a Tvider margin between the safety and danger limits. The necessary loss of dry matter in corn silage, F. H. King {Wisconsin St a. Bpt. 189 5 ^ pp. 273-278). — The difference between the amount of silage put in and taken out, the computed loss of dry matter, the amount of spoiled silage, and tlie dry matter it contained are given for the years 1893 and 1891. The loss of dry matter is giveu as 4.95 per cent for 1893 and 9.38 per cent for 1894. The difference in the results for the 2 years is ascribed to the corn being jiut in drier in 1893 than in 1894, to much later oj)ening of the silo in 1894, and to differ- ence in the size of samples taken for analysis in the 2 years. The loss of the dry matter in the ears of corn was tested on a sample of 40 lbs., one-half of which was put in the silo and one-half taken for analysis. There was a loss of dry matter of 1.15 per cent. Pieces of corn, stalks, and leaves were also cut in halves and i^ut in 2 sets of 3 loosely covered Mason cans; 3 were placed in the silo, the other 3 taken lor analysis. The losses in dry matter of the ear, stalks, and leaves are given at 4.90, 9.2, and 7.53 per cent, respectively. "It thus appears from a consideration of all the data here presented that the nec- essary loss of dry matter in corn silage is considerably less than 10 per cent and is probably as low as 5 to 8 per cent. If this proves to be the fact it is a very important matter indeed, because if well-built silos and a proper handling of silage can reduce the loss from 10 to 15 per cent below wbat has been reported as the average, such a saving is a large addition to tlie profits of a farm wherever 100 or more tons of silage are put up." Description of the principal varieties of fodder beets, H. L. de Vilmorin {Jour. Agr. Prat., 61 (1897), I, No. 6, pp. 207-212, pi. i).— Description of 19 varieties. Trials of varieties of fodder beets, A. Jordan (Chron. Ayr. Cant. Vaud, 10 {1897), No. S, pp. 75, 76). Notes on cauaigre examination, C. E. Colby {California Sta. Upt. 1895, p. 194). — Roots were finely ground, repeatedly pressed, and extracted with water warmed to 132° F. The liquid extract was strained through fine linen, evaporated, and dried at 132° F. The air-dried extract is nearly all soluble in warm water and contains 75.02 per cent of tannin. The " spent " cauaigre still contained considerable tannin, so the author estimates that this method of extraction involves a loss of 13.4 per cent of the total tannin of the fresh root. A comparison of the hide powder, gelatin, and Neubauer-Lowenthal or permanganate methods indicated that all are safe methods to use. The caiiaigre, or tanner's dock, E. W. Hilgard {California Sta. Ilpt. 1895, pp. l*6-m?).— Revised from Ikilletin 105 of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. 715). Wild chicory and its culture, L. Lizix {Belfi. JTort. et Ayr., 9 {1897), No. l,p.5). Cultural value of red clover from seed of various origins, Strebel ( Wiirt. Woclienbl. Laiuhv., 1897, No. l,i)p. 1, 2). — Comparison made at Hohenheim of French, Russian, and German seed. Coffee culture, M. Fesca {Jour, Landiv., 25 {1897), No. 1, pp. 13-41). The cotton plant : Its history, botany, chemistry, culture, enemiee, and uses {TJ.S.Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 33, pp. 433, pis. 4, Jigs. 32).— This FIELD cRors. 687 bulletin discusses the plant in its agricultural bearings only, no attempt being made to consider the problems of cotton luanniacture. It includes tlio following articles : Introduction, by C. W. Dabney, jr. ; History and general statistics of cotton, by R. B. Handy; Botany of cotton, by W. H. Evans; Chemistry of cotton, by J. B. McBryde and W. H. Beal; Climatology and soils, by Milton Whitney; The manur- ing of cotton, by H. C. White; Cultivated varieties of cotton, by 8. M. Tracy; Cul- ture of cotton, by Harry Hammond; Experiments in cotton culture by the experi- ment stations; Diseases of cotton, by G. F. Atkinson; The insects which affect tlie cotton plant in the United States, by L. O. Howard; The handling and uses of cot- ton, by Harry Hammond; Th7, Xo. 1, pp. 2, .?). — Experimental tests proved that lioth the accoiiipanyiug grain and the following crop were increased. The maximum of plant production, A. jNIayeh {Landw. Vers. Stat., IS (1896), No. 1, pp. 61-70). — The author has found from the yield of many field and forest crops that the maximum of production is between 7,000 and 8,000 kg. of organic dry matter per hectare for the north European region, and he believes the fixed amount of light and heat of the sun is the prei^onderant factor in determining this maxinuim. Useful Australian plants, J. H. Maiden {Agl. Gaz., N. S. Wales, 7 (lS9fl), No. 11, pp. 737-741, pU. 2). — Xotes are given of a dwarf salt bush {Atriplex haUmoides), bur medic, and a clover new to the colony. The species of clover is Trifoliinn sub- terviinenm, a native of Europe. Ensiling potatoes, L. Gbandeau {Jour. Agr. Prat., 61 {1897), I, No. 6, pp. 205, 206). — A silo filled with potatoes was opened after 62 days and the contents found perfectly preserved. Ensiling as a means of preserving some damaged crops, F. Desprez {Jour. Afjr. Prat., 61 {1897), I, No. 5, pp. 159-161). — The author records favorable results from ensiling frosted potatoes, beets, cabbages, and ruta-bagas which showed signs of decay; and clover which could not be made into hay because of rain. Report of the department of agriculture and horticulture, R. H. McDowell {Nevada Sta. Rpt. 1894, pp. 10-23). — Xotes are given upon hops, sugar beets, flax, grasses, potatoes, and peas grown at the station. The results are tabulated of experiments in applying land plaster to alfalfa; in seeding corn at different rates and dates and with varied numbers of irrigations, and in raising ditiereut varieties of wheat, barley, and oats. Field experiments for 1895, J. Claytox (Texas Sta. Prelim, lipt., pp. 7).— Tabu- lated data of crops from early and late planting of 39 varieties of cotton grown in 1894 and 1895, and yields of 63 varieties of corn grouped according to season of rixieniug. Report on field crops, 1895-'96, A. Damseaux (Bui. Agr. [Edge'], 12 (1896), No. 6, pp. 187-198). — "N'ariety tests of cereals, variety and fertilizer tests of sugar and fodder beets and other roots, a fertilizer test of fodder corn, and trials of miscella- neous crops are reported. Nitragin was used with contradictory results, peas on the soil wlierc it was applied yielding less than on check plats, the nitrogen content being unaft'ected, while vetches yielded more and contained a larger percentage of nitrogen on the Nitragin plats. Distribution of seeds, plants, cuttings, etc., E. J. WiCKSox (CaUfofnia Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 316-318). — Tables are given showing the number of plants and cut- tings and the weight of seeds distributed in accordance with announcements made in Bulletins 106 aud 109 of the station (E. 8. R., 6, p. 721 ; 7, p. 766). A financial state- ment for i years and tabulated data showing the extent of distribution are also given. HORTICULTURE. Irrigation for cabbage and caulifloTver, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1x9.')^ pp. ,'293-207, fig. 1). — A plat of fertile clover sod was plowed about May 15, then dressed with stable manure at the rate ofGS tons per acre, and on August 16 received a liberal broadcast application of commercial fertilizers. On this plat, which was freely watered at time of i)lantin<;-, June 22, (iO 4-rod rows of cabbage and 40 rows of cauli- flower were set, the plants being 3 ft. apart each way. Twenty rows 690 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. each of cabbage and cauliflower were left as a check, and the remaining rows received about 17.2 in. of water at 4 applications as the plants seemed to need it. The season was very dry, as only 5.275 in. of rain fell, the normal precipitation being 17.86 in., so the test was well calcu- lated to show the effect of irrigation. The principal data appear in the following table: Yield of irrigated and imirrigated plats of cabbage and caulifloiver. Cabbage : 2i) rows irrigated 20 other rows irrigated 20 rows not irrigated . . Cauliflower: 20 rows irrigated 20 rows not irrigated . . Number of plants. 446 421 442 435 361 Number of salable heads. 395 383 347 347 235 Plants headed. Per cent. 88.5 90.9 78.5 79.7 65.1 Weight per hundred heads 492 306 GraiJliic diagrams are given showing effect of irrigation on head formation and weight of heads. Irrigation appeared to increase the number of plants heading by 12 per cent in the cabbage and 14 jier cent in the cauliflower, and to increase the average weight of heads 50 per cent in the cabbage and 66 per cent in the cauliflower. The author was surprised that the unirrigated plants did so well, but ascribes it to the liberal application of manure and to the fact that the subsoil at setting time contained a fair amount of water which these deep-i-ooting plants were able to use. "The irrigation of cabbage and cauliflower did not prove iirofitable to the same extent as that of straw- berries" (see p. 696). A celery test {Florisfs Exchange, 9 (1897), No. 6, pp. 1]G, 117, figs. 6). — An attemj>t was made on Long Island to test the claim previously made in this paper that it is possible for a whole field of celery to revert to the wild plant in a single season. The experiment consisted in growing 65 varieties and strains, among them the Golden Self-Blanching, the one concerning which the claim was made. A careful examination was made of all plants and no variation was found that would warrant any such claim. Of the particular variety under special consideration, there was no variation observed in more than 100,000 plants examined. The author believes it would be impos- sible to cause any good strain to revert to a worthless one in a single season by bad culture or other means. Analyses of California cherries, prunes, plums, and Logan berry, G. E. Colby {California Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 177-18^).— The author reports analyses of 6 samples of cherries, 5 of fresh prunes, 7 of dried prunes, 2 of plums, and 1 of Logan berry, some of the more important results of the analyses being shown in the following table (p. 691). HORTICULTURE. G91 Analyses of CaliJ oniia cherries, prunes, plums, and Logan herries- -crop of 1894. Physical analysis. Inj nice. In fresh fruit. 1 S o a « SI % s s £ '3 -3 C <0 ft ft (5 o H '3 <1 J3 s a S "o ^ . .S-3 a d 2 "2 0 a a a 5 Clierrifs : Koyal Ann Black Tarta- Gins. 8.0 7.5 8.5 6.2 7.0 8.5 20.5 27.5 56.5 59.8 54.1 72.9 64.2 54.1 22.0 16.4 P.ct. 96.0 95.4 90.7 94.7 94.0 95.4 95.1 93.4 p. ct. 4.0 4.6 3.3 5.3 6.0 4.6 4.9 6.6 P.ct. 82.00 87.50 81.40 81.00 89.70 79.10 82.00 90.50 p.ct. 18.00 12.50 18.60 19.00 11.30 20.90 18.00 9.50 P.ct. 11.41 12.85 13. 00 15.03 15.12 15.77 22.00 23.10 P. ct. 0.496 .306 .384 .296 .268 .368 .250 P.ct. 9.36 11.21 10.58 12.16 13.56 12.45 17.70 P.ct. 8.98 10.64 10.05 11.51 12.75 11.82 16.80 19.50 9.40 6.90 6.90 P.ct. 0.183 .244 .220 .242 .206 .278 P.ct. 1.140 1.520 1.370 1.412 1.287 1.727 Eoval Ann Bhick Tarta- Do Napoleon Higarreau .. Prunes : French 1)0 .240 1 20.80 Teniiaiit Fn-uch Italian 13.5 27.4 11.6 4.0 6.2 33.4 16.5 39.0 113.0 73.0 94.0 94.9 85.7 6.0 5.1 14.3 76.00 71.60 24.00 28.40 11.16 13.00 8.90 9.30 ' 35. 20 Dried prunes : French Do .8S0 ' 51.00 Do .800 .800 .880 '50.00 ' 53. 00 ' 50. 60 1 50. 80 149.00 9.05 5.00 Do Do 44.0 80.0 90.0 41.0 6.7 90.4 Do Do Plums: Priniordiaii . . . U.O 67.0 5.0 94.0 97.1 6.0 2.9 87.00 80.00 88.07 13.00 20.00 11.93 10.41 6.25 8.90 '.'820 .960 8.50 4.80 8.00 Simon Logan berry .175 1.094 ' Sugar ill whole dried fruit. Complete ash analyses are given of (hemes, and from these the author has calculated the fertilizing ingredients removed by 1,000 lbs. of fresh cherries, as follows : Fertilizing ingredients removed hy 1,000 potinds of frcxli chervil's. Pounds. Potash L>. 77 Pliosplioric acid 72 Other ash iugredieuts 1. 33 Nitrogen 2. 29 Total ash 4. 82 The olive in the Chino Valley, J. W. Mills {California Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 438, 439). — A brief report is given of pollination experiments conducted with several varieties of olives, from which the general con- clusion is drawn that the higher bred or larger olives produce pollen having greater vitality than that of the smaller ones. This result is based upon one year's experience, and the same line of work is to be continued. Analyses of California oranges and lemons, Gr. E. Colby {Cali- fornia Sta. Rpt. /6'.V,'>, 2)p. 172-177). — In continuation of the analyses given in the previous report of the station (E. S. R., 6, p. SI.")), the author gives analyses of 14 additional varieties of oranges, 1 of lemon, 692 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 1 of lime, and 2 of pomelos. A report is also giveu of tbe effect of various fertilizers on Australian and Washington navel oranges, and the results of analyses are shown in the following table: Effect of fertilizers upon the fruit of navel oranges. Fertilizer. Physical analysis. Aver- age weight. Barnyard mamire Not fertilized Nitrate of soda — Superphosphate (from boneblack) Muriate of potash Nitrogen and phosphoric acid Nitrogen and potash Potash and phosphoric acid Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash Grams. 190 153 160 193 205 160 208 208 Eind. Per ct. 41.0 37.8 39.4 43.2 38.2 39.2 34.7 34.8 40.9 Pulp, pressed. Per ct. 25.7 29.3 26.0 22.2 .30.0 25.0 26.2 27.4 21.2 Aver- age juice. Gc. Analysis of juice. Total solids (by spin- dle). Per ct. 13. 80 15.15 13.65 13.80 14.40 13.90 13.30 13.30 15.05 Total sugai's (inver- sion). Per ct. 10.37 12.22 10.18 10.31 12.20 11.24 10.38 10.10 11. 79 Citric acid. Nitro- gen in fresh fruit. Perct.- 0.184 .175 .170 .171 .158 .184 .182 .185 .183 The author states that rigorous interpretation of the results of his experiments will reveal many contradictions, and before much weight can be given such analyses the ex]3eriments must be repeated on an extended scale for several consecutive years. In regard to nitrogen, it was found that muriate of potash and nitrate of soda lowered the nitrogen content of the fruit as compared with unfertilized fruit. That muriate of potash apparently increases sugar and decreases nitrogen seems to be about the only definite conclusion that can be drawn from the experiments thus far conducted. The lack of any standard for comparison is a serious drawback to this kind of work. Fertilizer experiments with potash salts for oranges are briefly reported, and it is shown that while the oranges of the different lots weighed practically the same, those not treated with potash had a thicker rind and a larger average of juice, and those treated with pot- ash had a larger total amount of pulp. The ash of the orange was about the same in the 2 lots, the percentage of potash being a little higher for the trees receiving a potash fertilizer, and the phosphoric acid content was about 5 per cent higher in the fruit from trees receiv- ing no potash. The potash seems to have had a slight effect in increas- ing the sweetness of the Juice, there being 1.3 per cent more total sugar and 0.56 per cent more cane sugar for the trees receiving potash. The citrif; acid was not influenced. The author states that had sulphate of potash been used instead of muriate probably the effect on sugar con- tent would have been greater. Blossoms of the plum and apricot, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Ept. 1895., pp. 300-303). — The study of plum blossoms with reference to their fertility, commenced in 1894 and noticed in the Annual Report of the station for that year (E. S. R., 8, p. .309), was continued. It was HORTICULTURE. 693 fouiifl that in an uuknowu variety of l\nssian apricot which blooms earlier than the plum, the blossoms were about equally numerous on the wood of 1892, lS9o, and 1894, but that the percentages of llowers bearing- perfect pistils were 83.1, (JO.l, and 5.3 respectively. Examina- tion of several varieties of plums, however, furnished "no positive evidence that the younger wood on the whole produced less fertile flowers than the older, though this may be true in certain varieties." The data are tabulated for the varieties examined. Horticultural experiments at Southern Pines, 1895 {JSTorth Caro- lina Sta. liul. 129, pp. 159-301, figs. 24). — A re])ort is given on a series of experiments undertaken at Southern Pines, North Carolina, under the joint direction of the State Horticultural Society, the Experiment Station, and the German Kali Works, the object of the work being to determine the proportion of the ditterent fertilizing ingredients neces- sary for the best growth and development of orchard and garden fruits and other horticultural and agricultural products, and the best treat- ment of the soil to produce this result. I^To commercial brand of fer- tilizer is used, but fertilizing ingredients are employed in various combinations. The location of the experiments, the geology of the region, and climatic conditions are given at considerable length. Chemical and physical analyses of the soil have been made. The character of the soil is sandy, with sandy subsoil of uncertain depth. Originally the land was covered with long-leaf pine, but at the begin- ning of the experiment it was partially covered with a grow- th of smaller pines, oaks, and dogwood, the merchantable timber having long since been removed. It had never been under cultivation. The methods pursued in clearing and preparing the land for jdaut- iug, laying out the plats, setting plants, and subsequent cultivation are described in detail. The general plan of the experimental tests adopted consisted of a series of tenth-acre plats for each of the fruits excepting the small fruits, the plats for wiiich were fortieth-acre. The basis of the fertilizer aiiplications was potash equivalent to 50 lbs. per acre, phosphoric acid equivalent to 50 lbs. of available phosphoric acid per acre, nitrogen equivalent to 20 lbs. per acre, 2,000 lbs. of slacked lime per acre, and green manuring with cowi)eas. The analyses of the various fertilizing materials and amounts applied per tree are given. The varieties of fruits selected for the experiments were Lady Thompson strawberry; Cuthbert raspberry; Early Wilson blackberry; Niagara and Delaware grapes; Elberta peaches; Abundance, Burbank, Maru, Ogon, Pool Pride, and Waylaud plums; Kietfer pears; McCul- ler Winter apples; and Japanese Mammoth chestnuts. The wxather conditions during 1895 were somewhat noteworthy on account of the low temperature during January, February, and A]»ril, and the high temperature from August t<> December. The precipitation was greatly above the normal in March and April and below in Sei)- tember and October. 694 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. In general, newly planted orchards are not greatly troubled by insect and fungus pests, but in this series of exi)eriinents considerable trouble was occasioned by attacks of a species of native ants {Solenopsis genii- natus), which were very abundant in these piiie lands. Various methods were undertaken to prevent the attacks of this pest on the different trees, but none of tliem could be considered a complete sucess. It appears that early and persistent spraying with Paris green, not to exceed 3 oz. to 50 gal. of Bordeaux mixture, combined with continuous stirring of the ground, will kill or drive the ants away. The addition of 1 gal. of molasses to the ordinary Bordeaux mixture was found an improvement, since it made it adhere much better to the foliage. The shot-hole fungus {Septoria persicce) and the grape mildew were the only fungus pests which were noticed to any extent, and these were kejit in check fau-ly well with Bordeaux mixture, the shot-hole disease proving rather less amenable than the mildew to preventive treatment. The most serious difficulties encountered during theiirst year's exper- iments were those arising from the use of fresh land, late planting, bad weather conditions, and inability to secure choice nursery stock. The blackberries, peaches, i)lums, and grapes were injuriously affected by the abnormal conditions already named. The blackberries were injured to such an extent that no results could be considered accurate, and a new planting was necessary. The peaches were badly injured by the abnormal weather conditions and the ant depredations, many of the trees failing to grow'. In regard to the plums, the conditions during the first year were such that conclusions as to growth would be nntrust- worthy, and are omitted. In the experiments with grapes there was a much more even growth, and the appearance of the various plats was more satisfactory. It is evident that the following conclusions may be drawn from the grape experiments: " (1) A very large increase of growth is caused by tlie application of fertilizers properly cojiipounded, although it can not be definitely stated with only the result of one season's growth what is the best proportion; (2) lime in connection with the complete application of the 3 ingredients very greatly increased the vine growth, and that this effect is probably due in a great degree to the beneficial action of the lime upon the fresh soil by aiding in the decomposition of organic matter, and thus neutralizing the eft'ect of organic acids produced; (3) the suljihate as a source of potash appears to be of greater value than the muriate; whether this result is due to the fact that the sulphate can be more easily taken up by the vine in the process of growth or that the sulphate has acted chemically upon the soil to render more available the compounds already present, is not altogether appaient, but it is likely that both causes have been effective; (4) the broadcast sowing of cowpeas for green manuring on fruit crops uear the vines and trees is not to be commended, but a suffi- cient open space should be left between them so as to prevent any interference with the growth of the fruit crops."' Experiments with mulches at Paso Robles Station, 0. H. Shinn {California Sta. Bpf. 1895^ py. 401-403). — On account of the exception- ally dry conditions that prevailed during the winter of 1893-'94 in the HORTICULTURE. 695 vicinity of this station neglected orcliards and vineyards snff'ered severely the following- season. At tlie station the orcliaid and vine- yard were carried throngli the season in good condition by thorough and constant cultivation. An experiment was conducted with mulches in the vineyard and peach orchard, 5 plats of about one-tenth acre each being treated. The first i)lat in the vineyard was mulched with fresh stable manure to a depth of 3 in., the second with a mulch of cultivated earth 5 in. deep, and the third with a mulch of rotten straw G in. deep. The plats in the peach orchard were mulched with 3 in. of fresh stable manure and by cultivation to a depth of 5 in. The results obtained in these experi- ments are tabulated. The conclusions of the author, drawn from this table, show that the mulch of fresh stable manure which was api)lied early in the season served better for obtaining moisture than the mulch of cultivated earth. Late showers, although very light, may have influenced this to some extent. Influence of north and south slopes on the temperature of the trunks of fruit trees, F. H. King ( Wisconsin iSta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 268- 273, Jiff. 1, dgm. 1). — In order to observe the changes in temperature in the trunks of trees three observation stations were selected, one upon the summit of a hill 108 ft. above and 1,000 ft. distant from Lake Mendota, another on the south slope 32 ft. below the summit, and the third on the north side 34 ft. below. At each of these stations there was set in the ground a section of a second-growth black oak tree, 8 in. in diameter and projecting 30 in. above the surface. In the top of each post vertical flve-eighths-inch holes 16 in. deep were bored 1 in. inside the bark on the north and south sides, and chemical thermome- ters were lowered to the bottom of the holes. These could be drawn up by strings for reading. The top of each tree trunk was covered with a narrow board, to which was secured a tight galvanized-iron shelter containing a self-recording air thermometer. Tlie temperatures of the tree trunks were read daily at 7 a. m. and 1 p. m. during December, 1891, January, February, and March, 1895. The following table shows the monthly meau temi:)eratures : Mean temperatures in the north and nouth .sides of tree trunks. South slope. Summit. North slope. Month. South. North. South. North. South. North. 7 a.m. Ip. m. 7 a.m. Ip. m. 7 a.m. 1p.m. 7 a. m. 1 p.m. 7 a.m. 1p.m. 7 a.m. 1p.m. December . . January February March 0^. 27.99 7.57 8.73 27.68 42. 98 31.28 37.15 47.91 OF. 28.60 9.03 8.07 28. 13 °F. 32. 76 18.59 20. 55 35.28 OF. 29. 25 8.35 8.92 27.68 °F. 39.79 26.60 33.58 45.12 OF. 28.38 8.37 9.08 28.44 OF. 32.57 16.12 17 47 29.82 OF. 28.78 7.93 9. 63 27.55 OF. 36.72 23.11 28.27 41.04 OF. 28.42 8.17 8.73 27.79 op 32.'99 15.39 16.57 33. 39 Mean . . 17.99 1 39.83 , 18.61 1 ! 26.80 18.54 36.28 18.57 [ 24.00 18.47 32 29 18. 28 24.58 From this table it ai)pears that the mean diurnal change in the south side of the tree trunks was 21.81:° F. on the south slope, and 13.82° on GdG EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the nortli slope, a change 8.02° g-reater for the south thau for the north slope. Similarly, the change in the north side of the tree trunks was 1.89° (8.19 — 6.30) greater for the south slope. The maximum change occurring in any one clay in the south side of the trees was 52.1o for the tree on the south slope, and 36.6° for the one on the north slope, a difference in the amount of change of 16.5°. "It is evident from these data that in orchards which are planted on southern exposures the trunks of the trees must be subjected to much widfr changes of tem- perature during eacli 24 hours than where they are planted on northward slopes. "It will be noticed that tlio table shows, not simply that the temperature of the south side of the tree trunk on the south side of the hill becomes much warmer at midday, but also that it is the coldest in the coldest part of the day, and it will be seen that this is true, not simply in the average for the four months, but that it is also true for the mean of each individual month. On the north slojie of the hill there is a slight tendency for the north side of the tree trunk to be coldest in the morning, while at the summit of the hill the two sides have still more nearly the same'temi^erature in the morning when it is coldest. These small dilferences are due to the fact that the radiation of heat from the groiind on the ujihill side against the tree trunk is stronger than it is on the downhill side." The records of air thermometers for the three months in 1895 were platted in the form of curves, and show "that for each of the three months the diurnal range of temperature is least on the summit, it being colder there in the middle of the day and warmer in the night, the difference increasing from January to March, where it is very marked . . . and that the south side of the hill is colder than the north side in the latter part of the night, just as was indicated by the thermometers placed in the tree trunks." Irrigation of stra^vberries, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Bpt. 1895, jpp. 289-292, figs. 2). — A continuation of work reported in the Annual Eeport of the station for 1894 (E. S. E., 8, p. 310). Three plats, each comi)rising 12 50-foot rows of Warfield and 4 rows of Wilson berries, were used in the test. The first plat had been well irrigated the previous season, received 3 ajJiilications of water between May 25 and June 22, and yielded 561.3 boxes; the second plat had been well irri- gated in 1894 but was left without watering in 1895, and yielded 111.6 boxes; while the third plat, which had never been irrigated, yielded 66.2 boxes. The results are shown graphically and by illustrations of the yields from single pickings of irrigated and unirrigated rows. "Late summer irrigations, however beneficial they may be in pro- ducing plenty of vigorous plants, will be rendered nearly futile unless supplemented by timely irrigations when the fruit is forming and maturing." Experiments in strawberry culture, E. S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 279-288).— X table is given showing the yield for 3 con- secutive seasons of a plat of 47 varieties. The plants were grown in matted rows, received good culture, and were well protecttd in winter. After gathering the first and second crops the matted rows were nar- rowed to 12 in., the remaining plants well thinned, and a top-dressing HORTICULTURE. 697 of maiinre applied. Irrigation was comiueuced late in the first season aiul continued until after the third crop was harvested. At the close of the second season the tops of the plants were mowed off and burned between the rows with what was left of the mulching material. The total yields for the successive seasons were 1,038.6, 7S6.9, and 1,0!)0.1 boxes. Six varieties yielded best the first year, 3 varieties the second year, 12 varieties the third year, several nearly the same for all seasons, but the majority of the kinds yielded less the second season than either the first or third. Descriptions are giveii of 10 of the most productive varieties. The author recommends Beder Wood, Wartield, and Parker Earle for market or home use. Frost threatening the destruction of the crop just when the plants were coming- into bloom, an attempt was made to prevent the damage by covering the rows with marsh hay. This had been used as a winter protection and had been stacked near at hand for mulching purposes. The plants on the three-fourth acre plat were covered 3 times, at an expense of 15.79, or about |8 per acre. All exposed blossoms Avere killed, but those covered escaped injury and produced a crop realizing more than $300 per acre. A series of experiments was begun in 1892 to test the relative pro- ductiveness of early and late formed matted rows. On one plat all runners were picked off until September 1 and then allowed to form plants; and on the other plants were allowed to form only before this date. The yield in 1893 from the plat of early-formed rows was 202.5 qt., from the late-formed rows 100 qt. As no account was taken in this test of the relative number of plants in the rows, a second trial was conducted in 1894 in which the numbers of ijlants in the rows were made uniform. . The early-formed rows gave 202.-1 qt., the late-formed rows 101.1 qt. From these experiments the author concludes that " the earlier formed matted lows were more productive; . . . the earlier formed plants were moie productive; . . . we can not depend upon plants to form well-matted rows late in the season." Grovrth of trees, shrubs, and other plants on alkali soils, C. H. Shinn (California iSta. h'pt. 1895, pp. 41<>—i;21). — Xotes are given on tests which have been conducted for several years at the San Joacjuin Valley Station on the growth of trees on alkali soils. As some of the.se have not been sufficiently tested, the experiments are to be con- tinned. Kolreuteria paniculata, a handsome, small tree, was found to grow in soils that were very alkaline. In fact, it and Atriplex .setnihaccatum were the only culture plants growing in such places. Tamariv gallica showed remarkable resistant powers, growing (piite readily in what are known as black alkali soils. The European sycamore [Flatanus orientalis) has grown well at the Tulare Station in soils which were too strong in alkali for the growth of Eucalyptus glohulus. Of a number of 14780— No. 8 5 698 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, species of poplars tested, the common Lombardy poplar and Pofmlus fremontU, P. monilifera, and P. canadensis are considered the best for alkali soils. The Japanese camphor tree [Camjjliora officinarum) and the strawberry tree [Arhitus luwdo) have grown fairly well on moder- ately strong alkali soils. Of the oaks tested, the cork oak seems to have made very satisfactory growth, although the amount of alkali was not high. The native white oak {Quercns lohata) often grows in strong alkali basins, and it is thought that Q. cerris will prove valu- able under the same conditions. Of the walnuts tested, the English walnut {Juglans regia) is found to withstand alkali very poorly. One of the native species, J. califoDiica, is somewhat more resistant to alkali, while J. nigra makes very slow growth. The pecan ( Carya oUvwformis) withstands alkali and heat better than any of the walnuts with the exception of J. eaUfornlca. ISTearly all of the leading varieties of mul- berries have been tested at the station and found to do fairly well on alkali soils. The American varieties thrive on medium grades of alkali, but are less resistant than the Oriental forms. Most of the Pacific Coast and large-leaved forms of Japanese maple will not grow at the station, the European and silver maples and the Negundos doing fairly well. Of the elms, a slippery elm ( Ulmus fulva) has made the best growth of any of the trees tested. The leaves of Ulmus americana burn badly and the tree does poorly. The various locusts which have been tested make vigorous growth on strong alkali soils. The carob tree {Ceratonia sillqua) is fairly well adapted to resist alkali, and on account of its thick, firm leaves has few e(|uals in enduring the hot sun. It is well adapted to mesa lauds at Santa Monica without irriga- tion, as well as to many of the dry California hillsides. 'Quite a num- ber of species of Eucalyptus have been tested, the most satisfactory of which are U, amygdaJina, E. rostrata, E. riminaUs, and jirobably E. resinifera. On medium alkali soils Grevillea rohnsfa makes a satisfac- tory growth, but on heavier soils the leaves suffer. Among the palms tested the wild date {Phwnix canariensis) and fan palm ( Wasliiiigtonia Jilifera) have proved best on medium-grade alkali soils. Among the conifers there are few found that will adapt themselves to the con- ditions of the alkali. Jimiperus phwnk-ia succeeds fairly well, and Pinus canariensis quite well. Of the California timber trees all except Pseudotsuga donglasii are found very sensitive to alkali. Of the shrubs tested, si)ecies of Kunzia, Fabiana, oleanders, crape myrtle, lemon verbena {Aloysia), and smoke tree {Rhus cotinus) have grown well, N^umerous vines were tested, and it was found that the fine starch plant from Japan [Pueraria thunbergiana), wistarias, and jasmines, if protected from the full sun, will withstand considerable alkali. The trumpet creeper {Tecoma radicans) is also very resistant to alkali. Among the garden plants which grow successfully on strong alkali soils are portulaccas, calandrinas, ornamental-leaved beets, ice plants. HORTICULTURE. 699 the liardiermesombryantliemums, the various yuccas, verbenas, canuas, violets (if well shaded), hollyhocks, and tuberoses. Of the fruit trees tested, the most resistant of all is the pomegran- ate. The comuion quiiice and i)ear are also hardy. The Japanese species of quince sheds its bark and is not a success. Next in rank after the pear in resistance is the plum. On strong alkali soils no fruit trees excepting pomegranates and mulberries can be safely planted. The quince and pear should be limited to low or medium grades of alkali. Trees, while sometimes growing fairly well in alkali soils, may produce worthless fruits, but both mulberry and pomegranate fruits, when grown in strong soil, are of good quality. Gaseous fermentation in the canning industry, II. L. Russell {Wisconsin iSta. Ept. 1805^ pi). ;2;27-231). — The author's attention was called to a more or less serious trouble caused by the after fermenta- tion of canned goods. The spoiled cans, technically known as " swells," are filled with gas and absolutely worthless. A biological examination of the canned material, which in this case was peas, showed that the spoiled goods were invariably in an advanced stage of bacterial fermentation. Cultures made from the material revealed the presence of 2 different species of bacteria, one of which proved to be an organism capable of fermenting sugar solutions with a copious evolution of gas. Experiments were made with this organism, and it was demonstrated that it was largely the cause of the fermen- tation. Having deternuned the cause of the trouble, an attempt was made to discover means for its prevention. The various steps in canning peas are shelling, grading, blanching by means of immersing in boiled water for 1 or 2 minutes, placing in cans, filling cans with a solution of salt, to which sugar is added where the amount is deficient in the peas, hermetically sealing the cans, and cooking in a tightly closed steam cooker. In some varieties of peas long-continued boiling results in splitting the skin, and the mealy part renders the liquid contents turbid. In order to prevent this, experiments were conducted in which the effect of sterilization by means of greater steam pressure and higher temperature was tested. This procedure was confidently believed to be fatal to bacterial life, but its effect on the quality of the canned i^roduct was unknown. An experimental lot of a few cans was cooked under a steam pressure of 18 lbs. at a temperature of over 250^ F. The cans were opened after this process and the licpiid was found to be clear and the peas intact. This experiment having demonstrated that the quality of the peas was not affected, so far as could be determined at that time, it was repeated on a much larger scale in order to test the keeping quality of the product. The details of this second experiment are given in the following table. 700 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Details of canning peas. Peas rich in sugar. Peaa deficient in sugar. T-r 1 Experi- ^sial ,^^'ytal process. . pi-ocess. Steam pressure in cooking pounds. Temperature degrees F . . | Time minutes. Number cans "processed" cans. Itsumber cans " swells" do. ..i Per cent of swells per cent.. ]0 232 26 ,175 306 5 15 242 28 11, 859 8 {') Usual process. 11 234 17 4,607 135 23 Experi- mental process. 15 242 30 2,520 14 20.5 ' Practically none. 2About. The results of this experiment were highly gratifying, as there was a material dimiuntiou iu the amount of spoiled product. It is confi- dently expected that the frequently disastrous losses could be almost entirely prevented by the application of increased pressure without necessarily lengthening the time of exposure. Alcoholic vapor as a preventive of mold and preservative of fruit, E. S. GoFF ( Wisconsin Sta. lipU 1895, 2)1>. 30-i-SU(J). — Plums were wrapped in paper and placed iu boxes under bell glasses. Small bottles of water were placed under each glass and a bottle of alcohol under one of them. The glasses M-ere kept from August 31 to September 16 in a refrigerator containing ice. The plums subjected to the alcoholic vapors were then in slightly better condition than the others, being entirely free from mold and somewhat less decaj'ed. In both lots the x>lums seemed to absorb moisture and the skins of many had burst. The state of maturity and flavor of the fruit was the same beneath the two glasses. Other plums and an apple were kept under a bell jar with open bottles of alcohol and water from August 28 to November 19. jS^o decay was apparent, but the natural flavor of both plums and apple was destroyed. Fumes of alcohol in a Geneva seed tester while preventing mold on the cloth also preventetl germination. Castor bean culture, {Coleman's Bural World, 1S97, Fch. 4, }>• !)• Cucumber forcing, A. Willard (Mecltan's Monthlji, 7 (1897), No. 3, p. 57, jig. 1). — Brief notes are gi^en on forcing cucumber.s, with mention of varieties liest adapted to this use. Onion cultivation, P. E. Bucke (Canadian Hoit., M (1897), Xo. :i,pp. 65-07). Experiments on the rhubarb plant, Pagxoul (Ann. Agron., 22 (1896), No. 12, pp. 575-578). Report of tests of field and garden vegetables, E. J. WicKsox (California Sta. Ept. 1895, pp. 333-337). — Reports are given from voluntary experimenters upon the following plants distributed by the station: New Zealand spinach, Zig-Zag sweet corn, perennial beans, new short white carrot, Logan berry, and the Jamaica tree tomato (Solanum hefaceum). Some neglected vegetables, G. Alluard (Bev. Hort., 69 (1897), No. 3, pp. 55-58). — Notes fire given of vegetables which are but little known, and luany of which are seldom grown. HOETICULTURE. 701 Greenhouses and grounds of the Central Station, E. J. Wickson {Calif ornia Sin. L'pt. IS'.i.'i, p]t. 3ii:-Sll). — Dfsciiptivo notes arc givcu of the grecull0use^^ and grounds of the station, with the outlin(^ of work provided for. The ahnond and fig in southern Tunis, Esi'ixasse-Langkac ( /.'«/. Chumhrc Com- merce et A(jr. S/ax, 189G, pp. S1-S6). The carob tree, L. (iHAXDKAU {Jour. Agr. Prat., GO {1896), II, Xo. 53, pp. 909-971). Notes on dates and date culture in southern Tunis, Ksi'ixasse-Langeac {Bui. Chumhrc Commerce et Aijr. Sfax, 1S9G, pp. 110-119). Results of analyses of olives, G. E. Colby {California Sta. L'pt. 1S95, pp. 21S- 221). — Tabulated reports are given of partial analyses of California olives from the crops of 18il0-'95. Over 200 samples have been analyzed. Olives, A. P. Hayne {California Sta. L'pt. 1S95, pp. i5J-Ji7).— Complete direc- tions are given for pickling olives, and descriptions of varieties, oil machinery, classificatiou of oils, etc. Report on olive culture, Vaillox {Bid. Chainhre Commerce et Agr. Sfax, 1S9G, pp. 77-80). Different varieties of Reine-Claude plums, E. Miciiiel.s {Belg. Hort. et Agr., 9 {1897), Xo. 4, pp. oJ, .74). — Thirteen distinct forms are described. Small fruit culture for market {Canadian Hort., 20 {1897), Xo. 2, pp. 03-05). — Notes arc given on the selection of location, preparation of soil, etc., for strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, currant, and gooseberry culture. Preparation of fruit specimens for exhibitions, E. W. Hilgard {California Sta. lipt. 1895, pp. 272-276). — Notes are given for the conservation of fruit samples for permanent exhibitions, including directions for the proper selection of speci- mens. Different preserving agents are described, and the density of the fluid required is commented upon. Experiments with land plaster for grape vines, E. Marre {Prog. Agr. et Vit., 27 {1897), Xo. G, pp. 151-155). Practical grafting of grape vines, V. Yermorel (Lc grefage practique de la vigne. Paris: Mich el et, 1897). ' Grape growing under glass, W. Scott {Amer. Card., IS {1897), Xo. 115, p. 156). American vines in Bouziers, J. Jallabert {Prog. Agr. et Tit., 27 {1897), Xo. 5, pp. 121-128). — Notes are given on Vitis riparia and J'. rnpc>- -^3^) 432). — A paper presented before the American Carnation Society. The development of roots from cuttings, L. C. Corbett {Meehan's Monthly, 7 {1897), Xo. ..', pp. 32-34, figs. 3). — It is shown that the roots of cuttings do not have their origin in the callus, but grow from the tissue of the jiortion of the plant used as a cutting. "Winter pruning, J. Piiilltpe {Belg. Hort. et Agr., 9 {1897), Xo. 4, p. 52). Propagating plants by cuttings, T. D. Hatkield {(iarden and Forest, 10 {1897), Xo. 409, pp. 05, GO). — Notes are given for propagating by cuttings, with mention of those plants ref|uiring especial treatment. Report of experiments at the San Joaquin Valley Culture Station, C. H. Smxx {California Sta. Lpt. 1895, pp. 404-415). — A report is given of the cultural work at the station, with climatic notes and tabulated data, and detailed statistical tables showing the dates of blooming, leafing, first ripe fruit, weight and size of fruit, etc., of varieties of almonds, apples, apricots, nectarines, ])eaches, pears, plums, and prunes, together with brief notes on the culture of the lig in Tulare County. Miscellaneous analyses, G. E. Colby {California Sla. L'pt. 1895, pp. 183-18.5). — The author gi\es a partial analysis of seedless i)ersimmon, the starch content of the California buckeye fruit, and of a sample of commercial albumin for wine lining and 702 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. an examination of licorice roots. In connection with the report on the licorice roots, the author states that the i>lant grows readily in California, and the only (juestion in its culture is a commercial one — whether under existing conditions California can comjiete with the cheaper labor of other countries. Report of the Foothill Culture Station, C. H. Shin:n {California Sla. Rpt. 1895, pp. S3S-J'i7, j}ls. 2). — A report is given on the botany of the district and topography and general plan of the station plantation. An extended report is given of various orchard fruits and 13 varieties of almonds, 55 of figs, 70 of peaches, and 50 of prunes and plums. Miscellaneous horticultural work, E. !S. Goff ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1805, pp. 298-300, fuj. ]). — Notes are gi\en njion a test of a patent weeder, on a few varieties of plums fruiting during the season, and on the jilum curculio. The Maryland tree and nursery stock law and other information of special interest to nurserymen and fruit growers, W. G. Johnson (Maryland Sta. Jtiil. 42, pp. 145-162, figs. G). — The text of the tree and nursery stock law is quoted and the relation of the author toward the enforcement of this law is explained at some length. The present condition of the nurseries of the State is briefly reviewed, in which it is shown that on the whole they are in very good condition. The San Jose scale has been located in 3 nurseries and, as far as final inspection by the author shows, has been completely destroyed. Illustrated notes are given on the San Jos6 scale, with suggestions for its destruction. Peach yellows and peach rust are also illustrated and described. FORESTRY. Timber physics in California, C. H. Shinn {California Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. ;j'Jl-303). — Atteutiou is called to the investigations of the Pacific Coast timbers conducted by the department of civil engineering of the university, and directions are given for the collection of test pieces of these timbers. The results of investigations of Humboldt redwood {Sequoia .sempennrens) conducted by F. Soule, wliich have already been issued as a special bulletin, are briefly given. An outline is given of the future work, and notes on life history of the woods, seasoning of timbers, and confusion in common names, with compiled tables on timber tests of Finns sylrcstris in Euroi)e, tlie com- parative value of various timber trees, specific gravity and weight of woods, comparative transverse strengtli of woods, and relative rank of some American woods. Acclimation of larch in Belgium (Bid. Soc. cent. Forst. Beh)., 4 {1897), Ao. 2, pp. 123-126). The Visalia oaks, C. H. Shinx (Garden and Forest, 10 (1807), No. 468, pp. 52, 53, ph 1). — An account is given of an extensive grove of (}uercHs lohata growing in very strong alkali soil. Contribution to the natural history of the Weymouth pine, Wappes (Bui. Soc. cent. Forest. Belg., 4 {1897), A^o. 2, 2}p. 105-123). — Notes are given on the life history of Finns strobus. Pinus laricio pallasiana, A. D. Webster (Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 21 (1897), Xo. 526, pp. 57, 58). — Attention is called to this tree, which is said to be valuable for forest planting, especially in peaty soils. Concerning some forest products (Bui. Soc. cent. Forst. Behj., 4 (1897), Xo. 2, pp. 74-94). SEEDS WEEDS. 703 Forest injury due to iron works, K. Hartk; (Forsil. naturw. Ztuchr., G {1S97), No. 1, pp. 4ii-4i. fig. /). — An accoiiiit is jjiviui of a serious iujury to lir trees which the author thinks is traceahle to lunies from adjoining iron works. Forest fires and how to prevent them, H. X. Jakciidw {Forester, 2 {1897), Xo. 2, pp. Jl-JS). — Discusses some of the causes of forest tires and gives methods for their prevention as well as for com hating them. Report of the forestry stations, C. II. Siiixx (CuUfornia sta. Ept. 1S95, pp. 440- 445, ph. 4). — A report is given of the jiresent condition and outline of work of the forestry stations at Santa Monica and Chico. The forests of Pennsylvania, C. A. Keffer {Garden and Forest, 10 {1897), Xo. 471, p. 88). SEEDS— WEEDS. On the structure of the seed coats of certain species of Bras- sica and Sinapis, O. Burchard (Jour. Lanchc, 44 {1896), No. 4, pp. 337-311, pL 1). — Ou account of the substitution of seed of different species of these plants in oil manufacture and in oil cake the author has continued his study of their seed coats. He tinds in the sclereuchyma characters by which they can be readily distinguished. In the present paper he gives the characteristics of the seed coats of Sinapis dissecta, S. trilociilari.'i, and 2 varieties of S.juncea, comparing them with S. alha. There is also given an analytical key, based upon anatomical and microscopical characters, to 1() of the species of Sinapis and Brassica most commonly found in the trade. Notions -weeds and how to destroy them, III, {Dcpt. Ayr. and Immigr., Manitoba, 1897, pp. 39, figs. 16). — The author points out the importance of eradication of weeds and briefly describes their origin, distribution, preventives, and methods for eradication. The following weeds are described, some of which are new to the country or have but recently become troublesome : Penny cress, wild mustard, tumbling mustard, hare's ear mustard, false flax, summer rape, ball mustard {Neslia paniculata), pepper grass, spider flower {Cleome integrifuUa), gum weed {Grindelia squarrosa). showy lettuce {Mnlgedinm pnUlieUum), prickly lettuce, great ragweed, Boman wormwood or l)itter weed, marsh elder {Ira xanthiifoHa), Canada thistle, perennial sow thistle, common sow thistle, prairie thistle {Cnicus unduJatus), oxeye daisy, Canada fleabane, false tansy {Artemisia hiennis), cow herb, sticky cockle {Silene noctifiora), chickweed, carraway, fumitory, wild rose {Ixosa blanda), silver weed {PotentiUa anserina), black bindweed, Russian thistle, Russian pigweed {Axyris amaranthoides), couch grass, and wild oats. The relation of weed seeds to the milling industry is shown, and the subject is considered sufficiently important ibr future investigntion. The presence of seed of the giant ragweed in Avheat or oats is said to greatly depreciate the value of the grain. The weed law of Manitoba is quoted, and a table of 75 weeds, in which is given their common and scientific names, where injurious, annual or not, time of flowering, seeding, methods of eradication, etc., concludes the bulletin. 704 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Seed sampling and testing, A. Clemext (Bthj. Hort. et Agr., 9 {1897), No. 4, p. 57). The water hyacinth in Florida, 11. J. Webber {Florida Agr., 24 {1897), No. 8, 2). IIS). — Notes aie given of the iutroduction aud spread of this aquatic plant, with some suggestions for jiossible relief. The Russian thistle in California, C. H. SiiiNX {California Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 277-J91, pis. .?).— A reprint of Bulletiu 107 of the station (E. S. R., 1, p. 130), Combating couch grass, J. C. Blewbury {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 21 {1897), No. 524, p. 28). — By plowing the land hoth ways when dry, aud thorough harrowing, the grass, etc., heiug removed and burned aud then seeded to harley or wheat, the author claims to have eradicated couch grass. DISEASES OF PLANTS. A new disease of the peach, W. G. Johnson [Maryland Sta. Bui. 42,2)2). -^■^-) I'^'^j.Pi/-^- ■^)- — Duriug the ATork of inspecting the unrseries of the State, the author has on three occasions observed peach seecUiiigs in an unhealthy condition. The trees affected had a characteristic reddish tinge, said to be due to the coloration of the underside of the leaves, which have a tendency to roll upward and inward, exposing the under surface. The reddish tinge first appears on the outer edge, gradually spreading over the entire surface, giving the trees a decided reddish appearance. So far, the cause of the disease has not been ascertained, aud as no fungus or bacterial parasite is observed it is thought to be probably due to soil conditions resulting in imperfect nutrition. Whether the disease is communicable by budding is under investigation, as well as other points concerning the vitality and longevity of diseased trees. Experiments have also been under- taken to see whether the diseased condition can not be remedied by treating the soil with lime to neutralize the acidity, and stable manure or some commercial fertilizer to supi^ly nitrogenous material. It appears that the disease is worst in acid soils, and such should be avoided in planting. Plant diseases, 0. W. Woodworth {California Sta. Ept. 1895, p2). 