cenoaceiarales mires eee =~ ate ae : ne pee en otiedied ee soe enna . ce a erat hne nent ' 0 rT nae caries counene ree be ro wrist Nene paraneial innate lee be pele’ crs PRE eet aaron ere weveeen Paceiede twee tenetetats eee a — “ eaten aoune vs A dames sets es nestor tae ete ittner srarere vista © oO reletetete-s ym oo" Feb rogeateere 7 ied i ee eter Oe int > le ie eee? CT a ded dots aT bab de ded ya a PO ae a Agta ® >» tbat + ype ab ibe m és ont hic ee ehPA ‘a> pri. iar fesaga ‘ vs, dt Wty jaa aad ah Bz my. aati ocale4”? 4. BT Ral are i Pare wT aoe a eal ial! lal allel) Piel Toe OT ety iia | res ite ytd aublh pub apbv Rr sahia ; y4 wee PO LAMARAR As 8 Pee Cod h hw pall > She. fhmat L ® mee re tt 1 de Ven hae ml : \ alg i ost peeks t yuan Mele et baht petites | te DhGa eranae8s,. AN | art Mt Pat 6 ox ave, Wy + Sintahnarte, oad! uae » \ 3 @ Ab piidien ars ar ‘= ve af My ae N aati eG oe } ‘N e Tw. rvys as a Peeeien 5 *a. +, % AVY VLer» tie : Nj > aie vodhl: » tag ‘ht ey tara weoe ata Taal Boca! || ae in hw, bee~vies Hyg f ypwitne Reh PP A a) LED Ey conn egny ae Nin gucdiis a ¥, by, BAG Gagrethtaang | sana mein} te on ne sae baile ty a [Ra Asan: PT ew aan HTD, eth ‘ je pp? oe = ; ' ) ; WATT | F.> | , " oP WAG nn UAL mas >a 44 8 a Na Saag. pe , PNY | Agacd, try Tse couaityn Ty My Rial LP Rae | ry Set T I | det ereaansnnagant we Daas seam bibenp ny ui Paneth nage con TIT HT gp tAereen tA, Renee, Aut n Decne eth? there, 29>, oe SWAN shGAy aL) | ee daa. GRO)... aa, | oN 4 tpadgtl?™ ag a Gauane " ye. \. Jgtarr~ _ . és a me a Ds qe: sh fla. # Pid a ih, pe ¥ ay vas Sanoeme A AWiaay /NA SRO Te -) eT TAB leis ASaa, ex yt Taal hella lo Pbedil pte Tenet a. ‘Wee, bY ny hAn we iy : Wifey Bs al il saa POnp Way Ppepey | ow Yo. mr, Al "AMAA, NAT /®* epeosdr dpa PTT lel LOLA Pee a . “Nyy a j Ae. Sousa adh tad one = > si Aes 2 ee | a pee 7... te dell a TAP yr a, Ay’ | RA), Ve Pe me Ne 2 veaer Th tl led s ; a, 4h, YUM RAe ofa, 1 oe snpesaaimone Octrpste lhe Lo Hi MRP MOQ han Y MeO iis hcgunmes +i nibgdagtr sity re CSRS thet dete vsollean UMN i gasces NBG gcssttasen acne) GDAN) ot) A DiMMMlANe gimacnaretereeameeres teers oat e eens aA Nyse: Aaisleola RAN oi na pa None, i lle faaeege tty} 1 =< Wiha j HU DSLAas TS stay lint ears. rPuk is coahty i | nl ™ Oe tehty etal J as mW r FELLLLTEE TH Petre tay wil ae NNN inerrstNmece Sei artes comaniaayy | | sil gy MM tM ats OY Shiny gai tht trvnntabie eave oy UL BeeBElldltasas semen SPE |] | 1 | “heneg ste ae rane aT Te uli s aeticc at aE cd Vy helustany : ; \ yd a saat Mees | fa be AOU ye | et AAA", », be ie a | hk 4 ; b4 | »ran* icant NTT pete aii L ap Dy, Ps hel he et Toth +s opie ‘Nal ~. ane Su sun baylt ys api Kar pnd said Ry he -@>. Aw, « tonal tol | bby mae ct ih Aan ay wn HNN ren MMpyal we \ Mnpieietadten arson cs cad ere ie ppey YY | . | le Vash ip | 1, WORN “NAA Yeu? ‘ all ne WO seta Waa qatynu Nidhi, A A, idl PPE clalalat CPO Sshaaee | Naytine a7 ON alls . ; en UsUUn aR Tt sec aemebeses gapeaateers 6 yuuysunng ple hy Q Pee ve: a AarN . “Ne mp ay) a “ ie Te. ~ rohd ve bart tt afi 4 | il gudeainn 1a PAP, Ud : | ' dP Pt Ababaa al yyy ani uv wr: ay! seAN’ HAY wer. A la Hy - Try Wd >) 200 Tee HRAFRODNT DE pres spy ®y abe wl ws me ease TY woe Pp lel rs ae 10 Ta wie WT Tela!) Pte ° Main Ciao OL A ee j- "f J ' soit as gr Sal ay .. ae a x" wee ry ipsa ee aol! med i _SHITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 68, NUMBER 12. EX PLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE” ‘SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, IN 1917 GIy OF WASHINGTON | ust BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION eS agee UNE Z 1918 / | pee Fe a a SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 68, NUMBER 12 EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1917 a CS YUP (PUBLICATION 2492) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JUNE, 1918 The Lord Baltimore ress BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1917 CONTENTS PAGE Peta SONU LLIN Pe feng Naa eect ml A IG Rega se yn tsa eM. gee Si er 2 Gealosical Explorations in the Canadiam Rockiess 24...5..+5 50.00 oe.e 4 Charles D. Walcott. Geolosicalvand Paleontological) hield-Wonk,,. 4.400 9595-0 ee ee oe 20 North Carolina Solar Radiation i(Opservatobyas.eo.seeeass seus oe 25 C. G. Abbott. Grasses of the Adimondack and, White Mountains.) -.9ne. sans s Sees 20 A. S. Hitchcock. Enologiceill Isqulorariomns in Culp) eine! IBIEyiils ososcc ccouoncocopsuadcns sean: 40 Paul Bartsch. her Gertong Colonesmank Hlonidancente see ee rae creer ere eee 48 Paul Bartsch. Anthropological Studies on Old American Families— ; a. Studies at Yale University, Harvard University and the University Olea Varna eens chee seals Gite oot Stora, ern ce Re eee 49 paeVionntameers ior Whennessees tiacers seine etic aerosol eter ere le 50 GaShawieceand i ckapoonm ncitanse een eee certian ate 55 Ales Hrdlicka. lBaceehenntome ane lelenigikqsloe: INE? WIGSSI0e - 45545 40scsecdorecdnosasupbadnc 61 F. W. Hodge. Ancient eit Owellinsseun NiewaViextcor mesos tate acer sco ce aes 72 Walter Hough. /Mierelnreto) Coerree Worle tint ANmtorney choval When ooo aoe oho be cea leoe od Gacnene 74 Neil M. Judd. riba mites*on @saverlncdianse saree trie Oe tine aite ce ste aoe ee js cee 84 Francis LaFlesche. Study of tic Pox, Sauk aad Potawatomi Indians... ...225..........0.00.. go Truman Michelson. SitidiessAmOnearne Incianssor C@alitOniides. «.)ehcmer + lise as ona es noes 92 J. P. Harrington. SiicveonMolippewa Miaterial COMET sess mei ss tic nae senna cc esse ene 95 Frances Densmore. iS trrarapoveate \iylfopele inl, Ibori ei Glp ag 2 chat cath co cnt Schaar cis eee Ree eee 100 John R. Swanton. ra ea M UEC: yaa p ge dldnw s ancl PEPCK es co F sss ees ec ee assess 100 J. N. B. Hewitt. Prehistoric Ruins in Southwestern Colorado and Southeastern Utah...... 108 J. Walter Fewkes. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 68, No. 12 MT. DRYSDALE (9,400 FT.) WaeTaW TUMBLING GLACIER AND CLIFFS (6.800 FT-) Mr. GRAY (9,200 FT.) NORTH TOWER (9,100 FT.) BEAVERFOOT RANGE, WOLVERINE PASS (7,200 FT.) Photograph by Walcott, 1917: Fic. 1-—Panoramic view looking west through Wolverine Pass, British Columbia, from a point 8 miles in direct line southwest of Vermilion Pass, which is 7 miles southwest of Mount Castle Station, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, Alberta, Canad: Station, ¢ Canadia cific Railway, Alberta, Canada. a aa oe INTRODUCTION A prominent department of activity throughout the history of the Smithsonian Institution has been the scientific exploration of regions imperfectly known, particularly in North America, although in recent years this work has extended to all parts of the world. These investi- gations have covered astronomy, anthropology, biology, geology, and in fact all branches of science. Besides extending our knowledge of nature and of man, there has been thus gathered and added to the National Museum collections an enormous mass of material of very great scientific interest and importance. During the year 1917, the war greatly restricted the operations in foreign lands and the field-work was therefore largely limited to the United States. The accounts recorded herein have been written chiefly by those who have carried on the work. Under the auspices of the Institution and in co-operation with the U.S. Geological Survey and other departments of the Government, there was carried on a few years ago a most thorough biological and geological survey of the Panama Canal Zone. The results of that important work are now being published in quite voluminous form. Among these publications now in press are “* Contributions to the geology and paleontology of the Canal Zone, Panama, and geo- logically related areas in Central America and the West Indies ” pre- pared under the direction of Thomas Wayland Vaughn, to appear as a National Museum Bulletin; also a comprehensive monograph on the “ Mammals of Panama” by Edward A. Goldman. Numerous other works having to do with Smithsonian Explorations during recent years are enumerated in lists of publications issued by the Institution at regular intervals each year. to NWO: 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 wi The geological field-work by Secretary Walcott in the Rocky Moun- tains during recent years has yielded important additions to our BiG: 2— Burgess shale fossil quarry blasted out on the steep slope of the ridge between Mount Wapta and Mount Field at 06,700 feet above sea level and 8 miles by trail from Field, British Columbia. The fossil-bearing layers are just beneath the surface upon which the men are standing. Photograph by Walcott, 1014. knowledge concerning the Cambrian and pre-Cambrian formations and has brought to light evidences of life far earlier than heretofore known. The results of much of this work in the field and subsequent 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 laboratory studies have been described in various Smithsonian publi- cations. Likewise the ethnological researches herein briefly described will later be elaborated in the bulletins and reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Fic. 3—Undercutting by blasting in order to get at the fossil-bearing bed of rock in the famous Burgess Pass quarry. William Oke and Alex. Mitton drilling, while standing on poles high above the floor of the quarry. Photograph by Walcott, 1917. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES In continuation of geological work in the Canadian Rockies, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was engaged during the summer and early fall of 1917 in field investiga- tions and collecting at the now well-known “ Burgess Pass fossil NO. I2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 on Fic. 4.—Mrs. Walcott splitting out Middle Cambrian fossils from slabs of shale blasted out of the fossil-bearing bed of the Burgess Pass quarry. Photograph by Walcott, 1917 Fig. s. ( 2.) An elongate creeping holothurian (Redoubtia polypodia new genus and species Walcott) with numerous tube feet and tentacles This and the forms represented by Figs. 6 and 8 belong to undeseribe genera and species and are here illustrated tor the first time 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 quarry,” discovered by him in 1910. Fifty days were spent at the Burgess Pass camp, 3,000 feet above Field, British Columbia, where with the assistance of a miner and assistant, and packer Mitton, a section in the quarry of about 180 square feet was taken out. This practically exhausts a quarry which has given the finest and TGs Fics. 6 and 7.—(About two-thirds natural size.) Another and larger holothurian with tube feet. (Portalia mira, new genus and species Wal- cott) that is finely preserved although crushed flat in the shale. An actinian (Mackenzia costalis) is lying on the posterior portion of the holothurian. largest series of Middle Cambrian fossils yet discovered, and the finest invertebrate fossils yet found in any formation. More than one and a half tons of specimens were trimmed out at the quarry with the assistance of Mrs. Walcott and packer Mitton, wrapped in bundles carried by pack horses to camp and thence to the railroad NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 Fic. 8—(About four-fifths natural size.) A large, beautifully preserved crustacean (Helmetia expansa, new genus and species Walcott) with a thin, semitransparent shell through which parts of the various appendages beneath the body may be seen. The two large eyes are finely shown on the rounded segment of the front of the head. a | 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 station at Field, and are now in Washington. Some of the unde- scribed forms are here illustrated by figures 5 to 8, and the operations of the quarry are shown by figures 2 to 4. Figure 2 shows the quarry just as the party left it in 1913, and figure 3 shows the back wall under which it was necessary to go to obtain fine pieces of the fossil- bearing rock. When the large slabs of hard shale are finally blasted loose they must be carefully split with chisel and hammer (fig. 4) Fic. 9.—Mrs. Walcott giving Granny, the mountain squirrel, her noon- day lunch at the Burgess Pass fossil quarry. Photograph by Walcott, IQI7. to expose any fossil remains embedded between the laminz of the compact, siliceous shale. The remarkable thing about the shale is that it preserves animals that were as soft and non-resistant as jelly- fish, worms, and the internal parts of worms and crablike animals. One of these is shown by figure 8. It is a swimming and crawling crab, seven inches long. It had two large eyes in front (shown by NOZ LZ SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 a) the round white spots), six broad ribs, and a large tail. Branchiz or gills shine through the thin shell as well as traces of the legs. Another curious form, figure 5, 1s a soft-bodied holothurian with many flexible podia or false legs. A small, round shell happened to rest on the sea bottom just where the head part of the animal was later pressed down upon it. Another soft-bodied form is Portalia mira (figs. 6 and 7), which is related to the sea cucumber or Holo- thurian which may be seen growing on the sea bed at Catalina Island, California. The shale bed at the quarry suggests that the waters of the acient Cambrian sea above it swarmed with life just as the ocean does to-day at Catalina Island. But this was long before the Fic. 10—Granny, the mountain squirrel. Frequently showers of broken rock and dirt were thrown by the blasting all about the place where Granny was sitting, but she invariably dodged under protecting slabs and appeared soon after as unconcerned as though nothing had happened. Photograph by Walcott, 1917. advent of fishes on the earth so there were no fish, and no traces of them occur in the fossil bed. The superb preservation of the fossils at the quarry is all the more remarkable when we consider that they have been buried for twenty million years or more and subject to all the vicissitudes that rock materials experience from the time that they are simply hardened mud buried beneath thousands of feet in thickness of layers of mud, sand, and pebbles. Then all were changed by pressure and chemicalization into solid beds of sandstone, slaty shale, and limestone. These were later compressed and elevated into mountain ranges and more or less worn away by 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 atmospheric agencies. Beside the specimen of Portalia mira (fig. 7) there is an imprint of a mud-loving actinian (Mackenzia costalis) that closely resembles Edwardsia, a living form that usually lives buried in the sand. “ At the quarry,” says Mr. Walcott, “ we found one of our old friends that led me to write a note on animal behavior. When we were collecting fossils there in 1911, rock squirrels began to come to the quarry we were opening. At lunch time we threw them bits of Fic. 11—A summer snowstorm at Burgess Pass camp, 3,000 feet above Field, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by Walcott, 1917. bread and crackers, and later carried up nuts to give them. They became very tame, and when we returned the following year (1912) one of them, that we named Granny, because she apparently had two generations of young squirrels that came with her, would run up on our legs and shoulders, and if we did not promptly give her some- thing to eat she would give a sharp chirp to call attention. One rainy day when crouched under a rubber blanket at lunch time, Granny came, and seeing a cake of chocolate lying on my knee made a grab for it, running up my arm and over my shoulder with it so as to jump NOR ST SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ17 Il to the rocks behind. I madea dash for her, catching her by the end of the tail, which resulted in snapping off the tail about midway. The following year (1913) she was about again as usual, being easily recognized by her stub tail (fig. 10). “We did not visit the quarry from 1913 until the latter part of July, 1917. Just after a blast had been fired, which was the signal to the squirrels that we were about to eat lunch, we saw two or three of them coming down from the cliffs above. A few minutes later, Granny suddenly appeared at the edge of the quarry. I called her, Fic. 12.—One of the party who would insist on sleeping beneath the pine trees away from the tent, as seen on the morning of July 27 at Burgess Pass camp. Photograph by Walcott, 1917. ‘Granny,’ and whistled. She immediately ran across the floor of the quarry, jumped upon my foot and ran up my leg, finally sitting up and begging for something to eat as she had done the years before. There were three strange persons in the quarry, and she would not go near them for several days until she had the opportunity of getting acquainted. The striking feature of this incident is that this moun- tain squirrel should have remembered through a period of four years, and at once ran and jumped up on me as she had been accustomed to do in the years before. VOL. 68 CLEIONS COLLE LLANEOUS MISCE SMITHSONIAN ‘SyPaq UaT, oy} JO Aa[eA dy} pur AeA asipereg udvaMjoq SOSSBUL UILJUNOU [NFiyNvaq JsOU 9Y} JO DUO *(Joo} QZO'IT) a[dway JUNOP si 419}U99 dy} UT UIeJUNOW YSIY sy], ‘ZIOI ‘yWooTRMA Aq ydessojoyg ‘peoapiey oyloeg ueipeury 24} UO a{Jsey JUNOPW JO JSOM OIL B ISPlIG PROT dIoWULIOpULM\-YueG oy} eau durvo Ano WIZ JOANT MOG oy} du Suryooy— FI ‘OT ¢ 0) “ZIO1 Yyooye A Aq ydeisojoyg ‘eperury ‘PYIIGTW “Sseq Uolpiusd \ MOTO PLOT d[IGOWO Ne datoUIApULAA “HUY OY} WOLF Uoos sv “Yur JO JSAMYJIOU-JSOM SaTIU QT OF OI ‘AoA MO oy jo [OPES 9} “UIeJUNOP apsey—PI “oly / IQI PLORATIONS, E SMITHSONIAN 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 “Four other squirrels came, two of which were evidently full grown and a year or more old, and two young ones. As Granny disciplined them all when they became too familiar, we supposed that they were members of her immediate family. ‘* After a week or more, Granny became very intimate with Mrs. Walcott and would jump into her lap and onto her shoulders, begging for food. She was entirely fearless, and would cling to a nut or a piece of chocolate and swing in the air until she secured the coveted bit (fig. 9). “ When the squirrels first came, they were very thin and extremely active. After a month of feeding, Granny became so stout that she had great difficulty in jumping from rock to rock. Chocolate, nuts, bread, and cookies seemed to agree with her, and the day we left the quarry a bountiful supply was placed under the rock ledges, so that they could all take the food to their nests, which were at the base of the cliffs, about 8,000 feet altitude. “On July 27, a summer snowstorm buried the quarry, and at camp (figs. Ir and 12) it seemed more like November than July. Sunshine and a dry wind caused the snow to disappear within three days—leaving only very muddy trails and a cold, wet quarry. “ A few days were taken to verify a geologic section near Lake McArthur, and then the Vermilion River trip was begun. Following down the Bow River, we crossed it near Mount Castle and looked back towards Mount Temple (fig. 13). That night we camped at Vermilion Pass. Some conception of the mountain walls of the upper Vermilion canyon valley may be gained from the view of the west side of Storm Mountain (fig. 15). Lower down the valley on the eastern side near the mouth of Ochre Creek, Syncline Peak (fig. 16) shows remnants of the compression and folding that accompanied the uplift of the mountain massif now cut by erosion into hundreds of mountains, ridges and canyons. In the lower canyon of Tokumm Creek, near Vermilion River, the water passes over a fall into a huge pothole (fig. 17) and then into a narrow, deep canyon where it is often lost to sight in the deep shadows of the overhanging walls. In two places deep potholes were long ago worn in the bed of the stream and, when their enlarging lower portions met, the water poured through the opening and finally the original rim between them was left as a natural bridge above the stream. A very good view of this was secured (fig. 18) by a long time exposure from 60 feet above the water. 15 IQI7 INS, EX PLORATI( JINIAN ( SMITHS -0J0OUd (wy) “PIULUNS UPL OY} FO YJo] pue YY SII dy} UO ATTRA Sursury 10 sJayeoyIYdwe yeois sy} ON ‘Z161 ‘Roope A, Aq ydess “SSed UOTIIUT | MO] say Sz jnoqe ‘rodwAY AA JUNO Jo adoys jsva 9y}y wiory (Joo Gok‘or) ureyUNOP wI0JS JO adv] Jsa\\—SI “Oly est é ee ai, Coy, uy . ‘ ‘ ' me f 68 TIONS VOL. COLLEE MISCELLANEOUS SMITHSONIAN OUI] TOqUty VAOqe SHI 94eq dy} Aq UMOYS AT[HJINeaq st sauojsouN] ueLIquIeD a[ppI uty oy} JO Surypney asopo oy] ‘Z101 ‘JON Te Aq ydeisojoyg “SSWq UOT[IWIIOA JO JSOMYINOS (“WY 8’) So]T uu oS “TOATY UOTI[IWIIO A pue YyooIy a1YIC—) JO UOTjZoOUNT 9yy Ye Jey peord IY} 9AOQK sas YIM “(Joo TZ9'R UONPAI]A) Yeag aulpouAS JO oe} YOU IY T— OI eo) | . ~ _s te ee : Poe eee ied . 7 Ln NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 LZ, Fic, 17.—Tokumm Creek and falls at mouth of lower canyon, one-quarter mile above Vermilion River and 3.5 miles (5.6 km.) southwest of Vermilion Pass, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by Walcott, 10917. Tokumm River below the falls has worn a narrow, deep canyon, and in places the canyon walls are so close together and so irregular that the stream cannot be seen from above 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Fic. 18.—Looking down into Tokumm Creek canyon below the falls shown in fig. 12. As the result of the wearing of very deep and large potholes in the massive Cambrian limestones the extended lower portions of adjoining potholes have been united, leaving a natural bridge near their upper margin far above the rushing torrent below. Photograph by Wal- cott, 1917. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 19 “ From the Vermilion River the party followed a new forest ranger trail up Tumbling Brook to a small, beautiful glacier beneath the great, eastward facing cliffs of Gray Peak which is shown in the panoramic view (fig. 1 of this sketch), on the left of the pass between it and Mount Drysdale. “ Wolverine Pass is a broad, rolling area at about timber line. On its southwest slope the northeast branch of Moose Creek begins, on See AS: Fic. 19—Bull moose shot for the collections of the United States National Museum. Photograph by Walcott, 1917. A cow and young were also obtained near by, all on the west side of the Vermilion River, about 9 miles below Vermilion Pass. the north slope the head waters of Ochre Creek, and on the southeast the drainage is to Tumbling Creek, a branch of Ochre Creek. The views from the upper slopes northeast of the Pass are among the finest in the Canadian Rockies. “ Mount Drysdale, on the right, rises 2,200 feet above the Pass, and Mount Cambria, on the left, 1,800 feet, the altitude of the Pass being 7,200 feet. Tumbling Glacier, on the left of Mount Gray, is formed from the snows blown over Tumbling Cliffs from the westward. On 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 the right of Mount Drysdale the eastern side of the great Washma- wapta snow field may be seen; in the distance through the Pass the dark Beaverfoot Range, and beyond it in the extreme background the snowy peaks of the gray Selkirk ranges. “A late September storm drove us back from Wolverine Pass to the Vermilion River where below Ochre Creek a search was made for moose. By a lucky scout on September 30, Vernon Wood located a herd above the Vermilion River, and the next day a great bull (fig. 19), a cow and young were brought down under permit granted by Chief Game Warden Byron Williams of British Columbia. “ There is a fine mountain region between the Continental Divide and the upper Kootenay Valley of British Columbia that still awaits exploration by the geologist and photographer interested in grand views and great series of very old rocks that were formed in the earlier history of the continent.” GEOLOGICAL AND PALEONTOLOGICAL FIELDWORK 3ut little was accomplished by the National Museum divisions of Economic and Systematic Geology in the way of fieldwork during the season of 1917. During the latter part of April and early part of May, 1917, Assistant Curator Wherry of the division of Mineralogy, while on private business in the west, was detailed to collect materials for the school duplicate series in sundry easily available localities. This resulted in the acquisition of the lots mentioned below: Upward of 100 geodes from the well-known locality at Warsaw, Ilinois ; 100 specimens of wolframite in matrix, 200 pounds of peg- matite carrying cassiterite, and an equal amount of amblygonite, from the region about Keystone, South Dakota ; about 150 specimens of zine and lead minerals and 200 pounds of beautiful chert breccia from the new zine district at Picher, Oklahoma ; and some 300 pounds of hematite with coarse apatite inclusions from Iron Mountain, Missouri. The division of Invertebrate Paleontology has been enabled to carry out a more extensive series of investigations and collecting trips. Doctor Bassler reports that in company with Assistant Curator Doctor C. E. Resser, he spent ten days in the Frederick and Hagers- town valleys of Maryland with the object of securing for the exhibition series large examples illustrating the various types of con- glomerate. Two fine, large masses of the well-known Triassic lime- stone conglomerate were obtained with little difficulty, but equally NO. I2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 21 good examples of the siliceous variety were secured only after much hard labor, owing to the ready disintegration of the rock on exposure. Efforts were finally successful, however, and there was also secured a mass of the so-called ‘“‘edgewise’’ conglomerate several feet in diameter, which will well illustrate the phenomenon of intraforma- tional conglomerate described a number of years ago by Secretary Walcott. This last was obtained where the steeply dipping lower Ordovician beds outcropped in such a manner that the desired material could be blasted without fracturing. The mass obtained is shown at Fic. 20.—Steeply dipping Lower Ordovician strata near Hagerstown, Md., composed of “edgewise”’ conglomerate. Photograph by Bassler. A in figure 20. Figure 21, about one-sixth natural size, shows this peculiar structure and the reason for the name “ edgewise”’ beds applied to these strata. All of such conglomerates are the result of ancient mud deposits of tidal flats becoming sun cracked when exposed to the air. The dried edges of the sun-cracked areas become tossed about by the wind and the fragments finally accumulate in layers which ultimately are hardened into rock-like conglomerate. Con- glomerates usually indicate the base of a formation, but this particu- lar kind may occur at any place within a formation, whence Mr. Wal cott applied the specific name “ intraformational ”’ to them. 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Following the geologic work in the Appalachian Valley in the early summer, Dr. Bassler proceeded to central Kentucky where he spent several weeks in explorations for suitable exhibition speci- mens covering the general subject of stratigraphic paleontology. It was especially desirable that such phenomena as stratification, the occurrence of fossils, and unconformities should be illustrated in the Museum, and especial efforts were made to secure specimens exhibiting these features. Much discrimination was necessary in the selection of these objects, as it was essential to obtain specimens of such size as to be appreciated by the public and still not too large for Fic. 21—Surface of limestone layer A, of fig. 20, one-sixth natural size, showing “ edgewise” conglomerate. Photograph by Bassler. the available space, which is somewhat limited. This difficulty com- plicated the work, but the selection finally made was extremely satis- factory. The early Paleozoic coral reef near Louisville, Kentucky, from which a section six by ten feet in dimensions had been quarried and placed on exhibition during the summer of 1916, was revisited and several additional layers of highly fossiliferous shale and limestone were secured. These have now been added in their proper position to the coral reef mount so that this single exhibit now illustrates the subjects of stratification in general, horizontal strata, change of lithology from limestone to shale, the occurrence of fossils in these NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 22 types of sediment, and the phenomenon of fossil coral reefs for which the exhibit was primarily planned. The most valuable result of the summer’s work was achieved at Elkins, Kentucky. Here a single limestone slab, six feet long and several feet wide and thick, showing an unconformity distinct enough to be appreciated by the layman, was quarried out and shipped to the Museum without breakage, where it now forms a most instructive Fic. 22—Unconformity between Early Black River limestone (white) and Early Trenton strata (dark) at Elkins, Ky. Photograph by Bassler. exhibit. As shown in figure 22, the outcropping limestone ledge, sev- eral feet in thickness, is composed of a distinctly white lower portion and a dark-colored upper part, the head of the hammer marking their line of contact. This line also marks an unusually clear unconformity. Both of these layers are rich in fossils, those of Early Black River (Lowville) age occurring in the lower white rock and those of Early Trenton in the upper dark material. Since at other places in the United States five hundred or more feet of strata of Middle and Late Black River age intervene between these two layers, it is shown 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 that Kentucky was a land area during the deposition of the Middle and Upper Black River strata, and that the line AB therefore, marks an unconformity of deposition. This is also evidenced by numerous worm burrows extending downward from the top of the white limestone. When the material was in the condition of soft mud and exposed at the surface, the worms burrowed into it as they do in the soil to-day. Fic, 23.—Phosphate mine of Wallace, Ky., showing occurrence of phosphate rock along joint planes of limestone. Photograph by Bassler. The phosphate localities near Wallace, Kentucky, were next visited in order to obtain illustrations of the gradual phosphatization of limestone and the types of fossils in phosphatic strata. Here it was discovered that phosphate rock occurs only along the joint planes of the limestone, as shown in figure 23. Surface water passing along these joint planes leaches out the calcium carbonate of the phosphatic limestone, leaving the calcium phosphate content behind, as is well shown in the photograph. The piece of phosphatic limestone at C was removed and shipped to Washington for exhibition. Here also bo on NO. [2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I917 another large mass of extremely fossiliferous phosphatic limestone was collected to illustrate the types of organisms composing phosphate rock. In addition to the large exhibition material mentioned above, the geologic work in the Appalachian and Ohio valleys resulted in the securing of many hundreds of rock, mineral, and fossil specimens which were needed to complete certain of the Museum collections. During the summers of 1916 and 1917, Mr. Frank Springer con- tinued his researches upon the fossil echinoderms of the Ohio Valley with a view to obtaining further material and information for the completion of a monograph upon the Silurian crinoids of that area which he has now in preparation. His assistant, Dr. Herrick E. Wilson, collected in the vicinity of St. Paul and of Madison, in Indiana, proving for the first time the presence in the latter locality of the crinoidal faunas of both the Waldron and the Laurel forma- tions. One object of the present field investigation is to obtain further light on the relations of the Silurian faunas of the Chicago and southern Indiana areas with those of western Tennessee. Mr. Springer acquired by purchase all the echinoderms in the large collec- tion of Mr. John F. Hammell, of Madison, Indiana, which included that made by A. C. Benedict from the Indiana Silurian, containing the types of a considerable number of species. This material has been added to his collection of fossil echinoderms now deposited in the National Museum. NORTH CAROLINA SOLAR RADIATION OBSERVATORY UNDER THE HODGKINS FUND War conditions deferred an expedition which was proposed to be sent to Chile to observe the variability of the sun in co-operation with the Mount Wilson station of the Astrophysical Observatory. Prepa- rations for the Chilean expedition had gone so far that the apparatus and supplies needful for several years were boxed for ocean ship- ment, and the observers, Messrs. A. . Moore and L. H. Abbot, were engaged to leave for South America in May, 1917. It seemed, how- ever, best to employ the outfit in the United States until a more favorable time should come to carry on observations in Chile. Desiring to locate as far from Mount Wilson as practicable, so as to avoid simultaneous weather disturbances at the two stations, Director C. G. Abbot of the Astrophysical Observatory, after con- sideration of Weather Bureau records, fixed upon [lump Mountain in Avery County, North Carolina, as a high station, easy of access, 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 likely to give nearly 200 days per year favorable to solar radiation work. He went personally to the station, engaged the use of a plot of ground owned by Huff Bros. & Reynolds and the erection of two frame shelters thereon by a local contractor, W. H. Shores. The spot selected is at about 4,800 feet elevation, but at some distance below the top of the Hump, to avoid the tremendous winds which often prevent a strong man from standing on his feet. The houses were boarded within and without the joists, and the air space filled Fic. 24.—Gorge at Hampton, Tenn., near Hump Mountain, N. C. with shavings, to make them habitable in winter, for, notwithstanding the low latitude, the thermometer occasionally goes to —15° F. or even colder on the mountain. The expedition went forward in May, 1917, and the apparatus was set up by Messrs. L. B. Aldrich and A. F. Moore. Observations were begun June 17. Director C. G. Abbot spent several days there early in July, instructing in the reduction of measurements. Messrs. A. F. Moore and L. H. Abbot carried on the work until the close of 1917, and will continue it until the spring of 1918. The hope entertained for favorable weather has been disappointed. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 a7 Cloudiness was nearly continuous until October, and though no doubt this season was exceptionally bad, yet, even in the long stretch of fine weather of October and November, the values obtained were fre- quently ruined by changes of the atmospheric transparency. It is Fic. 25.—Observatory and cook-house, y. Hump Mountain, N. C. Bt 5 ; See a ai: ‘* .—— ian tal Ay Jae Fic. 26.—L. H. Abbot observing sky-radiation. expected that results of special value will occasionally be obtained in the winter, owing to the low temperature and low humidity then prevailing, but there is no encouragement to continue the observatory for a term of years. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Valuable work has been done with the pyranometer on the bright- ness of the sky, the quantity of radiation available to vegetation in the forest, and on nocturnal radiation. This work will also go on through the winter, including measurements on snow fields, and the Fic. 27.—The coelostat for reflecting sun-rays. Fic. 28—A. F. Moore reducing observations with slide-rule machine. investigation of certain errors likely to be made in nocturnal radia- tion work. It is to be hoped that the expedition will yet be transferred to northern Chile. In that region where rain scarcely ever falls, winds never rise above the gentlest breezes, absolutely cloudless skies pre- INO? 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 29 vail for 260 days per year, and skies not more than 1/10 cloudy prevail over 300 days per year, at an elevation above 8,000 feet, with sky of the deepest blue, the conditions are believed to be far the best in the world for the study of the variability of the sun. It is now known that large fluctuations of the earth’s temperature and of barometric pressure, changes of the intensity of terrestrial magnetism, variation of the numbers of sun spots and of the dis- tribution of light over the sun’s disk are all closely associated with variations of the intensity of solar radiation. Even our understanding of the variability of the stars is likely to be improved by the study of solar changes. All these and other probable applications of its results enhance the interest and value of the proposed Chilean expedition. GRASSES OF THE ADIRONDACK AND WHITE MOUNTAINS During the month of August, 1917, Mr. A. S. Hitchcock, sys- tematic agrostologist in the Department of Agriculture and custodian of the section of grasses of the division of Plants in the U. S. National Museum, visited the Adirondacks in New York and the White \loun- tains in New Hampshire for the purpose of studying their flora, especially the grasses of the alpine summits. In the Adirondacks his headquarters were at Lake Placid from which point excursions were made to the summits of Whiteface and McIntyre, the highest peaks in the group with the exception of Mt. Marcy. It was impracticable to reach Mt. Marcy without the use of a camp outfit. This peak rises to a height of 5,344 feet but Mt. McIntyre is nearly as high (5,112 feet). Both McIntyre and Whiteface extend above the timber line and support at the summit an alpine flora. The White Mountains reach a somewhat greater altitude than the Adirondacks, Mt. Washington, the highest peak, being 6,293 feet. In the Mt. Washington group there are several peaks whose summits are above the timber line. The alpine flora of these peaks and of the peaks of the Adirondacks are similar, and include plants that farther north are found at a lower altitude or, in the Arctic regions, even at sea level. Four days were spent investigating the flora of the peaks. The ascent was commenced at Crystal Cascade on the east side, whence the trail led up Tuckerman Ravine to the summit of Mt. Washington, thence down to Lakes-of-the-Clouds where there is an Appalachian Mountain Club hut for the accommodation of climbers. From here the head of Oakes Gulf was explored. The second day was spent along the trail from Lakes-of-the-Clouds to the Mt. Madison hut, 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Fic. 29.—Lake Placid, N. Y. A small lake with a portion of the town in the background among native pines and spruces. _ Fic. 30—In the Adirondack Mountains near Lake Placid, N. Y. Pasture in the foreground, meadow in the middle distance, young growth of spruce in the background, and forest in the distance. The forest is mainly made up of white pine and white spruce with a few larches. NO: 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I917 3 Fic. 31.—In the Adirondack Mountains near Lake Placid, N. Y. White- face Mountain, the high peak in the background, is the third highest peak in the Adirondacks. The summit is above the timber line and supports an alpine flora. Fic. 32.—In the Adirondack Mountains near Lake Placid, N. Y. The cone- shaped trees are white spruce. A thicket of alder borders the stream. 3 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 ios) to ne PONS # i} ey, 7 ead Wig pie hye ah iS =n a 9 oy, gs ar S27) Ps Fic. 33.—White spruce (Picea canadensis). Near Lake Placid, N. Y. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 > pide apes a am Fic. 34.—White pine (Pinus strobus). Lake Placid, Nex SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 NOW £2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 Fic. 36.—Lake Champlain at Plattsburg, N. Y. The marsh grass is the narrow-leaved wild rice (Zizania aquatica). The plants rise only a foot or two above the surface of the water. This species is distinctly smaller than the wide-leaved wild rice (Z. palustris) found so abundantly in the marshes around Washington. Fic. 37.—The shore of Lake Champlain at Plattsburg, N. Y. The grass shown in Fig. 38 was found along the shore near her on 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Fic. 38.—Wild Lake Champlain near Plattsburg. This is the typical form as described by Linnaeus from specimens grown in his botanical garden at Upsala, the seed having been obtaine: Champiain. rye (Elymus canadensis), growing along the shore of 1 from Kalm in Canada, possibly in the region of Lake 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 27 Fic. 39.—W hite pine forest at the base of the White Mountains near Shelburne, N. H. 68 VOL. OUS COLLECTIONS MISCELLANE SMITHSONIAN 2) ay Fain ae mere” peer quay — pre! een nT + f the ase O At the b HB, deciduous and coniferous. e forest, mixed White Mountains near Shelburne, N. Dens Fic. 40. VY RS wwe .. a fad 3959 A Ew oe i | ? ee .. + er en 7 as ee 45m + XPLORATIONS, IQI iS Ara emesis ~~ - 1B) SMITHSONIAN Mountains White the ale N. urne Shell 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 going by the way of the Westside and Gulfside trail, which passes near the high peaks of Clay, Jefferson, and Adams. The return trip to Lakes-of-the-Clouds hut was made on the third day, descending 3,000 feet through the Great Gulf by the Buttress trail and ascending again by the Six-Husbands trail to the Alpine Meadow. On the fourth day the descent was made by way of Huntington Ravine over a little used and difficult trail. There are nine species of grasses that may be considered to be alpine. A few others extend from the lower zones into the alpine region. \lost of the alpine species are circumpolar and extend south- ward in the mountains, one to the high peaks of western North Carolina, and two through the Rocky Mountains even to South America. One species, Poa lava, is abundant on the upper cone of Mt. Washington, extending quite to the summit, and comprises almost the only vegetation of this area. This is a European species which is found in North America only in the region of Mt. Washington and on a few of the higher peaks of New England. ‘The forest flora of the mountains consists mainly of white pine, white spruce, larch, aspen, and white birch. Toward the summits of the peaks the dominant tree is the balsam fir, which near timber line becomes a straggling shrub. BIOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN CUBA AND HAITI In recent years Mr. John B. Henderson, a Regent of the Smith- sonian Institution, has made numerous collecting trips to the West Indies usually accompanied by some members of the Museum staff, exploring new and little-known localities with special reference to the mollusk fauna. In 1917, Mr. Henderson and Dr. Paul Bartsch, curator of the division of Marine Invertebrates, spent the month of March ex- ploring the region about the Guantanamo Naval Station in eastern Cuba. This is a semi-arid coastal zone with a complex of hills differ- ing faunally from the more elevated and humid Sierras of the interior. They subjected the region to a process of intensive collecting, securing a large quantity of very interesting land shells, birds, reptiles, plants, fossils, and marine invertebrates. Particularly fine series of the very interesting Cepolis ovumreguli and Polymita versicolor were secured, which are shown in the accompanying photographs. Dr. Bartsch also made an exhaustive study of the ship worms (marine boring mollusks) of this region. A report thereon has been published in co-operation with the Corps of Civil Engineers, U.S. Navy. AI / IQI EXPLORATIONS, SMITHSONIAN [Ivy S,UOss9puo yy *(CUIS PAVE] THOS AI PUY STAPMO2RU2ZD}Y DUDSAO >] ) yo {Upeoo] add} oy} JO OANjord YeyIqey Vt tonssy Se Ss pnt rm p- - tae, yee all nse Hite aU a | wo MOTLA \ 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Fic. 43—A_ yellow-billed tropic bird (Phaeton catesbyi Brandt) from the nesting cliff a little west of Jeremie, Haiti. VOL. 68 sailing NO: 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 A3 X Fic. 44—The Haitian Palm Crow (Corvus Palmarum Wirtenberg ) seriously objecting to an examination of its nest, in the ‘ Cul-de-Sac’ region of Haiti. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Fic. 45.—A picture of the Haitian Burrowing Owl (Spectyto foridana | dominicensis Cory) which, unlike its Floridian relative, is frequently seen in the trees. ee NO. Fic. [2 S) bad {ITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, RO 46.—The Haitian Lizard Cockoo (Saurothera dominicensis Lafres- naye), an exceedingly important member of the Haitian avifauna. on 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 ae ¢ B® %. Fic. 47—Two Haitian lizards (Ameiva chrysolaema Cope), which rival the peacock in coloration. These are very abundant along the roadsides where, during the mango season, they feed very largely upon the pulp left clinging to the rejected seeds. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 47 Fic. 48.—A plate of beautiful banded land shell (Polymita versicolor Born) from Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 The month of April was spent in Haiti, where they thoroughly explored the “ Cul-de-Sac” region, the north coast of the western peninsula and the coastal range from the “ Cul-de-Sac ” north as far as San Marc, from which regions very little land mollusk material was represented in the Museum collection. This material was very necessary in order to complete the links in the chain of the distribu- tion of the West Indian land mollusks, a problem which presents many interesting scientific phases, which, when fully examined, will throw much light on zoogeographic distribution. In the “ Cul-de-Sac,” collecting stations were made about Port au Prince, along the line of the coast north of the city, at Thomazeau and on the shores of Lake Assuei. In the coastal range north of the “ Cul-de-Sac,” collec- tions were made at numerous points from San Marc to Lake Assuei, the higher elevations being reached at Morne a Cabrits and the moun- tains back of Trou Caiman. Collections were also made in the hills south of Port au Prince and about Petionville. On the north coast of the southern peninsula collecting was done at Petit Goave and Miragoane, but more concentrated efforts during a period of two weeks were devoted to the mountains about Jeremie, a region of considerable importance in the study of Antillean zoo- geography. With Jeremie as a base, daily collecting excursions were made covering a very considerable area. A representative series of about 15,000 specimens was secured; also about 1,000 other natural history specimens, including several new birds, some very interesting cacti and other plants and miscel- laneous invertebrates, insects, fossil mollusks, fishes, batrachians, bats, and mice. An extensive series of interesting photographs was also made, many of which will be used in a report on the expedition which the explorers hope to publish in the near future. A VISIT TO THE CERION COLONIES IN FLORIDA Through the co-operation of the Carnegie Institution and the U. S. National Museum, Dr. Paul Bartsch was enabled to again visit the Bahama Cerion colonies which he planted in 1912, for the purpose of studying the results attained during the past year. He reports securing a series of adult specimens of the second Florida grown generation which, when compared with those of the first Florida grown generation of the previous year’s collections, will furnish the basis of a report showing the effect of the changed environment upon these organisms. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 49 As in previous years, Dr. Bartsch kept a record of the birds observed between Miami and the Tortugas. These notes, as here- tofore, have been published in the Year Book of the Carnegie Institution. -An especially fine series of photographs of the birds inhabiting the Tortugas was secured and will furnish the basis for an article to be published in the near future in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution. ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES ON OLD AMERICAN FAMILIES BY ALES HRDLICKA In continuation of his researches on old American families, Doctor Hrdli¢ka, in 1917, made trips to Yale, Virginia, and Harvard Uni- versities. The last two were visited on the occasion of the * Teachers’ Course ” which brings to these institutions many adult individuals of old American parentage from a large territory. The work was greatly facilitated by the assistance received at Yale from Prof. George Grant MacCurdy; at the University of Virginia from Prof. Robert Bennett Bean; and at Harvard from Prof. K. G. T. Webster. The total number of subjects examined, mainly for pigmentation of hair, and eye and skin color, amounted to over one thousand, all of whom were Americans of at least three generations on both the paternal and maternal sides of the family. The results which are now being elaborated for a report are of uncommon interest. They show a number of important facts of which we had no previous reliable knowledge. One of these is, in brief, that there is no increase in the proportion or grade of pigmenta- tion as we proceed from New England southward, and no increase in blondness as we proceed northward from the Carolinas and Virginias. Another striking result shows that there are localized peculiarities in pigmentation, especially that of the hair, but that in every case these can be traced to the ancestry rather than to the environmental conditions. The latter nevertheless appear to have been active in general in reducing the total proportions of blondness. So far as the color of the eyes is concerned there were found unexpectedly, in all the areas, a large proportion of ** mixed ” colors, in other words eyes in which more or less marked traces of brown co-exist with various shades of blue, green, or grey. Three cases were encountered in which the color of the two eyes was markedly different. Pure, beautiful blues and browns were few in number. 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 THE MOUNTAINEERS OF TENNESSEE During the latter part of July, Doctor Hrdlicka made a trip to eastern Tennessee, for the purpose of becoming acquainted with the characteristics of the population of these regions, which in large part is of old American stock but has long existed under disadvantageous environment, remaining as a result backward in education and in other respects. Fic. 49—Samuel McQueen, 78 years old, mountains of eastern Tennessee. The work commenced at Bristol, Tenn., extended to Mountain City, and farther on into the hills; and its success was very largely due to the kind offices and direct personal help of an old friend of the Smithsonian Institution, Mr. Samuel L. King of Bristol. For additional help the writer is indebted to Mr. John Caldwell of the same city. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1917 Silver Springs region, mountains of eastern Tennessee. and his latest progeny, Henderson, 83 years old, H. ct SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 qn ho The work extended mainly to the men called for examination by the first draft for the U. S. Army and comprised 150 individuals. Both measurements and observations were taken. Some of the men came from the lower lands of the Bristol district and were kept apart, but a good number represented the real mountaineers. It is too early to speak of the results of this interesting piece of research, the data not having as yet been properly reduced and Fic. 51—Mountaineers of eastern Tennessee. Mr. J. E. Morell, 54 y.; Mrs. M. Eller, 86 y. analyzed; but it is safe to say that these mountaineers represent no separate type of Americans. In many cases they still show strong indications of their respective pre-American ancestry. Among the men there were seen some fine examples of physique—willowy, clean- cut six-footers; but there were also others of rather feeble mental powers or nervous stability, which conditions, to some extent pos- sibly, are due to hereditary effects of alcoholism, or to defective heredity of other nature. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ17 on & The families of the mountaineers are remarkable in many cases for their large size and there were seen examples of longevity and virility which it would be hard to find in our cities. One of the accompanying pictures shows the three younger children of Mr. Henderson, 83 years old. They are by his second (or third) wife and his children number 21 in all, a fair proportion of whom are still living. Fic. 52.—E. Cornett, 24 years old, mountains of eastern Tennessee. There are all grades of ‘ mountaineers ” and no line of demarka- tion separates them from the people in the lower lands, who are mostly of similar derivation and sometimes of the same families. But as one proceeds into the wilds of the mountains, the population becomes sparser and more backward, the cultivated patches of ground smaller in area, and the habitations poorer, until some of the latter come to resemble the shacks of the southern negro. 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 The poorer class of mountaineers frequently show characteristics partly due to their backwardness in education and their isolation, and partly perhaps to hook-worm disease or other abnormal condi- tions. Some of the young men are types of slouchiness, such as would delight the artist; while the women disfigure themselves by chewing snuff and frequently show uncouthness in dress, move- ments, and behavior. But the people are hospitable and interest- ing. In the course of a short ride of less than two miles through a sparsely settled gorge, the writer and his local companion had no 7 Fic. 53—Mountaineer’s shack and patch of corn, eastern Tennessee. less than four invitations to lunch—in the other places there was no one at home. Their language and intonation are characteristic and quaint, and the people seem to be full of old and local folk-lore, the study of which would probably prove most delightful. Being largely dependent on themselves and their few neighbors they have also many antiquated and strange curative practices which would repay investigation. Their worst enemies are the isolation, ** moonshine ” whiskey, and, in not a few cases, undoubtedly a poor heredity. The army draft NO: I2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 cn on will be a God-send to many of the young men, some of whom can not even read or write; but probably few of those who will return will remain mountaineers. THE VANISHING INDIAN The progress of miscegenation among many of the Indian tribes has progressed to a degree that is surprising even to those who for Fic. 54.—Ruth Spoon-Warrior, 73 y., full-blood Shawnee. many years have been studying the Indian. While the total number of “ Indians” as recorded by the census increases from decade to decade, the fact is that this increase is due wholly to that of mixed bloods; the full-bloods of pure strain are in most localities rapidly disappearing and in a considerable proportion of the tribes have become actually extinct or are on the point of extinction, 68 VOL. COLLECTIONS OUS MISCELLANE SMITHSONIAN 50 ‘MUMLYS POOTq-][NF ‘toysts puv JoyOIaq ‘(41oA0 APY Sys 10 “A OZ) Woog uyof ! (A Of Avo) YOUVTY AQUVN—'SS “DIY NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 oy Two remarkable examples of this fact have just been experienced by the writer. For years a growing necessity in American anthro- pology has been to determine the physical type of the Shawnee, once a large tribe and one of considerable historic importance. No great difficulty was apprehended in this task, as the tribe is still well repre- sented. The most promising part of the tribe was that of the so-called “ absentee ’’ Shawnee, on the Shawnee Agency in eastern Oklahoma. They count 569 individuals, quite a few of whom are generally regarded as “* full-bloods.” Fic. 56.—On the Shawnee Reservation. From left to right: Creek mixed- blood; Four-Dollars (82 y.), Shawnee with slight admixture of white blood; a half Shawnee half Delaware, with possibly some white blood. Due to a grant of $100 from the Committee of One Hundred on Research of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the writer was able to visit the tribe during the early part of August, 1917. To his great disappointment the task of find- ing some pure-bloods became exceedingly difficult. Quite a few of the Indians were found to be “ full-bloods,” but on inquiry into the family history it was generally learned that the subject was a mixture of Shawnee with the Oneida, Delaware, Creeks, or some other tribe. In conclusion, there were found but three individuals 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 on who so far as they or their friends knew were full-blood Shawnee. Two of these were old women and one an old man, all near or over 70 years of age, and two of the three were sister and brother. The next tribe visited was the Kickapoo, the main body of which to the number of 211 is settled about McLoud, Oklahoma. They were said by the old Shawnee to be practically the same people with themselves, having at some time in the past kad but one camp-fire, and it was generally believed that they would show some full-bloods of pure strain. This proved to be a vain hope. On close inquiry all sorts of mixtures were discovered, even among the oldest men and Fic. 57—On the Kickapoo Reservation. Children of mixed Indian blood. women of the tribe, but no pure-bloods. Only one single woman of middle age was believed to be possibly a full Kickapoo, but there was no real certainty. Some visiting Kickapoo from Mexico proved no better than the rest, and no hope was given that any pure strain Kickapoo could be found anywhere else. Thus two tribes, one of which of considerable importance, may be regarded as lost to science, so far as pure-bloods are concerned. Only a few years ago according to local information there were still a number of old men and women living in both tribes who repre- sented the pure strain. The genuine Indian is rapidly passing away and the work of the anthropologist who endeavors to record the physical type of the various tribes is becoming increasingly difficult. NO Le SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I917 59 ee hig Hs 3. . n~ “a a 3, Paw l Fic. 58.—A Kickapoo child in a brush shelter. Gomer: SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 meng ner” 6 Fic. 590.—On the Kickapoo Reservation. Young woman of mixed Indian blood. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 61 EXCAVATIONS AT HAWIKUH, NEW MEXICO An expedition was organized under the joint auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, of New York City, for the purpose of con- ducting excavations at the ruined pueblo of Hawikuh, one of the celebrated Seven Cities of Cibola of the sixteenth century, occupied by ancestors of the present Zuni Indians of western central New Mexico. This research, made possible by the generous aid of Harmon W. Hendricks, Esq., a trustee of the Museum of the Amer- aL, NY Wi © 4 a “4 y my Cia ie 7 we = Fic. 60.—Looking east from Hawikuh across the Ojo Caliente plain. The elongate mound in the foreground is the ruin of the old church built about 1629. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. ican Indian, was commenced in May, 1917, under the immediate direction of Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge of the Bureau, assisted by Mr. Alanson Skinner and Mr. FE. I*. Coffin of the Museum mentioned. Both archeologically and historically Hawikuh is one of the most interesting Indian sites in the United States—from an archeological viewpoint by reason of the light the excavations are expected to shed on the primitive culture of the Zuni people, and historically because of its prominent place in the earliest Spanish annals of the South- 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 west. It was the first of the Seven Cities of Cibola to the seen by the Franciscan Fray Marcos de Niza, the first white man to enter what is now New Mexico and Arizona, in 1539, and it was the scene of the murder of Estevanico, the negro guide of Fray Marcos. Coronado, who led the most remarkable expedition that ever entered the domain of the United States, stormed the town in 1540, captured it after almost losing his life in the effort, and wrote therefrom his celebrated letter to the Viceroy Mendoza on August 3, in which he set forth the progress of his army and described the customs and Fic. 61.—The ruins of Hawikuh from the east. The summit of the knoll on which the pueblo was situated is sixty feet above the plain. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. products of the natives. Hawikuh was visited also by Espejo in 1583, by Onate in 1598 and 1604, and by other Spanish explorers. In 1629 a Franciscan mission was established there and an adobe church built (fig. 60), but in 1670 the pueblo was raided by the Apache and thenceforth abandoned. The ruin of Hawikuh is situated on the summit and slopes of a mesa-like elevation (fig. 61), fifteen miles southwest of the present Zuni pueblo; the entire area covered by the settlement approximates fifteen acres. Excavation was commenced in the western side of a great refuse-heap that covers the slopes, consisting of ashes and NOs 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI17 63 Fic. 62.—Several graves exposed in the Hawikuh cemetery. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. Fic. 63.—Uncovering the foundation walls of houses 15 feet beneath the refuse heap of Hawikuh. Ruined walls of the more recent pueblo are seen at the top. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. ) 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 other house refuse, the débris of building, sherds of pottery and other rejecta, and drifted sand. In this refuse the dead were buried (fig. 62). Beneath the deposit, at a depth of fifteen feet, the founda- tion walls of houses, built at two periods earlier than Hawikuh on the summit, were encountered (fig. 63) with burials of those who had occupied them, the graves being in the rooms, under the walls, and outside the houses, but rarely accompanied with pottery vessels or other artifacts such as were generally placed with the dead. The Fic. 64.—Remains of a partly dismembered burial found four feet deep in the refuse, without accompaniment. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. skeletons in most of these older graves were usually incomplete, as if purposely dismembered at the time of burial (fig. 64) ; and in one instance the bones almost without exception had been deliberately broken (fig. 65). In addition to these two forms of burial the Zunis of Hawikuh also cremated some of their dead and deposited the incinerated bones in jars, which were buried with the usual vessels of food and water. Evidently the personal ornaments of the dead were buried with the bodies in these instances, as calcined shell NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 8) Fic. 65.—A “ pre-Hawikuh ” burial almost every bone of which had been deliberately broken. Note the lack of burial accompaniments. Found 6 ft. 4 in. deep in refuse deposit. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. Fic. 66.—Hawikuh. An extended burial with its accompaniments of pottery vessels, remains of loom beams and other weaving apparatus, fabrics, etc. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 beads were found with the fragments of burned bones. Early Spanish writers speak of the Zuni custom of cremating the dead. Above these interments, however, and extending to within a few inches of the surface, were the graves of the later people, those who lived in Hawikuh proper. These dead, unlike the more ancient Fic. 67—Hawikuh. The upper part of a skele- ton almost completely covered with remains of baskets and corn. Note the prayer-sticks over the pelvis. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. burials described, were interred usually with the head directed east- wardly, the body fully clothed, and accompanied with such personal belongings as, in the case of women, metates and manos, floor and hair brushes, head-rings used in carrying water jars, mats, baskets, raw material for various manufactures, together with pottery vessels INOS 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ17 67 and quantities of food (corn, squash, pion nuts, etc.), and articles of adornment such as hair combs and ear pendants of wood beautifully incrusted with turquoise and jet mosaic, shell and turquoise ear ornaments and necklaces, finger-rings, etc.; and in the case of men, bows and arrows, arrowpoints, fetishes, prayer-sticks, ceremonial paraphernalia of various kinds, pipes, and of course earthenware vessels and baskets that had contained food and drink. Examples of these more recent burials are illustrated in figures 66 to 68. Fic. 68.—Hawikuh. Burial of an aged person, body greatly flexed, with a fine bowl decorated in glaze. Found 6% feet deep in refuse. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. The pottery deposited with the dead of these burials consisted of from one to a dozen vessels of various forms and a_ wide range of decoration, although in some cases there were no such accompaniments at all. Bowls predominated, but there were many fine water jars, duck-shape vessels, and cooking pots of plain and indented ware. Most of the pottery utensils were sacrificed or “killed” by being thrown deliberately into the graves, and some- times many stones were thrown in on them, The oldest decorated pottery from the site consists of a beautiful rich red or red-orange Fic. 69.—A skeleton in a kneeling posture. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. Fic. 70.—Foundations of houses under the refuse of the western cemetery of Hawikuh. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 69 . Fic. 71—The remains of a grinding bin in a “ pre-Hawikuh” house. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. Fic. 72.—A curious structure at the bottom of the refuse, about 15 feet deep. The box-like enclosure, which was once roofed, was probably used for confining rattlesnakes. Photograph by E. F. Coffn. 70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 ware on which was applied geometrical designs in black glaze. The more recent forms are decorated also in glaze, but in green, brown, and red, in addition to black, the glaze, however, was usually poorly applied. Effigy forms in relief are rare, but the eagle, weasel, butter- fly, tadpole, and corn plant are among the non-geometric figures employed in ornamenting the vessels by painting. The baskets are chiefly of the woven type, but there is also an example of coiled basketry. Sometimes as many as four baskets were placed or thrown into a grave, almost completely covering the body (fig. 67). The Fic. 73—This rock in situ was used as a mortar and also for grinding manos and other tools. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. fabric of the clothing was sufficiently well preserved for identifica- tion as cotton, which the Zunhis of Hawikuh probably obtained by trade from the Hopi, who were noted as cultivators of cotton in early times; indeed, early Spanish writers asserted that the people of Cibola did not raise cotton. The dead were often placed on or wrapped in mats, and frequently the grave was lined with cedar or juniper bast, which material served also for torches. Objects of Spanish provenience were encountered frequently—iron nails, a copper buckle, fragments of iron and copper, glass beads, bits of decorated porcelain, bottle-glass, and, at the neck of a child, a Catho- NOL TL SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ17 71 lic medal or token. Near the floor of one of the houses, eight feet deep, was found half of a pair of scissors. Wooden objects were fairly well preserved, considering the length of time they had been buried, hence it was possible to save batten sticks for weaving, prayer-sticks, bows, arrows, war-clubs, ceremonial objects, loom frames (fig. 66), cane cigarettes, and the like. Objects of bone are noteworthy because of the fact that so few were found in the graves as compared with the great number re- covered from the refuse, no fewer than eighteen hundred being taken Fic. 74.—The Zuni workmen at Hawikuh. Photograph by E. F. Coffin. therefrom. These consist of awls, gouges or chisels, needles, pins, whistles, beads of the tubular variety used both as necklaces and for wrist-guards, etc., and ranging from unfinished specimens through the simplest forms to more or less elaborately carved or incised examples. The masonry of Hawikuh is of stone and is well constructed; indeed the walls are far superior to those of the houses found deep under the refuse (figs. 70 and 71), built before Hawikuh itself, or at least its western part, was erected on the great deposit of débris that covers these more ancient structures. The Zunis raised turkeys, as was shown by the finding of the fragments of an egg-shell con- 72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 taining the bones of the embryo, ceremonially buried with a food bowl, as well as bones of the adult fowl. Eagles were likewise ceremonially buried, and domesticated puppies were given place of interment with the human occupants of Hawikuh. A curious struc- ture of stone slabs on the bottom of the refuse-heap was probably used for imprisoning rattlesnakes (fg. 72). Early Spanish writers mention such a custom at Hawikuh, and one of them states that the rattlesnakes were thus kept in order that their venom might be used for poisoning arrows. A summary of all the interesting discoveries at Hawikuh is not possible in this brief space, nor is it desirable to offer conjectures respecting the significance of some of the features of the ruin or of various objects found in the course of the season’s work, for much remains to be done before the task will approach completion. The excavations were brought to a close late in August and will be con- tinued next season. ANCIENT PIT DWELLINGS IN NEW MEXICO Dr. Walter Hough, of the National Museum, spent the month of June, 1917, chiefly in continuation of an investigation on certain remains of ancient pit dwellings near Luna, New Mexico, mentioned in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 66, No. 17, 1916 (1917). Excavations were made in various parts of the area with the expectation of finding burials, accompanying skeletons and mortuary objects, but with small results. Sufficient information was secured, however, to give a fair knowledge of the structure of the houses and their arrangement into a village as shown in figure 75. This restoration is a summation of the data acquired through excava- tion and survey concerning the former aspect of the village. There is no evidence that the great dance pit was stockaded, but it is a reasonable presumption that this great pit, 84 feet in diameter and 10 feet deep, would require an enclosure. Dr. Hough is preparing a report on this interesting find. During the season another site containing about 15 acres was located about seven miles north of Luna, and it is probable that other sites may be found in the general region. The finding of ancient villages of this character is very diffi- ; cult as they present few surface features by which they may be identified. Of these the shallow concave of a larger pit (dance or assembly pit) is generally the only evidence and this may be oblit- erated when the site was occupied subsequently by other tribes. IQI7 EXPLORATIONS, SMITHSONIAN hi Wildl rt] \/ i ~ ae, & ‘ISRI[IA-}Iq JUaOuUy JO UoIVe10Jsay—SZ “91 74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 A walled kiva 54 feet square on a small stream running into the San Francisco River from the north was investigated and found to be of the type first discovered by Dr. Hough on the Blue River. On the wall of this kiva grows a huge pine fully matured. It seems rather strange that this kiva has not in its neighborhood any village ruins which would house a population commensurate with the 1m- portance of the work or efforts necessary to accomplish its con- struction. In the course of the work a number of large ruins were located which appear to be worthy of further examination. The largest of these ruins are in the Fox, Escondido, and Gallo Mountains and seem to show that early migrations were conducted along the watered mountains which stretch eastward from the Escudilla mesa forming the southern boundary of a great arid basin area extending north- ward from the Rio Grande to the Arizona line. It was observed that the high mountain region presents a ruder culture than obtains at lower elevations in river valleys or basins on the slopes where agriculture produced better returns or where, in the flood plains of rivers having their source in mountains, irrigation is rendered feasible, as in southern Arizona. It was found also that the higher elevations in the mountains did not enforce a hunter life on the inhabitants for hardy varieties of maize could be raised, and thus the mountain culture of the Pueblos presents itself as a ruder phase of the more developed culture of the less elevated lands. Dr. Hough investigated varieties of maize grown at 7,000, 7,600 and 8,000 feet at Luna, Eagar, and Alpine respectively, and secured samples for the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture. He also collected a number of very interesting slab mask headdresses used in ceremonies by the White Mountain Apache Indians and other ethnological specimens from this tribe, together with some data on the puberty ceremony and so-called Devil Dance. The masks, composed of elaborate structures of slats of agave flower stalk decorated with designs in colors and pendants of short rods, etc., are very difficult to obtain. They appear to be related to ceremonial paraphernalia which Dr. Hough obtained from caves in Arizona south of the White Mountain Apache Reservation, described in Bulletin 87, U. S. National Museum (1914). ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK IN ARIZONA AND UTAH The Indian Appropriation Act of May 18, 1916, provided $3,000 for the excavation and repair of the prehistoric cliff-dwellings comprising Navaho National Monument in northern Arizona, the NO; 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 a (oat work to be done under the supervision of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. In March, 1917, Mr. Neil M. Judd, of the United States Fic. 76. —The main group of dwellings at Betatakin as they appeared late in March. Mountain oak five inches in diameter grew on the débris in the middle portion of the cave. 1G. 77.—Approximately the same view, after the work of excavation and repair. The long wall in the upper cave may be seen on the ledge above the walls in the middle of the picture. National Museum, was detailed for this undertaking. He left im- mediately for Flagstaff, Arizona, engaged a small force of white =6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Fic. 78.—Restored walls and mealing room, on the sharply sloping cave floor at Betatakin. The original of the wall at the extreme right collapsed after a heavy fall of snow; the front wall of the house at the top fell during a particularly severe thunderstorm, while workmen were engaged below. The three parallel walls are restorations. VOL. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 Fic. 79.—One of the ladders placed as a substitute for a series of steps, in this case, cut into the cliff at the left of the wall. The pole in the foreground was used by the ancients in reaching the upper cave from the main village. 78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 68 laborers, and proceeded northward some 200 miles by trail to Beta- takin ruin, an imposing structure which occupies a shallow cave in a branch of Sagie (Laguna) Canyon. Work was inaugurated at Betatakin in preference to one of the other two large pueblos within the boundaries of the monument chiefly for the following reasons: (1)-More than one ruin could not be excavated and restored in the time available, from the sum appropriated; (2) Betatakin was, per- haps, in greatest need of repair; and (3) the site was more accessible than the others and furnished abundant water for camp purposes. Extremely unusual and, oftentimes, discouraging conditions were experienced from the very beginning of the undertaking. Snow, rain, hail, and the severe wind and sand storms so common in the Marsh Pass region, followed each other incessantly, tending to delay and handicap the work in hand. In addition, greater difficulty than that anticipated was experienced in obtaining provisions and in engaging Indians either for work in the ruins or for transportation of supplies. Removal of the cave accumulations had been completed by mid-April, however, and the houses and retaining walls in greatest need of repair or restoration received proper attention before the expedition returned to Flagstaff, late in June. The accompanying illustrations show the nature of some of the problems encountered at Betatakin and the methods adopted by Mr. Judd in meeting them. In restoring the ancient habitations, every effort was made to preserve the prehistoric atmosphere of the village. Mud mortar similar to that utilized by the original builders was employed in repairing their shattered dwellings and in replacing those house walls which had completely collapsed. In so far as pos- sible, the sandstone blocks and weathered timbers uncovered during the course of the excavations were utilized in the structures as restored. Marks left by the tools of the recent party were carefully erased and imprints of the fingers were intentionally made in the newly laid mortar, the more completely to reproduce the handiwork of the aborigines. Unlike the ancient masonry, however, the new walls appear with joints carefully broken to insure greater strength and durability. The general appearance of the restored dwellings was so far above expectation that this slight distinction between the prehistoric walls and their modern counterparts will prove, in many instances at least, the chief means of distinguishing the latter. A new trail was made across the talus below the cave, connecting with a series of rude steps which originally formed the principal entrance to the village. These and similar steps in other sections 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 Fic. 80.—One of several ladders made from the notched trunks of cedar trees and placed in the open courts, as sub- stitutes for series of shallow steps. Similar ladders are still in use among some of the modern pueblo villages of New Mexico and Arizona. 80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 of the cave were enlarged and deepened to furnish secure footing for modern visitors. Ladders were provided as substitutes for steps in e ye, L $ au RS Fic. 81.—Great masses of sandstone had fallen upon the houses at the eastern end of the cave, crushing their walls and oftentimes carrying them over the cliff below. Fragments of standing walls may be seen among the wreckage. a oe Pare _ . ~ OP rn mes - ~ Fic. 82.—Approximately the same view, after the work of excavation and repair. Note the restored retaining wall in the middle foreground. It forms a walk or platform in front of a row of houses whose outer walls were of wattle construction. other places, especially in open courts where ready access to neigh- boring housetops is still desired. As noted generally in prehistoric CO — NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 dwellings of the Southwest, the house roofs at Betatakin were flat and furnished convenient workrooms as well as passages from one Fic. 83—A late April snow at Betatakin camp. Snowstorms were of almost weekly occurrence, from the beginning of the work until the last of May. Fic. 84.—View from the central court, in the great ruin at Paragonah. In the foreground may be seen two fireplaces and charred fragments of three of the posts which supported the roof of a temporary shelter. At this point, seven distinct levels of occupancy were noted in six feet of court accumulations. section of the pueblo to another. The new ladders, which form connecting links between the several courts, were made of the 82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 notched trunks of cedar trees or from poles to which rundles were tied by willows and withes of squaw bush. Ladders of the second Fic. 85.—In the foreground may be seen the walls of three superposed dwellings in the great mound at Paragonah. The ancient builders appar- ently leveled the walls of a house which had collapsed and, without remoy- ing the wreckage, built a new structure above the remains of the former. Fic. 86.—The great mound at Paragonah, as viewed from the north, at the beginning of excavations. type are frequently found in cliff-dwellings of the San Juan drainage and part of one was exposed by the recent excavations at Betatakin. NO. I2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 83 After concluding his work in Navaho National Monument, Mr. Judd proceeded to Salt Lake City, as field director of an archeo- logical expedition organized jointly by the University of Utah and the Smithsonian Institution. Excavations were undertaken at Paragonah, in Iron County, where a mound approximately 200 feet square was razed to expose the ancient habitations it covered. The results obtained supplement the previous investigations of Mr. Judd in western Utah, as reported in earlier numbers of this series.” A large number of adobe dwellings, arranged in an irregular square, and three kivas or circular ceremonial rooms were uncovered and carefully studied. As observed during the two preceding years, Fic. 87.—Approximately the same view as hg. 86, after the house walls had been exposed. The walls were made of adobe, built up in irregular layers; the roofs were of poles, covered with willows, grass, and mud. The flat, white areas represent different levels of occupancy. numerous temporary shelters had been erected by the aborigines in the open courts between their houses; other similar huts were con- structed at higher levels as the accumulations of the court increased in depth. An extensive collection of prehistoric artifacts, recovered during the course of the excavations, has been divided between the University of Utah and the Smithsonian Institution. During his latest work in southwestern Utah, Mr. Judd was assisted by Mr. A. A. Kerr, as representative of the University. * Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 66, No. 3, 1915, pp. 64-71; Vol. 66, No. 17 1916, pp. 103-108. 84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 TRIBAL RITES OF OSAGE INDIANS In the month of January, 1917, Mr. Francis La Flesche of the Bureau of American Ethnology, visited the band of Osage Indians known by the members of the Osage tribe as the Paciugthi", freely translated, “ Those-who-dwelt-on-the-hilltop.” Most of these Indians belong to that subdivision of the Hoga tribal division called Wazhazhe, a name which the tribe as a whole bears to-day. For religious and ceremonial purposes the Osage tribe is divided into two great parts, one, the Tsi’zhu, representing the sky and the celestial bodies, and the other, the Ho®’ga, representing the earth. The Ho’ga division is subdivided, one to represent the dry land, the other, called Wazhazhe, the water (the seas, lakes and rivers). Each of these divisions and subdivisions has its own version of the great and complex tribal rites by which the people, from an unknown length of time, have been governed, and to which the older people still cling with the old-time reverence and superstitious awe, although these rites are now becoming disintegrated. The visit of Mr. La Flesche to the “ Hilltop ” people was prin- cipally for the purpose of securing, if possible, a complete version of the tribal rites as practiced by the Wazhazhe subdivision, or to secure whatever parts of these rites the members of the Wazhazhe might be willing to give. Owing to the conservatism of the members of the Wazhazhe subdivision no direct information could be obtained from them concerning their version of the tribal rites. When the men who are versed in the rites were approached on the subject, they simply remarked that the tribal rites are not to be discussed at all times and on every occasion, that the mysteries of the rites are only for those who are duly initiated, and then they become silent or take up for conversation a subject of everyday life. While these “ Hill- top ” people are consistent in their conservatism, as far as the rites themselves are concerned, they appear not to place as much impor- tance upon the ceremonial paraphernalia, for they have disposed of many sacred objects to curio-hunters or to representatives of muse- ums. The sale of a waxobe (portable shrine, with its sacred hawk) resulted in a curious and pathetic incident. Five or six years ago a “ Hilltop’ man transferred his waxdbe (which is always equiva- lent to an offer of initiation into the tribal rites) to another member of his gens, but retained possession of it, although the transfer was formally accepted and the first fees were paid by the candidate. The keeper of the shrine, after waiting several years and not hearing further from his candidate, yielded to the persistent offers of a ie) [o6) / 191 IS NS, ) RATIO Jt EXPL( SMITHSONIAN ‘YMPY PasIRs dy} 1OF dUTAYS a[qrjsod wv Suryeut ul pasiMboas SuLsadood srey-ojeyng SS) ldap pue yet YSNs ot} SUIARIM UouM Ud}Jeq pue t uOO, At) 10} posn Jopjue pue syels poyesojsod ‘SONRIS 86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 curio-hunter to purchase it and so parted with the shrine. About two years ago the candidate suddenly demanded that the initiation ceremonies be performed. The No™ho"zhi"ga, who had been duly summoned to witness the initiation, assembled, and the ceremonies proceeded in the prescribed manner, but without the waxdbe. At a certain part of the ritual a warrior who had won thirteen war- honors was called on to recount those honors to the sacred hawk in the presence of the assembled No™ho"™zhi"ga. Kuzhiwatse, an aged warrior, and one of the remaining three in the tribe who could count the requisite number of war-honors at the ceremony, was chosen for this coveted honor. At the proper time the old man, gathering up in his hands the thirteen willow saplings which had been placed before him with which to count his honors, arose, thanked the members of the order for the honor conferred upon him, and then addressed the sacred hawk in the following manner: “O, Waxobe, I rise to speak to you, in words that carry only the truth.” Then, suddenly remembering that the waxdbe was not present, he added, * You are not here, but wherever you may be, perhaps in some place on the shores of yonder great water (pointing eastward), however long the distance may a you will surely hear the words that | shall utter.” Then, unmindful of the ill-concealed smiles of the No™ho™zhi"ga, he went on, with all the dignity of a warrior, to recount his war-honors, as though the sacred hawk, the emblem of the valor of the Osage warriors, was actually present in its accustomed place. *€ The results of Mr. La Flesche’s efforts to secure from the members of the Wazhazhe subdivision, residing with the “ Hilltop” band, their version of the tribal rites were disappointing. However, he took advantage of the opportunities that arose for securing other important information relating to the rites. One day there appeared at the Indian house where Mr. La Flesche was staying an old woman who said she haa a set of “i’cagthe dapa” (“ short-stakes”) she wished to dispose of. I’cagthe dapa is the collective name of the stakes, perforated slats and deer’s antler (see fig. 88), that are used as loom supports and batten in weaving the rush mats out of which are made the symbolic, portable shrines for the sacred hawks, war symbols, that are distributed among the various gentes of the tribe, and also for the weaving of the buffalo-hair bags that form the outer coverings for the shrines. The old woman said she felt that on account of her age she must soon be departing for the other world and she did not wish to leave the mysterious articles to her NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, !9Q17 87 children lest some harm befall them through neglect. She was told that a set had already been obtained from another woman, an official weaver, but that if she would give, with the loom, the wi’gie re- cited at the ceremonial weaving of the rush mat for the making of the shrine Mr. La Flesche would make the purchase. After some reflection the old woman said she was willing to give the wi'gie, but asked for time in order to refresh her memory. In some mysterious way old Kuzhiwatse, though nearly stone deaf, heard that Wako™’dahio"be was about to give away the Fic. 89.—Buffalo-hair case that forms the outer covering of the shrine. sacred loom and the wi’gie. He immediately got into an auto- mobile, hastened to the old woman’s house where he harangued her in vigorous manner on the sacrilege she was about to commit, and warned her of the Waxpegthe. Waxpegthe is punishment, by supernatural means, that constantly hangs over the head of a No™ho"zhi"ga and drops on the person the moment an irreverent act is committed. The old woman retorted that the Waxpegthe applied only to the obligations assumed by a candidate for initia- tion; these obligations she had faithfully fulfilled, consequently she had nothing to fear. Kuzhiwatse then, assuming a conciliatory atti- 88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 tude, told her that he would not object to her disposing of the sacred loom, but urged her not to give away the wi’gie, as that act would tend to hasten the disorganization of the No™ho"zhi"ga order. The old woman declared that she would dispose of both the loom and the wi’gie, claiming that they were hers by purchase, and empha- sized her claim by enumerating to the old man the horses, blankets and other valuable articles she and her husband had paid as fees for her initiation. Kuzhiwatse had assumed the right to interfere with the old woman’s action because the wi’gie she had promised to recite be- longs to the Wazhazhe subdivision, of which he is a prominent member. On the appointed day Mr. La Flesche appeared with his dictaphone at the old woman’s house. Without hesitation she placed before him the “ short-stakes ’’ and told of Kuzhiwatse’s action in the matter. Then, sitting on the floor in front of the machine, she dictated to it the ancient wi’gie, and sang the wailing song, doing this as though she was accustomed to the use of the dictaphone. The wi’gie and the song she gave filled a gap in the detailed description given by Waxthi’zhi of the ceremonies that were con- nected with the ceremonial weaving of the portable shrine of the sacred hawk, a hiatus that Mr. La Flesche had almost despaired of filling, as his informant flatly refused to give the wi’gie, consistently adhering to the ancient rule that any part of the rites that exclusively belongs to one of the tribal divisions should not be used by any one belonging to the other divisions without first obtaining permission from the division having ownership. The set of weaving implements obtained, as stated above, includes seven pieces: four stakes, two perforated slats, and a deer’s antler. Two of the stakes are of the length required for the uprights of the loom when it is used to weave the rush mat to be used for making the shrine for the sacred hawk (see fig. 90). The other two are of the length needed as uprights for the loom when the buffalo-hair bag is to be woven (see fig. 89). All four stakes are pointed at one end so as to be planted in the ground and hold the loom steady. The two flat slats are perforated from end to end with small holes, through which are strung and fastened the warp of the piece to be woven. The slats are fastened at right angles to the stakes, one at the top and the other at the bottom, so as to hold taut the threads of the warp. 7 191 XPLORATIONS, E SMITHSONIAN 12 NO. ( i 7 Wi i iN \ \ Ais vy Vell AYE iy Hayiity bine | deeded td “ way? pene 4 \\ va way Vee » Waa ~ if A etme dee leid Te ApH Morne erte yar mill tA ALUN ’ A): the h forms whic STS, desig i¢ ine. symbol shr ible rte its woven por with at, m Rush Fic. 90. go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 The loom and the batten, after having been ceremonially prepared and consecrated by the No™ho"zhi"ga for the weaving of the symbolic shrine of the sacred hawk, are believed to have become pos- sessed of mythical power that could bring about not only the defeat of the enemies of the tribe, but punish by misfortune any individual member who might treat with irreverence these consecrated articles. The deer’s antler used for a batten in the ceremonial weaving is believed to possess greater mystical power than the loom, because it not only symbolizes the sacred arrows of the Wazhazhe sub- division, but also the arrows of all the warriors of the tribe. STUDY OF THE FOX, SAUK AND POTAWATOMI INDIANS Dr. Truman Michelson, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, left Washington on July 11, for field research among the Foxes near Tama, Iowa. Here he revised the texts pertaining to the White Buffalo Dance, obtained the esoteric meanings of the songs in these texts, and elucidated certain obscure passages. A part of the socio- logical work of the previous year was duplicated as a check. Lists of ceremonial organizations were made, and the names of the “officers ’ and the tribal dual divisions of these were secured. It was discovered that at least certain gentes have names for dogs and horses appropriate only to those belonging to members of given gentes; accordingly a number of such names was collected. A list of native terms of fishes and grubs was secured. A number of ceremonies (including the Snake Dance, which is rarely given, and some burials) were witnessed. Near the close of September Dr. Michelson proceeded to the Mis- sour1 Sauks, who are partly in Kansas, partly in Nebraska. It soon became apparent that all who were worthy of ethnologic study had joined the Potawatomi in Kansas. Proceeding among the latter he spent a couple of days working with the Sauks, mainly on socio- logical matters. It appears that the regulations governing member- ship in the tribal dual division are not the same as among the Foxes of Iowa; nor are they apparently in absolute agreement with those of the Sauks of Oklahoma. Considering the brief stay with the Potawatomi, work was exceptionally successful. The phonetics of their language are rather complicated, some of the consonants at once recalling similar Delaware ones. A good beginning was made in regard to sociology, though details in many cases must be supplied later. It appears that the tribe is organized in exogamic groups with totemic names, with descent in the male line. The chieftainship NO! £2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 OI must be in the Bear gens. There were certain relationships of courtesy between gentes; the gentes had definite localizations in certain ceremonies, and had appropriate paints. The regulations regarding membership in the tribal dual division has not been definitely worked out, but it has become quite clear that the dual Fic. 91.—Ida Poweshiek, mixed Potawatomi and Fox Indian girl of Tama, lowa. division was for ceremonial purposes as well as for the ball game. The names of the divisions show clearly that they have been derived from the Sauk, ox, and Kickapoo. The system of consanguinity is clearly of the Ojibwa type, not that of the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo. A number of folk-tales and myths were collected, and it appears that Ve) i) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 a fairly large number of European elements have been incorporated. The aboriginal matter definitely proves that two associations must be assumed—an older one with the Ojibwa group, and a later one with the Fox group. Certain plains and plateau elements also occur. The medium or media through which the latter came is as yet un- known. Dr. Michelson returned to Washington October 5. Fic. 92.—An old Potawatomi man of Kansas. Fic. 93.—An old Potawatomi woman of Kansas. Sl UDIES AMONG THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA Mr. J. P. Harrington, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, spent the period from January 1 to September 30, 1917, in continuing his California studies in the Santa Barbara region of southern California, amassing a large amount of valuable linguistic and other informa- tion. Mr. Harrington’s time was divided between the Venturefio, Yneseno, Barbareno, and Purismeno dialects, most minute study NO. I2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 93 being devoted to the Ventureno. A considerably larger amount of the extinct Purismeno was rescued than it had been Mr. Harring- ton’s good fortune to obtain on previous visits. Nearly all of the work was conducted with survivors of the older generation, but Fic. 94.—Ventura Indian woman. with the knowledge of this field which Mr. Harrington has acquired it was found possible to secure quite valuable information from some of the younger men, although this information requires to be weighed most carefully. Work in this field requires a thorough 94 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 knowledge of Spanish as well as of Indian culture, the two being strangely blent in the informants. By carefully studying the archeological objects which have been found in the region, it has been possible to obtain an adequate idea Fic. 96.—California ground squirrels roasted in ashes. One of the few anc-ent Indian foods which are still popular. of many of the articles of the vanished material culture. In this way satisfactory information has been obtained on the subjects of personal adornment, archery, basketry, bags, beads and shell money, boats, brushes, buildings, clothing, cradles, deer-headdresses, dolls, fishing, NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 95 food gathering and processes of preparation, hairdressing, mats, measures, musical instruments, regalia, string-making, tobacco and its uses, tools, traps, and other interesting points, although in some cases the informants had never seen the article. Fortunately it is frequently possible to obtain ethnological infor- mation by a more direct method. An old woman was found who still remembered how to measure bead money on the hand, as illustrated by the accompanying photograph (fig. 95), and it is interesting to find Americanized descendants roasting California ground squirrels by the unaltered process of their ancestors (fig. 96). At the end of September Mr. Harrington returned from the field. STUDY OF CHIPPEWA MATERIAL CULTURE During the summer of 1917 Miss Frances Densmore resumed a study of Chippewa material culture begun by her several years ago. This was made possible by the fact that considerable phono- graphic material had been collected and awaited musical analysis during the coming winter. Returning to the White Earth Reserva- tion, Miss Densmore enlisted the co-operation of many Indians who had assisted in the study of Chippewa music, previously conducted in that locality. The Chippewa tribe has advanced in civilization beyond many other tribes, but there are individuals who neither speak nor understand English and who continue many of the old customs. From such informants a general outline of the old economic life was obtained and several branches were given intensive study. The ethnobotany of the Chippewa was the subject of special investigation, and an ethnobotanical collection of about 200 plants was obtained, including plants used as medicines, food, dyes, and charms, as well as those used for general utility. With the medicinal plants were collected examples of surgical and medical appliances, and of substances other than vegetal used in remedies. The native names of plants were recorded, together with the portion and amount of a plant used in a remedy, the dosage, the treatment which accom- panied its use, and the symptoms for which the remedy was pre- scribed. The investigation concerned chiefly the use of specifics, but a few combinations of herbs were recorded for comparison with the separate uses of the same herbs. Long life was the greatest desire of the Chippewa, and the attaining of long life formed the principal teaching of the Wide or native religion. Two factors were said to contribute to that end, namely, uprightness of life and the 7 gO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 proper use of medicines. Thus the efficient use of herbs was an important province of the Midewiwin, or Grand Medicine Society, and the secrets of these herbs were transmitted from one generation Fic. 97.—Boat in rice-field. Photograph by Miss Densmore. Fic. 98.—Parching wild rice. Photograph by Miss Densmore. to another. Miss Densmore’s former study of the J/idewiwin con- tributed to the present research, as persons who recorded Jide songs more than ten years ago were willing to impart information con- cerning the herbs used in Mide remedies. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 Q7 Food and its preparation formed the interesting subject of an inquiry, which was limited to the period preceding the baking of bread. The principal articles of food at that time were cooked rice and vegetables, fish, meat and game, berries, maple sugar, and beverages made from leaves and twigs. Wooden spoons, bone knives, and a “ marrow stick’’ for scooping marrow from a bone were used within the memory of the older informants, and water was boiled in a vessel made of freshly cut birchbark if a trader’s kettle was not available. The manner of securing each class of food was studied. Three rice-camps were visited and photographed, the pro- cess including the gathering of the rice, its parching, pounding, Fic. 99.-—-Frame of lodge in which maple sap is boiled, and lodge in which sugar-making utensils are stored. Photograph by Miss Densmore, winnowing, and threshing. A boat was poled through the rice field and the rice gathered by knocking the kernels from the stalk with two short sticks, the kernels falling into the boat (fig.97). The rice was then parched in an iron kettle over a slow fire, being constantly stirred to prevent scorching (fig. 98). The next phase of the work consisted in pounding the rice in a barrel sunk in the ground, long, heavy poles being used for the purpose. This loosened the husks, which were removed by winnowing in birchbark trays and thresh- ing with the moccasined feet in a shallow receptacle. The process of taking seines from the water and drying and pre- paring fish was observed and photographed, and a maple sugar camp was visited, though not seen in actual operation (fig. 99). 98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Dwellings and their native equipment were given detailed study, the principal types noted by earlier observers being seen and photo- graphed. The reeds and rushes used in weaving mats for the floor and sides of dwellings were collected, together with specimens of the mats and the implements used in their weaving (fig. 100). These mats are still made by the Chippewa, although the use of native Fic. 100.—Chippewa wcman weaving small mat of rushes. Photograph by Miss Densmore. dyes for coloring them has been discontinued. The formule for many shades of color were, however, obtainable, and rushes, porcu- pine quills, yarn, and woolen cloth were dyed by Chippewa women as examples of native ability in this art. Numerous specimens of beadwork in geometric designs were collected, the women stating that these designs were employed by them before the floral patterns which are now in general use. The implements used in the handi- NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 99 craft of both men and women formed part of the objective material collected for illustrating this report. The making of birchbark Fic. 161—Frame on which birchbark canoe is made. Photograph by Miss Densmore. Fic. 102.—Process of making a birchbark canoe. Photograph by Miss Densmore. utensils in graceful outlines is rapidly becoming a lost art among the Chippewa, and many examples of this work were obtained. 100 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 As the Chippewa were a people living in the woods and beside the water a study of their early life necessarily included the making of a birchbark canoe. For this purpose an old canoe maker was visited and his equipment photographed. Briefly described, the process consisted in molding thick sheets of birchbark upward around a removable flat frame which was held in place by heavy stones (figs. 101, 102). The sheets of bark were sewed together with split roots and fastened to a permanent binding at the top, the seams being calked with spruce or other gum. Hunting and trapping were studied, together with the manner of tanning large and small hides. Games and pastimes were recorded and the implements used in the various games were obtained. Tribal organization received some attention, as well as tribal customs relating to marriage, home life, death, and burial. Not. least in importance was the additional information secured concerning the beliefs and customs of the Midewiwin, and the practice of good and evil charms. ETHNOLOGIC WORK IN LOUISIANA The field-work of Dr. John R. Swanton, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, during 1917, was confined to a short expedition to Fic. 103.—Mixed Houma Indians, Little Barataria Bayou. Louisiana between May 16 and June 25. In this period three sepa- rate investigations were undertaken. The first of these was a visit to the mixed-blood Houma Indians in La Fourche parish and the NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 IOI eastern part of Terre Bonne. Dr. Swanton was accompanied and his work greatly facilitated by Mr. Ernest Coycault, a creole living in New Orleans and married to one of these Indians. The brother- Fic. 104—Cut-off at site of old Houma village, Point au Chien, La. Fic. 105.—Method of constructing a palmetto roof. Indian house at Point au Chien, Terre Bonne, La. in-law of Mr. Coyeault acted as pilot, guiding Dr. Swanton to all of the more important Indian settlements between New Orleans and Point au Chien where the oldest [louma town in the region is said to have been situated until destroyed by three huge waves from the [ITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 _— e) bdo oz) vd Fic. 106.—Mixed Houma Indians (French, German, and Houma), lower Bayou La Fourche, La. Fic. 107.—Houma man, lower Bayou La Fourche, La. His grandmothers on both sides were Houma, his father’s father a German, his mother’s father a Frenchman. NO. I2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI17 103 Gulf about 1909. A few notes, relating chiefly to the material culture of the people, were made and a number of photographs were taken, but only a single expression in the old Houma language could be secured, and it is evident that the vocabulary obtained in 1907 from an old woman belonging to the western settlements of these Indians is all relating to their language that can now be expected from them. Fic. 108.—Estelle Sandress, one of the four surviving speakers of Chitimacha. Before setting out on this trip Dr. Swanton spent a few days in New Orleans examining some of the manuscripts belonging to the Louisiana Historical Society now preserved in the Cabildo, and was able to add several items to his material on the history of the southeastern Indians. [lis success in this work was much aided by Miss Carrie S. Freret, who has immediate charge of the manu- scripts. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Fic. 109.—Chitimacha Indians living near Charenton, La. The man is one of the four surviving speakers of the Chitimacha language. His name is Regist Dardin. so — te _ ae Fic. 110.—Koasati Indians near Kinder, La. NO: 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 TO5 After returning from the Houma Dr. Swanton proceeded to Charenton, La., where he spent a few days revising some of his material on the Chitimacha language with Benjamin Paul, one of the four surviving speakers of this tongue and a man who had assisted him on previous visits. Although it was found that there was little new material to be had, Dr. Swanton secured some gram- Fic. 111.—Mother of my Koasati interpreter and one of my principal informants. matical information of great value in fixing the proper position of Chitimacha among the languages of the region. From Charenton he proceeded to Kinder, in Calcasieu parish, where he remained for about two weeks, recording texts from the Koasatt Indians just east of that town. The Koasati language is similar 106 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 to Alabama, which Dr. Swanton already studied among the Alabama Indians in Polk county, Texas, but more differences were found between the two than it was supposed existed. He recorded about 150 pages of new text material with interlinear translations, and carefully corrected about 125 pages previously obtained in Texas, but found to be corrupted with Alabama expressions. ETHNOLOGY OF THE IROQUOIS On March 2, 1917, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt resumed his field studies of the League of the Iroquois and of kindred matters relating to the ethnology of the Iroquois, near Brantford, Ontario, Canada. At once he took up the textual and literary criticism of the extensive native texts, chiefly in Mohawk, Onondaga, and Cayuga, relating to the founding and to the structure and the purpose of the League or Federation of the Five Tribes of the Iroquois. This work consists in reading over, grammatically correcting, transposing misplaced parts of texts, annotating obscure passages or obsolescent terms, and, where new information shows the need, expanding the texts with new material. The work is very necessary in view of the fact that much of it was recorded hastily from the dictation of untrained native speakers who did not realize the imperative need of repeating a sentence in the same terms in case it must be repeated. The difficulty of this task may be measurably realized when it 1s taken into account that these texts aggregate nearly sixty thousand native words or sentences. It is often necessary to read the words and the immediate context over several times in order to decide upon their tentative final form; this is in addition to the reading of the entire topic or “ chapter.” An example will suffice. In the Eulogy of the Founders of the League occurs an expression which had been recorded in all previous texts in such manner that it was translated, “ The Institution became aged or ancient,” or “ The Institution has become useless from age.” But the correct text, thus found, signifies, “Tt causes the Institution to become ancient or aged,’ or “ The Institution is being caused thereby to become old or ancient.” An important distinction, because it does not state the fact that the League has become old, but rather that the noted causes tend to make it grow ancient or aged. These texts are read over with every well-informed informant in order to elicit a full expression of the informant’s knowledge or criticism of the value and correctness of the work of anviher. NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 107 These detailed investigations naturally led to the recording of other corrective or amplifying texts and notes; these amount to over 500 manuscript pages, of which Shaman Joshua Buck supplied more than 240 pages and Emeritus Chief Abram Charles over 260 pages, together on more than forty topics; both these informants recited a ritual for recording. In addition to this new material in text Mr. Hewitt recorded in English only, three short traditions, about 50 manuscript pages, which though very short are highly significant as they purport to relate events and express ideas and newer conceptions of life and man which, asserting the brotherhood and the fellowship of all men in contradistinction to the ideas of mere tribalism, shaped the prin- ciples upon which the League of the Iroquois was built. Mr. Hewitt also made several important discoveries concerning certain clans of the Iroquois. In brief, the new information shows that three so-called “clans” of this group of tribes do not exist outside of the names which are employed to designate them. It is found that the Onondaga “ Ball” clan is in fact a Hawk clan; and that the so-called ““ Hand” clan of the Cayuga is the Gray Wolf clan; and that the “ rotato” clan of the Cayuga and Mohawk (Canadian?) is in fact a (?) Duck clan, or possibly a (?) Wolf clan (the identification is still incomplete). This confusion is due to popular acceptance of a sobriquet as the real name of the clan. On March 13, Mr. Hewitt was fortunate in being selected as an official delegate from the Council of the Six Nations of Iroquois to represent the Seneca tribe as a celebrant in its behalf in a Condolence and Installation Ceremony held in behalf of the Oneida of Muncie- town, Ontario, in which he was required to act a leading part in the rites, necessitating the intoning of an address of comforting in the Onondaga language and also in acting the part of the Seneca chiefs in such a Council of Condolence and Installation. This official recognition gave Mr. Hewitt the rare opportunity of seeing just how such a ceremony is conducted from behind the scenes. It was Mr. Hewitt’s good fortune to obtain a set of wooden masks of the various Wind Gods or Spirits and also two of the Food Gods, eight in all; these Wind Spirits or Gods are held in high repute in the medical circles of these noted tribes. Mr. Hewitt was also pleased to obtain by purchase the gourd rattle used by the late Chief John Buck, the noted father of his assistant, Mr. Joshua Buck; he also purchased what is reported to be the last cradle-board on the reservation; it has a beautiful beaded belt. He also obtained a fine medicine flute. 108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO AND SOUTHEASTERN UTAH The country south and southwest of Dolores, Colorado, contains many evidences of a considerable population in prehistoric times. The most striking of these evidences are mounds of stones, remains of well-constructed buildings, the standing walls of which sometimes rise many feet above the surface. Some of these remains are men- tioned or described by Newberry, Jackson, Holmes, Morgan, Morley, Moorehead, Prudden, and Kidder, but a still greater number remain unrecorded, although reported by cowboys and sheep herders, who, Fic. 112.—Lone Pine House, cliff-dwelling near Dolores. Photograph by J. Wirsula. while paying only casual attention to them, know their sites and some- thing of their superficial characters. The growing interest in the antiquities of this part of Colorado, especially those of the Mesa Verde National Park, not far distant, has stimulated a desire to investigate other ancient ruins in the neighborhood, and with that end in view Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, ethnologist, devoted several weeks of the autumn of 1917 to an archeological examination of this region. He visited all ruins pre- viously recorded and was able to add several others to the list, without covering more than a part of the extensive territory. The main object of this work, all too inadequate on account of limited time, was to gather facts bearing on the distribution of pre- historic inhabitants in southwestern Colorado and their cultural rela- NOW LZ SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 109g Fic. 113.—Surouaro, situated at the head of Yellow Jacket. Photograph by J. Wirsula. Fic. 114.—Semicircular tower opposite mouth of Dawson Canyon. Photograph by J. Wirsula. I1o SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 tionships to those of Mesa Verde, where there is so much in this line to attract tourists and students. Dolores, a station on the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, was chosen as a convenient point of departure for this preliminary reconnaissance. Especial attention was paid to a determination of the forms and architectural characteristics of prehistoric buildings. Although no extensive excavations were attempted an examination was made of local collections of pottery and other objects, said to have come from these ruins, as a basis of comparison with similar objects from the Mesa Verde. While collections of these specimens are small they support the conclusion, taught by architectural evidences, that “th a Fic. 115.—Semicircular tower one mile from Littrell Ranch, Yellow Jacket. Photograph by J. Wirsula. the life of the inhabitants of the two regions was similar. They uphold the theory that the final abandonment of the region by the aboriginal occupants occurred in prehistoric times or before the Spanish occupation, but they contribute little to definite knowledge of the date of their construction. In the limited time at his disposal Dr. Fewkes confined his studies to typical ruins situated in an area bounded on the west by the Yellow Jacket, formerly known as the Hovenweep Canyon, and its tributaries ; on the south by the McElmo ; on the north by a line drawn from Dolores to the head of Sandstone Canyon; and on the east by the Montezuma Valley, which extends from Dolores to Aztec Spring Ruin. In this area there occur many types of aboriginal remains, as open sky pueblos like Far View House, single roomed towers, multi-chambered, massive-walled castel- NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 ILIA late buildings, cliff-houses, and other domiciles. In the progress of this work one or two excursions were made into Utah to Cross Canyon west of the Yellow Jacket, where extensive ruins of char- acteristic type await investigation, but no attempt is made to include the results of these trips in this account. Naturally, since the eastern part of the area considered has been thickly settled by white men for a considerable time the prehistoric ruins in this region are more dilapidated than those on the public domain farther west. There appears, however, to have been a close similarity in the buildings of the eastern and western parts of the area; existing differences being due rather to nature of sites than to cultural causes. The Fic. 116.