331-340). — Notes are given on crown knot, trunk kernel, twig knot, powdery bark, gum disease of citrus trees, gum disease of stone fruit, root rot, sour sap, blight or die-back, leaf curl, aud pear and apple scab, aud the effect of alkali and of moss on orchard trees. The conclusions given in Bulletin 99 of the station (E. S. E., 4, p. 563) relating to crown knot having been questioned, the author presents additional evidence based on results of extensive experiments on this disease. It is maintained that the disease is entirely distinct from any other aud may be successfully treated with fungicides. It does not seem to be connected in any way with external conditions, aud may be absent for a considerable time, then suddenly appear and as suddenly disappear. One of the earliest observations of the disease is its occur- rence ou plow wounds, and it is said to be certain that there is no simi- larity between normal healing of the wound and the crown knot. DISEASES OF PLANTS. 705 Experiments witli the woolly apliis show that the disease may be spread by insects to the roots of seedling apples. A form of disease somewhat similar to crowu knot, but confined entirely to the trunk and larger branches, is called by the author trunk kernel, and is brielly described. The injui-y which it produces seems to be confined to the roughening of the bark. A twig knot of quinces, which is frequently mistaken for crown knot, is briefly mentioned. It is said to be a normal state of certain varieties. The disease called powdery bark is said to be quite common in Cali- fornia. It is characterized by the drying up and cracking of the outer bark, exposing a layer of the inner tissue which readily breaks up into a fine pawder. Beneath this powdery layer the bark may be either normal or dead. In case the bark is destroyed the branch usually dies also. The gam disease of citrus trees is said to be one of the more serious troubles connected with citrns growing in many localities. It is con- sidered to be of parasitic origin, although apparently not due to any par- ticular organism but rather the combined action of several. Two forms are recognized, one originating at or near the crown and the other attacking the deeper parts of the roots. The latter form is also called root rot or foot rot and appears practically uncontrollable. Avhile the former is said to be easily cured. The disease is said to originate only under unusual conditions of moisture and the presence of dead and decaying organic substances, it being only possible for the organism to enter a healthy tree through the intervention of decaying tissue. The remedy is to remove diseased tissues and keep the place exposed to the air and the tree will heal itself. A brief note is given on the gum disease of stone fruit, which is a result of various causes, one of the most common being the attacks of one of the toadstool fungi. This disease seems to be uncontrollable. It is most prevalent in oak clearings, and generally a replanted tree will take the disease. The removal of a large amount of earth, lining the hole with iron or copper sulphate, filling it with new earth, and replanting has been accompanied by good results. Sour sap and blight or die-back are considered of bacterial origin, and vigorous pruning and the use of fungicides are recommended as probably efficient means for their prevention. Leaf curl of peach is briefly described, for which washes composed of lime, salt, and sulphur have been claimed to be efficient i)reventives. These and other washes were tested at the station with negative results. The use of winter washes, pruning, and summer treatment with Bor- deaux mixture are recommended as probable means for keeping this disease in check. The scab of apples and pears is briefly mentioned, and the use of Bordeaux mixture recommended for its prevention. 706 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The effect of alkali on orcliard ti^ees is discussed, and the injuries are grouped as follows: (1) The burning of trees by excessive alkali Avhich accumulates on the surface of the ground; (2) injury to the root hairs; (3) injuries caused by the accumulation of alkali salts in various parts of the plants; and (4) by the radiating power of alkaline soils, the strong radiation often seriously burning the edges of the leaves. The effect of moss and lichens on trees, producing the injury gener- ally known as hidebound, is described, and the use of winter washes containing caustic alkalies is recommended. On the use of Jensen's hot-'water treatment for millet smut, K. Adeehold {J)er Landn-irth^ 1S9G, JVb. 9 ; ahs. in Bof. CcnthL, 07 {189G), Ifo. 9-10, pp. 310, 311). — A comparison is made between the millet seed treated with copper sulphate solution and then limed, and seed subjected to the Jensen hot-water method for prevention of smut. It is stated that when the extra care and labor entailed by the hot-water treatment are considered the results do not warrant its recommendation as superior to copper sulphate and lime for the prevention of millet smut. A new species of Puccinia on Polemonium coeruleum, C. >STOERMEn [Hot. Notiser, 1S9C, p. 214). The cutting bench fungus, Ii. AVeber {Florlsls' Exdian«/. Soc. Bot. France, ser. 3, 3 {1896), No. 8, pp. 497-'>0~i). — This parasite is considered as probably the same as the (Edomyces JeproUhs of Trabut and in addition to attacking the sugar beet it is reported as being parasitic on Atriplex patxila, Chinopod'iam rnhrum, C. urhicnm, and C. (jlaucum, as well as the wild Jieta vulgaris in Algeria. The author states that the analogy claimed to exist between this fungus and the Ustilagina? is without foundation in fact. Notes on beet pests in 1896, M. Hollrun(i {Ztschr. Ver. L'iilmiz. Ind., 1896, Dec, ])p. 928-938). The bacteria of sugar cane, Debray {('ompt. Bend. Soc. Biol. Bar is, 1896, Nov. 11). An apple disease, E. Prillieux {Bui. Soc. Bot. France, ser. 3, 3 {1896), No. 8, p. 600). — Notes are given on a peculiar watery or vitreous appearance of apples, often two-thirds of the surface being involved. Examinations were made and bac- teria cultivated from some of this abnormal tissue, and it is thought that the disease is due to these organisms since the sound tissue sooner or later becomes infected. Prune rust {Pacific Tree and Tine, 13 {1897), No. 47, p. iC.?).— Winter spraying with copper sulphate solution followed in summer with Bordeaux mixture or eau celeste and piitting trees in good condition of growth by use of fertilizers are recommended as efficient means for combating this disease. ENTOMOLOGY. 707 ENTOMOLOGY. The black scale, C. W. Woodworth ( California 8ta. Ept. 1895, pp. ^5o-:J(i:3). — This troublesome pest the author treats at some leugth, giving a description and discussion of its habits aud life liistory, the various causes of death, species of the genus, its economics and its destruction by parasites and diseases, as Avell as the fungus, black smut, that follows its attack. In discussing the economics of the scale he divides the injuries done by it into 3 classes, /. c, those caused by (1) the removal of sap, (2) injuring the plant through puncturing, and (3) the excretions of the insects, Avhich with tlie dust that accumulates serve as a nidus for the growth of fungi. The injury through the removal of sap occurs when the plant, in the hot climate of California, can least aftbrd to lose even the smallest amount of moisture. Little injury is done by puncturing when the insects are few, but when they are so numerous as to surround the branch they iiractically affect the whole of the living tissue, throwing it into a passive or resting state. As a consequence the branch assumes the appearance commonly known as "hidebound," giving the tree a dried-up ai>pearance. The injuries by the excretions are not all direct. The collections of excrement, dust, and fungi injure by hinder- ing the action of the sun upon the chlorophyll of the leaf, thus inter- fering with the food supply of the plant; and furthermore by disfiguring the fruit, they reduce its nuirket value and cause an expense for washing. Such injuries are serious in the case of citrus fruits and are very much in excess of the cost of the most expensive of remedies, namely, the gas treatment. The cause of the death the author attributes largely to the attacks of disease. Parasites form a prominent factor in the destruction of the scale, but not so prominent a one as has been supposed. "They take some part in the destruction of the l>laek scale. Tlio common native Chalcid is estimated by I'rofessor Howard to destroy 75 per cent, but this only means that 3 out of 4 of those that canu^ to adult size contained the ])arasite; that is, less than 1 per cent of those hatched. I have never known of a case where more' than 2 per cent were destroyed from tliis cause. The other 9X per cent met some other fate. . . . "The black scale is very snl)ject to disease. The diseases seem to be similar to, if not identical with, those ■wliils. :i).— The subject of this bulletin was presented before section "G" of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.' The disease was observed during July, 1895, while studying some fungus dis- eases of the chinch bug, a great many squash bugs being employed as more convenient on account of size. Squash bugs kept in breeding cages in the laboratory were observed to be dying in considerable num- bers. A fresh lot taken from the field July 23 was put into breeding cages, fragments of the dead bugs from the first outbreak being scat- tered in one cage and the others kept under normal conditions. Within 3.i days one-half of the bugs in the infested cage were dead, while iu the control experinient with many more individuals only two or three died. A few hours previous to death the insect becomes sluggish and often incapable of crawling without a marked drag. Finally a slight movement of the antenmc and legs is the only sign of life. As death approaches, the insect becomes slightly darker in color. After ' .Science, i (1896), Xo. 91, p. 132 (E. S. K., 8, p. 212). 710 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. death the nymph rapidly assumes a deep purplish-black hue, the body appears swollen, and in the course of 24 hours or more becomes a sack of grael-like fluids. It can not then be easily lifted without breaking. In adults at death, the body has a moist appearance, especially in the cephalic region of tlie ventral surface of the abdomen. Later this appears evident throughout, but the chitinous crust does not collapse and unless broken the offensive fluids within are not noticed. The odor is characteristic, being more pronounced and putrefactive than that of the normal squash bug. A microscopical examination showed short bacilli, single or in pairs, measuring 1.2-1.8/^ by O.G-O.S//, some of which stained homogeneously and others more deeply at the poles. As to the general distribution of the bacilli within the body, in bugs at the time of death the microorganisms are to be found in great abun- dance in all parts of the perivisceral cavity and are well differentiated from the blood coagulum. Besides the muscles and the stout walls of the alimentary organs, very few structures of the organism are unat- tacked. Investigation t^howed that the bacteria probably gained entrance through the spiracles. Cultures of the microorganisms obtained from dead insects and from the body fluid of a sick nymph showed it to be both aerobic and facul- tative anaerobic, and that it liquefles gelatin. Its characteristics and growth are described in some detail. It grows well at living-room tem- perature, but is easily killed by high temperatures, an exposure to 125° F. for 1 hour on 2 successive days or for 2 hours on 1 day proving fatal. The optinuim temperature proved to be between 83 and 90° F. Experi- ments indicate that the organism is not attenuated by continuous growth in the laboratory. Infusions from cultures on agar evidently contain a toxic principle which was found fatal to many insects, including water beetles, immersed in it. In the inoculation experiments infusions of the dead bugs together with both fresh and old isolation cultures were emi)loyed. In all (;ases control experiments were carried on in both field and laboratory with Anasa tristis and Blissus leiicoptervs. It was found that Bacillus ento- motoxicon is very readily communicated, especially to the young bugs, and judgnig from the author's tables infusions of the dead bugs are the best material for inoculation. In experiments with grubs and larva' of other insects, external application of infection material did not give successful results. A copious bibliography is given. Notes from the entomological laboratory, C, W. Woodworth {California ^Sta. lipt. 189.J, pp. 249-253, pi. 1). — Suggestions are given for various pieces of entomological apparatus — a folding net, setting- board, labels, glass and metal insect boxes, dissecting dish, labels for slides, slides for cover mounts, books for cover glass n)ounts, racks for bottles and pocket compound microscope, being the subjects. ENTOMOLOGY. 711 The most notable of the snggestioiis are: (1) The use of small labels bearing- map sketches printed in pale iuk so that the locality where the insect is obtained may be indicated by a small dot. When the box is full of such labels an idea of the geographical range of the insect maybe obtained at a glance. (2) Instead of the usual label the use of thin pieces of tissue paper upon which the number is written and the pa|>er mounted under the glass with the object. In the case of balsam the paper becomes transparent, leaving the number clear and distinct. The forms of the labels, which are of two sizes, are illustrated. Ou the Mexican bees of the genvis Augochlora, T. D. A. Cockkkell {Canadian Eui. 1S:>7, Jan., pp. 4-6). — Table of species. New subgenns Augochoropsis. New spp., Anijocldora hin(jhami and A. aiirifcra. The life histories of the New York slue caterpillars, II, H. G. Dyar and. Miss E. Morton (Xew York Ent. Soc. .lour.. -1 (1S:W), Xus. 1, pp. 1-9, pi. 1; 3-6, pp. 167-190, ph. 4). The asparagus fly, E. H. Meyer {Brannxrliw. landw. Zt;/., 65 {1S97), Xo. 3, pp. 9, 10). — A description of Triipet(( fttlminans and its life history, with a discussion of the best means of destroying it. For spring time the author advises the use of Kanpeuleini ou strijis of paper jilaced at intervals in the asparagus bed; and for fall, the burning of all rubbish. Entomology : The codling moth, T. D. A. Cockerell {S. TV. Farm and Garden, 1S96, Die, pp. 9, 111 ; Jan., j>. 9). — The codling moth question in the West. The use and injurious efl'ects of dendrolene, and the distribution of the codling moth and its manner of spreading. The grapevine beetle (Eumoplus vitis), K. Sajo {Ulna. Workenschr. Ent., 1 {1896), Xo8. .?;?, pp. 5(11-506, fujs. ■! : 3-!. pp. 517-5J4, fuj.'i. 5). The Lscaniums of California, Mary W. Tyrrell {CaUfornia Sta. Kpt. 1895, pp. 262-270, pli. 4). — A systematic treatment of the common California Lecanii, discuss- ing the similarities and differences between the species and giving the host plants in each case. An analytical synopsis is given to aid in determining the species. Nothing is said as to remedies. Scale insects: Coccidae associated -with ants, T. 1). A. Cockerkll {Sci. Gos., 3 {1897), Xo. 35, pp. 239-241). — The author euumerates 14 species. One new species, Daclylopius kingii, is described. Coccidae or scale insects, IX, T. D. A. Cockerell {Bnl. Bot. Dept. Jamaica, 1896, Xov., 2)p. 256-259). The Palmetto scale, T. D. A. Cockerell {Garden and Forest, 10 {1897), Xo. 464, p. 19). — The scale is thought to be a variety of Aspidiotun sabalis which the author calls Aspidiohi>i sabalis mexkitna (E. S. R., 8, p. 009). Notable appearance of some forest insects during the summer of 1896 in the region of Ebers-walde, Altum {/Aschr. Forsl. >ind,Tagdu'.,29 {1897), Xo. l,pp. 44-50). — Notes on the occurrence and ravages oi Tortrix pomonaua, Lophyrus pint, Hylcsinns piniperda, U. palliatus, Bosiricltus lineafns, Or(jyia pudihiinda, Chrysomela alni, Gasfro- pacha pini, Liparis monacha, Trachea piniperda, Tidonia piniaria, Sphinx pinastri, S. nerii, S. convolnili, Xoctna Jiaricornis, X. (j(nixt(v, Acherontia atropos. Key to the German injurious bark beetles for the practical use of the for- ester, K. and G. Eschekicu ( Forstl. naturic. Ztschr., 6 {1897), Xo. 1, pp. 7-23). — A brief practical treatise ou the more common injurious beetles of the subfamilies Scoly- tida-, Bostrychida-, and Platypida-. Destructive insects and methods of controlling them, II, W. G. Thomson {Amcr. Gard., IS {1897), Xo. 108, p. 37). Injurious and beneficial insects of forest, field, and garden {Die schddlichen und niitzlichen Inscctcn i)i Forat, Fcld, nnd Garten. I'ienna : II. M. Schmit-Gobel, 1896. 712 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Forest moths that have become orchard and garden pests, W. W. Froggatt (J;/?, (la.:. A". S. Trales, 7 {1SD6), So. 11, pp. 7o7-750, jj/s. ,?).— Notes are given of the paiuted acacia moth {Tcia anar toidcs) i\uCith.c> gray-streaked moth {Prodenia littoralis). A cure for onion grub, J. Cuawford {Garden, 51 {1S97), No. 1314, p. 54). — Char- coal dust is spread over the ouiou plat to the depth of one-half inch and well worked into the top layer of soil. Flooding -woods as a means of destroying the "ground," as ■well as other insects injurious to forests, L. Anderling {Knt. Naclt., :3:2 {1S96), Xo. 13-14, pp. 19.':-200). Ermisch's caterpillar lime, J. B. Smith {Amer. Gard., IS (1S97), No, 111, pp, 9S-99). Experiments against Chrysomelidae and Pyralidae, Charlier {Prog. J per cent, and the rauge from 81>.8 to 06.5 per cent; the average of the hitter was S4.1 per cent, and the range from 79.8 to 80.G per cent. " AVo notice that the digestion coi'fficieiits of the new-process meal ranie below those of the old-process meal in every instance, the average ditference being 10.2 per cent. These resnlts substantiate those obtained by direct digestion experi- ments Avith animals, bnt give greater ailvantage of the old-process meal. . . . "On the basis of the digestion coi-fficients found by the writer for old and new- process linseed meal, the content of digestible protein in the 2 kinds of oil meal will be as follows: ()ld-i)rocess, 33.8 per rent; new-process, 31.9 per cent." The power of absorption of water was tested with a number of sam- ph'S of ohl and new process meal, and the starch content was also determined. ^Vhen stirred with water the seed coat of tlax will absorb the water and swell up, forming a mucilaginous mass. The old-process meal retains this characteristic, and shows it in a more marked degree, owing to the absence of the large excess of oil in the meal. In the manufacture of new-process meal this property is largely destroyed, "possibly because [absorption] takes place during the steam cooking of the mixture in the percolators." In making the test, 5 gni. of finely ground meal was mixed with 50 cc. of boiling water in a cylinder grad- uated to 50 cc. The whole was stirred and shaken. The cylinder was left for 2 hours, and the amount of clear liquid, if any, remaining on top was read off. "The swelling test, therefore, gives decisive information concerning the process by which the meal is manufactured, and is in this respect of considerable value. Our knowledge of the subject does not, however, warrant ns in basing any opinion as regards the comparative feeding value of the 2 kinds of meal on the quantity of water absorbed by the meal, as is often done in pushing the sale of one kind at the expense of the other." The various materials used to adulterate linseed meals are discussed, as w ell as the comparative value of old and new-process meals. The author insists on the need of purchasing meals of guarantied composition. The fat in meat, E. Bogdanow {PjiUfjer^s Arch. Phi/stoL, 05 (1896), Xo. 1-2, i)p. S1-S9). — This is a more extended account of work pre- viously reported (E. S. E., 7, p. 919). Tlie author made a number of experiments, from which the following conclusions were drawn : Two kinds of fat exist in meat, which are characterized by the very different (quantities of fatty acids which they contain. The amounts of fatty acids in each are fairly constant. One fat, which is easily extracted, is the fiit obtained by the ordinary methods of analysis. The second fat, which can be extracted only with dilliculty, is found in the muscle plasma and is called by the author muscle-plasma fat. Investigation of food materials, M. E. Jaffa {California Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 140-1 (id). — The principles of cattle feeding and the terms used are reprinted from Bulletin 100 of the station (E. S. Jl., 1, p. 732). Analyses of a number of additional California feeding stuffs are given, 14780— IS'o. 8 G 714 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. including snail clover {Medicago turhinata), Modiola decumbens, alfil- cria {Erodium cicutarium), sacbaline {Polygonum sachaUnense), alfalfa, Australian saltbusli {Atriplex semibaccatum), wheat bay, barley Lay, wild yellow clover, Bokhara clover, Australian saltbusli liay, wheat, wheat bran, wheat raiddling-s and screenings, rice bran, cocoanut oil- cake meal, cotton-seed meal, and sugar-beet pulp. The food value of fruits for live stock is discussed at some length, and analyses of a number of fruits are quoted. Fruits are deficient in protein, and the author advises using them to supply the fattening elements of food, and to make up the deficiency of nitrogenous matter by the use of substances like cotton-seed meal or cocoanut meal. A table is given showing the comparative value of fruits and a number of other feediug stuffs. "When there is no market for the fruit there is sometimes uothing left to be done Tjut to feed it to stock. Under any circumstance, when stone fruit is used as fodder for hogs, it is to be feared that when the animals crack large quantities of jiits poisoning may occur from the oil of bitter almonds and the prussic acid present in the kernels. Precaution in this direction is unnecessary for cattle and horses, as they do not crack the pits. The stones or pits can be iised to great advantage as fuel."' Farm grains for fattening lambs, J. A. Craig ( Wisconsin Sta. Bpt.l895,p2}. 46-48). — The value of corn, corn and oats, corn and peas, and corn, peas, and oats as the grain portions of a fattening ration was tested with 20 Shropshire lambs, divided into 4 lots of 5 each. The lambs were selected from about 2,000, as representing the average lambs used for feeding purposes in Wisconsin. They were 9 weeks old at the beginning of the test, which lasted 8 weeks. Lot 1 was fed corn meal; lot 2 corn and oats; lot 3 corn and peas; and lot 4 com, peas, and oats, and all received hay. The total gain of lot 1 was 104.5 lbs. ; of lot 2, 85.5 lbs.; of lot 3, 126 lbs.; aud of lot 4, 120.5 lbs. With hay at 18 per ton, and corn at 40 cts., oats at 30 cts., and peas at 60 cts. per bushel, the cost of 100 lbs. of gain of lot 1 was $4, of lot 2 $4.95, of lot 3 $4.21, and of lot 4 $4.54. "A comparision of all the results indicates that for profitable feed- iug corn is certainly most conducive to gain, but, considering all things, the safety of the sheep and the profit as well, the mixture of corn and peas is superior to any mixture tried in this experiment." Corn meal, bran, and oats for lambs before and after weaning, J. A. Craig ( Wisconsin Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 40-45, Jig. i).— The value of corn meal, oats, and bran as a food for lambs before and after weauiug was tested with 18 grade Dorset lambs, divided into 3 equal lots. The lambs were about 2 mouths old at the beginning of the test, which continued 8 weeks. Lot 1 was fed corn meal, lot 2 whole oats, and lot 3 bran. During the day they were allowed to run in a pasture, with 9 ewes, but were fed in a small inclosure. After weaning the feeding was continued on the same rations fed ad libitum. The FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 715 results of the feeding before and after weaning are tabulated, and the following" conclusions are drawn: ''(l) Corn meal is iudicatetl to be decidedly better than oats or braii for feeding lambs before and after weaning in respect to the rate of grain, cost of gain, and the amount required to produce 100 lbs. of increase. These features are decidedly the most important to consider in determining the position of such foods in an experi- ment of this kind. "(2) Oats fed in a whole condition, considering the rate of gain and amount required to produce 100 lbs. increase, raulv superior to bran as a food for feedin<^ lambs over such a jieriod. While seemingly inferior to oats for lambs before they are weaned, bran was decidedly better when fed to the same lambs on pasture after weaning, "(3) Bran from the three points of view already stated has not given asgoodi'esults as either of the other foods. The cost of the bran may vary in different localities so as to modify these results somewhat, but the valuation which has been adopted will likely represent the average. To make the position of these two foods more clearly evident it will be necessary to obtain more data bearing on their value for lamb feeding.'" Succulent and dry rations for fattening lambs, J. A. Craig ( Wis- consin Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 61-63). — The experiment was made with 12 grade Shropshire wethers, divided into 3 lots of 4 each, and lasted 11 weeks. Lot 1 was fed roots, hay, and grain; lot 2, silage, hay, and grain; and lot 3, hay and grain only. The same kind of grain was fed to all the lots, being oats at first, later oats and corn, and finally oats, corn, and linseed meal. The total gain of lot 1 (roots) was 109.5 lbs., of lot 2 (silage) 102 lbs., and of lot 3 (hay) 116 lbs. The cost of 100 lbs. of gain for lot 1 was $6.13, lot 2 86.22, and lot 3 $6.25. The financial statement is based on hay at $8, roots and silage at $2, and linseed meal at $25 per ton, and corn at 40 cts. and oats at 30 cts. per bushel. "It will be seen that the lambs fed the dry ration gained slightly more than either of the others, but they ate more food, consuming more hay and much more grain than the other 2 lots. Considering the rate of gain the dry ration gave the highest returns, while next to it comes the root ration and lastly the silage ration. These gains, however, are very uniform, and indicate the trend of the experiment from the beginning until the conclusion." From a financial standpoint, the roots were rather more profitable. Wheat as food for swine, W. A. Henry ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 24-31). — Four tests of the value of wheat as food for swine are reported. Tlie first test, which lasted 10 weeks, was made with 6 pure- bred Berkshire pigs divided into 2 equal lots. They were about 5 months old at the beginning of the trial, and had previously been fed upon a mixture of corn meal, shorts, and linseed meal with skim milk. Lot 1 was fed a ration of ground wheat, and lot 2 ground wheat and corn meal, half and half The meal was mixed into a thick slop with water. In this and the other tests tliere was a preliminary period of 1 week. The food consumed i)er lot and per 100 lbs. of gain iu weight, and the weekly and total gains for each pig are tabulated. Lot 1 716 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. (wheat) made a total gain of 191 lbs. and consumed 510 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gum-, and lot 2 (wheat and corn) gained 197 lbs. and consumed 502 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gain. The second test was a duplicate of the first. Lot 1 made a total gain of 210 lbs. and consumed 502 lbs. of wheat per 100 lbs. of gain; lot 2 gained 216 lbs., and consumed 488 lbs. of corn meal and wheat per 100 lbs. of gain. The third test, lasting 03 days, was with 6 Berkshire and 3 Poland China pigs about 9 weeks old at the beginning of the trial, and divided into 3 equal lots. Lot 1 Avas fed ground wheat; lot 2, corn meal and ground wheat, in equal parts; and lot 3, corn meal. I^ot 1 gained 231 lbs. and consumed 522 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gain; lot 2 gained 250 lbs. and consumed 491 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gain; and lot 3 gained 243 lbs. and consumed 499 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gain. The fourth trial was with 18 pure-bred Berkshire pigs divided into 3 equal lots, and lasted 18 weeks. The pigs had been on i)asture during the summer and received a little corn each morning in addition. Lot 1 was fed ground wheat, lot 2 corn meal, and lot 3 wheat and corn meal in equal i^arts. The grain was mixed into a slop with water. Lot 1 gained 1,303 lbs, and consumed 465 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gain; lot 2 gained 1,213 lbs. and consumed 496 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gain; and lot 3 gained 1,323 lbs. and consumed 400 lbs. of food per 100 lbs. of gain. The author summarizes the results of feeding various grains to pigs at the station and other stations in the United States and Canada, and concludes that corn meal and ground wheat "are practically equal to one another in the production of pork, about 500 lbs. of either being required to produce 100 lbs. of gain in live weight with hogs. When a mixture of the two, equal parts, is fed there is a slight saving, amounting to about 3 per cent by use of the mixture over either grain fed sei)arately." "Whole wheat can not be fed dry to hogs successfully. Wheat when soaked is very rarely satisfactory, mnch of the grain passing through the animal and appear- ing unbroken in the droppings. To secure the best results wheat should be ground and fed moistened with water or milk. Better yet, as our experiments show, it should be mixed with some other grain. In the West this will usually be corn meal. For pigs and shoats wheat is undoubtedly superior to corn, because it contains more muscle and bone-building components. "In consideriug whether to feed wheat or sell it, the farmer should remember that each load of wheat sold from the farm carries off a very conshlerable amount of fertility, which may be largely saved by feeding." The value of creamery separator skim milk for swine feeding, W. A. Henry ( Wisconsin 8ta. Rpt. 1895, j^p. 7-2:;).— Eh^ht feeding trials are reported in which skim milk from the university creamery was fed in varying amounts with corn meal or corn meal and shorts. In several instances, for purposes of comparison, corn meal mixed with water to a slop was also fed. In all the feeding trials the test FOODS ANIMAL PRODUOTION. 717 proper was preceded by a preliminary period of 1 week. The results of the trials are tabulated, ineludiiig the food eaten and the weekly and total gains made by each animal, and the food consumed i)er 100 lbs. of gain. The first trial was with 12 grade i'oland China j>igs, divided into 4 lots of 3 each, and lasted 33 days. The pigs had previously been fed on whey and grain. The second trial was with 10 grade Berkshire and Poland China pigs, divided into i lots of 4 each, and lasted 3 weeks. The pigs were about 4 months old at the beginning of the trial. The third trial was with 2 lots of 10 pigs, the first 3 pigs iu each lot being grades and the others pure bred. The trial lasted 9 weeks. For a month before the beginning of the trial the pigs had been fed on a mixture of milk, corn meal, and shorts. The fourth trial was with 1 lot of 8 crossbred IJerkshire-Poland China pigs and lasted 55 days. The fifth trial was with 1 lot of 9 grade Poland China pigs and lasted 50 days. The sixth trial was with 9 Berkshire pigs, divided into 3 ecpial lots, and lasted 7 weeks. Previous to the experiment the j)igs had been fed corn meal and shorts with skim milk. The seventh trial was with 4 Poland Chiiui pigs, divided into 2 uniform lots, and was of 7 weeks' duration. The eighth trial was with 12 grade Poland China pigs, divided into 2 ecpial lots, and lasted 10 Aveeks. The results of the trials are briefly summarized in the following table : Experiments in feeding skim milk to pigs. Gain in weight of lot. Food consumed pe of gain. r 100 lbs. Skim milk. Corn meal. Corn and shorts. First trial; Lot 1, 1 lb. corn meal to 4 Ib.s. skim milk Pounds. 133 92 139 107 101 112 145 101 785 725 490 571 146 172 199 124 150 614 617 Pounds. 1,039 1,794 GOO Pounds. 238 271 359 Pounds. Lot 2, 1 lb. corn meal to C lbs. skim milk Lot 3, 1 lb. corn meal to 2 lbs. skim inillc Lot 4, coin meal and water for 2 weeks, afterwards corn and shorts (1:1) and water '403 Second trial : 1,111 746 379 238 220 200 Lot 2, 1 lb. corn meal to 3.4 lbs. skim milk Lot 3, 1 lb. corn meal to 2 lbs. skim milk Lot 4. corn and shorts (1:1) and water Third trial : Lot 1, 1 lb. corn meal to 4 lbs. skim milk 322 1,249 1,629 1,262 1,871 313 271 2 273 2 239 513 198 278 443 185 316 261 Lot 2, 1 lb. corn meal to 6 lbs. skim milk Fourth trial : Lilt 1, 1 lb. corn or corn meal to 0 lbs. .skim milk. (Corn Fifth trial : Lot 1, 1 lb. corn or corn meal to 8 lbs. skim milk. (Corn Sixth trial : 1,584 1,111 Seventh trial: Lot 2, 1 11). corn meal to 8 Iba. akim milk Eighth trial: Lot 1, 1 lb. corn meal to 3 lbs. skim milk Lot 2, 1 lb. corn meal to 6 lbs. skim milk 1,483 893 1,460 ' Includinfi corn iiu'al. 'Including corn. 718 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The author summarizes the results of these experiments aud similar experiments previously made at the station as follows: Food consumed per 100 lbs. of gain in live weight in experiments witli pigs. Pounds. Grain ouly 506 1 11). corn meal to 1-3 lbs. skim milk : Corn meal 321 Skim milk 585 1 lb. corn meal to 3-5 lbs. skim milk : Corn meal 265 Skim milk 1,048 1 lb. corn meal to 5-7 lbs. corn meal : Corn meal 250 Skim milk 1, 434 1 lb. corn meal to 7-9 lbs. skim milk : Corn meal 207 Skim milk 1,616 "In the above we note that the largest saving of grain with a given amonnt of milk is effected where from 1 to 3 lbs. of milk are fed with each ponnd of corn meal; when larger amonnts of milk are fed with the meal the milk appears relatively less valnable. The average of all trials shows that when feeding skim milk with corn meal 462 lbs. of milk effects a saving of 100 lbs. of meal." On the basis of the corn saved when skim milk was fed, the author computes the value of skim milk when corn is valued at from $10 to $30 per ton. The maximum, mininnun, and average value of skim milk on such a basis is shown in the following table: Tahle shoiving the value of shim milk for jfig feeding along with corn at different prices for the corn. Value of corn. $10 per ton (28 cts. per bushel) . . $12 ])er Ion (33.6 cts. per bushel) $14 per ton (39.2 cts. per bushel) $16 per ton (44.8 cts. per husliel) $18 per ton (50.4 cts. per bushel) $20 per ton (56 cts. per bushel) . . $30 per ton (84 cts. per bushel) . . Value of 100 lbs. of skim milk. Maximum. Minimum. Average Cents. Cents. Centx. 16 9 11 19 11 13 22 13 15 25 15 17 28 16 19 32 18 22 47 27 32 In the author's opinion, skim milk, besides being an economical addi- tion to a ration, improves its quality. The need of securing- skim milk of uniform quality aud in clean vessels is insisted upon. The influence of fine gravel upon the digestibility of millet by hens, J. KaluGtIN [Selsl-oye Khosyaistvo e Lyesovodstroj 1896, Xo. 10; ahs. in FdhUmJs landio. Ztg., 46 {1897), No. 3, pp. .S'5, .sy;).— The author briefly reports an experiment of 3 periods with hens to test the effect of fine gravel upon the digestibility of millet. In 2 periods fine gravel was fed with the millet, and in 1 period it was omitted and powdered coal given instead. The conclusion ivas reached that fine gravel and FOODS — ANIJfAL PRODUCTION. 719 also powdered coal increased the coefficients of digestibility of tlie nutrients, and especially those of i)rotein and ciude iiber. Examiuatioii of miscellaneous fodders, V. W. Wom. ( irisconsiii Sta. Rpt. 1805, pp. S6-9J). — The author reports analyses of jrluten feed, I>urt'alo feed, Argo gluten feed, cream gluten, liomiuy feed. Red Dog tlour, wheat shorts, dried brewers' grains, oat hulls, ground feed, meat meal, rape, cotton-seed meal, and tlour-mill sweepings. Artificial digestion experiments l>y the Stutzer-Kiihn method showed the following percentages of protein to he digested: Butt'alo gluten feed 87.2, Argo gluten feed 93, gluten meal !)H.5, and cream gluten 91.6. Argon and nitrogen in blood, P. Regnard and T. Schlossing (Compt. Rend., 124 {1S'J7), Xo. r,,pp. S0.?-304). Digestive ferments {IHet. and Hjig. Gaz., 13 {1897), No. 3, pp. 155-lGO). — A general discussion of the subject. The bread eaters' catachism {Jour. Hyg., 32 {ISOG), Nos. 1061, pp. 33, 34; 1062, pp. 46-4S; 1063, pp. 57, oS; 1064, pp. 67-70). — A discussion of bread, in the form of questions and answers. Note on ammunition bread, A. Cameuon {AnalyHt, 21 {1S96), Oct. p. 255). — The bread contained over 5S per cent of water, and was sour, spongy, and very dark in color. — n. \v. kilgokk. Composition of Quaker Oats, S. Weinwurm {Ztschr. Xahr. UntersKch. und Hyg., 11 {1S97), Xo. 2, p. 25). — The author reports a microscopical and chemical analysis of Quaker Oats. Concerning oatmeal {Diet, and Hyg. Gaz., 13 {1897), No. 2, pp. 85-88). — A general article discussing the proper use of oatmeal as an article of diet in health and disease. Gluten flour, M. E. Jafi'a ( California Sla. Bpt. 1895, p. 161). — Analysis of a samiile of gluten Hour. Digestibility of steiilized and pasteurized milk, Bendix {Jahrbuch fiir Kinder- luilkiitide; rer. in Diet, and Hyg. Gaz., 13 {1897), No. 2, p. 134). Milk and the feeding of infants, F. van Emelen {Le lait, et V Alimentation dvs Nouveaux-nes. lirussels: M. Lamertin, 1896). On milk in general, with special reference to its use as a food for infants, J. G. ELLEXi5ER(iER (Ztschr. Xer cent of samples examined the 1 Analyst, 13, p. 26. -U. S. Dept, Agr., Division of Chemistry Bui. 43, p. 181 (E. S. R., 6, p. 614). DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 723 number of bacteria per cubic ceutiuieter was less than 1,000. In the case of pas- tcurizedtream this -was truoiu only 3 instances out of 29 (10 per cent). . . . "In only exceptional instances (not more than one or two in the entire set of analyses) did the reduction in numbers fall below 90 per cent, showing;- t))at the absolute ])erccntago of spores compared with gTowing- vegetating forms was very • small. This proportion, however, is very largely dependent upon the manner in which the milk is treated. If careless methods of milking prevail and much for- eign matter, such as dirt and particles of excreta, be allowed to gain access to the milk, the number of spores iu the milk is very much increased. This is another foundation for the old argument of the effect of scrupulous cleanliness — a doctrine so old and so often heard that it often falls unheeded to the ground."' The efl'ect of the age of the milk on the presence of spores is dis- cussed. When the milk was received and handled promptly at the creamery there was a much smaller number of organisms in it than when it was from 30 to 42 hours old before handling, and the same was true even in a more striking manner of the cream. Pasteurized milk and cream showed only a few bacteria wlien made from fresh milk, but contained considerable numbers of organisms when made from milk kept from 1 to 2 days. "Data of this sort show that the age of the milk and the bacterial development dependent upon this age account for the shorter kee])iug (jualities of the milk secured under the more uniavorable winter conditions. This increased growth produces naturally many spores, and therefore milk of this sort pasteurized with the same care can not be expected to keep as well as that which is handled iu a fresher condition wherc^ there are less bacteria in the spore or resistant form." Bejecting those species that occurred only sporadically in the cul- tures, 15 difterent forms of bacteria were isolated from normal milk and cream, 6 of which predominated in a large degree. Of these 15 forms, 3 species produced lactic acid, 7 species caused no apparent change in the milk, and 5 species coagulated the milk by the production of rennet and subsequently digested the curdled casein. In the same milk after pasteurizing, only C species were isolated, 3 of which had no apparent action on the milk, while the remaining 3 curdled the milk by the for- mation of rennet and subsequently digested the same by the action of a tryptic enzym. The species producing lactic acid were entirely destroyed by pasteurizing. The species producing little or no acid are believed to l^e derived from extraneous sources and to be associated with dirt and excreta gaining access to the milk during the milking. "As these organisms that are thus associated with filth of various kinds are able to persist in pasteurized milk by virtue of their spores, it emphasizes the well-known lesson that scrupulous cleanliness is an absolute essential iu dairies that pasteurize their )nilk for direct consumption. Cleanliness in milking diuiinishes materially the amount of this class of bacteria that gains access to the milk." The effect of pasteurization and sterilization on the riscosity and fat globules of milk and cream, F. W. Woll (pj). 1(54-173). — The object of this investigation was to determine if possible the reason why milk or cream heated to pasteurizing temperatures, or even lower, and subse- quently cooled gives the appearance of being thinner than before and 724 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. does not appear as rich as it really is. It lias been suggested tliat it may be due to the fat globules of the milk and cream being split up by tbe digestion and beat ; and consequently the influence of heat on the fat globules and the viscosity of the milk and cream was studied. Whole milk, cream, skim milk, and whey were used, the number and size of the fat globules, the viscosity, and the specific gravity being deter- mined in the samples before ])asteurizing, after pasteurizing, and after subsequent sterilization. In some cases the efl'ect of heating at a lower temperature than that for pasteurizing and the effect of beating with an egg beater were also studied. The data for these observations are fully tabulated. "All determinations of viscosity in pasteurized or sterilized milk or cream have shown a decided influence of heat on the viscosity coi-fficient, the viscosity heiug lowest in every case where the products were subjected to a temperature of 65*^ or above; this influence is noticeable almost as distinctly in the outward physical appearance of the cream as shown by the viscometer tests; cream which would have the appearance of being very thick before being warmed appears to be of only average thickness after having been heated, flowing readily from one vessel to another. . . . "The A'iscosity of the milk was not affected by the application of heat under 30- C, but there was a distinct decrease in viscosity, at 30"^ and still more at 35^, as is shown in case of sample B, where sufficient acid had not yet been developed to cause an increase in the viscosity. The changes in the physical properties of cream (and presumably also of milk) brought about by the ai)plication of heat therefore occur even at temperatures below that of the melting point of butter fat. . . , "The influence of pasteurization [of centrifugal skim milk] is shown in a uniformly lower viscosity in the pasteurized samples; subsequent sterilization, on the other hand, is seen to increase the viscosity, possibly on account of coagulation of the milk albumen; while the results obtained after the first and the second sterilization are jn-actically the same, there is an increase after third sterilization, with stationary results after this determination. . . . "The increase in viscosity [of whey] both in the pasteurized and the sterilized samples in this case must be attributed to the precipitation of albumen ; this takes place partly, in a very finely divided state, in heating the sweet whey to 65'^ C, but at sterilization the precipitation is apparently complete, a heavy white flocculent precipitate being formed which greatly interferes with the rotation of the viscom- eter cylinder. Any influence that the heat may exert on the Aiscosity of whej^ will not therefore be apparent from the results obtained by Ibllowing the jiresent method." The author concludes that the investigation does not show the cause of the characteristic influence of heat on the physical condition of milk and cream, but since it is also apparent in milk nearly free from fat (centrifugal skim milk) as well as in full milk and cream, and since the changes occur even below the melting point of milk fat, he believes that this change from pasteurizing can not be attributed to the fat globules. He suggests that these changes may be due ''to the unstable character of the nitrogenous or the mineral constituents." The subject is to be further studied, A new process for separating butter from cream, B. Grosch {French Patent ^o. 35823d; abs. hi IikJ. Ayr. Prof/., 5 {1S97), Xo. 112, i). 555).— Fresh cream is submitted to a natural lactic fermentation DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 725 sufficient to give the fat .iilobules an albuiiiiiious coating-, after wliicli it is heated, aerated without agitation, /. c, without churning, and sub- mitted to alcoholic fermentation. The fermentation changes the char- acter of the cream and entirely destroys its viscosity. The fat globules rise to the surface and the other solids remain at the bottom, ^o churning is required. The fat layer is separated and washed with water to remove adhering particles of casein. The centrifugal separation of casein and insoluble phosphates from milk, S. M. Babcock ( Wisconsin Sta. Ept:i895,pp. 93-99). — The author mentions the difficulty of separating casein from the other con- stituents of milk for the purpose of study, and refers to the variety of theories that have been held in regard to its properties and the form in which it exists iu the milk. "Formerly supposed to be in perfect solution, and afterwards to have soluble and insoluble niodilications, both of which occur in normal milk, it is now generally believed to be in large part and possibly wholly insoluble and suspended in a very finely divided condition, which gives it a gelatinous or colloidal character." The author attempted to separate the casein from skim milk by means of a centrifugal separator and thus obtain it in its natural condition. Two experiments were made with an old-style Danish Weston sepa- rator "arranged for the experiment by drilling a number of holes through the skimming plate so that portions of the liquid nearest the center of the bowl could be removed from time to time with the skimming tube without disturbing the portion near the walls." The separator was run at the rate of about 4,000 revolutions per minute. In the first experi- ment the machine was stopped at the end of .S hours when the sides of the bowl were found to be covered with a rather firm jelly-like deposit about ^ in. thick, which was carefully removed. "This deposit was white with a peculiar fluoresence, being yellowish green by transmitted light and having a bluish tinge by redected light. Wlieu shaken with water it was easily diffused, forming a homogeneous white liquid resembling milk, and no apparent separation took place when the ]i(iuid was allowed to stand ([uietly for a considerable time.'' Various reactions showed the dej^osit to consist in part at least of casein. It contained 29.67 per cent of solids, 22.10 per cent of protein, and 2.98 per cent of ash. The ash was found to consist chiefly of phos- phoric acid and lime, the results of 2 separate trials with different milks showing 44.02 and 45.82 per cent of phosphoric acid and 43.72 and 45.30 per cent of calcium oxid, respectively. " This is api)roximately the same relation between lime and phosphoric acid found in tricalcium phosphate and there is little doubt that the insoluble ash of milk consists of this salt mixed with a little phosphate of magnesia.' To determine whether this ash was an integral part of the casein or existed indei^eudently of it in the milk, skim milk diluted with water, and pasteurized to prevent its souring, was treated in the separator for 3 hours; it was then pasteurized again, kept in a refrigerator until 726 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the following day, and agaiu wliirled, aud this operation was repeated for the third time. Partial analyses were made of the railk and the several products obtained in the experiment, the results of whicli are given. The deposit upon the bowl was very much larger the first day than upon subsequent days, but the proportion of ash in the deposit increased in the second and third whirlings. From this the author believes it is evident that the ash is not chemically combined with the casein, for in that case the proportion of ash would have been the same in all cases. It is also evident that the casein is more easily separated from the milk than the insoluble phosphates of the ash. "The analyses made in tbese trials indicate that the deposit upon the bowl con- sists essentially of casein and insoluble phosphates, its other constituents being easily accounted for by the soluble matter held mechanically in it. The sugar, albu- men, and a large portion of the ash are evidently in solution, as their amount in the milk is not diminished by whirling." To study the question whether the solubility of the nitrogenous con- stituents of milk is changed by heat in ])asteuriziug, a quantity of skim milk was divided, one portion being pasteurized and then whirled for 4 hours, and the other being whirled immediately. Analyses showed that the solids-not-fat and the nitrogen were practically the same, in the milk before and after whirling, indicating that '' neither the casein nor the albumen have been changed in solubility by pasteurizing." "The fact that pasteurized milk is not as readily coagulated by rennet is satisfac- torily explained by assuming that a portion of the lime salts have been removed from solution by heat. This explanation is plausible, for the addition of a little cal- cium chlorid, acid phosphate or other soluble salt of lime restores pasteurized milk to its normal condition so far as its l>ehavior with rennet is concerned. It is also restored by passing carbonic-acid gas into the milk or by the addition of any dilute acid which dissolves phosphate of lime. For these reasons the writer is of the opin- ion that the insoluble lime salts of milk are to some extent increased by heat and that the larger amount of ash found in the residue from pasteurized milk in the last experiment is due to this rather than to development of lactic acid in the fresh milk." The relation bet-ween milk solids and the yield of cheese, S. M. Babcock ( Wisconsin Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 100-119). — The insoluble con- stituents of milk, i. e., fat, casein, and insoluble phosphates of lime and magnesia, the author terms the cheese-producing solids. Since the "proximate separation of these solids from milk by the coagulation of casein may be regarded as the essential feature in the manufacture of cheese," the cheese-producing cai)acity of a milk may be measured by the amount of insoluble matter which the milk contains. The deter- mination of these insoluble solids is believed to furnish an accurate and convenient basis for calculating the relative yield of cheese from milk supplied by different patrons of a cheese factory. To facilitate this, the author presents formulas which he has worked out. Tlie necessary data areobtained by determining the percentage of total solids in milk and in the whey obtained from it in a definite manner. Omitting the details DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 727 by wliich these formulas have beeu worked out, the following are given, in which T=pcrcentage of total solids in milk, t=;|)ereeutaije of total solids in wboy, c = percentage of cheese solids, F = percentage of fat in milk, f=percentage of fat in whey, m= percentage of water in whey. "(1) Percentage of cheese solids — —-^^::^*^. ^ ^ 100— t "(2) Percentage of casein in milk = c — F — 0.7o + (100 — c) 0.0068. . "(3) Yield of cheese ^c+ ^'^V- m — 37 "As the water in whey is quite uniform under all conditions, where normal milk is used, the average percentage, or 93, may be substituted for m, in which case the above expression reduces to "(4) Yield of green cheese containing 37 per cent of water from 100 lbs. of ... 