—Aztec Springs Ruin. Photograph by J. Wirsula. western ruins are the better preserved, and can be used to interpret the buried walls of eastern mounds, where little now remains visible except piles of fallen stones, but a satisfactory intepretation must await verification by the uncovering of their walls. Aside from one or two cliff-dwellings (fig. 112) the ruins near Dolores crown low hills on the left bank of the river, and are much dilapidated. If they are compared with ruins in the Hovenweep it appears that their buried walls had circular D-shaped forms. One of these hill-ruins situated about three miles from town, in plain sight from the Monticello road that practically follows the old Spanish trail, is the ruin referred to in the brief notice that appears in the diary of Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, dated 1776, and is probably the first Colorado ruin mentioned in historical documents. 8 I12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Another pile of stones (fig. 113), called Surouaro by Professor New- berry, is situated on the same road 14 miles west of Dolores, at Yellow Jacket Springs. According to this author it takes its name from an Indian word meaning desolation, but the name, unknown to ranchmen, is not now appropriate, for modern dry farmers are raising crops in its neighborhood equal to any in Colorado. There are very extensive ruins all along the rim of Yellow Jacket, the largest of which, nearly opposite Dawson Canyon (fig. 114), is 5 miles south of Surouaro. Its walls, accompanied by a D-shaped tower (fig. 115) perched on a shelf halfway down the canyon, are well preserved and about 15 feet high. There is a similar semi- circular tower a few miles away. Fic. 117.—Mud Spring Ruin. Photograph by J. Wirsula. The portion of Montezuma Valley at the mouth of the McElmo is irrigated by water drawn through a tunnel from the Dolores River, the waste flowing down the McElmo. The surface of the valley slopes uniformly southward and is destitute of canyons, but cut by several deep arroyos. In general the ruins of this valley are villages or clusters of mounds one of which is more prominent than the others. One of the largest and most typical is called Aztec Springs Ruin (fig. 116), described by Holmes many years ago. Its striking feature is the large rectangular mound indicating a block of rooms, or ‘Upper House,” which contained two large, circular, central kivas and one small circular kiva, surrounded by rectangular rooms forming NO; 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 I13 a compact pueblo of the pure type. The “Lower House” is a rectangular enclosure surrounded on the east, west, and south sides by a low wall and with rows of rooms on the north side, enclosing Fic. 118—Goodman Point Ruin. Photograph by J. Wirsula. Fic. 119.—Blanchard Ruin. Photograph by J. Wirsula. a circular depression or reservoir. Around the former are several mounds, remains of former blocks of buildings with kivas, the walls of which have fallen. 68 VOL. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS SMITHSONIAN 114 ‘weog “T+ Aq ydessojoyq ‘UOAURY) JOMOT, IeNDS jo pray ye s1IaMO,T—ozI ‘DIY ‘peolpiey epuviry ory puv sxAuaq jo Asozinoy ‘vag “7 +) Aq ydessojoyg ‘peorrey opuviry OLY pue JOA Jo AsoJANOD ‘uOAULD JaMOT, a1eNDS Jo proy eV sIIMOT—iIZI “OT SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 I2 NO. 68 VOL. CTIONS MISCELLANEOUS COLLE SMITHSONIAN 116 ‘ureg “7 5 Aq ydersojoyg ‘proaprey spuesy ony pue Jaauaq jo Asaqzinoy ‘uoAUR) IOMOT, 9IeNDS UI SIOMOT—ZZI “DIY INOZ 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 TW The Mitchell Spring Ruin, situated at Old Town or Toltec, 3 miles south of Cortez, first described by Morgan, resembles in type that mentioned above, and consists of several mounds or remains of rectangular buildings and a tower. One of the smaller of these mounds, excavated by Dr. Prudden, had a central circular kiva surrounded by rooms, constructed like those of Far View House. The same arrangement of mounds in clusters or villages found at Aztec Springs Ruin and Mitchell Spring Ruin occurs also at Mud Spring Ruin (fig. 117), 7 miles from Cortez, at the head of McElmo Canyon. The mounds are numerous and cover a considerable area. The two largest are separated by a gulch in which lies a spring, as at Aztec Springs Ruin. In one of the largest mounds is the so-called “ triple-walled tower’ (Holmes) with concentric walls, embedded in rectangular rooms. There are several other ruins of the clustered mound or village type in the Montezuma Valley, but in many the smaller mounds have disappeared under cultivation of the land. Among these may be mentioned Goodman Point Ruin (fig. 118), and that on the Blanchard Ranch (fig. 119), stones from which were removed to Manitou a few years ago to construct a cliff-house in imitation of Cliff Palace and Sprucetree House. None of the stones used in the construction of the Manitou reproduction came from Mesa Verde. The Wolley Ranch Ruin, about 10 miles south of Dolores, is a good example of a pure pueblo type of ruin. About all that remains of a former cluster of mounds is the largest, now so overgrown with bushes that architectural details are difficult to observe, but there are evidences that it was a rectangular building with enclosed circular kivas, but without courts or passageways. In their general features the groups of mounds in the Montezuma Valley resemble the cluster at Mummy Lake, on the Mesa Verde, both in arrangement and in their individual structure, so far as can be judged from the desultory excavations by which walls have been brought to light. Each mound in a cluster has the same structure as the pure type found in Far View House. The top courses of the walls have fallen and filled the rooms with stones and earth. The cemeteries commonly situated east and south of the mounds have nearly all been rifled of their contents. Certain mounds in the cluster may be remains of towers; others of “ great houses”; and the same may also be said of different members of the Mummy Lake group. This same clustering of mounds, characteristic of the Montezuma Valley ruins, occurs also in those situated in the broken country 68 VOL. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS SMITHSONIAN 118 ‘weog "T ‘ry Aq ydeisojoyg * peosprey spuesy ony pure s9auaq jo Asajanoy ‘dnois 19MOT atenbs ‘siamoy um [—tz1 “oly 119 EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 SMITHSONIAN ‘turagd “YT 5) Aq ydess oJoYg ‘“peosprey apuesry ory pue Jodauaqy Jo Asayanoy “uoXkuesy AT[OH{ ur suimy Jo dnosryy—PFer “Oly 120 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 cut by the deep canyons that open into the McElmo, west of this valley, although the arrangement of the mounds is modified by con- figuration of the sites or adjacency of springs. Asa rule the mounds Fic. 125.—Tower in Holly Canyen. Photograph by J. Wirsula. or clusters in this region either skirt the canyon rims or cluster about their heads. They are generally accompanied with large towers and buildings of the “ great house ” type (figs. 120 and 121) NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI7 [2I situated on points of the mesa rim or perched on fallen angular rocks on the floor of the canyon. It may be mentioned that their walls are constructed of good masonry, which has effectually resisted the erosive power of the elements. Fic. 126.—Group of ruins in Holly Canyon. Photograph by J. Wirsula. Fic. 127—Horseshoe Ruin, Hackberry group. Photograph by J. Wirsula. The early builders were prone to introduce curved walls in these buildings ; they were partial to circular, oval, and D-shaped struc- tures, although square and rectangular buildings are common. They paid little attention to leveling the foundations on which the walls 122 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 were constructed, but inequalities in the base were built up with flat stones to the level of the lowest courses. The stones used were of different sizes, well trimmed by means of stone implements. The walls remain fairly stable, notwithstanding the foundations on which they rest are very uneven. The cliff-dwellings and pueblos of the Mesa Verde National Park belong architecturally to the “ pure type,” the characteristic of which is a compact pueblo with a circular kiva with mural banquettes and pilasters that formerly supported a vaulted roof, a ventilator with air passage and deflector, and generally a ceremonial floor opening called the sipapu. The same type of kiva has been observed in the great consolidated pueblos of the Chaco and the cliff-dwellings in the Chelly Canyon. Dr. Prudden, Dr. Kidder, and Mr. Morley have recorded this type from ruins in Montezuma Valley and the McElmo- Yellow Jacket and Montezuma Canyon regions, and Dr. Fewkes discovered last summer that it occurs in several pueblos of the Hovenweep district. The existence of this form of kiva beyond the limits of the Mesa Verde marks the extension of the prehistoric area it characterizes. Three groups of large, well-preserved buildings illustrating most of the types of the Yellow Jacket district occur between 40 and 50 miles from Dolores in a limited area which Dr. Fewkes suggests be made by proclamation a National monument, to be known as the Hovenweep National Monument. These groups are as follows: I. Cluster at the head of Square Tower (Ruin) Canyon (figs. 121, 122 and 123); 2. Holly Canyon group (figs. 124, 125 and 126) ; 3. Hack- berry (branch of Bridge) Canyon cluster (fig. 127). The three regions lie a few miles apart, not far from where the Yellow Jacket empties into the McElmo, near the Utah-Colorado State line. The structure of the well-preserved buildings in these groups enables us to interpret the probable appearance of the buildings, now mounds, in the Montezuma Valley. In the first-mentioned cluster there are 11 different buildings within a radius of half a mile. One of these, Hovenweep Castle, (fig. 128), has walls that measure 66 feet long and 20 feet high. This building has, in addition to towers and great rooms, two circular kivas on the east end, identical in construction with those of Far View House on the Mesa Verde. Some of the so-called towers, as figure 130, have single, others multiple, chambers, and are generally two or three stories high. Their shapes are rectangular, circular, semicircular, D-shaped or oval. ‘weag “7 "5 Aq ydesrsoj0yg ‘peospiey spurs ory pue r9Aueq jo Asojinoy) ‘afjsey daaMuaA0Y}—gzI “914 7 EXPLORATIONS, I9QI “e SMITHSONIAN TS 124 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 One of the most instructive buildings in the Square Tower group (fig. 131) is Unit Type House, a pueblo having a single centrally placed kiva, identical with the kivas of Far View House, compactly surrounded by rectangular rooms, rendering them subterranean and imparting to the ruin a square form (fig. 132). This kiva is charac- teristic of the pure type of pueblo, whose close likeness to Far View House shows the identity of architectural forms among the pre- historic people of the Mesa Verde and McElmo. Fic. 1290.—Model of Hovenweep Castle. The cliff-dwellings in Square Tower Canyon are small; one of these was constructed in the eroded cave of a fallen rock, part of which arches over the walls, forming a roof. There is a small chamber in a cave under the two large buildings called the ‘ Twin Towers.” The largest cliff-house in this canyon is situated at its head, but unfortunately its walls are now considerably demolished. Great House, one of the buildings in the Holly Canyon group (figs. 133, 134), about a mile east of Keeley Camp, has the highest walls in these great houses. Five large buildings cluster around NO. I2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI17 125 the rim of a spur of this canyon or are perched on angular rocks at its base. Even now, after centuries of wear, they show fine masonry, although some of the mortar between the courses of stones Fic. 130.—Tower in Holly Canyon. Photograph by J. Wirsula. has been washed out. There are small cliff-houses in the walls of the canyon below these great houses. An instructive cluster of ruins in the Hovenweep district is the Hackberry Canyon group situated about 2 miles east of Keeley 120 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 Camp, or a mile beyond the cluster on Holly Canyon, above men- tioned. One of the members of this group from its shape is called the Horseshoe House. This ruin (fig. 135) has two concentric walls, a curved outer one on the north separated by about 4 feet from an inner circular wall and united to it by two radial partitions forming compartments still well preserved. The height of the outer wall is 12 feet; that of the inner somewhat less. Several features of this ruin (fig. 135), besides its D-form, recall Sun Temple on the Mesa Verde. Apparently the entrance was on the south, but the walls on this side have fallen, although traces ay Po ae ‘ow Fic. 131.—Unit Type House, Square Tower group. : yi : ee Photograph by J. Wirsula. still remain of the inner wall. The south wall of the southeast com- partment is still erect but does not connect across the south side of the building. Apparently the southwest compartment ended in the same way as the southeast, but as the wall has fallen there is no evidence of a row of rooms across the south side. There are half-fallen walls of a cliff-dwelling (fig. 136) of con- siderable size in a cave situated below this building, and upon a neighboring point stands a square tower with high walls and curved corners. Attention may be called to the fact that here, as elsewhere, wherever we find these large buildings on the rim of the canyon there NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ17 127 exist also dugouts or cliff-houses suggesting habitations in the cliffs below. Several great houses of the Hovenweep belong to a prehistoric type distinct from pueblos, for nothing similar to the multichambered ‘great house” is found in modern pueblos, although the one- chambered tower may be the same as extramural circular kivas in Fic. 132.—Model of Unit Type House. the Rio Grande pueblos. Whether towers are one or many cham- bered, in form circular, oval, D-shaped, or square buildings, isolated, or united to pueblos, or whether towers and great houses belong to the same type, is not evident. These great houses or so-called towers with several rooms could hardly have the same use as cir- cular or square towers with one room. They do not suggest habita- tions, and the number of workmen necessary to build them would be 128 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 large for them to accommodate. Their general appearance suggests eranaries, forts, castles, or some communal use; possibly they were religious buildings. Like certain towers, they are sometimes too shut in by surrounding cliffs to serve as lookouts; they are accom- panied by cliff-dwellings which show evidences of habitation. Evi- dently these large buildings with several rooms without kivas not Fic. 133—Great House, Holly Canyon. Photograph by T. G. Lemmon. only belong to a specialized architectural type but also to a localized one. This type is different from the pure pueblo type, mainly in the absence of terraces and central, circular kivas surrounded by rectangular rooms; it resembles buildings like Casa Grande. When towers are united to a building of the pure pueblo type, as shown in Hovenweep house of the Square Tower (Ruin) Canyon, we have a building made up of two united types, the most complicated form of pueblo architecture. NO. SMITHSONIAN ica an EXPLORATIONS, catia ‘ 1Q17 Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. | lolly Canyon. -Great House, 134. MIG, 130 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 One feature of many open-sky ruins of the Yellow Jacket which distinguishes them from Mesa Verde ruins is their site. They arise at the heads of canyons or along the rim rock, while as a rule the Mesa Verde pueblos, like Far View House, are situated some distance from the edge of the canyon, like some ruins in the Yellow Jacket series. Fic. 135.—Model of Horseshoe Ruin. The simple, isolated towers in the Mesa Verde resemble those of the Hovenweep, but there are many mounds on Mesa Verde awaiting excavation where there was probably a union of towers and pueblos. The walls of the “ great house ” type of this region show less wear by the elements than those of the open-sky buildings on the Mesa Verde. As the destruction by atmospheric causes must have been about the same, year by year, in the two regions, it would be natural NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI17 131 to conclude that the Mesa Verde pueblos were deserted earlier than the McElmo, or that the latter were constructed later, either of which suppositions has a bearing on the chronology of the prehistoric culture in the San Juan Valley. By the same reasoning the consoli- dated villages ef pure type like Aztec would be regarded as more modern than the pueblos of the Mesa Verde. Another feature in the Yellow Jacket Canyon ruin, as compared with the Chaco and other great pueblos situated near the horizon of the pure type in New Mexico, may be significant. Castellate buildings referable to the “ great house ” type have not been recorded south of Fic, 136.—Cliff-dwelling, Hackberry group. Photograph by J. Wirsula. the San Juan; towers are found, but they are less numerous. These types in the San Juan region, each specialized for specific purposes, when contrasted with the uniformity in the architecture of historic pueblos in New Mexico, are likewise significant. The ‘“ great house,” like the “ pure type,” is prehistoric; nothing comparable to it has been identified in modern pueblos. It is pretty generally believed that, in order to support the large population implied by the number and size of these McElmo-Yellow Jacket ruins, their farms on neighboring mesas were formerly better watered. The conclusion is sometimes reached that there has been a climatic change or desiccation that has driven out the aboriginal dry farmer. Attention, however, should be called to the fact that American dry farmers are now successfully cultivating these pre 132 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 68 historic farms, one source of moisture being now, as in prehistoric times, melting snows. Absence of snow and rain for several con- secutive years might have reduced their crops and starved the aborig- inal dry farmers, even though a permanent change of climate did not occur. To utilize their limited water supply the aborigines constructed many reservoirs near their farms to retain snow and rain. These are now indicated by sloping rock surfaces, bare of soil but girt with Fic. 137.—Prehistoric reservoir, near Hovenweep Ruins. Photograph by T. G. Lemmon. vegetation; about the lower edge the natives constructed a low bank of earth to serve as a retaining wall. It is estimated that one of these reservoirs (fig. 137) covers a surface of 4 acres; others are still used by herdsmen, who have somewhat increased the height of the retaining walls, for watering stock. We find near ruins in this region many examples of enclosures made with slabs of stone set on edge. The use of these structures has not been satisfactorily explained ; they have been variously inter- preted as graves, crematory cists, and storage places or pits for NO. 12 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q17 133 roasting corn. The majority show scanty evidences that they were graves, and excavations have yielded few, if any, human bones, although ashes and charcoal are abundant. Similar slabs of stone, possibly a survival of a more archaic method of construction, are often found set upright in horizontal masonry. Some of these uncut stones are large enough to be called megaliths; these also may be regarded as survivals of early methods of construction ; in some walls they are used without smaller stones. The Director of the National Park Service, recognizing the popu- lar and scientific interest in the preservation of the towers in Square Tower (Ruin), Holly, and Hackberry Canyons, as a sequel to the above field work, is endeavoring to have them set aside from the public domain, to be known as the Hovenweep National Monument. > > vt Ly . - \ pt Pas é * >* pot Vag aet ete a ast nes TL eae. a ae ad 7 aid as 4 : + . = ’ + =: > ees a a * ecé . : Paka zi = a -~ * = 3 Cae Behe se :. ns ¥ 7 - , . - ¥ > + rs ; we => > ’ ,, > Sa : yoke y / es io ark he ee , ot - 1 ~ ‘ A : f % : J £ : f be &> , » & ie = Sot on + ¥ be! i - 7 s ~ 2 = KS ~ . 7 4 7 = = _ Ts 4 a= ~ = P. 7 oes aes a 4 . - OFTHE. as ‘ => . os $ wm ~~ y r =} . : at " ak = 7 t > »: ‘ s 4 7 % . hg OH , is 4 Zo Babe i fee. a ; (a ; 4 a &. F by \ pa p sh ; if s : ) r ~s . . -~ ~ ~ t y a ™ - he 7 3 + x : a4 ’ ay a a ; % ; i —- oa x 4 pt ; ; NGTON os IN 1918 4 ~ , F WASHI VOLUME 70, NUMBER 2 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION “city © BY, baad } ie ~ (PuBLicaTION Z 53 ) Bee "SMITHSONIAN INSTITU be bi \N_ MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS fie ng ae > nS « PLORATIONS AND FIELD-WOR A y : ote iloet SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 70, NUMBER 2 EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORKK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1918 SAE I NcRe> (PUBLICATION 2535) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1919 et - * The Lord Waltimore (Press BALTIMORE, MD,, U. S. A. CONTENTS PAGE IRGHER SO LTTE EVO ONG Sir nS ete RO RSE re te ot SI a eng CR me eh eae Sane 3 Geolocical Explorations im the Ganadiam Rockies)... ...-52 440026. oe 3 Geolosteal and Paleontolosical Mield=Wiotk 4-10. 56-2. oes eee 20 Field-Work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory .............. 27 ihe Colims-Garner rench Conso Expedition 2.404.542. e ee 2 eee 31 Be peuition. to berneo and Gelebes~2 4. -isec ste een ere re ee ee 35 Marine sBrolocicals sridtessins Galitoniilass =a eee rete eee: sae 4I Botanical ab scploration ine cuad Omen eee eee eee creer aera 43 Botanical Field-Work in the Southwestern United States ............... 50 Anthropological Survey of the Southwestern Coast of Florida ........... 62 AnthroapoalocicaluwWorke i Peru ands Boliviay soe. ease ooo ane 66 Archeological Field-Work in Southwestern Colorado and Utah ......... 68 Aiiamihiesron the GitliiGoast ols Wiexicoe eins eee io eee eee 81 ATGHeOlocicallsEexploratlonminm Ait ZOlal ea eee See ee eee ice go Archeological Reconnoissance of Northwestern Arizona ............... 93 Ateheolocical studies ane GentraleMissount.ssecanie soe eee: cise nee 07 Bield=VWorlcamon other Owain: sAcmeg te eee sennn ernest tee oe 99 Basta WintaairOn erect SOC IOIS: oi seleye > . . > > ‘ S Ld (“lu rot) Ssoyruu OL St YOY A “oyV"] MOC SsO19v PpAVMJSOMUINOS pure pAvAMjsoM OUTNOO] “HVA IUWUOPOC] Jo ado[s }JSOM OY} WOT] Mol —S OTS] ‘ A cl oSodo 14] VW JIVE) JOOFMOA) VIN. JOO;MOI) vo MOE Z e) bo SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 7 Ne . - yer ; x Bhs hic. 6.—Small glacier in an amphitheater on the eastern slope of Mount Breese (see fig. 5) with a great talus slope that extends from the foot of the glacier nearly down to the waters of the lake. Photograph by Walcott, 1018 ‘S1OL ‘ose Aq ydessojoyg *(g ‘OY OaS) ALOPY Juno Me] 9y1 OF YPI9q MOG “OYP'T 9Y} FO JOOF 9Y} YY “aa ORD }OOFMOT JO Ploy MOUS 94} YUM uUrejUNOTY JOOJMOAD YI OYE] IY} OAOKE JYSlt oy} UG “AOPOI]_Y JUNOP dourvjsip ay} ur pure JO }J9] 94} UO puL ‘assoig JUNOT), MITA MueIoOURG—Z “Dd1y ‘ONCT MOP] SsOJIOv UynOos SUIYOO| ‘UOSWOY J, JUNOT pe) dSpll JSVIYJIOU oy LUOT | s * t asoa1g “iV Ja 1oeRyry yeaq Mog JEON “TIN puv 3] JooyMOI) NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 9 Figure 7 pictures Bow Lake as seen from the eastern slope of Mount Thomson. This view over the lake from the north shows the ridges on the right formed of Middle Cambrian limestones, while far away in the distance the snow-clad summit of Mount Hector is buried in the clouds. In figure 8 is shown a nearer view of Mount Molar, a beautiful example of horizontally bedded limestones, illus- trating the manner in which the hard, evenly bedded limestones erode into domes and broad cylindrical masses. Fic. 8—Mount Molar (9,914'), a high mountain ridge to the east-southeast ot Bow Lake. Photograph by Walcott, 1918. There was fine trout-fishing at the lower end of Bow Lake, and we met with both deer and grizzly bear in the somewhat open valley at the head of the lake (fig. 9). The snow-fields from which Bow Glacier flows are on the Con- tinental Divide between the Bow Valley and the Upper Yoho Valley. The glacier flows down a gentle slope for a mile or more, and then breaks over a high cliff, as shown in figure to. There are beautiful camping grounds on the shores of both Hector and bow lakes, especially the latter. From one of these camps (fig. 11), geological sections were measured of the Cambrian rocks on the eastern slope of Mount Thomson. ‘S1OL “HooeMy Aq ydessojoyg °Z oansy FS Jolorys oy} Jo IO, OY} OF cuos : ae . . ~ a e hk SUIOL 9YVT MOG JO puo ISVIYJIOU IY} WOT, MOTA IWR 1OUL | —6 Ay l Dey me mt BesHues UF Petpnys aq P[hoys MaIA si, ‘assasg JUNOP_ 49}Ua9 oY} UL ‘uIeUNOPY svpoyoIN } W pure AxPoq [PWOq FSI oy} 07 pue ‘aI9vPy Mog saqzUV0 oy} uy “MO! sty I ape A A 1h) MO VIN Se [B10 q Ad I] Fic. 14.—We were accompanied in September by Vernon Wood, forest and game warden stationed at Mount Massive in the Bow Valley. This is a photograph of him with his family and their Rocky Mountain Park cottage, which is their home during the summer and also during the long, snowy winter, as the forest warden must be on guard and attending to his duties throughout the year. Photograph by W alcott, LOIS. Q161 ‘oojyeAy Aq ydessojoyq ‘ureyd pooy puUv ‘IULLIOUL [LULA] OOJ-I9! “TOIOR]S ‘QAQU IO PjayMouS OFAOq “OPIAIC] [PJUBUIUO ay} 9UT] MOUS DAOGL jJ9] 94} UC ‘UOTR}S VSINo'T dye] FO JSOMYJIOU-Y}AOU OUT[ Ae Ue UL (“WY OF) sop Fz ‘ss¥q MOG JO apts JSoMYJIOU dy} UO dyR'T OFAIG FO 21OYS JSVI OY} JO SHI IY} WOIF 9yPT puL doOR[F) OJA9G—SI “Sf VOL. 7O CTIONS LLANEOUS COLLI MISCE SMITHSONIAN 14 NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 I on Bow Pass, four miles (6.4 km.) north of the head of Bow Lake, has been eroded by glacial action into a broad, park-like area, so that the passage over into the valley of the Mistaya River of the Sas- katchewan River drainage is scarcely realized until steep slopes indicate the approach toward Lake Peyto. This beautiful lake, with a glacier at its head, as shown in figure 1 (frontispiece), drains into the Mistaya River. The bold escarpment on the north side of the Eo, ngs 0 4, SS 4% ine Mela, ee Hii fic. 16.—Pyramid Peak reflected in pond near Mistaya River, about 17 miles (27.2 km.) north of Bow Lake. Photograph by Walcott, 1918. i lake is continued to the north down the Mistaya River to the Sas- katchewan. Several sections were examined along this front, which were found to be similar to the section at the head of Bow Lake. Peyto Glacier is a very fine illustration of a complete glacier from the gathering field of snow on the Continental Divide to the ice arch at its foot. As shown in figure 1 (frontispiece), the flood plain at the foot of the glacier extends for nearly a mile to the edge of the lake, affording a fine illustration of the manner of filling in of glacial LOL ‘WooeA, Aq ydeasojoyq "yO ydeasojoyd B ULEIGO OF SB 9}VUNZIOF OS IIOM IM YIM JO SWOS ‘s}VOs UTe}JUNOW JO SJaquINU ds1e] Mes 9M 4yaT dy} 07 SUIeJUNOWT 24} uO pur ‘anbsainjoid A][NJ1OPUOM St jf *SYAOF JSAM PUL YIAOU dy} FO UOIUN oY} MOTIq ysNf WvA.ys pider puv asavy v diay st UBMayoeyses ayy, *(,000'r1) UOS|I AA WUNOP FO FJ9] OY} UO UMOYS ST YO YWON ay} JO Aoyea oyT, “AAI UBMAYO}eYseS JO peay ssosoe yysoU SULYOO] MIA dtUIeIOURg—ZI “DIy ay UOSTEMA JUNOT NO. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 17 bo hic. 18—Group of mountain goats endeavoring to escape over a sharp ridge immediately in front of where Mrs. Walcott was watching for them. The one attempting to go around the point on the left is on the edge of a cliff about 50 feet above the river. The goat at the top is apparently attempting to prevent itself going over backward by throwing its head forward. Photograph by Wal- cott, August 5, 1918. 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 lakes by the rock and dirt brought down by the glacier from the higher mountain slopes. A nearer view of Peyto Glacier is given in figure 15, and figure 16 shows Pyramid Peak, one of the peaks en- countered in the Mistaya River Canyon. The broad canyon valleys that unite at the head waters of the Sas- katchewan River (fig. 17) are all carved by erosion out of the same type of Cambrian rocks as those exposed in the vicinity of Bow Lake, and also in the Bow Valley south of Lake Louise Station. Fic. 19.—Skinning out mountain sheep shot above head of Sawback Lake on September 21. Photograph by Walcott, 1918. At the close of the season a fine pair of mountain sheep, a black bear, one mule deer, a mountain goat, and a wolverine were col- lected, the skins and skulls being shipped to the National Museum. At a salt-lick on the west branch of the Saskatchewan River many goats were seen. Some of them in an attempt to escape observation were forced to pass over a sharp ridge directly in front of where Mrs. Walcott was sitting, with the result that she obtained an unusual photograph of five of them (fig. 18) as they were clambering over the apex of the ridge. "R161 ‘WooeAA Aq Ydeasojoyg ‘fueg fo ss9[suv vy} JOF spunois Surysy o4OARy eB pue ‘epeueRD ‘vjsaq;y ‘yuRg JO JsaMy sou auy x 2 h Pe ul ( “U1>] 9'Sc) So]Tlu OI Jnoqe SI IL] IL “OSU YY UOT[LUITA \ at pteMO} P4IBMISPx IHL] YICPGMEBS sSsoloe SUI4OO| MOoOTA OTLB A ued ‘OS “DIF 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 GEOLOGICAL AND PALEONTOLOGICAL FIELD-WORK The field-work of the Division of Geology during 1918 was limited largely to the collection of material for the schooi and duplicate series and for the use of the Naval Experiment Station in a newly devised apparatus recently brought into use. In connection with the latter work, the head curator made two trips, one through the prin- cipal museums of the eastern United States, and subsequently, one extending from northern Georgia through western North Carolina. In addition to the material obtained for the Navy Department, a statement of which is included in a report to the National Research Fic, 21.—Arriving at home on the trail at eventide, and looking over the horses before turning them out for the night. This camp, below Wolverine Pass, is in one of the most interesting localities in the mountains south of Lake Louise. Photograph by Walcott, 1918. Council, there was secured a considerable amount of bauxite, stauro- lite crystals, and numerous specimens of other desired materials, such as columbite, pitchblende, albite, black mica, and quartz. Dr. Martin, assistant curator of geology, U. S. National Museum, was detailed to spend two weeks in Virginia and Maryland making collections of material to illustrate the weathering and decay of the commoner types of rocks. A sufficient quantity of each phase of the process was taken to make up 100 sets intended for distribution NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 20 primarily to such agricultural and other colleges as give instruction in rock weathering and soil formation. A series of from two to four specimens was obtained from each of the seven varieties of rocks showing the fresh and intermediate steps in the present stage of its decomposition. The types selected include granite-gneiss, dia- base, gabbro, soapstone, sandstone, and limestone. The railroad cuts in the vicinity of North Garden and Chatham in Virginia, and Mount Hope and Washington Junction in Maryland, afforded, respectively, the granite-gneiss, diabase, gabbro, and sandstone, and the quarries at Alberene, Virginia, and Frederick, Maryland, yielded the soapstone and limestone. In every case the oxidation had pro- ceeded sufficiently to result in the formation of reddish- or yellowish- brown soil, but in the case of the North Garden granite-gneiss, per- fectly fresh rock could not be obtained. To supply this deficiency, a series of specimens from the granite-gneiss of the District of Columbia was included, although its weathering had not passed the stage of mechanical disintegration. Despite the fact that such materials do not readily lend themselves to exhibition purposes, several choice residual nodules of gabbro and diabase (so-called nigger heads) one to two feet in diameter were collected for Museum display. In order to fill certain gaps in the ore and rock collections, Dr. Martin was also detailed to visit localities in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York, and secure a quantity of material from each. Brandywine Summit, Pennsylvania, yielded some excellent cleavage fragments of orthoclase; Peekskill, New York, a select grade of emery rock; North River, New York, hand size pieces of abrasive garnet. From the dikes at Franklin Furnace and Beemersville, New Jersey, was secured a supply of uncommon intrusive rocks, camp- tonite and nepheline-syenite respectively. Both of these formations, as well as the peridotite, associated with the emery and the syenitic country rock of the garnet, were found to have suffered considerably from the action of the weather since glacial times, and appropriate specimens showing this process were collected incidentally for the study series. During the field season of 1918, Drs. R. S. Bassler and C. E. Resser of the Division of Paleontology continued the search begun in recent years for large exhibition specimens to illustrate the various phases of structural geology and stratigraphic paleontology. Dr. Bassler bo bo SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 70 began field-work in an investigation of the Cretaceous rocks of western New Jersey, where the prime object was to secure suitable exhibits of such economically important rocks of organic origin as glauconite or green sand, and calcareous marl. The green sand area in the vicinity of Vincentown, New Jersey, afforded the best results in fossil and rock specimens for both study and exhibition. The very incoherent green sand could not be obtained in masses of a size suitable for exhibition, but by the use of shellac a large piece was hardened sufficiently to be shipped to Washington without Fic. 22.—Marl pit at Vincentown, N. J. Photograph by Bassler. breakage. In the marl pits unusually well-preserved fossils were found scattered through an unconsolidated sand formation. Here specimens abound literally by the millions, and large numbers were collected by passing quantities of the sand through a fine-meshed sieve, the residue in this process usually consisting of nothing but well-preserved fossils. The amount of sand sifted is shown by the excavation seen in figure 22. The undulating line marks the irregular contact or unconformity between the Cretaceous marl formation and the overlying strata of more recent age. At the point B in this photograph the fossils occurred in especial abundance, NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 23 cemented together and forming a limestone mass of such interest that several large pieces were dug out for exhibition in the Museum. Dr. Bassler then proceeded to the Lancaster Valley of Pennsyl- vania where, in company with Dr. Resser, some days were spent studying the stratigraphy of the valley, and collecting minerals and fossils. Working in the region of highly metamorphosed rocks in southern Lancaster County, they were fortunate enough to secure intact the large mass of finely banded, crinkled lmestone shown in figure 23, L. This illustrates, on a small scale, the folding to Fic. 23.—Crumpled Pre-Cambrian limestone, Southern Lancaster County, Pa. Photograph by Bassler. which the earth’s crust has been subjected and forms a much needed addition to the exhibits. Proceeding to York, Pennsylvania, an effort was made to determine the stratigraphy of that area from which numerous Lower Cambrian fossils had been collected for the Mu- seum in former years. An idea of the general structure was obtained, but the stratigraphic details were worked out by Dr. Resser on a later trip. The east front of the Alleghany Mountains was then visited by Dr. Bassler in an effort to obtain exhibition specimens illustrating fault- 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O ing and its accompanying phenomena. In western Maryland a fault passing through a Silurian conglomerate was located. The con- glomeratic layer itself at this place was composed of small, rounded pebbles of pure white quartz, forming an interesting educational object in itself, but along the fault zone the conglomerate had been broken into angular fragments and recemented together into a hard rock. In one case this recementation had been caused by silica and in another by iron ore. Large examples of both kinds of this fault breccia, as it is known technically, were quarried out. Fortunately, lt Fic. 24.—East front of Alleghany Mountains, Western Maryland, showing fault zone at C. Photograph by Bassler. as shown in figure 24, this fault zone (C) outcropped along a good country road, making the problem of quarrying and transportation easy. In each of these areas photographs of the occurrence of these specimens in nature were secured so that the explanatory exhibition labels can be illustrated. The object of displaying such specimens is not simply to illustrate their geological or paleontological features, but to show in the same exhibit a portion of geological history involving at least several distinct events. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 2 on Following this Appalachian work, Dr. Bassler spent some days in central Kentucky and eastern Indiana searching for certain exhibits. In Kentucky he located a layer of limestone which had been so carved out by underground water that it could be used to illus- trate the formation of a cave in miniature, and a suitable piece was quarried out. Certain fossil faunas which were much needed to complete the Museum’s paleontological material from this area were also secured. The main object of the work in Indiana was to obtain a large slab of limestone composed entirely of certain char- acteristic brachiopods known to all beginners in paleontology, fre- Fic. 25.—Exposure of Olenellus shale and Corynexochus limestone, north of York, Pa. Photograph by Resser. quent requests for such exhibits having been made by students visit- ing the Museum. After a week of search, two large, well-preserved slabs of this kind were found, but in an area some miles from a rail- road. Upon endeavoring to have them transported to a freight station it was found impossible to procure help of any kind. These two specimens were therefore buried deep enough to insure their safety until such time as they can be shipped to Washington. Dr. Charles FE. Resser spent a part of his vacation studying the detailed stratigraphy of the Lower Cambrian deposits of the Lan- caster and York valleys of Pennsylvania. He found that the lowest 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O sedimentary rocks of the region were massive, unfossiliferous lime- stone probably of Pre-Cambrian age, with a great erosional uncon- formity at their top. Immediately following this unconformity is an arenaceous limestone several feet thick containing the Corynexr- ochus fauna hitherto believed to be of Middle Cambrian age. Fol- lowing this bed, in apparently normal succession, are the well-known Lower Cambrian shales containing Olenellus and other trilobites. In figure 25 the point of contact between the two Lower Cambrian formations is indicated at C. Collections of two faunas of Lower Cambrian age were secured during these studies. Fic. 26.—Open iron ore pit at Cornwall, Pa. Photograph by Resser. Dr. Resser also spent some days in collecting mineral specimens from the celebrated ore banks at Cornwall, Pennsylvania, a locality famous for its well-preserved minerals, but unfortunately poorly represented in the Museum collections. These ore banks are in the hills between Lancaster and Lebanon counties and, as they have been worked since 1853, they are now great open pits from which the minerals can be obtained. The ore is the iron oxide magnetite, formed along the lines of contact of an igneous mass intruded into Paleozoic limestone. The magnetite often occurs well crystallized, but the mineralogical interest of the locality lies in the minerals of copper, iron, and magnesium silicates which were formed with the magnetite. The photograph (fig. 26) shows the arrangement of NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 2) rocks in one of the open pits with the ore bed (O) at the bottom, above this the Early Paleozoic limestone (P), and capping the lime- stone, the red beds of Mesozoic age (MM). FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY As usual, for some years past, the Astrophysical Observatory maintained its observing station on Mount Wilson and the work was in the hands of Mr. L. B. Aldrich. As heretofore, the principal object was to follow by accurate measurements the variations in the radiation of the sun as that would be found if one were on the moon, for example, outside the earth’s atmosphere. The season did not prove particularly favorable for this work on account of unusual cloudiness. Nevertheless, Mr. Aldrich made many solar-constant observations that will be unusually valuable on account of the possi- bility of comparing them with similar observations made in South America, which will be related below. It happened that a station of the U. S. Aviation Service was located near Mt. Wilson, at Arcadia, and military balloons not infrequently passed up through the layer of fog which often covers the San Gabriel Valley, lying between Mount Wilson and the sea. It occurred to Mr. Aldrich to take advantage of this condition of affairs to make a measurement of the reflecting power of sucha great layer of fog with a view to the applicability of such measurements to a consideration of the temperature of the planets Earth and Venus, both of which are to a large degree covered with clouds. We have at the Astrophysical Observatory an instrument called the pyra- nometer, devised by Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich for the purpose of measuring the heating effect of radiation received from a whole hemisphere. For example, the heat from the sun and sky combined, or from the sun alone, or from the sky alone, as it falls upon a horizontal surface may be determined by this instrument. Mr. Aldrich’s plan, therefore, was to expose the pyranometer upright to the sun and sky combined, and inverted to the radia- tion coming up from the layer of fog. For this purpose he needed a support for the pyranometer above the fog, and such a support he thought might be furnished by a military balloon. With the approval of General Kenley the investigation was made on a favorable day in September, when the upper and lower sur- faces of the fog lay respectively about 2,800 feet and 1,000 feet above the ground. Two officers and 50 men being detailed to aid 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 Mr. Aldrich, one of the officers went up with the balloon, which carried the pyranometer suspended inverted underneath its basket, and exposed the apparatus repeatedly from about 7 o'clock in the morning until about 11 o'clock. The measurements were recorded by Mr. Aldrich on the ground by the aid of communicating wires carrying the currents of electricity set up by the heat of the rays received from the fog upon the instrument. The measurements were singularly concordant and satisfactory, and gave as the mean reflecting power of the fog during the interval from 7 until 11 o'clock 78 per cent. No apparent change due to the change of the height of the sun during that time was observed. However, it is hardly questionable that if the measurements had been made nearer sunrise the reflecting power of the fog would have been Fic. 27.—Smithsonian Observatory at Calama, Chile. found somewhat greater. Accordingly, we must suppose that if there should be a planet completely covered with smooth clouds it would reflect upwards of 78 per cent of the solar rays otherwise available to heat its surface. In the case of the earth, the cloudiness is about 50 per cent, so that if the clouds were as smooth on their surface as the clouds observed by Mr. Aldrich, the result would be that they would reflect away about 39 per cent of the solar rays and make them ineffective to warm the earth. Taking this result in connection with the consideration of the other parts of the earth's surface, it appears that the reflecting power of the earth as a whole for solar rays of all wave lengths should be in the neighborhood of AZ Het Cent. As stated above, the measurements of the solar radiation at Mount Wilson have unusual value this year on account of the simultaneous NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 29 measurements being made at Calama, Chile, under the direction of Mr. A. F. Moore, assisted by Mr. L. H. Abbot. The outfit there is the same that was used by them during the previous year at Hump Mountain, in North Carolina. The present station was chosen as the most cloudless one to be found upon the earth, and they have been able to observe about 75 per cent of the days since the 27th of July, Fic. 28—The Coelostal, Pyrheliometers, and Theodolite. Fic. 29.—Part of the Spectro-Bolometer. when the measurements began. [or long periods of time, as, for example, the period from the middle of November to the middle of December, there was not a single day lost, although this required that the sky should be perfectly cloudless for about three hours, either in the early morning or the late afternoon. Notwithstanding the great number of favorable days for the observations, the records 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 of meteorological observations there in former years led us to hope for an even larger proportion of favorable sky conditions. However, in many parts of the world the past two years have been exceptional in their weather and it is to be expected that these exceptional con- ditions affected the weather of the Nitrate Desert of Chile as well. We therefore hope that in future years even better results may be obtained than now. The purpose of the work is to follow the variations of the sun and to lay a foundation for the application of such measurements to the prediction of terrestrial temperatures. That branch of the investi- gation has been taken up by Dr. H. H. Clayton of the Meteorological Service of Argentina. Dr. Clayton has studied the correlations Fic. 30.—Recording Observations. between the solar-constant results and the temperatures of Argentina and he is quite enthusiastic as to the probability that the forecasting of the weather in Argentina will be materially improved by the aid of solar-radiation measurements. If this proves to be the case, it is greatly to be hoped that means will be found to increase the number of observing stations qualified to measure solar radiation. The sta- tion occupied in Chile les on the Loa River, also on the railroad from Antofagasta to Bolivia, about 150 miles east of Antofagasta. The altitude is 7,500 feet and the conditions about the station are entirely desert conditions, except in so far as modified by irrigation from the Loa River. The station occupied is a disused mining property of the Chile Exploration Company, which very generously allows its use for the purpose of the solar work. Every effort is being made to INO. . 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 23 secure favorable and livable conditions for the staff and for their work, and the results so far obtained seem to be very promising and to reflect great credit on the zeal and accuracy of the observers. Fic. 31.—The Loa River near Calama. THE COLLINS-GARNER FRENCH CONGO EXPEDITION In November, 1916, Mr. Alfred M. Collins of Philadelphia invited the Smithsonian Institution to participate in an expedition to the French Congo with the object of procuring a general collection of vertebrates and in particular a good representation of the great apes. Mr. Collins was to be chief of the expedition, while the gen- 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 eral management was to be placed in the hands of Mr. R. L. Garner, well known by his previous studies of chimpanzees and gorillas in the same region. lr. Robert Aschemeier, an assistant taxidermist on the Museum force, was detailed to accompany the party. It was decided that the expedition should be known as the “ CoLLiNns- GARNER CONGO EXPEDITION, IN THE INTERESTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.” Mr. Aschemeier and Mr. Garner sailed from New York for Bor- deaux about the middle of December, 1916, Mr. Collins then expect- ing to follow a few months later. War conditions, however, greatly delayed the arrival of the first members of the party in Africa and have entirely prevented Mr. Collins, now Major Collins, from joining them. After many difficulties had been overcome, largely through the extreme courtesy of the Governor General at Brazzaville, the Lieutenant Governor, and the Administrateur des Colonies at Fernan Vaz, Mr. Garner and Mr. Aschemeier finally established permanent headquarters. The following passages from a letter from Mr. Garner to Dr. Hrdlicka give an idea of their surroundings: “FERNAN Vaz, July 7, 1918. “Our domicile is located on the edge of a vast plain, traversed here and there by belts and spurs of forest. In those plots of bush live great numbers of chimpanzees, and for the first time in my long experience among them | have seen whole families of them out on the open plain. Frequently they cross the plain from one belt of bush to another, in some places a mile or so in width and not a tree or bush in that distance to shelter them from attack. They often come within 200 to 300 yards of my house and sometimes manifest deep interest in trying to find out what this new thing is, set up in their midst. I have seen as many as four or five different groups of them in the same day, and one of these contained 11 members. One very old man has come, on two occasions, within 100 yards of me and scrutinized me very closely, while his wife (as I took his companion to be) appeared to be very uneasy and suspicious. On several occasions | have seen the young ones romping and tumbling about on the grass, chasing and scuffling with each other, exactly as you see human children do. A school of them slept, a few nights ago, within less than 100 yards of my house, in a very small clump of bush, not more than a hectare in extent, on one side of which is Lake Fernan Vaz and all around the rest of it an open plain, with the quarters of NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Be my crewmen not more than 200 yards away on the opposite side from me and a native village in plain view 500 yards away at an angle of about 30° from the crewmen’s village. I have never before seen so many chimpanzees as I find here and | have never seen them so indifferent to the presence of human beings. Even while I was building and had as many as 18 or 20 natives moving about the place those reckless apes would often cross the open plain in full view and with apparent composure. “Mr. Aschemeier has collected well on to 2,000 specimens and nearly all of them he has killed with his own gun. Some of these specimens are exceedingly rare and valuable. When you recall the fact that he came as taxidermist of the expedition and not as chasseur, he was not expected to provide the specimens that he was to preserve. “ We have forwarded six consignments of specimens to the Mu- seum and have a seventh well on the way; but we find great difficulty in getting the steamers to take them from Port Gentil (Cap Lopez), because they are all under direction of the French military authorities. Two of our last shipments were still at Port Gentil last month, where one of them has been lying since last January and all steamers declined to take it. Once both shipments were taken aboard the steamer and bill of lading signed when the captain changed his mind and sent the whole lot back on shore, with the accumulated charges of 40 frances for embarkation and debarkation. “We have sent 12 or 13 specimens of buffalo, several specimens and species of antelope and two or three fine specimens of the “ red river hog,” besides a large collection of monkeys, representing six or seven species of both sexes and various ages. I think in all we have sent over 1,500 up to this time. Of course this includes birds, etc., not insects, and we have on hand a goodly number. * Yesterday I bought a fine, fresh skin of a thing the natives call anima. It is something very much like the civet cat in its general appearance, but it is not of the ordinary type. | have never examined one, but I think they are more canine than feline and the natives regard them as such. At any rate, it is a fine specimen and I am taking great care to cure it in the best manner possible. “J will call your attention to a singular fact about the monkeys and especially of the mangabeys of this region. There appears to be prevalent among them some kind of disease resembling cancer, and it is not at all unusual to see one with his nose eaten away or some- times one side of his face, while otherwise he appears active and 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O Fic. 33.—Skull of West African Buffalo collected by Robert Aschemeier. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 35 normal. An isolated case now and then might be attributed to acci- dent or to violence; but these cases are so common as to lead to the belief that it is a disease and, so far as | have observed, it appears to be confined to this one species, with the exception of one case in which I noticed the mustache monkey affected by it.” Detailed work has been done in the neighborhood of this base, and several expeditions have been made away from it. Under date of September 1, 1918, Mr. Aschemeier gives the following list of the more important specimens collected: Birds, 671; small mammals, 758; monkeys, 79; gorillas, 2; chimpanzees, 8; buffalo, 14; antelope, 42; wild pig, 10. Fic. 34.—Riding water buffaloes is the favorite pastime of Celebean children, especially small boys. During the hot part of the day the buffaloes spend most of their time in a pond or pool, with all but their heads submerged, paying little or no attention to the children that climb over them and dive from their backs. War conditions have seriously interfered with the shipment of material to Washington. Of the lots that have been sent only three had arrived up to the end of January, 1919. These included a total of 805 specimens, all in good condition. Among the more interesting may be mentioned a gorilla, seven chimpanzees, 12 buffaloes, eight wild pigs and parts of an elephant. EXPEDITION TO BORNEO AND CELEBES In the report on explorations during 1916 (Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 66, no. 17, pp. 29-35) an account was given of field-work 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 in Celebes to the end of August, 1916. \Ir. Raven was then prepar- ing to leave Menado. He arrived at Parigi on August 27 and re- mained in the central part of the island until March, 1918. At this time he started to return to America, but conditions of travel were so unfavorable that he did not reach San Francisco until September 20. The results of this expedition, from the beginning of field-work in January, 1916, are of great importance to the Museum. The main Fic. 35—Cranorrhinus cassidix, the large hollow casqued hornbill of Celebes inhabits the whole island excepting the high mountains and is known to the natives by names such as “ boeroeng tahoen,” “alo,” and “ ngoh,” the latter resembling somewhat the birds call-note. collections include about 1,500 mammals, 2,800 birds, and an exten- sive series of ethnological specimens, all from regions not hitherto represented. The special value of this material from our point of view is its close relationship to the collections previously made by Dr. Abbott in the more western part of the Malay Archipelago and by Dr. Mearns and others in the Philippines. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI8 a7 Fic. 36.—To obviate the danger of specimens molding while in transit from the collecting ground to the Museum, it was necessary to dry them in the hot sun for a short time before they were finally packed. A boy was always detailed to guard drying specimens against domestic animals such as pigs, fowls, goats, dogs and cats. ric. 37.—A primitive method of plowing. The rice fields over grown with grass, since the last harvest, are flooded and plowed by driving a herd of water buffaloes around and around until the grass is completely trampled beneath the surface of the mud. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Fic. 38.—In the high mountainous districts of Central Celebes are many prehistoric tombs and images of stone. ‘This one is about five feet high and called by the natives Watoe Langko. ’ ; \ sts a Fic. 39.—The Pig-Deer, or Babi-Rusa of Celebes and some adjacent islands to the east seems to prefer as its habitat the regions. of the coastal 7O NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Fic. 40.—With a proficiency born of patient practice, the Celebean native, skilfully carves, with an apparently unwieldy large knife, the sheath and handle for his side weapon. Fic. 41.—Squilla, a prawn, is hunted by the people of the coast of Celebes as an article of food. After locating the animal's burrow they try to drive it out by thrusting poles down into the passage ways to which there is but one outlet. To be sure not to cut the animal off from the entrance of his burrow the probing is begun several feet away. Fic. 42.—A rattan bridge over the Koro River, at Bokoe, Central Celebes. The Koro, which is the largest river of Central Celebes, is bridged at several places by rattan hanging bridges more than two hundred feet long; this one has as its mainstay, five large rattans each about three centimeters in diameter. Other smaller rattans are arranged as a hand rail. Fic. 43.—Madurese Prahus in the Straits of Madura, near Java. The curious sail is made from the fiber of the banana tree, loosely woven but nevertheless quite durable. NO. iS) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 4I MARINE BIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN CALIFORNIA Under the auspices of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, Waldo L. Schmitt, of the Division of Marine Invertebrates, U. S. National Museum, spent the months of August, September, and October in California engaged in a study of the life history of the West Coast spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). The greater part of the time, by courtesy of the Scripps Institu- tion for Biological Research, was spent at their laboratories at La Jolla, examining their extensive plankton collections for the larval stages of the “ lobster.’’ Considerable material, chiefly of the younger stages, was obtained here, including many specimens of the post- embryonic stage, hatched by Mr. P. S. Barnhart, curator of the institution’s museum, in one of their large aquarium tanks. And further, the assistance extended by the director, Dr. Ritter, enabled Mr. Schmitt to conduct a two-day dredging and tow-netting trip both outside and inside of the extensive kelp-beds lying between La Jolla and Point Loma. An examination was also made of the collections of the Univer- sity of California at Berkeley, Stanford University at Palo Alto, the University of Southern California at Los Angeles, Pomona College at Claremont, the Venice Marine Biological Station (of the Univer- sity of Southern California) at Venice, the Laguna Marine Labora- tory (of Pomona College) at Laguna Beach, and the Museum of the San Diego Natural History Society at San Diego, and some pertinent material obtained. But by far the richest samples of spiny lobster larvee were returned through the activities and generous co-operation of the California State Fish and Game Commission. These collections were secured by means of a small otter trawl with a spread of about 20 feet, operated from their patrol-boat, the “ Albacore,” and contained many phyllosomes of large size as well as a number of pueruli. The latter represent the stage intermediate between the phyllosome, the form in which the “ lobster’ is hatched from the egg, and the defini- tive form of the adult. An interesting feature brought out by the collections made by the State Fish and Game Commission was the great off-shore range of the phyllosomes and the depth at which some of them were obtained— as much as 150 miles off shore, and to a maximum depth of 75 fathoms. A phyllosome taken at that depth, some 16 miles off Los Coronados Islands, is shown in figure 44. Certain incidental shore and tidepool collections were made while at La Jolla. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 Fic. 44.—Large phyllosome of the California spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). NO. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 43 bo BOTANICAL EXPLORATION IN ECUADOR During the year a plan for a co-operative investigation of the flora of northern South America was organized by the United: States National Museum, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University. It is believed that this investiga- tion will greatly enrich our botanical collections and furnish informa- tion regarding economic plants which will be of much value to the horticultural and agricultural interests of this country. Fic. 45.—A view in the upper valley of the Chanchan River. The mountain mass in the center is called the Devil’s Nose. Photograph by George Rose. The first field expedition under this co-operative plan was under- taken by Dr. J. N. Rose, associate curator in the United States National Museum. He was also materially aided by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture. Dr. Rose, accompanied by George Rose, left Washington July 22, and returned December ib 1918. In addition to his visit to fScuador he made short stops at Cuba, Panama, and Haiti, collecting a few plants at each place. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O Fic. 46.—A view of Chimborazo, taken at an altitude of about 12,000 feet. Photograph by George Rose. Fic. 47.—A view of the Chanchan Valley looking west from Huigra. Photo- graph by George Rose. NOT 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 4 on Three months were devoted to work in Ecuador and very large collections were made, including about 6,000 botanical specimens, roo jars of fruits, seeds, and plant products preserved in formalin. Several hundred packets of seeds, a number of wood specimens, Fic. 48.—Giant cactus plant, apparently undescribed, which is very common in the Chanchan Valiey. Photograph by George Rose. samples of cinchona-bark and small collections of fishes, frogs, shells, and other zoological material were obtained. (George Rose, who went as photographer, made about 260 negatives of landscapes and plant subjects. 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O Fic. 49.—A species of Furcraea from which is obtained one of the most use- ful fibers in Ecuador. It is called caboya. Photograph by George Rose. Fic. 50.—Residence of the general-manager of the Guayaquil and Quito Railway Company at Huigra. Photograph by George Rose. ae Fic. 51.—Detail of bamboo boards. This giant bamboo is much used in the construction of houses and fences in the low country along the coast of Ecuador. Photograph by George Rose. hic. 52.—A view of the Quinta Normal at Ambato, the first Agricultural Experiment Station to be established in Ecuador. Augusto N. Martinez is director. Abelardo Pachano, Professor of Agronomy, was educated at Cornell University. Photograph by George Rose. 4 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE 0 Fic, 53.—American Hospital at Portovelo. This hospital belongs to the South American Development Company and is in charge of an American doctor. Much is being done here to relieve the condition of the poor in southern Ecuador. Photograph by George Rose. Bs aa Fic. 54.—Market view. The bowl contains wild blueberries (Vaccinium mortinia). Photograph by George Rose. Fic. 56.—Market view, showing the ocha (Ovralis tuberosa) a well-known root crop of the high Andes. Photograph by George Rose. 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O Two sections were made from the coast across the western range of the Andes to the interior Andean Valley; one in the south from Santa Rosa to Loja and the other near the center of the country from Guayaquil to Riobamba. A longitudinal section was made down the Andean Valley from San Antonio to Loja. This last section was over the route followed by Alexander von Humboldt at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Many of the plants collected by him on this memorable journey were recollected. Figures 45 to 50 show the nature of the country, some unusual types of vegetation, the class of buildings, market scenes, and native inhabitants. BOTANICAL FIELD-WORK IN THE SOUTHWESTERN UNG DE SaAINES During the month of August, 1918, Mr. A. S. Hitchcock, syste- matic agrostologist of the Department of Agriculture and custodian of the section of grasses of the Division of Plants in the U. S. National Museum, visited Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Colo- rado for the purpose of studying the grasses. In Arkansas, Okla- homa, and eastern Texas the season was unusually dry and hot. As the grasses were in an unfavorable condition for study little time was spent in these states. Collections were made at Fayetteville and Pine Bluff in Arkansas, Stillwater in Oklahoma, and Fort Worth in northeastern Texas. At Amarillo in northwestern Texas the season was more favorable and the grasses were in good condition for study. Amarillo is situated in the midst of a plain and the flora is charac- teristic of much of the Great Plains region of the western parts of Texas and Kansas, and of the eastern parts of New Mexico and Colorado. Grasses form the dominant vegetation, and the collection here represented 30 species. Buffalo grass (Bulbilis dactyloides) forms patches of sod, but most of the species are bunch grasses and do not form a continuous covering to the soil. The most common are the grama grasses (Bouteloua hirsuta and B. gracilis) and the needle grasses (Aristida longiseta, A. purpurea, and A. wrightu). An interesting species (Eragrostis barreliert) was found here in small quantity, evidently being a newcomer. The species is a native of southern Europe and appeared a few years ago in southern Texas, the first collection being made in 1894 by A. A. Heller at Kerrville. In 1897 J. G. Smith collected it at the same place and also at Llano. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 51 In rg02 Professor Tracy found it at Abilene. In Igio the writer collected the species in several localities (Big Spring, Kerrville, Brownsville, San Antonio, Kenedy) and observed it to be a common weed in lawns and along streets. In time the species will probably spread over a much wider area. Several days were spent in the vicinity of Long’s Peak, Colorado, the headquarters being Long’s Peak Inn. This is reached by rail from Denver through Boulder to Ward and by stage northward to Estes Park, Long’s Peak Inn being one of several hotels in the park. The hotel is at an altitude of about 9,000 feet. To the east are two peaks, the Twin Sisters, rising to a height of about 11,500 feet. Long’s Peak lies a little south of west, in an air line about four and Fic. 57.—A view of Long’s Peak from the summit of Twin Sisters. Long’s Peak is the central dome, the summit of which is 14,255 feet. Chasm Lake lies at the base of the cliff below the snow bank. one-half miles, its summit reaching an altitude of 14,255 feet, over 100 feet higher than Pike’s Peak, the best known of Colorado's mountains. A short distance to the northwest is Estes Cone, a sym- metrical, isolated peak about 11,000 feet high. ne trip was made to the summit of Twin Sisters and another to the summit of Long’s Peak. The second trip was made in company with Titus Ulke and Mr. Babcock, the latter a forest ranger kindly placed at our service by the superintendent of the park. Mr. Bab- cock had ascended the peak many times, having acted as a guide to tourists. His efficient aid was greatly appreciated. The party set out in the morning for Timber Line Cabin (11,000 feet) and spent the afternoon in observations at Chasm Lake and ‘auld ajodaspoy 91e sao.) YAP Ae[NSa1IT 91OW oy} saonads UURUISUA 21 S991} [VITUOD dy} ! WIvIIS E Suoye ssaple oie punoszsa10} ay} ul fe) sqnays oY] “Ystt, JooF OOO'II JNoge st Yvad avjnso1 sty, “UU Yeaq S,suo7y] Woy Udas sv aUuOD sojsy—Ss “DIY * at air cia § VOL. CTIONS COLLE MISCELLANEOUS SMITHSONIAN N 10 a) NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 cn On 4 Fic. 59.—The summit of Long’s Peak from Chasm Lake. A part of the lake is shown at the lower right-hand corner. The rounded dome in the center 1s the summit. The precipice is about 2,000 feet high. 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 vicinity. Chasm Lake lies at the foot of the east face of Long’s Peak, which rises above it, a sheer precipice of over 2,000 feet. A beautiful and well-marked lateral moraine leads away to the east of the lake. On the morning of the second day the ascent of the peak was com- menced and the summit was reached about noon. Fortunately the weather was clear and the whole surrounding country lay in plain view for many miles, even Pike’s Peak being distinguishable, nearly 100 miles to the south. The timber-line is at approximately 11,000 feet. In this vicinity the trees are stunted by the force of the winds and can develop only Fic. 60.—A heavy rock near Chasm Lake, probably transported by glacial action and left supported by four small stones. in the lee of rocks and hillocks. It is not uncommon to find a dense growth of pine or spruce reaching up to the level of a protecting ledge, but prevented by the force of the wind from extending above this level. The forest on the slopes of the mountain consists mainly of four species, the aspen, the Englemann spruce, and two kinds of pine. The aspen (Populus tremuloides) is a deciduous tree with smooth light green or nearly white bark, found up to about 10,000 feet. The Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni), a beautiful conifer with a tapering top, is common over all the upper stretches of the moun- tains. The lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) is the common pine INO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 qn Sal Fic. 61—Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni), a beautiful pyramidal tree, forming the bulk of the forest in this region, 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 around Long’s Peak Inn and the lower slopes of the mountains. At the higher altitudes the limber pine (Pinus flexilis) is frequent. This species is recognized by its very elastic “limber” branchlets which bend without breaking. The herbaceous plants with showy flowers, the real “ flowers ” of the tourist, are abundant and attractive. One of the most con- spicuous plants is the green gentian (/rasera speciosa), not so much for the flowers as for its stately appearance. It grows to the height of 2 to 4 feet, a single erect stem with numerous ieaves and masses of green flowers from their axils. There are several Fic. 62.—A young growth of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), the com- mon pine of Estes Park. Altitude 9,000 feet. One peak of Twin Sisters rising at the right. species of gentian, some rare, some abundant, all much sought by tourists. The lupine (Lupinus decumbens), with racemes of blue flowers, the harebell (Campanula rotundifolia), with delicate stems and large blue bell-shaped flowers, and several species of daisies (Erigeron) are among the more showy of the late summer flowers. Above timber-line are the alpine meadows, boggy areas supporting a growth of grasses and sedges with other plants intermixed. There are no trees, but shrubs extend upward in the protected valleys or depressions. The pine and spruce are found in the form of “ krum- holz,” stunted growths in the lee of rocks, as described in a preceding NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 57 Fic. 63.—A single tree of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), aspens in the background. *‘Z[OYWINAY SB JSLSO]TOSO ay} 0} UMOUY st puly sty} JO YYMOIS pajunjs YW “pua}xe JouURd }E STU} FO JAAD] 9Y} 9AOGK Jnq ‘YOOI & pulyaqd SpUIM d1dAV0s 94} WOTF patajpays st ‘plo savaA Aue MOU ‘99.14 Sy “UIqe) 9Uuly JoquIrTy Ieou (Sipvay snurg) suid payunys y—to ‘OT OUS COLLECTIONS MISCELLANE SMITHSONIAN NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, [O18 59 iG. 65. Down timber, the bane of the explorer. This is the result of high winds and forms an intricate mass of interwoven trunks very dis couraging to the naturalist who may depart from the trail. 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 paragraph. Two species of alpine shrubs are common, mountain birch (Betula glandulosa) and a small willow (Salix brachycarpa). These last two form extensive areas of dense low growth, in many of the depressions from 10,000 to 12,000 feet. A common plant of the alpine meadows is the bistort (Bistorta bistortoides), with oval heads of white flowers. Probably the most beautiful of the mountain flowers is the columbine (Aquilegia coerulea), with large blue Fic. 66.—The columbine (Aquilegia coervlea), one of Colorado’s most beautiful wild flowers. The large flowers are blue or lavender. The state flower of Colorado. flowers, which is found through a wide altitudinal range, in the forested zone, and on the alpine slopes to 12,000 feet. The chief object of the visit to Long’s Peak was the study of the grasses, especially the species growing above timber-line. It is only by a study of the species of mountain bluegrasses (Poa) im situ, that one can determine whether the different forms belong to a single variable species or represent distinct species. Twenty-one species of grasses were obtained, the common or well-known species not being collected. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 61 Green gentian (l’rasera speciosa), a stately plant about four feet high. Common from 7,000 to 10,000 feet. 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE SOUTHWESTERN COAST OF FLORIDA In November, 1918, Dr. Ales Hrdliéka supplemented his former work in Florida by a four weeks’ exploration of the little known region of the Ten Thousand Islands. The objects of this journey, which was carried out under the auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology, were to trace the anthropological type of the former aboriginal population along this unknown remainder of the western coast of the peninsula, and to study such Seminole Indians as could be found roaming among the islands. The results will be published more fully later. They are briefly as follows: The region of the coast south of Key Marco, which was Fic. 68.—The Mangrove Swamps. supposed to be of no great account as far as aboriginal remains were concerned, was found to be full of sites, shell heaps, platforms, and mounds, with canals and other evidences of former Indian occupa- tion, the remains covering in individual instances 20, 30, and even 8o acres of ground. Only the southernmost parts of the coast are poor in such remains. And all of this is still intact so far as scientt- fic exploration is concerned. It was determined that these remains are throughout of the same class, though differing in very interesting details, and the con- clusion seems justified that they represent the same culture and people, identifiable with those farther north, up to and beyond Charlotte Harbor. A part of these people were known historically as the Caloosas, and have left their name in that of the Caloosahachee NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 63 Fic. 69.—A Mound in the Jungle, Florida. Fic. 70.—Shell Heaps, Allen River, Florida. 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 River. They were, according to such evidence as we possess (crania, etc.), a homogeneous stock, physically related to the type of the astern Algonquins. The round-headed people of farther up the coast and the St. John’s River were evidently wholly absent in this region. Of the Seminoles, four individuals were met with among the islands, of whom two were full-bloods. One of these latter submitted to measurements. These Indians roam over most of the Everglade Fic. 71.—A Seminole Hut, Florida. part of southern Florida as well as among the myriad of keys off the coast. They are partly “ civilized,” but prefer to be left alone. They are considerably mixed with whites and slightly also with negroes, but this mixture does not seem to be recent. They have few if any steady all-the-year-around habitations and lead a more or less nomadic life, moving from place to place in quest of food or for other reasons. They can be met with occasionally, individually or in parties, from Palm Beach on the east coast to Fort Myers on the west, and from Lake Okechobee to the southern extremity of the peninsula. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 S Soats. IG. 72,—Seminoles in F F lypes. Seminole 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK IN PERU AND BOLIVIA In October, 1917, Mr. Philip Ainsworth Means, honorary collabor- ator in American archeology, U. S. National Museum, reached Peru to do archeological work. A short time was first spent in the vicinity of Lima, during which were studied several ruins about the capital, under guidance of Drs. José de la Riva-Aguero and Julio C. Tello. Two of the least known places visited were Maranga and Pando. They are very close together and are about 6 miles northwest of Lima. In its prime, Maranga (see fig. 76) had four fine terraces with a spacious terreplein at the top. At the bottom, the pyramid is PT Sena. - ag Se oe CO gins Fic. 74.—The raised end of the chief room in the small palace at Pando. Note the attractive arabesque patterns in the stucco which covers the walls. about 450 feet square and the summit terreplein is about 250 feet by 350. The material of construction is adobe. This pyramid is probably of Inca construction ; it 1s much like the Inca built Temple of the Sun at Pachacamac and has yielded many Inca artifacts. Lying somewhat north and northwest of Maranga are the ruins of Pando. These cover an immense amount of ground and consist of several pyramids even larger than Maranga, but not so well preserved. The old city at this place was enclosed in a massive wall with easily defended gateways. These latter were narrow, and, at either side, sunk in the thickness of the wall there was a raised platform or niche where possibly a guard could stand and effectu- ally oppose ingress. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 67 At the western side of Pando there are the remains of a fine though small palace or temple. Although it is only about 85 feet square, this little building is remarkable on account of the attractive arabesque patterns made in the stucco coating of the walls. (See fig. 74.) The western end of the main room was provided with a platform raised some 3 feet above the rest of the floor. Behind this there was a passage (fig. 75) which led to other apartments. It is not now possible to know exactly what sort of roof there was, for the wind has eroded the tops of the walls and signs of roof beams or joists are no longer visible. The present inhabitantseof this Fic. 75.—Corridor of the small palace at Pando. A dwelling of present inhabitants in the background of the picture. ruin are a wretched Indian family who live in the crude shelter made of burlap and old gasoline cans seen in figure 75. From Lima Mr. Means went to Arequipa and La Paz and while at the latter place he visited Tiahuanaco. There are, besides, several related sites in the region, notably Pumapuncu Llojepaya and Viacha, which are almost unknown. The chief collections studied at La Paz were those of Messrs. Federico Diaz de Medina, Agustin de Rada, Arturo Posnansky, and that of the Museo Nacional (directed by Sr. Jauregui. ) From Bolivia, Mr. Means went to Piura in northern Peru. There he hoped to find much archeological material, but various sorts of grave plunderers had preceded him, and archeological sites are ap- parently few. The collections of Dr. Victor Eguiguren (of Piura) and of D. Luis Elias y Elias (of Morropon) were examined. OS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLzg 7; On returning to Lima, Mr. Means made other trips to various sites in that neighborhood, which is undoubtedly still one of the richest in South America, from the archeological standpoint. He also examined the collections owned by Drs. Javier Prado y Ugarteche and Julio C. Tello. Fic. 76.—The pyramid or huaca of Maranga about six miles northeast of Lima. The view was taken from the northwest of the pyramid, ARCHEOLOGICAL FIELD-WORK IN SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO AND UTAH The chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, spent a month in field-work in southwestern Colorado and the adjoining State, Utah, directing his attention to the structure of the remarkable towers and castles to which attention was called in an account of his work last season. The purpose of this visit was to enlarge our knowledge of the forms and characteristics of these buildings and their relation to similar structures on the Mesa Verde National Park. One of the important results of the field-work of 1918 was the discovery of two hitherto unknown towers in McLean Basin, near Ruin Canyon, about 35 miles from Dolores, Colorado. The excep- tional feature of these towers is their situation on the diagonal cor- ners of a rectangular ruin. One of these towers (fig. 78) is cir- cular, the other (fig. 79) D-shaped; both are constructed of good masonry and stand about 15 feet high. Their relation to the fallen No SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, * aera nd < ot Ig18 ’ ae ‘ 3 « a 377 : > ’ P i. 9 ‘ Pas ’ ; ’ ‘ ' 7 h- | “S, | ca + Be a ~e io Ire i‘ : “9 * i* > S34) Fewkes. Walter Photograph by J. McLean Basin Ruin. and l-Shaped Towers in Circular 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O walls of the remainder of the ruin is shown in the view of a model (fig. 80). Dr. Fewkes likewise examined three towers in Mancos Canyon, one of which (fig. 81), called Holmes Tower from its discoverer, has been known for 40 years. This tower has the same general form as those on the Mesa Verde. Fic. 78.—Circular tower, McLean Basin, Utah. Photo- graph by T. G. Lemmon. The additional data collected during the past season indicate that the towers and great houses of the McElmo region may have served, among other purposes, as granaries for storage of food. All have certain features in common with Sun Temple, on the Mesa Verde, although architecturally they are much simpler. A tower in Sand Canyon (fig. 82) resembles those in the McElmo Canyon. ' fi O ho SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I918 71 Sand Canyon, one of the northern tributaries of the McEIlmo, contains several prehistoric buildings which have not hitherto been described, but offer possibilities for future research. Among these are well-made cliff-houses, one of the best preserved of which is shown in figure 83. There is another house (fig. 84) in a ceremonial cave, consisting of a single circular kiva of the Mesa Verde type = a ee ar, ox hy, Aa, Tite, Im - % 1c. 79—D-shaped tower, McLean Basin, Utah. Photo- graph by J. Walter Fewkes. surrounded by rectangular rooms, occupying the whole floor of the cavern. This building is a unique example of a pueblo of the single unit type situated in a cave. A remarkable feature is the existence of walls of a more modern kiva built inside those of an older chamber, resembling in this respect one of the kivas of Spruce Tree House, on the Mesa Verde National Park. Another unusual ruin in Sand NI bo SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Fic. 80.—Model of Towers in McLean Basin, Utah. Fic. 81.—Holmes Tower, Mancos Canyon, Colorado. Photograph by T. G. Lemmon. VOL. 70 NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Ti Canyon is a wooden scaffold in a cave like that of Scaffold House in the Navajo National Monument. There are several other cliff-houses in Sand Canyon all of which resemble in the structural features of their kivas those of Mesa Verde and Chelly Canyon, but differ from those of the Upper Gila and Salt rivers. The group called cliff-dwellings, from the fact that they occur in caves or cliffs, was formerly universally recognized as a division in Fic. S82. —Sand Canyon ‘Tower, Colorado. Photo- graph by T. G. Lemmon. a classification of southwestern ruins. It is evident from enlarged knowledge of the architectural forms of these buildings that the only difference between the so-called cliff-dwellings and others found in the open is their site; structurally they are identical and were evi dently constructed by the same people. Some cliff-dwellers were related to the Pueblos, but ai! cliff-dwellings were not built by people 74. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 Fic. 83.—Cliff dwelling, Sand Canyon, Colorado. Photograph by i Gs Lemmon: Fic. 84.—Ceremonial cave, Sand Canyon, Colorado. Photograph by T. G. Lemmon. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 sl or Fic. 85.—Fish Creek Canyon, Apache Trail, Arizona. Photograph by Mark Daniels. 76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 Fic. 86.—Cliff dwelling, Pueblo Canyon, Sierra Ancha, Apache Trail, Ari- zona. Photograph by Mark Daniels. Fic. 87.—Cliff dwelling, Cherry Creek, Sierra Ancha, Apache Trail, Arizona. Photograph by Mark Daniels. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Ip of exactly the same mode of hfe as Pueblos. For instance, the cliff-dwellings of the Verde Valley, a tributary of the Salt River in southern Arizona, are different structurally from those of the San Juan Basin in Colorado and Utah. Some of these aberrant cliff- houses, thus far little known, but pleading for investigation, are situated in Tonto Basin near the Apache trail, Arizona. The char- acter of the environment in this region appears in the view up Fish Creek (fig. 85), a rugged canyon, the mouth of which is visible to travelers on the road to Roosevelt Dam. lic. 88.—Interior cliff dwelling, Cherry Creek, Sierra Ancha, Apache ‘Ween Arizona. Photograph by Mark Daniels. By courtesy of Mr. Mark Daniels, photographs showing cliff- dwellings of the Sierra Ancha Mountains in southern Arizona are here reproduced (figs. 86 to 87). Although these buildings are situated in cliffs they have only a distant likeness structurally to those of the Mesa Verde National Park in southwestern Colorado. The principal difference from the latter is the absence of circular ceremonial rooms or kivas. They may be said to represent the cliff- dwelling phase of a house building culture that reached its highest development in so-called compounds near the Gila which are unlike 78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 pueblos. They are villages typical of the plains of southern Arizona built in caves of a mountain environment. Their masonry is com- paratively poor, with a tendency to the horizontal, but has com- ponent stones arranged in irregular courses, the mason relying more on natural cleavage than artificial pecking or dressing. Plastering still remains on the outer surfaces in several cases. In one of these the roof is in place and well preserved, as shown in figure 88. A remarkable pictograph from this region is shown in figure &o. Fic. 89.—Indian inscriptions, Cherry Creek, Sierra Ancha, Apache Trail, Arizona. Photograph by Mark Daniels. Among many instructive sites of ruins in the Hovenweep district is the bluff where the Yellow Jacket Canyon enters the McElmo. On top of this high promontory there are enclosures built of mega- liths set on edge, apparently of the same cyclopean type of construc- tion that characterizes larger buildings described by Jackson on Montezuma Mesa, Utah. We are evidently here on the dividing line, geographically, between the region of stone slab houses and the horizontal masonry of the Pueblo culture, such as is found on the McElmo. They are believed to represent an archaic masonry older than the kiva type of Mesa Verde. NOL 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 79 It was found that the artificial heaps of stones in the Montezuma Valley and the mesa north of the McElmo are arranged in clusters forming villages like the Mlummy Lake Group on the Mesa Verde. All component mounds of a group are the remains of buildings con- structed on the same general plan, their size depending on the number of component unit types or kivas. The characteristic form of a unit type with four kivas is shown in Far View House, illustrated in the account of field-work for 1916. There is every reason to suppose that a like clustering of small pueblos into villages occurs on the Mesa Verde, throughout Montezuma Valley, and on the summits of the mesa north of the M[cElmo. Fic. 90—Mound on Santa Fé Ranch, near Topila, Vera Cruz. Courtesy of Drs. Adrian, Staub, and Mr. Muir. Chronologically arranged, the classification of ancient habitations in the McElmo, adopted as a result of recent field-work, is as follows: (1) Single houses with walls constructed of rude cyclopean masonry, stone slabs or megaliths set on end. (2) Villages in cliffs or in the open, composed of units of the same structure in clusters or consolidated, each unit being composed of a characteristic circu- lar kiva with vaulted roof embedded in rectangular rooms. Towers and great houses, either isolated or united, are sometimes found in this group, which is a prehistoric type, now extinct, the highest attained by the Pueblos. (3) The mixed type of architecture, found in modern pueblos, has no embedded circular kivas, and marks an epoch of decline in house building largely due to admixture or in- fluence of other tribes. 6 80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O Aztec Spring Ruin in the Montezuma Valley will probably, in the future, become of considerable popular interest, as the owner, Mr. Van Kleeck, of Denver, has generously offered the site to the Public Parks Service for permanent care by the United States Gov- Fic. 91.—Side view of painted clay drinking vessel with hollow handle. Tempoal, Vera Cruz. Courtesy of Drs. Adrian, Staub, and Mr. Muir. ernment. In order to be in a position to give expert advice on the desirability of accepting this generous offer, Dr. Fewkes revisited Aztec Spring Ruin and reports that it is not only one of the largest and most typical prehistoric villages of the Montezuma Valley, but also recommends that it be excavated and repaired. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ18 SI ANTIOULITIES SOF TEE GUERTCOASM OR TIE xTICc® Several years ago (1904-1905) Dr. Fewkes made a preliminary trip to the Mexican states, Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas, for the pur- pose of tracing the relationship of the Totonac and Huaxtec Indians along the Gulf coast to the mound builders in the United States, or phot re Fic. 92—Front view of painted clay drinking vessel with hollow handle. Tempoal, Vera Cruz Courtesy of Drs. Adrian, Staub, and Mr. Muir. across the Gulf of Mexico to the prehistoric inhabitants of Porto Rico and Cuba or other adjacent Antilles. A fair beginning was then made in this direction and the results were published in the Twenty- fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. He has again taken up the problem, and through the kindness of friends has collected additional data bearing on these questions. (oe) to SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLa Fic. 93.—Clay heads, Tampico, Mexico, U. two outer heads in the middle row are from San Juan Teotihuacan, Valley of Mexico. Photograph by De Lancey Gill. S. National Museum. The O NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I918 83 The general appearance of ruined buildings or mounds, locally called ** cuves”” (fig. 90), situated along the Panuco River, Mexico, recalls that of Louisiana mounds, but unlike them, as a rule, they were faced with stone work, absent in all the mounds of the Missis- sippi Valley. On top of the Mexican mounds there stood a stone superstructure or temple, but the mounds show no indication of walls within, as is the case with artificial stone heaps in Colorado, Fic. 94.—Stone slab from the Cerro Cebadiila, U. S. National Museum. Courtesy of Drs. Adrian, Staub, and Mr. Muir. Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. These remains and pottery ob- jects (figs. g1, 92) found near them are ascribed to the ancient Huaxtec Indians. The figurines (fig. 93) made of burnt clay that have been exhumed from these mounds recall in a distant way the clay heads found in the Antilles, but more closely resemble those of the mainland. The ancient pottery of the inhabitants of the valley of the Panuco 1s allied SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Fic. 95.—Stone Idol, Panuco, U. S. National Museum. De Lancey Gill. Photograph by NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Fic. 96.—Stone Idol, Tampico, U. S. National Museum. by De Lancey Gill. Photograph o,4) cn 86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 to the archaic ware of the Valley of Mexico. Burnt-clay heads from the Huaxtec region distinctly resemble archaic heads from the Valley of Mexico, two of which, from San Juan Teotihuacan, are here figured (fig. 93). A flat stone slab (fig. 94) from Cerro de Cebadilla in the Panuco region, now in the U. S. National Museum, was part of the facing of one of these cuves, or possibly one of the bounding stones of a ball court used by the Huaxtecs, and recalls prehistoric Porto Rican remains called juegos de bola. The stone idols from the Huaxtec Fic. 97—Stone Idol, Jopoy, Tamaulipas, U. S. National Museum. Photograph by De Lancey Gill. region are characteristic, as seen in the hitherto undescribed speci- mens (figs. 95, 96, 97). The representation of a conical hat found on one specimen (fig. 98) would seem to indicate the same god as that figured and identified by Sahagun as Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent. The art shown by figure 100 recalls that on stone collars and three-pointed stones, but the enigmatical objects from Haiti and Porto Rico are not found in North, Central, or South America. Possibly the stone collars of the Antilles may be idols embodying the insular conception of a being corresponding to the Bird Snake Dragon of the Mayas. o,2) SI SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Fic. 98.—Idol with pointed cap, Panuco, U. S. Na- tional Museum. Photograph by Delancey Gill. (oe) (0/2) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7 One of the figures (fig. 99) shows a circular stone object from a Huaxtec ruin near Topila on which is depicted a cross used in “ patolli,’ a favorite game among the Mexicans. One of the most striking of the stone images from this region is owned in Guerrero, San Luis Potosi, by General Larraga, and was found in Consuelo. The remarkable thing about this idol is the imitation of tattooing on the body, right leg, and wrists (fig. 101). On the back is a representation of a human figure, the head of which is in high relief. Fic. 99.—Stone slab at Mata de Palancho, near Topila, Vera Cruz, Mexico. Courtesy of Drs. Adrian, Staub, and Mr. Muir. We have thus far little information on the antiquities of the region that lies between the most northern of the Huaxtee ruins and Louis- lana across the Mexican state of Tamaulipas, and Texas. The modern Huaxtecs speak a language that shows relation to the Maya stock, but they never attained a high degree of architecture nor developed a complicated hieroglyphic calendar system comparable with that of their southern relatives. None of the prehistoric objects from other localities on the Gulf coast of Mexico are more closely related to those of the Greater Antilles than the stone and ceramic specimens of the Huaxtec, but the prehistoric culture of Porto Rico-Haiti was indigenous and characteristic. Through the courtesy of Mr. J. M. Muir, Dr. H. Adrian, and Dr. Staub, who have generously furnished him with photographs, Fic. too.—Stone idol, Tampico, U. S. National Museum. Photograph by De Lancey Gill. Left side Right side sack Fic. 101.—Stone idol with incised decorations from Consuelo, San Luis Potosi. Courtesy of Drs. Adrian, Staub, and Mr. Muir. QO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O notes and maps, Dr. Fewkes has in preparation an extensive memoir on the antiquities of the oil fields of Mexico, which will supplement and in some respects enlarge our knowledge of the archeology of that region. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN ARIZONA The exploration in Arizona under the auspices of the bureau, by Dr. Walter Hough, curator of the Division of Ethnology, U. S. National Museum, was productive of interesting observations on Fic. 102.-—Clifi House, Oak Creek (White Mt., Apache Reserve). prehistoric ruins, many of which are undescribed. Owing to the scarcity of labor on account of the draft the exploration was confined to a reconnoissance of the ruins in the vast region lying west of Fort Apache and including the Tonto Basin Forest. The work covered a portion of this area and required 500 miles of travel by various means of locomotion. Much of the country traversed is very difficult, being broken by deep canyons eroded in the slopes of the great Mogollon escarpment, known locally as the “ rim” or “ mountain,” a tremendous geographic feature of dominant 1m- portance, in which the rivers of southern Arizona take their rise. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Ol ic, 104.—Great Kiva, near Fort Apache, Arizona. Q2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O At intervals along the trail through this country of majestic pic- turesqueness are ancient ruins of considerable size and hidden in the canyon walls are cliff-houses (fig. 102), showing that in ancient times the environment furnished sustenance for an aboriginal population. Entering Tonto Basin the landscape assumes a wilder aspect, the region becoming drier and exhibiting a great variety of cacti and thorny growths among bristling rocks. North of the Sierra Ancha the country opens out into park-like stretches, in which the towns Fic. 105—White Mountain Apache, Oak Creek, Arizona. of Young and Payson are located. As the character of the geog- raphy changes gradually from Fort Apache to Payson in the Tonto, it is seen that the ruins represent a gradual diminution of culture, those of the northern Tonto Basin being ruder in art than those to the east. The latter are generally of large compact pueblos, the art affiliations of which, judging from the pottery, are with those of the north in the basin of the Little Colorado, but plainly showing a rather high development. As the exploration proceeded west it was found that coincidences of southern culture appeared, while in the northern portion of the Tonto Basin the culture appears to affiliate entirely with the lower Gila and west of that river. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I918 93 The art of the cliff-houses does not appear to correspond with that of the neighboring open-air pueblos so far as pottery and some other things are concerned. It is probable that the cliff-house sites in this region represent the habitations of a small house people. It is also possible that there were spread over the Pueblo region tribes that never formed the habit of coalescing into compact pueblos. Much that has been discovered substantiates this theory. A rather unusual evidence of the age of a pueblo was furnished by a juniper 126 inches in circumference growing in the house mass of a ruin near Blue House Mountain in the western portion of the Apache Reservation. Near Fort Apache a ruin was observed which had as a prominent feature a rectangular depression 45 by 51 feet square and at present 5 feet deep and occupied by three large pine trees (fig. 104). This great construction is believed to be a kiva and is evidently like those escribed on the Blue River and Upper San Francisco at Luna, New Mexico. jak In connection with the Apache Indians with whom Dr. Hough was thrown in contact during this exploration, it may be said that notable changes have taken place among them since 1gor, when he visited them. There is little except their habitations (fig. 103) to connect them with their former life, all traces of native costume, etc., having disappeared. The Apaches are on the whole prosperous and contented and have an intelligent appreciation of their duties to the United States (fig. 104). ARCHEOLOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE OF NORTHWESTERN ARIZONA Late in April, 1918, provision was made by the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology for a brief archeologic reconnoissance of that little known section of Arizona lying north of the Colorado River, and Mr. Neil M. Judd, of U. S. National Museum, was detailed for the purpose. From Kanab, Utah, Mr. Judd proceeded with pack mules on a route lying southeastward over the northern portion of the Kaibab National Forest to House Rock Valley, thence southward across North, South, and Saddle canyons to the Walhalla Plateau, known locally as “ Greenland.”” He examined a large number of low mounds bordering the rim of this promontory or scattered over its timbered ridges. O4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 House remains were plentiful along the road and the narrow trails. They began with those previously noted in Johnson Run'* and included the small exposed ruins near Cape Royal and Cape Final, overlooking the Grand Canyon. The remains are those, usually, of one-, two-, or three-room structures ; their walls are of irregular and entirely unworked blocks of limestone, sandstone, or chert, depending upon the character of the material nearest the site occupied. Such blocks were picked up by the ancients from the surface of the ground and apparently were laid in large quantities Fic. 106.—Open ruin on the brow of a low hill about 7 miles south of the new corrals, House Rock Valley. of mud; numerous small fragments were added as a support for the mortar and as a partial protection against the action of the elements. The small number of sizable building stones on some sites, in pro- portion to the quantities of lesser pieces, suggests that certain houses may have been constructed chiefly of mud, although real adobe is not to be found in the region. In several of these it is obvious that the walls included but one or two courses of rock—there are no remaining traces of others. In many instances the stones at the bottom of the wall were placed on edge, their upper, unworked surfaces probably supporting rough masonry or rubble. Potsherds collected near the ruins indicate that the development of the ceramic art among these ancient people was not far behind that 1 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 66, No. 3, p. 70. fe NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 9 oat of the prehistoric Pueblos of the San Juan drainage and neighboring sections of the southwest. Shards ornamented with black geometric designs seem to predominate, but there are also numerous fragments of black-on-red and the customary plain and corrugated ware. Those which are decorated exhibit no marked variations from shards of similar design found upon ruins in better known localities and tend to substantiate the belief that a definite cultural relationship existed between the prehistoric peoples on either side of the Colorado River. A small group of ruins distinctly different in type from those observed on the Walhalla Plateau was noted near Two-Mile Spring, Meee oS pee) Pie ; — ae ae cae rash Fic. 107.—Sandstone slab making the walls of a small circular ruin near lwo-Mile Spring, House Rock Valley. in upper House Rock Valley. The structures are all circular, or nearly so, and measure from 4 to 10 feet in diameter ; their standing walls are of dressed sandstone slabs, set on end and usually close together. No trace of plaster is to be found in any of the rooms and nothing remains of the masonry which unquestionably surmounted the upright stones. Where exposed, the floors are covered with burned earth and ashes and mixed with these are chunks of roofing clay still bearing impressions of willows, grass, etc. All of the struc- tures are circular—no evidence of a former rectangular dwelling was noted in their immediate vicinity. Prehistoric remains similar to these have been observed, also, to the east of the Colorado River, between Grand Gulch and Chinlee Valley, in the San Juan drainage. As yet their original appearance and use seems to have been incom- pletely determined. / 96 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Fic. 108.—Looking across the Grand Canyon from ruins near the head of Clear Creek, Walhalla Plateau. Fic. 109.—Cliff village in lower Saddle Canyon, with the Rio Colorado in the distance. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, Ig1S Q7 Many mullers and metates lay promiscuously about, and two of the latter were pitted on the grinding surface, showing secondary use as mortars. Flint chips and projectiles seemed unusually numerous, but potsherds, although of the customary types found on “ Greenland,” were surprisingly few in number. Cliff-houses are not so plentiful as might be expected in the breaks bordering the Walhalla Plateau and these are, almost without exception, small single-room storage cists built by the inhabitants of the open houses among the pines and back some distance from the rim. Many of these cists have been occupied recently as shelters by white hunters—the smoke stains on the cave roof will not be con- fused with those left by aborigines. Dwellings protected by shallow caves are not unknown, however, and, although small, they add much to the picturesqueness of the country and to the less easily under- stood ruins of the mesa tops. Cliff-dwellings not visited during the recent reconnoissance are reported along the trailless ledges far below the floor of “ Greenland”; others are know to exist in the “sand hills’ and the red ledges of Pahreah Plateau. The difficulty of studying these remains is greatly enhanced by the infrequent sources of water supply and lack of forage for saddle and pack animals. As in other sections of the Southwest, the prehistoric dwell- ings are not always to be found in the vicinity of existing springs or water pockets. ARCHEOLOGICAL STUDIES IN CENTRAL MISSOURI Mr. Gerard Fowke, a collaborator of the bureau, made a recon- noissance in the Ozark region of south central Missouri. The pur- pose of the work was to locate and examine, as far as was feasible, all archeological remains, but with particular reference to caverns which afford evidence of having been used as places of shelter in prehistoric times. As the area in question includes the principal cave region lying east of the divide which separates these streams from the drainage basin of White River in the southwestern part of the State, a careful investigation was desirable. It appears that Phelps and Pulaski Counties were centers of aboriginal population. There are many caverns, large and small, a majority of them showing abundant evidence of their former occupancy. Potsherds, broken animal bones, mortar stones, flint chips and spalls, broken implements of stone, bone perforators, and especially mussel shells, may be found under the present floors of the caves, and excavation shows them to continue to a considerable depth, usually to the bottom of the fine, loose, cave earth which rests 98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 upon the original clay or rock bottom. In many of the caves, how- ever, this bottom cannot be reached, as water interferes with the digging, but ashes abound to whatever depth excavated. In a cave on Gourd Creek, 12 miles southwest of Rolla, this material formed a mass, almost solid, to a depth of 7 feet or more, and even then its limit was not reached; but no greater depth can be reached until a ditch is dug to the outside of sufficient depth to drain off the water which has accumulated from interior drainage. Goat Bluff Cave, facing the Gasconade near the line between Phelps and Pulaski Counties, 4 miles west of Arlington, shows a similar condition. Many of the caverns have a large amount of talus and other débris about the opening which sometimes makes entrance difficult ; others have earth floors which are many feet in depth, with no refuse material near the present surface, although it extends down the slope on the outside. While the larger caverns would have sheltered more persons and consequently may yield a larger number of artifacts, it is not to be expected that traces of very ancient residence will be found in them in the same abundance as in smaller caves. A cave with a narrow entrance to the interior could be more readily defended by its inmates than one where the passageway is larger and the interior more accessible. It would therefore be natural to conclude that a smaller cave would be inhabited longer than a larger one, and so contain more ancient remains. Passing in any direction from these two counties, caverns continue, though they gradually diminish in number, and while many of these are suitable for shelters or permanent homes, fewer of them have the usual indications of occupancy. With the changing elevation of the cave-bearing strata, due to the dip of the formations, a smaller number of them are as well adapted for shelters. It seems useless to investigate anything beyond the limits reached in these researches. In addition to the residential caverns along all the streams in these two central counties there are numerous village sites on the level bottom lands. Flint implements and chips are very abundant ; pot- tery fragments less common except in a few places where it would appear that vessels have been manufactured; axes or hatchets are rather rare; other objects, such as mortars and pestles, have not been reported, probably because they are overlooked in the search for “arrows ”’—a general term, including all edged or pointed flints—which are very plentiful, though usually not smoothly finished. Several large mussel shells, found in the caves, are perforated for attachment to a handle, for use as hoes. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9gI8 99 Very few of the caverns visited along the upper Current and upper Meramec Rivers are adapted for shelters, being damp or with small openings which-shut off light from the interior ; or difficult to reach ; or ata distance from water. This is also true of the caverns along the lower Osage and lower Gasconade. The best field for research, how- ever, is situated in Phelps and Pulaski Counties, where scores of caverns not only promise good material, but also are of sufficient depth to have stratification containing the handiwork of successive populations. No aboriginal burial places have been discovered in level bottom lands, though many must certainly exist, when consideration is given to the evidences of numerous villages and long periods of occupation. Cairns are found on nearly every ridge, especially on points which overlook streams or valleys. Nearly all were the ordinary conical or dome shape, formed by throwing stones over a grave, and are not at all distinctive, resembling in this respect similar burial places in various parts of the country. Two types, modifications of a single plan, were discovered, however, which have not been observed else- where. The graves in these are indicated by stone walls forming an enclosure as nearly square as the skill of the builders would permit. In one form, only a single row of flat stones was laid, and the grave, including a narrow space around the outside of the wall, was covered with stones, so that the pile outwardly resembled the ordinary cairn. In the other form this wall is carried up several rows, making a structure like a cellar wall or the foundation of a house. The space within this was filled with stones thrown in loosely, but none were placed against the outside. This latter type differs from the earth- covered stone vaults along the Missouri River where the inside of the vault is laid up as evenly as possible, no attention being paid to the outside; whereas, in the former, this feature is reversed. FIELD-WORK AMONG THE KIOWA rom July to October inclusive, Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, continued his field investigations of the Peyote cult and Kiowa her- aldry among the Kiowa and associated tribes of Oklahoma. The heraldry investigation relates particularly to the confederated Kiowa and Kiowa Apache, and involves a study of the origin, his- tory, decoration, myths, and ceremonial regulations in connection with the shields and heraldic tipis formerly existing in the two tribes (there being approximately 250 shields and 50 decorated tipis), with incidental attention to the tribal systems of genealogy, heredity, and medicine, together with the warrior organization and 100 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 Fic. 110.—Tenikwa, Chief Priest, Native Peyote Religion, Comanche Tribe. IOI O C EXPLORATIONS, I9QI SMITHSONIAN -au0 ynNoqy _suoyng ,, petip pue ‘doy ‘OZIS [eNjoV Jjey sjurid opouM :(usupypin vioygoydoT) x3080q YY LIT “91 102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 shield songs. A complete series of miniature models of the shields and tipis concerned, prepared by the best artists of the two tribes under dictation of the former owners or their representatives, forms an interesting Museum exhibit in connection with a report now in preparation which will contain all the information now in hand, including an indefinite number of tabu regulations, and a number of shield songs in keeping of individuals. Fic. 112——The Cow-shield (inside cover) formerly carried by Tsen- tainti, “White Horse,’ Kiowa raider, with cow-horn headdress, bridle, pendant and pouch. The Peyote study involves some 20 distinct tribes in Oklahoma, as wellas others in various Western States, together with the majority of the tribes of the upland regions and central Mexico as far south as the City of Mexico. The peyote is a small cactus which is used medicinally for the relief of various ailments and sacramentally in connection with a NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 103 native religion. Its use in both connections among the tribes of Mexico was noted by the earliest Spanish writers after the Conquest and by such later investigators as Lumholtz and Fuchs. It was noted in Texas as early as 1760. In continuation of his study begun years ago, before the Peyote religion had reached its present high development or territorial ex- tension, Mr. Mooney, on invitation of the tribes, transmitted by delegates from the Councils, made observation of the ceremony and of the medical use of the plant, and had filled out a number of individual questionnaires relating to the same subject, among the Kiowa, Comanche, Apache, Caddo, Cheyenne, and Arapaho, being everywhere received with the most generous hospitality and given every opportunity for observation and investigation, by reason of his long-standing friendship with the tribes and his known interest in the subject. FIELD-WORK AMONG THE IROQUOIS Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, resumed his work in Ontario, Canada, on the textual and literary criticism of the many texts which he had previously recorded relating to the establishment of the Federation or League of the Five Tribes (or Nations) of the Iroquois, and especially to the organic institutions of this league. By the accession of the Tusca- rora in 1722 these Indians became the Six Nations of the Iroquois. The larger and more detailed part of these texts was dictated by his late friend, the blind Seneca federal chief, John Arthur Gibson, one of the best-informed ritualists and expounders of the principles and the institutions of the so-called League of the Iroquois; the remainder, consisting of differing versions of the matter just men- tioned and also of much additional and supplemental material in the form of texts, was recorded from the dictation of other competent informants, among whom may be mentioned the late Onondaga federal chief, ‘ohn Buck, who was at the time of his death the federal Fire-Keeper; the present Cayuga federal chief emeritus, Abram Charles; and Chief Prophet Joshua Buck, all versed in the varying traditions of the motives and plans of the founders of the League or Federation and the decrees and ordinances promul- gated by them for its establishment. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O Since nearly all the traditions recorded in these texts were trans- mitted by memory for about 350 years it was inevitable that some of the essentially important details of the structure of the league and of its organic institutions should not have been remembered with the same fidelity by different persons, and so differences of opinion and marked variation in statement are not infrequently en- countered concerning the same subject-matter. The problem for Fic. 113.—Baby Cradle Sash (Chippewa). the student, then, is to determine by a sufficiently broad survey of differing traditions what the most probable facts were upon which these conflicting views and statements were originally based. The motives of the founders are not at all times remembered. As the institutions of the league are slowly becoming absolete in the face of assimilated European culture and civilization this reconstructive work is one of great difficulty. NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 I¢ ( cn The diction is largely that of the forum. The notional terms employed are those of statecraft and ritualism—the language of statesmen and stateswomen and prophets of that earlier time, who even then had measurably clear visions of institutions of to-day, Itc. 114.—Red-faced mask of a Pic. 115.—Black-faced mask of Wind God. \ deity of Disease a Wind God. \ deity of Disease and the East. and the West. such as the recall, the initiative, the referendum, woman suffrage limited to mothers for the election of nominees to chiefships, and a colonial policy. It may be added here that the men had no voice in the nomination of chiefs. 