1 «« „ 166 (T—t) miJk = 1.6o c= — -V -. 100 — t "lu this last expression 100 — t represents the percentage of water in whey and may as before be replaced by 93, in which case it reduces to "(.5) Yield of cheese containing 37 per cent of water =;1.7i) (T — t). T and t representing the percentage of solids in milk and whey respectively. In case the ])ercentagc of water in whey differs more than 0.5 from 93, which it rarely does, the more complete formula should be used. . . . "(6) Yield of green cheese from 100 lbs. of milker 1.58 (^^— + 0.91 f\ in which T^ percentage of total solids in milk and F=: percentage of fat. "This formula, although not as accurate as that derived from the solids of the milk and whey, will be found to give very satisfactory results, and when it is con- sidered that the condition of manufacture may cause a variation of several per cent in the amount of water retained in a cheese, it is not unlikely that the yields calcu- lated in this way will conform as nearly to the actual yields as will those calculated from more complete data." Calcalatioiis were made of the cheese-producing capacity as deter- mined by formulas 4 and C of the milk delivered by each of the patrons of the university creamery early in July, late in August, and again in October. The results are tabulated. Nearly all the samples of milk examined in July and August were abnormally low in the percentage of solids-not-fat, which the author attributes chiefly to insufficient nutrition, as the season was marked by a prolonged drought, beginning in jNIay, making the pastures extremely short and the grass very dry. Those patrons known to have fed considerable grain through the sum- mer supplied milk containing about the average percentage of solids- not-fat. This is brought out in a table. The fat does not appear to have been diminished by the insufficient food, but was fully up to the average. Sections suffering through the drought reported an unusu- ally low yield of cheese from 100 lbs. of milk, whereas the yield of butter from the same quantity of milk has been about the average, so that owing to the falling off" in milk yield the yield of butter per cow was greatly reduced. 728 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Witli reference to the relation between the fat content of the milk and the yield of cheese, the following table is given: Eelation between fat content of milk and yield of cheese. Eange in jjercentage of fat. Patrons' milk. Under 3.25. 3.25 to 3.50 . 3.50 to 3.75 . 3.75 to 4.00. 4.00 to 4.25. 4.25 to 4.50 . 4.50 to 4.75. Over 4.75 . . Average fiit content. Per cent. 3.31 3.64 3.83 4.15 4.40 4.59 4.93 4.20 Average yield of cheese per 100 Iba. of milk. 8.70 9.58 9.83 10.54 11.07 11.20 12. 05 10.60 Yield of cheese for 1 lb. of fat. Pounds. 2.63 2.03 2.56 2.54 2.51 2.44 2.44 2.52 From studeirts' reports. Average fat content. Per cent. 3.13 3.38 3.60 3.84 4.09 4.45 Average yield of cheese per 100 lbs. of milk. Pounds. 9.19 9.23 9.41 9.81 10.30 10.71 9.57 Yield of cheese for 1 lb. of fat. Pounds. 2.94 2.73 2.61 2.61 2.51 2.41 2.63 "The yields reported by students are for cured cheese and should be increased by about 4 per cent to corrrespoiid with those from the patrons' milk, which are for green cheese. Increased in this way, the average yield in factories for 1 lb. of fat is 2.74 lbs. of green cheese against 2. .52 lbs., showing clearly that during this part of the summer the cheese-producing solids other than fat have been abnormally low in these milks." The different methods for paying for milk at cheese factories are com- mented upon, the relative-value plan being approved, and tables are given showing the yield of cheese and the relative value for cheese- making of milk corresponding to lactometer readings from 26 to 3C and with a fat content from 2 to G per cent. The object of these tables is to facilitate calculating the amount to be paid each patron. Experiments in cheese making, H. L. Eussell, J. W. Decker, and S. M. Babcock {Wuconsm Sta. Rpi. 1895, 2)p. 127-138, Jiys. 2).— The effect of aeration on the flavor of tainted curds in cheese making, H. L. Eussell (pp. 127-129). — In 2 experiments skim milk directly from the separator was infected artificially with a pure culture of a gas- producing bacillus which had been isolated from the general milk supply of the dairy school. This infected milk was divided into 2 lots, one of which was run through a Danish Weston separator 5 times and the other held at as near the same temperature as possible. Pasteur- ized cream was then added to both lots to make the milk about normal and the milk made into cheese. In neither case was there any appre- ciable difference in regard to pin holes between the curds from aerated and, non- aerated milk, but in both cases the curd from the atirated milk had a finer flavor than that from the other. "It has been assumed that the imjirovement in flavor due to aeration was brought about through some effect on the bacterial life in the milk, but such an interpreta- tion does not seem to be in full harmony with the above results." The influence of acid on the texture of cheese, H. L. Eussell and J. W. Decider (pp. 129-133). — " Experiments were carried out by making cheese DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 729 from the same lot of milk in two diftereut ways. In the one instance, the milk was set witliont developing- any acid; in the other, it was ripened according to the nsnal methods that are now considered essen- tial in Cheddar making." Duplicate experiments were made with (1) skim milk, (2) skim milk to which sufficient pasteurized cream had been added to give 3 per cent of fat, and (.'>) whole milk. Figures are given showing the texture of ihc cheese made under different conditions, and the "mechanical holes." "The results in every instance were the same and showed that tho texture of the cheese fresh horn the press was invariably more poious in those made up 'sweet' than where the usual amount of acid was allowed to develop. The development of the acid resulted in a cementing of tho particles of curd so that the cheese had a close, uniform texture that is regarded as necessary in a first-class product. "In the cheese made from milk where the acid Avas not developed in the curd, the surface was invariably tilled with irregular spaces where the curd particles had not closed together. These irregular spaces that may be called 'mechanical holes' are in no way to be attributed to the development of gas, although this is often a common interpretation of their appearance."' The hot-iron test, 8. M. Babcocl- (pp. 133, 134). — This test, used to determine the condition of the curd, is briefly described, and the condi- tions upon which it depends are discussed. From numerous trials the author has demonstrated that there is no definite relation between the acidity of the curd and the hot-iron test, "although it may be said that long strings are usually associated with high acidity." The addi- tion of a little borax, phosphate of soda, or bicarbonate of soda, all of which have an alkaline action, to sweet curds which do not adhere to the hot iron will make them string as perfectly as- if acid was developed, and curds precipitated by the natural development of lactic acid do not always string. "It appears from this that the hot-iron test indicates not the degree of acidity, but a condition of the curd, which may be brought about in a variety of ways. Our observations show that any reagent, whether acid or alkaline, which has a slight solvent action upon casein, will cause curd to string upon a hot iron. The eflect of such a reagent is to convert the curd into a more or less plastic condition in which the particles adhere readily to each other. Such curds when piled will llatten and assume tlie meaty texture desired in the Cheddar process, before they are put to press. The cheese will also close up well anxl show few mechanical holes. . . . "It is evident from this that the determination of acid can never replace the hot- iron test in practical cheese making, as it often fails to show that condition of curd essential to a fine-textured cheese." Albumen cheese, S. ^f. Baheoek (pp. 134-136). — Experiments were made in incorporating into the cheese the albumen which is usually lost in the whey, not being acted upon by rennet. The albumen was separated by passing the heated whey through an old-style Dani.sh Weston separator. The albumen was then collected, mixed with water, and the following day incorporated with the (uird, when the rennet was added. The usual methods of making Cheddar cheese were followed. 1478G— No. 8 7 730 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "Curds made iu this way aro more tender than where nothing has been added to the milk; tliey 'firm nji' nicely, however, and have a good llavor, scarcely distin- gnishalde from envds made withont the albumen. The cheeses do not close up as well as ordinary curds. The yield of green clieese in our experiments has been increased a little more than 17 per cent by adding the albumen. These cheeses have retained their shape and for a week or two have, appeared like other cheese, but have soon acquired a sour, disagreeable taste, and a granular texture similar to cottage cheese. A number of experiments have all resulted in this way, there being not a single cheese of good quality in the whole lot." The experiments are being contiuued. Experimenis in ripeniiKj the mill- he/ore setting, J. W. Decider (pp. 130-138.) — Experiments were made to compare the effect on tlie time required for cheese making of adding' the rennet as soon as the sweet milk had been heated to the proper temperature, and of first allowing the milk to ripen before setting. Data are given showing for different trials the rennet test, development of lactic acid, and time required for different operations. There was no difference in the time required for making the milk into cheese between developing the acid in the milk before setting or between setting the milk and drawing the whey. Other experiments were made to see if the acid would develop as rapidly iu the curd if the whey was drawn before it would string on the hot iron. "As far as the time required to make the milk into cheese is concerned (liability of whey -soaked curds not considered) it makes no diti'erence whether we develop tlie acid iu the milk or in the whey, but it does require more time if we draw the whey before the strings appear in the hot-iron test."' Gas-producing bacteria and the relation of the same to cheese, H. L. EusSELL ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 139-150, ^figs. 2). — The causal relation of germs to the production of "i)inhole" cheese was shown in a trial iu which milk was treated different ways; pin holes were numerous, except where the milk was pasteurized or formalin added. Cultures of gas-producing bacteria inoculated into sterile milk gave a vigorous gaseous fermentation. From a single sample of mixed milk taken at the university creamery one day in July 0 different species were isolated that had the ability of i^roducing gas, although they differed in respect to this gas-])roducing power. Their addition to fresh milk almost always resulted in the production of a prououuced taint. A large number of exfjeriments were made with the different gas- producing organisms isolated to study their effect upon the texture aud quality of the cheese, and the results obtained with a single form are presented. Separator skim milk, separator skim milk to which pas- teurized cream had ))een added, aud whole milk were used. In one series of experiments the cheese was made up comparatively sweet, while in the other the normal amount of acid was allowed to develop. "The result was uniformly the same, although it differed in degree, owing to the impossibility of adding the same amount of culture starter in each instance. In some of the experiments the gas appeared in the curd while the acid was develop- ing on the racks; in others its appearance was delayed until the cheese was on the shelf. In one case the development of gas in the infected cheese was so great that DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 731 the cheese huffed into a football shape and rolkd off the shelves. The tension of the gas was so great in this instance that it Ibiced its way through the exterior coating with a hissing sound. In all cases the cheese made from infected milk, ■whether it was hautlliMl according to the sweet or acid process, invariably showed a larger number of holes than the control. . . . The effect of the development of the acid on the production of gas holes is stronglj' marked. This could have been materially increased if the acid had been allowed to develop still further and the curd had been piled ou the rack during matting to mechanically force out the gas, as "would have been done in a practical way.'' The oeneral characteristic's of the gas-produciiig bacteria aredescribed and some cxperiiueiits given in testing their distribution in the milk of the ditterent patrons of the university creamery. This was done by means of fermentation tests in which pint milk bottles were sterilized and then filled nearly to the top with milk from different patrons, a definite amount of rennet extract being added to each bottle, and the bottles immersed in water at 80° F. " The normal conditions practiced in cheese making were adhered to quite closely in these tests, so that practi(!ally the various stages of making Cheddar cheese up to the point of putting to press were carried out." These tests showed that (1) the gas-producing organisms were widely distributed throughout the section tributary to the university cream- erj^; (2) a larger number of patrons have " gassy" milk in the winter than in summer; (3) in the majority of cases there was a uniformity as to the presence or absence of these organisms in the milk, " so that the employment of the fermentation test as an index to tlie value of the milk for cheese making is to be highly indorsed;" (4) there is often a radical dift'ereuce in the texture of the curd from different milk as sliown by this test, which can not be explained; and (5) this method also reveals the presence of bacterial taints other than those caused by the gas-i)roducing germs. "The conditions under which the milk is secured in the winter as a rule favor the introduction of a larger number of bacteria than is the case during the summer. Dirt and particles of excreta on the coat of the animal are apt to accumulate dur- ing the period that she is housed, and as these are easily dislodged, they fall into the milking pail, contaminating the iluid. "The main reason why the gaseous fermentations do not manifest themselves more during the winter is because the temperature conditions do not favor the rapid increase of bacterial life at this time. Where milk is held for a sufticient length of time to allow full germination of these organisms, it is apt to develo]) ])in holes in the curd, as was fimnd in our experience at the dairy school, when the milk was shipped by rail for a short distance and was often somewhat overripe upon arrival." A Jersey ten years' record, A. F. Paubiry (Affl. da:. [London], 4-i {ISUG), Dec. 28,1). ^75). Cow culture, F. I). ConURX (lipt. Kansas State Bd. Agr. for the j)erative creameries, construction of creamery buildings, cream raising, butter making, cheese making, relative profits of butter and cheese making, etc. The re]»ort is pop.ular in style and contains a vast amount of useful information, gathered from the experi- ence of successful farmers and dairymen and from the work of the agricultural experiment stations. The composition of camels' milk, Dinkler (Pharm. Ztg., 189G, Xo. 41; Ztachr. Fll-l'i7). — This is a shorter account of work reported in Bulletin 46 of the station (E. S. R., S, p. 170). Milking by machinery {Amer. Aijr. (uihJ. ed.), 59 {1897), Xo. 8, p. 227, figs. 2).— Descriptions are given of the Cushnian, De Laval, and Thistle milking machines, with illustrations of the first two. The use of bacterial culture starters in butter making, with especial refer- ence to the Conn culture (B. 41). E. H. Fahi;in(;tox and H. L. Russell ( Wiscon- sin Sia. Ppt. 1SH5, pp. 174-226, charts 12). — A more detailed account of work reported in Bulletin 48 r f the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 261 ). Dairying, J. Maiiox {Queensland Dept. Agr. Ilul. 9, 2d ser.,pp. 39). — This is a popu- lar bulletin on the subject of dairying, covering the various jihasesof butter mak- ing, cheese making, handling of milk and cream, dairy buildings, management of cows, etc. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. An experiment in draining low-lying marsh lands by means oi a dike, a sump or reservoir, tLle drains, and a windmill, W. A. Henry ( Wheons'm Sta. Ept. i.s.y.j. j,p. :23:2-;23i>., pi. 1, Jii of dnj matter in corn ou uiiirruiated, auliirri(jated, and surface-irrigated 2>Iatn. Annnint of raiufall. Inch/'g. 8.15 «. 15 8.15 4.48 4.48 4 48 Amount of water piirapetl. Yield of dry matter. Field C. Field D. Field C. Field D. l)ent corn. Flint corn. Dent corn. Flint corn. RESUl-TS IX 1894. Inches. Inches. Pounds. 4,079 I'intnds Pounds. 7. 426 9,625 7, ','07 :i, 144 11, 125 8,317 Pounds. 7,916 8.61 13. 72 11,080 Siibirrigatea RESULTIS IN 189.T. Not irrigated 19.07 8,614 2,701 9,545 2,458 21). 60 2t). 60 10, 048 37.88 8, 202 6, 295 "It will be seen that in all cases the yield from the irrigated land was much larger than from that not irrigated, and that the surface-irrigated lands j ielded both years much better than the subirrigated lands did. ... In 1891 the surface-irrigated corn gave a yield more than a third larger than tbat.not irrigated, while in 18i).") the yield from the surface-irrigated ground was nearly i times that from tiie land not irrigated."' The table shows that on the uiiirrigated soil the smaller the rainfall the less the yield of corn, and that this was not due to the exhaustion of the soil by the continuous growth of corn on the same land without manuring is indicated by the fact that where surface irrigation was 734 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. practiced the yield was 1534 lbs. greater iu 1895, the year of scanty rainfall, than in 1S94. On the other hand, the subirrigated soil yielded 1,074 lbs. less iu 1895 than iu 1894, a result which is explained by the fact that in this case the surface soil did not obtain sufiicient moistm^e to give the maxiiuuui growth of com. The data reported show "that the yield of dry uuitter per acre was more than one fifth, or 23.36 per ceut, larger on ground surface irri- gated than it was ou that subirrigated. This difference of yield, iu the writer's judgment, is due to the fact that a large part of the water introduced into the subirrigated laud percolated below the level of most effective service in the root zoue, while at the same time a large part of the surface soil, where the vital processes are most active, was left too dry." It Avas observed that when 15.03 acre-inches of water was pumiced into the tiles only about 4 ft. of the surface soil immediately above the Hues of tile was saturated, while midway between the tiles the soil was wet only to within 9 in. of the ton. It is estimated that at least 5 acre-inches more of water would hav^e been necessary to completely saturate the soil of the whole plat. It is evident, therefore, that by applyiug equal amounts of water by the surface and subirrigation methods at stated intervals the amount of moisture in the surface foot of soil will average much larger in the former than in the latter case. "It follows from these observations that instead of recjuiring less water for sub- irrigatiou than for surface irrigation, as has been generally assumed, it does reqni e much more when applied at a depth of 18 iu. on lands where the ground water is 6 or more feet below the surface irrigated." It is possible that a greater economy of water would have l)een realized if the tile had been placed nearer the surface of the soil. Irrigating through systems of tile drains. — As in the experiments of the previous year (E. S. E., 8, p. 295), the outlet of the system of tile drains was closed and water pumped into them in order to determine the effect of raising the water level on the yields of clover, barley, and corn. On May 24 and 25, 2.84 acre-inches of water was pumped into the system. The irrigation was repeated June 24, 25; July 10, 11, 12, 22, 23, 24j and August 8, 9, 10, 21, 22, and 23, aggregating iu all about 17.04 acre-inches. Besides this, the clover plat was surface irrigated June 17, July 12, aud August 19. Two crops of clover were cut on the irrigated area (3.2 acres), the first yielding at the rate of about 4 tons per acre, the second about 1.8 tons. The third crop (on the 3.2 acres) furnished pasturage for 58 sheep for 31 days. The unirrigated soil yielded a single crop of about 1.5 tons per acre. The increase due to irrigation on the total area was 5.5 tons of hay, which, with the pasturage, is valued at -§39. The cost of production of this increase is estimated at $18, leaving a net i)rolit of $21. STATISTICS. 735 The barley yielded iit the rate of 3 tons per acre (grain and straw). No comparativ^e data tor yield on nnirrigated soils Avero obtained. The same was true of the exi^eriments on corn, of which the yields on the irrigated soil were as follows: Dent corn, 7,1.")8 lbs. of dry matter per acre; flint corn, 6,130 lbs. It is assumed that the yield of corn was more than doubled in 189") by the application of water. The effectiveness of natural subirrigation is illustrated b}^ observa- tions during' 1895 on the growth of corn on a reclaimed marsh. The black marsh soil is underlaid with a thin stratum of clay, which rests upon porous sand, ''through which the water from the adjacent high hills flows toward the lake and slowly rises by upward percolation." That the water rose in this manner was shown by the continuous dis- charge of the drains, and that the corn utilized this water was indicated by the fact "that immediately after cutting the corn and without any rain the drains began to discharge water much more rapidly." STATISTICS. Reports of director and of treasurer of California Station, 1895 {California Sta. L'ljt. ISO'', pp. XIII, 1-10, 4.j.J-4C,S). — List of officers of the station aud substa- tions; brief uotes uiion work of the year by the director; lists of plants, trees, aud seeds donated to the station, and of pa])ers received; and a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Report of the Southern California Culture Station, C. H. Suinx {California Sta. Rpf. 1895, pp. 422-43S). — A report is given of the general work undertaken at this station, which is located in the Chino Valley between Pomona and Chino, with meteorological tables showing rainfall and temperature. Detailed reports are given showing the condition of the orchards, and notes on various varieties of apples, cherries, tigs, nectarines, peaches, pears, plums, oranges, olives, date palms, straw- berries, blackberries, etc. A report is also given on a lO-acre tract at this station opening up new lines of investigation, exjieriments having been conducted with various grasses and cereals, together with an attempt to test the fitness of this particular tract of land for orchards and growing sugar beets. Report of the Southern Coast Range Culture Station, C. H. Shinn {California Sta. L'2>t. 1S95, pp. 371-400). — A report is given on the cultural work at the station, with climatic records giving the dates of spring frosts since 1889, notes on various improvements that have taken place at the station, and detailed accounts of diti'erent varieties of almonds, apples, apricots, cherries, figs, peaches and nectarines, pears, plums aud prunes, olives, (luinces, English walnuts, pecans, Italian chestnuts, straw- berries, and Logan berries. Brief uotes are also given on the cereal and hay crops, and a report on the condition of the vegetable garden, including uotes on varieties of lettuce, tomatoes, radishes, garden beets, carrots, parsnips, turnips, peas, beAus, kale, onions, caulifiower, jtotatoes, muskmelon, watermelons, and tobacco. A brief statement is given on the damage done at the station by scjuirrels, gophers, and ])ird8. The work of the college of agriculture and experiment stations, E. W. Hii,- K^KWD {California Sia. Bid. 1! 1, pp. /?).— An article revised frou) lectures delivered at farmers' institutes which treats in a ])«)]tular way of the work of instruction and research of the College of Agriculture and Experiment Stations of the University of < 'aliforuia. 736 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Ninth Annual Report of Illinois Station, 1896 {Illinois Sta. Rpt. 1896, pp. 16). — This ve]M)rt includes a general account of the transactions of the governing board, a list of tli(! bulletins issued during the year, a tabulated statemeut showing date of beginning of each experiment in progress and bulletins in which reported, and a detailed iinam-ial statement for the iiscal year ending June 30, 1896. Seventh Annual Report of Nevada Station, 1894 {Xerada Sta. lijjt. 1S94, pp. 28), — This includes outlines of station work by the director and heads of the depart- ments of agriculture and horticulture, botany and entomology, and chemistry and dairying; and a financial report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894. Reports cf directcr and treasurer of Wisconsin Station, 1895 ( Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. lS9o,pp. nil, 1-6, S32-343). — Account by the director of condition and work of the station; lists of publications of the station available for distribution, of periodicals received as exchanges, and of donations made to the station ; text of the State fertilizer law; and a financial statemeut for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Report of the experiment station of the Bruns^wick Agricultural Society, 1896 (/''>vi««.sr /((('. hoidw. Ztg., 6-'> (1897), Xo. 4, pp. 13, 14). — Classification of ana- lytical and testing work of the station. Report of -work in 1895 at the agronomic station of the Island of Mauritius, P. BOXAME {Ann. Set. Afjron., ser. 3 (1896), II, Xo. 3, pp. 321, 322). NOTES . California University and Station. — F. T. liioletti has been made instnutor in bacteriology and wiiio luakiug. Tho .'^tatiou has recently iiiiiiorted from France 30,000 pbylloxera-resistant grape cuttings of rnpestris and riparia .stock, for distribution among the vine growers of California. Florida Station. — The station has recently comiileted a small glass house for proj)agating plants, and for tho study of plant diseases and insect pests. Kentucky Station. — Dr. R. J. Spurr, superintendent of tield experiments of the station, died March 8. Missouri Station. — Mr. David W. May, M. Agr., has been appoiuted to succeed Mr. C. M. Connor as assistant in agriculture in the station. South Carolina College and Station. — Mr. C. M. Connor, B. Agr.^ B. S., late assistant in agriculture at the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, has ac- cepted the position of assistant professor of agriculture in the college and agricul- turist of the statiou, takinji," eft'ect February 15, 1897. Utah Station. — Prof. F. C. Sears, M. S., of the Kausas Agricultural College, has been appointed horticulturist and botanist of the station and college, and has entered upon his duties. Washington Station. — Mr. W. II. Heileman has been elected assistant chemist, vice C. C. Fletcher, resigned. The third annual session of the winter school for farmers was attended by 169 farmers. The interest was greater than at any previous session. Cerma.v Agricultltral Society. — The eleventh general exhibition of this society will be held at Hamburg June 17 to 21, 1897. These fairs are held annually, a dif- ferent place being selected each year. The exhibitions of stock, agricultural prod- ucts, and implements and farm supplies of various kinds are very large, and the fairs attract large nuu)bers of agriculturists and fai'mers from all over tho German Empire. The cash prizes oiiered this year aggregate about $25,000, besides which tliere are a lar.ue numl)er of medals, diplomas, etc. This society is noupolitical, and is maintained without federal aid. It numbers over 11,000 members at present. It has head(iaarters in Berlin, where it occupies an entire building with its offices and laboratories. It publishes a journal aiul a yearbook, both of which are valuable publications. It does much to encourage investigation in \arious lines of agiicul- tural S(ien< e. Tlirough the society members can purchase fertilizers, feeding stuffs, and .seeds at reduced rates, and with the advantage of securing goods of guarantied composition and purity. The transactions in these supplies are now enormous, and this coiiperative buying has been extended to agricultural machinery and otiier sup- plies. The society is a noteworthy instance of a successful co(>Y)erativo scheme in the farmers' interests. Personal Mentio.n. — L. II. Bailey, professor of horticulture at Cornell Univer- sity, has been awarded one of the Veitch silver medals " in recognition of his etibrts by means of his lectures and writings to placu- the cultivation of plants on a scien- tific basis, to promote the extension of horticultural education, and T)y 7iuuu»rous trials and experiments to improve and render more prodiu-tive ])laiit8 grown for economic ])urpose8.'' 737 738 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. M. Georges Ville, one of the most prominent of the agricultural scientists and authors of France, died February 22, 1897, at the age of 73 years. At the time of his death he was connected with the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. A sketch of his life aud works by L. Grandeau appears in Journal cT Agriculture Pratique, Gl (1897), I, No. 9, pp. 307-309. Dr. Eugene Baumanu, the well-known physiological chemist, died in Freiburg, Baden, November 5, 1896. A portrait and review of his life is given in Ztschr. ithysiol. Chcm., 23, No. 1, pp. 1-17. Dr. Baumann was born December 12, 1846. At the time of his death he was professor of chemistry in the medical department of the Univer- sity of Freiburg. Shortly after the revival of the University of Strassburg he was Hoppe-Seyler's first assistant. He was called to Berlin as the head of the chemical department of the Physiological Institute, and later was made a full professor. After a number of years in Berlin he was called to Freiburg, where he remained until the time of his death. After Hoppe-Seyler's death his position was offered to Dr. Baumann but was not accei)ted. Dr. Baumann contributed largely to the progress of organic and physiological chemistry. EXPERIMENT STATION Rr:CORD, KDIIKD l'.Y A. (J. TRUK, Ph. ]).. Director. AND E. W. Ali.EX, Pii. D., Assistiint Dircc^tor — Choniiatry, Dairy Fiiriiiiiin-, and Dairying. W. H. ]>KAL — Meteoroloyy. Fertilizers (including- methods oC analysis), Soils, and Agricultural I'ngineering. Walter H. Evans, I'm. D.— Botany and Diseases of Plants. F. II. Hall— Field Crops. F. C. Kenyon, Pii. D.— Entomology aud Yeterinary Science. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. With the co()peration of tbo scientific divisions of the Department and the Abstract Committee of the Association of Otiticial Agricultural Chemists. C(3NTENTS of Vol. VIII, No. 9. Page. Editorial note: Emil a'ou Woltf and Georges Ville 739 Recent work in agricultural sciencts 7-11 Notes - 838 SUBJECT LIST OF ABSTRACTS. CHEMISTRY. The determination of nitrogen in mixtures of nitrates, especiall.v in guano, V. Schenke 711 Studies of the difterent methods for determining cellulose, 11. Suringar and B. Tollens 741 BOTANY. On the absorption and rejection of water by seed, H. Con pin 743 The action of salts on the form and structure of plants, C. Dassonville 744 The influence of fruit bearing on the development of mechanical tissue in some fruit trees, A. J. Pieters 745 Respiration of wounded plants, II. M. Richards 746 The influence of continued electric currents on the decomposition of carbon dioxid in aquatic plants, M. Thouvenin 747 Miscellaneous notes and descriptions of new species 748 Tiie genus Ixopliorus, F. Eamson-Scribner 748 Native and introduced species of the genera Hordenm and Agropyrum, F. Lamson-Scribner and J. G. Smith 749 I II EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Page. Some American Panicums in the Herbarium Berolinense and in the Herbarium of Willdenow, T. Holm 749 Some Mexican grasses collected by E. W. Nelson in Mexico, 1894-'95, F. Lamson- Scribner and J. G. Smith 749 A list of the grasses collected by E. Palmer in the vicinity of Acapulco, Mexico, 1894-'95, F. Lamson-Scribner 749 Mississippi fungi, S. M. Tracy and F. 8. Earle 749 Report of the botanist, F. L. Harvey 748 ZOOLOGY. Four common birds of the farm and garden, S. D. ,Tudd 750 The meadow lark and Baltimore oriole, F. E. L. Beal 751 Our home birds, B. H. Warren 752 A preliminary list of the birds of Wayne County, Ohio, H. C. Oberholser .... 753 METEOROLOGY. Arizona weather, E. M. Boggs 753 Meteorological observations, AV. S. Sweetser 754 Report of the International Meteorological Congress at Chicago, Illinois, August 21-24, 1893 755 SOILS. Origin, value, and reclamation of alkali lauds, E. W. Hilgard 756 Humus in its relation to soil fertility, H. Snyder 756 Reasons for cultivating the soil, M. Whitney 756 Soil ferments important in agriculture, H. W. Wiley 755 Soil temperatures, W. S. Sweetser 756 FERTILIZERS. Some Pennsylvania peats, W. Frear and E.J. Haley 757 Investigations on the foragiug i>owers of some agricultural plants for phos- phoric acid, L. H. Merrill and W. H. Jordan 757 The fertilizing effect of the nitrogen of different green manuring plants, M. Maercker '. 758 Experiments with various manure preservatives, M. Miiercker and Schultze . . . 759 The loss of nitrogen in barnyard manure in the heap, M. Maerckor 760 Experiments on the fertilizing effect of barnyard manure and of its different constituents, M. Maercker 761 The action of the different constituents of barnyard manure (urine, dung, and straw) alone and in mixtures, M. Maercker 761 Experiments on the fertilizing effect of phosphoric acid and nitrogen in peat and excrement mi.xture, and in poudrette, M. Maercker, H. Steftek, et al 761 Perchlorate as a cause of the injurious effect of nitrate of soda on rye, B. Sjollema 762 Experiments with soluble, reverted, and insoluble phosphoric acid, E. H. Hess. 763 Experiments on the effectiveness of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid in Thomas slag, M. Maercker 763 The effectiveness of partially dissolved bone meal, M. Maercker 764 Vegetation experiments on the fertilizing effect of various potash salts, M. Maercker 764 Experiments with various potash salts on a mixture of grasses and leguminous plants (clover; on a light sandy soil, M. Maercker 765 Experiments on the influence of crude potash salts upon the consumption of water by plants, M. Maercker , 765 The real value of Natural Plant Food, L. L. Van Slyke 766 CONTENTS. Ill Pago. Analyses of commercial fertilizers, L. L. A'an Slyke 766 Composition of wood ashes sold in Peuusylvauia, W. Frear 767 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, W. C. Stubbs 767 A discussion of certain commercial articles : Fertilizers, AV. H. Jordan 767 Inspection of fertilizers in Maine, W. H. Jordan, J. M. Bartlett, and L. IT. Merrill 767 Inspection of fertilizers, W. H. Jordan, J. M. Bartlett, and L. II. Merrill 767 A nalyses of fertil izers, C. A. Goossmann 767 Miscellaneous fertilizing substances, W. Frear 767 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, H. J. Wheeler, B. L. Hartwell, and C. L. Sargent 768 FIELD CKOPS. Alfalfa, "W.r. Headden 768 Canaigre, R. H. Forbes 771 Canaigre, the new tanning plant, H. H. Harrington and D. Adriance 772 Experiments in corn culture, 1896, G. E. Morrow and J. H. Bone 772 The i)rofitable amount of seed per acre for corn, W. H. Jordan 773 White or yellow varieties of corn, E. H. Hess 773 Important facts about corn, W. H. Jordan 780 A report on the culture of hemp and jute in the United States, C. R. Dodge. . . 774 The renewing of worn-out native prairie pastures, T. Williams 774 Forage conditions of the prairie region, J. G. Smith 780 A report on the grasses and forage plants of the Rocky Mountain region, P. A. Rydberg and C. L. Shear 781 Grass gardens, F. Lamson-Scribner 781 Grasses of salt marshes, F. Lamson-Scribner 781 Influence of chemical fertilizers on the product of natural and artificial meadows, E. Zacharewicz 775 Hemp culture, C. R. Dodge 781 Oats, test of varieties 775 Canadian field peas, T. Shaw 781 A chemical study of the Irish potato, T. L. Watson • 775 Potatoes, test of varieties, E. H. Hess 777 Esiieriments with nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash upon sugar beets, with notes uiion top dressing, Schneidewind and Miiller 777 The burning (qualities of tobacco, J. Nessler 777 Wheat, test of A^arieties, E. H. Hess 777 Wheat, thick and thin seeding, R. H. McDowell 781 Distribution of seeds and plants, E.J. Wickson 782 Effect of fertilizers on the proportion of grain to straw and stover, H. J. Waters andE. H. Hess 778 General fertilizer experiments, H. J. Waters and E. H. Hess 778 Sunflower heads and blackeye peas as silage crops, J. M. Bartlett 778 Autumn catch crops, P. P. Dehcrain 779 The influence of the rolling of crops upon their productiveness, E. Wollny 779 HOKTICULTURE. Beans, L. C. Corbett 790 Notes on cabbages, H. P. Gonld 782 Onions, L. C. Corbett 782 Notes on peas, H. P. Gould 790 Salad plants and plant salads, F. A. Wangh 790 Spinach, L. F. Kinney 783 Notes on sweet corn, H. P. Gonld 783 IV EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Page. Tomatoes, L. C . Corbott 783 A'egetables in l«i)4, G. C. Butz 790 Experimcuts with vegetables ami fruits, E. S. Richman 791 A cheap and etficieut greenhouse for the Northwest, L. C. Corbett 791 The health of plants in greenhouses, B. T. Oalloway 791 Apple growing in Grand Isle County, F. A. Waugh 791 Apples in 1895, G. C. Butz 791 The peach, R. H. Price 784 The pineapple industry in the United States, 11. J. AVebber 791 Principles of pruning and care of wounds in woody plants, A. F. Woods 792 Strawberries, H. N. Starnes 785 Strawberries, W. Paddock 786 Varieties of grapes, R. L. Watts 786 Small fruits in 1894, G. C. Butz 791 Notes on small fruits, W. M. Munson 792 Small-fruit culture for market, W. A. Taylor 792 California walnuts, almonds, and chestnuts, G. E. Colby 786 The bleaching of nuts by dipping, E. W. Hilgard 788 Electro-horticulture, range of incandescent light. F. W. Rane 789 Irrigation for the garden and greenhouse, L. R. Taft 792 Frosts and freezes as affecting cultivated plants, B. T. Galloway 792 The two freezes of 1894 and 1895 in Florida and Avhat they teach, H. J. Webber. 789 Second report upon extension work iu horticulture, L. H. Bailey 790 FORESTRY. Tree planting iu the western plains, C. A. Keffer 793 The relation of forests to farms, B. E. Fernow 794 SEEDS — WEEDS. The worst weeds of Wyoming, A. Nelson 794 Seed testing at home, A. .J. Pieters 795 Oil-producing seeds, G. H. Hicks 795 DISEASES OK PLANTS. What species of grass are able to infect the barberry with rust? J. Eriksson. 795 On the relation of the time of seeding and the period of development on the develojiment of rust and smut of oats, H. L. Bolloy 795 The cause and prevention of pear blight, M. B. Waite 796 Leaf spot of pear, G. F. Atlcinson 797 A rust and leaf casting of pine leaves, B. T. Galloway 797 The effectiveness of corrosive sublimate as a preventive of potato seal), H. L. Bolley 798 Potato scab, H. J. Wheeler aud G. M. Tucker 798 Ex])eriments for the prevention of potato scab, T. A. Williams 799 Fungiroid as a preventive of potato rot, H. P. Gould 800 Fungus diseases and injurious insects, R. H. Price 801 ENTOMOLOGY. Three injurious insects, T. A. Williams 801 Green fruit worms, M. V. Slingerland 802 The principal insect enemies of the grape, C. L. Marlatt 803 The shade-tree problem in the United States, L. O. Howard 804 Recent observations on Sesamia, lepidoptera injurious to maize, sugar cane, sorghum, etc., J. K. d'Herculais 805 CONTENTS. V I'iifje, A notal)lo ocfurrciice ol' tlio oak scale {I.cinniiim qumns) in (■(niiiect ioTi with a flow of sap, Bioclicr 805 Keport of tLo cutoi!U)loi;ist. V. L. Harvey 805 Inspection of Paris grcin, W. ('. 8tnl>bs 808 I'ooDs — A XI MA I, I'ltonrcimx. On the licliavior of coai-tar colors toward the process of digestion, H. A . Weher. 809 Sonic additions to otir vegetalde dietary, 1'. V. Coville 821 A contribution to the study of Southern feeding stub's, J. 15. Mcliryde 810 Corn-and-col) meal r.s. wheat for fattening steers, H. J. Waters, W. C. Patterson, and E. 11. Iless 811 The relation of Ibod to the growth and composition of the bodies of steers, W.H.Jordan 811 Alfalfa or lucern, A. A. Mills 812 Stock feeding experiments at Lander. 15. C. Buffnm 815 Pork production on crops gathered by hogs. A succession of crops for liou.s, R. L. r.ennett 810 Exi)eriments in IVeding draft horses, L. (Jrandeau, II. Ballacey, and A. Alekan . . 817 Feeding ex])eriments with laying hens: The relative cffrciency of whole and ground grain, W. P. Wheeler 819 DAIRY FARMING AND DAIRYING. Influence of the quantity of food uiion the economy of milk and butter pro- duction, H. J. Waters and E. H. Hess 822 Influence of nutritive ratio upon the economy of milk and butter production, H. J. AVaters and E. H. Hess 823 Elfects of drought upon milk production, L. L. Van Slyke 825 Feeding experiments with milch cows, J. M. Bartlett 825 On the variation in the number and size of fat globules in milk, ^I. E. McDon- nell and J. W. Fields 826 The relative composition of milk, cream, and skim milk, X. Leonard and H. M. Smith 827 Butter substitutes, E. A. do Schweinitz 827 Butter and butter subst itutes, W. Frear and W. S. Sweetser 829 Milk sampling, C. L. Penny 829 Directions for using Babcock milk test, H. Hay ward and M. E. McDonnell 834 The use of borax preservatives on cream-gathering routes, W. Frear and W. 8. Sweetser 830 Kephir, CD, Spivak 831 Inefficiency of milk separators in removing bacteria, V. A. Moore 831 On the bluing of cheese, A. Hehlc 8.32 The manufacture and consumption of cheese, H. E. Alvord 832 Fixing the meaning of the terms "skim," "half fat," "fat," and "full cream" cheese, Herz 834 AGRICII-TURAI. KNGIXEERING. Climate, soil characteristics, and irrigation luethods in California, C. W. Irish. . 836 Cooperative road construction, li. Stone 836 Road making and repairing, G. E. Morrow 83G STATRSTICS. Reports of the treasurer .and director of Maine Station for 1895 836 Eighth Annual Keport of Nevada Station, 1895 83G Financial statement an, p. 609; 8, p. 23). •Chem. Ztg., 14 (1890). pp. 868, 902. -■Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 16, p. 370 (E. S. K., .3, p. 910). 5Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 14, \\. 283. 6 Cellulose, an outline of the cheinlstrv of the structural olomonts of plants, p. 95. 741 742 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. (treatment consecutively witli 1 per cent soda solution, clilorin gas, sodium sulphite, potassium permanganate or sodium hypochlorite, and sulphurous acid). The authors' conclusions from these investigations are that none of the methods fulfill all the requirements of a good method for cellulose in point of time and accuracy. The cellulose obtained b}^ these methods usually contained larger or smaller quantities of furfurol yielding sub- stances or oxycellulose, and except in the case of the Schulze method the cellulose itself was attacked by the reagents. The methods of Hdnig and Cross and Bevnn give cellulose containing considerable lignin, as shown by thephloroglucin-hydrochloric acid reaction. The ])otash methods (Gabriel and Lauge) give pure cellulose, espe- cially the Lange method, but they attack the cellulose to a considerable degree. Schulze's method appears to give the most accurate figures for the vegetable substances examined, although the cellulose frequently con- tains oxycellulose. The time required for this method (14 days) is considered a serious objection to it. A simple and reliable method for cellulose, not requiring too much time, is believed to be a great desideratum. On the fermentation of galactose, A. Bat' {Zfschr. Sjyiritiisind., lS9n, Ko. SS-39; ahs. in Centhl. Bait, itiid Par. Allg., 2 (_1S9G), Xo. ..'0, pp. 653-(l5o). The production of compounds isomorphous with kainit and tachhydrit, A. de iSCHULTEX {Bill. Soc. Chim. Paris, 17-18 {1897), Xo. 3, pp. 165-167). A simple method for determining zinc in foods (Ziachr. Xahr. rntersiich. und Hyrj. Waareiik., 11 {1897), Xo. 2, pp. 25, 26). A simple method for detecting salicylic acid and boric acid in food and con- diments, E. LrDwiG {Ztsclw. Xahr. Untersuch. nnd Hyg. Waarcnlc, 10 {1896), Xo. 23, pp. 377-388). Method of transforming the casein of milk into albumose and peptone by means of bacteria, A. Berxsteix (riiarm. Ccutralhallc, 37 {1896), p. 31). Recognition of margarin by admixtures of starch, Soxhlet {Milch Ztg., 26 {1897), Xo. 2, pp. 17, IS). Apparatus for volumetric determination of fat in milk, A. W. Stokes {English patenf; Milch Ztg., 26 {1897), Xo. 3, p. 41, fig. i).— Milk is treated with amyl alcoliol and sulphuric acid iu a special tube, and the column of separated fat measured on the graduated stem. Investigations on the auilin colors in -white ^Arines and the distinction between these colors and caramel, A. d'Aguiar and W. da Silva {Compt. Rend., 124 {1897), Xo. 8, pp. 408-410). Contributions to the analysis of fats : VII. The gravimetric determination of the bromin value, S. J. Lewkowitscu {.Tour. Soc. Chem. Ltd., 15 {1896), Xo. 12, p. 859). — The author has reviewed some recent work on this subject by Hehner {Analyst, 1895, p. 50). A number of oils were tested, and with every one except olive and rajie- seed oils the Hiibl iodin value was widely diiierent from the iodin value calculated from the bromiu value determined gravimetrically. The drying of the bromiuated fats was found to be slow and tedious. The author concludes that the introduction of the gravimetric bromin process is out of the question. — a. m. peter. On the experimental methods employed in the examination of the products of starch-hydrolysis by diastase, H. T. Browxe, G. H. Morris, and J. H. Millar {Chem. Xeivs, 75 {1897), Xo. 1939, pp. 42, 43). BOTANY. 743 On the separation of laccase and tyrosinase found in certain mushrooms, (J. Bkktk.ojd (liiil. Mus. Hist. yaf. Pdris, 1S9G, So. 7, pp. SSS-SHO). "White wine vinegar, A. H. Allkx {Anahjnt, Jl {1S'J6), Oct., p. :?o4).— This vinegar is uiado from the wine of the white grapo and may be distinguished from distilled malt and diluted acetic acid vinegars from its containing considerable extractive matter and acid potassium tartrate. — 15. av. kilgokk. The standardizing of permanganate of potash, V. E. Pavi^oI'' (Jour. Soc. Phys, Chim. Jiimse, ;:'S, pp-C'l-SH; ahs. in Bui. Soc. Chim. Paris, 17-IS {1897), No. 2, pp. S9-94). On some new forms of gas generators, T. H. NoitTox {Jour. Amer. Chan. Soc. 18 (1S96), Xo. 12, pp. 10o7-lu61, figs. 3). — Three new forms of generator are descril)ed, one for hydrogen sulphid, etc., made of glazed earthenware and arranged so that the acid may bo rendered of uniform strength; another designed for the same pur- pose, which may be constructed in any Avell-equipped laboratory: and a third form, an automatic cHlorin generator, ihe figures are necessary to explain the construc- tion of each. — f. w. mdkse. Note on the durability of platinum-iridium vessels in laboratory use, T. Fair- ley {Jour. Soc. (hem. Ind., 15 {1S96), No. 12, p. 55';).— The author exhibited vessels made of alloy of platinum with 10 per cent of iridium, which had been in everyday use more than 14 years. If carefully used the ware does not crack, as has been some- times objected. — a. m. teter. The technique of physiological chemistry and pathology, A. Slos,se {Technique de chimic physiolo0,figs. 9). — The author has investigated the decomposition of carbon dioxid and liberation of oxygen as affected by a weak continuous electric current. Aquatic plants were so placed in water charged with carbon dioxid that a current of electricity could be passed through them and the oxygen bubbles observed, collected, and analyzed. The plants were placed in the sunlight so that the activity of the chlorophyll would not be impaired. The plants experimented with were Elodea canadensis, Myriopliyllum sjpicatum, and Potamogeton pcr/oUatus. The number of bubbles of oxygen observed was very appreciably increased when the plant Avas electrified, in some cases they were given off' too rapidly to be counted. Two possible objections are raised to the results, namely, the current may electrolyze the water, or it may decompose the carbon dioxid in it, and in either case oxygon would be given off". These are met with the statement that iu no case was tbe current sufficiently strong for the pur- pose, 0.0035 amperes being the strongest employed, and when the plant 15502— No. 9 2 748 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. was placed in water to wliicli was added a quantity of clilorolbrm suf- ficient to suspend the activity of the chlorophyll no gas was liberated, even when the current was passed through the plant. The conclusions drawn from the experiments show that a continuous electric current favors the assimilation of carbon in accelerating the decomposition of carbon dioxid in aquatic plants. There is evidently an optimum intensity of current beyond which the action of the elec- tricity may become injurious, but this varies with the individual plant and is not constant for a given species. Report of the botanist, F. L. Harvey {Maine Sfa. Rpt. 1895, pp. 89-H8). — A report is given of the more important investigations of the year. A list of about 20 species of weeds is enumerated and all are briefly described. Fungus diseases did but little harm during the year. An account is given of the second blooming of some pear trees, and various suggestions are offered as probable causes of this i)henomenon. The cause in the particular case under consideration was insect attacks, the foliage having been completely destroyed earlier in the season. Report of the botanical investigations for the year 1894-'95, Steffek and Schumann {Jahrh. agr. cliem. Vers. Stat. Halle, 1895, pp. 93-97). — During the year there were made iu the botanical laboratory 3,286 examinations of all kinds. Of this number 2,645 were seed tests, 591 were microscopical examinations of concentrated feeding stuffs, and 50 were bacteriological investigations of water. Of the seed tests, which increased over 600 samples from the previous year, 2,156 lots were beet seed, an increase in the number of tests of this particular kind of seed of 1,037 samples over the previous year. In the examination of feeding stuffs it was found that 37 per cent of the samples were adulterated witli gypsum, sulphate of barium, or inferior feeding stuffs. As a rule, the saniiiles of cotton-seed cake and meal were not adulterated. Of the samples of peanut meal, 8.82 per cent were falsified; of rape cake, 40.5 per cent; of flaxseed cake, 38.5 per cent; and of rye bran, 54.5 per cent of all samjiles were adulterated. Miscellaneous notes and descriptions of new species ( T. iS'. Dept. Agr., Divi- sion of Agrostology Bui. 4, pp. 36-39, pis. 2). — Descriptions are given of Paspaluvt scahriim Scrib., Ichanihiis lanceolatiia Scrib. & Smith, Triodia drinnmondii Scrib. & Kearney, FAymna rohustus Scrib. & Smith, E. iidermedius Scrib. & Smith, and E. angnsUts Trin., all of which are new except the last. The first 2 species are figured. Notes are given on the genus Chcetochloa Scrib., a new name proposed in place of Seturia Beauv., Chamaraphis Kuntze, and Ixopliorus Nash. The genus Ixophorus, F. LamsoN-Scribner ( ?7. S. Dept. Agr., Dirision of Agros- tology Bui. 4, pp. 5-7, pis. :?). — The author discusses the synonymy of the genus Ixophorus, which has been variously confused with Panicum and Setaria. He con- eiders that Ixophorus can not include all the species of Setaria. A revision of tlie genus is given iu which 2 species and 1 variety are included. On the structure and development of the fruit of Citrus vulgaris, M. Bier- mann (Arch. Pharm., 335 (1897), No. l,pp. 19-'3S). The osmotic activity of the cell in its pharmacological and toxicological rela- tions -with special reference to ammonia and alkaloids, E. Overton (Featschr. Naturf. Ges. Zurich, 1S9G, II, pp. 383-406). Concerning the periodical movement of leaves of Mimosa pudica in a dark room, L. .Jost (Bot. Ztg., 55 {1897), I, No. 2, pp. 17-48). Pathological hypertrophy of plant cells, M. Mali.iard {Per. gen. Bot., 9 {1897), No. 98, pp. SS-44, pis, 2), — Notes are given upon the pathological effect of galls on the plant cell. BOTANY. 749 Concerning vegetable oxidizing ferments, especially in Phytolacca decan- dra, E. Sciiak (Fcsisclir. Xp. IX, 224, and XIII, 429, figs. 23).— This work presents in a convenient form a summary of useful and scientific information about the plants met with in the botanic garden, museum, or field. It treats of morphology, classification, distribution, nat- ural history, economic botany, etc., giving such information as is usually reiinired which does not need the use of a compound microscope for its study. The principal part of the book consists of a dictionary iu which all the families and tho more 750 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. important genera of Howerinjf plants and ferns are aljiliabeticully arranged. The fig- ures, -which on account of the scope of the work are necessarily few in number, con- sist of floral diagrams of some of the larger families as well as of some groi^ps whose morphology is particularly difficult. The principles of morphology, classilication, and evolution are clearly presented, and the information is for the most part brought up to date. Much duplication is avoided by a system of cross references, making the book reasonably complete but not bulky. ZOOLOGY. Four common birds of the farm and garden, S. B. Judd ( IT. S. Dept. A(/r. Yearbook 1S95, pp. 405-418. fig.s. 1<)(J-10!J). — From an exami- uation of the stomachs of 213 catbirds, 15 mockingbirds, 121 brown thrashers, and 52 house wrens, the author concludes that the wren is most, and the catbird the least, beneficial, judging from the proportion of animal to vegetable matter eaten. The general character of the food of all but the mockingbird he tabulates as follows: Food of the catbird, brown thrasher, and house ivren. Catbird. Brown thrasher. House wren. Animal food : Ants CaterpiUars (Lepidoptera) Beetles (Coleopteia) Grasshoi)pers, etc. (Orthoptera) Bugs (Hemiptera) Spiders and thousand-legs, etc. (Arachnida and Myriapoda) . Miscellaneous animal food Per cent. 10 5 14 4 2 4 5 Per cent. 5 8 28 12 2 7 1 Per cent. i 16 22 25 12 14 5 Total animal food . Vegetable food: Cnltivated fruits Wild fruits Grain Miscellaneous vegetable food. Total vegetable food 44 The 15 mockingbirds were taken during autumn and winter, a time when the vegetable is in excess of the animal food. Their stomachs contained the skins and pulp of some fruit, seeds of sumach, smilax, black alder, poison ivy, Virginia creeper, and cedar; poke berry, mul- berry, and bayberry, and the remains of spiders, ants, cateri)illars, beetles, and grasshoppers. To protect against the depredations of the catbird upon cherries, strawberries, etc., it is suggested that mulberry trees be i)lanted nearby, since the birds seem to prefer the latter, lleports indicate that the catbird pillages fruit crops less along the seaboard where wild fruits are abundant than in the interior where such fruits are scarce; hence the growth of wild fruits should be encouraged. The proportion of animal food to vegetable food eaten by catbirds is shown to vary with the season. From observations in the field the birds seemed to devote themselves to berries rather than insects; but examination of the stomachs of 13 of the 15 birds watched showed that ZOOLOGY. 751 9 had eaten the orange and hhick k>ciist beetle. 18 of these being taken from one stomach. To determine whether wihl fruits are preferred to cultivated fruits and noxious inse<'ts to beneficial insects, a number of experiments were luade with captive birds. From these it appears that smootli caterpil- lars, maggots, ants, and spiders are relished; that beetles of the family LaiU])yridii' may be eaten under stress of hunger, and tliat hairy cater- pillars, butterflies, honeybees, slugs, sow l)ugs, and plant lice are not relished. Tbousaiul legs may l)e taken. Earthworms were not found at all, and the author suggests that these are not eaten by birds, including the robin, to such an extent as is commonly supposed. With respect to the brown thrasher, more or less similar conclusions are arrived at, but the proportion of animal to vegetable food is much greater, being 6o.o5 for the season as compared with 44.55 for the cat- bird for the same period. The bird's preferences are shown by the fact that of its animal food nearly one-half consists of beetles, one-tifth of grasslio])pers and crickets, a little less of caterpillars, and one-tenth of spiders and thousand legs. The vegetable food of the wren, as shown by the table, amounts to only 1 per cent, and the author suggests that this may have been taken by accident. The meadow lark and Baltimore oriole, F. E. L. Beal ( U. S. Depf. Agr. Yearhool- 1895, pp. 419-430, Jigs. 3).— The examination of 238 stomachs of the meadow lark, collected from 24 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and representing every month in the year, dem- onstrates that the bird is most emphatically insectivorous, although in the absence of its favorite food it is capable of subsisting upon a vege- table diet. This latter fact, the author points out, renders the bird more valuable than if it were exclusively insectivorous, since such a capability enables it to bridge over periods of scarcity in its favorite food by comparatively short migrations. The total amount of vegetable food for the entire year was found to be only 27 per cent, 11.1 per cent being corn, 1.8 wheat, and 1.4 per cent oats. The greatest amount of grain was eaten during January; and during the summer this was entirely replaced by insect food. Sprouting grain was not found in a single case. Much the greater portion of the vegetable diet consisted of weed seeds, and some of these were found throughout the year, except the month of May, the greatest aiuount being found in J)ecember, with one exception. Newly sown clover seed was found in only 6 stomachs out of the whole 238 examined. During harvest the grain eaten amounted to less than 1 per cent, and during November, when insect food usually begins to ftul, the grain amounted to only (i per cent, while weed seeds (Ambrosia, Channeraphis, etc.) reached as high as 15 i)er cent. For the entire year 71.7 per cent of the food was composed of insects and 26.5 vegetable material, the remaining 1.8 per cent being mineral 752 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. matter. In spite of the fact that insects are not readily found during March, December, and January, they formed 73.30 and 24 per cent, respectively, of the food of the meadow lark during these months. The general character of the animal food is shown by the following statement : Animal food of the meadow Jarl\ Per cent. Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets) 29. 0 Coleoptera: May beetles, 4; Rhycophora, 3 ; other forms represent- ing about 12 families, 3 ; CarabidtB, 7 18. 0 Lepidopterous larva- 8. 0 Hemiptera 4.0 Coleopterous larv;e 3. 0 Ants 3.0 Other liymenoptera (wasps, etc. ) 1.5 Spiders, my riapods, etc 5.0 Other animal matter 2 Total animal matter 71.7 In the case of the Baltimore oriole examination was made of 113 stomachs of birds collected from 12 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and ranging from Massachusetts to Kansas and North Dakota. All were, with one exception, taken during the months from April to August, inclusive. The following table shows the approximate Ijercentage of the principal animal food for the 6 months: Food of the Baltimore oriole. April. May. June. July. August. Ifovem- ber. 6 months. Per cent. 25 Per cent. 25 9 12 Per cent. 25 9 7 Per cent. 12 9 Per cent. Per cent. 81 Per cent. 34.0 Beetles : 4 5 3.5 Chrysomelida; 8 2 5 2 3.0 5 2.0 Carabidse .5 20 10 8 11.0 Ants (mostly Camponotus) . . . 10 4 4 10 4 6.0 Diptera 7 1 11 17 12 5 6.0 For the 6 months 83.4 per cent of the total food was animal and 16.6 per cent vegetable. Among the noteworthy facts are the proportion of caterpillars eaten, the taste shown for wireworms (Elaterida?) and the very small propor- tion of useful insects (Carabidje) destroyed. A still further remarkable fact is that among the Hemiptera are included scale lice and plant lice. The former were found in 8 and the latter in 4 stomachs. Our home birds, B. H. Warren {Pennsylvania Sta. Bpt. 1895, pp. 2M-265). — In this largely compiled report the author treats very popu- larly the more common birds of prey, sparrows, and warblers included among the more than 300 avian species and subspecies recorded either as resident or as transitory visitors in the State. The promiscuous METEOROLOGY. 753 sliootingf of birds of prey and the destruction of plnmngc birds is depre- cated. The wliolesale destruction of the English sparrow is not advised, for fear that many of the noninjurious birds may be mistaken for it. The payment of boimties for birds by the State is discounte- nanced, for it has been learned from correspondence that a large num- ber of birds condemned by numy farmers and sportsmen as injurious are not guilty of the harm attributed to them. Of the hawks, the sparrow hawk {Falco sparverius) is accredited with doing much good by destroying large numbers of field mice as well as great numbers of grasshoppers and other insects. The little harm the bird does in catching a few chickens during its breeding? season is believed to be more than recompensed by the good that it does. The food of owls consists largely of small quadrupeds, and, with the exception of the great horned owl and possibly also the barred owl, all the owls occurring within the State (some 10 species) are worthy of the fullest protection. The good that the warblers — some 40 of which occur in the State — might do if protected instead of being killed for their plumage is shown by citing the great loss from insect ravages in the United States in general, and in several States in particular. For Pennsylvania, the author thinks, a conservative estimate for such loss would be about $5,000,000. Investigations concerning the contents of the stomach of the rook (Corvus frugilegus), M. Hollri-nu {Vers. Shit. Pjianzniscliuiz, HaUe, 7 {1S95), pp. ,7-^6). Birds as protectors of orchards, E. H. Forbush {Ept. Ontario Ent. Soc. 1S95, pp. 53-62, figs. 5; repr. from The Museum). — Notes on the food of birds as determined by examinations of stomachs and otherwise. A preliminary list of the birds of Wayne County, Ohio, II. C. Ohekiiolser {Ohio Sta. Bui., tech.ser., vol. t, No. 4, pp. 243-354, figs. 31). — Descriptive aud critical notes are given on 183 species of birds known to inhabit the region iudicated, together with a hypothetical list of 82 others which are thonglit to be occasional visitors. METEOEOLOGY. Arizona -weather, E. M. Boggs {Arizona Sta. Bui. 20, pp. 3&). — Sum- maries of observations on temperature, i)ressure, precipitation, humidity, evaporation, sunshine, and wind movement in the vicinity of Tucson and at other points in the Territory' during about 4 years ending June, 1895, are tabulated and discussed, the data being compared Avith similar data obtained at imiwrtant cities in other parts of the United States. The most notable feature of the climate of Arizona is the deficiency of moisture. "Not only is the rainfall of southern Arizona very light, but it occurs on very few- days of the year. The winter montlis are csiJecially free from rainy days. . . . "The maximum winter temperatures of southern Arizona are very nearly the same as those of the Gulf States. Those of summer are considerably higher, but the [low] relative humidity shows unmistakably why the summer climate of Arizona is far less trying than that of the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. Thus the .June tem- perature of 107° at Tucson with relative humidity at only 22 i>er cent is far prefer- able to that of cities with temperatures of 85 to 95^ and humidity at 65 to 83 per cent. ... 754 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. " In common with the arid region in general, Arizona usually experiences a large daily range of temperature, [but this also] is mitigated to a great extent by the prevalent low degree of humidity." The percentage of sunshine (77) was higher at Tucson in 1893 than at any of the 24 stations reporting that element in that year. Meteorological observations, W. S. Sweetser {Pennsylvania ^ta. Ept. 1895, p2^. 2G8-272, 288-325). — The meteorological work of the sta- tion in 1895 was " merely a continuation of the work of preceding years, including the observations usually called for by the United States Weather Bureau, upon atmospheric conditions, and also observations upon soil temperature at various depths, and upon the daily duration of sunshine." (E. S. K., C, p. 701.) Monthly summaries of observa- tions are given in the body of the report, and the detailed record in an appendix. The annual summary is us follows : ' Summary of meieorological ohservations, 1S95. Barometer (inches) : Meau ■ Highest Lowest Temperature (° F.): Mean Highest Lowest Mean daily range Greatest daily range Least daily range Mean daily relative humidity (percent) Rainfall (inches) : Total - Greatest monthly Greatest daily .•■•.■ Number of days On which 0.01 in. or more of rain fell. Mean percentage of cloudiness Number of days on which cloudiness averaged 80 percent or more. Average hours of sunshine per day Wind (miles) : Total movement Maximum velocity Greatest daily movement Last frost in spring First Irost in fall Tear 1895. 30.306 30.796 (Feb. 24). 29.459 (Jan. 29). 50.6 96 (July 19) , — 4 (Dec. 4) , 18.3 36 (Feb. 17, Sept. 2). 3 (Apr. 11, Dee. 1).. 79.9 53.. 150. 30.281 35 (Feb. 11, Dec. 13) 492 (Feb. 22) Growing season (Apr. to Sept., 1895). 47.G. 90 (July 19) 18 (Apr. o). 20.2. 30 (Sept. 2). 7G.5. 42.1 28.01. 9.5 2.8 2.79 (May 20). 125 73. 74. 5 h. 37 m. May 29. Sept. 26. Principal periods of crop development. Wheat : Seeded, September 4-14, 1894. In bloom. May 31. Ripening, June 14-18. Cut, July 1-5. Oats: Seeded, April 10-19. Ripening, July 12-17. Cut, August 5-9. Corn: Planted, May 2-10. Cut, September 13-25. Corn — Continued. Husking begun, October 1. Potatoes : Planteil, April 25-May 3. Harvested, September 6-13. Grass : In bloom, June 13. Cut, June 18-28. Clover : Cut, June 14-16. Second crop in blooiu, August 2. SOILS. 755 Determination of atmospheric ozone on Mont Blanc, M. dk Tiiiekry {Compt. Bend, 12-1 {1SD7), \r>.9. pp.4i;0-4<;S). The gases of the atmosphere : The history of their discovery, W. Ramsay (London: MarmiUan ,\- Co., ISQi'i, pp. MO: miUd in Xatiirv,5.'i (/S:t7), Xo. 142S, p.435). Report of the International Meteorological Congress at Chicago, Illinois, August 21-24, 1893 ( T. ^. Dcpi. Ay O. L. Fassig, aud contains the followinf^ articles: The climate of the United States, by H. A. Hazen ; the, clinnite of th(! West Indies, by M. Hall; the climate of the City of Mexico, by M. Harcena; the climate of the British Islands, by C. Harding; the climate of the Netherlands, by M. Snellen; the climate of Denmark, by A. Paulsen; the climate of Norway, by H. Mohn; the devel- opment of climatology in the German Empire, by H. Meyer; reCereiues to sources of iuformaticn relative to the climate of Austria-Hungary, l)y J. TInnn; meteorology of the Italian Mountains, by V. Deuza; the climate of the Malay Archipelago, by J. P. Van der Stok; the climatology of southern and western Asia, l)y M. L. Dallas; historical sketch of instrumental meteorology, by E. Gerlaud; the relative merits of anemometers in general use, by W. H. Dines; relative merits of tlie various types of registering maximum and minimum thermometers, by D. Draper; on the construc- tion of registering air thermometers to rejjlace the ordinary alcohol and mercurial thermometers, by A. Sprung; observations of solar radiation — how best made and compiled, by O. Schwolson ; the studj^ of the upper atmosphere by means of balloons, by Y. Kremser; observations of atmosi)heric dust, by J. Aitken ; tlie study of the upper atmosphere from observations ou mountain stations, by J. Hann; the study of the upper atmosphere by means of cloud observations, by ^"ettiu ; cloud photography, by A. Angot. SOILS. Soil ferments important in agriculture, H. W. Wiley ( U. S, Dept. A(jr. Yearbook 1S95, pp. (i9-10:J, figs. 2). — A general discussion of the vital activity of the soil, especially the fixation of nitrogen by the soil, nitrification, and the assimilation of nitrogen by leguniinons plants in symbiosis with microorganisms, with suggestions regarding the appli- cation in farm operations of the scientific discoveries along these lines. The importance of further study in this direction, with a view to finding methods for securing "the greatest activity of the beneficial organisms and tlie least activity of the inimical ones," is pointed out. The i)rogress of nitrification in the soil is illustrated in a diagram showing the results of observations on a culture inoculated with organ- isms from an Alabama soil. "The diagram shows that no action took place during the first two weeks after seeding. During the third week there was a vigorous evolution of niti'ous acid, with only a trace of nitric acid. During the fourth week, attending a depression of tem- perature, the bacterial action was less active. During tlie fifth week both the nitrous and nitric f>rganisms were active, attending a considerable rise of temperature. After tlie lifth week the nitrous acid l)eg:in rapidly to disa])i)ear, being converted into nitric acid. The horizontal position, however, of the continuous line shows that no additional nitrous acid was formed from the ammonia during the sixth week. During tlni seventh week there was no activity either of the nitrons or the nitric ferment. During the eighth and ninth weeks both ferments were again active, the nitrous acid being converted into nitric as soon as formed." 'For notices of papers in parts 1 and 2 of this report see E. S. li., 5, p. lOiSG; G, pp. 507, 618, 639, 695 ; 7, pp. 280, 285. 756 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Another diagram shows "that there is in general quite a marked agreement between the rate of nitrification and the degree of temper- ature." Soil temperatures, W. S. Sweetser {Pennsylvania Sta. Ept. 1895, j/p. 373-387, 320-349). — A record is given of tridaily observ^ations dur- ing 1895 with thermometers at the surface and at depths of from 1 to 24 in. The following is a summary of observations during the growing season : Soil temperatures, April to September, 1895. Deptli. Highest. Lowest. Daily mean. Mean daily range. Greatest daily range. Deg. F. 101.0 (July 18).... 89.5 (JulVl) 83. 0 (July 19) Deg. F. 31 (Apr.3) 33 (Apr.3) 34 (Apr.3) 30 (Apr. 13) 38 (Apr. 12, 13) .... 39 (Apr. 1,13, 14) .. ^14.^- 64.5 63.3 64.0 63.2 61.4 Deg. F. 9.42 7.74 5.73 3.82 1.32 .25 Deg. F. 26.0 (July 10). 18.0 (June 21). 11.5 (June 21). 6in. deep 12 in. deep 24 in. deep 81.0 (July 19).... 77.0 (July 19).... 73.0 (July 21).... 8. 5 (June 21). 4.5 (June 10). 1.0 (Apr. 17). OrigiH, value, and reclamation of alkali lands, E. W. Hilgakd ( U. S. J)ept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 10S-l:22,pl. 1, Jiffs. 5). — A discussion of the occurrence, characteris- tics, and injurious effect of alkali soils; iufluence of irrigation on the movement of alkali; composition of alkali salts; the utilization and reclamation of alkali lands; and crops suitable for alkali lands. On the origin of liuniu.=, S. Bknni {Inaiuj. Diss. Giessen, 1896, pp. 32 ; Ztschr. Naturw., 69, pp. 145-176; Bot. Centhl., 69 {1897), No. 2-3, p. 88; Chem. Centbl., 1897, 1, No. 1, p. 31). ■ Humus in its relation to soil fertility, H. Snyder ( U. S. Bept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 131-142). — The nature and functions of humus are explained, and its influ- ence on temperature, tilth, permeability, absorptive power, weight, and color, and on water, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and pota.sh contents of the soil is discussed. The influence of various moist soils on the gro^wth of plants, Perseke {Fiihling'a landiv. Ztg., 46 {1897), No. 3, pp. 75-78). The exhaustion of an originally very fertile soil by a long-continued system of soil robbery, M. Maercker {.Jalirl. agr. chem. Vers. Siat., Halle, 1895, pp. 79-86). — An account is given of the system of farming without manure which has been prac- ticed on the Oldenburg marsh soils since 1659, condensed from Zusammensetzung und Diiiigerbediirfnis Oldenburger Marsclierden und deren Beivirtschaftung, M. Maercker. Paul Parey, 1896. The effect of shading the soil {Scl. Avier., 76 (1897), No. 7, p. 101). Cultivation of heavy soils, T. Hoppenstedt {Die Kultur dcs schweren Bodeiis. Berlin: Paul Parey, 1897). Reasons for cultivating the soil, M. Whitney ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 123-130). — How water enters the soil is explained and the principles and eft'ects on the water content of the soil of plowing, subsoiling, cultivating, uuderdraiuiug, and irrigation are discussed, the whole being summed up in the statement that " tlie object of all cultivation, in its broadest aspect is to maintain, under existing climatic conditions, a uniform and adequate supply of M'ater and air in soils adapted to dif- ferent classes of plants. This is the object alike of i)lowing, subsoiling, culMvation, underdrainage, and irrigation; they are all processes to be used iu maintaining suitable moisture conditions for the growth of crops." FERTILIZERS. 757 On the cultivation of the soil, Tancui^ {FiihUuij's hvidw. Zig., 46 (IS97), Xo.4, pp. DS-105). Moors and moor culture in Bavaria, A. Baumann {Foratl. iiaturiv. Ztxclir., 6, {1897), Xo. 2, pp. 69-89). FERTILIZERS. Some Pennsylvania peats, W. Frear and E. J. Haley {Penmyl- vania Std. Ept. 1S9'), pp. 11^-150). — The character, extent, and reclama- tion of peat bogs in the State are discussed and analyses of 13 sanij)les with directions for use as fertilizers are given. In the dry matter of the samples examined the ash ranged from 5.3 to 95.54 i)er cent, nitro- gen from 0.12 to 3.42 per cent, phosphoric acid from 0.10 to 0.89 per cent, potash from 0.05 to 1.96 per cent, lime from 0.88 to 11.62 per cent. "In general, it may be said that to buy the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash present in a ton of the dry matter of these peats, even buying the cheai^est materials rated good, would reqnire, without considering bagging, freight, and commission, from $2.50 to over $15. "These data show that we possess in this Htate many peat beds whose economical use is well worth the most careful consideration, despite the great cost of handling fertilizers so bulky and dilute. ... If the peat already contains considerable silt rich in lime, all it needs is to be thrown up in heaps to drain and allowed to stand exposed to the air, the longer if lower oxids of iron and sulphids are present. "If, however, as is commonly the case, lime salts are deticieut, the muck must be composted.' Directions are given for making alkaline composts and composts with stable manure. Investigations on the foraging po-wers of some agricultural plants for phosphoric acid, L. H. Merrill and W. H. Jordan [Maine Sta. Ept. 1895, pp. 10-18, pis. 5, Jig. 1). — This is a continuation of work begun in 1893 (E. S. E., 6, p. 700). The plan of the experiment was the same as that x^reviously followed. The phosphates compared were (1) acidulated Florida rock (14.97 per cent soluble phosphoric acid, 16.9 available, 3.7 insoluble); (2) crude, finely ground Florida rock (32.88 per cent phosphoric acid) ; and (3) phosphate of iron and alumina (49.58 per cent of phosphoric acid, 42.77 per cent soluble in ammonium citrate). "Eight species of plants were chosen, representing 4 orders: Peas and clover (Legumiuoste), turnips and ruta-bagas (Cruciferie), barley and corn (Graminea'), and tomatoes and potatoes (Solauacea"). "Ninety-six boxes were used, 12 for each kind of plant. In the first box the acid rock was used; in the second, the crude rock; in the third, the phosphate of iron and alumina; in the fourth, no phosphate. The next 4 boxes were treated in the same manner, and so on to the end. Thus it will be seen that for each kind of plant there were 3 boxes which received the same treatment. "Twenty grams of the crude Florida rock, containing 6.57(5 gm. total phosphoric acid, were used for a single box. Of the other phosphates such (juantitics were used as contained the same total amount, ().576 gm., of phosphoric acid. "To each box were also added 10 gin. sodium nitrate, 5 gm. potassium chlorid, aud 5 gm. magnesium suliihate. To the boxes containing the phosphate of iron 758 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. aiifl alumina and to those containing no phosphate were also added 10 gm. calcium snlphate. . . . "The experiments were continued through 3 periods. In the lirst period the bar. ley matured its heads and many of the pea pods were well iilled. The second period extended through the shortest days of the winter, when the lack of sun and the lower temperature were unfavorable to the best development of the corn and tomatoes. The third period was made shorter than the others, and none of the plants reached their lull development." The data, whicli are given iu tables and diagrams, are thus sum- marized : "(1) All the plants receiving the phosphate of irou and alumina show a gain over those receiving no phosphate. This effect was most marked with the corn, the yield being 3 times as great as where no phosphate was used. The weight of the tomato plants was doubled. The turuips and ruta-bagas responded vigorously, the crop of roots being doubled. On tlie other hand, the peas and potatoes gained luit little. " (2) All the plants receiving the insoluble Florida rock show a gain over those to which no phosjiate was given, the crops of clover, ruta-bagas, corn, tomatoes, and ruta-baga roots being more than doubled. The barley, potatoes, and especially the potato tubers, gained but little. All the plants showed a gain over those receiving the phosphate of iron and alumina except in the case of the barley, corn, turnip roots, and potato tul)ers. "(3) AH the plants were benefited by the addition of the acid rock. The barley and corn show the most marked increase, the yield being double that from the crude rock. Tlie ruta-bagas and the turnips derived nearly as much benefit from the crude rock as from the acid roclv. "The effect of the acid rock was very marked with all the plants grown, those receiving it in nearly all cases at once taking the lead and keeping it to the end. The plants were darker green in color, and the tubercles, which were developed on the roots of nearly all the leguminous plants, were larger and much more numerous. It was noticeable, however, that in some cases, especially with the clover, turnips, and rutabagas, the good eft'ects of the acid rock were more marked during the first few weeks of growth than at a later stage, when the roots had become more fully developed and had begun to forage for themselves. It would ai)pear that the young plants feed but little upon the insoluble phosphates; but that the organic acids present in the sap of the roots exert a solvent action upon the insoluble phosphates in the soil, gradually converting them into available forms." The results indicate that although the soluble phosphoric acid was the most available the iusolu))le forms were used to a considerable though varying extent by the different plants. The solubility in ammo- nium citrate was not a true measure of the availability of the phos- phoric acid to the i)lants. "The ability to appropriate water-insoluble phosphoric acid appeared with some species of plants to greatly increase as the plants developed." The fertilizing eflFect of the nitrogen of different green manuring plants, M. Maercker {Jahrh. agr. ehem. Vers. Stat. HaUe, 1895, pp. 40, 41). — Equal amounts (1.5 gm.) of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, Lathyrus sylvestris icagneri, alfalfa, red clover, and esparcet were applied to white mustard grown in pots on sandy soil. The effective- ness of the green manures was in the order given above and appeared FERTILIZERS. 759 to correspond with the proportion of amid nitrogen wliicli the plants contain, as sliown in the foHowing* table: I'roportion of total nilrot/nt in diffirenl rropn inform of amid compounds. Per cent. Lathi/rus Ki/Ircstrin wafiiieri 27. 2 AH:illa 23.1 Red clover 16. 4 P^sparcet 11.3 Experiments vrith various manure preservatives, M. Maercker and SCHULTZE {Jahrh. ayr. chem.Yers. Stat. Halle, 1895, pi). 32-40). — In these experiments, which were begun in 1894, 0.5 kg. of cow dung was niixed with 1.75 kg. of urine, the object being to make the ratio of urine nitrogen to dung nitrogen 3: 1. As an al)Sorbent 0.5 kg. of peat was used and the following preservatives were added in difi'erent cases: Superphosphate, potassium fluorid, sulphuric acid, and lime. The main results are given in the following table: Loss of nitrogen from manure in percentages of the original nitrogen. Manure and preservative used. Cow manure alone ■■•iiimii >.i Cow manure and urine JNlanure mixture (cow dunj^ 0.5 kg , urine 1.75 kg., and peat 0.5 kg.). . . Manure mixture witli 12.41 gm. Mujit'iiihospliates (Jib. per head daily). Manure mixture witli 49.04 gm. .sujicriplKisiiliatos (3 lbs. per head daily) Manure mixture with 1.037 gm. })otassium lluorid Manure mixture with 5.185 gm. potassium tiuorid Manure mixture with h per cent sulpliuric acid Manure mixture with 1 per cent sulphuric acid Manure mixture with 56.2 gm. caustic lime After 2 months. Per cent. 8.80 16.51 13.15 9.17 2.43 3.88 8. .39 1.80 3.70 14.85 After I After 5 1 10 months, months. Per cent. 26.30 47.10 20.11 18.59 7.89 6.95 12. 22 5.82 4.05 15. 13 ' Per cent. 30.63 55.69 17.92 12.70 .97 .21 4.82 1.48 3.79 11.55 It will be observed that the loss is large from both the dung and the mixture of dung and urine, amounting in the latter case to 55. G9 per cent in 10 months. The addition of peat had a very decided intiuence in reducing the loss. It is explained that the increase of nitrogen after 10 months in this case is due to the fact that the peat caused the manure to become acid and it absorbed nitrogen compounds from the air. Soluble phosphoric acid in the amounts usually applied in practice -^ lb. per head of cattle, adds nothing to the preservative elfect of the peat. The larger application, however, was very effective. The same was true of the Huorid and sulphuric acid. The behavior of the lime was somewhat remarkable. Immediately after it was added there was a very strong odor of ammonia, but the loss of nitrogen was not very great. After G days it amounted to 0.15 per cent of the original nitrogen, after 3(5 days to S.L'l) per cent, after 57 days 14.85 per cent, and after 101 days 15.13 per cent. During the 161 days the loss was thus less than from the mixture of dung, urine, and peat without preservatives. 760 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Vegetation experiments at tliis station have shown that the albumi- noid nitrogen of manure has very little fertilizing effect, wliile the nitro- gen in urine stands between ammonia salts and nitrates in this respect, and the amid nitrogen is about as effective as the nitrogen of the urine. For this reason the effect of the different methods of treatment upon the forms of nitrogen in the manure was studied in the exijeriments here reported. It was found that under the influence of putrefaction there was a decrease of albuminoid nitrogen and an increase of amid nitrogen in every case during the first IG days, but that thereafter under the influence of microorganisms there was generally an increase of albumi- noid nitrogen, this increase being especially marked in case of the lot to which lime had been applied. The lime, therefore, in spite of its pre- servative effect, reduced the fertilizing value of the nitrogen of the manure. It favored the production of ammonia and probably as a con- sequence nitrification. The opposite results in these respects were pro- duced by the use of sulphuric acid, the larger application of which preserved the manure about in its original condition as regards ammo- niacal and nitric nitrogen. The i)hosphoric acid produced an effect intermediate between that of the lime and the sulphuric acid. Although the largest amounts of nitric nitrogen were not produced in the cases of the last two preservatives, the largest amount of readily available nitro- gen was present in the manure treated with them, as shown by analysis and by vegetation experiments with white mustard. The more impor- tant data of these experiments are given in the following table : Effectiveness of nitrogen in manure treated in different ways. Kind of manure and. treatment. Amount of total nitrogen theoret- ically available. Relative effect- iveness. Per cent. 100. 00 15.08 38.19 53.53 54.46 59.90 100.0 6.5 20.4 48.6 51.7 Manure treated with lime 36.1 It appears from these experiments that when manure is not properly preserved a considerable part of the nitrogen is lost and the theoretical effect of that wliich remains is not obtained. It is advisable, therefore, when preservatives are employed to use them liberally. The loss of nitrogen in barnyard manure in the heap, M. Maercker {Jahrh. agr, eliem. Vers. Stat. Halle, 189 5 ^ pp. 77, 78).— In a sample of manure kept in a barrel witli a loose cover for 2^ months, the percentage of total nitrogen in albuminoid form increased from 59.73 to 88.81, and the nitrogen in other forms decreased from 40.27 to 11.19 per cent. In manure stored in heaps in the ordinary FERTILIZERS. 761 way the available nitrogen decreased in 2i months from 21.56 to 5.94 per cent. Pot experiments with these two manures on white mustard grown on sandy loam soils showed that the fertilizing effect in case of the first was very small, and in case of the second practically nil. Experiments on the fertilizing effect of barnyard manure and of its different constituents, ^I. jMaercker {Jahrh. arfr. chem. Vers. Stat. Halle, ls95, pp. ■11-')G). — Experiments on oats grown on sandy loam and on white mustard grown on sandy soil in pots to determine the influence of various kinds of dung upon the fertilizing effect of the nitrogren of nitrate of soda and urine are reported in detail. The results show that the dung contains microorganisms which rapidly destroy nitric and other available forms of nitrogen, so that it often happens that soils fertilized with such manure will produce less than unfertilized soil. The action of different kinds of dung in this respect is very variable. The reducing effect of horse dung was greatest and of sheep dung the smallest of the different kinds tested. Experiments on white mustard in which nitrate of soda was applied at the same time with horse dung and 2 and 4 weeks after show that the reducing effect of the dung upon nitric nitrogen probably reaches the minimum in about 5 weeks, although it does not entirely disappear within 3 or 4 months. The action of the different constituents of barnyard manure (urine, dung, and straw), alone and in mixtures, M. Maercker {Jahrh. agr. chem. Vers. Stat. Halle, 1895, pp. 69-77). — Cattle dung and urine and wheat straw sex)arately and combined were compared, in pot experiments, with nitrate of soda and with no manure on oats, followed by white mustard grown on a sandy loam soil and on white mustard grown on a sandy soil. The data are tabulated and discussed at some length. The results clearly indicate that the addition of straw reduces the effectiveness of the manure, the injurious effect being greater the larger the amount of straw added. The use of excessive amounts of straw as litter is condemned on the ground that it not only lowers the effectiveness of the nitrogen of the manure, but also iu juriously affects that of the soil and of other nitrogenous fertilizers that may be applied with it. Tests on oats on sandy soil iu 1894 and rye on loam in 1894-'95 led to the conclusion that the after effect of the difficultly soluble nitrogen of manure is comparatively very small. Experiments on the fertilizing effect of phosphoric acid and nitrogen in peat and excrement mixture, and in poudrette, M. Maercker, H. Steffek, et al. {Jahrh. a). — This is a continuation of experiments carried on since 1883 on 12 twentieth-acre phats (E, S. K., 3, p. 4G1). They ''were made ui)on the ordinary four- course rotation of this section, viz, wheat, grass, corn, and oats, the fer- tilizers being applied to the wheat and corn, and were preceded by an unmanured oat crop upon all the plats in 1883 for the purpose of testing the uniformity of the soil." The results are tabulated in detail and may be summarized as follows: " Tr/(e«/.— Taking the average for the 3 years, 1884, 1888, and 1892, insoluble phos- phoric acid in tlie lorni of ground hone, was first in the yield of grain and straw, insoluble phosphoric acid in the form of ground South Carolina rock second in grain and straw, uo phosphoric acid third in giain and fifth in straw, reverted phosphoric acid in the form of dissolved boneblack treated with an equal weight of lime fourth in grain and third in straw, and soluble phosphoric acid in the form of dissolved boneblack iifth in grain and fourth in straw. "(IroHs. — Taking the average for the 3 years, 1885, 1889, and 1893, inscduble phos- phoric acid (ground bone) was first, reverted second, soluble third, and insoluble (South Carolina rock) fourth. "Cum. — Taking the average for the 3 years, 1886, 1890, and 1894, insoluble phos- phoric acid (ground l)one) was first in the yield of grain and stover, reverted second in grain and third in stover, soluble third in grain and second in stover, and insolu- ble (South Carolina rock) fourth in grain and stover. " Oats. — Taking the average for the 3 years, 1887, 1891, and 1895, insoluble phos- phoric acid (ground bone) was first in the yield of grain and straw and weight i)er bushel, insoluble (South Carolina rock) second in grain and straw and fourth in weight per bushel, reverted third in grain, fourth in straV, and second in weight per bushel, no phosphoric acid fourth in grain and fifth in straw and weight per bushel, soluble fifth in grain and third in straw and weight per bushel.'' The conclusions reached are as follows: "(1) Soluble phosphoric acid is too expensive to be used by farmers having a lime- stone soil similar to the one on which this experiment was made, since fully as good results can be secured by the use of the much cheaper insoluble form. "(2) Insoluble i)hosphoric acid in the form of ground bone is slightly superior to that in the form of South Carolina rock. "(3) Corn is benefited more by the application of phosphoric acid than wheat, oats, or grass.' Experiments on the effectiveness of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid in Thomas slag, M. Maercker {Jahrh. ap- 24-30). — Thomas slags containing different amounts of citrate soluble phosphoric acid were compared with water-soluble phos- phoric acid on alfalfa and oats, followed by white mustard grown on sandy soil in ])ots. The results (;learly indicate that the citrate solu- bility is a true index of the effectiveness of the phosphoric at;id of the slag. looOL'— No. 0 3 764 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. If the effectiveness of water-soluble phosphoric acid be taken as 100, that of the citrate- soluble phosphoric acid in case of alfalfa was 90.9 and in case of oats 82.4. The after effect of the slag on white mustard was much greater than that of the water-soluble phosphoric acid, being as 151.0:100. The after effect of the slag was greater the higher the percentage of citrate-soluble phosphoric acid which it contained. Slags fi"om which the citrate-soluble phosphoric acid had been removed were com^iared in the same manner. The effect on the first crop of oats was practically insignificant, but the after effect on the fol- lowing crop of mustard was more marked, although much inferior to that of slags containing citrate-soluble i)hosphoric acid, Thomas slag, in which 12.8 per cent of phosphoric acid was citrate soluble, was comi)ared on alfalfa and oats, followed by mustard with the same slag so treated, by fusion with quartz, that 89.2 per cent of its phosphoric acid had been rendered citrate soluble. The resalts show clearly that not only the citrate solubility, but to an equal degree the fertilizing effect of the phosphoric acid had been increased by fusion with quartz. The effectiveness of partially dissolved bone meal, M. Maercker {Jahrh. agr. chem. Vers. Stat. Halle, 1895, i)p. 22, 23). — To steamed bone meal was added the amount of sulphuric acid which it was calculated would convert the phosphate into dicalcium plios})hate. The prepara- tion, however, contained 3.5 per cent of water-soluble phosphoric acid and 19.5 jier cent of total phosphoric acid, a part of the phosphoric acid remaining in the tricalcium form. This material was compared with Thomas slag on oats, white mustard, and alfalfa, grown in pots on sandy soil. On the oats the 2 phosphates produced practically iden- tical results. On mustard following oats the prepared bone meal was much more effective* than the Thomas slag, although the amount of phosphoric acid utilized by the crop in each case was practically iden- tical. In the case of alfalfa the prepared bone meal was slightly more effective in increasing the yield and was utilized to a much greater extent than the Thomas slag. Vegetation experiments on the fertilizing effect of various pot- ash salts, M. Maercker {Jahrh. agr. chem. Yerfi. Stat. Halle, 181)5, pp. 8-15). — The fertilizing effect of kaiuit, carnallit, hartsalz (Schonit),^ carbonate of potash, sodium chlorid, and magnesium chlorid, applied at rates of 445 and 890 lbs. per acre, was tested on alfalfa, white mustard, and potatoes, grown in pots containing light sandy soils. In the case of alfalfa, kainit and carnallit produced about the same effect. The hartsalz gave a much larger increase in yield than the other Stassfurt potash salts used, although it proved inferior in this respect to the potassium carbonate.. ' This is a salt similar to sylvinit, and contained potash, 14.91 per cent; lime, 3 per cent; magnesia, 6.62 per cent; sulphuric acid, 15.11 per cent; and chlorin, 39.33 per cent. FERTILIZERS. 765 Experiments in which 445 lbs. of sodium carbonate ])er acre was applied indicated that a larj;e part of the favorable effect of the potas- sium carbonate was due to its alkalinity. Sodium chlorid applied in amounts of 81)0 lbs. i)er acre proved poisonous; when applied in amounts of 445 lbs. it produced considerable increase in yield. Magnesium chlorid applied at rates of 445 and 890 lbs. per acre not only decidedly increased the yield, but also increased the amount of potash taken up by the crop. The sodium chlorid did not produce the latter effect. Consequently the sodium salt may b(^ considered to a certain extent as a conserver of potash, while the magnesium salt may be useful in rendering available the insoluble potash compounds of the soil. In case of the mustard the results were much the same as with alfalfa, except that the use of sodium carbonate resulted in a decided decrease in yield, and the sodium and magnesium chlorids also proved injurious. As regards the yield of potatoes, the hartsalz produced better results than kainit and carnallit, although the percentage of starch in the potatoes was larger in the case of kainit than with the other salts. The total amount of starch produced in case of the hartsalz and carnallit, however, was much greater than with the kainit. Comparative tests were made of pure potassium chlorid and potas- sium sulphate. Both salts produced a larger yield than any of the Stassfurt salts, but the percentage of starch in the tubers was no higher. Potatoes fertilized with potassium chlorid contained 15.(59 per cent of starch, while those fertilized with potassium sulphate con- tained 16.71 per cent. Experiments with various potash salts on a mixture of grasses and leguminous plants (clover) on a light sandy soil, M. Maercker (Jahrh. agr. cliem. Vers. Stat. Halle, 1895, j^P- 16-21). — This is an account of a continuation of experiments begun in 1893. The potash salts used were kainit, carnallit, sylvinit, potash and magnesia sulphate, and a mixture of carnallit and potassium chlorid. These were applied at rates of 533.G and 801. G lbs. per acre, and proved about equally effective in increasing the yield. In each case the potash appeared to be largely exhausted by the first cutting. This was true in case of both the light and heavy applications. The excess of potash in case of the latter appeared to be utilized in the production of a luxuri- ant growth. The results indicate that it is a mistake to suppose that any considerable amount of the potash applied to one crop of hay is left in the soil for succeeding crops. In order, therefore, to get the best result apjdications of potash should be nuide each season. Experiments on the influence of crude potash salts upon the consumption of water by plants, ^I. Mai;rcker [Jahrh. ai/r. chcm. Vers. Stilt. Jlalle, IS!)r>, ;>/>. ir>, /6).— Kainit, (tarnallit, and common salt applied at rates of 890 and 1,780 lbs. per acre were compared on whit^ 766 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. mustard grown iu pots. In one series of experiments the amount of water in tlie pots was kept constantly at IS per cent (00 per cent of the total water capacity of the soil). Taking the water cousumi)tion of the plants on tlie soil without application of potash as 100, that on the soil receiving 890 lbs. of kainit i)er acre was 90.5; 1,780 lbs. of kainit, 88.4; 1,780 lbs. of carnallit, 91.9 ; 1,780 lbs. of common salt, 61.2. With 8 per cent of water in the soil (27 per cent of the total water capacity) the figures were as follows: Without potash, 100; with 890 lbs. of kainit, 77.1; 1,780 lbs. of kainit, 38.2; 1,780 lbs. of carnallit, 68.9; 1,780 lbs. of salt, 55. It appears that the potash salts have a decided inlluence in conserv- ing the moisture of the soil, which may be of great importance in a dry season. The real value of Natural Plant Food, L. L. Van 8lykk {Nno York State Sta. Bid. 108, n. ser., pp. 225-230).— "Qh&mutal analysis iit tliis station shows that the materials [composiug this substance] are mostly in iinavailahle forms as plant food. An aver- age of 3 samples shows the following composition: Total phosphoric acid, 22.21 per cent; insoluble phosphoric acid, 20.81 percent; aA^ailablo phosphoric acid, 1.40 per cent; potash soluble in water, 0.13 per cent. ''Natural Plant Food is really a mixture of some rock phosphate (probably Flor- ida soft phosphate) with glaucouite, a mineral containing potash in an insoluble form, commonly known as ' green sand marl.' "The selling price of Natural Plant Food varies usually from $25 to $28 a ton; its real agricultural value as iilaut food is probably below $10 a ton at a lil)eral estimate." Analyses of commercial fertilizers, L. L. Vax Slyke {New York State Sia. Bui. 107, n.ser., pp. 163-223). — Thisb-illetin includes explanations of terms used in stating the results of analyses of fertilizers, notes on valuation, a comparison of selling jiriccs and commercial valuations, a list of manufacturers complying with the provision of the fertilizer law, and analyses of 313 samples of fertilizers examined during the spring of 1896. "Of the 313 diiferent brands collected, 139 were below the manufacturer's guaran- ty-analysis in one or more constituents, in amounts varying from 0.03 to 4.41 per cent. "The amount of nitrogen was below the guaranty-anal j'sis of the mauufacturer in 40 brands, the deficiency varying from 0.03 to 0.93 jier cent and averaging 0.28 per cent. In 20 of the 40 brands, the deficiency was not greater than 0.25 per cent; in 14 brands, it was over 0.25 and below 0.50 per cent; in (5 brands, it was over 0.50 and below 1 per cent. "The amount of phosphoric acid was below the manufacturer's guaranty-analysis in 84 brands, the deficiency varying i'rom 0.04 to 4.11 per cent and averaging 0.77 per cent. In 26 of the 84 brands, the deficiency was less than 0.25 per cent; in 13 cases, it was above 0.25 and below 0.50 per cent ; in 26 brands, it was above 0.50 and below 1 per cent; in 13 brands, the deficiency was above 1 and below 2 per cent; iu 2 brands, it was above 2 and below 3 per cent; iu 2 brands, it was above 3 and below 4 per cent ; and in 2 brands, it Avas above 4 and below 5 per cent. "The amount of potash was below the manufacturer's guaranty-analysis in 57 different brands, the deficiency varying from 0.04 to 2.91 per cent and averaging 0.56 per cent. In 21 of the 57 brands, the deficiency was below 0.25 per cent; in 13 brands, it was above 0.25 and below 0.50 jier cent; iu 13 brands, it was above 0.50 and below 1 per cent; in 9 brand.s, the deficiency was above 1 and below 2 per cent ; and in 1 brand, it was above 2 and l)elow 3 per cent. "The retail selling price of the brands collected varied from $6 to $65 a ton, and FERTILIZERS. 767 averaged $28.90. The retail cost of the sejiiirate inoroflieiits unmixed was $23.37, or $5.59 h'ss thau tho selling price." Home-mixing of fertilizers, K. 1'.. NOouiikks (Jmer. Af/r. (mUhUe ed.), 59 {1897), Feb. IS, i>. IDi-.). The fertilizing value of oil cakes, L. Mat.pkaix (Auti. Af/rou., 2.^ {1897), Xo. 1, 2)p. 28-4,^). Observations on the injurious effects of concentrated mineral manures, Klkix (/>(■)•. //. Tlititif/k. (h-oxfih. Bad. J.tindw. Itot. rersHvhsatist., 189(1; abs. in fng. Af/r., 7, Xo. 6\ p. :.'4J). Industrial by-products used as fertilizers, A. Larbalktriek {Les re'sidu.'i iitdus- Irii'ls emi>loy('s coDime ciif/rdis. Paris: }f(tsnon ct ('U'.,iyp. 100). A phosphate deposit in Juniata County, Pennsylvania (J'eiiiixi/lvania Sta. Rpt. 189.5, pp. 130-117, pi. 1. Jifi. 1).—A reprint of I'.ulletin 34 of the station (E. S. R., 8, p. 37). Potassium and ammonium carnallits containing bromin, A. de Schi'LTEN (Jlnl. Soc. ('him. Paris, 17-18 (1897), Xo. 3, pp. 107-169). Why should Tliomas slag be purchased on guaranty of its citrate solubility ? B. Tac-ke {Landw. Wochenhl. ScMes. Hoist., 47 {1897), No. 4, pp. 67-70). Experiments on the fertilizing effect of nitrogen of bone meal and of stron- tium solution, M. Maehcker {Jaltrh. agr. chem. Vers. Stat. Halle, 1895, pp. 21, 23). — A brief report is given of comparative tests of bone meal and strontium solution, a by-product obtained in the pnritication of sugar-beet j uice. Taking the fertilizing effect of nitrate of soda as 100, that of the bone meal was 64 to 67.9, and of the strontium solution 90.8 to 95.3. Composition of -wood ashes sold in Pennsylvania, W. Fkear (Pennsi/lrania Sta. I!pt. 1895, pp. 224-226). — Analyses of 15 samples of ashes are tabulated and discussed. Analysis of commercial fertilizers, W. C. Stubbs {Louisiana Stas. Hid. 45, 2d ser., pp. 56-80). — This includes the text of the State fertilizer law, a discussion of the character of the fertilizers sold in Southern markets and of those adapted to Loui- siana soils, a list of guarantied analyses, notes on valuation, and tabulated analyses of 96 samples of fertilizing materials, including acid phosphate, bone, tankage, cotton- seed meal, dried blood, and mixed fertilizers. A discussion of certain commercial articles: Fertilizers, W. H. Jordan {Maine Sta. Fqyt. 1895, pp. 132-135).