100 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE 7 Certain words occurring in Iroquois texts show that the laws and the rules of procedure among the Five Iroquois Tribes were not the decrees of an autocrat or tyrant, but rather were the formulated wisdom of a body of peers, who owed their official positions to the suffrages of those who owned the titles to them, and that the form of government was a limited democracy, or, strictly speaking, a limited gyneocracy. f ata: XK \ i» Fic. 116.—Lacrosse clubs of the Iroquois. A bow with arrows. In this manner the following matters were studied and analyzed: The law defining the position, the powers, and the disabilities of a chieftainess, or Goyanego’na‘; the law defining the position, the powers, and the disabilities of the tribal chiefs, and of the federal or Rovaner chiefs of the league (or Extended Lodge), and the manner of their nomination, installation, and removal for cause ; the law of the extinction of the ohwachira (or uterine family), having federal or Royaner chief titles, called E"yofidofigwe’do’k’de”, 1. e., INO. U2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 107 they will run out of persons, and so no more men will be available for candidates for chiefships; the law defining the position, the powers, the disabilities, and the authority of the Onondaga chief, De‘hadoda"ho’ ; and of his co-tribal Royaner chiefs ; individually and in their collective capacity of Federal Fire-Keepers; the law of the method, the limitations, and the effect of the action of these Fire- Keepers in confirming, or in referring back for cause for review, to the Council of their peers, any of its acts, whether unanimous or not; the law limiting suffrage for the nomination of chiefs to the mothers in the clans; and the law recognizing descent of blood and fixing the status of persons in the female line; the law of the sacredness of the lodge and of private property; the law of hos- pitality, good neighborhood, and good fellowship; the law of mur- der, and of rape, and of highway robbery; the law of the police, or the regulation of the internal affairs of the league, symbolized by the Long Wing of the Gull and the Staff which were placed in the hands of the great federal chief, De‘hadoda”‘ho’; the law of the domestic relations ; the law of hunting and fishing ; the law of planting and the protection of the crops; the law fixing daytime and the place for holding the sessions of the Federal Council and for the demeanor of the Royaner or federal chiefs at such sessions; the law defining the position, the powers, and the limitations of the Merit, or the so-called Pine-Tree chiefs; the law for the adjustment of homicide, obviating the former Lex talionis; the law of homicide by a Royaner or federal chief ; and the law of the Union or Federation of Clans and of Lands (or Peoples), with an extensive explanatory preface. A number of other rituals and traditions of the Iroquois were analytically studied, and Mr. Hewitt also collected a number of Museum specimens, including a very fine wooden mask of a Disease God, painted red; it is a work of art. Some of these are illustrated in this paper. FIELD-WORK AMONG THE CHOCTAW AND CATAWBA Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, was in the field from the middle of April to the end of May, 1918. On leaving Washington he went immediately to Char- enton, Louisiana, where he spent about one week amplifying his grammatical sketch of the Chitimacha language already prepared, and clearing up some doubtful points which had developed during its composition. After completing this work he proceeded to Philadelphia, Mis- sissippi, in order to ascertain something regarding the present con- 7O VOL. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS SMITHSONIAN 108 “MEWOY) OUI FO ,, [[LH JOyIOP ,, 10 ‘VAEM-YyUeN—ZIT ‘OT Pee wine nt SV ey a] NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 10g dition of the Choctaw Indians in that neighborhood, the descendants of those who remained in their old country after the greater portion of the tribe had emigrated to what is now Oklahoma. On the way he stopped at Bay St. Louis to visit a small band of Indians living in the country north of that place. He learned that this was a band of the Sixtown Choctaw, the southernmost division of the Choctaw nation, but that all of the old people were dead and _ practically nothing regarding their ancient manner of life was known to the survivors. Near Philadelphia ( Mississippi) remnants of three Choctaw bands or clans are still to be found, and in the few days spent in interviewing them—this being merely a reconnoissance—a few interesting data regarding their social organization and former customs were secured. A visit was also made to the famous Nanih-waya, or “mother hill,” of the Choctaw, where, according to some versions of the Choctaw origin legend, the ancestors of this tribe emerged out of the earth. This is an artificial elevation of considerable size in the midst of a fairly level tract of country, surrounded partly by Nanne Warrior Creek, so named from the hill, and partly by a low earthen rampart, traces of which are now barely visible. Several photographs of this hill were taken. The remainder of the time, until the end of May, was devoted to a study of the Catawba language on the Catawba reservation near Rock Hill, South Carolina. Early in the eighties the late Dr. A. S. Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, collected a vocabulary and other linguistic material on the reservation, and recently Dr. Michel- son spent a short time there studying the people and their language, but our knowledge of it is still very imperfect and any additional material is sure to be of value. Although fairly well known to about 20 persons, this language is no longer in common use and few Catawba retain it in anything like its ancient purity. Its peculiar ‘ralue consists in the fact that it is the only surviving dialect of the eastern Siouan group and that by which the other Siouan fragments from the same area must be interpreted. It appears to be the most aberrant of all the Siouan dialects and to contain features of great value in tracing the evolution of the entire stock. Dr. Swanton was able to collect considerable material, principally detached words and phrases, also a slight amount of textual material, being assisted very much by Dr. Gatschet’s manuscript vocabulary. Some notes of general ethnological character were also secured, but the tribe has lived so long in close contact with white people that it is doubtful whether much of this is purely aboriginal. 110 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O RESEARCHES AMONG THE OSAGE In the month of May, 1918, Mr. Francis La Flesche, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, visited the Osage Reservation to continue his field researches among the people of the Osage tribe. During his stay among these people, Mr. La Flesche prevailed upon Wa-xthi’- zhi to give in full the Ga-hi’-ge O-k’o”, ** The Rite Belonging to the Chiefs,’ which, up to that time, he had persistently declined to do excepting to give it in paraphrase. His unwillingness to repeat the rite and to recite in detail its wi’-gi-es (spoken parts) was strength- ened by the recent loss of his only son and also of a grandchild, losses which he attributed to his giving the tribal rites without the traditional prescribed ceremonial forms, and the open criticism of some of the men who, in times past, had often taken part with him in the actual performance of the ceremonies. But after much persuasion he finally consented to give the rite in full. Wa-xthi’-zhi prefaced his narrative with the story of the develop- ment of the governmental organization of the tribe which had passed through four experimental stages before it finally satisfied the people. These stages were as follows: First. When the affairs of the people were in the control of one great tribal division known as the Ho™-ga U-ta-no®-dsi, a division whose tribal symbol is the earth. During the control of this division the affairs of the people were in a continual state of chaos and con- fusion and there were no fixed rules of action. Second. When the Wa-zha’-zhe, a division whose tribal symbol is the waters of the earth, persuaded the Ho"-ga U-ta-no"-dsi to submit to a movement toward an organization that would better satisfy the people of all the great tribal divisions. This movement the people called, figuratively, “A departure to a new country.” It was at this time that the people organized a military form of gov- ernment to be controlled jointly by four great tribal divisions. These four divisions were empowered to initiate war movements, the organization for such a purpose to be known as Do-do”-hi®- to"-ga, “War Party by Hundreds,’ and these four divisions also controlled the tribal hunting expeditions. It was during this stage that the tribal war rites and the rites pertaining to the ceremonial naming of the children were formulated. Third. In course of time the people became conscious of a dis- advantage in the method prescribed for the organizing of a war party. This method was burdened by a multiplicity of ceremonial forms which made it impossible to act promptly when haste became urgent. For this reason another “Departure to a new country” NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Itt took place, a movement that made it possible to suspend the tedious ceremonial forms that were hitherto observed when organizing a war party. A single gens or a number of gentes were now empow- Fic. 118.—Osage Warrior with Pictured War Symbols on His Body. ered to organize war parties. A war party organized by the new method was called Tsi'-ga-xa Do-do", a name which may be freely translated ** Outside the (Sacred) House.” With this new depar- 8 112 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O ture, which was really an addition, the military form of the govern- ment was regarded as complete. Fourth. Finally the people made another “ Departure to a new country,’ at which time the people put into effect an organization which they believed would safeguard the tribe from disruption by internal dissensions. In this fourth and final stage the internal affairs of the tribe fell to the control of two hereditary chiefs, one for each of the two great tribal divisions, namely, the Ho”-ga and the Tsi’- zhu: the first, in the tribal symbolic system, representing the earth, and the latter the sky, with all its celestial bodies. These chiefs were chosen, on the Ho"-ga side from the Po"-ka Wa-shta-ge gens, and on the Tsi’-zhu side from the Tsi’-zhu Wa-shta-ge gens. Upon the completion of this organization the two chiefs took upon themselves the rite of fasting, by which each one sought for some sign of approval from Wa-ko"’-da, “ The All-Controlling Power.” To the Po"’-ka Wa-shta-ge, on the seventh day of his fast, was revealed the art of healing by scarification. The instruments used were to be made from the wing-bones of the pelican or the wing-bones of the eagle. To the Tsi’-zhu Wa-shta-ge was revealed the art of healing by the use of medicinal roots. The two chiefs were also given the power to heal the sick by ceremonially feeding to them certain foods declared to be sacred and life-giving. In recognition of this healing power of the two chiefs the people of their respective gentes adopted Wa-stse’-e-do", “ The Good Doctor,” as a sacred personal name to be bestowed upon their children. A rite was formulated for each of the two chiefs to perpetuate the memory of these events. During the second and third stages of the development of the government, a rite, religious in character, was reverently observed by the people, namely, the rite of tattooing. According to this rite a man who had achieved success as a chosen war leader was per- mitted to have tattooed upon his chest, neck, and shoulders con- ventional designs of certain symbols, all of which pertained to war. These were: The sacred ceremonial knife. The outline of this implement runs from under his chin down the middle of his chest to his abdomen; the sacred pipe which he used for offering smoke to Wa-ko"-da when appealing to him for success, and which he car- ried throughout the war expedition. The outline of this pipe runs from either side of the middle of the knife design and terminates behind his shoulders ; the thirteen rays of the sun which symbolize the number of o-do™ (military honors) every warrior must strive to win. These conventional rays run upward from either side of the NO» 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 Ts knife between its point and the pipe design, terminating behind the shoulders (fig. 118). The woman, upon whom depends the continual existence of the tribe, was no less honored than the warrior who risks his life for the people. Upon her forehead, chest, back, arms, hands, and the lower part of her legs are pictured, in conventional designs, the sun, stars, the earth, the powers from whose united force proceed life in all its manifold forms. The lines running down from her shoulder to her Fic. 119.—Osage Woman with Conventional Symbols Pictured on Her Body. wrist symbolize the “ paths of animals,” in reality, life descending from the sun and the stars to the earth, represented in the conven- tional design of a spider pictured on the hand (fig. 119). When the fourth stage of the tribal government was completed this rite was transferred to the Po"-ka Wa-shta-ge chief and also added to the rite formulated for him. The translation of the story of this combined rite, as given in full by Wa-xthi’-zhi, is in process of completion. It contains 31 wi’-gi-es (recited parts), songs, dia- grams, illustrations, charts, and text. Ii4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOR. W/o MATERIAL CULTURE AMONG THE CHIPPEWA During the summer of 1918 Miss Frances Densmore, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, visited four localities and her work included a wide field of research. The first reservation visited was Fort Ber- thold in North Dakota. The purpose of this trip was a final consul- tation with the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians concerning their music Fic. 120.—Woman placing tobacco in ground before felling birch tree. to complete her bulletin on that subject. Information on important points was verified, and additional material was secured, especially regarding the musical instruments used by these tribes. Among “ee the latter data was a description of a “ double whistle,” said to have been used by the Mandans in former times, and a peculiarly decorated drum used by the Goose women’s society. A close examination of a similar drum in the North Dakota State Historical Society re- vealed a trace of this decoration, almost obliterated by age and use. This specimen was kindly loaned by that society for illustration. 115 EXPLORATIONS, IQIS SMITHSONIAN Tree. st Incision in Bark of Birch Fir | 12) fm Fic. irch Tree. ) , I from k ing Bar Remoy 116 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O A study of Chippewa material culture, extending over several previous years, was continued on the White Earth and Red Lake reservations in Minnesota, special attention being given to the his- tory and development of Chippewa art. A conventional form of design was found to have existed before the present floral patterns, said by the Indians to be comparatively modern. Examples of these Fic. 123.—Chippewa Woman Carrying Pack of Birch Bark. early designs were obtained from the old women, and include con- ventional flowers and leaves, as well as geometric patterns. Indus- trial art was also studied, one of its interesting phases being the proc- ess of securing and storing birch bark, as well as the manner of its use. Before digging a medicine herb the Chippewa puts tobacco in the ground as an “ offering.” The same custom is observed before cutting a birch tree, the tobacco being first held toward the zenith and the cardinal points, with low “talking.” This can scarcely be termed “ supplication,” as the mental attitude of the Chippewa when NO. 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 EL] addressing a “spirit” is that of a respectful friend rather than a suppliant in the white man’s understanding of that word. The Chippewa says simply, that he desires the herb, root, or bark for a necessary purpose and asks that he be successful in his use of it. The writer requested that a birch tree be cut for her according to the old custom, and this was done by a reliable informant at White Earth. Tobacco was placed at the root (fig. 120), and the tree was lic. 124.—Chippewa woman adjusting deer hide in posi- tion for process of smoking. felled in such a manner that the bark would not come in contact with the ground. In taking the bark a longitudinal cut was made (fig. 121), after which the bark was turned back (fig. 122), passed be- neath the trunk of the tree and removed in a large sheet. This work was always done by the women, who fastened the sheets of bark in packs, usually placing 100 sheets in a pack and tying them with strips of the inner bark of the basswood. In this manner the bark was taken from the woods (fig. 123) and, if not needed for im- 118 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 mediate use, was stored in dry, cool shelters. Birch bark was used in making many forms of containers, and sheets of the bark were sewed together as coverings for dwellings. Next in importance to birch bark may be considered the deer hide, which furnished the early Chip- pewa with material for their clothing, bedding, etc. The tanning of hides was studied, and the process of “ smoking ”’ a hide was photo- graphed at Red Lake (fig. 124). The hide was suspended above a shallow hole in the ground, in which a slow fire was kept burning. The smoke from this fire imparted a golden yellow color to the hide. The woman shown in the illustration is expert in the work, and when tanning this hide was wearing her hair loose on her shoulders, ac- cording to the custom of one in recent mourning. The writer continued the collecting of medicinal herbs, which was begun in 1917, and recorded much data concerning the early customs of the Chip- pewa. The last locality visited was in the vicinity of Lake Winnebigoshish where some old graves had been “washed out.” More than 250 fragments of pottery were collected, 110 of which were pieces of the rims and necks of jars. The decorations of these were not unusual in character, showing various imprints of roulette, twisted cord, woven fabric, sharp stick, or thumb-nail, but these were combined in such variety that only three or four duplicates were found in the entire collection. Thirty-four fragments of jars were large enough to show the curve of the sides and the size, which varied from a few inches to about a foot in diameter. The color of the pottery frag- ments also showed a wide variety, including black, orange, and very pale gray, as well as the familiar browns and reddish shades. Among numerous human bones collected was a skull obtained from an Indian who found it in that immediate locality. The skeletal material was submitted to Dr. Hrdlic¢ka, of the National Museum, who reports that “the bones are those of a male skeleton, in all probability In- dian. They are possibly not over a few decades old.” The large bones were pierced near one end, the puncture breaking into the marrow cavity. These artifacts show the use of a conical instrument. STUDIES OF THE KIOWA, TEWA, AND CALIFORNIA INDIANS In June Mr. John P. Harrington, of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, went to Anadarko, Oklahoma, where, with the assistance of very intelligent informants, he was able to revise and greatly increase his Kiowa material, which includes very complete grammatical notes and some texts. At the end of June Mr. Harrington proceeded to NO: 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 IIg Taos, New Mexico, where, coming as he did fresh from the Kiowa field, an excellent opportunity was afforded during the following weeks for comparison of the Tanoan with the Kiowa. In addition to abundant grammatical material, the vocabulary of the language was thoroughly studied. For instance, the lists of names of plant and animal species were made very complete, and although the work was primarily a linguistic one many new identifications were obtained. Fic. 125.—Ventureno Informant. Comparative studies of the two idioms in Oklahoma and New Mexico furnished an overwhelming weight of evidence supporting the discovery of the genetic relationship of Tanoan and WKiowa, and show that the Tano-Kiowan is an offshoot of that great stock of languages which gave rise to the Uto-Aztecan. The relationship between Tanoan and Kiowa is comparatively close and is the more remarkable because the Kiowa are a small tribe having the culture 120 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 of the plains Indians whose earlier home was in what is now western Montana, while the Tanoans are a typically Pueblo division inhabit- ing the Rio Grande drainage of New Mexico. It is proposed that the linguistic family thus established, including Uto-Aztecan, Tanoan, and Kiowa, be termed Patlan, a name derived from the word mean- ing “ water” or “river” in all these languages. In August Mr. Harrington proceeded to California to continue his studies among the Mission Indians of the Chumashan region of southern California. It was his good fortune to be able to make most important additions to the Ventureno grammar, securing many old words which it had been impossible to obtain at previous visits and which are most important for throwing light on all the related languages. A searching ethnological questionnaire was used with the inform- ants, yielding very gratifying results, especially in the field of mate- rial culture. Detailed information on ancient dance regalia and the process of preparing native tobacco and its uses was obtained. An adequate description was procured on ancient traps for ground squirrels and other small animals whose names had been given by various informants, but had never been satisfactorily described. Quite a little new and important information on archery was ob- tained. Mr. Harrington had special success in learning from a couple of aged women the ancient childbirth practices, including a unique description of the method of cutting the navel cord by means of a carrizo knife after the blood had been dried out of the section by the application of warm decoction pespibata. A bed of warm coals was made on the floor and a layer of medicinal herbs was placed on top of this, on which the mother and child lay for three days after childbirth. Sociological problems were intensively investigated and new information was gathered, especially on mortuary customs. Likewise, a few old songs, among which is an especially pretty quail song which has the refrain ka, ka, imitating the cry of the quail brought out with a peculiar stressed voice. This and some of the other songs doubtless form parts of old cycles, the other songs of which have not been recovered. Mr. Harrington obtained from Manuel Chura, who was born in 1820, and is therefore nearly 100 years old, much linguistic informa- tion, and 15 very rare songs, such as used to be sung at the Indian fiestas in the thirties or forties of the past century. He also obtained several splendid songs from José de los Santos Juncos, who is also nearly a centenarian. NOZ 2 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1918 [21 FIELD-WORK AMONG THE SAUK AND FOX Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnologist, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, spent two and a half months at Tama, Iowa, among the Sauk and Fox Indians. Shortly after his arrival, July 1, the death Fic. 126.—Some Fox Children in Gala Attire. Fic. 127.—A Ceremonial Drum used in the Fox “ Religion-Dance.” of William Wanatie’s son occurred. Dr. Michelson was given tobacco and told to go to the house and be one of those to sit up all night with the corpse. Wanatie is the owner of one of the drums connected with the so-called religion-dance ; and the oppor- 122 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 tunity to observe the ceremonies was unequaled. A few days later Ella Davenport died, probably of tuberculosis; however, her parents believed that she had been witched, and he was asked to be one of those to watch her grave at night for a number of days, being assured that Indians knew very well that witches were afraid of white people and would not harm them. It appears that Fox Indians believe that 1f a person has been killed by a witch, the witch will return in the form of a dog, owl, or bear, tap four times on the grave of the deceased, whereupon the dead will come back to fe and the witch will then proceed to torture the person by cutting out his or her tongue and stringing his or her heart. He of course em- braced the opportunity ; and with a few Indians sat up with loaded shotguns for a few nights watching the grave. Unfortunately the witch did not come. After such a favorable opening he seized the occasion to obtain a number of texts written in the current syllabary on the origin of death, the ceremonies connected therewith, etc., which have since been translated. These texts all supplement rather than contradict each other. The grammatical analysis of the text appurtenant to the Owl sacred pack, begun with Edward Davenport at the U. S. Indian School at Carlisle, was completed. A number of texts collected in previous seasons, some appurtenant to ceremonials and the like, and a few folk tales were translated in the course of the summer, as were the personal names of approximately nine-tenths of the entire Fox population. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 72, NUMBER 1 ; | EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1919 = a. * 7 “a Daye “42° 24s 4 P leg a (PUBLICATION 2581) : CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1920 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 72, NUMBER 1 EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1919 (PUBLICATION 2581) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1920 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. 2 CONTENTS PAGE MATH CACUESE CUM oe ado oS Sie dca avs ania ego ahr ene eae eee eae me eee I Geolocical Exploration in the Canadian Rockiesesss. 2). 440082 ose ae I Geological and Paleontological Explorations and Researches.......... 16 Expedition to South America in the Interests of the Astrophysical ID SEL VALOD Ye Pe ete drs eck das tic yecte ate. Stew te a MN oy Ps gk Peco Sas toes 24 Yau estsie hee Go taasl Shp el pele b 0) Ok eR AN eee SM ee ae, reg RUS Lok nan eer ne mite 4 28 hes Gollins=Garnen Conto. Expeditionen 1 seis owe ere ier 33 ES OLlOLALIOUSE1O SATItOs DOTS Oc Serie eee eee er eee ae ge 34 Botanical Exploration in Glacier National Park, Montana.............. 30 Explorations and Cerion Studies on the Florida Keys................... 41 Field Work on the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado................ 47 WECKIEOLOSICAls BXCAVATIONS IMMALIZONAAe ape ata ain tan eerie es 64 Archeological Investigations in Utah and Arizona..................--. 66 Field Work on the Iroquois of New York and Canada.................... 69 SISape. Metal, Rages 1) ala Omiaten ms ces hint ve aire Sate eee. Siars oaks aia ohana 71 Ethnological Studies in Oklahoma, New Mexico, and California........ ie ER NigsiC of thes etuneew@clahiotidars tice oath ee ob re heeds 7 aS Material Culture of the Chippewa of Canada..............0600.6.... J2%) 9a ——_ _— a ¢ oe he seine ee De Cliffs of Mt. Outram (10,670’) Glacier River EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1919 INTRODUCTION An important phase of the Institution’s work, in carrying out one of its fundamental purposes, the “increase of knowledge,” is the scientific exploration by members of the staff of regions in this country and abroad previously imperfectly known to science. The more important of these field researches carried on during 1919 are here described briefly, for the most part by the explorers themselves. Naturally the great war held in abeyance a number of proposed expeditions, some of which it has since been possible to send out on the resumption of a peace status. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES Geological explorations were continued in the Canadian Rocky Mountains during the field season of 1919 with two objects in view: (1) The discovery of an unmetamorphosed, undisturbed section of the Upper Cambrian formations north of the Canadian Pacific Railway ; and (2) the collection of fossils to determine the various formations and to correlate them with the Upper Cambrian forma- tions elsewhere. The party going from Washington consisted of Dr. and Mrs. Charles D. Walcott and Arthur Brown, who has accompanied them for a number of years. Early in July an attempt was made to reach Ghost River northeast of Banff, Alberta, but this failed owing to the extensive outbreak of forest fires in that region. In August the party proceeded north from Lake Louise over Bow Pass down the Mistaya Creek to the Saskatchewan River, and thence up to the head-waters of the Middle Fork in the area about Glacier Lake, where a wonderfully well preserved Upper Cambrian series of rocks was found that had been cut across in pre-glacial time by a deep east-and-west canyon valley, at the head of which were two beautiful glaciers, which are illustrated by the panoramic view figure 1 (Frontispiece), and more in detail by figures 5, 7, 8, 9, and to. SMITHSONION MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 72, No. 1 | i] | | ) | Mount Forbes (11,902’) Mions Glacier Division Mountain : Southeast Lyell Glacier \ | Cliffs of Mt. Outram (10,670’) \ Moraine Lake (5,116’) Y Y Y M Y | y } | i H aot ay ice 3 Glacier River Fic. 1—Panoramic view of Southeast Lyell Glacier (right), Mons Glacier (center), Mount Forbes (11,902’) (distant cloud-covered peak above amphitheatre), on left northern cliffs of Mount Outram (10,670'), with Glacier River below. View taken from cast moraine of Southeast Lyell Glacier about 50 miles (80 km.) northwest of Lake Louise station, on Canadian Pacific Railroad, Alberta, Canada Photograph by C.D, Wa’ Icott, TOTO. f oa :. faa : es <: ee ee 1 TI er LE AI Te ee Nya an _ 4 af 5 Pid “Oa is) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS MONE The character of the mountains about the head-waters of the Middle Fork of the Saskatchewan 1s illustrated by figure 2, where a glacial stream flows out through a deeply eroded valley with high ridges and peaks rising in steep slopes and cliffs. The position of the camp in Glacier Lake canyon is shown in figure 3, and the outlook to the west toward the glacier from the camp by figure 5, and to the Fic. 2—View looking up the Middle Fork (Howse River) of the Sas- katchewan River to Howse Pass (5,000’) on the Continental Divide. In the distance beyond Howse Pass the peaks of the Van Horne Range and Mount Vaux of the Ottertail Range, and on the right and above the Pass Mount Conway, and to the extreme right the eastern ridge of Mount Outram. Locality—View taken from the upper slope of Survey Peak above Glacier Lake, about 48 miles (76.8 km.) northwest of Lake Louise station on the Canadian Pacific Railroad, Alberta, Canada. Photograph by Mr. and Mrs. C. D. Walcott, Igro. east by figure 4, where the dark massive bulk of Mount Murchison rises in cliffs above the canyon of the Mistaya River along which the trail from Bow Pass descends. The measured geological section begins at the foot of the ridge at the extreme left of figure 1, and was measured in the cliffs and slopes, and thus carried to the side of the Mons glacier shown in NOs CE SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 3 the central portion of figure 1, the upper limit of the section being above the narrow vertical F-shaped snow bank directly over the glacier. The evenly bedded rocks sloped at an angle of from 10 to 20 degrees, westward, which accounts for the great thickness mea- sured, although the elevation above the canyon bed was not more than 3,500 feet. Fic. 3.—Walcott camp located in the brush beside Glacier River, 1 mile (1.6 km.) below the foot of Southeast Lyell Gacier, which is shown more distinctly in figure 5. Photograph by Mrs. C. D. Walcott, 1919. The glaciers—The Southeast Lyell Glacier is beautifully shown in figure 1, and also in figure 5, and more in detail by figure 6, where it is cascading over a high cliff. Figure 1 is a profile view of Lyell Glacier from the Continental Divide on the right to where it abuts against the low cliff on the left. In figure 6 the foot of the glacier is shown, along with large amounts of débris forming the terminal moraine, also the dark mass of broken rock and débris carried on the back of the glacier, which is shown in figures 1 and 6, A portion of the great snow field from which both Lyell and Mons glaciers flow is shown on the slope of Mons Peak on the left side of figure 5. This snow field extends back of Division Mountain, HOPM “C “OD ‘SAW Aq Ydessojoyg ‘BpeULy ‘P}IOq;Y ‘peosprey d9yloRg uvrpeury 24} UO *UOT}e}S VSINO"] OYRT JO JsoMmy}IOU (Uy 7$Z) satu ZF ynoqe jurod eB wor] SIE MOIA IY. —AyypI07 ONL] Toor) JO pray tN ey} eAoqe (‘WY QI) ofl suo JuIOd B WOA} ‘OAL JoIOR]y) UO dwed Woy udas sR UOSTYIANPY JUHOPY—F “OL COLLECTIONS LLANEOUS MISCE SMITHSONIAN PPARs IQIQ EXPLORATIONS, MITHSONIAN S NO. ‘6161 ‘WOIeAA “CG “DO ‘SAW Aq ydessojoyg “*BPPUeR_) "RLAILY “peod[rey IYLP| LUPLDPPUP ) 94} UO “UOTeYS asthovy aye] JO Jsomy sou (“Wy Q'OZ) satu gf ynoqe jurod vB ye dures WOoTR AA Vy} JO YOR Wry st MatA oy | UOTSTATC] jo IEC punose Spudayxod P]eu MOUS P9156 oy | *STOTOR[S) SUOTY pue [OA] 40 dAoU ayy SULIIUUOD “ULPQUNO]Y “APLATC] [eJUAUTZUO’) out uo st (It M “ULRJUNOTY UOISTATC] pure 1dloR[r) [oA] IseayINOG OF AayRA, oye] Toor] dn dwed }JOo[R A, WOLF PIPMJSAM SULYOOT MalA C ory ) ‘TILI LV ‘prod aa | IYI] uvip 2) at} uo ‘UOHVIS aSINOT oyV YT JO JsaMypou (“Wy Og) Soytlu oS ynoqr | Vi WOLF Ud4V} SE MOIIA OY TL “VylpDI07] “TOLIVLS oy1 JO JOOF OY} MOOG WoO UOAUR) OYVT Toroeypry oY} WOT, Aolov]) [oA] }svAyINOG JO MoIA—Q “DIY IN . : 2 a eee a . : ee , ae : NET — aremanenst a eo) “ : , A wh ~ ‘ . ciate — - 5 LZ COLLECTIONS Ss MISCELLANEOU MITHSONIAN S 6 NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I919 7 dividing Mons and Lyell glaciers, and continues along the Conti- nental Divide for many miles, contributing to giaciers both on the Pacific and Eastern sides of the- Rockies. Fic. 7.—View of the ice fall of Southeast Lyell Glacier, taken from the surface of the glacier below the fall. The locality is the same as for figure 6. Photograph by Mr. and Mrs. C. D. Walcott, roro. Mons Glacier is named from Mons Peak, shown in figures 5 and S ‘ 8. It flows over the high cliffs (see fig. 8), and creeping down the 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 slope, spreads out in a fan-like form toward its lower end. Seen in profile, this portion of the glacier resembles a great animal sliding down the sides of the broad canyon. The foot of Mons Glacier with the stream flowing from beneath it 1s illustrated by figure 11. Fic. 8—View of Mons Peak (10,114’) and the upper snow fields of Mons Glacier, also the cascade of the glacier over the cliffs below. The summit of the peak is more than 2 miles (3.2 km.) back of the glacier, the intervening space being occupied by a great snow field from which the glacier flows. The locality is about the same as for figures 2 and 5. Photograph by Mr. and Mrs. C. D. Walcott, 1910. These views (figs. 5, 8, 9, 10 and 11) illustrate a glacier from its névé at the base of Mons Peak (fig. 8) to its foot (fig. 11), where the retreating ice is making its stand against the force of the summer sun and wind. Geological section—The geological section, which is beautifully exposed in the mountain ridge of figure 1, is of such interest that it is included in this brief account of the exploration in the vicinity of EXPLORATIONS, I9!9 SMITHSONIAN NO. ‘OIOL “JJOITLVAA “CG “D AW {q ydeis5oy OY} JHoqe st AypeooT oy, “1 aansy ‘MorA dtue1OUurd oY} ULUMOYS AJOULY OS[R SL YDIYM ‘9dT 9Uy oY} SB [JAM se UMOYS AT[NJNNesq Osye Sr AOR) [JeA7TT OY} JO SUISSPAIID DY, “MOA SYIO1 dy} SUISSVADID [V19}V] PUR UOISUd}Xd S}I OSTR : YI dy} JOAO S9OS JI I1OYM 91 dy} JO Sulsvisa} pur Suisseaoa MOLA SIU] “1olorys) [feA7] JseoayINOG oy} JO ouTesOWU Jsed JY} JO PU AIMO] JY} WOT} AaIdvI4) SUOPY JO Mal _, a ‘O11 “WOM AY “C “OD “AN Aq Ydessojyoyg ‘9 aanSy s104 sv AUIeS ay} JOGK st APPR] aly p| “ureJUNOLU oY} JO adoys ay UMOP SBuyMeids [eULUR BQURTIS eB axl] SYOo, sd1OL[S ay] “IHIV|L) [PAT JSBoyINOG JO UoHAOd AIMOL JY} JO DIVJANS JY} WOAJ UY} JOIORLN SUOJY JO MATA aTyYo1g—or ‘oy COLLECTIONS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS IO NO; I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI9Q Il lic. 11.—loot of Mons Glacier from canyon down through which the glacie: formerly extended to unite with the south end of Northeast Lyell Glacier The locality is about the same as for figure 6. Photograph by Mr. and Mrs. ee ). \\ alcott, IOIO ‘O1O1 ‘WOIPA\ “CD ‘SAW pure cay Aq ydessojyoyq “epeurs ‘Vyoq;y ‘peospiey oyloeg ueipeury ay} uo ‘UOIR}s asiMOT oAeT JO JsomysoU (CWy gO) Saplut gh JHoqe ‘yey sorrys oAoqe yeag Avaing jo adojs saddn oy} wosy *z% ovinsy JOF¥ Sv 9UIS 9I]} SI AyypRoo, ayy, “Ae] RA UOAUL> ONT JOLIN) JO pud JIMO] IY} SSOIDK SuTyYOo] ‘YOU dy} WOTF UBS SB SaqsIOy JUNOJY—TI “OI, es TeA OSA AES Dato) | [rout ouryooy Yt p J joy ANON ef oly COLLECTION MISCELLANEOUS MITHSONIAN S NO; 1 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ I Fic. 13.—Leaving Glacier Lake camp with the camp outfit and specimens on the pack horses, ready for the four days’ trip to the railway. Photo- graph by Mrs. C. D. Walcott, 1910. hic. 14.—Mount Ball (10,825’) on the Continental Divide from. the southwest slope of the Sawback Range, looking across Bow Valley. Locality —About 17 miles (27.2 km.) west of Banff, Alberta, Canada Photograph by Mr. and Mrs, C. D. Walcott, roto. 14. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Glacier Lake. The rocks exposed in the highest cliffs of Mount l-orbes and Mons Peak belong to the great Carboniferous system of rocks of this region. Below this series occur the Devonian rocks, the snow-capped cliffs shown in figure 1 above Mons Glacier, form- ing a belt 1,000 feet or more in thickness, and below these are the strata of the Sarbach formation of the Ordovician system, and Mountains Park, ). Walcott, 1919. J Alberta, Canada. Photograph by Mr. and Mrs. C. I beneath the Sarbach the five formations assigned to the Upper Cam- brian series. Attention should be called here to Mount Murchison, figure 4, where there is almost the same series as that exposed in the cliffs on the long mountain slopes of figure t. To the left of Mount Murchison in figure 4 there is a low ridge formed of strata of Middle Cambrian age which passes beneath the rocks of Mount Murchison. Fic. 16—Cirkut camera in use on the south slope of the Sawback Range, looking across Bow Valley, Alberta, Canada. Photograph by Mrs. C. D. Walcott, 1919. GLACIER LAKE SECTION, ALBERTA Thick- Thick- Formation No. Stratum ness | Formation |No.! Stratum ness feet feet = : 1 | Thin-bedded 700 1a Compact gray 325 as Sarbach. gray lime- (est.) limestone. — eee Oe Fi a kt aweldemabae dk eaean Rae ws eal ais. |o 2 (1120 feet) op END e raids bie ohm mete e Rianie' ev Sullivan. 1b | Shale withinter- 975 = (341.3meters). 2 | Argillaceous 420 bedded layers o shale. (1440 feet) of limestone. (46473 METCTA) linn cleaw cow enersncsocrilecsnscee we es ern oe eee & iy Oolitic lime = 140 1a Calcareous 235. "ts rdf stone and shale and lime- = shales. stone. | ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee) Mons. 1b Massive bedded 740 . 1a | Laminated 520 Ss gray limestone. Y limestones. IV MLOers Mm tecel tar aeadepadedbrarclever sees PCATOLOUMIVE: |) Icameinns dak sed bx:c08600lsnace ave 5 (467.2 meters) 1c Limestone and 320 Y 1b| Purple, green, | 866 a shale. (1386 feet) and gray shale Fi ti(<“*(‘(‘C Me Siva swe nve swears poloncsvees (422.4 meters). with layers of ~ 1d Oolitic lime- 185 laminated 1} stone. limestone. o. a 1a. Massive bedded 1,270 M Gray and 220+ oe ; urchison. 1, lacl Lyell. gray lime- bluish-black stones. / is limestone, (220 + feet) wat) |rearissvocecvracssensssldvocsave “\ ti cage th ) Light gray #30 SUZ FOERETS) Base concealed, 1¢ » thick-bedded 1d \ limestone. Total thickness Cambrian strata.......-.6seeeeee08 seaman tan era hel dalte a aca 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 On returning, a camp was made in the Bow Valley below Lake Louise at the foot of the Sawback Range, where a brief examination was made of the up-turned Carboniferous, Devonian, and Cambrian formations, and fossils were collected, many of which are identical with those found in the Glacier Lake section. One of the views across Bow Valley is of Mount Ball (fig. 14), which is one of the massive peaks on the Continental Divide where the Middle Cambrian rocks have a great development. The preliminary study of the fossils in the several formations cor- relates them with the Upper Cambrian formations of Wisconsin and Minnesota and the Upper Cambrian section in southern Idaho, and to a more limited extent with that of the central belt of Pennsylvania. GEOLOGICAL AND PALEONTOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS AND RESEARCHES Field-work in the Department of Geology has been considerably restricted by prevailing conditions during the season of 19109. Research work has, however, continued on the collections accumu- lated either in years past or obtained through gift or purchase in more recent times. One of the most interesting acquisitions to the geological col- lections during the year 1919, was some 15 kilograms of the meteoric stone which fell at Cumberland Falls, Kentucky, in April of this year. The stone, which proved to be a coarse breccia of enstatite fragments and a dark chondritic stone, has been studied by Dr. Mer- rill, and a paper giving his results is now in press. Owing to the fact that the division of Mineralogy has been without a head for two years, a large amount of work upon the collections has been necessary and hence only a limited amount of field and research work was possible. On his own initiative, two field trips were under- taken by Assistant Curator Foshag, one to the mica mines about Amelia, Virginia, where a considerable amount of study material was collected. This included a large number of specimens of the rare mineral microlite and an exhibition specimen of manganotantalite, the latter species not before represented in the Museum’s exhibition series. The old iron mine at Brewster, N. Y., was also visited and some material for study collected. The work of the division in the Museum’s laboratory consisted in an investigation of the hydro- talcite minerals, resulting in the establishment of the true chemical nature of this group. Shorter researches on miscellaneous minerals NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q19Q 17 were also carried on. Work is now under way on the study of the mineralogy of serpentine and its relation to the chlorite group, and also the correlation of the chemical composition and the optical properties of rhodonite, the latter in collaboration with Dr. E. S. Larsen of the U. S. Geological Survey. In October various localities in Connecticut were visited by Assistant Curator Earl V. Shannon, including the vicinity of Long Hill in Trumbull, where tungsten has been mined in years past. I-xtensive collections comprising much interesting material were Fic. 17.—Transporting fossil specimens in Southeastern Indiana. Photograph by Bassler. obtained which will be studied and described. The trap quarries of Meriden, Conn., were also visited and extensive collections of the zeolites and other secondary minerals secured. The pegmatite locali- ties of Collin’s Hill in Portland ; the workings of the old cobalt mine and the old lithia mine in Chatham, and a number of feldspar quar- ries in this region were visited and collections of the representative minerals secured. Much of the material collected as above has been carefully examined and descriptions will appear in forthcoming num- bers of the Proceedings. 3 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Explorations for paleontological material were limited during 1919 to two short field trips by Dr. R. S. Bassler, Curator of Paleon- tology, who continued the work of former years in securing certain large showy specimens of fossils and rocks required for the exhibi- tion series. Dr. Bassler spent a portion of June in southeastern Indiana, first proceeding to the locality where at the end of the field season of 1918 he had cached for safe keeping, because of inability to secure help in getting them to a freight station, several large exhibition slabs crowded with brachiopod shells. These slabs were Fic. 18—Fossiliferous strata of the Richmond formation in south- eastern Indiana. The slab indicated is now on exhibition at the National Museum. Photograph by Bassler. found undisturbed, but transportation conditions proved equally bad as in the summer before and it became necessary to employ the primitive method shown in figure 17. By the use of burlap covering and an abundant supply of weeds for padding, each slab was finally slid along the rails for a considerable distance to the nearest station. The same area in Indiana, namely, the vicinity of Weisburg where the early Silurian rocks are well exposed, was then explored tor fur- ther desirable exhibition specimens. Water worn slabs crowded with animal and seaweed remains are abundant in all the creeks of NOs = SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 19 this richly fossiliferous region, but large rock specimens with their surfaces unweathered are comparatively rare. Fortunately for the present purposes, heavy freshets in the spring of 1919 had uncovered the richly fossiliferous layers along the creek shown in figure 18, and here several additional well-preserved exhibition slabs were secured and transported to the freight station by the rail route mentioned be- fore. One of these specimens, a slab several feet in length and width, is worthy of special mention, as its surface 1s crowded with impres- sions of the branching fossil seaweed Buthotrephis, and with excel- lent examples of the dumbbell seaweed Arthraria. The discovery of this specimen was most fortunate as a large slab containing an assemblage of these ancient plant remains has long been needed for the exhibition series of fossil plants. In October, 1919, Dr. Bassler was detailed to proceed to Dayton, Ohio, in order to prepare for shipment to the Museum the largest entire American trilobite so far discovered. This unique specimen (fig. 19) was discovered in the Richmond formation in the excava- tions for the Huffman Conservancy Dam 6 miles east of Dayton, which forms a part of the greatest engineering project ever under- taken for controlling stream flow, with the exception of the Assouan Dam along the Nile. Following the destructive floods in the Miami valley in 1913, the Miami Conservancy District was organized to prevent a repetition of this disaster through the control of the Miami River and its tributaries by dams extending entirely across their valleys. This operation involving an expense of over fifteen million dollars has been under way for three years, and will require three years more for its completion. The view (fig. 20) showing the excavations in which the trilobite was found illustrates only the beginning of one of these dams. This particular dam when com- pleted, will extend a distance of a mile entirely across the river valley. Normally the water will flow in its usual channel, but in flood times it will be retained and allowed to escape gradually. The trilobite which was found lying on its back in a hard clay bed in the central part of the excavation was unearthed by the pick of a workman, who believed it to be a petrified turtle. Mr. Arthur E. Morgan, Chief engineer of the Miami Conservancy District, recog- nized the true nature and scientific value of the so-called turtle and presented it to the Smithsonian Institution, where it now forms a most instructive and unique exhibit in the hall of invertebrate paleontology. The value of the specimen is further increased by the fact that it has become the type of the new species /sotelus brachy- cephalus described by Dr. August If. Foerste of Dayton, Ohio. 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 During the summer of 1919, Mr. Frank Springer resumed his field researches upon the fossil echinoderms of the Ohio Valley, which had been interrupted by the war, with the special object of securing additional material from the remarkable crinoidal fauna of the Laurel formation of the Niagaran for use in his monograph on the Silurian crinoids. The principal work was done at St. Paul, ae (ome FOG LE nas Fic. 19.—The type specimen of /sotelus brachycephalus Foerste, the largest known entire American trilobite. About ™% natural size. Photograph by Bassler. in Shelby County, Indiana, where Mr. Springer’s assistant, Dr. Herrick FE. Wilson, continued the systematic collecting and detailed study of the strata begun several years ago. Collecting in the beds at this locality is laborious and difficult, and specimens are not abundant, but they exhibit in some respects a strong paral- lelism with those of the Swedish and English Silurian, which renders NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 21 their comparative study one of much interest. Important new mate- rial was obtained which is added to the collection of echinoderms deposited in the National Museum. Mr. Springer’s monograph of the Crinoidea Flexibilia, now being published by the Smithsonian Institution, has been printed and only awaits binding to be ready for distribution. It will be in two quarto volumes, one of them con- taining 79 plates. The Section of Vertebrate Paleontology has been unable to under- take any field explorations during the past year, and the time of the staff has been largely employed in preparing and mounting for exhibition material otherwise obtained. Fic. 20—View of small portion of Huffman Conservancy dam near Dayton, Ohio, showing excavation in which the largest trilobite was found. Photograph by courtesy of Arthur E. Morgan, chief engineer. Through the acquisition from the veteran collector of fossils, Mr. Charles H. Sternberg, of an excellent skeleton of the large swimming lizard 7T'ylosaurus dyspelor and a skull of the primitive horned dinosaur Monoclonius, an interesting addition to the exhibi- tion collection was made. Figure 21 shows the 7 ylosaurus skeleton in process of being mounted for exhibition by Mr. N. H. Boss. It will form a panel, in half relief, and will occupy the wall space in the northeastern part of the main exhibition hall of fossil vertebrates. The diving pose given the skeleton was largely determined by the position of the articulated tail as found in the ground. 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLs 72 Tylosaurus was a long, slender-bodied reptile some 25 feet in length, having the limbs modified into short swimming paddles, with a long, powerful, compressed tail. It was predatory in habits, living on fishes and probably also on the smaller individuals of its own kind. One of the unique features of the skeletal structure is the presence near the middle of the lower jaw of a joint which permits it to bow outward. This feature in connection with the loose articulation at the extremities allowed the jaws to expand and thus enabled the Fic. 21.—The swimming reptile Tylosaurus dyspelor in process of preparation for exhibition. Photograph by Bassler. animal to swallow large objects. In life the body was covered by small horny scales. A study of this specimen is being made by Mr. C. W. Gilmore, and the results of his investigations will be pub- lished in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum. In figure 22 is shown another of the recently mounted skeletons— that of the large extinct Rhinoceros-like mammal from the Tertiary (Oligocene) deposits of western Nebraska, named by Osborn Bron- totherium hatcheri. The bones of this skeleton were found em- NOM SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 23 bedded in a fine sandstone. An idea of the amount of painstaking work involved in the collection, preparation and mounting of such a large fossil skeleton may be gained by the fact that after the bones were collected and freed from the enclosing sandstone, 258 working days were spent in restoring the missing parts, posing the skeleton and making and fitting the supporting iron work. The National Museum has now the distinction of having the larg- est existing collection of Titanothere remains. The specimens were a -™ Fic. 22.—The Rhinoceros-like mammal Brontothcrium hatcheri mounted in the laboratory of vertebrate paleontology. Photograph by Bassler. brought together by the late J. 3. Hatcher, working under the direc- tion of Prof. O. C. Marsh, at that time United States Paleontologist, and it is peculiarly fitting that the only skeleton complete enough for mounting should pertain to the species named in his honor. Among other important investigations in the mammalian division of the year is a study by Mr. Gidley of the Peccaries of the Cumber- land Cave deposit. This includes the description of three new species, the redefinition of the Pleistocene species hitherto described. 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 and the partial revision of the entire peccary family (Tayassuidae), the latter involving redefinitions of the two living genera of this group, and of the two suilline families Suidae and Tayassuidae. An important outcome of this preliminary investigation has been to emphasize the fact that the entire group, and especially the Pleisto- cene species of American suillines, is in need of thorough revision. EXPEDITION TO SOUTH AMERICA IN ‘THE INTERESTS OF (oh ASTROPHYSICAL, OBSERVATORY Dr. and Mrs. C. G. Abbot sailed from New York on May 2, by way of the Panama Canal to Antofagasta, Chile. The expedition had three objects. First, to observe the total eclipse of the sun of May 29 at La Paz, Bolivia; second, to enable Dr. Abbot to confer with the officials of the Argentine Weather Bureau in relation to the use of the observations of the solar radiation for the purpose of forecasting weather conditions ; third, in order that a visit might be paid at the observing station of the Smithsonian Institution at Calama, Chile, which is maintained by the Hodgkins Fund under the direction of Mr. A. F. Moore and assisted by Mr. L. H. Abbot. Landing at Antofagasta, the journey was continued by the English railroad up into Bolivia over that desert which Darwin describes in his “ Voyage of the Beagle.” Although the travelers had visited the Sahara Desert in southern Algeria, and the deserts of the southwest of the United States, there was still reserved for them a stronger impression of a void wilderness in the Nitrate Desert of Chile. Neither bird, beast, insect nor crawling thing, nor any vegetation could be seen as far as the eye could reach. Stopping a day at the observing station at Calama, in order to repack the apparatus required for the eclipse expedition, and joined by Mr. A. F. Moore, director of the observing station, they went on to La Paz. The plateau of Bolivia is eminently the country of mirage. The railroad appeared to rise out of a lake and to run inte a lake at no distant point beyond, and all of the mountains appeared to be islands rising out of the lake. The desolation, while not equal to that of the Nitrate Desert of Chile, was yet very marked. Near La Paz the country becomes cultivated with fields of grain and vegetables, and villages of people are passed by on either side. The mountains take on a new grandeur, especially the great mountain Illimani, which rises to a height of 22,000 feet or more. However one may have been impressed with the grandeur of the mountains, he is unprepared for the view of the great canyon in NOI EL SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QIQ 25 which La Paz lies. In most respects it is comparable with the Grand Canyon in Arizona, but with several added charms. First of all, on the farther side lies the great chain of the Andes, to which Illimani belongs, snow-covered although so far within the tropics, while on the nearer slope of the canyon all is green with vegetation, trickling Fic. 23.—Total solar eclipse of May 29, 1910. brooks running down, and the beautiful city lies upon its cluster of hills all surrounded by the colors and broken features which might result by combining the Grand Canyon of the Colorado with the Garden of the Gods near Colorado Springs. 3y the kind assistance of the manager of the [english railroad the eclipse station was located at El] Alto, situated on the rim of the 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 74 canyon at about 14,000 feet elevation. There the apparatus was set up, and on the day of the eclipse very satisfactory observations were made, both photographs of the phenomenon and measurements of the brightness of the sky and the nocturnal radiation. The accom- panying photograph shows in but a feeble way how splendid was the eclipse phenomenon on this occasion. The corona extended at least two diameters of the sun in almost all directions, with a great pro- fusion of fine streamers. Underneath the sun, that is to say towards the east, there hung a sickle-shaped solar prominence of hydrogen and calcium gases, extending fully 150,000 miles outwards from the sun and over 300,000 miles long, which cast its crimson glory over all. The background against which this splendid phenomenon was seen was a range of mountains, perhaps 50 miles distant, which raised their snow-covered heads fully 20,000 feet in altitude. From La Paz, Messrs. Abbot and Moore proceeded at once to La Quiaca, Argentina, where they inspected the meteorological observatory and conferred with Messrs. Wiggin and Clayton, Chief and Chief Forecaster, respectively, of the Argentine Meteorological Service. Under Mr. Clayton’s direction a system of forecasting by the aid of daily telegraphic reports of the intensity of the radiation of the sun as observed at Calama, Chile, has been worked out with encouraging success. Both Mr. Wiggin and Mr. Clayton were firmly convinced of the great value of solar radiation observations for forecasting. Arrange- ments were tentatively entered into for the transfer of the Smith- sonian observing station at Calama to the Argentine Government, to be located at La Quiaca thereafter. At the present time, however, these arrangements have not yet been completed by the higher officials of the Government of Argentina. From La Quiaca the travelers returned to the observing station at Calama, Chile, where Dr. and Mrs. Abbot remained about a month before returning to the United States, during which time Dr. Abbot worked over the results obtained with a view to discovering some means of measuring the intensity of the solar radiation without the long and tedious process of observing and computing which has hitherto been necessary. In this he was so fortunate as to discover, with the aid of Mr. Moore, a method by means of which suitable observations taken within a period of 10 minutes may be reduced within a period of 2 or 3 hours. Thus the intensity of the solar radiation outside the atmosphere may be determined with greater accuracy than by the former method which required about 3 hours of observing and about 15 hours of computing. MN N EXPLORATIONS, I919 SMITHSONIAN ‘wUIR[e) Je Aue, URaytyy—Zz OI] ‘JeuReD) elueURg ay} Je Yo T— ge ee Te oi ‘AO uvapliyy) B ye suLjsequiasic]- Rs | —Fz “OTST 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Mt. Wilson observations.