— X reprint of Bulletin 19 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 111). Inspection of fertilizers in Maine, W. H. Jordan, J. M. Bartlett, and L. II. Merrill {Maine Sta. Ept. 1895, pp. 131-132). — A reprint from Bulletin 18 of the station (E. S. R., 7,p. 111). Inspection of fertilizers, W. H. Jordan, J. M. Bartlett, and L. H. Merrill {Maine Sta. J!pt. 1895, pp. 142-140).— k reprint of Bulletin 22 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 940), and text of the State fertilizer law. Analyses of fertilizers, C. A. G(je.ssmann {Massachuselts Hatch Sta. Bui. 42, pp.31). — The text of the State fertilizer law approved April 17, 1896, is given, with tabulated analyses of 153 samples of fertilizing materials, including ashes, muck, barnyard manure, bone, kainit, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, double manure salt, nitrate of soda, sulph.ate of ammonia, dried bloo kernels every 24 in. in 3-foot rows; and with the smaller variety from 2 kernels each 1) in. The average yield of the 4 plats given shallow cultivation was 18 per cent greater than of the .> plats given deep cultivation. Cultivation of plats 3 times a week gave slightly larger yields than did weekly culti- vation, but the increase was not equal to the extra cost. Determinations of moisture in corn grown in these tests and har- vested and sampled at ditterent dates were made. Corn husked from standing stalks averaged 23 per cent, and that from stalks cut August 1 and sampled September 12 averaged 12.5 -per cent. When well dried, 08 lbs. of ear corn of any of the better varieties gave 56 lbs. of shelled corn. The profitable amount of seed per acre for corn, W. H. Jordan {Maine Sta. Bpt. 1895^ pp. 19, 20), — This is in continuation of experi- ments described in the Annual Eeportof the station for 1894 (E. S. II., 7, p. 856). In 1895 an acre tract of land received an application of 10 two-horse loads of barnyard manure and 750 lbs. of commercial ferti- lizer, and was divided into 4 duplicate series of 3 plats each. In each series plats were planted with kernels 0, 9, and 12 in. apart. The corn was cut for silage and samples analyzed. Tables show the composi- tion of the crop of 1895, and yields of 1894 and 1895. "The results so far reached, iudicate thatthe amountof seed may vary greatly with- out materially affecting the yield of dry matter in the mature crop. The average yield jier acre of dry matter for the 2 seasons, with the several rates of seeding, are as follows: Kernels G in. apart, 5,246 ll.s. ; 9 in., 5,390 lbs. ; 12 in., 4,848 lbs. "There appears so far to be only a small difference between 6 in. and 9 in. seeding, whereas the yield from the 12 in. was materially smaller l)oth years. "It should I)e noted that the corn from the 9 in. and 12 in. seeding was eared more Batisfactorilj' than that from the 6 in. " White or yellow varieties of corn, V.. H. Hess {Pennsylvania Sta. Rpf. 181)5, pp. Ill, ii.2).— The results derived from a compilation of analyses of white and yellow varieties of corn are given. The author concludes that the difference does not in any case exceed \ per cent, and that the composition does not vary enough to \w. of any significance. 774 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. A report on the culture of hemp and jute in the United States, C. E.. Dodge {U. iS. Dcpi. Af/r., Fiber hirestigatioii.s Rpi. '^,2)p- lrJ,])ls. 3, Jigs. 4). — The author says: " The demand during the past 2 years for information regarding th(^ hest practices for the successful growth of hemp and jute in the United States, as Avell as the importance of including the accounts of the cultivation of these textiles in the Fiber series of Department ])ulilications, make the preparation of this report imperative. Hemp is already produced in limited (juanlities in portions of our country, but its cultivation should be extended. Jute is not produced within our borders. It is a plant of easy growth, however, and i f the fiber can be jjroduced to compete with the India product, such an industry would bring to the South a portion, at least, of the many millions of dollars now paid out annually for the imported article." The following points relative to hem]) are discussed: History of the plant and range of culture; statistics of production in the United States; cultivation, harvesting, and preparing the fiber; recent ex^ieri- ments in the South; experiments in California; and the uses of hemp. Introductory remarks to the section on jute note the present demand by manufacturers in this country for Indian jute, and emi)hasize the perfect adaptation of the crop to cultural conditions of the southern section of the United States and its large yield of fiber. The other, topics discussed are history of the industry; the different kinds of jute; the fiber and its uses; culture in India; culture in the United States; extraction of the fiber, including a discussion of the machine question; and value of the crop. " [The author hopes] that careful experiments in this culture will be attempted and efforts made to extract the fiber, in order that the question of economical production of jute in the United States may be practically settled. Past experimentation has demonstrated that the plants will grow luxuriantly iu many portions of the South, and that the bark contains a fine quality of fiber. To ascertain the cost of growing the crop and extracting and baling the fiber ready for the market is the only problem to be worked out." The renewing of worn-out native prairie pastures, T. A.Wil- liams ( U. 8. ]>ept. Agr.j .Division of Agrostology Cire. -i, jyp. 4). — The author ascribes the frequent worn-out and weedy appearance of prairie pastures to drought and overstocking. The latter should be avoided, the cattle being fed green corn, sorghum, or other soiling crops when the pasture is becoming scant. By a few weeks' care the loss of the pasture for one or two seasons may be prevented. Cultivation improves the more desirable native grasses, and a thor- ough harrowing to break up the soil crust and let in light and air and water will frequently be all that is needed to enable the better grasses to crowd out the weeds and restore the pasture. A moderate applica- tion of fine, well-rotted manure is an excellent restorative. When spots of the pasture have been killed out it is advisable to sow in them seeds of some of the tame grasses, though the author thinks it hardly pos- sible in this way to make over a native pasture into a tame one. Kentucky blue grass, sheep's fescue, red fescue, and Canadian blue grass can be used to advantage on upland spots, and timothy, fowl meadow grass, red top, meadow fescue, and alsike on lowland. FIELD CROPS. 775 Influence of chemical fertilizers on the product of natural and artificial meadows, !•:. Zachakewicz {Proi one $38. 60 21.46 7.23 19.30 Weight Uetvalue ^^17J;4- of crop. of crop. ! ^^,^0^ plat. Eg. 10, 421 10, 99G 9,118 7,217 6,171 $102. 18 127.10 115.81 78.19 83.40 43.70 32.41 —5.21 A 2-year test of the effect of a complete fertilizer including plaster as compared with no fertilizer was made upon land which had been in meadow for 30 years. The average yields per hectare are for the unma- nured plat 9,662 kg., for the manured plat 12,81(J kg., a difference in favor of the fertilizer of 3,15-1 kg., and a net gain, at the same price for hay as in the x)recediiig experiment, of $19.01 per hectare. A similar test upon alfalfa gave a profit of $21.81 per hectare from the use of a mixed mineral fertilizer containing no nitrogen. Oats, test of varieties {rennsylvania l^ta. Bpt. lS!)r>^pp. 240,341).— Kineteen varieties of oats were grown in duplicate twentieth-acre plats. The oats were sown with a drill April 17 and 19 at the rate of 2 bu. per acre. The yields of grain and straw for 1895 of 19 varieties and the average for 0 years of 15 varieties are tabulated. In 1895 the largest yields were given by -laune des Flanders, Improved American, German, Early Eussian, Scottish Chief, and Henderson Clydesdale: the largest average yields for the 0 years were given by Japan, Imi)roved American, Baltic White, German, and Scottish Chief. A chemical study of the Irish potato, T. L. AVatson ( Virginia Sta. Btih. -j-j, i)p. 99- J Jo; r,(;, pp. IIT-J jJ).—T\ni analyses were of the crops of .1890 and 1892, the aim being to compare northern and southern- grown varieties. The data discussed and shown in tables relate to the water, dry matter, specific gravity, and starch content of 12 varie- ties grown in Virginia, 7 in Connecticut, and 3 in Michigan, analyzed 776 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. iu 1891; and of 8 grown iu Virginia, 4 in Connecticut, 7 iu Michigan, 10 in New York, and 1 in Kansas, analyzed in 1893; the dry matter otlier than starch of 1 varieties grown iu Virginia, 3 in Couuecticut, and 3 in Michigan, crops of both years, and tlie ash constituents of varieties analyzed in 1893. In the second bulletin comparisons of these data are made for the several States and for difierent sections; maxima and minima and averages of ingredients in all varieties from the sev- eral States are given, and additional ash analyses tabulated of 20 varieties grown in 1893 in other States. "The data accuuiuliited are yet iiisufficieut to make very positive statements, inas- mucli as it will require the cultivation of the tuber iu the several States under as nearly the same conditions as possible, with the study of the soil from a mechanical and chemical standpoint, and also a continuation of the work througli a series of years before definite conclusions can be reached.'" The following table shows the variation which may exist in the same variety grown iu different parts of the same State: Variation in the same variety of potatoes (jroivn in different purtfi of Michiyan in 1S93. Variety. Water. Dry matter. starch. Fer cent. Per cent. Per cent. 81.05 18.95 12.38 79.19 20.81 15.31 80.12 19.88 13.89 78.82 21.18 14.00 81.65 18.35 U.67 80.24 19.76 14.34 Specific gravity. Early Rose grown at Lansing Early Rose grown at Grand Rapids Average Beauty of Hebron Do Average 1. 070 1.086 1.078 1.071 1.084 1.078 From the tabulated starch content of the varieties from different States it appears that the Kansas-grown sample ot Triumph contained but 8.15 jjer cent, while Beauty of Hebron from Massachusetts con- tained 20.89 per cent, and that Dakota Red grown in Virginia contained 9.75 per cent, while growu iu Canada it contained 14.29 per cent. The averages for the several varieties including compiled analyses from Kentucky, Colorado, and Canada are: Beauty of Hebron 17.13 per cent, Charles Downing 10.32, Pearl of Savoy 16.05, Climax 15.59, Early Rose 15.40, Green Mountain 15.24, Early Ohio 15.03, Burbank 14.69, Sunrise 14.54, Minister 14.26, Triumph 13.96, and Dakota Red 12.40. So far as the author's work has gone he believes the following con- clusions may be drawn: "(1) The ratio . . . existing between the specific gravity and starch is not a fixed one. . . . Connecticut shows a lower specific gravity and a higher percentage of starch by about 2 per cent than the Virginia-grown varieties. "(2) The value of the potato . . . based upon the amount of starch contained is very nearly the same . . . for the 3 districts, northern, western, and southern. The difference is slightly in favor of the northern-grown varieties, the southern varieties being slightly more valuable than the western. '■(3) The starch content varies for variety and locality. "(4) Some varieties require more plant food thau others, other conditions being the same," FIELD CROPS. 777 Potatoes, test of varieties, Vj. H. IlTS.iis{Pennfiylranin Sfa. Rpt.1895, pp. 4?i7-^^/'o).— Twenty-three Viirieties of potatoes were tested on plats manured with 18 tons of barnyard manure per acre. IvTo seed tubers were i)lanted whole. The yields for 189;") and the averages for 2 years are tabulated. The larjj^est yields were given by Kew liovee Seedling, Early Everett, New (Jueen, l^'reenian, Pennsylvania Best, and Carman Ko. 1. Experiments -with nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash upon sugar beets, with notes upon top-dressing, Schneidewint) and MuLLEK {Jalirb. (( the barnyard manure plats than from those receiving a complete commercial fertilizer, the difference amounting to about 19 per cent. "In the case of oats the reverse is true. The largest relative yield of straw is from the barnyard-manure plats, which show aliout 10 per cent more in proportion to the grain than do the complete chemical manures. "Sulphate of ammonia shows a heavier yield of straw than does either nitrate of 8oda or dried blood. "Averaging the yields I'rom all sources of nitrogen, excepting iu the yard manure, a slight increase in the straw yield is shown as the amount of nitrogen applied increases. "With wheat the largest relative yield of straw is obtained from the plats receiv- ing the complete commercial fertilizers. The proportionate yield of straw increases as the amount of nitrogen used increases." General fertilizer experiments, H. J. Waters and E. H. Hess {Pennsylvania Sta. Epf. L'^O'j, pp. 211-219). — This is a continuation of work upon the 4-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, and grass. A summary of 3 complete rotations was given in tlie Annual Report of the station for 1894 (E. S, R., 7, p. 943). The experiment was con- tinued in 1895 according to the original plan, and tables are given show- ing the yield per acre of the different plats and the effect of different combinations and different amounts of fertilizers. Notes are given upon the crops but no conclusions are drawn. Sunflov^er heads and blackeye peas as silage crops, J. M. Bart- lett {Maine Sta. Kpt. 1895^ pp. 21-23). — These crops were grown and ensiled in the proportions of 0.25 acre of sunflowers and 0.5 acre of peas to 1 acre of corn. The peas were affected with mildew so the yield was rather light. The sunflowers were grown upon laud pre- pared as for corn, the seed being planted 1 ft. apart, in drills 3.5 ft. apart. The expense of raising the crop is about the same as for corn. The following table shows the yield per acre and percentage com- position of the air dry material iu the sunflower heads and peas: Yield and composition of siDiflower 7 ead.^ a) (/ blacl eye peas. Yield per acre. Composition of air-dry substance. Fresh. Air-dry. Water- free Water. Pro- tein. Crude fat. Nitrogen- free extract. Fiber. Ash. Sunflower heads Peas, whole plant Lbs. 12, 720 13, 380 Lbs. 2,200 2,013 Lbs. 2,040 1,861 Per et. 7.27 7.57 Per et. 12. 63 17.19 Per ct. 14.41 2.61 Per cent. 34.56 35.18 Per et. 24.4 30.0 Per et. 6.73 7.45 FIELD CROPS. 779 Data are also tabulated for percentage compositiou of fresh i)lants and water-free substance, and nutrients per acre and per ton are com- pared with other fodders. The author gives the following summary: "So far as is indicated by this experiment it would seem that sunflowers are not nearly as profitable a cro]) to raise as corn. With the same (iiltivation corn pro- duces a third more ])rotcin and nearly twice as much carbohydrate material as sun- llov »r heads. "When compared with our common red clover an average crop of the hitter plant produces nearly twice as much ])rotein and more carboliydrate matter per acre. From this very limited exjierience we are not favorably impressed with the sun- flower as a profitable silage crop. The peas are not considered, as a fair average croj) was not secured." Autumn catch crops, P. P. Deherain {Ann. Agron., 23 (1896), iVb. 13, pp. 5I5-5.'j1). — The re(iuiremonts of a good autumn catch crop and the adaptability of a number of plants to this purpose are discussed. Experiments were made at Orignon in vegetation boxes containing calcareous soils with white, blue, and yellow lupines, peas, vetches, and mustard. Of the first three the white lupine alone survived. Vetches gave by fiir the most satisfactory results as regards total yield and proportion of nitrogen. During the experiments with catch crops (October and the early part of IS^ovember) the bare soil lost 28 kg. of nitric nitrogen per hectare and the soil covered with vetches 7 kg. The difference (21 kg.) added to the amount of nitrogen furnished to the soil by the crop of vetches (82 kg.) supplied the covered soil with an excess of nitrogen over the bare soil of 103 kg., or an amount fur- nished by 40 tons of barnyard manure, or 730 kg. of nitrate of soda. The influence of the rolling of crops upon their productiveness, E. WoLLNY {Forsch. Geb. agr. rhys., 19 {1S96), ^^o. 5', 2>P' 331-253).— The author states that the operation of rolling young crops is applied for 3 purposes, (1) to check luxuriance of growth which causes lodg- ing, (2) to induce tillering and consequent improvement of the stsind of the crop, and (3) to promote formation of new roots by plants which have been upheaved by freezing and thawing of the soil. He discusses the physiological principles upon which these effects are supposed to be based, reviews at some length the experiments of W. Schumacher' and C. Kraus,^ and notes the work and conclusions of other writers upon this subject. It has been assumed that the bending down or crushing of the stems produced an advantageous effect by causing a thickening of walls of the uninjured cells, thus making more stocky plants, and by inducing develo])ment of side shoots. The checking of the luxuriance of growth also admits more light and air to the remaining uninjured shoots, and by thus stimulating assimilation it is thought exerts a favorable influence upon the crop. Frequently new roots form at the nodes of 'Korn und Peters, Landw. Jahrb., 3 (1872), p. 183. "Forsch. Gel), agr. Phys., 13 (1890), pp. 252-293; 14 (1891), pp. 77-96. 15502— No. 9 4 780 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the crushed stems and this change in plant circulation has been regarded as a factor in influencing productiveness. According to Schumacher, rolling also exerts an advantageous influence, especially in the case of potato plants, in so far as the tension of the tissues is increased by injury of the stems and assimilation in the uninjured portions is increased in the same degree. How far these assumptions correspond with actual conditions the author was unable to determine from i)reviously reported work, as the experiments had not been made with sufticient regard to the require- ments, and contradictory results had been obtained. To establish a satisfactory basis for the study of these points a series of vegetation experiments was carried out by the author in which plants grown under similar conditions on like plats remained undisturbed or were rolled down at different stages of develoi>ment. The tests were made with cereals, legumes, rape, and Camelina sutira for 2 years, and with ijotatoes for 4 years. Tables are given showing detailed data for each crop, and the conditions and conclusions are fully discussed, the work upon potatoes being considered separately. The tables show, according to the author, that with few exceptions rolling the grain crops resulted in a decreased yield; that the injurious efl'ect was more marked the later the rolling was done, and that under favorable vegetative conditions the injury was slight or there was even a gain. With potatoes the results were more favorable, as the yield was in- creased when the plants were rolled in their early stages of develop- ment (June 11 to 2(3), and was sometimes increased and sometimes di- minished when the fully formed vines were rolled (July 16 to 2G). The influence of the weather was as marked upon the potatoes as upon the grains, the favorable effect of the rolling being increased and its injuri- ous efl'ect lessened when warm, moist weather followed the operation. The author believes rolling useful for breaking the crust which may form over the seed upon some soils, for reestablishing plants upheaved during the winter, and for compacting soils in regions exposed to hot, drying winds ; but the experiments aftbrded no test upon these points. The nitrogen requirement of barley, II. Hellriegel et al. (Zfschr. Ver. Biihenz. hid., 1S97, Feb., pp. 141-217). Chicory culture in Nebraska (Amer. Agr. (middle ed.), 59 {1897), No. 12, p. 353, fig. 1). Important facts about corn, W. H. Jordan (Maine Sta. Rpt. 1S95, pp. 127-130). — A reprint of Bulletin 17 of the station (E. S. R., 7, p. 121). Forage conditions of the prairie region, ,1. G. Smith ( V. S. Depi. Agr. Yearbook lS05,pp. 309-324, figs. 5). — A popular article on the wild lorage plants of the prairie regions. Notes are given on the bine stems (Avdropogo)i fiircatiis, A. nutans, and A. scoparius), switch grass (Panicum virgafiim), the wheat grasses (Agropymm spicatum, A. caninum, A. richardsoui, A. tenerum, and A. rcpens), the gramas or mescjuite grasses (Boutelona ctirtipendiila, B. oUgostachya, and B. hirxiifa), hnffalo grass (Bnchloe dac- tyloides), -pvame June grass, (Eatonia ohfiifiafa and Kaleria cristata), fresh-water cord grass (Spartina cynosuroides), wild-rye grass (Elymiis sp.), blue stems (Calamagrostis FIELD CROPS. 781 canadenms, C. vonfinis, and CalumovUfa lonyifoiia), turkey foot (Andropogon halUi), the ueedlo grasses (Aristida and Stipa), tlie false ledtojts {Eragi-oHlh pcdinacaa and Triodia purputra), native clovers (Petalosteinon), vetches (\'icia and Lathyrus), shoe-strings (Psoralen, Dalea, and Amori)ha), rattle pods (Astragalus), aud beggar ■weeds (Desniodium). A report on the grasses and forage plants of the Rocky Mountain region, P. A. Rydbeug and 0. L. Siieak ( U. ,S. Dept. Agr., Divmon of Agrostology Bui. 5, pp. 48, figs. f. 9).— Descriptive, illustrated, and economic notes are given on collections of grasses and other forage plants made in Montana, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and Nebraska. The authors call attention to certain grasses deserving particular mention and give miscellaneous notes ou grasses adapted for hay and pasture as well as forage plants other than grasses. A list of cliaraeteristic species adapted for particular soils and stations is given. Grass gardens, F. Lamson-Sckiunkk ( ('. S. Dept. Agr. Ycarhook 1S95. pp. 301-308, figs. J). — The author discusses the value of grass gardens in the recognition and com- parison of species, and mentions the advantages of such gardens and their value in the selection of grasses for jiarticular latitudes. Brief directions are given for lay- ing out and stocking grass gardens, together with suggestions for different kinds of grass and forage jilants to be grown, as well as the importance of introducing new grasses. Comparative variety tests of summer grains, Tancke (Landw. JVochenbl. iSchles. Hoist., 47 {1897), No. 9. pp. 152, 153). Grasses of salt marshes, F. Lamson-Scribneh ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 323-332, figs. 5). — This is a popular article on the grasses of the salt aud tide-water marshes. On the sands are found beach or marram grass aud a few others valuable for holding drifting sands. On the marshes proper grow sedge or thatch {Sparthta strieta glabra), red >^alt grsiss {,S. jiuicea), which is one of the most valuable of the epartinasforhay, S.j unciform is, fresh-water cord grass (»S'. cynosuroides), S.polyxtachya, large reed {Fhragmitcs cominiDiis), Indian rice (Zizania aquatica), and spike grass {JHstichlis spicata). Upon the higher portions of the marsh, above the ordinary tides, are found creeping bent or browntop, switch grass {I'anicKm virgatiim), slender broom sedge {Andropogon scoparius), and a rush, called black grass {Juncus gerardi). Hemp culture, C. K. Dodge ( U. S. Drpi. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 215-222).— This is a pojtular article giving general considerations on the hemp crop in the United States, with directions for culture. A great desideratum in hemi) production is a satisfactory breaking machine, which so far has not been placed on the market. Results of experiments with commercial fertilizers on hops, F. \,. Schneider (Casopis pro prutnyls chemicky, 6 (1890), p. .'51; abs. in Chetn. Ztg., 21 {1897), No. 3, Bepert., p. 2). Canadian field peas, T. Shaw ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1S95, pp. 223-232, figs. 3). — This is a popular article containing some general remarks on the value of the pea croj), with directions for culture. The varieties recommended are Prussian Blue, Canadian Beauty, and Tall White Marrowfat. Potatoes at the Chapelle experiment station, F. Dkspuez {Jour. Agr. I'rat., 61 (1897), I, Nos. 9. pp. 313-320: 10, pp. 304-367). Wheat, thick and thin seeding, K'. H. McDowell {Nerada Sla. Upt. 1895, pp. 9-11). — Tabulated data.are given for tests carried on for 5 years in sowing different amounts per acre of seed wheat. The principal varieties of w^heat consumed in France, Balland (Compt. L'eud., 124 {1897,) No. I, pp. 40-42). — Analyses of wheat from various sources, including the United Srates. Comparative test of Sorghum vulgare and horse tooth corn, Ot ro ( Deut. landw. Fresse, 24 {1897), No. 19, p. 105). — Tal)les are given showing comparative yield and composition of these crops. The influence of the nitrogen content of the soil upon the ratio betTveen grain and Btxayr {Deut. landw. Pre8se,24{1897),No. 17, p. 145), — Koviowof work of Fleischer, 782 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. showing an almost uniform widening of the ratio between grain and straw with increased nitrogen content of soil. Distribution of seeds and plants, E. J. WiCKSON {California Sta. Bui. 112, pj). 8).— A descriptive list is given of selected resistant grapes, table grapes from Persia, desirable eucalypts, silk cotton tree {Eriodendron aiifructuosum), carob (Ceratonia siliqita), dry land grasses, plants for green manuring, forage plants for alkali soils, canaigre, kale, Jerusalem artichokes, Algerian wheats, vegetables, and tobacco, which are ottered by the station for distribution to citizens of the State. HORTICULTURE. Notes on cabbages, H. P. Gould {Maine Sta. Ept. 1S95, pp. 82- S8). — The author reports on the iutluence of size of seed, results of tying up the outer leaves to hasten maturity, effect of mulching-, and shallow vs. deep cultivation. In testing the influence of the size of seed, plants from large and small seed from 3 varieties were grown, and the results are tabulated. The weight of the heaviest and lightest heads, the average weight, and the percentage of cracked heads, immature heads, and plants not forming heads are given, together with the ratio of the average weights of heads from large and small seed. For one variety the small seed produced heavier heads than the large, but with the other two the ratio was reversed, from which it seems probable that the size of the seed has some influence upon the size of the head, the larger seed as a rule pro- ducing larger heads. The effect of tying up the outer leaves upon the maturity of the plant was investigated and the results tabulated, in which it was shown that tying up the outer leaves of the cabbage appeared to have no effect upon the maturity of the heads, but resulted in a marked decrease in their size and in increased liability to decay. The eftect of mulching with straw was tested and the results tabu- lated. It is shown that the use of a mulch in growing cabbages, espe- cially in a dry season, is advantageous. Shallow and deep cultivation Avere tried with 4 varieties of cabbage, and it appears from the tabulated data that the different methods of culture did not affect all varieties in the same way. In general, deep cultivation appears to hasten maturity of plants, as is shown by the greater percentage of cracked heads from the deeply cultivated plants and by the greater percentage of immature plants from those given shallow cultivation. The size of the head did not seem to be influenced by the different methods of culture. Onions, L. C. Corbett [South Dakota Sta. Bui. 47, pp. 33-39, 46).— Plantings were made February 27 and March 18 of each of 7 varieties of onions, For 1 variety the yields were alike for both plantings, but for the other 6 varieties there was a marked difference in favor of the earlier date, as great in one case as 115 bu. per acre. The data are tabulated. HORTICULTURE. 783 Comparisons were made on 7 varieties of plants raised in hotbeds and transplanted, and plants from seed sown in the open fiekl, the dates of vsowing beinji' the same. The field-sown seed .uave tlie largest i)rod- uet with 5 varieties, the same amonnt of merchantable onions, but smaller amonnt of scnllions with 1 variety, and a decidedly inferior yiekl with 1 variety. The bnlbs prodnced by the transi)]aiitod ])hints were larger than those grown in the held, due, perhai)s, to insufhcient care in thinning the held sown plants. One-half of a large plat of gronnd was plowed and prepared in the fall and the other half in the si)ring a few days prior to sowing the seed. It was found that the seed on the fall-plowed section germinated 2 days earlier than that on the spring-plowed section, and that the work of weeding was considerably less on the fall-idowed land. At harvest the yields were : For fall-plowed section, 309.59 bu. merchantable onions and 8.56 bn. of scullions; for spring-plowed section, 303.G1 bu. mer- chantable and 10.24 bu. scullions. Spinach, L. F. Kinney {Rhode Island Sta. Bui. 41^ pp. 99-131, Jigs. 14). — Notes are given on spinach culture in Ehode Island, with a clas- sification of the various varieties, dividing them into G groups, as follows: Norfolk or liloomsdale spinach, round-leaved si)inaeh, thick-, leaved spinach, prickly-seeded spinach, New Zealand spinach, and mountain spinach or garden orache. The difiei-ent varieties of each are described. The author investigated the use of water in connection with the cul- tivation of spinach by subirrigation and surface irrigation. In the case of the subirrigation but little, if any, benefit was observed, while the use of water on the surface conspicuously hindered the growth of the plants during the few days that followed the application. Brief notes are given on the leaf miner and mildew of spinach, and the author thinks there are indications that the germs of the mildew are carried to the field upon the seed when sown. A historical sketch of the cultivation and use of s])inacli is given, with directions for proper cooking. Notes on sweet corn, H. P. Gould {Maine Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 79-Sl).— Tests of 25 varieties of corn are reported, and attention is called to the tact that the Cory variety for several years has excelled in earliness, but its quality is far from perfection. In the tests here reported several varieties are shown to have the same growing season as reported for the Cory, namely, 70 days from the date of planting. Early Sunrise, the most prolific and one of the earliest varieties grown, compared favorably in (juality with the later varieties. Tomatoes, L. C. Corijett {South Dakota Sta. Bui. 47, pp. 4-32, 45, 40), — A table is given showing dates of first bloom and first ripe fruit, average numbers of fruits per plant, average weight of fruits, and average yield per acre of 102 varieties of tomatoes grown at the station under similar conditions. Of the varieties tested 19 produced at the 784 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. rate of over 300 bu. per acre, 3 oxer 400 bu., and 1 over 500 bu., the best producers beiuf? Hubbard Early, Salzer Giaut Tree, Salzer First Prize, Bond Early Minnesota, and Early Ruby. A fertilizer test was made with nitrate of soda, potash salts, super- phosphate, land plaster, and salt, singly in varying amounts and vari- ously combined. The data are tabulated and indicate beneficial results from the use of small quantities of phosphoric acid. A plat of 40 plants tilled with rake and hoe gave earlier fruits than one cultivated 3 in. deep, but the fruits were less in number and of smaller size, the calculated yields per acre being 332.53 bu. for the raked plat and 446.13 bn. for the cultivated plat. Mulching retarded the maturity of the fruit. In a comparison of different systems of training, a i)erpendicular 3-wire trellis gave best results, but the author concludes that *4n gen- eral it does not pay to train tomatoes." Plants grown from cuttings carried through the winter were com- pared with i)lants from seed of the same variety. The results both in general yield and in work involved were in favor of the seedling plants. Seed was sown at different dates between January 16 and April 16, the largest crops being produced by the plantings nearest March 15. To test the theory that removing the new growth and blossoms after the plants have set the desired number of fruits will hasten the maturity, one lot of plants was pruned August 3 and a similar lot allowed to grow naturally. The iDruned i)lants were checked rather than hastened in maturity, as only 1.5 fruits per i)lant ripened by August 31, at which time 4.4 fruits per plant had ripened on the unpruned lot. The yield for the entire season, however, favored the pruned plants, the yields being at the rate of 460 bu. per acre pruned, and 293.5 bu. normal. Trials were also made to test the influence of soaking seed in water as in the cleaning process, and to compare normal, sun-ripened, and green seed, and home-grown and foreign seed. The conclusions are that "the washing of seeds from the i)ulp can in no wise injure them for seed. . . . Seeds from green fruits give a lower percentage of germination, but the resulting jdants give an increased crop for the season. . . . While the home-grown seeds do not give earlier fruits, they give a larger yield." The peach, 11. H. Price {Texas Sta. Bui 39, pp. 801-848, figs. 21).— This comprehensive bulletin on the peach treats of varieties, with a classification of those adapted to different climates, rules of nomencla- ture, and peaches recommended by different Texas horticulturists, with directions on orchard setting and budding. The author classifies the various varieties according to the 5 follow- ing races: Peen-To, South China, Spanish, North China, and Persian, the different varieties under each being described, and notes given on HORTICULTURE. 785 their value for home and market use. The characteristics of the differ- ent races are described, and ilhistrations are given of the characteristic stones and the 1 and -} year-old wood of each race. Directions are given for orchard setting- and management, in which the lirejiaration of the soil, selection and planting of trees, methods of l^runiug, and cultivation are treated at considerable length. A method of budding, which can be done when the bark does not slij) and the saj) is almost dormant, is described and figured. This method, which has been claimed as new, is found to be a moditication of a method which has been used for a considerable time in parts of Germany. Strawberries, H. N. Starnes {Georgia Sta. Bui. 32, pp. 433-489, pis. i, Jigs. 24). — The author gives directions for the general culture of strawberries, and also the local methods followed in various parts of Georgia and neighboring States. A report is given of variety tests and a description of the varieties. Snmmarizing the results of investigations, the author states that any soil or location adapted to trucking purposes is suitable for growing strawberries. The i^reparation should be deep and thorongh. It is recommended that cowpeas be grown as a preparatory crop, and that a very liberal application of barnyard manure be given. A supplementary commercial fertilizer, consisting of 1,140 lbs. of superphosphate, 510 lbs. of nitrate of soda, and 320 lbs. of muriate of potash, applied at the rate of from 800 to 1,600 lbs. per acre, is recommended. Top- dressing in the spring with 150 lbs. of nitrate of soda in 3 applications is advised. The biennial system of rotation is recommended for the interior of the State, but for the coast region the annual system is found best. Pistillate jilants are found as a rule to be more resistant to late frost than staminate ones, and experiments seem to indicate that as a class they are somewhat more jjroductiv^e also. If pistillate varieties are chosen, every third row should be planted with staminate varieties to secure perfect fertilization. Care must necessarily be taken to select pistillate and staminate varieties that will bloom at the same time, in order to secure the best results. Transplanting should be done in late summer or early fall ou the coast and in early I^ovember in the interior of the State, followed by resetting in February or March when necessary. The best distances for hill culture are variable, from 30 by 18 to 30 by 21 in. being recom- mended. In matted rows, 18 by 18 in., the runners being allowed to make a row about 18 in, wide, leaving 30 in. for cultivation, is consid- ered the best distance. In the annual rotation no cultivation after fruiting, except the eiadicatiou of the larger weeds, is necessary. In the biennial rotation continuous cultivation throughout the first season must be followed. Mulcliing previous to fruiting is recommended, the most econcmiical material being pine straw. The mulch should never be burned off, but turned under with the plants when the plat is destroyed. 786 experimp:nt station record. Irrigation experiments have proved unsatislactory, and should not be undertaken except in an experimental way. The princi])al insect enemies of the strawberry are the white grub and the crown borer, and the most ettective means for prevention is rota- tion, at leasts years, and 5 years if possible, intervening between crops. The strawberry leaf blight (Sphcerella fragarm) is the most serious fungus pest, and rotation and spraying with Bordeaux mixture are recommended. The best succession of varieties for home use or local market is stated to be Hoffman, Lady Thompson, Sharpless, Beder Wood, Gaudy Belle, Greenville, Brandywinc, Marshall, Ilaverland, Princess, Parker Earle, and Bubach No. 5. The best succession for shipping is Hoftman, Lady Thompson, Beder Wood, Haverlaud, Parker Earle, and Bubach No. 5. Strawberries, W. Paddock {New York State Sta. Bui. 109, n. ser., pp. 231-250, pi. 1). — Descriptive notes and summary of variety tests are given. Strawberries were fruited in 1 and 2 year-old beds and, " con- trary to the usual experience," some of the largest yields were obtained from beds that bore their second crop of fruit this season. Of the vari- eties fruited for the first time this season the author considers Bissel, Earliest, Enormous, Maple Bank, Omega, Eobinson, See No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5, Staples, Thompson No. 101, Tubbs, and William Belt worthy of further testing. Among the varieties fruited in the 2 year-old beds for the second time only, the following are considered worthy of testing: Bostonian, Marshall, Marston, and Tennessee. Among the most prom- ising early berries may be mentioned Earliest, Michel, Staples, Tubbs, Beder Wood, and Marston; and of the very late varieties, Hunu, Equinox, Wilder No. 7, Feicht No. 3, Princeton, Chief, and Gaudy. Varieties of grapes, B. L. Watts {Tennessee Sta. Bui., Vol. IX, No. 4, pp. 167-195, figs. 10). — A report is given of varieties of grapes tested during 1896. There were 63 varieties tested at the station and 7 addi- tional ones are reported from Tennessee growers, but which have not been tested at the station. Two new varieties, Campbell Early and Early Ohio, both of which promise to be valuable additions, are reported upon at some length. For home consumption the following varieties will furnish a succession of fruit in the latitude of the station from the middle of July until after frost: Early Ohio, Moore Early, Delaware, Worden, Winchell, Brighton, Brilliant, Catawba, Duchess, Herbemont, Clinton, and Norton Virginia. The most profitable market varieties are Moore Early, Niagara, Concord, Delaware, Diamond, Catawba, Woodruff, and Carman. California -walnuts, almonds, and chestnuts, G E. Colby ( Cali- fornia Sta. Bui. 113, pp. 13). — Studies have been made relative to the composition of numerous varieties of walnuts, aluionds, and chestnuts, and the fertilizers required to replace the draft upon the soil. Five samples of walnuts, 10 of almonds, and 2 of chestnuts were examined, HORTICULTURE. 787 the results being tabulated. The physical analyses and ash and nitro- gen content of the different parts of the fresh nuts were as follows: Analyses of California nuts. Walnuts: Califoruia Soft- shell Do Do Bi.jou Ualitbrnia Native Black Aliuouds : IX L Kiug Softshell . . . Noupareil Ne Plus Ultra Mario Dupreys. . . IXL Drake Seedling . . . IXL Papershell Languedoc Chestnuts: Italian Do Physical analysis. Total weight, 0 ms. 33.30 33.30 25. 00 80.00 50. 00 5.20 9.10 9.10 10.00 11.10 12.50 16.60 20. 00 20.00 25.00 50.00 33.33 Aver- age weight of nuts. Gins. 13.30 15.80 13.30 31.00 14.10 2.60 2.30 2.70 3.00 5.00 3.70 5.00 7.00 3.00 4.50 28.50 21.67 Aver- age weight of ker- nels. 0ms. 6.00 6.65 5.10 8.34 3.75 1.30 1.36 1.4G 1.88 2.22 2.09 1.65 2.60 2.10 2.49 24.08 18.34 Ash and nitrogen content. Hulled nuts. Kernels Pr. ct. 0.78 .64 .83 .68 .57 2.08 1.15 1.55 2.21 1.05 2.13 1 02 1.27 1.26 1.27 .83 .80 Nitro- gen. Per ct. 1.00 1.00 1.08 .84 .98 1.70 1.49 2.13 2.34 1.11 2.27 .96 .78 1.72 1.41 1.02 .59 Ash. Pr. ct. 1.16 1.05 1.18 1.36 1.36 2.00 1.48 1.55 2.16 1.27 2.07 1.49 1.20 1.62 1.45 .75 .83 Nitro. gen. Per ct. 1.82 2.09 2.45 2.40 3.16 3.05 2.28 2.98 3.42 2.13 3.62 2.41 1.87 2.42 2.43 1.00 .65 Shells. Ash. Pr. ct. 0.61 .35 .62 .41 .30 2. 24 !73 1.83 2.30 .85 2.21 .80 1.31 .44 1.30 .99 .63 Nitro- gen. Per ct. 0.32 .21 .23 .20 .20 .37 .31 .37 .51 .30 .52 .23 .16 .10 .14 .76 .26 Hulls. Ash. Pr. ct. 1.15 1.83 2.21 1.06 .51 3.72 1.11 2.06 2.66 1.39 2.41 1.32 1.06 1.17 1.17 1.22 1.09 Nitro- gen. Per ct. 0.11 .28 .17 .15 .12 .55 .11 .31 .64 .25 .38 .12 .13 .16 .20 .50 .22 Ash analyses are given for the various parts of the fruit of California- grown walnuts, almouds, and chestnuts, and for comparison European asli analyses are included. Amount and comjwsition of tlic ash of California walnuts, almonds, and cJwstnuts. Nut (hulled) and parts of entire fruit. Walnut: Nut (hulled) Kernel Shell Hull European wal- nut (meal) Almond : Nut (hulled) ... Kernel Shell Hull European al- mond (nut). .. Clu'Htnut: Nut (hulled) Kernel Shell Hull Eiiropeanchest- nut — Nut Kernel Shell Pure ash in fresh sub- stance. Per ct. Per ct. 0. 750 19. 96 Composition of the pure ash. Potas siuni oxid. Sodi- um oxid. 1.130 .520 1.730 5.350 1.500 1.620 1.44U 1.830 4. 900 .826 . 790 .810 1.160 1. 980 2.380 1.680 12. 69 28. 28 77.80 33. 08 Per ct. 0.83 .96 .82 .27 36.63 2.29 10.96 1.85 64. 76 I 2. 81 64.86 .74 27.95 45.07 48.67 29.02 32.23 .23 1.70 1.20 3.92 .99 39.36 21.73 50.69 I 7.12 2.53 I 14.21 Cal- cium oxid. Per ct. 23.83 5.57 44.88 7.79 6.70 11.49 14.53 9.12 4.10 8.81 3.82 4.63 27. 52 17.83 7.84 3.87 19.74 Mag- ne- sium oxid. Per- oxid »*■ j.'°" game and = . - alu- mina Man- ganic oxid. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 11.40 I 2.49 0.64 3.23 1.78 .62 16.60 5.29 1.80 12.15 12.23 18.31 5.54 5.28 17.66 9.24 8.05 14.51 10.15 7.84 7.47 24.07 .35 .96 .12 .30 1.99 .78 3.40 4.26 .55 .43 .41 .47 3.93 1.03 .14 .87 Phos- l)horic acid. Per ct. 37. 17 57.83 13. 14 2.46 43.74 28. 90 48.13 7.76 5.62 43.63 23. 10 23. 55 21.10 9.61 Sul phuric; Silica, acid Per ct. 2.17 1.31 3.23 2.66 1.23 4.12 4.64 3.55 1.?.2 .37 10. 84 12. 81 2.08 5.05 8.25 3. 18. 12 ,. 3. 85 9.89 3.39 Chlo- rin. Per ct. 0.94 .75 1.17 1.28 1.61 1.32 .24 2.48 12.51 .18 .42 18. 69 2.32 l.iJ4 3.51 Per ct. 0.57 .70 .41 6.57 .22 2.93 .52 4. 54 788 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The total quantity of mineral matter withdrawn, as shown by the ash, is considerably greater for all the nuts tlian for the stone fruits, with the exception of the olive. In the case of the olive the excess consists mostly of silica, the ash containing- SS i)er cent of that substance. Investigations have been made on the food value of nuts, and a sum- marized table is given of the analyses. In the following table the author's analyses are given and for comparative purposes some Euro- pean analyses and the analyses of 8 specimens of Pennsylvania-grown chestnuts are included : rroximate composition of the water-free kernels of nuts. Walnuts : California-grown, California Softshell California-grown, Uijoii European-grown, English walnut' California Kativi; Black California-grown, American Black Almonds: California-grown, ditterent varieties European-grown, sweet almond ' Chestnuts : California-grown, "Italian " Pennsylvania-grown, ditterent varieties ' . . European-grown, average ' Kum- her of analy- ses'. Ash. Per ct. 1.44 1.71 2.13 1.77 2.06 2.14 3.13 1.C8 2.89 3.54 Nitro- Protein. Fiber. gen-free extract. Per cent. Per ct. Per cent. 16.99 2.62 13.87 18.84 1.50 11.88 17.17 6.47 8.28 25.56 1.91) 14.71 31.06 1.65 5.93 22.02 3.23 14.99 25.56 6.93 7.64 11.55 3.10 78.45 10.99 3.18 71.76 11.29 3.32 79.03 Fat. Per ct. 85.08 66.04 65. 95 56.06 59.30 57.62 56.74 4.22 11.63 2.82 > Konig. » Pennsylvania Sta. Bui. 16 (E. S. E., 3, p. 177;. Where other forms of food lack protein or albuminoids and fat, walnuts and almonds are able to supply this deficiency in a concentrated form. The chestnut with its high content of starch, sugar, dextrin, etc., may be used as a substitute for the cereals. The bleaching of nuts by dipping, E. W. Hilgard {California Sta. Bui. 113., pp. 11, 15). — The unsatisfactory results often secured in the usual method of bleaching nuts by the use of sulphur have led to an investigation of this subject with a view to securing some more sat- isfactory method of treatment. Very good results have been obtained by dipping the nuts in a cane or splint basket for 5 minutes in a solu- tion of G lbs. bleaching powder, 12 lbs. sal soda and 50 gal. of water. They are then thoroughly rinsed with a hose, drained, and dipped in a 1 per cent solution of bisulphite of lime until the desired color is secured, after which the nuts are again i insed and dried. Instead of the last dipping the same results may be obtained by sulphuring the nuts for 10 to 15 minutes. The cost of 50 gal. of the chlorin dip will be about 40 cts., and the same quantity of the bisulphite would probably cost less. The time occupied in handling a lot of nuts will be from 12 to 15 min- utes. If practiced upon an extensive scale, some modifications will doubtless be suggested, but the method as a whole is considered far superior to the use of the sulphur box. For English walnuts either of the two bleaching dips may be used alone. HORTICULTURE. 789 Electro-horticulture, range of incandescent light, F. W. Rane {Proc. aS'oc. rro)notio)i A(jr. iSvL ISOii^ pp. 105-108, fujti. .V). — An account is given of an experiment made at the West Virginia Station witli a cluster of S lO-candlepower bulbs. Thay were placed at the end of a central bench and the light thrown along the bench by a reflector. The plants used in the test were spinach, lettuce, laud cress, and cauliflower. The light was kept running from about 5 to 11 p. m. for 0 nights per week, from November 0 to January 11. There seemed to be no effect exerted upon the cress except possibly an earlier germination, but the growth of the other plants was accelerated to the following distances from the light: Cauliflower, 20 feet; Grand Rapids lettuce, 19 feet; Rawson Forcing House lettuce, 6.5 feet, and spinach, 16.75 feet. The cauliflower grew taller near the light, but gave larger heads when farther away. In general, the lettuce gained in height but lost in weight as it approached the light. The two freezes of 1894 and 1895 in Florida, and what they teach, H. J. Webeer {U. iS. Bept. Agr. Yearhool- 1895, pp. 159-171,2)1. 1, fiijs. 7). — An account is given of the two freezes and the amount of damage done in Florida in 1894 and 1895. The first freeze, December 27-29, caused a serious loss of oranges and lemons, killed many of the young citrus trees, and seriously injured the old ones. Guavas, pine- apples, and many tropical fruit trees were frozen down throughout the northern and central parts of tlie State. The second freeze, which culminated on February 8, killed all the varieties of citrus trees throughout the State except in the extreme southern portion and in a few protected localities. Where the trees had been banked with earth before the freeze a portion of the trunk was saved, and this practice is thought desirable in order to protect the point of nuion in trees budded or grafted near the ground. Citrus trees having a single main trunk were found to endure cold better than those having several trunks. Windbreaks, forest trees scattered among fruit trees, and fires distributed at intervals proved beneficial. Little difierence was noticed in the subsequent growth of frozen trees whether pruned soon after the freeze or left unpruned. No injurious effects were observed from leaving the frozen tops attached, bnt it is thought in general that early i^runiug gave rather better results. In restoring orange and lemon groves frozen to the ground, the method of cutting the trees off below the soil and crown grafting has proved much better and quicker than waiting for sprouts to grow from the base and budding them when they have reached sufficient size. What appeared to be the quickest way to build up nursery stock ami small trees kille (1897), No. 3, pp. 105,106). Contribution to the physiology of the graft. Influence of the stock on the scion, G. Riviere and G. Bailiiache (Compt. Bend., 124 (1897), No. 9, pp. 477-480). Principles of pruning and care of wounds in woody plants, A. F. Woods ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 257-268, figs. 5). — The general structure of woody plants is given and the nature and effect of root and top pruning are discussed. Directions are given for pruning fruit trees to produce vegetative growth and also for greater bearing capacity. The method of healing w^ounds on stems and branches is mentioned and receipts given for grafting wax, grafting clay, coal tar, and shellac varnish. Irrigation for the garden and greenhouse, L. K. Taft ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 233-246, figs. 4). — A popular discussion of this subject under the following heads: The water supply, power and machinery, distribntion, reservoirs and tanks, applying the water, irrigation for the garden, irrigation for orchards, cost of irriga- ting, profits from irrigating, aud irrigation for the greenhouse. Frosts and freezes as affecting cultivated plants, B. T. Galloway ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 143-158, figs. 8). — This is a general discussion of the different kinds of frosts aud freezes and their effects upon plants. The use of the daily weather map aud of the psychrometer in foretelling frosts is explained and direc- tions are given for the protection of plants by covering with straw, soil, etc., by means of screens and wind-breaks, by smoke and fire, and by flooding, irrigating, and spraying. Orchards and vineyards in the United States, F. Saiiut (Prog. Agr. et Vit., 27, (1S97), No. 10, pp. 284-288). Horticulture in colleges, W. E. Britton (Garden and Forest, 10 (1897), No. 473, pp. 107,108). The forcing-book, L. H. Bailey' (The MacmilUm Co., New York, 1897, pp. VII, 266, figs. 88). — The extent to which the cultivation of vegetables under glass has developed within comparatively few years has caused a demand for some authorita- tive work giving the latest and best information on the subject. In this work, although tbe author disclaims being an authority, hints and directions are given which will be found valuable to the amateur grower who seeks a few vegetables for his table as well as for the oue who grows for market puri)oses. Necessarily the con- struction of greenhouses and their management must be considered and the discus- sion of the various forms of houses and their details will be found very complete. Soils, fertilizers, irrigation, shading, pollination, etc., have received careful study, and the suggestions offered relative to them will be found the best, so far as the present state of our knowledge goes. The forcing of lettuce, cauliflower, radish, asparagus, tomatoes, cucumbers, and FORESTRY. 