—As usual, the station at Mt. Wilson was occupied from May until October by Mr. L. B. Aldrich, who carried on there the usual measurements of the “ solar constant of radiation,” and some others intended to determine the intensity of the nocturnal radiation and the intensity of skylight. AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION The zoological work by Mr. H. C. Raven in Borneo and Celebes, which has been made possible through the generosity of Dr. William L. Abbott, came to an end in 1918, as explained in the last Explora- Fic. 28—A pair of adult duck- bills, the male (at left) showing the spurs on hind feet. tion Report (p. 35). At the close of the war Mr. Raven did not wish to return immediately to the field. Doctor Abbott therefore arranged to send Mr. Charles M. Hoy to Australia for the purpose of collect- ing vertebrates, especially those which are in danger of extermina- tion. From the point of view of the national collection of mammals there is probably no field-work of similar scope that could approach this in importance. The fact has long been recognized, but the means for putting such a project into execution have hitherto been NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 29 lacking. The remarkable Australian mammal fauna is now repre- sented in the museum by only about 200 specimens. Very few of these have been collected in accordance with present-day methods, and no species is represented by adequate series of adults and young, of skeletons and material in alcohol. Not only is this true of our collection, but it is equally true as regards other museums in America. So many of the Australian mammals are now rapidly approaching extermination that in future there will be few oppor- tunities for securing the material needed for a proper representation of the fauna. Mr. Hoy spent about two months in Washington assembling his outfht and preparing for his trip. He left for San Francisco early in Fic, 29—Two young duck-bills in their nest. May and arrived in Sydney about the end of the month. The period from June to November has been passed at various localities in New South Wales. While no specimens have yet been received (December 31, 1919), it is evident that the work has been very suc- cessful. The following passages from Mr. Hoy’s letters and reports will give an idea of the conditions under which it has been car- ried on: “Travel is rather difficult just now. Each state has its own quarantine restrictions, on account of the ‘flu’ and it is quite difficult to get from one to the other. Then too a seaman’s strike 1s on, making travel by boat very uncertain. The railroads are run by the state governments and each state has a different gauge road and different rates. “T have a great chance to get Platypus (duck-bill). A Mr. Burrell, whose hobby is Platypus is going after them on the first of October. As he has 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 x kindly offered to take me with him and is only interested in the natural history, it will be a great chance for me to get not only the adults but also the young and possibly an egg. Mr. Burrell is after their nesting habits and is taking men along to dig out the burrows. It is safe to say that there is not another man who knows as much as he about the duck-bill. “Nine weeks were spent in the Wandandian region (19 miles S. W. of Norwra, N. S. W.) with the result of but one hundred and thirty one (131) mammals, and one hundred and twenty-four (124) birds collected. Among the mammals ten genera and twelve species are represented in my collection. “The greatest agent working toward the extermination of the native animals is the fox, next comes the cattle and sheep men who distribute poison by the Fic. 30.—An Australian marsupial with parachute membrane like that of the flying squirrel. cartload in the effort to reduce the rabbits. This has also caused or helped to cause the extermination of some of the ground inhabiting birds. Another great agent is the bush fires which sweep over the country. These are often lit intentionally in order to clear out the undergrowth and thus increase the grass. “ Owing to the great increase in the price of rabbit skins and the consequent increase in trappers the rabbits are fast ceasing to be a pest, and in some sections have become quite scarce. The foxes, which are everywhere nu- merous, after killing off the native mammals are now turning to the rabbits, which also helps in their reduction. The extermination of the native mam- mals has apparently gone much farther than is generally thought. Many species that were plentiful only a few years ago are now almost, if not alto- HOF ge SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 31 gether, extinct. Diseases have also played a great part in the extermination. The native bear died in thousands from a disease which produced a great bony growth on their heads. A mysterious disease also spread through the ranks of the native cat, Dasyurus viverrinus; the domestic cat also played a great part in their extermination. Even adult specimens of Dasyurus were often dragged in by the family cat. “The only mammals caught in traps were Mus assimilis and Phascologale Havipes. The others were all shot or snared. As the majority of the mam- mals taken were nocturnal and arboreal, the headlight proved to be a valuable Fic. 31.—An Australian marsupial resembling a very large flying squirrel. and indispensable part of my outfit. The hunting of kangaroos and wallabies was greatly handicapped through the lack of a rifle. “Perameles nasuta has been practically exterminated throughout N. S. W., but they are still to be found in Mosman, one of Sydney’s suburbs, so I made a trip out there and was able to get a fine female with two young in her pouch. This was trapped inside the Taronga Park Zoo grounds with the kind per mission of Mr. A. S. Le Souef. “The fact of Perameles nasuta being found at Mosman is probably due to the isolation of that district from the rest of N. S. W. by the city of Sydney. thus keeping out the introduced foxes. 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 “The country at Bulliac is a good example of what the cattle men will do in a few years time in killing off and burning the timber and the consequent destruction of animal life. Five years ago Bulliac was a virgin forest but then the railroad was built and now it is devoid of living trees for miles on each side of the track except for small and scattered patches in the more inaccessible gullies which form the last resort of the fast disappearing mam- mals. There are very few game laws in Australia and no one gives any attention to the ones that are in order. The Bulliac trip has clearly shown that the edge of the settlements, and even a short way into the wilds, is no better than the older settled parts and in order to get results one must go into the wilds. It is the killing and burning of the brush, by the cattle men, that does the most to kill off the animals, and they are yearly reaching farther and farther away from the railroads. One thing that was very noticeable was the great abundance of the introduced rats. They seem to have driven out or killed off practically all the native rats and I found them everywhere. Fic. 32—Skinning a kangaroo. “A trip was made primarily for the eggs and young of the Platypus. Fifty miles of bank was searched and approximately one hundred burrows were dug out only six of which contained young. These six burrows furnished eleven young of which Mr. Harry Burrell, of Sydney, with whom the trip was made, secured 7 while I secured 4. The intense drought which has scarcely been broken for over twelve months (it is the worst since 1862) has advanced the breeding of the animals somewhat so we were too late for eggs. The Platypus although scarce is not by any means nearing extinction and if they continue to be protected there is every hope that they will never become extinct. Young Hydromys were also looked for but the drought seems to have interfered with their breeding and but two embryos were obtained. The adults themselves were very scarce and but six specimens were obtained. The accompanying photographs show some of the characteristic Australian mammals obtained by Mr. Hoy. G. S. MILter, Jr. ' ) kt SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ ios) ios) THE COLLINS-GARNER CONGO EXPEDITION The Collins-Garner Congo Expedition returned to this country in May, after having spent more than two years in the collecting of natural history material in French Congo. Mr. C. R. Aschemeier, Fics. 33, 34.—Skulls of gorillas collected by Aschemeier in French Congo. Young adult male at left; adult female at right. who represented the Smithsonian Institution, brought back with him the bulk of material collected. Among other things Mr. Aschemeier collected about 2500 birds and mammals, which added invaluable material to the museum collection. 4 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 EXPLORATIONS IN SANTO DOMINGO Dr. W. L. Abbott continued his investigations at the eastern end of the Island of Haiti, making two visits during the year 1919. His first visit was to the Samana Bay region and to the mountains in the vicinity of Sanchez and Constanza, and covered the interval from February to June. On his second trip (July to October) he stopped at Sosua, on the north side of the island, where he made a search for certain birds needed to fill gaps in the material already collected : thence to the Samana Peninsula, after which he went to the islets Saona and Catalina, off the southeastern corner of Santo Domingo. Before returning to Philadelphia, he spent a few days at Lake Enri- quillo, where he secured a few water birds of interest. The material gathered on these two trips was varied in character, embracing the several groups of vertebrates, as well as mollusks, insects, and plants, with a plentiful series of archeological objects from caves in the Samana district. Of birds alone, he obtained 278 study skins, 87 alcoholics and skeletons, and 56 eggs. Jour species of birds in this collection represented forms not hitherto possessed by the Museum, and three or four other species were not previously known to occur on the island. Probably the most noteworthy objects in the bird collection were four eggs of the Dulus dominicus, known variously as the Sigura, Palm Slave, or Palm Chat, a bird somewhat larger than an English Sparrow, of sombre colors, but structurally different enough from other birds to occupy a family by itself. It is common and noisy, and lives in colonies, and its enormous “ apart- ment house” nests are sufficiently noticeable to attract the attention of the most casual person. The discovery of the Palm Chat was almost coincident with that of America, for Columbus and his men must have seen these birds and their nests when a landing was made on this island at the end of 1492. Oviedo, the official historian of the Indes, early made its acquaintance, and devoted a chapter to it in his “ Hystoria natural y general de las Indias yslas,’”’ published in 1535. The Sigura was thus one of the earliest, and at that time one of the best-known birds of the new continent. Various authors of later date have described the bird, its habits and nests, but thus far, apparently no correct description of the eggs has been given, although a French writer, in 1851, reported them to be white and unmarked. The eggs sent by Dr. Abbott are authentic, and will be described in detail elsewhere, but the illustration here given (fig. 35) will convey a general idea of their appearance, and it may be remarked NWO; I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 35 that the eggs are rather large for the size of the bird, measuring, roughly, about one inch by three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The description of the nest, as furnished to Dr. Abbott by the man who made the actual examination, indicates a radical departure from other known types of birds’ nests, but a careful study of the interior of the mass by a competent observer will be required before the strange arrangement of the individual nests can be considered as accurately known. Dr. Abbott writes: ‘‘ The communal nest was lic. 35.—Eggs of the Palm Chat (Dulus dominicus). built in a small royal palm, about 25 feet from the ground. ‘The nest was about 4} feet in diameter, and about the same in height. Built of a loose mass of sticks from 1 to 2 feet long, about the thickness of bone knitting needles. There appeared to be but one entrance, from above. A local man (John King) climbed the tree and gave me the description of the internal construction of the nest. The entrance passage was narrow and crooked and led into a large central chamber about the S1ze of a small bucket. The nests were placed around this on shelves of softer materials (fine bark, etc.). All four eges were in one nest. The other five nests were still empty. SS 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 ‘Tt is difficult to get into these nests, the huge smooth palm trunk (2 feet in diameter) must be climbed, and then it is difficult to crawl over the huge mass of sticks which lie interlaced amongst the crown of leaf stalks. “ Most of the nests are in far larger palms than this one, and the nests are frequently much larger in size, and probably contain much larger colonies.” f Fic. 36—Dense forest of giant cedar (Thuya plicata) near Lake McDonald, Glacier National Park. BOTANICAL EXPLORATION IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA Mr. Paul C. Standley, assistant curator in the division of plants, spent the summer of Ig1g in Glacier National Park, Montana, under the authority of the National Park Service, for the purpose of study- NO... I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 37 ing the vegetation of the region. The information thus obtained is to serve as the basis of a popular account of the plants to be published by the National Park Service, and it is expected that a complete and more technical account of the flora will be published by the National Museum. All the portions of the Park usually seen by tourists were explored, and 4,000 specimens of flowering plants and ferns were obtained, representing over 900 species. Aside from the scenic features of Glacier Park, one of its chief attractions is found in the plant life. Especially striking is the dis- play of flowers above or near timber line, where the meadows are solid masses of brilliant color, formed by Indian paint-brushes, Fic. 37.—Beargrass, Glacier National Park. monkey-flowers, fleabane, asters, harebells, heather, larkspur, gen- tians, fireweed, columbine, and a host of other plants. The most characteristic plant, perhaps, is the beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax, fig. 37), which occurs abundantly at middle altitudes and in alpine meadows. It is usually about 3 feet high and bears enormous plume- like racemes of creamy-white flowers. ‘The narrow, tough leaves were used by the northwestern Indians in making baskets, hence the name of Indian basket-grass which 1s sometimes applied to the plant The Continental Divide, which traverses the Park, has a marked influence upon plant distribution. On the east slope, whose drainage is partly into the Missouri River and partly into Hudson Bay, the flora is of the Rocky Mountain type, like that of Wyoming and Colo- 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Fic. 38.—Sperry Glacier, Glacier National Park. There are over 60 glaciers in the Park. Photograph by R. E. Marble. Fic. 39.—St. Mary Lake, Glacier National Park. Photograph by Fred H. Kiser. POST SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 39 rado; while on the west slope, whose streams drain into the Colum- bia River, the flora is more obviously related to that of the Pacific Coast. The forests about Lake McDonald are very dense and are Fic. 40—Gunsight Lake from Gunsight Pass, Glacier National Park. Photograph by R. E. Marble. composed of unusually large trees. Although not nearly so exten- sive, they are much like those of the humid regions of Oregon and Washington. 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Fic. 41.—Trail to Swiftcurrent Pass, Glacier National Park; Swift- current Glacier in the distance. Photograph by Scenic America Company, Portland, Oregon. NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 4I In the vegetation there are represented four of the life zones recognized by biologists. The Transition Zone is indicated on the west slope by small areas of yellow pine timber, and east of the Park are the prairies of the Blackfoot Indian Reservation, which extend also within the Park boundaries along the stream valleys. The plants here are chiefly herbs, with a few shrubs, and they belong mostly to species which have a wide distribution over the Great Plains. By far the largest portion of the Park is covered with the characteristic vegetation of the Canadian Zone, which is the heavily forested area. Above the Canadian Zone, around timber line (6,000 to 7,500 feet), lies a narrow belt belonging to the Hudsonian Zone. The trees here are mostly low and stunted, and their branches frequently lie pros- trate upon the ground. Above this belt, and occupying the highest, exposed slopes, lies the Arctic-Alpine Zone, whose vegetation is composed chiefly of small herbaceous plants, with a few dwarfed shrubs, mostly willows. Many of the species of this zone are widely distributed in alpine or arctic regions of North America, and some of them occur also in similar situations in Europe and Asia. EXPLORATIONS AND CERION STUDIES ON THE FLORIDA KEYS Dr. Paul Bartsch, curator of marine invertebrates, U. S. National Museum, joined Dr. Alfred G. Mayer, the Director of the Tortugas Marine Biological Laboratory, of the Carnegie Institution, in New York on December 28, when they sailed south for Key West to make an examination of the Cerion colonies discussed in previous Smithsonian exploration pamphlets. The breeding experiments presented an entirely new phase, in the crossing, on one of the keys, of the native species, Cerion incanum (Binney) with one of the introduced Bahama species, Cerion viaregis Bartsch. It was this discovery that made it desirable to start an entirely new set of experi- ments. Furthermore, the anatomical differences discovered in the dissections of Cerions also made it desirable to gain material from all the colonies now existing on the Florida Keys, in order that these might be subjected to anatomization, to determine if Cerion incanum is really one species, or a complex, shell characters alone being insufficient to determine this point. It was for this double reason that a return was made to Florida on May 2, and an exploration of the keys adjacent to Miami at once undertaken. On the 3d Capt. Tracy and Dr. Bartsch started in the “ Darwin,” a shallow draught launch of the Carnegie Institution, for an explora- tion of the shores of the mainland of the lower peninsula and the CS fe?) 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL..72 outside keys. This was rendered comparatively easy, since they were fortunate enough to find the mosquito pests practically absent. Between May 3 and 6 they examined every sandspit on the mainland along Key Biscayne Bay, Card Sound, Little Card Sound and Barnes Sound. They then turned the southern portion of Barnes Sound and came up along the outer keys, examining them in turn. They crossed Key Largo at several places and walked long stretches in its interior. No Cerions were found on the mainland between Miami and the point where the railroad enters the keys, but two colonies were dis- Fic. 42.—Nest of swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides forficatus forficatus) between Flamingo and Coot Bay, Cape Sable, Florida. covered on keys a very short distance from the mainland in Barnes Sound. One of these is situated on a sandspit covered with grass and shrubbery on Middle Key, while the other one was found in a clear- ing on the southeastern point of Main Key. No Cerion colonies were discovered on the keys forming the eastern perimeter of Barnes Sound, Little Card Sound, Card Sound and Key Biscayne Sound, excepting Porgee Key, where a goodly quantity were obtained, some of which have been dissected and published upon in the bulletin on ‘Experiments in the Breeding of Cerions” recently issued by the Carnegie Institution. In addition to Cerions, collections of all the other species of land mollusks available were made wherever found at NO. “] SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 43 all the places visited, especial stress being laid upon the securing of series of the most beautiful of our American landshells, the tree snail Liguus, anatomical material of all of which was preserved in order that this group may also be subjected to a close scrutiny in an ana- tomical way. What is said for Liguus also applies to the equally large, though less brilliantly colored Oxystyla. On the 7th the * Anton Dohrn ” left Miami for Indian Key, spend- ing the night off Rodriguez Key, and reaching Indian Key early on the following day. By 10 o'clock Capt. Tracy, MeclIvar, the Assistant Engineer, and Dr. Bartsch were off in the “ Darwin” with the skiff Fic. 43.—Characteristic vegetation where the prairie and hammock meet, Coot Bay region, Cape Sable, Florida. in tow for the Cape Sable region. They skirted the outside of the Lower Matecumbe Key, passed through the viaduct and then headed across the extensive flats of Florida Bay. ‘The first stop was made on Sands Key, where a burned out colony of Cerions and a well flourishing colony of Oxystyla and Liguus were found. The expedition next headed for Flamingo City, which was reached at sundown. On May 9 they explored the region about Flamingo City and the coast for several miles to the east, for Cerions, and other mollusks. Cerions were not found, but large numbers of beautiful Liguus and Oxystylas were noted everywhere. A trip was then made by wagon to Coot Bay. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Coot Bay is a fine sheet of water fringed by tall mangroves, show- ing even at this season a sprinkling of water fowl. The evaporation from the lake at night undoubtedly keeps the adjacent region sup- plied with moisture, and is responsible for the large number of epi- phytic plants which render the region a veritable hanging garden. Orchids and tilandsias fairly draped and seemed to almost smother the trees and shrubs. Here we saw quite a number of rare birds, and among them the swallow-tailed kite, of which no less than six specimens were observed in the air at one time. On the 1oth an exploration was made of the region between Flamingo and the middle of the bight between Middle Cape and Fic. 44.—Young great white heron (Ardea occidentalis) on the lookout for his parents. West Cape, but the search was rewarded with only a couple of dead specimens occupied by hermit crabs which probably had been drifted in here by the winds from the Sands Key colony. Liguus were found in many places, and so were Oxystyla and other species. On the evening of the roth the party headed for Indian Key, stop- ping again at Sands Key, where they found a most remarkable flight of Florida yellow throats. Every tree and every shrub seemed to have on every branch one or more of these little fellows. On the morning of the r1th sail was set from Indian Key for the Newfound Harbor group, where the next two days were spent in examining the chain of keys thatvextends southwest from Big Pine Key, for Cerions NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I919Q 4 or and other mollusks. A very flourishing colony was found on the northeast point of the first key southwest of Big Pine Key, where were gathered no less than 75 specimens in a square foot of beach, covered by. grass. Another colony was found on the second key lic. 45.—A nest of Ward’s heron (Ardea herodias wardt) in gumbo limbo tree. southwest of Big Pine Key. A colony was discovered likewise on the third key southwest of Big Pine Key. The fourth key is a mere clump of mangroves and did not contain Cerions. On the fifth key southwest of Big Pine Key a colony had been planted in 1912, and it is here that the crossing between the native and Bahama species has 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. /2 taken place. On the sixth key no Cerions were found, but there was secured the new clapper rail which has since been described as Rallus longirostris helius, by Dr. Oberholser. Here, also, the pictures of the Ward’s heron (Ardea herodias wardi) nest and young were taken. This key might really be called Rail Key. In the seventh no Cerions were found, but the great white heron (Ardea occidentalis) was found breeding, and it was here that we secured our photographs of this bird and the specimen, which was shipped to the Zoological Park at Washington by parcel post from Key West. It is believed that this is the first time this species Fic. 46.—Young great white heron (Ardea occidentalis) in the nest in a mangrove thicket. has been shown in any zoological garden. The eighth and last key is a mere clump of mangroves without Cerion possibilities. On the evening of the 12th the expedition headed for Key West. A large collection of Cerions was made near the Bureau of Fisheries station, to be used for breeding purposes at the Tortugas. A new set of experiments was started on Loggerhead Key, Tor- tugas. Ninety cages of bronze wire, 2’ x 3’ x 3’ high, were con- structed in which were placed one specimen each of two species. In addition to this nine cages 6’ x 8’ x 3’ high were built, in which 50 sach of the two species were placed. On the 19th opportunity presented itself to return to Key West on a submarine chaser. NOSE SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 47 A summary of the results so far obtained from the breeding experiments has recently been published as a bulletin by the Carnegie Institution. The results are rather startling, and incline one, con- trary to the views previously held by most people, to the belief that Cerions are not easily influenced, if at all, by environmental factors. The cross obtained in the Newfound Harbor colony opens up an entirely new vista in the problem of speciation, and it was this which was responsible for the starting of the new set of breeding experiments. Incidental to these investigations, which have been conducted since 1912, a list of the birds observed on the various keys has been kept and published annually in the Year Book of the Carnegie Institution. FIELD WORK ON THE MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO The field-work of Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, at the Mesa Verde National Park, in the sum- mer of 1919, was devoted to the excavation and repair of the pic- turesque cliff dwelling, Square Tower House, known for many years as Peabody House, and two low prehistoric mounds situated among the cedars on top of the plateau. This work was a continuation of that of previous years and was carried on in cooperation with the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior. As Square Tower House has several unique structural features, the summer’s work has added to the educational attractions of the Park. At least two new types of hitherto unknown small-house ruins were dis- covered, and it is believed that a new page has been added to the history of the Mesa Verde cliff people. Dr. Fewkes was assisted in his field-work by Mr. Ralph Linton, a temporary assistant, who con- tributed much to the success of the work. The main object was to gather data that may aid one to better com- prehend the Indian civilization that arose, flourished on the Mesa Verde, and disappeared from the plateau over four centuries ago. Square Tower House is situated in a-shallow cave at the head of a spur of Navaho Canyon opposite [cho Cliff, about 2 miles south of Spruce Tree Camp. It has long been considered by tourists one of the most attractive cliff dwellings of the park, but its inaccessibility has deterred all but the most venturesome from descending to it from the rim of the canyon. Part of the old Indian trail (fig. 47) was indi- cated by shallow foot holes cut in the almost perpendicular cliffs, and previous to the past summer this was the only means of access. 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Without mutilating the vestiges of this primitive trail another was made in the cliff near it, around which was constructed a balustrade (fig. 48), with ladders conveniently set to aid those who wish to visit the ruin. Fic. 47—The Indian trail from the canyon rim to Square Tower House. The cliff below is almost perpendicular for over a hundred feet. A party of vistors aided by a rope is shown climbing along the trail. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande R. R. Square Tower House (fig. 49) measures 140 feet in length and averages three stories high, with seven circular subterranean sanctu- aries or kivas. The floor of the eastern end of the cave is composed NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 49 of large boulders fallen from the roof; that of the western end is lower and comparatively level. The original entrance to the build- ing, like that of the Cliff Palace, Far View House, and Sun Temple, ric. 48.—Vhe footpath blasted in the cliff at the most difficult part of the ancient trail where the tourists ar represented in figure 47. Photograph by red Jeep. is a recess in the front wall. On the western end of the ruin there protrude radiating walls of basal rooms, one story high, suggesting 5 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 a terrace. The rear wall of the cliff rises almost perpendicularly from the floor with no recess back of the buildings. The destructive effects of water dripping from the canyon rim are most marked midway in the length of the building where the walls (fig. 50), now reduced to their foundations, were formerly at least two stories high. The walls of the ruin were in bad condition when the work began: Fic. 49.—Square Tower House before excavation and repair, from Canyon rim. great gaps in the masonry of the tower having rendered it in danger of falling. The interiors of the rooms were choked with fallen stones and the dust of ages. Two months given to excavation and repair have put the ruin in fine condition, exhibiting a good example of the best type of Pueblo architecture (figs. 51 and 52). The special attractions of Square Tower House are the remains of the roofs of two kivas and the high tower rising midway in its length. NO? I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 5 5r The original roof beams (fig. 53) of these two kivas are almost wholly intact. Considering how few kiva roofs on the mesa have survived destruction in the lapse of time, especial care was exercised lic. 50—View of Square Tower House west, before excavation and _ repair. Fred Jeep. from the Photograph by to preserve these and to indicate their mode of construction, and a model (fig. 54) has been made, photographs of which, in successive stages of construction, are given (figs. 54,55). A good understand iS) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 ct ing of the construction of a typical kiva is especially important, as it distinguishes cliff houses of the Mesa Verde from those found else- where in the Southwest as well as in foreign lands. Fic. 51—Square Tower House excavated and repaired as seen from the southwest. Photograph by Fred Jeep. Fic. 52—View of the Tower completely repaired. Photograph by Fred Jeep. The kivas of Square Tower House are circular, subterranean in position, and entered by a hatchway. [ach kiva has a fire hole F, and near it an opening in the floor called the sipapu, L, which is very NOe Al SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 53 sacred because it symbolizes the entrance to the underworld. Over it in Hopi ceremonies is erected the altar, and through it the priests call to their kin in the underworld. A most instructive feature in the structure of the kiva is the means of ventilation. Between the fire hole and the wall there is an upright slab of stone, 7, a wall of masonry, or simply upright sticks covered with clay. The function of this object is to deflect pure air which enters the room trom a shaft opening outside, G; the ventilator is morphologically the survival of the doorway of the earth lodge or prototype of the kiva. Fic. 53. -~View from below of one sector of original roof logs of kiva A. Photograph by Gordon Parker. A characteristic feature of the kiva is the roof, which rests on six mural pilasters, C; the intervals between which are called ban- quettes, B, that (4) over the ventilator being wider and broader than the others. The pilasters support logs, ), D', D*, laid one above another in the form of cribbing. Short sticks, D", are placed at right angles to the cribbing to prevent sagging. Upon this cribbing are laid logs over which is spread cedar bark to support the clay covering the roof. The hatchway, which also served for the passage of smoke, is situated in the roof above the fire hole. In the construction of this roof, men of the Stone Age in America were not far from the dis covery of the principle of the dome. Fic. 54.—Model of a typical prehistoric kiva of the pure pueblo type. The photograph shows the model from above (a) and from the side (0b), with first roof beams in place. Photographs by De Lancey Gill. A, large banguette. E, pegs for ceremonial paraphernalia. B, small banquettes. F, fire hole. C, pilasters to support roof cribbing. G, external opening of ventilator. D, beams of lower level of roof. H, fire screen, or pure air deflector. D1, beams of second level of roof. I, niches for sacred meal. D2, beams of third level of roof. K, floor entrance to ventilator. D3, logs to prevent sagging of roof. L, ceremonial floor opening or stpapu. Fic. 55.—Model of typical kiva of the pure pueblo type; a shows construction of roof beams; b, half-covered roof and hatchway. Photo- graphs by De Lancey Gill. 56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 The most striking feature of Square Tower House is the tower from which it takes its name. The cave in which it is situated hav- ing no recess at its back, there 1s consequently no refuse heap in the Fic. 56.—Middle section of Square Tower House from the Crow’s Nest. Photograph by Fred Jeep. rear, such as was utilized at Spruce Tree House for mortuary pur- poses. The rear wall of the tower is formed by the perpendicular cliff (fig. 56). As shown by windows, doorways, and remnants of NOs 1 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ cyt flooring, this tower is four stories high. The inner plastering of the lowest story is painted white with a dado colored red; its roof is likewise well preserved. A room near the western end, (fig. 57) of the ruin has doors and windows closed with secondary masonry, and in the rubbish, half filling the neighboring kivas, human bones were found, indicating Fic. 57.—Western end of Square Tower House, excavated and repaired. Photograph by Fewkes. that the western end of the ruin was deserted and used for mortuary purposes before the remainder of the ruin was abandoned. There is no archeological evidence that the tribes to the east, north, and west of the cliff dwellers and stone house builders of the Pueblo area were stone masons. On the south of the area, in the valley of the Gila, Santa Cruz, and San Pedro, looking toward Mexico, the ancients built their houses of earth and logs, and while the prehistori buildings on the southern tributaries of the San Juan resemble thoss 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 on the Mesa Verde they are quite different from the pueblos now inhabited. A logical interpretation of the geographical distribution of ruins with kivas like those of Square Tower House would not be that the knowledge of stone masonry was introduced from Mexico, but that the craft was acquired after the original inhabitants entered the country, and that the pure pueblo type, or that with kivas like those of Square Tower House, was born, cradled, and reached its highest development in the area where it was found. But we may Fic. 58—Wall of Earth Lodge A, showing adobe plastering on earth; the horizontal log is a roof beam. Photograph by T. G. Lemmon. take another step, and point out that the prototype of these pre- historic kivas has a morphological likeness to “ earth lodges.” The discovery of Earth Lodge A in this area by my assistant, Mr. Ralph Linton, was important, considering the light it may throw on the genesis of cliff dwellings. This ancient prototype (fig. 58) of a kiva is a semicircular isolated room with a slightly depressed floor in which is a centrally placed firepit, the surrounding walls being either adobe plastered on the earth or molded into clumps shaped like rolls. In this rude sunken wall were set at an angle posts, now charred at the free ends, all that remains of the supports of roof and sides. NWO: I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 59 Earth Lodge A was not only excavated but a shed (fig. 59) was built over it for permanent preservation. While it is interpreted as the prototype of a kiva, it was formerly the dwelling of a family or other social unit dating to an epoch much older than that of the cliff dwellers. On opposite sides of the fire hole at the periphery oi the floor, but within the outer walls, are small square or rectangular cists made of stone slabs set on edge. The indications are that these were covered with sticks and clay, suggesting the so-called slab houses. The pottery found in these cists is very crude, undecorated, and not of the cliff house type. lic. 59—Shed built over Earth Lodge A to protect it from the elements, north end, entrance opposite. Photograph by Fred Jeep. There are many sites resembling that of Earth Lodge A before excavation awaiting investigation on the top of Mesa Verde. Near it was a mound which when opened proved to be a unit-type house. The crude masonry and rough pottery found in it indicate an advance on the walls of an earth lodge, but the former is inferior to that of a kiva of the highest development, suggesting that it is an intermediate form between Earth Lodge A and Square Tower House. ‘The spade revealed that after this room was first deserted debris had filled the depression a few feet deep on which a new fire hole and a grinding bin had been made of stone slabs on edge in the middle of the depression. Later on it was again abandoned and human bones had been thrown on the débris that formed over the grinding bin, 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 indicating that the depression had become a dump place. Last of all, these were also covered by accumulated sand and soil, leaving only the top stones of a pilaster projecting above the surface. Fic. 60.—Idol of the germ-god set by author in cement at head of the stairway, near kiva B. Photo- graph by Fred Jeep. The pottery found in this crudely constructed kiva is more varied, but still an advance on that excavated in Earth Lodge A. It may be classified as black and white, and corrugated, but so inferior to that typical of cliff houses that it can be readily distinguished. From this NO: I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ O! Fic. 61—Mat made of sticks found with a skeleton in room west of kiva D. Photograph by De Lancey Gill. Fic. 62.—Pottery rest made of agave fibre core wound with feathered string. 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 ruin was taken a shard with a fine swastika, showing the antiquity of this design so rarely found in Mesa Verde. The general facies of the collection of artifacts from Square Tower House is the same as in other cliff dwellings on the park, and although a few specimens are different from those already known, the majority corroborate, as far as age is concerned, the testimony of the buildings. A broken fragment of the rim of a vase Fic. 63.—Stick with carved extremity. of the sugar bowl pattern, a type peculiar to the upper San Juan area, was obtained from the Unit-Type House. Fragments of food bowls corrugated on the outside, black and white on the interior, belong to a type hitherto rare. No collector has thus far reported a prehistoric pipe from Mesa Verde, but a stumpy straight tube of unburnt clay, more like a “cloud blower ” than a pipe, betrayed the fact that the cliff dwellers, like other Indians, smoked ceremonially. NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1919 63 On their altar at the great winter solstice ceremony at Walpi, one object of which is the increase of life by calling back the sun, the Hopi now employ an idol representing the god of germination. This idol is half oval in shape, the surface being painted with symbols of corn. A similar undecorated idol (fig. 60), found at Square Tower House, one of the best ever collected, was cemented by the author in a conspicuous place at the head of the stairway. An almost perfect reed mat (fig. 61), resembling those often deposited with the dead, was found in a room of Square Tower House. Good specimens of feathered cloth were wrapped around skeletons of infants. A fine pottery rest (fig. 62), and a stick which ic. 64.—Incised maze on one side of an artificially worked cubical stone found with idol of the germ-god. The dotted line does not exist on the specimen, but was placed there to enable the reader to trace the meander. Photograph by T. G. Lemmon. shows excellent carving on one end (fig. 63), occur in the collection ; there are also many bone needles, basket fragments, and other objects similar to those elsewhere described. A cubical stone with an incised design (fig. 64) found in the same room as the idol of the germ god, is worthy of special mention as the maze or labyrinth depicted upon it is unlike any pictograph yet described from the Southwest. Theoretically, Earth Lodge A is supposed to resemble forms of dwellings that have survived to our day among non-pueblo tribes. 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 It has, however, an instructive feature they do not possess, viz., cists made of slabs of stone set on edge. Evidences are accumulat- ing of a culture antecedent to the pure pueblo type in which vertical masonry predominates, but we must await more knowledge of the construction of the houses of this epoch before speculating on the early relations of the builders of vertical and horizontal masonry. tes <. Sy > ; ; Peed = ei A at a. (A PS a Xe : - S| Fic. 65.—Square Tower House repaired, as seen from the west. Photo- graph by T. G. Lemmon. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN ARIZONA In continuation of work in Arizona for the Bureau of American Ethnology, Dr. Walter Hough began excavation of an important ruin in Grasshopper Valley, 14 miles west of Cibecue on the White Mountain Apache Reservation, Arizona. The ruin consists of two great mounds covered with brush and showing portions of walls. The inhabitants, as shown by the skeletal remains, were Pueblo Indians. Among the discoveries were a temporary camping place of a clan while their houses were being constructed ; the use of heavy masonry retaining walls to prevent the thrust in the earth covered with the great structure of the pueblo; and the determination that the house plans, sometimes called “ foundations,” and thought to be unfinished structures, are remains of open air sheds, such as those now in use by the Pimas. The presence of two very large débris 4 * } NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 05 Fic. 66.—Retaining wall of ancient pueblo at Grasshopper Valley, Arizona. bic. 67.—Outlines of open-air sheds, ancient pueblos at Grasshopper Valley, \rizona. 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 lenses, forming low mounds at 300 yards from the pueblo, is con- sidered somewhat remarkable. The artifacts consist of flint implements, stone axes, bone imple- ments, and the usual variety of small objects. Of pottery, red and gray preponderate; a'so found are pure yellow (Hopi type) ; black outlined with white on strong red (Chevelon type) ; obscure yellow gray on brown with black designs (Gila type); and green glaze design on white (Rio Grande type). Analysis of the shards from the 20 excavations made show that the great ruin and the neighboring members of the group may be differentiated on the basis of the pottery fragments. ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN UTAH AND ARIZONA Early in May, 1919, provision was made by the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology for continuation of an archeological reconnoissance of northwestern Arizona, inaugurated several years ago, but inter- rupted by the recent world war. As in previous years, the work was directly in charge of Neil M. Judd, curator of American archeology, United States National Museum. Plans for an extensive survey of the arid regions immediately north of the Rio Colorado were neces- sarily abandoned because of the exceptionally dry season. Mr. Judd then proceeded to Cottonwood Canyon near Kanab, Utah, where, in 1915, he had hastily examined several shallow caves containing pre- historic remains. As unforeseen conditions prevented completion of the recon- noissance originally contemplated, so unexpected difficulties also handicapped the Cottonwood Canyon investigations. Work con- tinued during two weeks only, but in this short period twelve or more caves were visited and five of them were examined with considerable care. Most of the standing walls in these caves (fig. 68) were of the customary stone and mortar construction, but others were found in which adobe had been utilized almost exclusively. A third type of architecture was that in which the walls were formed of upright posts, bound together with horizontal willows and plastered over with adobe mud. In such dwellings the heavy roof was ordinarily supported by larger posts, placed as part of the wall or entirely within it. In these ruins (fig. 69) and in the remains of other houses which had preceded them, sandstone slabs were invariably utilized for the inner base of the walls, the remainder being either of stone and mud or wattled construction. Although dwellings of the three types above mentioned No. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QIQ 67 Fic. 68.—Isolated rooms forming part of a small cliff village in Cotton- wood Canyon. Several of the rooms were repaired after excavation; the darker portions show the extent of these restorations. lic. 69.—At the upper left are the broken walls of dwellings built above the remains of a circular room. I[ragments of wall posts and one roof support are shown at the right; the fireplace at the left. In the immediate foreground and in the middle of the view will be seen upright slabs which formed part of the lower inner wall. 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 seem to indicate different stages in constructional experience, they could be and were found in the same cave. In such cases there was nothing to suggest any considerable lapse of time between the periods represented by the successive years of occupancy ; neither could it be determined from the refuse in and about the dwellings that more than one people had taken part 1n their construction. From the minor antiquities collected it does not appear that the de- gree of culture reached by the ancient inhabitants of Cottonwood Can- Fic. 70—Masonry walls built above the ruins of a circular kiva, previ- ously destroyed by fire. The banquette or bench surrounding the room will be noted in the foreground; also, the charred fragments of several wall posts and one roof support. yon differed essentially from that of other primitive peoples farther to the north.’ The pottery, generally, is of a type closely related to the pre-Pueblo peoples south and east of the Rio Colorado, and indicates a higher degree of experience than that noted among the ruins at Beaver or Paragonah, for example. Wooden agricultural implements, basketry, cotton cloth and other objects commonly found in cliff ruins of the southwest are likewise of the well-known Pueblo type. The results of these recent excavations tend to confirm, therefore, the belief that in western Utah there is certain evidence of a pre- historic people which originated some place in the northwest and * Smith. Misc. Coll., Vol. 66, No. 3, 1915; Vol. 66, No. 17, 1916; Vol. 68, No. 12, IQ17. NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1919 69 journeyed southward ; that during the course of their long-continued migrations they changed rather rapidly from a semi-nomadic to a sedentary life as they approached the Rio Colorado. Having gained the “red rock ’’ country and having found, for the first time, natural caves that increased the protection afforded by their small dwellings, they became more closely related, if not identical, in cul- ture to those people commonly recognized as the ancestors of the modern Pueblo Indians. Fic. 71.—Walls of rectangular dwellings built above the remains of a circular room. The upright slabs in the foreground formed the inner wall base of the latter structure. FIELD WORK ON THE JROQUOIS OF NEW YORK AND CANADA Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt left Washington May 12, 1919, on field duty On the Onondaga reservation near Syracuse, N. Y., he found only fragmentary remnants of the League rituals, laws and chants, aggre gating less than 2,000 native terms ; but these rituals, laws and chants are so much broken and wasted away, and their several remaining parts are so confused and intermixed the one with the other that with these remains alone it would be quite impossible to obtain even an approximate view of their original content, forms, and settings. The texts which Mr. Hewitt has recorded among the Canadian Iroquois aggregate more than 125,000 native terms. During the two weeks spent on this reservation Mr. Hewitt recorded in Onondag: 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 text all the doctrines of the great Seneca religious reformer of the close of the 18th century, Skanyodaiyo (the so-called ‘“ Handsome Lake,” but which is literally “ It is a beautiful Lake ’’). Mr. Hewitt left this Onondaga reservation May 31, 1919, going directly to the Grand River Grant, Ontario, Canada, where the other tribes of the six Iroquois tribes dwell. There he resumed his inten- sive study and analysis of his recorded texts relating to the institu- tions of the League, recording variant passages and terms when encountered. He also obtained in detail the pattern of the wampum strings in beads which are used in the Requickening Address of the League. Twenty-eight strings, at least, are necessary. On each string the blue and the white beads are arranged according to a definite pattern. An effect of the war of the American revo‘ution on the tribal integ- rity of the Six Nations of Iroquois was that every tribe, except the Mohawk, was sundered into two independent bodies; and one part of each of the divided tribes became resident on a separate reserva- tion in the State of New York, and its public affairs became mea- surably dissociated from those of the parts of the other tribes dwell- ing in New York, while the complementary tribal parts removed to Canada, where they finally settled on the Grand River Grant. So that at first there were two Onondaga tribes, the one in New York and the other in Canada, two Seneca tribal groups, the one in New York and the other in Canada, two Oneida tribes, two Cayuga tribes, and two Tuscarora tribes, similarly dispersed. This disrupting of tribal integrity resulted in sundering the League Federal Council into two independent units. Since the tribes in New York State severally occupied individual reservations, often far removed one from another, each tribe was thrown more on its own resources than previously ; and the Federal Council composed of the New York tribes was convened only when some matter affecting all these tribes became urgent; and this situation naturally tended to efface the concrete knowledge of the basic federal laws and principles of the League from the minds of the New York tribes, so that within 50 or 60 years after this, the laws and the rituals of the original League had become largely obsolescent, if not wholly forgotten, in New York State. Conversely, the tribes of the Six Nations of Iroquois who removed to Canada and settling on the Grand River Grant elected to transact their affairs at a semi-federal council composed of all tribal and all federal chiefs (whose titles were not then held in New York State). NO. IT SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QIQ 7x This arrangement naturally tended strongly to preserve the tra- ditional and the concrete knowledge of the distinctively federal insti- tutions and laws and rituals. But, even here, a living and con- structive knowledge of the institutions of the League is less definite and is often displaced by dubious modern interpretations. So it has become increasingly difficult, indeed, to obtain from the variant extant versions of laws, traditions, rituals, songs and institutions, their most probable original form. The Onondaga tribes of New York State, dwelling 8 miles south- ward from Syracuse, occupy the ancient seat of the Federal Council of the League of the Iroquois. In the original structure of the League, and still exercised by both the Canadian and the New York federations, the Onondaga chiefs as a body exercised functions approximating those of the presiding judge of a modern court sitting without a jury, and had power to confirm or to refer back (but not to veto) for constitutional reasons the decisions or votes of the Federal Council. OSAGE TRIBAL RITES, OKLAHOMA In the spring of 1919 Mr. Francis LaFlesche, Ethnologist, spent a month among the Osage Indians, gathering further information concerning the ancient rites of that tribe and collected two rituals, one from Wa-tsé-mo"-1", pertaining to the origin of the people of the black bear gens, and one from Mo'’-zho"-a-ki-da of the Peace gens of the Tsi’-zhu division, as to the origin of that people. The ritual obtained from Wa-tsé-mo®-i" contains 582 lines, divided into 29 sections and arranged in groups according to subjects. The first group of five sections describes the descent of the people from the sky to the earth. The second group of four sections tells of the appeal of the people to certain water insects who promise help. The third group of eight sections speak of the Great Elk who brought to light four different colored soils which he gave to the people to use in this rite as symbols. The next group of a single section tells of the wanderings of the people, of their meeting a man whom they learned had descended from the stars and who gave to the people certain sacred gentile names. Although they were warriors whose business it was to destroy, they resolved to make the stranger their chief, saying to one another: “ There shall be in him no anger, no violence and he shall be a man of peace.” The fifth group of three sections speaks of the parts of the swan that were dedicated for use as a war standard. [From this sacred bird were taken personal names. The sixth group of four sections 7/2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 recounts the finding of four different kinds of rock in their consecra- tion for symbolic purposes. The seventh, a single section, speaks of the finding of a female buffalo, the consecration of parts of its body 2.—Wa-tsé-mo"-i". Member of the Black Bear Gens. Fic. 7 and skin for ceremonial purposes. The eighth group of three sec- tions recounts the search for a suitable kind of stone out of which to make a ceremonial knife. On his third search the man chosen for NOj cr SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ 73 the duty returned with a red flint out of which was shaped a round- handled knife and consecrated to ceremonial uses. The ritual given by Mo®*-zho®-a-ki-da contains 248 lines, divided into 20 sections and arranged, according to subjects, into eight groups. In the story told by Mo"-zho"-a-ki-da the people of the Peace-maker gens awakened in mid-heaven to a realization that they were a people when a desire came upon them to descend to earth where they might come into bodily existence. The first three sections record the down- ward journey, of the people finding the first and second heavens (counting downward) to be blank, but in the third heaven they met the Man-of-mystery (the god of rain), who promised them aid in their struggles upon the earth. The sixth section tells of the further descent of the people, of their meeting the great Buffalo Bull who, out of pity, gives them certain roots to use in healing their bodily ailments. These medicinal roots are used to this day. The great animal then gave them various kinds of corn and squash. ‘The five sections fo'lowing speak of the journey of the people over the earth, of their coming to certain trees, to the waters of a river where they met the spirit of waters, to water-plants each of which they adopt as life-symbols. The next, a single section, tells of the coming of the people to a dead animal which they adopt as a symbol. The signifi- cance of the incident is not clear. In the next two sections is told of the people coming to the center of the earth, meaning mid-summer, the time greatest in fruitfulness (August), and to a “ beautiful house ” which was to be their sanctuary. The next group is a single section and speaks of the encounter of the people with another dead animal (an elk), the meaning of which is not clear. The next two sections speak of the people again coming to the center of the earth, meaning another month (September), which, together with August, makes mid-summer. The people at last reach another “* beautiful house ” with many openings, wherein are to be sent all the children of the people to be given their gentile personal names and assigned to their proper places in the tribal and gentile order. ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES IN OKLAHOMA, NEW MEXICO, AND CALIFORNIA The year was spent by Mr. J. P. Harrington, ethnologist, in con- tinuation of his studies of Southwest Indian languages and ethnology. During the first five months of the calendar year he was engaged in the study of the Ventureno and other Chumashan dialects of Cali- fornia. [Especial attention was given to the ethnology as well as to the language, the linguistic studies proving to be the key to the 74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 unearthing of considerable important ethnological data, notably on subjects pertaining to material culture, sociology, and the little habits of daily life and thought which are really fully as important as the larger and more striking features of ethnology. Fic. 73—Venturefio Man. The months of July, August and September were spent in New Mexico in study of the Tano-Kiowan problem, and with as con- clusive and gratifying results as could be desired. The entire struc- NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I919 75 ture and vocabulary of Tanoan and Kiowa is one and the same, and points to genetic unity at no exceedingly remote period in the past. A peculiar series of phonetic shifts and changes occurring in these lan- guages was fully investigated, and interesting studies in comparative vocabulary were made. Fic. 74.