793 muskmelons aro discussed in considerable detail, aud numerous miscellaneous vege- tables capable of forcing are more or less bricHy described. Wliilc tliis manual discusses only the forcing of kitchen garden vegetables, the principles set forth will apply with almost equal weight for producing blooming plants. The ([uestions of starting plants for outdoor planting, hotbeds, and cold frames are intentionally omitted, it being intended that only those plants which are grown to maturity in glass houses should be considered. The book is based very largely upon work done at the Cornell Experiment Station, but the results of various American workers have been extensively drawn upon, and it presents in convenient form the best practices to be followed. This valuable work is one of the Garden Craft series, by means of which the pub- lishers are doing so much to spread exact information relative to the plants of our gardens. Principles of plant culture, E. S. Goff {Madison, Wisconsin : Published by the author, lS07,i)p. 270, figs. 173). — This Avork is an elementary treatise designed as a text-book for beginners in agriculture and horticulture, and is the outgrowth of the author's experience in the lecture room and laboratory while giving instruction in the short course of agriculture at the University of Wiscoiisin. Primarily intended for students who have had little or no previous instruction in botany, the choice of materials and methods of presentation are such that the underlying principles of plant culture are plainly and accurately presented. The A^arious i)hases in the life cycle are traced from germination to the decline of growth and rest, and the effect of unfavorable environmental conditions upon plant growth are shown. The differ- ent manipulations to be followed in plant propagation, transplanting, and pruning are carefully described, and the methods of plant breeding are briefly given. Simple experiments are suggested and a syllabus of laboratory work added as an appendix. In the hands of competent instructors this book can not fail to be valuable, and the general reader will find it a convenient means for informing himself ou the prin- ciples underlyinti- i>lant growth. Vegetable gardening, S. B. Green {Webb Pub. Co., St. Paul, 1S96, pp. 224, figs, lis). — This book is designed as a n)anual on the growing of vegetables for home and market use. It was prepared especially for the use of classes in the School of Agri- culture of the University of Minnesota, but it will undoubtedly be found adapted to the requirements of vegetable groAvers in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley. While much in the book has a local cast, it will prove a valuable work for reference wherever A^egetables are systematically grown, the monthly calendar being the principal chapter needing modification to be adapted to wide use. The subject is considered under the following headings: The vegetable garden, irrigation and rotation, manures, tillage, seed sowing, transplanting, the farmer's kitchen garden, seed and seed growing, glass structures, injurious insects, and detailed descriptions of the various A^egetables. A monthly calendar for garden work and various tables complete the work. FORESTRY. Tree planting in the western plains, 0. A. Keffer ( U. S. Bept. Af/r. Yearbook ]S!)r>, pp. .Hil-Sdo). — Tbe author discusses tlio general characteristics of the western plains aud the object of tree planting and mentions the species valuable for planting in that region. Differ- ent methods of planting are mentioned and tlie objections to the use of a single species are ixnnted out. Kules are given for mixed planting, and the relative shade endurance and the rate of the develop- ment of various species are shown. The author recommends close planting ou the western plains and suggests mixtures for adoption. 794 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Notes are given on conifers for western planting and on forest plant- ing ill the satid-liills region. General cultural notes are given whicli are applicable to the cultivation of forest trees throughout the plains region, with the exception of the sand hills. These notes consist of directions for the preparation of the soil, planting, j^revention of root exposure, cultivation, pruning and thinning. The influence of gases and smoke on the gro'wrth of conifers, R. Hartig (ForsU. natiirw. Ztschr., 6 {1S97), Xo. 2, pp. 50-60, figs. 2). Variation in maple trees, F. von Schiverin (Gartenjlora, 46 {1S97), Xo. 3, pp. 59, 60). Second growth of white pine in Pennsylvania, C. A. Keffeu {(inrchn and Ftrr- vst, 10 (1S97), Xo. 47 J, pp. 92, ».'?). Concerning the value of the Weymouth pine (Finns strobus), L. Mappes (Alh/. Forst. unci JiKjil. Zffj., 73 {1S97), pp. 51-55). Finns palustris in France, M. L. r>E Vilmorin {Garden and Forest, 10 (1S97), Xo. 474^ pp. 112, 113, fill. 1). — Notes are given ou some long-leaf pines planted in France 65 years ago. Two trees were 18 and 16 meters liigh and 1.7 and 1.5 in circumference. The area adapted to this tree is said to be rather restricted. Loblolly pines planted at the same time are nearly twice as great in bulk as the long-leaf pines. Conifers at the Kansas Agricultural College, F. C. .Sears (Ourdcn and Forest, 10 {1897), Xo. 473, p. 103). — Notes are given of tlie si^ruces. The Servian spruce {Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 21 {1897), Xo. 532, p. 153, fi^. 7).— Illus- trated notes are given of Picea omorica. The rotation of species of trees under forest conditions, L. C. Corrett ( Garden and Forest, 10 (1SD7), Xo. 474, p. 118). On the relation betAween floods and forests in Frussia, C. von Fisciibach {Forstw. CenthL, 19 (1897), Xo. l,pp. 1-10). Methods of exploitation and their influence on forests, K. Gayer {-ill(/. Forst. und .Jagd. Ztf/., 73 {1897), pp. 37-43). Tables of forest production, A. Schiffel (Ccnthl. r/es. Forstw., 23 {1897), Xo. l,pp. 6-28, figs. 3). Handbook of forestry, I. M. Lizius {Handhnch der forsilichen Haulunde. Berlin: Paul Parey, 1896, pp. XI, 250, figs. 274). The relation of forests to farms, 15. E. Fernow ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearhook 1895, j)p. 333-340, figs. 3). — The author illustrates the erosive action of water and the methods by which the farmer may reclaim the lost ground, and discusses the relation of forests to the farm in preserving the precipitation, in making the temperature more equable, in protection from extremes of precipitation and drought, and in supplying the farm with useful materials. SEEDS— WEEDS. The worst weeds of Wyoming, A. Nelson ( 'Wyoming St a. Bid. 31., pp. 265-320, Ji(js. 15). — Popular notes are given on the nature, evo- lution, distribution, and classification of weeds, with detailed descrip- tions and methods for eradication of the following: The Kussian thistle {Salsola l-ali tragus), squirrel-tail grass {Hordeum juhatum), cockle {Saponaria vaccaria), Canada thistle [Carduus arvensis), bull thistle {C. lanceoJatns), i^rickly lettuce {Lactnca scariola), buffalo bur {Solanum rostratum), poverty weed [Ira a.rUlaris), perennial franseria {Franseria discolor), thorny amaranth [Amarantus spinosus), common DISEASES OF PLANTS. 795 pigweed {A. chlorostachys), rough amaranth (^1. retroflexus), low amar- anth (.1. blifoiden), common tumbleweed (.1. albtis), dandelion {Tarax- acum o^^ciiude). In addif ion to the foregoing a list of 50 plants which may be more or less troublesome is given. The necessity for some form of weed legis- lation is pointed out and suggestions offered for a modification of the law in order to make it more efficient. Germination of barley as influenced by soaking and drying, A. Reicuard {Chem. Ztg., 21 {1S97), Xo. 4, pp. 21-JS). Influence of drying on germination of barley, JiKHHENu ( Wiiri. Wochenhl. Landw., 1S07, Xo. 6, pp. 7S-S0). A germinating apparatus ( (Im-d. Chron., ser. 3, 21 {1897), Xo. 531, p. 143, fig. 1). Investigations of seed-testing methods, Hartleb and Stutzer {Jour. Landw., £5 {1S97), Xo. 1, pp. 43-60). Seed testing at home, A. J. Pikters ( U. S. Dept. Ayr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 175-184, figs. 3). — The author in a popular article points out the desirahility of seed testing and describes some simi)le forms of apparatus that can be easily devised for testing the germination of seed. Explicit directions are given for conducting germination tests and a table of standards is provisionally offered for the leading vegetable, grain, grass, and forage-plant seeds. Oil-producing seeds, G. II. Hicks ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearhook 1895, pp. 184-204, figs. 11). — Popular notes are given on some of the more important oil-producing seeds, cotton, flax, castor bean, European spurge, vsunflower. Madia, Niger seed, peanut, sesame, hemp, rape, and poppy being especially described. Methods of extraction and principal uses for the various oils are given, together with a brief account of the cultivation and distribution of the plant producing the seed. DISEASES OF PLANTS. What species of grass are able to infect the barberry with rust? J. Eriksson [Ztsclir. Ptianzeiilrank., 6 (1896)^ Xo. 4, pp. 19o-l!J7).— The author reports upon a series of inoculation experiments made in 1895 as to what species of grass were hosts for rusts that were also parasitic upon the barberry. He found that the following species were capable of serving as hosts for the barberry rust: Agrostis stolonifera, A. vul- garis, Aira cmspitosa, A. Jlexuosa, Alopecurus nigricans, A. pratensis, A vena elatior, A. sativa, Bromus secalinus, Dactylis glomerata, Elymus arenarius, E. glaucifoUus, Hordeum vulgare, MiHum effusum, Fanicum miliaceum, Phleum boehmeri, P. michelii, Poa chalxi, P. compressa, Secale cereaJc, Triticum caninnm, T. repens^ and T. vulgare. Experiments were also conducted with negative results with Poa pratensis, Triticum uni- cum, Festuca elatior, and Phleum pratense, altliough in previous experi- ments the first 2 species gave ])ositive results. On the relation of the time of seeding and the period of devel- opment on the development of rust and smut of oats, 11. L. 1>ol- LEY [Froc. Soc. Promotion Agl. *SV/. 1>^!J0, pp. 70-75). — A preliminary report is given of investigations by the author, in which is tabulated the percentage of rust shown by 39 varieties of oats in 1891 and 1895, from which it appears that there is a wide variation in the liability of 15502— No. 9 o 796 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. the different varieties to disease. It is also stated that all varieties of oats are comimratively resistant to rust until nearly the time of their flowering. With 3 varieties of rust-resistant oats there was a com- parative rustiness not to exceed 5 per cent for all dates of seeding. The difference in resistance is thought to be due in part at least to structural differences. The Puccinia graminis is the variety of rust whicli first fails to attack the resistant oats. P. coronata furnishes tiie earliest and most persistent attack. The cause and prevention of pear blight, M. B. Waite ( U. S. Dept. A(/r. Yearhoolc 1895^ pp. x"jj-300). — In a popular article the author gives the results of a prolonged scientific investigation on the cause and prevention of pear blight. The cause of the blight is Bacillus aniylovorus and the life history of the organism has been worked out very carefully by means of cultures and inoculations. The blight attacks and rapidly kills the blossoms, young fruits, and new twig- growth, from which it passes through the living bark to the larger limbs and finally to the trunk. The parts of the tree that are killed by the blight are the inner bark and cambium, and as a result the other i)arts die. The infection takes place througli the flowers, and insects serve to spread it from one cluster to another. The bacillus also gains entrance through tips of growing shoots. This form, which is the usual one in nurseries, is often called twig blight to distinguish it from the infection through tlie flowers, but they are both due to the same cause. The conditions affecting the disease are numerous, and some of these may be controlled by the grower. There is a great dift'erence in the resistance of different varieties to disease, the Duchess and Keiffer being less severely attacked than Bartlett and Clapp Favorite. Cli- matic conditions influence the disease to a marked degree; warm, moist conditions favoring, while dry, cool, sunny weather hinders and if pro- tracted will check it entirely. The organism can not withstand drying at all, but is able to survive a very considerable degree of cold. It is carried over the winter in the tree to reappear in spring when the sap has begun to flow. At this time the blighted areas may be recognized by the moist and fresh appearance of the blighted bark, and a gummy exudation flows out to be visited by bees, etc., by which the disease is spread. The treatments for the jirevention of pear blight may be grouped under 2 general heads: Methods which aim to put the tree in condition to resist the disease, and those which are designed for the extermina- tion of the bacillus. The methods under the first head must be directed toward the prevention of rapid growth since vigorous growth increases liability to disease. On this account pruning when the tree is dormant; excessive fertilizing, especially with nitrogenous manures; and culti- vation are to be avoided. Where irrigation is possible, withholding water will greatly reduce the disease. DISEASES OF PLANTS. 707 The active means suggested for preventing the disease is the exter- miuation of the organism causing it. This consists in cutting back a few inches into the sound wood, and burning every particle of the dis- eased tissue while the trees are dormant. Xot only must all pear trees be looked after, but all related trees, since they, too, are subject to the disease. Cutting out blighted twigs during the season is also efficient in i)reventing the rapid spread of the disease, but only when all traces of blighted growth has been removed will the prevention be secured. Leaf spot of pear, G. F. Atkinson {Garden and Forest, 10 {1897), No. 470, pp. 73, 74). — From observations made during the past 2 or 3 years the author thinks what is usually (;alled the leaf spot of pear is not due wholly to Untomo.sporinm maculatum, but in perhaps the major- ity of cases is due to a difi'erent parasite. In searching fallen leaves that had lain on the ground all winter for the fungus the Entomospo- rium was not found, but SpJuvrella sentina and 8. pyri were abundant. Critical examinations made of spotted leaves in a nursery during 1805 revealed in the older spots the saprophytic Cladosporium herbarum and Pleospora herbarum, while the young spots revealed abundant speci- mens of Septoria. The ISeptoria sjDots greatly resemble those of the Entomosporium, but a careful examination shows they are somewhat larger and inclined to become angular in outline and elongated, while the Entomosi)orium spots are nearly circular. Examinations made of many orchards and of much material seem to indicate that Septoria is the cause of most trouble. The subject is to be studied further, and a request is made for mate- rial from different localities. A rust and leaf casting of pine leaves, B.T.Galloway {Bot. Gaz., 22 {lS9(i), Xo. 6, pp. 133-153, ph. 2, fi(js. 3). — The author has made an extensive study of a rust of the scrub pine {Pinus virginiana). This fungus, Coleosporium piiii,^ is rather abundant and causes considerable injury to the trees, and this paper is an important contribution to its life history. The author summarizes his investigations as follows: "(1) Coleosporium piiii occurs abuuilantly in Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia, attacking only Pinus rirfjiiiiana. "(2) It requires 12 months to complete tlie development of this fungus, and dur- ing a large part of that time it does not seriously interfere with tln^ functions of its host. "(8) The fungus is disseminated by means of sporidia, which develop earance of the young leaves. "(<)) Before the fungus ruptures the cortical tissue evaporation from tlie diseased areas is less thau that from healthy parts of the same leaf. This is due to the per- manent closing of the stomata and may result in keeping the diseased parts alive longer than the healthy in case the leaf or branch is removpd from the tree. 'Jour. Mycol., 7 (IbW), p. 41, 798 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "(7) As soon as the fuugiis ruptures the tissues evaporation is increased about one-fifth above the normal. In consequence of this the reserve water in the cells is gradually used up. This is followed by loss of turgidity and other physiological changes which lead to the gradual death and casting of the leaves." The effectiveness of corrosive sublimate as a preventive of potato scab, H. L. Bollby {Proc. Soc. Promotion Agl. Sci. 1896, pp. 75-81, fig. 1). — The author reports a series of investigations uudertaken on account of the criticism ' "that the corrosive sublimate treatment is ineffectual against scab when tested in connection with soil fertilized with lime and other alkaline eu gendering agents." The first experiment was made in a greenhouse, the jjotatoes being grown in boxes containing virgin prairie subsoil. The seed tubers were scabby and had been treated by soaking in varying strengths of corro- sive sublimate solutions. Xo contamination could have taken place except through the use of tap water. The soil received various quanti ties of lime, and when the crop was dug all tlie tubers were washed and thoroughly inspected. All were practically free from scab, the lime having had no effect in increasing the disease. In the field trial the soil had not recently grown potatoes, although fields adjoining on 2 sides had been planted to j)otatoes 2 seasons pre- vious and high winds had drifted considerable dust over the trial plat resulting, as it proved, in a very thorough contamination. The seed tubers were treated and the soil received lime in varying amounts. The tubers dug from all the rows were more or less scabbed, from 10 to 20 per cent being the lowest per cent affected. In the check rows where the tubers had received no i^reliminary treatment about 98 per cent were diseased. It is said that the addition of lime gave no increase in scabbiuess. The soil at the station is considered sufficiently alka- line for the growth of the fungus. The author thinks it probable that in acid soils where there is chance for infection the addition of lime would be undesirable. A limited test made with flowers of sulphur for the prevention of scab indicated that the substance was without effect in preventing the development of the fungus. Potato scab, H. J. Wheeler and G. M. Tucker (Rhode Island Sta. Bui. 40, pp. 80-96, figs. 4). — The authors, in continuation of their pre- vious work', have again investigated the effect of various substances in increasing or decreasing the amount of scab on potatoes when grown under different conditions of treatment. The effect of sodium chlorid, sodium carbonate, and oxalic acid upon the development of scab on tubers when grown with the aid of barn- yard manure was investigated by means of pot exi)eriments. The results confirmed those of the previous year and indicate that under the conditions of the experiment common salt tends to decrease the amount of scab and sodium carbonate to increase it. Oxalic acid ' Rhode Island Sta. Bui 33 (E. S. R., 7, p. 782). -Rhode Island Sta. Bui. 30 (E. S. R., 6, p. 906) and Bui. 33 (E. S. R., 7, p. 782). DISEASES OP PLANTS. 799 decreases scab when used with barnyard mauure, especially when used in conjunction with salt. Tht' iiitiuence exerted by various calcium compounds on scab devel- opment was investifiated and the results obtained are tabulated. From these it appears that the chlorid and sulphate nearly or (juite pre- veuted scab, although the first greatly reduced the yield. The carbon- ate, oxalate, and acetate of sodium, air slacked lime, and wood ashes tended to increase greatly the amount of badly scabbed tubers. The unlimed pots gave a iiroduct without scab. In this series of experiments the seed tuViers were soaked for li hours in a 1 : lOOO per cent solution of corrosive sublimate prior to plant- ing. In the pots which were badly infested with the fungus causing the scab and in which the conditions were fiivorable for its growth the treatment was considered useless. The authors review some of the investigations of Halsted ' relative to the efficiency of sulphur in combating potato scab. They conducted some exi)eriments to test the value of this fungicide for use against the scab fungus. In these experiments sulphur at the rate of 600 lbs. per acre was thoroughly worked into the first 7 or 8 in. of the soil in the pots; where the soil was contaminated and the conditions favor- able for the growth of the fungus the crop was practically destroyed by scab and in 2 instances no advantage seemed to have followed from its use. The authors think that if suli)hur was not efficient when used to the extent of 600 lbs. per acre, smaller quantities broadcasted or iu the drills would prove of little or no value. The expense of sulphur when applied iu such large quantities would prove a serious obstacle to its use while the market value of potatoes remains as low as at present. Experiments for the prevention of potato scab, T. A. Williams {South Dakoiu Sta. BhJ.48,2>P- l-H)- — A report is given of experiments with corrosive sublimate, Bordeaux mixture, and eitu celeste for the prevention of potato scab. The results are tabulated, from which it is seen that — "(1) Seed treated with corrosive sublimate will give a product practically free from scab if planted in uuiufested land. "(2) Thorough treatment will very materially reduce the amount of scab when tiie seed is planted in infested land. "(3) There seems to be very little difference in the effectiveness of the difii-rent flolntions of corrosive sublimate used, so long as the time of immersion is kept pro- portionate to the strength of the solution. More care is necessary, however, in using the stronger solutions. "(4) In immersing it is best to treat the seed before cutting. "(5) Eau celeste and Bordeaux mixture are both effective against the scab fungus, but both seem to affect the yield more or less. "(6) In tlio infested land spraying was (piite as effective as immersing when Bor- deaux mixture or the stronger solutions of corrosive sublimate are used. It must bo remembered, however, that the seed used was quite free from scab. »New Jersey Stas. Bui. 112 (E. S. R., 7, p. 780). 800 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. "(7) It seems that the thicker skiuned, darker colored varieties are better able to resist the attack of the disease. "(8) Potatoes should not be allowed to remain in the ground long after ripening, especially if the season is wet." Fungiroid as a preventive of potato rot, H. P. Gould {Maine 8ta. Rpt. ]8f)5, %}]}. 78, 7.9).-^A test was made of Fungiroid, which is claimed to be a powdered Bordeaux mixture and a substitute for that fungicide as ordinarily prepared. In order to test the efficacy of this fungicide a plat coutainiug 18 rows of potatoes was treated in the following man- ner: The first row was sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, Fungiroid was applied to the next, while the third was left untreated to serve as a check. This order of treatment was preserved throughout the plat, there being in all C rows sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, 0 treated with Fungiroid, and 6 checks. The first application of the fungicide was made July 13, and 2 other applications were given at intervals of about 2 weeks. The following table gives a summary of the experiments: Bordeaux mixture vs. fungiroid. Treatment. Total weight. Ratio of yield. Weight Of decayed tubers. Decayed tubers. Pounds. 262J 219 198J 1 Poundg. 1.00 11 Per cent. 0 4 .83 .75 18.7 20.3 8.5 Check 10 2 From the above table it may be seen that Fungiroid, while slightly increasing the yield of potatoes over that of the checks, seemed of little value as a preventive of the disease. Gloeosporium myrtilli on Vacciiiium myrtillus, G. Wagner {Ztsclir. Pflanzen- kraiik., 6 {1896), No. 4, pp. J9S, 199). — Notes are given of this new fungus described by Allescher. It seems very injurious to its host. Note on Ustilago esculenta, K. Miyabe {Bot. Mag., 9 (1895), Xo. 99; ahs. in Ztschr. Pflamenkrank. , 6 (1S96), Xo. 4, i>. 335). — Notes are given of this fungus which attacks Zizania latifolia, producing edible forms. Bacterial gummosis of sugar beets (Dliring Blatt. f. Zuckerriihenbaii, 1896, pp. 17--20; ahs. in Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank., 6 (1896), Xo. 5, p. 296). A new remedy for potato scab {Amer. Gard., 18 {1897), Xo. 116, p. 178). — Edi- torial mention is made of the successful use by J. C. Arthur, of the Indiana Station, of formalin as a preventive of scab. The seed tubers are soaked for 2 hours in a solution of 8 oz. in 15 gal. of water. Concerning the causes of potato rot, Frank {Centbl. Bakt. und Par. Allg.,3 {1897), Xo. 2-3, pp. 57-59; also Deut. landiv. Presse, 24 {1897), Xo. 16, pp. 134, 135). Diseases of potatoes and preventive treatment, L. Vandenberch {Belg. Hort. et Agr. 9 {1897), Xo. 5, pp. 68, 69). Celery diseases in the South {Florida Agr., 24 {1897), No. 10, p. 145). — Various diseases of celery are described, and the use of a weak solution of carbonate of copper is recommended for their prevention. On the influence of fumes on black rot, E. Marre {Prog. Agr. et Fit., 27 {1897), No. 10, pp. 292-294). ENTOMOLOGY. 801 Concerning the cutting bed fungus and its prevention, R. Aderhold {Garten- flora, -ir, (!S97), \(). •', i)p. 114-1. r,,fl(j. 1). A gum disease of tlie cacao tree, L. MANGiN(Com2J<. Rend., 124 {1897), No. 6, pp. 312-315; also Jour. A/.s'. :.\ I'uik. ■">). — A ri'snme is given of the sonu^ imjjortant entomological work of the year, together with some detailed accounts 806 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of cattle lice, the spotted paiia or strawberry leaf beetle, and the cur- laut and gooseberry fruit fly. Brief notes are given on the yellow woolly bear {Spilosoma virginica) which is reported as attacking- rasp- berry leaves, on the tapestry moth {Tinea t(q)etzeUa)^ and on the cucumber flea-beetle {Crepidodera cucumeris), with directions for com- bating their injuries. The author figures, describes, and suggests remedies for the follow- ing 3 si^ecies of cattle lice: Short nosed ox louse {Hcematojnnns eurys- ternus), the long nosed ox louse {H. vitnla), and the biting louse of cattle {Trichodectes scalaris). Tlie use of various powders, unctions, liquids, and fumes is recommended and methods of treatment are described. The spotted paria or strawberry leaf beetle [Typophorus caneUus gil- mpes) is reported as attacking raspberry buds, causing serious injury. The life history and description of the insect, together with some cor- respondence relating to its appearance and treatment, are given. The use of arsenites, handpicking, and the destruction of all rubbish are recommended as i)reventive and remedial measures. It would seem from the correspondence that Paris green was not wholly successful in destroying the pest. In this case emulsions or repellents should be employed. The most important work of the year was a study of the life his- tory of the currant or gooseberry fruit fly {Epoehra canadensis). The author reviews some of the literature referring to this insect and gives in considerable detail its history, life history, and the remedies suggested. The general description is as follows : "Perfect insect, a 2-wiDged. fly about the size of a house fly. Pale yellow or orange with greenish iridescent eyes and dark bauds across the wings. Found about currant and gooseberry bushes during June in Maine. Stings the currants, depositing an egg under the skin that hatches and develops into a small white mag- got, causing the fruit to turn red and drop prematurely. The maggots when grown leave the fallen or hanging fruit, enter the ground, change to a pupa state from which the fly emerges the following June." The premature falling of the fruit in which the worms usually remain for some time suggest the destruction of the former as a possible means of greatly restricting the number of the insects; mulching about the bushes will also aid in keeping the fly in check. Other means are sug- gested of greater or less practicability. So far as known there are no parasites to keep the pest in check. Apiculture simplified, A. Baffert (BoL Agr., Mineria e Indtistrias, Secretaria de Fomento, Mexico, 6 {1896), Xo.2,i)p. 135-139). Tsetse fly disease in Zululand {Amer. Micros. Jour., 17 (1S97), No. 11, pp. .554-596).— Abstract from the London Lancet. Life history of larvae of CEstrus, Ruser {Centbl. Bald, und Far., 20 {1896), p. 548; ahs. in Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc, 1897, /, p. 32).— The transparent larvse of the fly were found in 4 oxen in the loo.se connective tissue between the iusophagus and ENTOMOLOGY. 807 the body wall. The larviv, therefore, appear to gain an entrance through the mouth of the animal. Parasitic beetles, G. BRA^•I)ES (Centhl. liakt. und Par., 20 {1S96), pp. 297-305 ; ahs. in Jour. Rotj. Micros. .Sot., 1S97, I, pp. ,?i-,fJ).— K<-fers to the coleopterous beaver parasite ( I'latiipsijlhis caHtoris). The Rocky Mountain locust and its allies in Canada, S, H. Scl'ddkk (Rpt. Ontario Knt. Soc. 1 ■>:!■'> . pp. 6J-(>G,Ji(i.s. 2). Locusts in Buenos Ayres ( Weekhj Xortli Western MiUer, 4.? (1S97) Xo. 11, p. 3S7). It ia reported that the Congress of Buenos Ayres hiis ajipropriated $700,000 to be divided among the provinces of Santa, Fe, Entre Kios, and Cordova, which have suf- fered severely from locust invasion and drought, and to be used for furnishing seed for the colonists who have lost everything. The Congress has also appropriated $400,000 for the scientific study of the insects and to learn their haunts. They are supposed to winter in the Grand Chaco. A committee of leading merchants has also been formed to deal with the subject, and subscriptions have beeu collected with a view to employing some well-known entomologists. Insect enemies of coffee, J. C. Koxigsi!ei!(;ku (Ab.s. in Ztsthr. Pflanzenkrank., 6 {lS9Ci), Xo. 5, pp. S90, 291). — Notes are given of Lecanium viride, L. coffecv, Aphis coffertnnpa pityocampa, C. pinivora, and C. hcrculcana. The manner of leaf feeding of Phyllohius psitlacinns is noted and p. 67, 68). Diabrotica in New Mexico, T. D. A. Cockerell {Xew York Lint. Soc. Jour., 4 {1896), Xo. 4, p. 201). — Corrects some errors in a paper by F. M. Webster. The North American species of Nemobius, S. H. Scudder {Xew York Ent. Soc. Jour., 4 {1896), Xo. 3, pp. 99-107). On the classification of three subfamilies of moths of the family Pyralidae, the Epipaschiinae, Endotrichinae, and Pyralinse, G. F. Ha:mpson {Trans. Ent. Soc London, 1896, LV, pp. 451-551, figs. 84). The leaf-cutting of the species of Megachile, K. 8a.j() (///. Woehenschr. Ent., 1 {1896), Xo. 37, pp. 581-584, figs. 2). A short review of the Chrysomela of North America, M. L. Linell {Xew York Ent. Soc Jour., 4 {1896), Xo. 4, pp. 195-200). Preliminary handbook of the Coleoptera of Northeastern America, H. F. WiCKHAM {Xew York Ent. Soc. .Tour., 4 {1896), Xo. l,j)p. 33-49). The action of different gases and vapors on the ova of insects, E. Porron- giTO and G. Bosso {Giorn. B. Acq, Xaz, Veterin., 44 {1895), pp. 297-301; aha, in Zool, FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 809 Centhh, 4 (1S97), Xo. 1,}}}). 25, ;?t>).— The iiction of the chloriii and bromiii gases on the egss of l'>omhij.r mori was studied. The eggs were ]>laced under liell Jars. Chlorin gas allowed to act for 12 hours lessened the number of larvie; allowed to act for 2-i hours it killed the eggs. Bromiu acted more quickly, an exposure of the; eggs to it for half an hour killing all. Carbon bisulphid has the same efl'eet after 1.5 to 24 hours. Sulidiurie acid vapor acts with the same result in 1 to 2 hours. lUuminatin,"- gas does not give this result within 48 hours, and carbon dioxid does so only after 5 days. Eggs placed in vacuo begin to suffer froui the second day. The brain of the bee : A preliminary contribution to the morphology of the nervous system of the Arthropoda, F. C. Kenyon {Jour. Vomp. Neurology, 6 { 1S9G), pp. 133-110, ph. 9; abs. hi Science, '> {1S97), No. US, p. 358, and Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc, 1S97, 1, p. 29). — The various tracts of fibers connecting the optic lobes, the auteu- nal lobes, and the ventral nervous system with the mushrooiu bodies of the central portion of the brain, as well as with other ])ortions, are described and figured. The cells composing the mushroom bodies are thought to form the intellective centers of the bee's brain. Larval gills of Odonata, (t. Gilson {Jour. Linn. Soc. London, 25 {1896), pp. 413- 41S,fi(js. 3 : ahs. in. Jour. Boy. Micros. Soc, 1S97, L, pp. 30,31). Thoracic glands in larvae of Trichoptera, G. Gil.>^on {Jour. Linn. Soc. I^ondon,25 {1896), pp. 407-412, fi(j8. 2; abs. in Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc, 1897, 1, p. 30). Gizzards of Odonata, F. Blis {ZooL Jahrb. Jbth. Sysf., 9 {1896), p)p. .596-624, figs. 14; abs. in Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc, 1897, I, p. 31). — The Calopterigina* are considered as representing the primitive form and the Libellulin;e the highest. Sixteen longi- tudinal toothed areas in the former are reduced in the latter to two pairs of teeth bilaterally situated. Literature on defensive and repugnatorial glands of insects, A. S. Packard {New York Enf. Soc Jour., 4 {1896), No. 1, pp. 26-32). Notes on the transformations of higher Hymenoptera, I, A. S. Packard {Neiv York Ent. Soc. Jour., 4 {1896), No. 4, pp. 155-166). Metamorphoses of beetles, Xambeu {Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, 41 {1894), pp. 107-156 ; 42 {1895), pp. 53-100; abs. in Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc, 1897, I, p. 29).— In his fifth memoir on the subject this author describes the metamorphoses of numerous families of beetles with a view toward a better classification and to aiding in the formation of better ideas of their economic importance. The gro'wth of the -wings of the Luna moth, J. A. Moffat {RjH. Ontario Ent. Soc, 1895, pp. 36-38, figs. 2). The value of entomology, J. Fletcher {Rpt. Ontario Ent. Soc, 1895, pp. 16-21, figs. 4). — A general survey of economic entomology, with mention of some of the com- mon injurious pests, such as the fluted scale {Icerya purchasi), the clover midge, etc. The entomological laboratory of the state agricultural institute at Gem- bloux, 1896, M. PosKix {Bui. Agr. {Ilruxelles), 12 {1896), No. 6, pp. 199-216, figs. 10). — A report on several of the common destructive insects of France, discussing injuries, habits, etc., and pointing out the critical periods in the life history of the insects, thus indicating the most favorable season for attempting to destroy them. The plum lly {Apliis pruni), Liparis chrysorrhca, L. dispar, Bombyx neustria, Scohjtes pruni, S. ruglosus, Bkrutora ritcllin(c, Calocoris bipunctatus, Mamestra brassica', Aleu- rodcs chelidoni, and Ptilinus pectinicornis are treated. FOODS— ANIMAL PRODUCTION. On the behavior of coal-tar colors to-ward the process of diges- tion, H. A. Weijkr {Jour. Amer. Chem. Seriod. The nutritive ratio of the ration fed lot 1 was 1 : 13.3, and lot 2, 1 : 10.1. The third period began January 23 and lasted 30 days. All the animals were fed the same ration as in the first period. The weight of the food eaten by each lot during each period was determined, and on 1 day of each week the uneaten residues of corn stover and of hay were weighed. The moisture was determined in samples of the coarse fodder in each period, and corresponding cor- rections introduced in computing the composition of the material. The results are expressed in full in tabular form. The average results are given in the following table: Residts of experiments in feedimj corn-and-cob meal and wheat to steers. Food consumed per head daily. Total digest- ible matter consumed per head daily. Digest- ^Jaff#' ™«^tt«^ '-«d. pXlof , gain. Corn- and-cob meal. Chopped wiieat. Hay. Corn stover. Period I : \\\ steers (mixed grain) Period 11: Pounds. 5.77 11.08 Pounds. 5.77 Pounds. 12.68 8.86 9.98 9.24 9.06 Pounds. 5.62 5.92 6.72 5.28 6.06 Pounds. 12.05 12.89 12.77 12.96 12.85 Pounds. Pounds. 1.43 1 • 8.41 1.67 i 7.73 Lot 2 ( wheat chop) 9.90 6.40 6.23 1 47 8 67 Period III: Lot 1 (same as Period I) Lot 2 (same as Period I) 6.40 6.23 1.15 1.22 1.17 10.91 The authors conclude that corn has a slightly higher value for fat- tening steers than wheat. The relation of food to the growth and composition of the bodies of steers, W. H. Jordan {Maine iSta. Bpt. 1895, pp. o0'-77). — The object of this experiment was to determine the effect of wide and narrow rations upon the rate of growth and the composition of the bodies of 1 high-grade Shorthorn steers, 5 to 7 months old at the begin- ning of the test. Steers 1 and 2 were fed a ration rich in protein, hav- ing a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5.2, and containing linseed meal, corn meal, and wheat bran, in different proportions. Steers 3 and 1 were fed a 15502— Xo. 9 G 812 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. ration poor in protein, having- a nutritive ratio of 1 : 9.7, and containing 2 parts of corn meal to 1 part of bran. All the steers were fed Lay, and during the winter corn fodder and silage also. Steers 1 and 3 were fed for 17 months, and steers 2 and 4 for 27 months. The results, including the analyses of the grain rations fed, are reported. The steer fed a ration rich in protein for 17 months consumed a total of 9,700 lbs. of food and made a gain of 737 lbs., while the steer fed the same ration for 27 months consumed 17,329 lbs. and made a gain of 962 lbs. The steer fed a ration poor in i^rotein for 17 months consumed 10,234 lbs. and made a gain of 552 lbs., while the steer fed the same ration for 27 months consumed 16,041 lbs. and made a gain of 1,005 lbs. In discuss- ing the experiment the author divides it into periods of about 90 days. The food consumed and the gains made by each steer for each period are expressed in tabular form. At the end of about 17 months steers 1 and 3 were slaughtered, and the remahiing steers (2 and 4) 10 mouths later. In every case the blood and the various organs of the carcass were Aveighed and analyzed. Tables are given which show the composition of the blood and organs, including the bones, spleen, and intestines. The percentage composi- tion of the entire carcass, exclusive of skin and contents of stomach and intestines, and the composition of the right side and the edible portion of the entire carcass are also given in tabular form. The author discusses the effect of the different rations ui^on the composi- tion of the carcass, and concludes that the two rations had no particu- lar effect on the composition of the carcass and organs. "(1) At the end of 15 mouths' feeding the pair of steers fed ou the ration richer in protein had gained 221 lbs. of live weight more than the pair fed the ration less rich in protein. The later growth with 2 steers showed a difference in favor of the ration less rich in j)rotein. "(2) The relative weights of organs and parts of the body was jiractically the same with the steers of the same age, independently of the ration. "(3) The kind of growth caused by the 2 rations, Viz, the proportions of water, protein, fat, and ash, was not materiall.v diU'ereut with the steers of the same size. This is true whether we consider the entire bodies, the dressed carcasses, or the edible portions of the carcasses. With steers fed for the same time, the composition of the entire bo(li(>s, the proportion and composition of the carcasses, and the proportions and composition of the edible parts Avere practically alike. "(4) The older pair of steers, viz, those fed for 10 months' longer time, contained a smaller ])roportion of water and a larger proportion of fat than the younger animals. "(5) The older animals furnished 5 lbs. per 100 more of water- free edible material than the younger animals. This is equivalent to a difference of 12 lbs. of fresh edible meat." Alfalfa or lucern, A. A. Mills ( Utah Sta. Bui. 44, pp. 5^).— The work here reported is a continuation of that published in Bulletin 31 of the station (E. S. E., 6, p. 204). The object of these experiments was (1) to determine the yield and feeding value of early, medium, and late cutting, and first, second, and third crojis of alfalfa, and to com- pare alfalfa as a feeding stuff" with red clover and timothy; and (2) to compare alfalfa with mixed hay and with alfalfa mixed with straw. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 813 Two tests are reported in which the first question was studied, the results being tabulated in detail. The first (1894- 1)")), lasting 102 days, was made with 9 lots of 2 steers each. Early, medium, and late cut alfalfa of the first and second crop, third crop alfalfa, timothy, and red clover were each fed to 1 lot. The test was divided into 2 i)eriods. lu the first period hay only was fed; in the second the steers were fed some bran and wheat. Analyses of the alfalfa and other feeding stuffs in this and succeeding tests are given. The conclusion was reached that the best returns were given by red clover. Comparing the different crops and cuttings of alfalfa, "the late cutting of the first crop did the best, the medium next, and the early cutting the poorest. With the second crop the reverse was true, the late cut showing a loss." The second test (1895-96), which lasted 139 days, was made with 9 lots of 2 steers each, and was divided into 2 periods. First and second crop alfalfa, red clover, and timothy were fed as during the first test. The red clover and third crop alfalfa gave out about 0 weeks before the end of the test and the lots receiving them were fed mixed alfalfa for the rest of the test. During the whole test the steers were fed bran and wheat in addition to the hay. "The early cut (alfalfa) did the best of the first crop, while the late cut did poorest. With the second crop the medium cut did the best and the late cut poorest. The red clover was below most of the others in rate of gain, while the timothy and third croj) alfalfa made about an average showing." The average results of these tests and those previously reported on feeding early, medium, and late cuttings are given in the following table : Average 7'LSults of feeding alfalfa to steers. Weight at beginning. First and second crops : Pounds. Early cutting 893. 86 Medium cutting I 915.44 Latecutting I 923.67 First crop (all cuttings) 907. 70 Second crop (all cuttings) 914. 31 Weight at end. Pounds. 1, 009. 44 1, 004. 44 1,019.72 1,017.09 998. 65 Gain per day. Food eaten per day. Pounds. l.Orf .83 .73 .96 .80 Pounds. 20. 88 20.72 17.86 19.84 19.94 Food eaten per pound of gain. Pounds. 19.34 24.96 24.47 20.67 24. 93 The average results of feeding first, second, and third crop alfalfa, red clover, and timothy are given in the following table: Average results of feeding alfalfa, red clover, and timothy to steers. Weight at beginning. Alfalfa: Pounds. First crop (all cuttings) 991.00 Second crop (all (cuttings) l, "OS. 25 Third crop 1. 015. 75 All crops and all cuttings 1. 001. 9:! Ked clover 1,009.75 Timothy 1,018.25 Weight at Gain end. per day. Pounds. Pounds. 1,141.08 1.22 1,117.42 .92 1, 147. 50 1.34 1,131.14 1.11 1, 118.25 .91 1, 162. 50 1.19 Food eaten per daj'. Pounds. 23.05 22.35 24.29 23. 01 19.04 21.97 Food eaten per pound of gain. Pounds. 18.89 24. 29 18. 13 20. 73 20. 93 18.40 814 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The yield per acre of the different crops and cuttings of alfalfa are discussed at some length and the results expressed in tabular form. "From the results of the 3 seasons' trials with alfalfa, early cut (just before bloom), medium cut (1 week after first bloom), and late cut (1 week after full bloom), the following couclusious seem warranted: " (1) Steers, fed the alfalfa either with or without grain, made the most rapid gains on the early cut, and the lowest on the late cut, or they stand as follows : Early cut, 100; medium cut, 77; late cut, 68. "(2) For both first and second crops the early cut was first in rate of gain, while for the first crop the late cut was better than the medium cut, and for the second crop the medium cut was far the better of the two. "(3) The food eaten per day was slightly the highest for the early cut and lowest for the late cut, standing as 100 for the early cut, 99 for the medium cut, and 85 for the late cut. "(4) Pound for pound, the early cut was the best, the late cut, second best, and the medium cut poorest. They stand as 100 for the early cut, 78 for the medium cut, and 81 for the late cut. "(5) The early cut yielded the most hay when weighed into the barn, the medium cut coming second, and the late cut last. "(6) The early cut contained the most moisture, and when all are reduced to the same moisture content, 12 per cent, which the hay contained when fed, the yield stands: Early cut, 100; medium cut, 93; and late cut, 90. " (7) In amount of beef produced per acre the standing is : Early cut, 100 ; medium cut, 71; and late cut, 71. "(8) In yield of protein, a very valuable nutrient, the standing is: Early cut, 100; medium cut; 78, and late cut, 82. "(9) During the 2 weeks of budding and flowering there appears to be no addi- tional growth ; in fact, our results show a loss of 82 lbs. iier acre of drj' matter during this period" Two tests were made in which the object was to compare alfalfa with mixed hay and with alfalfa mixed with straw. The first test (1894-'95), lasting 123 days, was made with 3 lots of 4 steers each. Lot 1 was fed mixed hay, bran, and wheat; lot 2, alfalfti, bran, and wheat; and lot 3, alfalla, straw, bran, and wheat. The ani- mals Avere fed all they would eat. The second test (ISOa-'OO), which lasted 95 days, was made with 6 cows and G steers, divided into 3 uniform lots of li cows and 2 steers. The rations fed were the same as those used in the first test. The results of these trials are expressed in detail in tabular form. The average results of the 2 tests are given in the following table, the financial statement being based on alfalfa at 13.50, mixed hay at $4.50, and straw at $1 per ton, and ground wheat at 65 cts., and bran at 45 cts. per 100 lbs. : Average results for 2 years of feeding mixed hay, alfalfa, and alfalfa and straw to steers. Weight at beginning. \ Pounds. Mixed hay 930 Alfalfa . . .' [ 921 Alfalfa and straw 924 Weight at end. Pounds. 1, 228 1,164 1,233 Gain per day. Pound*. 2.27 1.80 2.34 Cost of ration per month. $2.61 2. :iO 2.21 FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 815 The following- conclusions were drawn: "(1) lu rate of gain per day the diltiroiit (ceds stand as follows : First crop alfalfa, 100; second crop alfalfa, To ; third crop alfalla, 110. All cro]»8 alfalfa, 91 ; rod clover, 75; timothy, 97. "(2) Tbe food eaten per day varies about in the same order as the gains, standing as follows: First crop, 100; second crop, 97; third crop, 105; all crops, 100; red clover, 80, and timothy, 95. "(3) Pound per pound, the good alfalfa proved about etpial to timothy, while in rate of gain it proved better. "(4) A ration of alfalfa and straw, with grain, proved superior to one of alfalfa and grain. "(5) Mixed hay and grain proved superior to alfalfa and grain, but not (juite so good as alfalfa, straw , and grain. "(6) A ration with a wide nutritive ratio, 1 : 8.6, proved nuich better than one with a narrow nutritive ratio, 1:4.56, while a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1:4.81 proved better than either of the others. '•(7) The use of mixed fodder in the rations, in one case mixed hay and in the other alfalfa and straw, appeared to have mucn more to do with the feeding value than .25 per 100 lbs., for $39.48, yielding a ])rofit of $21.37, or an average of $4.25 per pig. The average cost of making 1 lb. of pork was 1.5 cts. From this experiment the author draws the following conclusions: "Red clover, sorj:;hunj, aucl peanuts were the foods best adapted for rotation. They are cheap and easy to produce, and thcsir seasons of maturity are in convenient order for pigs to consume tiieni. . . . Sweet potatoes were unetjual to the peanuts in palatability and as fat and llesh formers. . . . "The rotation of red clover, sorghum, and peanuts required 6'i bushels of corn to proSci. Agron., 18!>0, II, Mo. 1-2, pp. 113- 237).—T\\'m is the seventh and concluding series of experiments on the 818 EXPERiMENt STATION RECORD. feeding of draft horses made by Grandeau and his associates for the Compagnie Gnu'rale de Voiturea of Paris, to compare the mixed ration fed by the Compagnie Generale and the several ingredients composing it. The results of the earlier experiments have been previously noted (E. S. E., 0, p. 1018). In the present series the ration consisted of so-called "maize cake" and oat straw. The cake was prepared from starch factory and distillery waste and contained some potato and bar- ley as well as maize refuse. It had been fed for a number of years and was found to be very constant in composition. The experiments were made with 3 horses, 10, 12, and 9 years old, weighing 478.3, 505.3, and 491.4 kg., respectively; and cover a period of 13 months divided into periods of about a month duration. Ilorse No. 2 met with an accident and was dropped out 5 months before the conclusion of the trial. The experiment proper was preceded by a preliminary test of 5 months, during which the transition was made from the preceding ration to the one used in the experiment. The experiment includes periods of rest, walking, trotting, working and walking, working and trotting, the work consisting in turning the arm of a dynamometer of special construction a definite number of times. Experiments were also made at moderate and severe work drawing a cab. The amount fed was modified to suit each condition. Tables are given showing the amount and composition of food con- sumed, amount of water drunk, coefficients of digestibility, amount and composition of the feces, and in a number of cases of the urine produced, and variations in temperature and weight of each horse for each day of each period. The average coefficients of digestibility of the rations under various conditions of rest and work are given in the following table: Arermje coefficients of digestibility of ''maize cake" and straw by horses. Dry matter Organic matter. Pro- tein. Fat. Crude cellu- lose. Sugar yield- ing cel- lulose. Starch. Sugar. Un- deter- mined. Per ct. 51.70 49. 7C 54.83 51.74 51. 4G 54.73 Per ct. 54.09 52.44 57.11 54. O.'i 53.85 57.23 Per ct. 66.34 63.69 71.08 67.47 69.59 68.44 Per ct. 32.32 39.67 47.31 45.59 50.51 28.85 Per ct. 36.99 33.79 40.07 31.35 28.02 32.73 Per ct. 41.65 35.88 46.9!) 32. 80 33.45 38.20 Per ci. 90.87 90.93 88.54 90.09 88.30 94.57 Per ct. 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 Per ct. 37.82 Walking 32. 02 Trotting 40.35 35.15 31.35 36.75 In a number of cases the nitrogen balance was also determined, tak- ing into account the nitrogen in the food, urine, feces, sweat, and material removed in currying, as well as the nitrogen lost from the feces while drying and in the material worn away from the hoofs. In the authors' discussion of the experiments the ration of maize cake and straw is compared at length with the rations fed in previous tests on the basis of its composition and fuel value and also upon the basis of gain and loss in weight. FOODS ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 819 The following- are some of the principal coiuilnsioiis reached by the authors: A liorse of ")()() ko-. wcio-lit by the motion of forward progres- sion through a horizontal distance of 10 kilometers at a spee:l of 1 5 meters per second loses 2.4 kg. in weight. A horse of the same weight covering a distance of 10 kilometers with a velocity of 1 .5 meters per second and producing lt>0,000 kilogrameters of work loses about 3.8 kg. in weight. Generally speaking, horses digest from a ration of maize cake (1) sometimes more and sometimes less carbohydrates, but always li or 3 times as much i)rotein as from a ration of hay; (2) less carbohydrates, but more protein than from a ration of oats and maize, and (3) less car- bohydrates and protein than from a lation of horse beans. In general when no work is performed horses gain in weight when oats are consumed, but the gain is not i)roportional to the quantity eaten. The gain is less with hay, which also furnishes less available energy. On the other hand, maize cake does not produce a gain com- parable with that from maize and beans. When walking the gains in weight of horses vary with the different rations, being greatest on maize, followed by beans, maize cake, oats, and hay, in the order mentioned. The superiority of maize cake to oats is still more noticeable when it is remembered that the quantities assimilated from the former are much less than from the latter. On this basis the apparent superiority of the maize and especially of the beans diminishes. As a ration for horses when trotting hay is much inferior to the other feeding stuffs used as regards gains in weight, and it can also be said that the nutritive ele- ments assimilated from this feed are much inferior in quality. ^laize cake produced less satisfactory results than beans, and maize than oats as regards the available energy furnished. For work done in drawing a cab maize at first seemed to be inferior to the other rations, but this was not the case. The quantity fed did not furnish a sufticient amount of nutriment, which was also true of the oats, cake, and beans. It appeared that the cake was much superior both to hay, a coarse fodder, and to beans, which may be regarded as a type of feeding stuffs rich in protein. On the other hand, the cake is much inferior to feeding stuffs like corn and oats, which are rich in starch and moderately rich in protein. Its coefficient of digestibility is midway between corn and oats, as is also its nutritive ratio. From a practical standjKjint maize cake, which is a commercial by- product, satisfies all the demands of the organism of the horse. Its chemical analysis indicates this and exi)eriencc has proven it. Horses consuming a ration of cake and straw for a year remained in good health. It would be advantageous to feed more cake than was fed in tliese experiments. Feeding experiments v^ith laying hens : The relative eflBciency of whole and ground grains, AV. T. Wiikklek {Xrir York ^Slatc iSta. Bui. 100, n. sir., pp. 153-](>2). — A feeding exjieriment was made with 4 820 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. lots of laying- heus to test the relative value of grouud. aud whole grains. Lots 1 and 2 were White Leghorns and lots 3 and 4 Baflf Cochins. Each lot contained about the same number of hens. The experiment began December 14 and continued 1 year, being divided into periods of 28 days each. The detailed results for each period are not given. The heus were kept in i)ens about 10 bj^ 12 ft., and each lot had access to a small yard deeply covered with coal ashes. Previous to the experiment the hens were fed a ration similar to that used during the test. Lots 1 and 3 were fed in the morning a mixture of grouud grain which was moistened with hot water and fed warm during cold weather, and moistened with water at ordinary temperature during hot weather. They were fed all they would eat readily of this mixture, and during the day they were given a lirtle whole grain scattered in straw in addi- tion. The grain mixture consisted of ground llaxseed, wheat bran, wheat middlings, corn meal, ground oats, ground barley, and ground buckwheat. During several months the flaxseed was omitted. Lots 2 and 1 were fed practically the same mixture of grain whole, with cracked corn. It was scattered on the floor of the pens and none was left uneaten. Twice a week the 4 lots were fed all the cut fresh bones they would eat and during 3 periods skim milk was also fed. Either green alfalfa, cabbage, corn silage, or soaked chopped hay was fed at noon, the moistened hay being fed warm to lots 1 and 3. The hens always had access to stone grit and oyster shells. The average composition of the grain mixture and the other foods, as well as the results of the experiment, are given in tabular form. The financial statement is based on corn at 50.1 cts., oats at 37.9 cts., barley at 61.4 cts., and buckwheat at 56.1 cts. per bushel; wheat bran at $16, wheat middlings at $17, corn at $19.20, ground oats at $24, ground bar- ley at $25.00, ground buckwheat at $23.00, alfalfa hay at $9.60, alfalfa forage at $2, and cabbage and corn silage at $3 per ton; skim milk at 24 cts., cut bone at 80 cts., oyster shells at $1, and stone grit at $1 per 100 lbs. ; and flaxseed, ground or whole, 2i cts. per pound. The results are briefly summarized in the following table: Results of experiment >i in feediiuj hens whole and (/round grains. Average number of eggs per hen. Average weight of eggs. Water-free food con- sumed per pound of eggs. Cost of food per pound of eggs. Lot 1 (ground grain) 92.94 77.03 47.51 63.72 Ouncct. 194. 15 165. 81 95.39 126. 85 Pounds. 5.30 6.47 13.01 10.04 Cents. 6.95 Lot 2 (whole grain) 8.44 Lot 3 (ground tiRiiii) 17.15 Lot 4 (whole graiu) 13. 00 " (1) Two pens of laying hens, one of a large and the other of a small breed, hav- ing a ration the grain of which was whole, ate during their second year somewhat more food at a little greater cost than 2 similar pens ha% ing a ration in which half the graiu was ground and moistened. FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. 821 " (2) Cocbin beus, having the whole grain ration hiid niucli lietti.-r than llios« hav- ing the ground grain, although neither lot laid at a prolitaljle rate during t lie second year. "(3) Leghorn hens having a ration in which the grain was whole consumed on the average lor 2 years over 20 i)er cent more food for the same egg i)rodnction than did similar hens having half the grain in their ration ground and moistened." Researches on the physiology of muscular action, A. Ciiacveaii and J. Tis- SOT Compt. Rend., 1.24 {1S97), Xo. 1, pp. 10-Jl).—T\n} authors report briefly the results of 2 series of experiments in which the respiratory (piotient was determined under various conditions of work. Experiments upon metabolism in the human body under the direction of the United States Department of Agriculture {Science, o {1S'J7), No. 117, pp. 4!).:-49G). — The article gives a very brief descrijjtion of a respiration calorimeter and experi- ments made with it, wbich have been carried on at Wesleyan University in cooper- ation with the Storrs Experiment Station and this Department. New -wrork in physiology as related to metabolism, O. Hacemanx {Milch 7A(j., 26 {1897), Xo. 1, pp. 4-6).— A brief digest of some of the recent work which treats of metabolism from the standpoint of energy. The length of time -which milk remains in the stomach under various condi- tions, E. W. Kaudnitz (Milch Ztg., J6 {1S97), Xo. G, p. S7).—k brief report of expe- riments with cats. The digestion by the stomach of Gartner's prepared milk, E. SchCtz ( Wiener klin. Wochenschr., 1S9G, Xo. 4S. Gartner's prepared milk, Niederstadt {Milch Ztg., ,.'G {1897), Xo. G, p. S8). — Analyses of this ]irepared milk from a factory. A discussion of certain commercial articles : Poods, W. H. Jordan {Maine Sin. Bpt. 1895, pp. 135-138).— k reprint of P.ulletin 20 of the station (E. S. E., 7, p. 884). Some additions to our vegetable dietary, F. Y. Covilt.e ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Year- hook 1895, pp. 205-214, figs. 9). — The author describes in detail a number of plants which might be profitably used as pot herbs, including charlock, Swiss chard, chicory, winter cress, dock, kale, marsh marigold, mercury, black mustard, orach, pigweed, pokeweed, pur8lane,winter purslane, spinach, and New Zealand spinach. The author believes that a more extended use of these vegetables would prove of benefit. "The plants enumerated here do not by any means comprise all the species that might be used as pot herbs, but they have been selected so as to suggest to i)eople in every part of our country certain plants growing in their own region wbich are avail- able for use in this manner. Doubtless others, particularly among our native plants, such as tbc common nettle, milkweed, and the round-leafed mallow, commonly known to children as 'cheeses,' will be found e(iually important." The mineral matter in the feed of our domestic animals {Landw. Cmthl. Posen, 25 {1897), Xo. 5, p. 27).— A general article. Lime and phosphoric acid in the development of animals, L. Fontaine {Ind. Lail., 21 {1S9G), Xo. 48, pp. 379,380). Oil cakes as food and as a fertilizer, A. Larbaletrier {Les tourtcanx de grumes oleagineuscs comme aliments etengrais. Paris: G. Masson, 1896, pp. 202; rev. in Hot. Centhl., 69 {1897), Xo. 2-3, pp. 86-88). Maize germ cake, J. F. Van Pescii {Landw. J'ers. Stat., 47 (1896), Xo. 6, pp. 47S- 475). — Analyses are given. Silk-cotton-tree seed cake, J. F. Van Pesch {Landtc. Vers. Stat., 47 (1S9G), Xo. 6, pp. 471-473). — The author gives an analysis of cake made from the seed of the silk cotton-tree {Eriodendron anfractuoaum)), and describes a method for detecting adul- teration in this cake. The feeding value of beet-leaf silage, Lehmann (Z<«c/ij'. landw. Ver.Rhdnpreunaeu, 13 {1896), Xo. 47, pp. 393-395).— Th.Yw. experinumts with sheep are briefly reported. The conclusion was reached that beet-leaf silage, even after it had been washed, pos- sessed about the same nutritive value as mangel-wnrzels. On molasses feeding stuffs, A. Kmmeim.in'g {Landw. Jl'ochenhl. Schlcs. Uolst.,47 {1897), No8.S,pp. 129-131; 9, pp. 145-148).— A. general article. 822 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. The dry matter content of a desirable mix - d ration, J. KfiiN (Deut. landw. Presse, 23 [1890), Xo. 101. pp. S95, 890).— X general :irticle. Feeding experiments -with prickly pear {Agl. Gaz.N.S. Wales, 7 (1896), Xo. 10, pp. 658, 059). — Prickly pear was cooked with meat refuse or with a little molasses and fed for a long period to pigs with favorable results. The substitution of barley for oats as food for horses, H. Ha:\ibro {Dent, landw. Presse, 23 (1890), Xo. 100, p. 891). — A general discussion showing that barlej' may he substituted for oats in feeding horses, with a brief report of a test with horses made by the Birmingham corporation in which barley and oats were compared. Rational stock feeding, H. P. Akmsijy (PeDnsi/lrania Sta. Bpt. 1895,pp. 16-2S). — Reprinted from the Annual Report of the station for 1894 (E. S. R., 7, p. 985). Comparative experiments in feeding cattle, G. Cormouls-Houlks (Prog, Agr. et Vit.,25 (1896), Xo. 25, pp. 693-095). — A brief report is given of feeding experiments with 5 lots of 4 steers weighing about 1,600 kg. each, to test the comparative value of wheat, rye, potatoes, and ccttou-seed cake. Among the conclusions reached were the following: Cotton-seed cake is more economical than grains, especially wheat. It is more advantageous to feed potatoes than to sell them to the distilleries. Rouen ducks, Leroy (Jour. Agr. Prat., 61 (1897), I, Xo. 7, pp. 241-246). — A general article. DAIRY FARMING— DAIRYING. Influence of the quantity of food upon the economy of milk and butter production, H. .1. Waters and E. H. Hess (Pennsylvania Sta. Upi. 1S9.5, pp. 2i-5-5). — An experiment was made with 9 cows, mostly Jerseys and grade Guernseys, histiiig loO days and divided into 5 periods of 30 days each. In all the periods the food consisted of mixed hay and corn stover ad libitum., with varying amounts of a grain mix- ture consisting of 7 parts of corn meal and 3 of cotton-seed meal. On the first 10 days in each period a digestion experiment was made witli 3 cows selected as representing the lot. From the results the amounts of digestible ingredients consumed were calculated for each cow in each period. These data, together with the yield and fat content of the milk and the calculated yield of butter, and the financial results are fully tabulated and discussed. The financial results are based on corn meal at $20, cotton-seed meal at $26, mixed hay at $12, and corn stover at $4 per ton; butter at 30 cts. per pound, and solids-not-fat of the milk at 2 cts. per pound. The financial results are shown graphically. A summary showing the amount of the grain mixture fed in each period and the results is given below : Effect of feeding different amounts of grain to milch cows. Amount of grain mixture. Digestible nutrients eaten per daj-. Average daily yield. Digestible food eaten per— Aver- Period. Total." Protein. Carbo- hy- Fat. drates. Milk. Fat content of milk. Butter.2 100 lbs. Pound of of milk, butter. net profit per day. 1 2 3 4 5 Pounds. G 12 18 12 6 Pounds. 14.01 15.98 17.19 14.25 10.64 Poundt. 1.47 2.09 2.59 2.23 1.51 Pounds. 10.96 12.11 12.29 10.01 7.99 Pounds. 0.50 .66 .81 .72 .45 Pounds. 16.90 17.29 17.68 16.30 12.73 Per cfint 4.60 • 4.85 4.96 5.11 5.55 Founds. 0.898 .973 1.003 .976 .827 Pounds. 90.68 102.66 106. 12 95.46 89.51 Pounds. 15.60 16.77 17.19 14.81 12.86 Cents. 14.87 13. 92 12.05 14.04 15.10 ' Fat reduced to starch equivalent by factor 2.25. * Calculated by adding oneflfth to total butter fat. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 823 "A comparisou of the dilVorcMit rations led clearly shows that less (ligestil)le matter was re(|iiire(l to produce 100 lbs. of milk and a pound of butter iu the ])eriodsof light feeding than when larger (juautitics were fed. , . . "Charging the animals with the food consumed and crediting them with the butter and 8i)lids-not-fat produced . . . shows that as the cost of the ration increases, due to the increased amount consumed and the larger proportion of grain fed, the daily net profit returned diminishes, although not in the same ratio. . . . "It api)ears that two factors were operating to cause a decrease iu the daily net I)rofit returned as the amount of food consumed was increased, viz, a decreased rela- tive C()nsum])tiou of the cheaper coarse fodders, uecessitating a largo increase both relative and absolute iu grain consumed, and an increase in the food eaten above the point at which the animals used in the experiment were able to produce the greatest amount of milk and butter per pound of digestible matter consumed in the food. "It might have been expected that the increase in the relative amount of grain in the ration would serve to increase the efficiency of a unit of digestible material, but it does not appear from the results that there was any material increase of this sort. . . . "A striking lesson taught by the results of the experiment is the difference between individual cows with respect to their ability to produce milk and butter cheaply. The difference between the profits returm d by the best and poorest cows for the 150 days of the experiment was $33.10, as shown in the following statement: Profits from feeding the best and the poorest cows. Best cow Poorest cow Difference Cost of I Value of Net food. products, profit. $26. 67 2J. 51 $64. 32 28.06 36.26 $37. 65 4.55 33.10 "Other differences less striking are shown between other cows of the lot. "It was not found possible to trace any connection between these differences and the type or conformation of the animal. Thus, 2 animals conforming equally to the generally accepted dairy type exhibit a difference iu the net profit returned during the l.")0 days of the experiment of $14.99. Between 2 others not sensibly different in conformation a difference of $12.48 is noted." The feeding- of cotton-seed meal, up to 4.44 lbs. per day for 30 days, was not attended by any apparent ill effect on tlie health of the animals, either at the time or afterwards. Influence of nutritive ratio upon the economy of milk and but- ter production, H. d. Watkks and E. H. Hess {renmylrania Stn. Rpt. 1895, pp. 56-7i).— Nine Guernsey and grade Guernsey cows, about 00 days from calving, were fed for 1 periods of 30 days each to test this point, and incidentally to compare old-process linseed meal and cotton-seed meal. Throughout the experiment from C to 7 lbs. of chopi)ed wheat was ferevails at some time during the summer. Pro- vision should be made to supplement dried pastures. For this purpose corn silage, alfalfa, and oat and pea fodder are recommended." Brief directions are given for the culture of these green fodders. Feeding experiments with milch cows, J. M. Bartlett {Maine Sta. Rpi. lSf)5, pp. 04_3rj).— Wheat meal eompa red with corn meal (pp. 24-30). — A comparison was made on G cows in o periods of 21 days each of feeding rations of 18 lbs. of timothy hay, 2 lbs. of cotton-seed meal, and either 5 lbs. of wheat meal or 5 lbs. of corn meal. The wheat meal Avas fed in the first and third periods and the corn meal in the second period. The data relative to the experiment, including the 826 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. composition of the feeding stuff's used aud of the milk produced, are tabulated. The following conclusions are drawn: "(1) Wheat meal pound for pouud furnislies more food than corn meal, noticeably more digestible protein. " (2) When wheat can be bought at about the same price as corn it is a more eco- nomical grain to buy. "(3) It is more valuable than corn to feed with hay or such grains as barley aud oats because richer in x>rotein. "(4) When fed to milch cows in the proportions given in this experiment, it pro- duced as much milk and greater gain in llesli. It is very noticeable that the [wheat- meal] rations fed in periods 1 and 3 were more efficient than [the corn meal] fed in period 2. AVhile there was a very gradual and uniform shrinkage in nulk solids through all the periods, due to the advance in time of lactation, the fact that the cows all lost weight in period 2 and gained again, with the exception of No. 4, in period .3, furnishes good grounds for the above statement." Silaf/e composed of mature J1 hit vorn^ sHufJower heads, and peas as food for milch cows (pp. 30-35). — The silage was the Eobertsou mixture, except that black-eyed peas were substituted for the horse beans. This was tested with 5 cows in 5 periods of 14 days each, feeding it in connection with hay and as a partial or total substitute for a grain ration of corn meal, cotton-seed meal, and bran. From 30 to 50 lbs. of silage was fed per head daily. The data, including the composition of the feeding stuffs and of the milk, are tabulated. From these data the results are summarized as follows: "(1) The materials composing the silage used can be perfectly preserved and suc- cessfully kept in the silo as late as June of the following year. "(2) The pea, sunflower, and corn mixture produces a silage somewhat richer in protein than corn alone and is very greedily eaten by stock. "(3) To attempt to substitute this mixture entirely for the grain ration was not a success, the coavs shrinking quite materially in their flow of milk without an increase in its richness. The shrinkage was undoubtedly due to a lack of digestible protein ; the total and digestilde organic matter consumed was practically the same but the protein was considerably less than in period 1. On returning to the grain and silage ration in period 3 the flow of milk was increased to nearly the original yield. " (4) In period 4 silage was substituted for one-half the grain ration, 20 lbs. silage for 3 lbs. grain, with good results. All the cows increased in weight and shrank no more in milk than would be expected from the advance in time of lactation, the solids and fat increasing slightly." On the variation in the number and size of fat globules in milk, M. E. McDonnell and J. W. Fields Pennsylcatda Sta. Bpt. lS95,pp. 75-85). — The observations here reported were made in connection with the experiments on the effect of quantity of food and of nutritive ratio upon milk production, reported above (p. 823). In the experiment on the effect of nutritive ratio the observations were confiued to one cow, and the results are given for periods of (! days throughout the trial and are shown graphically. Comi^arisonsAvere made of the size of the globules when the cow was on different rations, temporarily ill, and under other varying conditions. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 827 ''These coniiiarisoiis showed the rehitive size of the globules to vary more uni- formly with the total yield of milk thau with any other factor. In nearly all cases ■where the cow was in a normal condition, a decrease of milk production was accom- panied with a diminution in the average size of the globuh^s, and this size increased when from any cause a large yield of milk was produced. Apparent slight variations from this rule maj' be due to errors in some part of the work." Ill the other experimeut the number and relative size of the globules in the milk from all of the cows was determined on the 14th to IGth and the 20th to 28th days of each of the 5 periods. The results of these observations are also tabulated and shown graphically. " It is evident that the size of the fat globules varies in a direct ratio Avith the milk yield. "The influence of the quality and quantity of food upon the size of the globules appears to be indirect, the real cause of variation being the variation in the milk jiroduction. The size of the globules bears nearly the same relation to the actual amount of butter fat produced, but the relation of the actual yield of fat to the milk production is so close that any variation in the fat globules conforming to one would necessarily bear almost the same relation to the other. "This hypothesis is very well supported by our observations, especially when we consider the number of observations taken, and at the same time is not at variance with but is in reality an explanation of the observations of Woll and others. If it be true, the method of feeding so as to produce the largest globules resolves itself into this : Feed so as to produce the largest possible yield of milk while keeping the cow in a normal condition." The relative composition oi milk, cream, and skim milk, JS". Leonard and H. M. Smith {Analyst, l>1 {1890), Kov., pp. M3-385). — The data are given for several experiments in which milk of known composition was set for 18 hours, and different proportions of the ujiper and lower jiortious mixed and analyzed. The solids-not-fat and the ash in these are calculated on the water basis, i. e., " dividing the percentage of solids-not-fat and of ash, respectively, by the per- centage of water in the various sami)les, and multiplying the quotients by 100." The indications were that there is no change in the relation between water and solids-not-fat in the raising of cream, but that the relation remains the same in the cream and the skim milk as it was in the whole milk. " We would further suggest that in estimating the amount of added water (if any) present in samples of milk containing an abnormally high or low proportion of fat, it is desirable to take as a basis for the calculation the percentage of solids-not-fat in the water instead of in the milk. The percentage of solids-not-fat contained in the water of milk of average quality is. of course, taken as a standard for comparison." Butter substitutes, E. A. de Schweinitz ( U. S. I)ept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 445-451). — A historical discussion of the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine, the materials used in its manufacture, the hygienic effects of oleomargarine, possibility of transmitting infectious diseases, etc. With reference to the digestibility and physiological effect of oleomargarine, the few experiments which have been made and the opinions of various authorities are quoted. It appears from these that 15502— N'o. 9 7 828 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. there is at present some confusion of opinion on these points. A num- ber of instances are cited in which unprejudiced persons have declared against oleomargarine after using it a short time, asserting that it caused indigestion. Comparative studies of the germs in butter aud in oleomargarine showed a much larger number in the latter, and that these were of a less desirable character. "The writer lias made a number of inoculation experiments upon guinea pigs with different samples of oleomargarine. The samples were purchased in open mar- ket near the places Avhere they were manufactured. Sample No. 3 proved fatal, causing the death of the animal in the one instance in 2 months; in the other, in 2 weeks. An examination showed the lungs congested, the liver soft and pale, 1 of the kidneys badly congested, and 5 distinct ulcers in the intestines, like typhoid- fever ulcers. The bladder was distended and the urine albuminous. At the present writing the nature of this disease has not been determined, but the fatal effects were produced by the oleomargarine. Another guinea pig inoculated with a sample of oleo oil, taken from a lot used in the manufacture of oleomargarine, died within 3 weeks, the autopsy showing badly congested lungs, liver dark, blood vessels con- gested, and the small intestines containing bloody mucus. "Five months after inoculation with another sample of oleomargarine, the pig which had been used for the experiment was chloroformed for examination. The animal was in fair condition, but the left lung showed incipient tuberculosis, and this disease was also apparent in the spleen, and there were several calcareous tubercular nodules adherent to the sternum. A preparation made from this same sample had shown the presence of a germ which could scarcely be anything but the tuberculosis bacillus. The result of the inoculation confirmed this diagnosis. The inoculations of all the animals were made by introducing in the side a bit of fat the size of a small pea. The incision healed rapidly, and at the time of the autopsies there was no evidence of local lesions or any effect which might have been due directly to the mechanical part of the inoculations. "A number of other guinea pigs have been inoculated with different samples of oleomargarine, but at this writing (after 8 months) have not contracted disease from the oleomargarine inoculation. Two of the samples which caused disease in the ani- mals were made at a factory where the material used may have been questionable in character. "Our inoculation experiments show conclusively that disease may bo communi- cated by means of oleomargarine. The objection might be raised that disease could also be communicated in the same way by butter. It is, however, a very simple and easy matter to pasteurize the cream before churning. . . . The temperature of pas- teurization is unfavorable for oleo-oil manufacture. . . . "The statements of most authorities have been to the effect that oleomargarine is good and digestible atd healthful, provided it is made from pure material and the process is properly conducted. The legitimate and safe manufacture of oleomar- garine can be secured, therefore, only when there is careful and safe control and inspection at the abattoirs and oleomargarine factories of both the finished product and the constituents which enter into its manufacture. Then, too, all the oleomar- garine should be sold as oleomargarine, and should have something distinctive about its appearance— absence of color, as Massachusetts demands, or a specially bright color; and every pound of it should be carefully inspected at the factories before being shipped, to see that the particular distinctive character is present." In conclusion analyses are given of a number of samples of oleomar- garine and of butter. The melting point of the oleomargarine was about 10° C. lower than that of butter and several of the samples contained DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 829 considerable cotton-seed oil. The presence of an abnormally large amount of albuminoids in a number of samples of the oleoniar<;ariiie "points to a contamination with animal fiber and indicates that the material used was not pure/' Butter and butter substitutes, W. Freak and W. S. Sweetser {PoDisylvania Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. i()I-i06').— The detection of adultera- tion of butter with oleomargarine is discussed, and aiuilyses are given of 11 samples of butter, suspected samples, and oleomargarine. "It is gratify iug that noue of the samples suspected proved to be 'oleoiiiaigariue' or 'butteiiue.' "Evidently the ainoiiut of curd is not distinctive; nor is tlio inciting point of the fats. But the tigiire of volatile fatty acids is only one-tenth as great in the undoubted 'oleos' as in the butters, genuine and suspected, although the genuine butters exhibit a wide range of diversity in the amount of volatile acid contained. Just as distinctly are the ' oleos' higher in their power of combining with iodin, and in their saponification equivalent." Milk sampling, C. L. Penny {Delaware Sta. Bid 31, pp. 25, Jigs. 2).— Following introductory remarks on the testing of composite samples at creameries and for studying the milk of herds, the author describes observations made by him with a view to securing a milk preservative tor composite tests which would dissolve the fat and carry it to the bottom of the bottle. By keeping the samples in this way it was found that the fat could be more intimately mixed with the sample when ready for analysis than is the case when the cream rises to the surface. A number of solvents were tried, but more particularly ethyl bromid, chloroform, and carbon bisulphid. The latter was found to be pref- erable, " on account of its low cost, its somewhat general use on the farm as an insecticide, and its antiseptic qualities when used alone." "Sam[)les [of milk] preserved with carbon bisulphid, in along series of trials extending over 2 years, have withstood conditions that have shown almost every other i)reservative insufficient, at least in the pro- portion used." Five or ten per cent of carbon bisulphid is added to the milk and a little shaking suflQces to collect all the fat at the bottom. When a sample is to be taken for final analysis the milk is well mixed, there being no danger of churning, and " a perfectly homogeneous mixture is obtained." "If the sample is to be analyzed gravimetrically for fat some care must be taken in first evaporating to avoid loss from foaming over. This evil is easily obviated in the sand method by simply puncturing the surface of the sand in several places with a platinum wire, so soon as inflation begins, after which there will be no trouble and no departure from the ordinary method. The paper-coil method requires no particular care, as the sample behaves just as fresh milk. Total solids must be determined by evaporation in sand and direct weighing; a small ]datiuum wire may be weighed with each dish and the wire may then conveniently be used to i)uncture the surface as explained.'' For determining thefat by the T.abcock method the carbon bi.sulphid should be first removed. This can be done by adding 10 to 15 cc. of 830 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 80 per cent acetic acid to the milk after measuring- out in the test bottles and heating to boiling, or in a water bath with air conducted into the bottles to prevent frothing. The boiling is continued until the liquid in the test bottle does not exceed the volume of milk taken, ?. c, 17.6 cc. The solvent action of the acetic acid on the casein at the boil- ing temperature is said to considerably reduce the amount of sulphuric acid necessary, so that from 13 to 15 cc. of sulphuric acid of the usual commercial strength is said to be sufficient. The test is then made in the ordinary way. "A uotable difference is seen iu the qiiality of the results when the readings are taken. The fat now appears clearer, more transparent, and more sharply defined at the top and at the bottom than iu the average test in the ordinary way. The defi- nition, that is, the clearness of the top line and the dividing line between the fat and water, is, almost without exception, perfect. The fringe of undissolved curd at the bottom of the fat, not infrequent in the ordinary method, especially in unskillful hands, is almost never seen. The fat column is so clear that it would be apparent at sight whether it were pure fat or part curd. . . . "While the process here described is more complicated than the ordinary test, it seems to be more certain and accurate, at least in unskillful hands. With a dozen samples to test it would require somewhat more time, but with 50 or 100 it would require very little more, as the several operations would overlap." The results must be corrected for the carbon bisulphid added, and to facilitate this a table is given. The results are given of a number of trials of this method of pre- serving the sample in comparison with gravimetric analyses. "In the practical trial of the method the results are excellent." For measuring out the carbon bisulphid it is suggested to use a pipette connected with a bulb and having a small vent hole in one side. A shaking apparatus for shaking the test bottles after adding the sul- phuric acid is illustrated and described. The use of borax preservatives on cream-gathering routes, W. Freak and W. S. Sweetser {FennsyJvania 8ta. Rpt. 1895, i)p. 86-89). — An experiment was made in which 4 teaspoonfuls of a mixture of equal parts by weight of fine dairy salt and powdered borax was mixed with nearly 3 gal. of cream, the cream subsequently churned in a small test churn, and the butter worked, salted, etc., as usual. Sam- ples of the butter were repeatedly washed by agitation in hot water in a separatory funnel and the washings tested for borax by a delicate method, but none was found. A repetition of the trial gave the same result. "These tests are conclusive evidence that the borax i^reservatives, even when used iu much greater proportion than is customary on cream- gathering routes, are carried over into the butter, if at all, in quantities too small to produce any effect upon the consumer." To the objection that the bacteria of the starter would be retarded by the preservative just as the injurious bacteria are, the author sub- mits that "this difficulty is not a great one practically, as a slight increase in the amount of the starter or in the time of action will suffice to overcome the retarding influence of the borax." DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 831 Kephir, C. D. Spivak {Repr. from ^\ Y. Med. Jour., ]89(;, Jan. 1,% pp. i.s).— This is a treatise on kephir more especially from tlie medical point of view. Its history, preparation, composition, and the clian-^es produced in milk in the fermentation are given, witii n n men )n.s refer- ences to the literature. "The kephir grain is a composite body made up of three different organisms: (1) SnccliaroiHi/cc.-i ccrcvi.sicv, or the yeast fungus; (2) Jiacil- liia acidi lactici; and (.3) JUspora caucasica (Kern), or Bacillus Icphir (Sorokin), a rod-shaped bacterium. The rods are united togetlier into lilaments whicli are closely interwoven in countless zigzags, and they are firmly connected by tlieir tough gelatinous membrane. Xotwith- standing the fact that the above-named bacteria follow the laws of their kind, yet all three take an active and equal share in the process of producing tlie kephir fermentation." The therapeutic action of kephir is next discussed, and numerous instances cited of its use in various diseases. " Kephir is indicated whenever it is necessary to raise the nutrition of the enfeebled organ- ism. The curative effect of kephir, in a limited sense, has been noticed only in certain cases of gastrointestinal affections." In conclusion a comprehensive bibliography is given. Inefficiency of milk separators in removing bacteria, V. A. Moore {U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearhool; 1S95, pp. 131-114, Ji; pages show that the physical conditions involved in the mechanical treatment of milk do not allow the deposition of all bacteria in the sediment. Many of the hacteria were carried over into the skim milk and into the cream. With this fact before us it is easy to nnder- stand that the butter made by the use of the separator from infected milk might contain the specific bacteria."' An experiment is recorded in which butter was made from milk to which a few cubic centimeters of a culture of hog cholera had been added, the cream being raised by a separator and the butter made in the usual way. " Four days afterwards a rabbit was inoculated beneath the skin with 0.2 cc. of the buttermilk, and another with a piece of butter about the size of a pea. These rabbits died of hog cholera in 7 days." In conclusion, the author believes that these experiments show that disease may be transmitted through butter and skim milk, and recom- mends as a remedy the pasteurization of milk intended for butter making. On the bluing of cheese, A. Hehle {MolJc. Zig. Berlin, 1S96, Oct. 31; ahs. in Milch Zig., 2'j {1896), IS'o. 46, p. 755).— The cause of this trouble at a cheese factory under the author's supervision was finally traced to one herd which furnished milk to the factory. An investiga- tion showed that it was the custom to feed the cows in the morning very sour beet diffusion residue which had stood in iron barrows over night. It is believed that the iron taken ui^ by tlie acid was transmit- ted to the milk, and was the cause of the cheese becoming blue. The author finds that keeping milk in rusty cans does not always result in the trouble, but only when the milk is sour. To recognize iron in milk about 5 cc. of milk is treated with a few drops of tannin solu- tion (5 gm. tannin in 150 gm. water). If the milk turns bluish it is not used for cheese making. The manufacture and consumption of cheese, H. E. Alvord ( U. 8. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1895, j)}). 453-474, Jig. 1, dgms. 2). — This article is devoted principally to a discussion of the production of cheese, the decline in the exportation of cheese, means by which the consumption of cheese in this country miglit be increased, the manufacture of skim cheese and tilled cheese in the United States, and the necessity of clas- sifying and branding cheese as a safeguard to the consumer and to the producer of high-grade cheese. DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 833 The author advocates the manufacture of small cheeses and of various kinds of fancy cheese, which he believes would tend to increase the con- sumption of cheese. With reference to the necessity for improvement of domestic trade and the export of American cheese, the nnthor says: "8ucb impiovenieiit seems to depeud mainly Mi)()n two conditions: First, (inalitv; a hi.ulHn- staudartl uiust be set lor our cheese and streuuons etil'orts made to indnce all makers to attain to it, thus raising the average quality and securing reputation. Second, prevention of Irand; effective measures are necessary to restore confidence, so that all buyers may get with certainty what tbej- want and pay for. "All interests centering in cheese production demand superiority of (juaJity and ecouomy in production. Factory managers and cheese makers neeil to have the les- son impressed upon them that in honest markets the best goods are. the easiest sold and the nu)st profitable. They must be constantly on the watch for improvements and economies in manufacture. The wants of special markets and the fancies of buyers must be studied and sai isfied. The British market, still our largest customer, continues to want a large cheese, rich, well cured, ; nd firm in texture. The demand of the home market is not so fixed, but the general preference is for a smaller cheese, comparatively new, mild and rich, of medium texture and color. Following the ex- ample of Canada, the leading cheese-making States may well employ expert itinerant instructors to work at farmers' institutes, at dairy conferences, and in the factories themselves. This has already been done in New York with satisfactory results. The dairy schools established in several States are doing excellent work, and the in- fluence of their graduates is showing itself in the dairy community at large. To these schools especially is due the credit of demonstrating the fallacj- of the old idea, responsible for so much unfortunate skimming, that considerable butter fat was nec- essarily lost in the process of making cheese. Instead, the principle has been estab- lished that no milk is too good for good cheese, none too rich for rich cheese. . . . "All forms of cheese, full cream, skimmed, and filled, should be so made or marked as to insure their identity all the way from place of manufacture to the consumer of the smallest fraction. Methods of accomplishing this can not be deter- mined without the fullest consideratien of the subject. But certain points are plain. The branding and marking of packages and wrappings is not enough. Distinguish- ing marks should be placed upon the cheese itself. And far better than a 8im])le stencil and easily obliterated bandage mark would be a sunken brand pressed into the top and bottom of every cheese, so that some of it would remain visible and serve for identification to the last pound of a cut cheese. This practical and effective method of marking is of Danish origin, ha.vingbeen successfully used there for years." In connection with this branding it is suggested that the approxinuite fat content of the milk from which the cheese was made should also be indicated. "Such a system of branding pure, whole-milk (or ' full-cream") cheese would be simple and practicable, and would result in grading the cheese product in such a way as to show at once its relative merits, proi)er making and curing being assumed. The grade branp. 197-200). The spaying of co'ws, Lermat {Jonr. Agr. Vrai. ; ahs. in Milch Zig., Seut. landw. Fresse, 23 (1896), Xo. 92, pp. 816, 817). — A popular article on the advantages of testing the differ- ent cows of a herd, and citing some results of such tests from published accounts. Directions for using the Babcock milk test, H. Hayward and M. E. McDonnell (Pennsylvania Sta. lipf. 1895, i)p. 90-100, jigs. 5). — Detailed specific directions are given for testing milk, cream, and skim milk by the Babcock method, together with a list of the precautions to be observed. To aid in securing properly graduated test bot- tles, pipettes, and dairj- thermometers the station offers to supply tested apparatus, one piece of each to each applicant, at a reasonable price. New milk pasteurizing apparatus in Denmark, A. Lavalle (Milch Zig., 26 (1897), Xo. 8, pp. 116-118, figs. 4). Cow-milking machine, M. J. Cushman (0^'ci«i Gaz. V. S. Patent Office, 78 (1897), Xo. 12, p. 1813, fig. 1). Milking machines (Milch Ztg., 26 (1879), Xo. 3, pp. 35-37, figs. J).— Illustrated descriptions of the Thistle, De Laval, and Sierasgliiss machines. Experiments with the Bergdorfer Alfa B hand separator and the new Melotte patent milk centrifugal, E. Ramm (Milch Ztg., 26 (1897), Xo. 4, jyp. 52-54, figs.f,). DAIRY FARMING DAIRYING. 835 Centrifugal liquid separator, C. J. Lindstuom {Official Oaz. F. S. Patent Office, 7S {1897), Xo. 12, p. /Sni.fuj. /).— A cream separator. The treatment and use of skim milk, Dk Wekktii (Ztuchr. landw. Ver. Rhein- preussni, lU {lS9i:), Xos. 49. pji. 409-411; oo, pp. 417-419).— A popular article. Loss of butter during working, R. Eichloff (Milch Ztf/., :?G {1897), No. (!, pp. S3, 84). Behavior of the different acids of butter toward fungi, T. Bokokny (Milch Ztg., .'6 (1897), No. 2, pp. 18,19). Some important experiments, D. Long (Af/l. Oaz. [/>o»k/o«], 4') (1897), Xo. 1208, p. 17;.'). — Review of work of Wisconsin Station with Bacillus 41^ and added notes. J3utter-making systems, C. T. D. Acland (Agl. Guz. [London'\, 45 (1897), No. 1209, p. 21)0). The action of the temperature used in the curing of cheese on the number of bacteria in the milk and the cheese, E. de Freldeniieich (Ann. Soc. Micros. BcUjv, 1895, No. 10, pp. 445-45.]). Investigation on the course of fermentation in the manufacture of Emmen- thaler cheese, C. Baciilkr (Schiceiz. latidw. Ccntbl., 1896, Nos. 1-4; aha. in Milch Ztg., 25 {1890), No. 33, p. 525). The manuafcture of soft cheeses, Metalinkoff and V. Hocdet (lnl. Agr. Yearbook 1895, pp. 403-502, fig. 1). — This is a historical account of the services rendered to agriculture by Edmund Ruffin, who was born in Virginia in 1794. He was a strong advocate of the use of lime, and based his opinion on experiments conducted by himself as well as on the writings of others. "His reasons for the use of marl, gained from his experience and study, were two in number. He believed that the addition of marl corrected the natural acidity of the soil, and that it assisted in the preservation of organic manures from loss of the gaseous products of decomposition while hastening the decomposition itself. He foreshadowed to a great degree the discoveries of later years with reference to the action of soil bacteria; for, as is now well known, certain of the nitrifying organ- isms in the soil are capable of action only in neutral or alkaline soils, and thrive best in the presence of a small amount of alkali. . . . "Edmund Ruffin conducted his experiments with such attention to details and with such a truly scientific method of preparation and iilanuing that we may look on his work as some of the best done in the country. He certainly was ahead of the investigators of the day. He i^roved by experimentation not only that the prac- tice of the farmer is often ahead of the proof of the theorist, but that the work of the theorist is often of great practical benefit to the farmer." NOTES, Arizoxa Station.— Joliu H. Martin, of Tucson, has been appointed a member of the governing board, vice E. R. Monk. The station will conduct quite extensive experiments with sugar beets during the present season, with cooperative experi- ments throughout the Territory. Idaho College and Station. — The substations at Grangeville, Idaho Falls, and Nampa have been discontinued and the personal property removed to the station at Moscow. The newly organized governing board is constituted as follows: J. H. Forney, of Moscow, president; F. Martin, of Boise, vice-president; J. G. Brown, of Pocatello, secretary; P. A. Regan, of Boise, treasurer; F. E. Cornwall, of Moscow; D. M. Eckman, of Vollmer; Mrs. M. J. Whitman, of Montpelier; A. Turney, of Idaho City, and A. F. Parker, of Grangeville. L.F.Henderson and J. M. Aldiich, botanist and entomologist, respectively, of the station, have been appointed members of the State board of horticultural inspection. A law for the extermination of insects and weed pests was passed at the recent session of the legislature and provisions made for the inspection of the fruit trees exposed for sale, the orchards, and the fruits in the market, with a view to preventing the spread of insect pests. Iowa College and Station. — James Wilson has been granted indefinite leave of absence to assume the duties of Secretary of Agriculture. C. F, Curtiss has been chosen director and professor of agriculture, James W. Wilson and Charles D. Reed assistants in agriculture, and Joseph J. Edgerton instructor- in agricultural physics. Oklahoma College and Station. — Dale Lytton, of Stillwater, has been appointed a member of the board of regents of the college, vice S. H. Kelsey. The other mem- bers of the board have been reappointed. 838 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, EDITED IJY A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director, AND E. \V. Ali.rn, Pu. D., Assisfaiit Director — Clieiiiistry, Dairy Earniiiiff. and Dairyiiiir. W. II. JiK.VL — Meteoroloi-y, Fcrtili/tn-.s (iiu-huliug metbods of analysis), Soils, and Agricultural Engineer in g. Wai.tki; H. Evans, Pii. D. — IJotany and Diseases of Plants. C. F. Langworthy, Pii. D. — Foods and Animal Production. F. C. Kknyox, Ph. D. — Entomology and Veterinary Seieuee. R. A. Emehson — Horticulture. J. I. SciiCLTE — Field Crops. AVitli the cooperation of the scientific divisions of the Department and the Abstract Coramitlee of the Association of Official Agricultural Cliemists. CONTENTS of Vol. VIII, No. lo. Editorial notes: . rage. Agricultural appropriation bill 83ft Important investigations on the preservation and management of barn- yard manure 840 A review of publications on agricultural botany issued in France during 1896, E. Gain 811 Recent work in agricultural science 851 Notes 1»38 SUBJECT LIST OF ABSTRACTS. CHEMISTRY. The qiiantitativ^e separation of wheat proteids, G. L.Teller 8.") I A proteose of wheat, T. 15. Osl)oriie ^56 Preparation of soluble starch and starch solution, O. Foorster 857 A new method for the (juantitativo determination of crude (ibor, Lcbbiu 857 A nu)dilication of Stutzor's method for the dotermiuatiou of alburainoict nitro- gen in substances rich in starch, 11. Try Her 8;»8 The fiuantitativo determination of perchlorate iu saltpeter, F. Wiuteler 859 Recognition of perchlorate in saltpeter, Erck ^*>*^ The nu'ciianical analysis of basic phosphatic slags, II. W. Wiley 860 Critical studies of the volumetric analypis of the caustic alkalies and alkaline ' carbonates and the use of phenolphthalciu and methyl orange as indicators, F. W. Iviister 860 Recovery of waste platinum chlorid, II. W.Wiley ^*»1 I IT CONTENTS. Page. Report of the chemist, R. C. Kedzic 863 Changes in and additions to methods of analyses adopted at the thirteenth aunnal meeting of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, H. W. Wiley 863 r.OTANY. The germination of harley with restricted moisture, T. C.Day 863 Effect of stem ringing on hroad-leavod, deciduous trees. A. D. Richardson 864 The production of inoculating materials (Nitragin; for use in agriculture, J. A. Yoelcker 865 Report of the consulting hotanist, C.F.Wheeler 866 ]MKT^"OI!OLOGY. The influence of the weather on sugar-heet crops during 1891-'95, W. Rimpau,. 868 Meteorological observations at Michigan Agricultural College, 1894, R. C. Kedzie 870 WATER — SOILS. The reduction of nitrates in cultivated soil, P. P. Deherain 870 On the question of the nitrification of soils, Kochenovski 871 FERTILIZERS. Experiments on the pre.servation of harnyard manure, B. E. Dietzell 872 The fertilizing value and the preservation of nitrogen of harnyard nuinure, J. Aehy, R. Dorsch, F. Matz, and P.Wagner 873 Contribution to the subject of the changes occurring in the decomposition of nitrogenous organic substances, T. Pfeiffer, E. Franke, C. Giitze, and H. Thurmann v 875 The improvement of light lauds by green manuring 880 Chemical experiments toward rendering available the phosphoric acid of min- eral phosphates, F. T. Shutt 877 Fertilizers 877 Fertilizer control, H. B. Battle 879 Analyses of commercial fertilizers, F. W. Woll 880 The decomposition of organic matter and the humus compounds 38 related to the culture of the soil, E. Wollny 879 FIELD CROrS. Experiments with crimson clover to study the influence of time of seeding 881 Experiments with corn, 1896, J. F. Duggar 881 Fertilizer experiments with corn on muck land, C. D. Smith 882 Field experiments with fertilizers 883 Grasses and forage plants of the Dakotas, T. A. Williams 883 Millet, A. A. Crozier 885 Essex rape and crimson clover, II. H. Hortou 883 Report of the agriculturist, C. D. Smith 883 A study of a rotation for dairy farms 884 Practical suggestions in reference to systematic and economical methods of using barnyard and chemical manures 885 HORTICULTURE. Field experiments with fertilizers . . . ., 885 Edible fungi, L. M. Underwood 886 CONTENTS. Ill Page. Experiments with muUbing, 1>. 