—Hoop and pole game of the Venturefio Indians. MUSIC OF THE PAWNEE, OKLAHOMA In May, 1919, Miss Frances Densmore went to Pawnee, Okla- homa, to begin a study of the music of the Pawnee Indians who live in that vicinity. She arrived at the time of the Buffalo ceremony which is held every spring by the Pawnee, having for its original purpose the securing of buffalo for food. .The ceremony was held in an earth lodge of the old type (figs. 75 and 76). Only initiates could be a present on the first day when the “painting of the buffalo skull” took place, but, through the courtesy of the man in charge of the ceremony, Miss Densmore attended the Buffalo dance and the Lance dance which were held a few days later. These constituted the second and third portions of the ceremony. During the Buffalo dance the buffalo skull with its ceremonial decorations lay in front of the “altar.” Participants in the ceremony were seated in four groups, men in each group having their bodies similarly decorated with symbolic designs. The principal singer was Wicita Blain, a 76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 blind man, who at a subsequent time recorded a number of the songs used on this occasion. These were old songs which he had received by inheritance, and the words contain interesting examples of native poetry. Blain also recorded ceremonial songs of the Bear dance, which were his by right of inheritance. One of the leading participants in the Lance dance was John Luwak, chief of the Chaui band (fig. 77), who recorded numerous old songs of various classes. Some unusually attractive songs were heard during the Lance dance, but it was learned on inquiry that they Fic. 75.—Pawnee ceremonial earth lodge. Photograph by Miss Densmore. had been recently composed by the younger men of the tribe. As old songs were desired these were not recorded. One of the old Lance dance songs was obtained, with the words, “ Father, the band of the dead is coming.” This was sung when the lance bearers danced around the lodge. The study was limited to the music, no study of the ceremonies being undertaken at this time. Three other gatherings were attended by Miss Densmore, 7. e., a hand game and two victory dances. The victory dances were of unusual interest as they celebrated the return of young men who had served in the recent war. Forty Pawnee enlisted; 39 returned without having suffered any casualty, and one died of disease in France. Many of the men had been at the front, several volunteered for a certain duty of special danger, the —— NO. I SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1919 77 son of a chief served with the heavy artillery in a responsible position, and wherever opportunity offered, they seemed to have made a creditable record. All appeared to be in the best of health. A mem- ber of the tribe said he “‘ believed this was because the people had prayed for them, both in private and at all their public gatherings.” The first victory dance was the occasion of the public rejoicing of the women of the tribe, especially those whose relatives had been in the war. This was similar to the scalp dances of the old times, and about 40 women were in the dancing circle. War trophies were car- ried aloft on poles, as scalps wére formerly carried. In accordance with old custom the soldiers presented their trophies to their nearest kinswomen. One woman held a pole with a long knife fastened at the end like the head of a spear, while below the knife was hung the metal helmet which, with the knife, was taken from the enemy by her son. As the women danced they lifted their trophies high in the air, and expressed their enthusiasm in shrill cries. It was a scene of free, native rejoicing. Miss Densmore was the only white person present. Many war songs were sung, former deeds of valor were related by the old warriors and the dancing continued for several hours. The Pawnee are an emotional people, and some of the older members of the tribe lamented with sobs and crying the diminution of the tribe and the passing of the old ways. The second victory dance took place several days later and was entirely different in character. Many spectators attended, and the building was crowded to its utmost capacity. At this dance the returned soldiers were the principal interest, many appearing in native costume and dancing the war dance. One such young man told Miss Densmore that he had been at a government school prac- tically all his life and never before had joined in a native dance. The gathering opened with an impressive native ceremony, then speeches were made by the chiefs of the bands, gifts were given and received in a ceremonial manner, and the son of a chief was adopted by a prominent member of the tribe, receiving an old and honored name. ‘The young man went through the simple ceremony with quiet dignity, wearing the khaki uniform in which he had served in Europe. Once the space around the entrance was cleared and a woman led in a white horse, presenting it to a soldier; later a pair of white horses were similarly presented. An interesting little drama was the “ con- soling ” of the parents of the young man who died in France. The singing at the victory dances was characterized by songs with words concerning the recent war, including mention of airplanes, 78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 submarines and the enemies of the allied nations. These words were usually sung to old melodies. One woman advanced alone to a place in front of the chiefs and, without the drum, sang such a song which she had composed for the occasion. Two similar songs were recorded by Luwak who related the dreams in which he heard them. He said he “ prayed daily to Tirawahat,” saying, “help our boys over there so they will all come back strong and so | may live to see them again.” One night he fell asleep after such a prayer and in his sleep “ some- one told him that it would not be long before he would see the Pawnee boys again.” In his dream he saw thousands of white people Fic. 76.—Pawnee ceremonial earth lodge, interior, showing location of the “altar.” Photograph by Miss Densmore. ‘ rejoicing and heard them singing this song, “ even the oldest people were dancing and waving flags.” A few days later he heard of the signing of the armistice, with its celebration, and accepted it as the fulfilment of his dream. He related the dream and sang the song at a gathering opened with an impressive native ceremony, then speeches learned by the people. MATERIAL CULTURE OF THE CHIPPEWA OF CANADA In July, 1919, Miss Densmore visited the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Ontario, Canada, through the courtesy of Mr. J. P. Wright, Indian agent at Fort Frances, Ontario. Chippewa from other localities in Ontario were also interviewed. The purpose of this trip was to Fic. 77. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQIQ ; i) =e aim - i wre « . - - ee aes ee. John Luwak, chief of the Chaui band, Pawnee. 80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 obtain data on the bead patterns, use of native dyes, medicinal herbs and other phases of material culture among the Canadian Chippewa for comparison with similar data already collected among the Chip- pewa of Minnesota. Numerous old geometrical bead patterns were noted which show an entirely different character from those in use among the Minnesota Chippewa, and only two patterns were dupli- cated. An interesting observation on native dyes consisted in the use of a bright green dye made from four plants. Specimens of three of these plants were obtained, but the fourth grew at a considerable distance. A birchbark article decorated with roots colored with the dye was also obtained. Green vegetable dye is not known among the Minnesota Chippewa, so far as the present inquiry has extended. The simpler medicinal herbs are the same as among the Chippewa of Minnesota, but interesting variants of general customs were observed. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 72, NUMBER 6 EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1920 - (PUBLICATION 2619) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1921 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 72, NUMBER 6 EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1920 (PUBLICATION 2619) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1921 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A. CONTENTS PAGE METER CLUIGETOM beet iatow hr Seniesa eRe era ae >, Hote ARIES Sic tere ares orate I Geological Explorations in the, Canadian. Rockies... ..).....-..is..24-200e=® = I Geolacical Pield-Work m>the United: States:- 4. ..+ c= - + oe eee ee 10 Field-Work in Astrophysics ..... Prepilnealece OOS oT IE a ee 13 Poolortcal Beeplorationy im) Athi Gal... asic eee oe cea eras ere ee eran 21 Bitamical Gollectine ansAtnicad: co. .os cee eee ae aa aS ee 31 ATASEDAMaTIo€ EEX PECIT OM )s)4 5 .vsneh ews cies os eae oo eee oe eee oe ree 39 miglocical explovation, in: Glaitt..s 2. c ae een ese eae Seer oe 43 Malacological Field-Work in California and the Hawaiian Islands....... 47 Bataiedl, Barplosahion in. laiiaicass ones aer esse ae ae cis es sn Seana eases 49 Botanicals xploration in British Giatiae. weir caer. 2x + See eee ones 54 Collections of Living Animals for the National Zoological Park......... 59 Anthropolosical Expedition: to. the sbanctdst. osn.a5 sem soa. waynes ac sans ne 63 he Oyibwacot Minnesotan scene terete critic iemicte ae irs o oatice ob rae - 75 Field-Work on the Mesa Verde National Park..................00000005 75 Pieid-W ork: Aiiove, tie taht WGIaNS: 5s oye. n hs cna. site ks oleae ens ced eee wee 04 Archeological Investigations in Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico........ 06 ROR T TOMS we SUE Zeta reo ae si U0 fe ce 102 Ov7atk Caeeevaee Means if WItSEOREN, o.oo ccc us SUB cee eceeeens 107 Archesiopica: Reconnotssance in Elawatt....iccsas cscs cucccccceccnsvees 110 Field-Work Among the Fox and Plains Cree Indians.................00 III Areneolorical Explorations in Tennessee............5..ec.sscccsccscecs 113 Archeological Explorations in New Mexico................cseceeeecees 120 Archeological Explorations in Eastern Texas..............ccecccevecece 125 * a Sige ay4 Pris ‘ a r , 7, iil co fia f ' is . > a : = i 7 * -_ > t 7 = ; ; ag ‘ . ] pi ee te a ce RL RE EE a TTS. eR Ab RR TR eR AE re aa eontiemenantientiemaniel —reemmeat C hai wr ; ot gl ; ord * ‘ é = ; ea ee Coe = eg 2 Ree tee Sie Loe papa as RIM aetiaeiieeinaeicaeiieam — eee oe BS EY 7 7) a -" - % o: ae rs 7 > ee ee es EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITH- ~SONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1920 INTRODUCTION Investigation of the unexplored regions of the earth and extending scientific knowledge of imperfectly known localities have from the beginning been an important phase of the Institution’s activity in the “increase of knowledge.” This pamphlet serves as an announcement of the more important expeditions sent out during the calendar year 1920, and more detailed accounts of the scientific results are later published in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, Bul- letins of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and other series of publications issued under the direction of the Institution. Not only has our knowledge of little known regions been increased through the numerous expeditions sent out by the Institution during the 75 years of its existence, but also the collections in natural his- tory and anthropology in the Museum have been greatly enriched thereby. The urgency of some of the field-work is illustrated by the Australian expedition herein briefly described. The remarkable Australian mammal life has been but meagerly represented in the National Museum and the rapid extermination of the native animals through various agencies renders increasingly difficult the securing of an adequate collection. However very satisfactory shipments are being received from the present expedition and it is hoped that a good representation will be secured for the Museum before it is too late. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES During the field season of 1920, geological exploration was con- tinued by Secretary Charles D. Walcott in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, with two main points in view, (1) the determination of the character and extent of the great interval of non-deposition of sedimentary rock-forming material along the Front Range of the Rockies west of Calgary, Alberta; (2) the clearing up of the rela- tions of the summit and base of the great Glacier Lake section of 1919° to the geological formations above and below. The party going from Washington consisted of Dr. and Mrs. Walcott and Arthur Brown. *Smithsonian Mise. Coll., Vol. 72, No. 1, 1920, p. 15. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 72, No. 6. Mt. Peechee (9,815) Mt. Inglismaldie (9,715) Cascade Mt. (9,825/) U Y Y ' is ; — = SS a : - ~ ee = = 3 ee vt . : i Fic. 1.—Panoramic view of mountain ridges on south side of Lake Minnewanka, forming north slope of Mount Inglismaldie (9,715') about 8 miles (12.8 km.) northeast of Banff, Alberta, Canada. Photograph by Walcott, 1920. VOL. 72 INS COLLECTIC OUS 4 MISCELLANI SMITHSONIAN N Aq ydeisojoyg ‘oz6I ‘330912 ‘CD ‘BYURMOUULPY 94e7T JO pvoy 9} JO 91OYS UsIY}IOU JY} VAOGE Bursts syif)- 2 Sg 1920 EXPLORATIONS, SMITHSONIAN 6 NO. ‘Oz6I VJOOTRAA “CD Aq ydessojpoyg ‘adoqe syd usyOI1q dy} Ul SaUOJSaUTI] UPIUOADCT AY} PUR ‘WILD 19MO] }BI13 Jy} JO do} uO st UOIVLUIIOF AVAL JSOY OY, “WUOIF UlvjUNOP, AYOY 9y} UO ABATY Jsoyr) aaoqe syjlpo Suiloey prPMJsey—" “oy VOL. COLLECTIONS LLANEOUS MISC ‘oz61 ‘ozeA\ “q ‘OD Aq ydeisojyoyg ‘Aayyea uokued padeys-f) peosq & YSsno1y} UleJUNOW dy} JO JNO SMOY YOIYA ‘VARY Jsoyr) FO Apis YOU dy} UO pueR[peRoYy yeas W—Ph “oly NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 5 Early in July work was begun along Ghost River northeast of Banff and about 53 miles (85 km.) west of Calgary, Alberta. The route taken was along the north shore of Lake Minnewanka (fig. 1, Frontispiece) and through the Devils Gap to Ghost River, which here runs north and south at the foot of high eastward-facing cliffs of Cambrian limestone, capped by limestones of Devonian age. Lake Minnewanka is a beautiful sheet of water (fig. 2) in the broad bottom of a pre-glacial river channel, the eastward extension of which forms the Devils Gap. The Rocky Mountain front (fig. 3) is formed of masses of evenly bedded limestone that have been pushed eastward over the softer rocks of the Cretaceous plains-forming rocks. This overthrust is many miles in extent and occurred long ago before the Devils Gap, Fic. 5.—Devils Head (9,204 ft.), a butte rising above the cliffs of Fig. 3 on the north side of Ghost River Gap. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1920. Ghost River Gap and other openings were cut through the cliffs by running water and rivers of ice. Great headlands (fig. 4) and high buttes (fig. 5) have been formed by the silent forces of water and frost, many of which stand out against the western sky as seen from the distant foothills and plains. It was among these cliffs that we found that the first great cliff (figs. 3 and 4) was of lower Middle Cambrian age, and that resting on its upper surface there were 285 feet (86 m.) of a yellowish weathering magnesian limestone, here named the Ghost River forma- tion, which represents the great lost interval between the Cambrian below and the Devonian above. Sixty miles to the west, over four miles in thickness of limestone, shales and sandstones (22,070 feet (6,890 m.)), occur in the lost interval of the Ghost River cliffs. COLLECTIONS ANEOUS MISCELL SMITHSONIAN dy, “UONRIS asmorT aye] JO YjAOU soptur cz ‘TIAL JoyVMAL ay ‘deo uviuoagc] ‘oz61 ‘HWOWeM ‘GD Aq ydessojoyg “PHO JAMO] 9} UL ULLIquIe joddy, pure yyeauaq syoo1 UPISTAOPIC) YVAN JYSII dy} UO aSpt4a oy} deo souoysoul] ULIUOAD(T ID Jo Aaea soddn jo pua ulaysvo ot} Fe SHEN JO apts UrI}saA\\—"9 “OT i jury s9ddp) ‘Sy u NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 Fe Fic. 7.—A contented outfit on a Sunday afternoon near the head of the Clearwater River. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1920. SAS 98 Cae AGI SPR een a. Fic. 8.—Photographing far above timber line (9,400 ft.) over Pipestone Pass. Photograph by Mrs. Mary V. Walcott, 1920. » a el x : 7c > a re a - t , Fic. 9—Result of an hour’s fishing in Lake Minnewanka near Banff. Photograph by Mrs. Mary V. Walcott, 1920. bee Fic. 10.—The avalanche lily forces its way up through the hard snow, and its beautiful slender green leaves and yellow flowers fairly cover the thin outlying margins of the winter’s snow. Photograph by Mrs. Mary V. Walcott, 1920. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 9 og ee Fic. 11.—Our pack horse and went down in deep water and was dragged out. Getting ready to get her up. Photograph by Mrs. Mary V. Walcott, 1920. , was en Se ee — J" al - - — — —~ ———— _ —_ Fic. 12.—Getting “ Pinto” up on her feet in shallow water. Photograph by Mrs. Mary V. Walcott, 1920 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Returning to the Bow Valley, the party left the Canadian Pacific Railroad at Lake Louise and went north over Pipestone Pass to the Siffleur River, which is tributary to the Saskatchewan. In the north- ward-facing cliffs 25 miles (40 km.) east of the Glacier Lake section of 1919, and 40 miles (64 km.) north of Lake Louise, a geological section was studied that tied in the base of the Glacier Lake section of 1919 with the Middle and Lower Cambrian formations. Return- ing up the canyon valley of the Siffleur River to the wide upper valley of the Clearwater River, a most perfectly exposed series of lime- stones, shales, and sandstones of Upper Cambrian and later forma- tions was found (fig. 6) which cleared up the relations of the upper portion of the Glacier Lake section to the Ordovician formations above. The field season was marred by forest fire smoke in July and August, and almost continuously stormy weather in September. Some of the incidents of the trail are illustrated by figures 7-12. The trout of Lake Minnewanka (fig. 9) increased our food supply for days while on Ghost River, and the camp on the Clearwater was a paradise for man and beast (fig. 7). On Pipestone Pass the avalanch lily was found forcing its way up through the hard snow (fig. 10), and in a treacherous ford of the Pipestone River, Arthur’s war bag and the sugar and flour got a soaking. The party is indebted in many ways to the officials of the Rocky Mountains Park, and to the officials of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, all of whom gave assistance whenever it was possible to do so. GEOLOGICAL FIELD-WORK IN THE UNITED STATES Dr. R. S. Bassler, Curator of Paleontology, U. S. National Museum, was engaged in field-work in Ohio and Illinois during the latter half of June and the first part of July, with the result that two large, instructive exhibits and important additions to the study series of fossil invertebrates were obtained. Proceeding first to Northside, Ohio, Dr. Bassler made arrangements for the shipment to Washing- ton of a large, well-preserved fossil elephant skull which had been purchased by the Museum through the efforts of Dr. E. O. Ulrich, Associate in Paleontology. This specimen, discovered in glacial gravels near Cincinnati some years ago, was long the prize exhibit of a local saloon; in fact, it was so highly regarded for advertising purposes that repeated offers of a considerable sum for its purchase were invariably refused. With the coming of prohibition, its former usefulness departed and the Museum was able to secure it for a — NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 II nominal amount. Teeth of this species (Elephas columbi Falconer) are contained in our collections, but such a complete skull is of rare occurrence, there being only one or two others in North American museums. The specimen is further valuable in giving evidence as to the proper position of the tusks in the skull, a subject of long controversy. The second important exhibit secured during the trip was a slab, measuring four by eight feet, of highly fossiliferous limestone from the Richmond formation of Early Silurian age as exposed near Fic. 13.—Beginning of excavation for exhibition slab of Richmond limestone near Oxford, Ohio. Photograph by Bassler. Oxford, Ohio. Such a specimen had long been desired for the exhibition halls to show the advancement in life from the primitive Cambrian forms, represented in the large Cambrian sea-beach sand- stone exhibit, to the higher and more complex species of succeeding geological periods, but notwithstanding the numerous occurrences of fossiliferous limestone of Ordovician and Silurian age, it was not until 1920 that a layer affording slabs of suitable size and sufficient perfection of preservation was brought to the attention of the Museum. This was discovered by Dr. W. H. Shideler, Professor I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 of Geology at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, who most generously assisted in quarrying out the specimen. As shown in the accompany- ing photograph (fig. 13) representing the beginning of the excavation for the thin bedded, fossiliferous layer desired (marked 4), numerous large blocks of stone had to be removed before the real task of quarrying the slab was begun. The work was completed successfully and the exhibit is now being installed in the hall of invertebrate paleontology. The perfection of the fossil shell remains on this slab : a : Pray sf PH ask, AA ee Fic. 14.—Surface of fossiliferous limestone slab, one twenty-fifth natural size. Photograph by Bassler. is evidenced in figure 14, which, however, shows only in a small degree the distinctness of the shells upon the rock background. Upon the completion of the quarrying operations at Oxford, Dr. Bassler proceeded to Chicago, Illinois, where he was engaged in the preparation of casts of type specimens of fossils contained in the collections of the Walker Museum, University of Chicago. The paleontological collection of the National Museum, which includes the celebrated Walcott, Ulrich, Springer, Harris, Nettelroth, and Rominger collections, is especially rich in type specimens of Early Paleozoic fossils, but nevertheless the Walker Museum possesses NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 13 many unique types not represented at all in Washington. Permission to prepare casts of these and thus advance our study series toward the completeness which the National collections should attain, was generously granted by Dr. Stuart Weller, Director of the Walker Museum. In two weeks time Dr. Bassler was enabled to finish cast- ing all of the Ordovician and Silurian types, leaving the remaining Paleozoic species for a future trip. The work was done quickly by using the modeling compound (plastocene) to make the mold from which the cast is prepared. After dusting the fossil with talcum powder the modeling compound is carefully pressed upon it and then withdrawn, thus securing a clear-cut impression into which the plaster is poured. Bubbles can be avoided by first pouring thin plaster of Paris into the mold and distributing it uniformly with a camel’s hair brush. The thicker plaster is then introduced as usual to fill the cavity. When dry the modeling compound is torn away, thus leaving the complete cast but also, unfortunately, destroying the mold. Field-work in vertebrate paleontology was limited to a short trip made by Mr. J. W. Gidley, Assistant Curator, in the latter part of August to Williamsburg, Virginia, where scattered remains of a fossil whale had been found in the Miocene strata outcropping nearby. It was at first hoped that an entire skeleton could be secured here, but careful search proved the bones to be so scattered and fragmentary that no exhibition material was available although some interesting additions to the collection of fossil vertebrates and some excellent Miocene shells for the exhibition series were obtained. Mr. William F. Foshag, of the Division of Mineralogy, at his own expense made sundry trips into interesting mineral localities in Cali- fornia and secured a considerable quantity of desirable material for the Museum’s collections, including an excellent series of borax minerals. FIELD-WORK IN ASTROPHYSICS In astrophysical research the Institution was unusually active. Early in 1920, Dr. Abbot had a long discussion and correspondence with Professor Marvin, Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, on the applications of solar radiation measurements to meteorology now being officially practised in Argentina and Brazil on a basis of daily telegraphic reports from the Smithsonian observatory near Calama, Chile. Professor Marvin felt strongly the inadequacy of existing solar radiation observations as a basis for studies of the dependence of temperature on the solar variation. While the Chilean results might be excellent, still they were for the most part not 2 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 checked by independent observations. The Mount Wilson work yielded results on less than a third of the days, and might well be affected by variations of atmospheric humidity incident to the site so near the Pacific Ocean and the cities about Los Angeles. These objections could not but be admitted by Dr. Abbot, and led him to make a great effort to strengthen the observations of solar variation. Mr. John A. Roebling, of New Jersey, had indicated a strong interest in the work. In conference with Dr. Abbot in May, 1920, he generously gave the sum of eleven thousand dollars for the purposes Fic. 15—Montezuma solar observ- Fic. 16.—Montezuma solar observ- ing station near Calama, Chile. ing station. Entrance to spectrobo- Dwelling house, shop and garage. lometer tunnel. Also pyrheliometric apparatus. first, of removing the station theretofore on the plateau near Calama, Chile, to a nearby mountain high enough above the plain to avoid dust and smoke; second, of removing the “solar constant” outfit from Mt. Wilson to the best mountain site available in the United States; third, the balance for any other objects closely associated with these investigations. Under the zealous and able management of Director A. F. Moore, a new observing station was selected and prepared at a place called Montezuma, about 8 miles south of Calama on a mountain rising about 2,000 feet above the local level, and about 9,500 feet above sea ‘asnoy Suryjanq "RUINZIJUOW Je UOIe}s SutAsasqo ‘RUINZI}JUOWY Je UOT}e}S SulAstasqo sejog—oz ‘oy Ie[OS IY} JOF eweye) WoI} sjelsayew Surnezyy—61 “org EXPLORATIONS, 1920 *poyeso] st A1OPLALOSGO ot YoryM uo yead ayy, “UONe}s SurAsosqo Avjos eumzo}UuoJY—'gI “DIT ‘snyeiedde drijaworayadd pue }esopIO+) Bes they SULATaSqo Jejos eUINZaUuoWW—ZT “91 ONIAN S SMITH NO. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 2s ALD 6 4 ee eee ea ae te Fic. 38—Women of Liri on the Albert Nile repairing the wall of a hut with mud. The walls are made with wooden supports and between these are placed rows of stalks of elephant grass partly buried in the ground and fastened together with grass. The whole is then covered with mud and a roof built so that it overhangs and protects the walls from the erosive effect oft rain. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 doctor before entering the area and again on leaving it. Work here was finished on July 14, 1920, after which Mr. Raven returned to the United States, sailing from Cairo, September 2, and arriving in New York, September 17. —* . e 4 eee mS * ey ‘ . + ™ 3 Ai “ae I AS ot a: wae Fic. 39—A Dinka woman and her child at Shambe on the upper Nile. It is a rather common sight to see the natives cleaning their teeth with a bit of stick. Sometimes they pound the end or split it with a knife so that it becomes brushlike. Though not numerically large the collections are of unusual interest on account of the manner in which they supplement those obtained by other expeditions in which the Smithsonian Institution has been interested. Among the most important material may be mentioned 697 mammals (including 272 specimens from South Africa, a region hitherto very imperfectly represented in our collections; 152 from No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 29 Oe ( rn ere * pals “ = ¥ = Pei Fic. 40.—The Victoria Falls of the Zambesi River. Above the falls the river is about a mile wide but drops over a cliff nearly four hundred feet into a narrow gorge which in some places is less than one hundred and fifty yards in width. -~ lic. 41.—A native village at Port Bell in Uganda, with Lake Victoria Nyanza in the distance and to the right an acacia tree in which a colony of weaver birds have made their nests. 3 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 og Fic. 42.—Primitive irrigating ma Khartoum, August, 1920. wheels. Fic. 43.—Sheep grazing near the temple of Medina Habu in Upper Egypt. Oxen, donkeys or camels are used to turn such water I cy: na Bes NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 31 Lake Tanganyika; the chimpanzee of Uganda), 567 birds, 206 rep- tiles, and 193 fishes. The photographs here reproduced were all taken by Mr. Raven, who has also prepared the legends which accompany them. BOTANICAL COLLECTING IN AFRICA Dr. H. L. Shantz, Botanist, Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, was also a member of the Smithsonian African Expedition, and his chief objects were to secure live plants of agricultural value for intro- duction into the United States, to study the agricultural methods of both natives and Europeans, and to collect plants for the National Herbarium of the United States National Museum. This work began at Cape Town, August 13, 1919, and terminated at Port Said, Sep- tember 2, 1920. The vegetation of the Cape region has long been known to Euro- pean botanists, and has received more attention than that of any other portion of Africa. It is difficult to imagine a region which has so many striking features. The wealth of Proteas and Ericas alone would make this region unique. Lilies of various and beautiful types, Iridaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and Orchidaceae, each represented by many genera and species, the Arum lily or calla, which occurs every- where in wet soil, and Pelargoniums, which here cover the mountain sides, make of this Cape region a natural botanical garden, so rich and varied that any botanist will here find plants of absorbing interest. At Kirstanbosch there has been established the National Botanic Gardens now under the direction of Dr. R. H. Compton. If the well- laid plans are fully carried out, it will be possible to find here all of the more interesting indigenous plants of South Africa, and to this garden will come botanists, horticulturists, and agriculturists inter- ested in South African plants. American botanists would be proud if we had anywhere in our country a garden to compare with it. East of Port Elizabeth in the Addo Bush, which is a low thorn thicket of trees and vines about 15 to 20 feet high, are food plants of especial interest. Among the succulents, none are more interesting than the speckbroom (Portulacaria affra), a source of forage for the wild elephant herd of the bush as well as for other large herbivora, ostriches, cattle, sheep, or other domesticated animals. This plant has been introduced into the United States and is doing especially well in southern California in the lower chaparral zone and should greatly improve the forage value of the natural range. Here ar¢ many interesting plants such as the picturesque Acacia horrida, with 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 its large white spines, the Boer Bean, Schotia speciosa, the young beans of which are cooked and eaten, also many interesting Aloes, Lilies, Cotyledons, and Euphorbias. The elephants’ foot (Testu- dinaria elephantipes) and many species of asparagus also occur here. The Karroid plateau was seen only during the rest period, when its vegetation, which consists of desert grasses and shrubs, is in appear- ance identical with portions of the Great Basin in Nevada. Especially interesting features of this desert are the great number of species of im fae } aia Fic. 44.—On the Karroid Plateau, west of De Aaar. This desert shrub, known as Karroo bush (Pentzia), is a valuable forage plant, resembling our bud sage of the Nevada and Utah deserts. Cattle, sheep and ostrich are the chief grazing animals. Mesembryanthemum, several of which are edible, and the Karroo bush (Pentzia), a valuable forage plant, areas of which resemble in general appearance our Bud Sage areas of Nevada and Wyoming. Passing northwest to the region about Kimberley, there is a scattered growth of Acacias, over an open desert grass type similar in some ways to the vegetation of west Texas and portions of Arizona and New Mexico. The high grasslands of the Transvaal, on the other hand, with a grass vegetation dominated by Themeda forskalit, reminds one of Andropogon scoparius areas in the drier portions of NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 33) our prairies. Here corn is the principal crop and the large ranches with houses far apart, each with a clump of trees, make the resem- blance to our prairies in the earlier days even more striking. The portion of the Transvaal north of Pretoria, known as low Veld, consists of a scattered growth of relatively small trees over a grass cover composed of rather coarse tall grasses. This is one of the most widely distributed types and an exceptionally interesting one. The grasses are burned off each year and only such trees as can resist the fires can maintain themselves under this condition. This type becomes somewhat modified at Lourengo Marques, where the vegetation, although quite luxuriant, still showed signs of a prolonged drought period. Here, as in the region north of Pretoria, the Kaffir Orange (Strychnos pungens) is abundant, and there are many species of Acacia and Combretum. The Cashew Nut (Anacardium occi- dentale) is everywhere a prominent tree and has the appearance of being indigenous, although introduced from South America. It forms a large evergreen tree and is never cut down by the natives, who prize it both for the fruit and for the nut, from which they secure both food and a strong alcoholic beverage. Another tree of unusual interest is the Morula (Sclerocarya caffra), which has a valuable oil and edible nut, with a fruit useful for making jam and an alcoholic drink. Of the more strikingly beautiful trees of this section are the red flowered and fernlike-leaved Delonix regia, the beautiful blue flowered Jacaranda, and the Mahogany Bean (Pahudia quanzensis ) which produces in its large pods a large black bean with a brilliant scarlet cup-shaped aril at the base and is one of the important timber trees. The vegetation at Salisbury reminds one of the low Veld above Pretoria, a grassland with scattered trees, singly or often in clumps. At Bulowayo the grasses are less luxuriant and the trees smaller and more xerophytic. The vegetation about Victoria Falls, except for the small forest irrigated by spray from the falls, is also xerophytic in character. At Kafue the grasses seem more luxuriant but the trees are much as at Victoria Falls. Here a number of important fruits were secured, most of which are still undetermined. A nut tree of unusual interest, because of its value for food and oil and the remarkably light weight of the wood, was secured here. It has been known as the Manketti Nut (Ricinodendron rautanenti). Here also occurs the Beobab (Adansonia digitata), the largest tree in Africa, useful to natives as a source of Bast fiber and as food. The acid white pulp which fills the fruit and surrounds the seed is eaten or dissolved in water to produce a refreshing drink. 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 The dry, open forest around Elizabethville gives way, before Bukana is reached, to the tall grass and scattered trees which form the great Savanna, which surrounds the tropical forest of the Congo. The Lualaba is lined with oil palms (Elaeis guineensis) throughout almost the whole of its course, and during much of the time swamps of Papyrus are abundant along its course. Most interesting were the great numbers of wild Sorghum grasses, some of which may prove Fic. 45.—Two large mango trees (Empe oribo) at Kigoma on Lake Tan- ganyika. The trees bear two crops of fruit a year, a large crop in January and February, and a small crop in August and September. The fruits are large, fully five inches long, of excellent flavor and with practically no fiber around the seed. The building in the back is the railway station. valuable in our dry-land agriculture. The oil palm, which belongs to the native who planted it, is probably the most useful native plant in all Central Africa, and its oil is used by the natives as food and for making soap with which to wash their clothes. The dense tropical forests which cover much of the central Congo were seen at Kindu on the Congo River, where they form a dense canopy, but where the undergrowth is not entirely shut out. At Kigoma and Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika, the grassland is dotted with No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 35 large mango trees, the fruit of which is large and of excellent quality. These trees were probably introduced by Arab slave dealers and Fic. 46.—Watuzi chiefs dressed for the dance. They are, from left to right, Kikovio (son of Ararawe), Mizambo (a Bagamwa or prince of the fourth generation) and Ararawe (brother of the head chief, Andugu). The dress consists of an undergarment of bark cloth, made from the bark of a fig tree, of two skins of leopard or serval cat, one over the shoulder and one around the loins. Each carries a long bow, decorated with banana fiber, two arrows and a long spear. They live largely on cattle, and inhabit the high mountain grass- lands of Urundi. They are exceedingly tall, slender and athletic men, are alert and pleasant and are almost untouched by white influence. merchants, and probably all originated as seedlings. Along the shore of Tanganyika in Urundi many plants were collected. In the high- land back of the lake at N’gano N’gano, the rolling hills are covered 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 with excellent grasses of high forage value, and support thousands of cattle. The Watuzi who inhabit this region are one of the least known but most interesting tribes in all Africa. They are tall, slender, athletic men, with thin lips and straight noses, and are Fic. 47—A grove of cocoanut palms at Dar es Salam, Tan- ganyika Territory, with a native (Swahili) hut in the back- ground. The whole region about Dar es Salam and for fifteen or twenty miles inland is occupied by an almost continuous cocoa- nut palm grove. The notches in the trees facilitate the gather- ing of the nuts. f a probably the best athletes in the world, especially at high jumping, which is one of their chief accomplishments. Many grasses and many bulbous plants from this region give promise of value as plant introductions. A great variety of bananas, beans, and cereals are grown by these natives. No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 37 At Dar es Salam, a broad strip of coast is given over largely to the cultivation of the coconut palm, although the streets are often lined with wild figs, Delonix regia, and Terminalia catappa. Zanzibar is given very largely to the cultivation of cloves, and here are also grown many tropical fruits, and there is a small but exceedingly interesting botanical garden. Tanga is somewhat similar to Dar es Salam in vegetation. ~ z Fic. 48.—Bank of the Victoria Nile at Masindi Port in Uganda. A luxuriant growth of papyrus, water-lilies, morning glories and other water plants. Much of Lake Kioga is covered with this type of vegetation. While the vegetation of the north shore of Lake Victoria is rich and varied and reminds one of that seen in the Congo and on Lake Tanganyika, the outstanding features in Uganda are the areas of elephant grass, Pennisetum purpureum, and the immense tracts of bananas which extend for miles and miles, for bananas are relatively as important to Uganda as corn is to Illinois. There are several small tropical forests in Uganda, and at Entebbe an unusually interesting botanical garden. ‘The flame of the forest (Spathodea), a prominent tree through much of tropical Africa, the 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 kidurii (Antiaris toxicaria), and many other trees are prominent here. At Entebbe one may see Para rubber, Cera rubber, Cacao, sugar cane, yams, corn, rice, wheat, and other temperate crops har- vested at the same time. The principal results of the expedition were the collection of about 1,000 botanical specimens for the National Museum, and the introduc- tion of about 1,600 plants for growth as agricultural plants in this Fic. 49—The Uaso Nyiro River at Archer’s Post. It flows through a semi- desert country abounding in big game animals. It is lined throughout by groves of Dum Palm. country ; the more important being forage plants, nut plants, fruits, and vegetables. The acquaintance was made of many men interested in plants and agriculture, throughout the Continent, who can be of service in connection with securing additional material. First-hand observations were made of the methods of agriculture pursued by Airican tribes as well as the Europeans, and a large number of photo- graphs were taken which illustrate the natural vegetation and agri- cultural crop methods. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 39 AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION During the past year Mr. Charles M. Hoy has continued the work of collecting material in Australia, under about the same conditions as those mentioned in the last report on explorations. In this period collections were made at the following localities : “Farina, S. A.: Work in the Farina district was done at Lindhurst, 30 miles east of the town of Farina. Nineteen days were spent there, resulting in the collection of 110 birds and 64 mammals. A few reptiles and insects were also collected.” “Kangaroo Island, S. A.: Twenty-six days were spent, in the field, on Fic. 50.—Aboriginal grave yard, North Australia. Kangaroo Island with the result of 85 mammals, 51 birds, and miscellaneous reptiles, amphibians, and marine specimens collected.” “Port Lincoln (Eyres Peninsula), S. A.: Twenty-two days were spent in the field resulting in the collection of 86 birds and but 15 mammals. A few miscellaneous specimens including reptiles, crustacea, etc., were also obtained.” 3usselton, W. A. (50 miles south): Camp was pitched 50 miles south of the town of Busselton, on the edge of the Government Timber Reserve. Forty days were spent in camp (May 14-June 23). The weather was the worst that I have experienced. During the whole 40 days, there were only three days free from rain. Over 18 inches fell in that time. It was impossible to keep things dry and even the tent fly went green with mould. Despite these handicaps, however, a pretty fair collection was obtained. The collec- tion contains 94 mammals, 46 birds and a few miscellaneous alcoholic speci- mens (reptiles and land shells).” 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Fic. 51.—A rufous rat-kangaroo from New South Wales. Fic. 52—Phascogale, a mouse-like marsupial from New South Wales. No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 4I Fic. 53—A young kangaroo. Photographed on Kangaroo Island, Australia. Fic. 54——An Echidna or “spiny anteater” photographed on Kangaroo Island, Australia. The long bird-like beak projects from behind the plant which conceals the animal's face. 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 “Derby, W. A. (32 miles southeast): Twenty-three days were spent in the above locality, August 7-29. The locality visited was very poor in both mammal and bird life and a collection of only 43 mammals, 68 birds and 10 reptiles secured.” Fic. 55.—A native of North Australia. In the last letter received from Mr. Hoy, from Port Darwin, Northern Territory, dated September 25, 1920, he writes, in part, as follows : NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 43 “J have decided to work the Northern Territory and then go overland to Queensland via the old wagon road. I will travel in a buckboard and will go south from here, to the Catherine River, then east along the Roper, and then to the McArthur. On reaching the latter river I will go south along the river, then to Anthony’s Lagoon and east across the tableland to some point in Queensland—most likely Gloncurry. The trip will take about four months and will have many advantages. The road is an easy one, being an old estab- lished route with plenty of good water along the way, and the trip ought to be productive of very good results.” During the year two shipments were received from Mr. Hoy, the last one arriving here in September. A total of 440 mammals, well prepared, several of which were hitherto unrepresented in our collec- tion, together with series of skeletal and embryological material ; 570 bird skins, with 24 additional examples in alcohol, and smaller collections of reptiles, amphibians, insects, marine specimens, etc., were received. Up to the time of Mr. Hoy’s visit to Australia the Museum had received not over goo specimens of birds from that country; the majority of these were old, mounted, and without precise data, some of them dating back to the time of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition. About 350 mounted birds, displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, by the several Australian colonies, and pre- sented to the National Museum at the close of the exposition, formed the largest single contribution to our collection; the remainder of the material consists of many smaller lots, obtained by gift or ex- change at long intervals. About 140 species, including several of the distinct forms of Kangaroo Island, are represented in the material received from Mr. Hoy, all well prepared and with adequate data. Some of them are quite new to the Museum collection, and others, such as the lyre bird, have not previously been available in our study series. BIOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN HAITI Dr. W. L. Abbott, of Philadelphia, accompanied by Mr. E. C. Leonard, of the National Museum, as botanical collector, made a visit of exploration to southern Haiti from February to July, 1920. Dr. Abbott undertook this visit chiefly that he might study the bird life of Gonave Island, hoping to complete certain series he had col- lected on a former visit. The island is about 30 miles long and 10 miles broad, and consists of a low mountain range bordered by a belt of foothills that merge gradually on the north coast to a level beach fringed by mangroves, but on the south slope descend rather abruptly into the sea. Dense thorn thickets cover the arid mountain sides and foothills, while the uplands, called La Table, open into 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 large grassy tracts with only occasional trees or shrubs. Due to the scarcity of water and, in many places, to large outcrops of bare coral rock, the island is poorly adapted to agriculture, but the grassy up- lands furnish excellent grazing. The forests yield a fair amount of lignum vitae. The party spent three weeks on the north coast, work- ing around Anse Galette and Etroite, and later a week on the south coast in the vicinity of a small fishing village called Pikmi. The regions visited on the mainland were St. Marc, Etang or Manneville, Fond Parisien, La Mission, Furcy, and Peétionville, with Port au Prince as base. 5% — 2 “ee a see ones Fic. 56—Royal Palm groves of Fond Parisien. Etang is on the northwest shore of Etang Saumatre, a large lake nearly 20 miles east of Port au Prince, bordered on the west by the plains of the Cul de Sac, on the north by the mountains of Grand Bois, and on the south and east by the foothills of La Selle Moun- tains. The lake is about 50 feet below sea level and very salty. Among the interesting natural features of the region is a series of large springs, flowing into the lake through a belt of marshy meadows which are covered by a short sod composed almost entirely of several species of sedges. An excellent opportunity was offered to study both the arid cactus forests and cat-tail marshes that occur in the Cul de Sac. The large royal palm groves of Fond Parisien, situated on the southeast shore of Etang Saumatre, give it a picturesque appearance. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 4 cn In old French times Fond Parisien was considered one of the most beautiful spots in Haiti, but a flood has covered the greater part of this once fertile district with stones and gravel, transforming it into a desert. The large areas of black mucky swamp land to be found Fic. 57.—“ Strangler plant” (a species of Clusia) on a large leguminous tree near Pétionville. here are utilized in sweet potato farming, while some cotton is grown in the drier parts. La Mission is a day’s journey to the south from Fond Parisien. The most striking features of this region are the open pine forests 4 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 M4 + & th Mee Fic. 58.—Pic de Bromt (called “ Morne de Wézan). A new species of grass was found growing on the summit of this mountain. Se a Fic. 59.—Weaver bird and nests in a thorn tree. Fond Parisien. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 47 and occasional wet thickets, the latter sheltering a luxuriant growth of ferns. The natives are, however, rapidly destroying the pine trees both by burning the forests repeatedly and by girdling the pines for splinters, which are sold in the markets as kindling. Furey and Pétionville are not far from Port au Prince. Both are easily accessible and are among the few localities which have been visited by naturalists. Nearly 10,000 specimens of plants were collected, as well as a number of land shells and insects. The birds obtained by Dr. Abbott during this expedition numbered 201 skins, with a few alcoholic specimens and skeletons. By far the most interesting ornithological observation made was the discovery in some abundance of an introduced weaver bird, Hyphantornis cucullatus (Muller), a native of West Africa. This species was found at several points in Haiti, where it occurs in colonies and affects much the same type of country as do related species in Africa. Nearly completed nests, without lining, were found about the middle of May, but no eggs had been deposited at this date. They are strongly woven of narrow strips of palm or banana leaves, and have an entrance at the side. An illustration of the manner of nest- ing is shown in figure 59. Two smaller species of west African weavers, belonging to other genera, are known to occur in Porto Rico, where they have existed for many years, but the date and circum- stances of their introduction, as well as those of the species dis- covered in Haiti, are at present unknown. MALACOLOGICAL FIELD-WORK IN CALIFORNIA AND THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS On the way to the First Pan-Pacific Scientific Congress held in Honolulu, August 2-20, 1920, Dr. Paul Bartsch, curator of mollusks, U.S. National Museum, stopped for three days in Glacier National Park, where some collections were made. He also spent a day on shipworm investigation about Mare Island, where he had placed at his disposal, by the commandant of the station, a tug and pile extractor, and the necessary officers and men to make every minute of his stay count, the result being a careful examina- tion of pilings throughout the stretch of San Pablo Bay and _ the adjacent shores of San Francisco Bay. ‘This investigation resulted in establishing the fact that the mollusk which has been doing the damage estimated at some $25,000,000 last year is a new species of Teredo, which Dr. Bartsch has named Teredo beachi in honor of the commandant of Mare Island. 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Dr. Bartsch, in preparing a monograph on the land shells of the Epiphragmophora californiensis group, was very much puzzled how to account for the presence of two very closely related subspecies at Pt. Pinos, California. He took this occasion to visit Pt. Pinos, and there found that the two subspecies do not occupy the same habitat. The smaller of the two was found in great abundance under plants on two of the rocks lying off the Point, separated from the mainland by a gap across which one could easily leap, while the larger sub- species, which was rather rare, was found on the ground, buried beneath needles and vegetable detritus. Two subspecies of the Fic. 60.—The home of Epiphragmophora californiensis Lea, a species of land shells, off Pt. Pinos, California. Epiphragmophora tudiculata group were found to occupy a similar range. Mr. Henderson and Dr. Bartsch arrived in Honolulu a few days prior to the meeting, and this time was used for collecting land, fresh-water, and marine shells on the island of Oahu. They also collected mullusks during their sojourn about the wonderful crater of Kilauea, on the occasion of the visit by the congress to the island of Hawaii. Several stations were likewise made between Kilauea and the Kohala coast. A large number of marine shells were secured from the rocky shores of Honaunau Bay. Since the first accommodations to be secured for the return were dated September 8, the intervening time between the close of the NO. 6 SMITIISONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 49 congress and this date was spent in collecting specimens. Dredgings were made in Pearl Harbor, where the commandant placed one of the dredges at their command. They were also rendered the neces- sary assistance in making a search for shipworms, with the result that a new species of Teredo was discovered, which has been named Teredo parksi, in honor of Admiral Parks, in charge of Yards and Docks, U. S. N. They also dredged in Maunalua Bay, on the south side of Oahu and in Kaneohe Bay, on the east side of the same island. Specimens were also collected on various occasions at Haleiwa Beach, on the north end of Oahu, and the beach and shallow water adjacent to their cottage at Waikiki were thoroughly scratched over. Trips were also made into various parts of the mountains, where land shells of many kinds were secured. Another excursion carried them to the island of Maui, where marine shells were collected wherever possible along the shore, and land shells were secured on their ascent of the magnificent extinct volcano of Haleakala. One of the very interesting observations made on this trip to the Hawaiian Islands was the finding of an existing marine flora and fauna at a considerable elevation above the level of the sea on the gently sloping bench at the southeast point of Hanouma Bay. This flora and fauna consist of algae, quite a number of species of mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms and other marine organisms, which occupy pools and puddles kept ever moist and supplied with fresh water by the spray from the breaking surf, which incessantly pounds that shore. Dr. Bartsch considers this an important observation, since the occurrence of fossiliferous laminae bearing marine organisms be- tween sheets of lava has been held to indicate that they were deposited at or below sea level and their occurrence above this has been held as evidence of elevation. We have here an instance which indicates that this is not necessarily the case, for such a lamina would be pro- duced if a new outpouring of lava were to cover up the place mentioned. BOTANICAL EXPLORATION IN JAMAICA In February, 1920, Mr. William R. Maxon, Associate Curator in the Division of Plants, United States National Museum, and Mr. Ellsworth P. Killip, aid, were detailed to make botanical col- lections in Jamaica. The expedition was made possible largely through the co-operation of the New York Botanical Garden, the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, the Field Museum of Natural History, the University of Illinois, the Arnold Arboretum, 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. al bo Fic. 61.—Windsor Plantation, south of Port Antonio. Fic. 62.—Residence at Cinchona. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 51 Fic. 63—Higher peaks of the Blue Mountains as seen from the southwest; Mossman’s Peak (unexplored) at the left, separated from Blue Mountain Peak (2,225 meters) by Portland Gap. | Fic. 64.—In the heart of the Blue Mountains. The denuded areas are land- slips due to erosion in areas long under cultivation in coffee. rif} SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL... 72 on ho and Mr. Oakes Ames in contributing to the field expenses of the work. Two months were spent in the island, and upwards of 10,000 specimens were brought back, representing about 1,700 collection PS oof ns 2) —— ese ee EE = Fic. 65.