1). Ilalsted 886 Fruit statistics, A. T. Jordau 880 Field L'X])erimeiits with fertilizers upon poach trees, S. S. Voorhees 887 Failure of pears to mature, B. D. Ilalsted 887 Report of horticulturist, J. Ci'aig 887 Experimeuts with fertilizers on cranberries 888 Rei»ort of the horticulturist, J. T. .Stinsou 889 Report of the horticulturist, L. E. Taft 889 SEEDS — WEEDS. Report of the seed-coutrol station at Vienna, Austria, 189.5-'9t;, T. Ritter von Weiuzierl 891 Tests of the vitality of grain and other seeds, W. Saunders 891 Work with weeds, B. D. Halsted 892 DISEASES OF PLANTS. Report of the botanist, 13. D. Halsted 892 A bacterial disease of the tomato, eggjilaut, and Irish potato, E. F. Smith . .. 895 Pear blight, J. T. Stinson 899 SiJraying experiments, J. Craig 897 ENTOMOLOGY. The apiary : Report for year ending June 30, 1895, R. L. Taylor 900 Report of the entomologist, J. B. Smith 903 Report of the consulting entomologist, G. C. Davis 905 Report of the entomologist and botanist of the Canada Experimental Farms, J. Fletcher 905 The Australian sugar-cane pest {Leiiidiota sqiiamulaUi), H. Tryon 90H Fruit-tree borers, A. Craw 907 Locust destruction in Natal 907 Report on the phylloxera in Hungary during the years 1891-'93 907 Eel worm (Tylenchus dcvasiatrix), E. A. Ormerod 908 Injurious insects, E. A. Ormerod 908 Insects, J. T. Stinson 909 The Mexican cotton boll weevil, L. O. Howard 912 On the parasites of the diseased and healthy silkworm, a contribution to tlie study of flacherie, grasserie, and pebrine, I. Krasilshtshik 909 FOODS — ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Concerning wheat and its mill products, G. L. Teller 913 Composition of tln^ ash of wheat and its mill products, G. L. Teller 9U Experiments to determine the coefticients of digestibility of grain by hens, J. Kalugine - - 915 The fattening of cattle, J. W. Robertson 916 Feeding cattle, S. A. Bedford 916 Sheep feeding, C. D. Smith 924 Feeding sheaf wheat to pigs and steers, II. T. French 917 Feeding potatoes to i>igs, H. T. French 918 Swine feeding, C. D. Smith 919 Feeding of swine, .1. W. Robertson 921 Report of poultry manager, A. a. ( iilbert 922 Poultry department, C. D. Smith 924 IV CONTENTS. Poultry, S. A. Bedford 923 Flour cousidered from the standpoint of nutrition, L. M. Underwood 923 VETEUINARY SCIENCE ANU PRACTICE. Experimental studies of the Koch test for tuberculosis, J. Nelson 924 Further experiments with an attenuated tuberculosis bacillus, E. A. de Schweiuitz aud ¥.. C. Schroeder 926 Tlie growth of the tuberculosis bacillus upon acid media, E. A. de Schweinitz and M. Dorset 926 Serum diagnosis of hog cholera, C. F. Dawson 927 Keport of the commissioners on diseases of domestic animals, 1896 927 A study of skin tumors of horses and mules in Alabama, S. L. Coleman 928 DAIRY FARMING — DAIRYING. The amount of albuminoids precipitated from milk by heating, P. Solomin.. . 929 Kajmak, A. Zega 929 A case of bitter milk and its cure, Dammann 930 Fodder corn aud straw compared with native hay for feeding milch cows, 8. A. Bedford 930 The dairy 930 College herd 931 The effect of tuberculin injections upon the milk of healthy and diseased cows, E. A. de Schweinitz 931 A comparison of the Babcock test aud the graviuietric method of estimating fat in skim milk, E. H. Farrington 932 The alkaline tablet test of acidity in milk or cream, E. H. Farrington 933 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Earthen dams, S. Fortier 934 Devices for obtaining a constant flow in laterals with variable heads in the main canals or reservoirs, A. M. Ryon 935 Traction tests, S. T. Nedy 935 Progress of road construction in the United States 936 STATISTICS. Agricultural products imported and exported by the United States in the years ended June 30, 1892 to 1896, inclusive 936 Sources of the principal agricultural imports of the United States during the five years ended June 30, 1896 936 Freight charges for ocean transportation of the products of agriculture, Octo- ber 1, 1895, to October 1, 1896 937 Eeports of director and treasurer of Michigan Station, 1895 937 Ninth Annual Report of Mississippi Station, 1896 937 Reports of director aud treasurer of New Jersey Stations, 1895 937 The work during 1895 of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station . 937 Ninth Annual Report of South Dakota Station, 1896 937 Civil service iu the Department of Agricultnre, C. W. Dabuey, jr 937 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ABSTRACTED. Experiment Stations in the United States: Alabama College Station: Bulletin 72, July, 1896 928 Bulletin 73, October, 1896 886 Bulletin 74, October, 1896 923 Bulletin 75, December, 1896 881 CONTENTS. V Experimeut Stations m tlio I'liitcd States — Continued. Arkansas Stat ion : Pag»«. Bulletin 42, October, 189G 854, 913, 914 Bulletin 43, 1 )ecenil)or, 189(J SSy, 899, 909 Michigan Station : , Annual Report, 1895 . . 8(i0, 870. 882, 883, 885, 889, 900, 905, 919, 924, 930, 931, 937 Mississippi Station: Ninth Annual Report. 189(i f)37 Montana Station : Bulletin 11, .hine, 189^) 035 New .Tersey Stations: Annual Report, 1895 . . 877, 880, 881, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 892, 903, 924, 937 North Carolina Sration : Eighteenth Annual Report, 1895 879,937 Oregon Station : Bulletin 42, March, 1896 917,918 South Dakota Station : Ninth Annu.il Report, 1896 937 Utah Station : Bulletin 46, November, 1896 934 Wisconsin Station : Bulletin 52, .Inly, 1896 932, 933 Bulletin 53, .July, 1896 880 United States Department of Agriculture: Division of Agrostology: Bulletin 6 883 Bureau of Animal Industry: Bulletin 13 926,931 Division of Chemistry: Circular 2 863 OfiScc of Experiment Stations: Circular 33 937 Section of Foreign Markets : Circular 11 936 Circular 12 936 Ofihce of Road In(|uiry: Bulletin 19 936 Bulletin 20 935 Division of Statistics: Bvilletin 12 (miscellaneous series) 937 Division of Vegetublo Physiology and Pathology: Bulletin 12 «!'5 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, Vol. Vlll. >,'(j_ n)^ The act of Congress making- appropiiatious for the United States De- partment of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending- June 30, 1898, carries the following general items: For the Office of the Secretary, $87,100; Weather Bureau, -$883,702; Bureau of Animal Industry, $755,()10; Agricultural Experiment Stations, $755,000, including $30,000 for the Oflice of Experiment Stations and $5,000 to "investigate and report to Congress upon the agricultural resources and capabilities of Alaska, with sjjecial reference to the desirability and feasibility of the estab- lishment of agricultural experiment stations in said Territory, as has been done in other States and Territories, and the selection of suitable locations for such stations;" Division of Statistics, $145,100, including $10,000 for continuing the investigations on foreign markets; Division of Botany, -$23,800; Division of Agrostology, $18,100; Division of For- estry, $28,520; Division of Pomology, $14,500; Division of Vegetable Physiology and l^athology, $20,500; Division of Biological Survey, $27,500; Division of Entomology, $29,500; Division of Chemistry, $29,500; Division of Soils, $16,300; Nutrition Investigations, $15,000; Fiber Investigations, $5,000; Public-Road Inquiries, $8,000; Division of Seeds, $130,000; Division of Publications, $85,260, of which $35,000 is for Farmers' Bulletins and $10,960 for the Document Section; Divi- sion of Accounts and Disbursements, $16,300; Experimental Gardens and Grounds, $27,500; Library, $13,960; Museum, $4,000; fuiniture, cases, repairs, postage, and contingent expenses, $37,000. The total appropriation under this act is $3,182,902. To this amount may be adde«l $85,000 available for printing and binding the ndscella- neous i)ublications of the Department, and the appropriation for print- ing the Yearbook of the Department, amounting to about $300,000. Both of the latter funds are contained in the general appropriation for printing. Of the Department appropriation proper, approximately $1,170,000 is for nse directly in conducting scientilic investigations in agriculture under the immediate supervision of the Department. Adding to this the $720,000 for maintaining agricultural experiment stations iti the several States and Territories, gives the munificent sum of $1,8!)0,000 appropriated by the Federal Government for tlic promotion of agricid- ture by means of investigation and experimentation during the year 1897-'9S, an amount which far exceeds that appropriated by any other Government in the world for this purpose. 839 840 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. The scientific basis upon wliich tLe best and most ecouomical methods of managing barnyard inanure rest has claimed much attention recently from a number of the most prominent scientific men of the old world. The i)resent and the preceding numbers of the Kecord contain abstracts of reports on this subject by Deherain, Dietzell, Maercker, Wagner, Pfeiffer, and others. A recent number of Die landunrthschaftliclien Yersuchs-Stationen is devoted exclusively to the subject, and French and other foreign agricultural journals are giving much space to it. Kecent effort has been very largely directed to the practical end of simplifying methods of management and preservation, for it is clearly understood that only the fertilizing matter of barnyard manure is in so dilute and bulky a form that only the simplest methods of manipulation can be i)rofitably applied to it. The object sought is a very simple and definite one, but the means by which it is to be attained must be developed by scientific investigation of the most complex and comprehensive kind. The changes which manure undergoes, which it induces in the soil, and Avhich deter- mine to a large extent its fertilizing value, are mainly the work of nucroorganisms. A study of these changes therefore re(piires not only most careful work on the part of the chemist, but also i)ainstaking study on the part of the bacteriologist; and since the conclusions reached by these experts must be confirmed by actual tests in the field, the investigation of this subject furnishes an opportunity for profit- able cooperative work by at least three departments of an experiment station. Since the direct fertilizing value of manure depends so largely on the nitrogen which it contains, it will be found that the investigators above referred to have given their attention mainly to a study of the avail- ability, changes, and causes and j^revention of loss of this element in manure. Probably the most interesting fact brought out is that coarse manure and litter, especially M heat straw, contain an active denitrifying organ- ism. It has been observed that when such material is liberally applied to the soil the available nitrates present are converted into unavailable forms, the application of manure resulting in many cases in a decreased rather than an increased yield of crop. It has been shown, however, that this effect is not likely to be noted unless manure is applied in unusually large amounts. Still, this is a subject of great scientific importance, and demands that in the study of methods of manage- ment of manure the effort should be made to develop systems of preservation which will not only prevent harmful changes in the nitro- gen, but also reduce to a minimum the activity of the denitrifying organisms, which may prove so injurious in the soil. A liVXUlW OV PliBLICATIOXS ON AGRICULTURAL r.OTAXY ISSULL) IN FRANCI: DURINi; iSoo. EuM<)Ni> Gain, Dean of (he Faciilti/ of the Uuiversiiy of Xannj (France). The extended adoption of Held tests lias done much to promote the introduction of scientific methods into practical agriculture. There is no comparison between the system of agricultural education in France twenty years ago and that found to-day. The sui)port given the Agri- cultural Institute of Paris has enabled it to train teachers of agriculture for the dirt'erent provinces of France, and these have had an important inrtuence in improving the ct>ndition of the farmers, aiding them with scientihc information relating to the improvement and cultivation of the soil, the selection and testing of seed, the use of fertilizers, and the treatment of i)Iant diseases and insect enemies. AVithin the past two or three years courses in agriculture liave been established in many of the colleges, and the number of special schools of practical agriculture is increasing, as well as the number of students in such courses. At the same time the number of publications relating to agricultural botany has increased. There is a necessity, however, for the establishment under proper restrictions of courses of agricultural education in the larger universities. While there are many stations for chemical analy- sis of soils and iertilizers in France, there are but two or three for investigation in vegetable pathology and for seed testing, and as a result French literature shows a scarcity of works upon these lines. A periodical resume of the work imblished along dillerent lines of investigation will serve to show what is being done and what could be profitably undertaken. In the present paper a review is given of the publications appearing in France during the past year upon agricul- tural botany, the literature being classified under the following heads: Physiological botany, vegetable chemistry, vegetable i)athology, cul- ture, and vegetable products. More than 200 publications on these topics are noted. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Through the work of Liebig and Boussingault we know tlie mineral elements entering into the structure of plants. Jlaulin' in his studies on Aspcrf/illH.s ut;/cr determined the elements which are essential to growth and the relative importance of each in intluencing the increase 'Ann. 8ci. uat. Bot., eer. 5, 11 (1869), p. 190. 841 842 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. ill weight of plants. The same author ' has supplemented his earlier work by his investigations on the influence of different proportions of fertilizing elements upon increase in M^eight. lie found that unless the total amount of fertilizing materials was excessive, an excess of one constituent over another was not detrimental, since part of the excess was not used by the plant. Part of the constituent is used to increase the yield of the crop, but not as much as would have been taken up had it been present in proper proportion. Yields of plants may be increased by increasing the amount of complete fertilizers applied up to a certain limit. This limit, however, is raiher high, it being x>ossible to increase twenty times the amount of fertilizer com- monly used. The increase in yield is at first nearly proportional to the increased amount of fertilizer applied, but gradually becomes less and less, until it disappears and the fertilizer becomes injurious. Plants in poor soil are better adapted to the utilization of small quantities of fertilizers than large amounts. A natural soil gives up its fertilizing materials very slowly, and so its reserve of fertility may be retained for a long time. The conclusions of Eaulin's work explain some facts often observed in practice, notably that good results on poor soils follow the applica- tion of small quantities of chemical fertilizers. The question of the nitrogen nutrition of plants has received much attention. Miintz^ hasstudiedthe extent to which atmospheric ammonia aids in the nutrition of plants. Schlossing in 1874 demonstrated that gaseous ammonia may be absorbed by leaves. The recent work of Miintz shows that astriugent substances in the ijlant, acid salts, and free acids are able to fix ammonia. The amount of atmospheric ammo- nia taken up annually i)er hectare is about 10 kg. for maize and arti- chokes and 2 to 3 kg. for oats, sugar beets, and grai)evines and an equal amount of nitrogen is carried down in the rain water, but this does not indicate that nitrogenous fertilizers may be disi)ensed with. Ammonia once fixed is not liberated, but enters into the i)rocesses of synthesis under the influence of light. This phenomenon is associated with resi)iration and assimilation. The ammonia of the air does not play a very important role, but this is not true of the free nitrogen of the air. Continuing the researches of Berthelot, Hellriegel, Wilfarth, Winogradsky, Deherain, and Schloss- ing and Laurent, R. Bouilhac ' has studied the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by bacteria and algte. His experiments show that Schi.zothrix lardacea and Ulothrix flaccida are unable to grow in nutrient solutions lacking nitrogen, even when associated with various soil bacteria. On the other hand, Xostoc punctifonnc is able to fix free nitrogen. This plant compares with the Leguminoste in being especially rich in 'Ann. Sci. Agron., ser. 2, auu. 2, 1 (1896), p. 404. "Ibid., p. 161. 3Compt. Rend., 123 (1896), p. 828. PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN FRANCE. 843 nitrogen. It seems possible that within a few years we shall know the role of free atuiospheric nitrogen in the nutrition of many of the lower plants. L. Mangin,' whose early investigations on respiration are well known, has continued his experiments, studying the eflect of abnormal res- piration. Experiments conducted with plants in an atmosphere containing an excess of carbon dioxid and a deficiency of oxygen showed that respiration and growth were notably checked. This is true of plants whose seeds have an oleaginous reserve rather than of starchy seeds. The same author^ in his studies on the growth of plants in relation to soil aeration has obtained results applicable to tree planting in large towns, namely, that compacted soils are less aerated than those covered with asphalt. Un<1er the intluence of irrigation which renders soil more compact, the quantity of carbon dioxid in the soil atmosphere may increase to IG to 24 per cent. The experiments of Jentys, Bochm, and others have shown that 4 per cent of carbon dioxid in the soil is detrimental to the growth of many plants. The author constructed apparatus for taking samples of the air of the soil and made numerous examinations of it which are reported. He reviews the work of agronomists and hygienists, and discusses the Flemish and Vienna tile drainage systems of aeration and recommends (1) the use of such systems in connection with a system of dee]) drainage and (2) that in case of very tine humus soil stones and gravel be applied in order to increase the permeability of the soil and diminish the evil effects of packing. By this procedure it is thought that the mortality of the trees of parks and promenades, which in Paris annually amounts to 17 per cent for chestnut trees, 2.3 per cent for plane trees, 3.G ])er cent for locusts, and 0 for lindens, might be reduced to from 0.5 to 2 per cent. W. Palladine ' has continued his work on the correlation between the respiration of plants and their content of nitrogenous substances. For a given temperature and with a sufficient quantity of carbo- hydrates the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxid given off by many plants in an hour and the quantity of undigested nitrogen is constant. Besearch of this nature will be more useful later, when our knowledge of organic synthesis is more advanced. A. Bach/ in his work on the chemical mechanism of the reduction of nitrates and the formation of quaternary nitrogenous compounds, has shown how little we know of this subject. P^rmaldoxime is evidently the first quater- nary compound in the reduction of nitric acid by formic aldehyde, but the ultimate formation of formamid is not demonstrate>, ]>. 1. 3 Rev. gf'n. I?ot., 8 (1806), p. 225. ^Compt. RciKl., 122 (1806), p. 1190. f Ann. Inst, rastonr, 10 (1806), p. 129. 844 EXPERIMENT STATION EECORD. field in vegetable pbysiology. According to his conclusions there are certain biological eflfects of light which demand examination. The direct action of light upon certain physiological phenomena is but little known. C.Flammarion' has reported the results of investigations on the effect of different colors on the growth of plants. Mesnard'^ has shown the influence of light on the liberation of the perfume of flowers. According to his results light, and not oxygen, is the principal cause of the transformation and destruction of per- fumes. The intensity of the perfume of a flower at any given time depends upon the equilibrium established between the i)ressure of the water in the cells which tends to expel the perfume already contained in the cells of the epidermis and the action of the light which combats this turgescence. In the memoir giving the detailed results ■ as well as in i)revious papers^ numerous graphic curves are given which show the influence of the factors which determine the intensity of perfumes. The results are applicable Avhere plants are grown for their x)erfume. Another memoir worthy of attention is that of Maqueiine-' on the role of osmosis in plants. All soluble bodies accumulate at points in the living organism where there is a lowering of the osmotic pressure. The accumulation of sugar in beets is explained by the author. Cer- tain experiments of Pfeffer'' have been utilized to indirectly measure the forces developed by seed while swelling. Morosow' has thrown some light on the chemical changes in germinating seed by his studies on the decomposition of albuminoids during germination. He combats the opinions of Borodine and Pfefter, accei)ting Boussingault's conclu- sion that asparagin is an excretory product. He shows the retarding influence of nonnitrogenous materials and the accelerating efl'ect of calcium salts on the decomposition of the albuminoids of seed during their germination. Numerous experiments have been conducted to ascertain the effect of electricity on plant growth, but the results have often been contra- dictory. It seems, however, that plants derive some benefit from the action of electricity. Thouvenin'' has made investigations in this line which may be of great value in greenhouse culture. Tn his preliminary investigations he undertook to establish the effect of continuous electric currents on the decomposition of carbon dioxid by plants. The organic matter of plants is about 50 per cent carbon, and it is therefore inter- esting to see the eftect of electricity on the assimilation of carbon. 1 Bui, Mill. Agr. France, 15 (1896), p. 273 (E. S. R., 8, p. 26). 2Compt. Reud., 122 (1896), p. 491. 3 Rev. g6n. Bot., 8 (1896), pp. 129, 203. , " Aun. sci. uat. Bot., ser. 7, 18 (1893), p. 257; Rev. g^n. Bot., 6 (1894), p. 97. 5Auu. Agron., 22 (1896), p. 5. fiCompt. Reud., 123 (1896), p. 898. 'Ann. Sci. Agion., ser. 2, anu. 2, 1 (1896), p. 425. »Rev. gen. Bot., 8 (1896), p. 433. PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN FRANCE. 845 According to the author, this assiinihitiou is favored through the ac- celerated decomposition of carbon dioxid. His later results indicate that the electric current has an influence on respiration. Considering the ease with which electric currents may be applied, it is surprising that these exi)eriments have not been nuUtiplied with a view to their practical application in the growth of crops. For a well-equipped station this is a profitable line of investigation. One of the most important publications of the year is that of Uerthe- lot and Andrd' on recent investigations on the growth of plants. The general study of the formation of organic inattor — tliat is, the gradual lixation of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the mineral com- pounds— has been considered by the authors^ in a previous paper. In this the jn'oldems and methods of analysis are stated, and it is shown how it was possible to chemically define the plant at the different peri- ods of its growth. An attempt is made to establish "a general equa- tion for the idanf and its successive growths both with respect to elementary composition and jn'oximate constituents. This is one of the first attempts to make an exact chemical study of the i)lant in its entirety and to determine the relative weights of its various parts and constituents in comparison with the total. The results of 4 years' experiments at the station for ])lant chemistry at Meudon are reported. The plants grown were white lui)ine, wheat, alfalfa (annual except in one series in which it was grown from old roots), and Idack locust with which only those parts removed each year, such as leaves, flowers, and fruits, were taken into account. In these experiments both the proximate and the ultimate constitu- ents were determined. The plants were analyzed at different funda- mental periods iu their development, viz, seed, first leaf, fiowering, fruiting, and maturity. From the analytical data it is possible to com- l)ute the atomic relations iu terms of 6 atoms of carbon, according to the hypothesis that the greater part of the insoluble matter iu i)lants is made up of compounds containing C,,. The conclusions reached by the use of this method were that the relative and absolute amount of carbon is greatest in the leaves. In the roots and stems the relative amount of carbon' is the same, Avhile the absolute amount is consider- ably larger in the stems than in the roots. The relative amount of hydrogen is greatest in the leaves and least in the stems. The stems, then, must be considered the seat of oxidation, while the leaves are in a continual state of reduction. Moreover, in the leaves is found the greatest absolute amount of hydrogen and the minimum in the roots. The relative and absolute amounts of albuminoids are greatest in the leaves, least in the stems, and intermediate in the roots. From this it would appear that the most rai)id oxidation goes on in the stems, less in the roots, and least of all iu the leaves. There is shown to bo an excess ' Aiiu. Chilli. (,'t Pliys., ser. 7, 9 (ISftfi), VV.'>, 115. ^ Ann. Cliim. ct I'bys.^ ser. 6, 5 (1885), pp. 385, 3"Jli. 846 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. of total liydrogen over that in the carbohydrates iu the different parts of the plant. This excess is least, i^-, in the stem ; more marked, j., iu the root; and | in the leaves. If from the total hydrogen the amount of hydrogen represented by the am ids and carbohydrates be subtracted, the excess in the roots is ecjual to about ^ of that in the amids and ;jV of the total hydrogen. In the stems there may be no excess or even a deficiency. This implies a disappearance of fatty substances and a degree of oxidation surpassing that of the carbohydrates. In the leaves the excess of hydrogen is nearly equal to that of the amids and 4 times as great as the hydrogen in the carbohydrates. The jiroportion of albumiuods to nonnitrogenous matter is lowest in the stem — 1:7, 1:4 in the root, and 1:2 in the leaves, showing that the nitrogenous material is partially oxidized in passing through the stem and restored to its original form in the leaves. These results were obtained during the earlier stages of vegetative growth when the processes of growth were very simple and were not complicated by the more complex processes accompanying reproduction. The results for the other stages of plant growth are tabulated and briefly summar /ed by the authors, as well as data for the variations in the principal fertilizing constituents in the plant (phosphoric acid, liotash, lime, etc.). The general conclusions of Berthelot and Andre relating to the variation in the weight of lupines agree with those of Jumelle^ in his work on the development of annual plants, and those more recently graphically presented by Gain.^ At the outset the var- iation in weight is slight, and there is some loss of organic material, while on the contrary there is a considerable gain in mineral con- stituents. The fats are i)artly consumed, lime and potash increase considerably, and the phosphorus diminishes. The weight of the plants quadrupled iu the first 3 weeks by simple nutrition, the organic material increasing much more rapidly than the mineral matter. At this stage the roots formed r, the weight of the plant and contained the maximum amount of mineral matter. The production of carbo- hydrates was more ra])id than that of the nitrogenous principles. The mineral constituents, especially potash, increased. During the next 3 weeks, until the time of flowering, the weight of the plant again quadrupled. The distribution of the mineral matter was greatly modified and the proportion diminished. During the 2 weeks of flowering growth was very slow and was confined to the production of organic matter, which is subsequently used in fructification. For wheat the progress of vegetation was identical with that of lupines. In the same manner the authors have reported upon the proc- esses of growth in alfalfa and the black locust. Attention is called to the work of Leclerc du Sablon ' on the forma- tion of nonnitrogenous reserve matter in walnuts and almonds, and that 1 Rev. ge'n. Bot., 1889. ' Ann. sci. nat. Bot., ser. 1, 20 (1895), p. 63. ■■' Compt. Rend., 123 (1896), p. 1081. PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN FRANCE. 847 of Coupin' on tbe absorption and transpiration of water by seed both at tlie time of s\v<'llin,o- and at maturity. Numerous experiments are described and «>rapliie curves obtained with an automatic registering apiiaratua are given. E. Gain'^ has described a method of seed selection based upon the observation that the most fertile soils do not prodwce seed that are the most prolific. Eaulin ' has demonstrated experimentally that one of the lactors in seed variation is changing the soil with each gen- eration. A change in the chemical nature of the soil is beneficial, the maximum and minimum inHuence depending upon the order of succes- sion of the dirterent tyi)cs of soils, such as humus, sand, clay, and cal- careous. Hence, in the selection of seeds the general character and the chemical nature of the soil on which tiiey were produced should be taken into account, for it is believed that to this lUctor is due the vari ous cultivated races. Parmentier^ has established certain general rules for recognizing the parentage of certain long-established races and for finding the original stock of a variety. He studied the anatomical characters qualitatively and quantitatively, and was able in many cases to distinguish doubtful and disputed species in this way. In the domain of anatomy and experimental physiology especial attention is called to the work of C. Dassonville"' on the action of salts on the form and structure of plants. The results obtained are capable of direct application to agriculture. The experiments were made with lupines, rye, wheat, maize, potatoes, buckwheat, hemp, ilax, colza, etc. Water cultures were made by Knop's method, and controlled by check cultures in soil, by withholding or adding successively different salts, such as calcium nitrate, nitrate of potash, phosphate of potash, and sulphate of magnesia. Interesting results bearing upon the anatom- ical structure of the resultant plants were obtained. They throw new light upon the ipiestion of the evolution of plant forms under the inHu- ence of environment. Finally, attention is called to the work of Clos*^ on the external char- acteristics of the tubercles of Leguminosu' and the mode of distin- guishing between them, which concludes his work on the revision of the tubercles of the Leguminosse.' PLANT rnEMISTRY. The subject of plant chemistry will be considered umler 3 heads, physiological chemistry, general chemistry of plants, and analytical chemistry. 'Ann. sci. nat. Bot., ser.8, 2 (1896), p. 129. niev. Ri'u. l?.)t., 8 (1896), ]>. :W3 (E. S. R., 8, p. 288). •'Ann. 8ci. Agron., .ser. 2, ann. 2, 1 (1S9C). p. :U1 (E. S. R., 8, p. 288). ■•Socontl memoir, Conipt. Rend. Congr. Soc. Savantea, Sec Sciences, IH9C,, lU)l.,]»p. 44, 128. :$<1 memoir, Ann. soi. nat. Bot., ser. 8, 2 (1896), pp. 1-36. First memoir. Soc. d'Acclimation du DonW.s, 1895. ••Rev. s6u. Bot., 8 (189G), pp. 284, 324. "Compt. Rend., 123 (1896), p. 407. 'Mem. Acad. Sci. et Lettre Toulouse, 1893. 848 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Physiological chemistry. — A question of great importance in pliysi- ology is tlie origin of the nitrogenous principles of plants.. The oxida- tion of organic matter, especially nitrification, is an important subject for investigation. Dehoraiu and Demoussy^ have continued their investigations upon the maximum activity of ferments under the combined influence of heat and humidity. In vegetable mold this maximum was reached with a water content of 17 i^er cent and a temperature ranging from 22 to 44° C. and in garden soil with 25 per cent water and 22° C. At 44° the activity of the bacteria was checked, providing the water content of the soil remained constant at from 17 to 25 per cent. Marcille,^ in his investigations on nitrification, found, as had already been shown by Winogradsky, that the activity of the ferments A^aried in different soils. In studying the comparative nitrification of phos- phate and sulphate of ammonia he found that the phosphate was no more favorable to the action of the nitrous ferment than the sulphate, but that it did seem to favor the transformation of nitrites into nitrates. BreaP has investigated the decomposition of vegetable mat- ter in the presence of water and soil. He made a study of vegetable infusions found in soils rich in organic remains. Water in contact with decaying v^egetation becomes crowded with bacteria, which attack the vegetable matter and produce ammonia. The excess of ammonia checks the activity of the microih'ganisms. In no case did the organ- isms produce more than 0.2 gm. of ammoniacal nitrogen per liter in the infusions. When an infusion containing these organisms is incorpo- rated in a lump of soil the ammonia is transformed into nitric acid at the surface, while ammonia accumulates at the center, since the organ- ism is incapable of activity in the absence of air. There is also a reduction of the nitric acid produced. A soil which has already nitri- fied the ammonia in an infusion with Avhich it has been watered is, on that account, more able to nitrify more ammonia, the activity of the nitric ferment seeming thus to be accelerated. Humus, Avhich is insol- uble in water, dissolves in these infusions on account of the ammonia secreted. The insolubility was restored by the introduction into the infusion of the nitric ferment contained in the soil. Less ammonia and more nitrate are found in a soil that has been mixed with vegetable debris than in the same soil if the litter is sim- ply spread upon the surface. When the ammonia in these infusions becomes sufficiently strong to kill the organisms producing it fungi develop on the surface and transform the ammonia into nitrogenous organic compounds. In meadows, peat beds, and in vegetable debris which accumulates in humid soils the nitric ferment is not present, but lungi of various kinds abound. Ammonia is taken up by the fungi 1 Ann. Agron., 22 (1896), p. 305. nbid., p. 337 (E. S. R., S, p. 569). Hbid., p. 362 (E. S. R., 8, p. 479). PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN FRANCE. 849 and the organisms which produce ammonia are capable of continuing? their activity, the fungi having removed the ammonia which checks or destroys the activity of the organisms producing it. These conclu- sions show the complexity of the phenomena produced hy the organ- isms of the soil and the difficulty of regulating them. The reduction of nitrates in arable soils has been studied by Breal,' and according to him the simple settling of soil should transform it from a nitrifying to a denitrifying medium, and inversely the addition of vegetable substances by lightening and separating the soil should increase the activity of nitrifying organisms. It has been found, how- ever, that, on account of the so-called straw ferment,- the addition of straw to the soil may result in denitritication. This is also the opin- ion of Wagner-' concerning the activity of denitrifying ferments. The experiments of Pagnoul and l)eh<''rain are in the same line. Among the investigations of the chemical phenomena owing their action to the intervention of soluble ferments produced by the plant may be mentioned the work of Bertrand* on the latex of Eh us spp., on laccase and its oxidizing power,^ and the investigations on the occur- rence of laccase in plants.'' He found laccase in the roots of beets, carrots, turnips, and dahlias; in the tubers of potatoes and artichokes; in the leaves of clover, beets, alfalfa, etc., and in the fiuit of apples, (juinces, etc. This widely distributed ferment has also been studied by Bourqnelot,' who has shown that laccase is a new type of diastase characterized by its strong oxidizing i)Ower, this i)roperty explaining the formation of certain perfumes of plants. The role of oxidizing ferments" is very important from the .standpoint of the chemical dynamics of the plant, and is a subject worthy of extended study. De Key Pailhade^ has shown the simultaneous existence of two oxidizing ferments, the laccase of Bertrand, which oxidizes tincture of guaiacum, and the ferment of Kohman and Spitzer, which produces indophenol in the presence of naphthol and paraphenylenediamiu in solution. Bertrand and Mallevre '" have shown the occurrence of pectase in the plant world. It would be of interest to pursue further the (piestiou of vegetable digestion as suggested by the work of V. Toulet." ' Ann. Agron., 22 (1896), p. 32 (E. S. R., 7, p. 663). •' Compt. Rend., 114 (1892), p. 681 (E. S. U., 3, p. 916). ='Deiit. lundw. Presse, 22 (189.->), pp. 91, 98, 123. * Compt. Keiul., 118 (1894), p. 121.5. ^' Compt. Keud., 120 (189.-)), p. 266. e Compt. Reml., 121 (189.->), p. Ifit!. ■ Bui. See. Biol., ser. 10, vol. 3, p. '.U'>. «Ann. A},non., 22 (1896), p. 116. ''Assoc. Vv. Av. .Sci., Conjures dc ('nitliiifjo, 1896, p. l.")3. '" Moniteur Quesiievillc, 12 ( 1X96), jt. 21.">. " Comi)t. Kend., 123 (1896), p. :!r)6. 175G1— No. 10 2 850 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. Heury^ Las published a bibliography and the conclusion of bis investigations on tannin in wood begun in 1887. He studied 28 species and has located the tannin in the bark, sapwood, and inner wood of the plant, and has shown the amounts present in each case. E. Mer^ has reviewed the question of the formation of duramen. In the course of its development the duramen fixes the tannin which impregnates the woody fibers of the older layers. The rannin gradu- ally oxidizes and thus imparts to the duramen its ch.iracteristic reddish brown tint. Gaston Bonnier-* made some experimental investigations on the sub- ject of honeydew. The more common honeydew — that produced by aphides and other insects— is levorotatovy. There is a honey of vege- table origin which differs from that produced by insects in its method of production, diurnal variation, and chemical comi^osition, and which is very similar in character to the nectar of flowers. Other Avorks merely to be cited here are those of G. Clautriau ^ on a chemical study of the glycogen in fungi and yeasts, and that of Berthelot'' on arabinose. General cliemistry of ])lants. — The contributions to this subject have been neither numerous nor important. Among the more important might be mentioned the recent investigations of Berthelot and Andre *^ relating to the decomposition of sugars under the influence of acids, and especially upon the production of carbonic acid; and that of Delepine" on the action of water on formic aldehyde, this substance being considered one of the stages in the assimilation of carbon. E. rieurent" has established the analogies and the dift'erences between the albuminoid products of animals and of plants. Gerber ^ has studied the chemical phenomena of the maturing of fruits, especially the gas exchanges between the acid fleshy fruits and the atmosphere during processes of maturity. P6re^" has investigated the combustion of ter- nary organic bodies. Analytical cliemistry. — In this class of investigations the determina- tion of nitrogen is of especial interest. Pagnoul'^ has made a study of the distribution of nitric nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen in the ditt'ereut plant organs. Xitric nitrogen diminishes as one advances toward the upx)er organs, while the total nitrogen increases. iBul. Soc. Bot. France, ser. 3, 3 (1896), p. 124. 2Compt. Rend., 122 (1896), p. 91. 3 Rev. g6n. Bot., 8 (1896), p. 5 (E. S. R., 7, p. 837). ■• Bui. Soc. Bot. France, ser. 3, 3 (1896), p. 236. 6 Compt. Rend., 123 (1896), p. 625. eConipt. Rend., 123 (1896), p. 567; Monitenr Qnesueville, 12 (1896), p. 907. ■> Ibid., p. 120. 8 Paris: Gautbier-Villars, 1896. 9 Assoc. Fr. Av. Sci., Cougres de Carthage, 1896, p. 178. 10 Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 10 (1896), p. 418. " Ann. Agron., 22 (1896), pp. 540, 543. PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN FRANCE. 851 A. Berg aud C. Gerber' have given a, method for the iiivestigatiouof orgauic acids in phints, based npon the action of sulphuric acid upon citric acid and on the solubility of ammonium malate in alcohol, aud have investigated oxalic, citric, and malic acids. Lindet,' by means of the variable solubility of the salts of quinin and cinchonin in methyl alcohol, has been able to identify and separate the principal acids contained in plants. Riviere ' has criticised the Kjeldahl method and ottered some sugges- tions for its perfection. C. Girard' has made a chemical study of the value of leaves for forage, it being a continuation of his previous Avork on the chemical composition of twigs used for forage. The chemical analyses indicated that the leaves were more nutritious than the twigs, comi^aring with alfalfa hay in nutritive value, pound for pound of dry matter. Attention is called to a manual of analytical chemistry by Trubert.'^ It seeks to popularize the analysis of soils, fertilizers, Avater, milk, etc. PLANT PATHOLOaY. Asa work of general application on plant pathology, we may mention that of Prillieux" on the diseases of agricultural plants and fruit and forest trees, in which the author gives practical remedies for combating parasitic diseases. Mangin,' in an article on the treatment of parasitic diseases of plants, gives a brief resume of the etfect of external condi- tions and preventive measures on parasites. The same author" calls attention to the action of light on the development of parasitic diseases and shows the value of /:?-naphthol and its salts for combating the parasites of the grapevine. Quiuta^ has revived the old idea of grafting for preventing certain diseases, aud calls attention especially to the prevention of diseases of the chestnut by grafting it upon the oak. Molliard'" has shown the effect of plant and animal parasites in causing malformations of tloral organs. The same author" has i)ublished a review of the works on plant pathology, published in France and other countries in recent years. Ravaz and Gouirand'- have studied the action of certain chemicals iRev. gen. Bot., 8 (1896), p. 295; Assoc. Fr. Av, Sci., Congrcs do Carthage, 1896, p. 156. ^Compt. Rend., 122 (1896), p. 1135; Moniteur (^icsmn'ille, 12,(1896), p. 556. 3Jour. Agr. Prat., 1 (1896), p. 981. *Auu. Agrou., 22 (1896), p. 375. ^Congres Soc. Savants. Sec. chiiuie, 1896, p. 12. "Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1896. 7 Jour. Agr. Prat., 1 (1896), p. 746, 8 Bui. Soc. Nut. Agr., 1896, p. 308. '•Ibid., p. 194. "'Ann. .sci. nat. Bot., ser. 8, 1 (1895), p. 67. "Rev. go'n. Bot., 7 (1895), p. 465. '^Compt, Rend., 123 (1896), p. 1086. 852 KXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. upon the germiDation of the spores of the black rot of grapes. As a result of more tliau 4,000 experimeuts they found that acidity of the culture medium favors germination of the spores, while an alkalinity equivalent to 0.0001 sulphuric acid was able to comi)letely prevent it. On this account the immediate effect of alkaline solutions of fungicides will be much greater-than that of acid solutions. Copper was found much less efficient against black rot than against mildew, and zinc had about the same action as copper. Mixtures of copper and zinc gave no better results than either used alone. Sulphur is without effect when used alone, and may reduce the efficiency of copper solutions when used in combination with them. Lavergne,^ who was commissioned by the Minister of Agriculture to study the black rot in several of the vine-growing provinces, has made an interesting report upon the subject. According to Marre,^ who has investigated the preventive treatment of this disease, the efficiency of copper solutions is clearly demonstrated; but to be successful the appli- cations must be made frequently, beginning very soon after the com- mencement of growth. Verdigris (acetate of coi^per) was the most efficient fungicide, and should be used in 1 per cent solutions. The experiments showed the good effect and profitableness of the treatment. Lavergne and Marre^ have published a practical manual on the treat- ment of black rot. This disease, which next to phylloxera is one of the most destructive to grapes, has also been investigated by Prunet,* of the University of Toulouse. He has demonstrated that the fungus l)asses the winter in the form of sclerotia, the destruction of which thus becomes very im])ortaut. Consequently burning all mummified grapes is advised. Yiala and Ravaz'^ have studied the browning of grape cuttings, and Tachoues'^ the brown rust of the grape and its treatment. J. d'Arbau- mont ' has reported a curious development of a grapevine. A graft ui)on a riparia stock sent out 3 branches the first year, 2 of which produced normal fruit, while the other aborted some of its flowers. The flowers were usually chloranthic in some of their organs, and the ovaries were ex- tremely prolific. This variation has been fixed by cuttings and layers. Koze" has published numerous notes on potato scab. He has found bacteria producing the disease in different varieties of jiotatoes, the species of bacteria being named Micrococcus imperdtorifi^ M. alhidus, i\m\ JLjiavidus.^ In a subsequent article '" the author suggests that ' Bill. Min. Agr. France, 15 (1896), p. 285. " Ibid., p. 133. 3 Paris : Masson, 1896. 'Corapt. Rend., 122 (1896), p. 739. ■Ibid., p. 1142. '■ Bui. Agr. Alger, et Tunis, 1896, p. 515. ■ Bui. Soc. Bot. France, ser. 3, 3 (1896), p. 281. "Bill. Soc. Xat. Agr., 1896, No. 5. ■'Conipt. Kcnd., 122 (1896), pp. 54.3, 750. 'oCompt. Rend., 123 (1896), pp. 613, 759. PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN FRANCE. 853 BaciUus subtilis is associated with Micrococcus albidus. In another memoir' he reviews the investigations of Thnxer and Holley on the cause of potato scab and maintains that the disease is due to Micrococ- cus jtcllucidus, which prepares the way for other fungi. The writer believes that this question is by no means definitely settled. Investigations into the causes of the yellowing of beet leaves, adisease imperfectly understood, have been begun by Troude,- and Prillieux^ has studied the penetration of the roots of alfalfa and beets by lihizoctonia violacea, and has investigated the various anatomical rela- tions of the i)arasite and the host plant. Grosjean ' has recommended Paris green sis a means for combating the beet Silpha. P. Vuillemiu'^ has demonstrated that leprosy of beets is due to Cla- doclnjtrium pulpoHum or Fhyfiodcrma pnlposion, a widely sjjread parasite of various chenopodaceous i»]ants. The swellings caused by the organ- ism attain (;onsiderable size, a part of the reserve material of the beets being" diverted from its normal use. The destruction of all wild cheno- pods about the beet field is recommended. A disease of beans caused by TylcncliKs (leva.statrix has been reported by Debray.'' This nema- tode is found to attack the stem, leaves, and fruit, causing- the flowers to fall, and destroying- the croi>. The whole plant often succumbs to its attack. Severin ' has reported on means for the destruction of two troublesome insects of the common osier (iSV(//.r riminaUs). Valerj-- Mayet^ has reported means for preventing attacks on plums by Scolytus prnni^ Jxhj/ncJilfcs Ixtrchus, and the larva' of Pludana in-vnuita. (Iros- jean," who has been studying the cherry Chematobia, recommends the means adopted in the United States for its repression. P. Yuilleuiin"' has reported on a disease of larch and pine trees, and has established a new family of fungi, Hj^postomacea', which has affini- ties Avith the Ascomycetes. Of the 2 species reported, Meria laricis is parasitic on larch, and Hypostomumjiichianum attacks and may destroy Finns a ii.sfriara and /'. moniana. Crie" has reported on a critical study of the parasitic diseases of the apple. J. Kunckel '- has studied t he bio- logical problems relative to the injury done maize, sorghum, and sugar cane by the larva> of Sesamia noiiaf/rioidc.s. He recomnuMuls the destruc- tion of all stubble before winter, and of all other seriously diseased host plants in or about the field. [Concluded in next number.] 'Compt. Rend., 122 (1896), p. 1012. 2.Ionr. Agr., 2 (18!Hi), p. 578. 3 Bui. Soc. Hot. Fr:iuce, ser. 3, 3 (18%), p. !l. iBul. Mill. Agr. Finuce, 15 (1896), p. 316. sCoinpt. Rend., 123 (1896), p. 7.58. '•Assoc. Fr. Av. Sci., C'ongri-s do Cartliaiic. 1S!M;. j.. 174. Mour. Agr. Prat., 2 (1896), p. 357. «Bul. Min. Agr. France, 15 (1896), p. KiO. "Ibid., p. 348. '"Compt. Rend., 122 (1896), p. 515 (K. S. K., 7, p. 835). "Bui. Min. Agr. France, 15 (1896), p. 610. '^Coiupt. Rend., 123 (1896), )). 842. RECENT WORK IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. CHEMISTRY. The quantitative separation of wheat proteids, G. L. Tellee {ArMnsas Bta. Bui. 42, pp. 81-104).— The autbor reports a series of noteworthy investigations to devise a method for the (luautitative separation of the proteids in wheat, especially for deteriuiniug the glnten. Tlie work is based largely upon the characteristics of wheat proteids as described by Osborne and Voorhees.' The anthor started out with the proposition that ''all non-glnteu nitrogen will be dissolved from wheat meal by thoroughly extracting with lO per cent salt solution and that the ghiten nitrogen will remain undissolved;" but his investigations showed that a 1 per cent salt solution is preferable to a 10 per cent solution for this separation, and that this salt solution dissolved a small amount of gliadin (one of the gluten proteids), making it necessary to correct the result for nou- gluteu nitrogen by subtracting 0.27 per cent. It is shown that " the so called true gluten obtained by mechanical washing away of the starch and computing the remaining proteids from the nitrogen content of the crude gluten obtained gives results which are much too low when compared with the sum of the gliadin and glutenin." The explanation offered is that "an indefinite amount of gliadin is dissolved and washed away. In view of this fact, the mechanical method of determining gluten in wheat and flour is even more unsatisfactory than has formerly been thought." The investigations made in determining non- gluten nitrogen, gliadin, proteose, edestin and leucosin, and amids are described and tables given showing the nitrogen iu different compounds soluble in 1 per cent sodiuiu chlorid solution. From his investigations on proteose the author believes that " the proteose and proteose-like body found by Osborne are really the alcohol soluble proteids (gliadin), small quantities of which have been carried into solution and exhibit their characteristics unchanged, Fnrther- more, these alcohol-soluble proteids possess certain properties which have been thought to be characteristic of proteoses," The " official method " for the determination of albuminoid nitrogen (with cupric hydrate and alumina) was found deficient for wheat, and ' Connecticut State Sta. Rpt. 1893 (E, S. E., 5, p. 1079), 854 CHEMISTRY. 855 the use of phosplio-wolfrainic ackl as ii i)iecii)itant for the albuminoids is prefeired. The author suggests the following methods for the (luantitative determiuation of wheat j)roteids : "Tutal nitrogen. — The Guuuiug luodilicatiou of the Kjeldahl mt-thod has lu^en used throughout this work. More eoucordaut results have been i)ljtaiue