—Fern-covered bank on trail to Morce’s Gap. The tree ferns in the center are Cyathea pubescens. numbers. The material has been shared among the contributing institutions, the ferns and flowering plants having already been fully identified. ~ No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 3 cot From headquarters in Kingston field-work was carried on in several widely separated parts of the island, the courtesy of free transporta- tion on the Jamaica Railway having been extended by the colonial government. Through the kindness of Mr. J. G. Kieffer, general manager of the United Fruit Company in Jamaica, a house on the company’s plantation at Windsor, in the rich banana region south of Port Antonio, was placed at the disposal of the party. About Io days was spent here, trips being made to Mooretown, Mill Bank, Cuna Cuna Pass, and the northern foothills of the John Crow range. ae W se Fr7ity, , * , ‘ t 4 et Fic. 66. A characteristic fern (Dicranopteris bifida), growing in vinelike masses near Morce’s Gap. The most productive period was one of three weeks in March, spent in the Blue Mountain region, with headquarters at the botanical station at Cinchona, the lease of which had been renewed by the Smithsonian Institution in January, 1920. Located on a projecting southern spur at an altitude of 1,500 meters, equipped with a service- able laboratory and most comfortable living quarters, Cinchona served as an excellent base for botanical exploration in the Blue Mountain region, most of the peaks lying within fairly easy reach. Extensive collections were made on John Crow Peak, at New Haven Gap and Morces Gap, and in the vicinity of Cinchona, as well as on trips to Thompson’s Gap, Hardward Gap, and the summit of Blue Mountain 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Peak. Over 800 numbers were collected in this region. In prepara- tion for a projected work by Mr. Maxon on the ferns of Jamaica, particular attention was paid to this group, nearly 200 species being here collected. Other regions visited include Hollymount, on the upper slopes of Mount Diabolo, in the central part of the island, the coastal territory of Montego Bay, and the southern border of the “ Cockpit Country,” the last a wild, little inhabited, wooded area of innumerable limestone sinks lying southeast of Montego Bay. Collections at Cook’s Bottom, Mulgrove, Mocho, and Ipswich yielded a number of new or otherwise very interesting species. Just before leaving Jamaica Mr. Maxon made a brief visit to Pigeon and Great Goat islands, lying off Old Harbour. Much of the success of the trip is due to assistance extended freely by officials of the United Fruit Company, acknowledgment of which is gratefully rendered. BOTANICAL EXPLORATION IN BRITISH GUIANA Mr. A. S. Hitchcock, Custodian of Grasses, visited British Guiana, making the trip through the co-operation of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Gray Herbarium. He left New York, October 4, 1919, and arrived at Georgetown, October 22, stopping on the way at St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Kitts, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, and Barbados. He left Georgetown, February 2, 1920, and arrived in New York, February 16, stopping four days in Trini- dad and one day at Grenada. Six weeks were spent at Georgetown, and other points along the coast; three weeks at the Penal Settlement on the Mazaruni River, from which were visited Bartica, Kalacoon, and Kartabo; two weeks on a trip up the Demerara, Essequibo, and Potaro rivers to Wismar, Rockstone, and Tumatumari; and ten days on a visit to the North- western Distict, including Morawhanna on the Barima River, Isso- rora, the Rubber Station on the Aruka River, and the Yarikita Police Station on the Venezuelan border. Four sets of plants were collected including 1,134 numbers, with extra sets of the grasses. On account of the extremely damp climate it was necessary to use artificial heat in drying the specimens. Two oil stoves were kept burning night and day, the specimens being between corrugated paper. After drying, the plants were sprinkled with naphthalene powder to prevent subsequent molding. , 4 \) oO’ SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 1 on British Guiana has an area of about 90,000 square miles, is about 400 miles deep, and —. about 250 miles along the coast (Lat. 1°-8° N., Long. 57°-61° W.). There are three counties: Demerara, including the drainage anne of the Demerara River and to the Abary River on the east; Essequibo, including the drainage system of the Essequibo River and all to the west; and Berbice, including - Fic. 67,—St. Thomas. The wall is covered with coralita (Antigonon leptopus), an ornamental vine with handsome racemes of pink flowers. The palms are royal palms. the drainage system of the Berbice River and east to the Courantyne River. Georgetown, at the mouth of the Demerara River, has a population of about 60,000. The only other city is New Amsterdam, at the mouth of the Berbice River, with a population of about 9,000. The entire population of the colony is about 300,000, about 4,000 of whom are whites. The bulk of the population consists of Fast 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Indians (42.7 per cent) and negroes (39 per cent). The chief product of the colony is sugar, which, together with the by-products rum and molasses, constitutes about three-fourths of the exports. Other products are gold, rice, balata, timber, and cattle. The country is fairly healthy, the death rate being about 35 per 1,000 (14.8 per 1,000 among whites). Yellow fever is absent, but malaria and dysen- tery are prevalent. Fic. 68.—Antigua. An old sugar mill. These old stone mills, formerly used for crushing the cane, are common on the islands. Oxen were attached to the long beam. The crushing or grinding is now done in modern sugar factories. The rainfall at Georgetown is about go inches, with a dry season September to November, and another short dry season in the spring. The temperature at the same place is, in the daytime, about 88° F. in the summer, falling four to six degrees at night, and in winter four to six degrees lower. The temperature at night in winter rarely falls below 75° (the minimum record for 35 years is 69°). NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 57 The coastal region of the colony for 10 to 40 miles inland is a flat plain scarcely above sea level. Back of this there is a belt with hills Fic. 69.—Georgetown, British Guiana. One of the main streets with rows of rain tree (Samanea saman). Fic. 70.—Morawhanna, British Guiana. A typical village of the interior. as much as 200 feet high. Toward the southwest the land rises and at the Venezuelan-Brazilian border culminates in the famous Mt. Roraima, a table mountain rising to a height of 8,500 feet. With 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7/2 the exception of the savannas of the southern part of the country (Rupununi District) and a few other small areas, the whole country is covered with dense virgin rain-forest. Communication in the interior is almost entirely by boat along the numerous streams, but unfortunately is hindered by falls and rapids above the influence of the tide (30 to 60 miles). Ge 4 Lea Ee “ees SSE eae = Fic. 71.—A giant mora tree (Dimorphandra excelsa) in the virgin forest of British Guiana, near Tumatumari. The base is broad and buttressed. Attached to the trunk is a species of Marcgravia. The scientific activities of the colony are mainly under the control of Prof. J. B. Harrison, Director of Science and Agriculture, who extended to Mr. Hitchcock many courtesies. The Jenman Herbarium, an important collection of British Guiana plants, is at the office of the director in Georgetown. There is an excellent botanical garden with a large collection of trees and shrubs, including a very fine series of palms. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 cy \O COLLECTIONS OF LIVING ANIMALS FOR THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK As in former years, friends of the Smithsonian Institution, while on expeditions abroad, collected and sent to Washington interesting living animals for the National Zoological Park. Mr. W. J. La Varre, who has before made collections of this kind, visited South America and explored the upper waters of the Amazon. Fic. 72.—Animals for the National Zoological Park awaiting shipment at Manaos, Brazil. Photograph by La Varre. He left the United States in June, 1919, and traveled directly to Manaos, Brazil, the jungle metropolis about 1,000 miles up the Amazon at the mouth of the Rio Negro. From Manaos he ascended the Rio Negro, by small steamer and launch, into Venezuela. He found much of interest, but no trace of the so-called “ cannibals” of the region, or of anything savage, either beast or man. ‘The natives, poor, half-breed rubber gatherers—Spanish, Portuguese, Negro, and Indian mixtures—treated him cordially and most hospitably, sharing their rude homes of thatch with him and giving him as much of their food as they could possibly spare. Six months were spent with these 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Fic. 74.—Native Batalao of rubber gatherers, Rio Negro, Brazil. Photograph by La Varre. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 kindly, primitive people, in geographical and zoological research, ex- ploration, and hunting. The general scarcity of mammal life along these famous rivers was surprising. So many rubber gatherers live here that the country has, Fic. 75.—Border marker between Brazil and Venezuela, with govern- ment officials of both countries. Photograph by La Varre. in fact, been hunted out, and the natives themselves are often hard pressed for food. Pacas and peccaries were plentiful, and numbers were shot for use in the camp. ‘Tapir tracks were crossed several times, and small deer were occasionally killed by the natives. on 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLS 72 Curiously enough, only two wild monkeys were observed, although examples of various species were commonly seen in the possession of natives. Birds, on the contrary, were plentiful—among the con- spicuous species were toucans, curassows, macaws, and parrots. Mr. La Varre leit the jungle in February, and arrived in the United States near the end of March, 1920. His collection of living animals, which he presented to the park, included a specimen of the rare black- headed ouakari monkey (Cacajo melanocephalus), a species never before represented in the collection. This monkey is a member of the a Pee ee | eS aa ES . Fic. 76.—White-backed Trumpeter (Psophia leucoptera) from the Rio Negro, now in the National Zoological Park. Photograph by La Varre. only genus of short-tailed monkeys inhabiting the New World, and is very seldom seen in captivity. Other animals in the La Varre collection are capuchin and squirrel monkeys, an ocelot, two margay cats, egrets, a scarlet ibis, and a number of parrots and paroquets. A large living specimen of the rare and curious matamata turtle, a gift to the park from Mr. A. T. S. Hore, of Manaos, was brought home with the lot. Another American resident of Manaos, Mr. Edward B. Kirk, also contributed some interesting birds, among which was a fine specimen of the very rare white-backed trumpeter (Psophia leucoptera) from the Rio Negro. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 63 A second collection of living Neotropical animals was brought to the park by Dr. William M. Mann, of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, who visited Honduras in the spring of 1920. Dr. Mann’s duties in other lines naturally absorbed most of his time, but he succeeded in landing in good con- dition a number of valuable animals. His collection included pacas, agoutis, kinkajous, squirrels, a mantled howler monkey, and some reptiles, among which was a specimen of Rossignon’s snapping turtle, a species rarely taken by collectors. Other valuable animals were collected and presented to the park by Hon. Henry D. Baker, American Consul at Trinidad, British West Indies, and by Mr. Isaac Ellison, of Singapore, Straits Settlements. Mr. Ellison succeeded in landing and placing in the park a thrifty young male orang-utan, three years old. This is one of the most interesting and valuable gifts received in many years. The animal has now become thoroughly adapted to his new home and promises to become a most unusually attractive addition to the collection. The National Zoological Park also shared in the large collection of African animals collected and brought to America for the New York Zoological Society by Mr. A. K. Haagner, director of the National Zoological Gardens at Pretoria, South Africa. Included in the lot received at Washington are a lechwe antelope and a specimen of the Rhodesian baboon, recently discovered and described by Mr. Haagner. ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO THE FAR EAST Under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and in connec- tion with the Rockefeller Foundation and the Peking Union Medical College, Dr. Ales Hrdliéka made an extensive trip to the Far East during the first half of 1920. The objects of this trip were continua- tion of the studies relating to the origin of the American aborigines ; examination of the oldest skeletal and other human remains in Japan ; the furthering of the interests of physical and medical anthropology, ~ in China; and a personal visit to the rapidly disappearing full-blooded Hawaiians. The countries visited included Japan, Korea, Manchuria, northern China, the boundary of southern Mongolia, and the islands of Oahu and Hawaii in the Hawaiian Archipelago. In Japan especial attention was given on one hand to the physical characteristics of the people, and on the other to the prehistoric anthropological collections. The latter have by now assumed con- siderable importance. They are deposited in the universities and medical schools of Tokio, Kyoto, Sendai, Osaka, and Kumamoto, 04 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Fic. 77.—Average types of Japanese children. Photographs presented by Mr. Tsunawo Araki. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 16) ct and are being steadily added to by new explorations in prehistoric mounds and shell heaps. They date all from the Neolithic period, nothing earlier having thus far been discovered in eastern Asia; and they show both an old diversity, as well as more or less relation to the Aino and to the Japanese. Fic, 78.—Japanese child. In Korea special facilities were obtained for visiting the museum at Seoul, which was found unexpectedly rich in Korean and Tur- kestan antiquities. The people represent quite a distinct subtype of the yellow-brown stem from that of the Japanese as well as that of the Chinese; they are more like the western Siberian or southeastern Russian Tatars. One of the most interesting features in Korea are the mound burials of the people. These mounds are all hemispherical, in contradistine- 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Fic. 79.—Of the best in Central Japan. Photographs presented by Mr. Tsunawo Araki. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 67 tion to the conical mounds of Manchuria and northern China. They are of various sizes; they occur singly, in clusters, and in whole “ cemeteries ”; they are frequently assiduously cared for, and many are most picturesquely located on the slopes of hills, where they ap- pear to the best advaniage. The Koreans are a modern race of mound builders. The country is full of archeological remains, including some big mounds and dolmens, and deserves much closer scientific atten- tion than it has so far received. Fic. 80—A Korean Hamlet. From a few houses to large villages, they cluster in the nooks of the hills like mushrooms. The Manchus and the northern Chinese, particularly those of the Chihli Province, are for the most part tall, well-built people, quite different in bearing and even in physiognomy from the southern Chinese, though there is no sharp delimitation. They, too, present a fruitful field for detailed anthropological investigation. The southern or inner Mongolians were found to be a_ rather mixed lot, more so than the northern Mongolians who were visited by Dr. Hrdlicka in 1912. A series of photographs was secured here as well as in Korea and Japan. In Japan, through the kind help of Dr. Tsunawo Araki, there was obtained a large collection of portraits 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 of Japanese children, while the Tokyo Dental College, through the good offices of Professor Mitsuru Okada, contributed several hun- dreds of portraits of its students. China, for the anthropologist and archeologist, is one vast open museum, in which something of absorbing interest is met with at almost every step. In addition the people, and particularly the students in colleges, impress one with their native abilities. China in the future may well be relied upon to give the world many a philosopher and scholar of distinction. Fic. 81.—Mounds near a Korean village. At sunrise on special days it is not unusual to find before each mound a prostrate figure in devotion before the grave of a father or mother. The stay at Peking was principally devoted to assisting in the de- velopment of the medico-anthropological work at the Union Medical College, and the organization of the “Anatomical and Anthropological Association of China.” The college has an excellent staff of well- trained young workers such as Drs. Cowdry, Black, Howard, and others, the majority of whom are seriously interested in those branches of anthropology which are nearest the medical sciences ; and there are bright prospects for anthropological work in other parts of China, due to the presence there of English-speaking (mostly American) NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 69 -—- Fic. 83.—A young matron of a good family, with baby and servant, at Sen Sen, Korea. 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS ‘COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 medical missionaries, who are naturally interested in investigations of that nature. While at Peking, certain investigations were carried on, with the help of Professor Davidson Black, on Chinese teeth ; and a conference was held with the representatives of several Chinese ministries, as well as of the Chinese Geological Survey and the Peking Union Fic. 84.—A Korean girl. Medical College, on the subject of the foundation at Peking of a “Museum of Natural History of China,” the establishment of which would mean so much for the progress of the Chinese themselves, and for facilitating the work of foreign men of science in the Chinese Republic. There exists already, under the direction of Dr. V. K. Ting, a very creditable geological museum, which could serve as a nucleus of the more comprehensive institution. NO. 6 S '- {LITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 71 Fic. 85.—The surgical class at Severance College, Seoul, Korea, Dr. A. I. Ludlow operating. Fic. 86.—Chunhuzes. A rare photograph of the North-Mongolian brigands. to SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 NI On the return trip a stop was made at Hawaii, and with the kind assistance of the staff of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum at Honolulu, and particularly of Dr. Gregory and Mr. Stokes, some studies were carried out on the native Hawaiians in several of the most favorable localities. It was found that the Hawaiians, even Fic. 87——Chinese woman with artificially de- formed feet, at Peking. This crippling deforma- tion is still extensively practised by the Chinese. A Chinese woman without deformed feet is not regarded as “comme il faut.” where free from historic admixture with whites or negroes, present an old blend of several ethnic elements (yellow-brown, Indo-Euro- pean, and Negro or Negrito); this blend, however, has already reached a degree of approach to physical unity which permits the student to deal with it as with a racial subvariety or subtype. But this subtype is rapidly vanishing through new contacts. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 73 % (Célodd. Feeatian. Fie: = 74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 é eS a3 weme ie Fic. 91.—Full-blood Hawaiian. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 NI on THE OJIBWA OF MINNESOTA During the fall of the past year, Dr. Ales Hrdli¢ka was called once more to Minnesota to assist the Department of Justice in settling the subject of mixed bloods and pure bloods among the Ojibwa. (See Smithsonian Explorations for 1917.) The whole work, now concluded, presents a good illustration of the practical value of anthropology in certain directions. The results are outlined in the following extracts from a letter to the Institution from Mr. R. C. Bell, Special Assistant to the Attorney General: The Department of Justice in I910 instituted approximately 1500 suits in the United States Court for the District of Minnesota involving Indian lands. This litigation to January, 1916, has cost the government a very large sum and little had been accomplished. The blood status of the Indians became the determining factor and it was ascertained that all the available evidence (principally testimony as to genealogy) on this issue was found unreliable and always unsatisfactory. Consequently, the Department of Justice, in the spring of 1916, procured the services of Dr. Hrdlicka to make a physical examination of the Indians and report his conclusions as to their status. The doctor spent more than three months in this work and examined approximately 800 individuals. The Department of Justice, the Department of the Interior, and counsel for the defendants agreed to accept his findings as a basis for settlement, and the litigation now has been terminated, resulting in the recovery of more than $1,000,000 in land and money for the Indians; besides, the cost of the work since 1916 has been insignificant in comparison to the cost prior to that time. Furthermore, a commission was created by an Act of Congress to make a roll of the allottees of the White Earth Reservation. The law required, in addition to much other information, that the blood status of the Indians be given. This roll, which affects the title to approximately 725,0000 acres of land, has been completed; and the commission in preparing it followed the findings of the doctor. Only those thoroughly familiar with the situation can appreciate the far-reaching importance of this work. FIELD-WORK ON THE MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK The Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, continued his field-work on the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, during June, August, and September, 1920, in cooperation with the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior. Excavation and repair work was done on the Fire Temple Group and Oak Tree House, ruins in Fewkes Canyon and at Cedar Tree Tower, situated about a mile north of Spruce Tree House, leading to im- portant contributions to our knowledge of the culture of cliff dwellers. He was ably assisted in this work by Mr. J. A. Jeancon, who made the originals of the ground plans of the Fire Temple Group and Cedar Tree Tower here published. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 PAINTED KIVA HOUSE Y bf DAR TREE TOWER IZMILES 2MiILES v “" . See ee | 3 RIED HOUSE Be 2 ab mnees QNAVAHO TOWER y S \ € % v/ 2 ape ; = : ») > i E = 9% S) : % 25 MILES Pres 3/ > \) _ Af SS EAT LONG WOUSE Be ECHO HOUSE ™, ge : OSAATH WoUSE A wage Le re CLIFF PALACE CONY: HOUSE a PSAESERVOIR PICTO&RAPHS — FIAL ¥3 ECHo Gi mV Hem nousea Adorn UN TEMPLE he S ye. \y 4400 = i b/s < NS SOUVARE TOWEA ~ 2 = Se, “ak ay MOUSE a pw wet” NQUSE : = LADDERS ——___— Mee QSUSET 3 SUN POINT © tye 4 o Rin NE. SMILES 3BmMILES of Sun Temple Area in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 77 The opening of Sun Point Road along the south rim of Fewkes Canyon (fig. 92) is a most important addition to the park from the tourist’s point of view. For about a quarter of a mile along this road one can look down into Fire Temple (fig. 94) and Fire Temple House, Oak Tree House (fig. 103), and the two ruins under Sun Temple, the walls of one of which, Willow Tree House, are in the same condition as when the cliff dwellers left the mesa: the other, ) Fic. 93—Ladders into Fewkes Canyon from Sun | Temple. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. oint Road, opposite Fire Mummy House, on a lower level, is notable for its fine masonry. On the point across Fewkes Canyon, rise in full view the walls of Sun Temple, and beyond it, nestling in the cliff, is the magnificent Cliff A S Palace. The fine cliff dwelling Sunset House (‘* Community = . House ”), a prominent ruin in Cliff Canyon, is likewise conspicuous. The road along Fewkes Canyon from which these prehistoric build- ings are visible has already become a very popular drive, being only about two and a half miles from Spruce Tree Camp. The accom- 6 78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 panying map (fig. 92) shows the relative position and approaches to the above mentioned ruins. A fine trail, one of the most beautiful in this area, was developed under the north rim of Fewkes Canyon, to POD ES 2 esis, sas «A Fic. 94.—Fire Temple from Sun Point Road. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. connect the above ruins. Three ladders (fig. 93) placed in the cliff opposite Fire Temple enable the traveler to reach this trail, which ends in ladders on the canyon rim opposite Cliff Palace near the point 79 ‘apd |, Oty JO urTd punoay—S6 “o14] HI TAT HA OKO JQ, 40/409 09 SNjo, 2 a A tn wT CTIA Mii i Weg? ©» | Uf bp — \ MH A SKI petit my MI Me — G fotiey SoyMay / QU OY Lif SS0190 | 101] a : LL 4 GK. My Wy, Ly M/) THA YY Ih 4 \ wy svar sr a, Mh i} Wn) Hh y | 7 eo LA " a Mt ' : Bs ! 2 = : i : MAJON WOY GZ 440 /JOM {U0 y Y, = — ~ < —0 7» a = —— co a 20911] 4 = = = eee r a eS S ie = a t aPimM.9 I 80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 where the discoverers stood when their eves first beheld this most impressive cliff dwelling of the Southwest. The most important discovery of the past season was the determina- tion by excavation that a large cliff house was not a dwelling, but specialized for some communal purpose. This ruin (fig. 98) was devoted to fire worship, a cult which up to this year, although sus- pected, had not been demonstrated as existing among cliff dwellers— at least no specialized building for that function had been recognized. In 1915 there was discovered on the promontory opposite Cliff Palace a building with semicircular ground plan that was interpreted Fic. 96.—Western end of Fire Temple Court, half excavated. Photograph by Fewkes. as a specialized religious structure and called Sun Temple. While work on it was in progress a reconnoissance was made of cliff houses situated in the canyon below, to one of which was given the name Painted House. Like Sun Temple, it was suspected of having also been dedicated to some religious cult of the cliff dwellers, but its true significance was not apparent until the spade of the archeologist last season verified this suspicion and revealed its true purpose. Painted House, upon excavation, proved to be one of the most exceptional cliff ruins yet recognized in the Southwest. The results of the exca- vation have led Dr. Fewkes to designate it Fire Temple, and by No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 81 implication to regard it a temple of the eternal fire. Attention should be called to the importance of the discovery that the cliff dwellers had a New Fire Cult and possibly that rites of new fire and conserva- tion of the same existed among prehistoric people of the Mesa Verde. The rites of kindling the new fire among the descendants of the cliff dwellers, as the Hopi, occur in July and November and are known as the Lesser and Greater fire ceremonials. The act in both is performed by means of a fire stick or drill made to rotate in a Fic. 97.—Eastern end of Fire Temple Court. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. notched board ; the same kind of fire sticks have been found in Spruce Tree House, Square Tower House, and elsewhere. Probably it is to the Lesser Fire ceremony at the East Mesa of the Hopi that we should look for the nearest survival of the cliff dweller’s rite, as in it we find the personation of a phallic being, Kokopelli, whose picture was well preserved up to a few years ago on the wall of the secret chamber of the Fire Temple where fire was created. This Lesser New Fire, called Sumykoli, is celebrated by a fraternity of fire priests, now extinct, known as the Yaya priesthood. The Yaya priest at Hopi carries in his hand during this ceremony a rattle of OLY puB soAUaCT oy Jo AsoayiM0y [ ‘suinyy Jo dnoary oydura yp ottqg—'g6 ‘OI 1 “LUBE al | ~) AC IN RS ile ' VOL. S COLLECTIONS LLANEOU MISCI SMITHSONIAN PPO oy SMITHSONIAN ire Temple House. ‘ ive of | « TALC E round plan of Upper C il 19 12 14 te 16 20 ~SCALE or FEET: IG. 99.—C I 4 o246 EXPLORATIONS, 1920 © 2 4 6 6 10 12 16 13 “SCALE or FEET. 92) Ww Pemple House. Fire... of Lower Cave of Ground plan 100.- 84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 exceptional construction. Two of these, now in the museum of the Brooklyn Institute, were found in a cliff dwelling in the Chelly Canyon, which seems to indicate that there formerly existed among the cliff dwellers of that canyon a fire priesthood like the Hopi Yaya. As the cliff dwellers of Chelly Canyon and those of the Mesa Verde were closely related it is a fair conclusion that the latter also had a well-developed New Fire Cult, and possibly a Yaya priesthood. The masonry of Fire Temple points to an early epoch in the evolu- tion of the Mesa Verde culture, possibly one contemporary with the Fic. 101—Western end of Fire Temple Court. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. first settlement in Cliff Palace cave, but anterior to the erection of the unfinished Sun Temple, which marks a later or culminating phase of cliff house development. Architectural features that Fire Temple shares with Sun Temple may be interpreted by the close relationship of fire and sun cults among the cliff dwellers. Earth Lodge A, exca- vated in 1919, is the ancient type in the evolution of buildings on the mesa antedating stone walls, and there are evidences of successive stages illustrating cultural epochs from the crude Earth Lodge A, which the earliest colonists constructed, to those of horizontal ma- NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 &5 sonry (fig. 108), the highest products of the mason’s craft in pre- historic North America. This evolution may have occurred on the area now reserved as a national park, but was not limited to it. After the abandonment of Fire Temple and the desertion of build- ings of the culminating epoch that followed, people of like culture may have still inhabited the great pueblos at Aztec and in the Chaco. But these in time also succumbed and were deserted before the arrival of the white man. Their descendants were amalgamated with nomadic or non-pueblo peoples and their survivors still inhabit the modern Fic. 102.—Bins for grinding corn in upper cave of Fire Temple House. Photograph by J. A. Jeancon. pueblos along the Rio Grande. Both blood and culture suffered changes in this mixture, and architectural features remain to espe- cially indicate the modifications. The Hopi, Zuni, and modern Rio Grande pueblos have no specialized buildings like Sun Temple nor Fire Temple for sun or fire cults, although they have ceremonial rooms where they formerly kindled the new fire annually. They no longer conserve the fire in this room, but there are legends that they did so in former times, pointing to a remote cultural connection between the cliff dwellers and their modern survivors, the Pueblos. ore) ON SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 The general form and arrangement of rooms at the east and west ends of the central court of Fire Temple differ from any cliff ruin or pueblo in the Southwest. Significant facts show that the building (fig. 97) is unique, as will readily appear from the following state- ments. Excavations in other cliff houses of the same size reveal household utensils, as pottery, and other domiciliary objects. No cooking places, grinding bins, or household implements were found in the extensive work at Fire Temple. Moreover, every cliff house of size on the Mesa Verde has one or more specialized gener- OP ean + e. — Fic. 103—Oak Tree House from Sun Point Road. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. ally circular subterranean rooms for ceremonies. There were no kivas in Fire Temple. But the one exceptional positive feature in this ruin that separates it widely from the cliff dwelling is stronger than these negative evidences. In no cliff house, and indeed in no pueblo, do we find a similar large circular fire pit filled with ashes in the center of a rectangular court. This structure would seem to be the key to the meaning of the whole building. That great fires were once built in this fireplace, as the abundant ashes indicate, no one can doubt. This fireplace is too large for an oven for culinary purposes and although we know that the cliff people sometimes cremated the dead the absence of calcined human bones would disprove the theory that NO. O SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 it was used as a crematory. A natural conclusion would be that it was constructed for ceremonies connected with fire. The significance of the two low-walled rectangular enclosures one on each side of the central fire pit, is unknown. Each was par- tially filled with soil and ashes when excavated and it is suggestive to record that the stratum of earth above them as well as the whole surface of the hardened floor of the court was filled or covered with charcoal and burnt brush. Great fires must have raged over the Fic. 104.—Cedar Tree Tower before excavation. Photograph by J. A. Jeancon. whole court in addition to that in the fireplace, after the temple was deserted. We find several other facts that fit in very well with the interpreta- tion that this building was a fire temple. On the east and west ends of the court (figs. 97, 101) there are banquettes, the former evidently seats for those who watched the ceremonial performance in the court. There are niches in the rear wall where possibly sacred objects may have been placed ; a wall of the cliff bears triangles and zig-zag paint- ings, symbols of sex life ; but, most important of all, on the wall of one of the rooms at the west end of the court there are paintings in red, 88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 one of which, now erased, represented a phallic being still associated with New Fire ceremonies among the Hopi, while others represent fire itself. At the New Fire ceremony among the Hopi one of the four fraternities that celebrate it is the order of Horn Priests, who wear on their heads imitations of the horns of mountain sheep. A large number of paintings of mountain sheep cover the walls of the west room of Fire Temple where fire was supposed to be kindled. The massive walled buildings at the east and west (fig. 94) ends of the court formerly reached to the roof of the cave, and although two stories high no wooden beams for flooring occur in their con- s* id ae Ti MOTT LEE e struction. Wherever a lower story existed it was filled in with rubble on top of which was laid an adobe floor. On the white plastering, which is well preserved, there are numerous figures in red, mostly triangles and symbols of lightning ; female and male symbols similar to those in sacred rooms. Just west of Fire Temple there is a group of rooms from which utensils were excavated. In the floor of one of these rooms is a vertical shaft which opens outside the house walls like a ventilator. The former use of this structure is unknown. Although Fire Temple was not inhabited there were undoubted dwellings nearby. A hundred feet east of it there are two low caves, one above the other, in which may have lived those who once made NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 89 =: 4 B Beare, v x 0'2345678910 SCALE oF FEET RETAINING WALL Fic. 106.—Below, Cedar Tree Tower and kiva; above, ground plan of Cedar Tree Tower and kiva. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 use of this sanctuary. Dr. Fewkes has called the ruin (fig. g&) situ- ated in these caves the Fire Temple House and supposes it was the habitation of the fire priests and their famil:es. The rooms in the lower cave were fitted for habitation, and it had two, possibly three, circular ceremonial rooms ; but the upper cave (fig. g9) is destitute of kivas. The large rooms of the upper house (fig. 100a) may have been granaries for storage of provisions, although possibly some of its rooms were inhabited. In the rear of the large rooms identified as granaries was found a small room with a well-preserved human skeleton accompanied with mortuary pottery. One of these mortuary offerings is a fine mug made of black and white ware beautifully dec- orated; a specimen worthy of exhibition with the best in any mu- seum. In the rear of the cave were three fine grinding bins (fig. 102), with metates still in place. The upper house is now approached from the lower by foot-holes in the cliff and a ladder shown in the illustration. Evidences of a secondary occupation of kivas in the lower house appear in double walls and those of crude masonry without mortar, forming a rec- tangular room built diagonally across the room. The plastering on the rear walls of the lower house is particularly well preserved, but there are very few rooms in addition to the kivas. One of the kivas has in place of a deflector and ventilator shaft a small rectangular trench enclosed by a well-made wall, as in Sun Temple. Work was done on the large cliff ruin, Oak Tree House (fig. 103), on the trail an eighth of a mile east of Fire Temple Group. Three new kivas were excavated to their floors and the walls repaired, add- ing to the four already known. No signs of these buried kivas were visible when work began. All these kivas show fine masonry ; after the most easterly had been used as a sanctuary for a time it was abandoned and five well-preserved grinding bins were set in the floor so as almost to conceal it. The upright slabs of stone and metates of these structures were reset, showing fine examples of these prehistoric mills. Many other novel features were brought to light in the exca- vation of Oak Tree House, which may be regarded as one of the most instructive ruins of the park. One of the exceptional features of Oak Tree House is a fragment of a circular wall in the rear of the cave, made of willow and other sticks set in mortar, like what is called “ stick and adobe” construction in other regions. The ground plan of one of the kivas is semicircular and shows a rectangular room on the straight side communicating with the cham- ber by means of two passageways. The ventilator opens directly into this room, whose function is unknown. No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 gl In one of the grinding bins there was excavated a bundle of grass, Koeleria cristata, of exactly the same form as the brushes with which Hopi maidens sweep their metates after grinding meal; one more resemblance between cliff dweller and Hopi customs. In his classic on the “ Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde,” Baron G. Nordenskiold figured and described a nameless ruin designated a tower (fig. 104), situated in the cedars about a mile north of Spruce Tree House. To this ruin the author has given the name Cedar Tree Fic. 107.—Section of floor of Cedar Tree Tower, showing ceremonial opening. Photograph by J. A. Jeancon. Tower, on account of an ancient cedar tree (fig. 105) hanging over the top of the north wall. Nordenskiold closes his brief description with the remark, *‘ Perhaps it should be regarded a religious building.” The desirability of testing this surmise of the talented Swede led the author, in August, 1920, to excavate this tower and the area about its base, which led to the discovery that although it appeared to stand alone there were two subterranean rooms connected with its base situated on the west and south sides. The larger of these rooms (fig. 106) had all the structural features of a typical kiva of a Mesa Verde cliff dwelling. This subterranean structure, its floor excavated Q2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 in solid rock, was circular with pedestals for supports of a roof, the beams of which were absent, and had a central fire hole, ventilator, and deflector. It communicated with the tower by a subterranean io Fic. 108.—Square Tower House. Photograph by G. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. passage which bifurcated, one branch opening through the tower floor, the other into a square room situated on the southwest side, also subterranean, partially constructed under a large rock forming a a | SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 H. Jackson. W. House; Mesa Verde in the distance. Photograph by Monument, Lower National House a Geological Survey. tC ae the of ‘ourtesy ( 94 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 veritable cliff chamber. In the middle of the solid rock floor of the tower which served as the foundation of the tower walls a circular hole or sipapi (fig. 107), symbolic of the entrance to the underworld, had been drilled, affording evidence that the tower was used for cere- monials. A distant view down Soda Canyon may be had from the top of the tower, although it is situated some distance from the rim of the mesa and shut in by a dense growth of cedars and pinyons. An automobile road constructed around Cedar Tree Tower was continued through the cedars to join the Mancos road. Several ladders were placed in position and a trail opened down the steep wall of Soda Canyon from Cedar Tree Tower to Painted Kiva House, an instructive cliff dwelling about a quarter of a mile away, formerly practically inaccessible. To the west of the Mancos road about the same distance from Spruce Tree House as Cedar Tree Tower there is another tower of the same type, but with walls of adjacent rooms projecting above ground. Several other similar towers have been reported on the mesa, in the Mancos, McElmo, and Hovenweep Can- yons, and elsewhere. The relation of a tower to kivas and other buildings of Square Tower House is shown in figure 108. A preliminary examination was made of the ruin at Aztec Springs now called Yucca House National Monument, in the Montezuma Valley, with a view to future excavation and repair of this important site. As no satisfactory photograph of this ruin has ever been pub- lished a view of the Lower House of this ruin taken in 1874 by W. H. Jackson is by his permission given in figure 109. It is planned to begin work on the Lower House of this great ruin in the spring ob 192i, FIELD-WORK AMONG THE HOPI INDIANS Dr. Walter Hough, curator of ethnology, U. S. National Museum, spent the month of June among the Hopi Indians of Arizona, a tribe with which he has been associated for 25 years. At present some of the Hopi tribes are making rapid progress toward assimilating the culture of the white man, while others; though becoming more and more affected, show changes to a lesser degree. As these changes have taken place through peaceful assimilation and were not forced by war or other disruptive agency they present an interesting field for ethnological research on normal modifications of social struc- tures due to contacts. Some notes on this subject are appended. MATERIAL WELFARE The Hopi have prospered during the last quarter of a century. From the period when they knew almost nothing of money the Hopi NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 95 have advanced to a complete familiarity with United States currency. Purchases can be paid for with check. Some of the more advanced have bank accounts. The Hopi were always acquisitive and frugal, and their habits have put them in a rather good financial condition. Their agricultural products have had a better market and the prices are less subject to the former fixed low valuations of the local trader. SoctaL CHANGES The most effective cause of social changes was the enforced atten- dance of children at government schools and the sending of children to distant Indian schools. Causing considerable friction at first, this has now been accepted in most cases as advantageous. A result not prevised is the weakening of the clan discipline whose former regulative authority was silent but powerful. The weakening of this authority produced much laxity for a time and it was found necessary to appoint policemen and a “ judge.’ The government found it necessary to send away girls not noticeably under parental discipline to schools until they should become discreet. This measure was quite opportune and had a beneficial effect. Decay or NATIVE CEREMONIES In this connection there is ensuing a rapid decay of native cere- monials. The heaviest loss to the native cult is felt by the death of the old men of a former generation. Very shortly there will be no one of the tribe who has not had training in school and more and more of these will evade the call of the native religion. Some fraternities have suspended operation and others are very weak. Notably the woman’s harvest ceremony at Walpi has passed out and the Snake Society there is about to discontinue. CHRISTIANIZATION Missions to the Hopi were carried on from time to time during a period of several hundred years without appreciable results. When the disintegration due to government control had progressed mis- sionary efforts began to bear fruit. The Baptist mission at Polacea has a stone church and a consider- able and growing number of converts. Other branches of this mission are doing well. A slight cleavage is observed between the Christians and non- Christians but no friction. The Hopi are agreed to let things work out as they will. gO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN UTAH, ARIZONA, AND NEW MEXICO During May and early June, 1920, Neil M. Judd, curator of Ameri- can archeology, United States National Museum, continued his arch- eological reconnoissance of the arid region north of the Rio Colo- rado, Arizona, in behalf of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Attention was chiefly directed to the Toroweap Valley and several caves in an extensive lava flow on the east slope of Mt. Trumbull ; to the unwatered mesa known as Pariah Plateau; to certain portions of House Rock Valley not previously visited’ and to the upper two- ~ - Fic. eastern rim of Paria Plateau and not far from the Rio Colorado. Note the upright slabs in the foreground—a frequent feature of prehistoric dwellings in this region. thirds of Bright Angel Creek. In addition, a number of caves in Cottonwood Canyon and Kanab Creek, Kane County, Utah, were examined for evidence of ancient habitations. In Bright Angel Creek several open ruins and three groups of cliff houses were inspected; a complete survey was found impossible on account of unexpected high water which prevented access to the narrow, walled-in portion adjoining the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. In contrast to the conditions which were encountered in this beautiful gorge, lack of water and forage for pack animals seriously * Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 70, No. 2, 1918. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 Q7 Fic. 111.—Cliff dwellings on the west side of Bright Angel Creek, above the mouth of Beaver Creek. Through the doorway of the right-hand room will be seen a bench, made from a cottonwood log, which forms an unusual feature of the ruin. Fic. 112.—A group of small storage cists near several ancient ruins at the foot of the upper falls, Ribbon Falls Canyon, Bright Angel Creek. The in- accessible cliffs surrounding this section of the canyon form an amphitheater whose narrow entrance was guarded by a second fall over one hundred feet in height. 98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 restricted investigations in the other sections above noted. The hurried inspection of the Mt. Trumbull region was made in an auto- mobile, it being impracticable to use horses in this parched country during the summer months. Exposed pueblo ruins bordering the east rim of Pariah Plateau and overlooking the Painted Desert proved more numerous than was anticipated. In size, in arrangement of rooms and in the quality of their masonry these ancient dwellings are superior to those seen elsewhere in northwestern Arizona; likewise, potsherds examined at each site exhibit greater perfection of form and a higher decorative technique. These two factors—architectural 4 4 bs r is ws | Fic. 113.—Part of a cliff village in a cave on the east side of Cottonwood Canyon, near Kanab, Utah. The village includes nineteen rooms and a nearby spring furnished excellent water for the ancient inhabitants. and ceramic remains—alone are sufficient to connect the former in- habitants of this region with the pre-Puebloan peoples east of the Rio Colorado and to warrant the expectation that additional investigations will disclose the approximate points at which the Colorado River was crossed in ancient times. Following his researches for the Bureau of American Ethnology, Mr. Judd proceeded to New Mexico as director of an archeologic reconnoissance of the Chaco Canyon National Monument. This sur- vey was conducted under the auspices of the National Geographic Society and had for its prime object close examination of the aboriginal remains in the above monument with a view toward selec- NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 99 tion of a possible site for exhaustive investigation and permanent repair. The Chaco Canyon National Monument was created by presi- dential proclamation March 11, 1907, and includes 18 major ruins of very great significance in the study of ancient Pueblo life. Unlike the vast majority of cliff houses and other ruins found elsewhere, each of these huge buildings was constructed along preconceived plans Fic. 114.—Grand Canyon of the Colorado from the lower Toroweap valley, southeast of Mt. Trumbull. Evidence of prehistoric habitations were not lacking in this region but the dwellings were widely separated and poorly preserved. and as a community enterprise. The studied arrangement of their rooms and the perfection of their masonry rank them as the very finest examples of prehistoric architectural accomplishment in the United States. Not only did the ancient inhabitants of Chaco Canyon excel as builders with stone, but the lesser objects, found in and about the great communal dwellings, show that they had attained remarkable skill as makers of pottery, ornaments and implements of various 100 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 se : : : > ee Bee gree pas SR ee x L if a = a ‘ ho Ne 4 i , 2 aa ; 54 ° Fic. 115.—The north wall of Pueblo Bonito, viewed from the northeast. This is the largest and justly the most famous of all the Chaco Canyon ruins; it covers nearly three acres of ground and some of its walls still stand to a height of forty feet. When occupied Pueblo Bonito probably contained as many as 800 rooms, sheltering over 1200 individuals. : wet rod ee Me STs — , mene . > * 1 a ei” I ig ieee, Fae or. om © eet” Fic. 116.—The north-central portion of Pueblo Bonito, from the southeast, showing its position relative to the north wall of Chaco Canyon. Sections of fourth story walls appear in the above illustration. Like most of its neigh- boring ruins, Pueblo Bonito was constructed in a series of terraces overlooking a central court or plaza; the outer wall was pierced by small windows above the first floor but had few doorways. NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 IOI Fic. 117—A portion of Kimmenioli ruin, showing the present condition of its walls. About 135 ground floor rooms are still traceable; originally the building was three, perhaps four, stories high. Although one of the finest in the national monument this great communal dwelling is not so well known as some of its neighbors in Chaco Canyon which is situated some ten miles to the north and east. Fic. 118.—Pueblo del Arroyo, occupying an insecure position on the very edge of Chaco wash, 300 feet west of Pueblo Bonito. Flood waters have exposed the remains of an older dwelling beneath the walls of the larger structure and now threaten the latter. View from the north. 102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 sorts. The beauty and technique of such specimens warrant the belief that these canyon dwellers had reached a plane of esthetic as well as social development not surpassed elsewhere in the Southwest. Although the 18 major ruins constitute the main feature of this ‘ national monument there are, in addition, hundreds of “ small house” remains scattered throughout the entire Chaco Canyon dis- trict. In culture as well as in architecture these lesser dwellings were closely allied to the larger structures. Talus pueblos and small cliff houses are to be found along the north side of the canyon; elsewhere fo} ~ bf the mud walls of a “ pit house’ have been disclosed—a crude, semi- ee Se eee Fic. 119.—Part of Pueblo Pintado, as seen from the northwest. This ruin was visited by Lt. J. H. Simpson, August 26, 1849, on his memorable advance into the Navaho country; the large timbers noted by Simpson and other early explorers have since been torn from the walls, causing obvious destruction to the latter. subterranean shelter—older than any of the other habitations yet observed in this region. Certain it is that comprehensive investiga- tions in the Chaco Canyon drainage will add largely to present knowl- edge concerning the prehistoric pueblo peoples of the southwestern desert country. MUSIC OF THE PAPAGO AND PAWNEE In February, 1920, Miss Densmore went to the Papago Reserva- tion in southwestern Arizona to continue her study of Indian music for the Bureau of American Ethnology, residing for more than four NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 103 weeks at a government station called San Xavier Mission. The Papago tribe was selected partly because of its desert habitat (fig. 120), the intention being to compare the phonographic records of Papago songs with those of Arabian songs obtained from Arabs who were temporarily in Washington, D. C. (Subsequent results proved the value of this comparison.) According to the last census there are 7,465 Papago Indians on the reservation, but not one “ mixed-blood ” family. It is said further that there has never been any intermarriage between this tribe and Mexicans or Spanish. Their manner of life is becoming modified, but many primitive customs remain and were observed. A primitive burial place was found by Miss Densmore. Fic. 120.—Habitat of Papago Indians. (Photograph by Miss Densmore.) These burial places were constructive on the side of a mountain and consisted of low walls of rocks, roofed with timber and tightly closed with stones. Bodies were removed after a time to make room for other burials. A skull and a few bones remained in the tomb exam- ined. The subjects studied were: (1) Songs used in treating diseases caused by spirits of dead Apaches and Papago; (2) songs connected with the “ purification ” of returned warriors who had killed Apaches, and (3) songs connected with dreams, games, and dances. Musical instruments formed a subject of special investigation. A native flageolet was obtained (fig. 12) together with the tradition concerning its origin. The music of this instrument was phonographically recorded and has been transcribed. The Papago beat upon an over- 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Fic. 121.—Papago playing on native flageolet. VOL. SJ lo NO. O SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 105 turned basket instead of a drum, striking the basket with the palms of one or both hands. ‘“ Rasping sticks” are sometimes used with such a basket, as shown in figure 122. Fic, 122.—Papago and native musical instrume After a brief stay in Phoenix, Arizona, Miss Densmore went to Camp McDowell (formerly Fort Me Dowell) and was present at 100 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 gathering of Mohave Apaches, explaining her work and securing their consent to record songs on a subsequent visit. The adobe build- ings of the old fort are in ruins, but a few of the smaller and more substantial buildings remain. From Arizona Miss Densmore went to Pawnee, Oklahoma, arriving April 12, a few days before the Morning Star Ceremony. This is one of the most important ceremonies of the year as it is held for the purpose of securing good crops. At this time the “ Morning Star Bundle ” is opened and its contents displayed for several hours, while the proper rituals are sung. Miss Densmore was allowed to enter the lodge for a brief time and to view the sacred articles (it is said wy Fic. 123.—Pawnee lodge of Morning Star Ceremony. (Photograph by Miss Densmore.) only one other white person has been accorded this privilege). Dur- ing the remainder oi the ceremony, which lasted many hours, she stayed outside the lodge (fig. 123) and make manuscript notes of the songs. An approach to two-part music, heard at this time, had not been previously observed. While at Pawnee a sufficient number of songs was recorded to complete the musical study of that tribe. In November, 1920, Miss Densmore returned to Arizona to resume work among the Papago. The principal work was done at Vomari, a point near the Mexican border and 80 miles from the railroad. Inter- esting material was collected also at Sells, formerly known as Indian Oasis. Among the subjects studied were: (1) The Papago expedi- tions to the Gulf of California for salt and for “ medicine power,” NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 107 each sort of expedition having its songs; and (2) the rain-making ceremonies, including the manufacture of tizwin. In connection with the latter a visit was made to Santa Rosa, at the extreme north of the reservation, where a tizwin camp and lodge were photographed. A specimen of the cactus syrup used in making tizwin was obtained, as well as a large basket which had been used in serving this wine. Many sites of legendary or geographic interest were photographed, Miss Densmore travelling more than 360 miles by auto on this trip. The most important result of this expedition was the hearing of a form of three-part music at a Papago dance. This was said to be a native musical custom. So near an approach to polyphonic music has not been hitherto observed by Miss Densmore and the subject will receive further investigation. OZARK CAVES AND MOUNDS IN MISSOURI During the summer of 1919 the work of cave exploration in the Ozark region was continued by Mr. Gerard Fowke, for the Bureau of American Ethnology. Almost his entire time was given to a thorough examination of two large caves in Pulaski County. The first, known as Miller’s cave, is three miles northeast of Big Piney postoffice. The opening is in the vertical face of a high cliff fronting Big Piney River, with a steep talus slope beginning 30 feet below the floor of the cave and extending to the water’s edge. The perpen- dicular wall below, with a projecting ledge which forms the roof, prevents a direct entrance, and the interior can be approached only through another cave whose opening is in a ravine near by. A narrow passage, barely large enough to admit a man in a crawling or crouch- ing position, connects the two, and it is only through this that access can be gained to the main cave. The inmates were absolutely safe from molestation, as one man could defend this opening against any number. A little stream flowing along the foot of the east side of the cavern ensured a supply of water at all times: game was plentiful in the neighborhood: the river abounded in fish; and fertile, level bottom lands, easily cultivated, on either side of the stream furnished much corn and other farm products. A ditch and enbankment across an isthmus guarded a peninsula on the opposite side of the river, and on both sides low house mounds and abundant debris furnished proof of two large village sites. Whether there was any connection between the villages and the cave dwellers cannot be determined. A bed of clean, pure ashes whose depth ranged from 3 to 64 feet, according to the irregularities of the clay, was found in the cave 108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL ae reaching from wall to wall, a width varying from 45 to 70 feet. This bed was so loose as to be almost like a snow bank; but for the most part they were as compact as 1f much trampled over while wet. When solidly packed, the mass would measure fully 800 cubic yards in volume; but when loosened by excavation, 200 cubic yards more. All the wood had to be carried from either the top or the bottom of the hill, which is about 400 feet high, and passed through the small opening from the other cave. It is safe to say no more fuel would be used than was strictly necessary. When it is considered how little fire is requisite for the needs of an Indian household, and that the limited space suitable for residence would not provide sufficient room for more than half a dozen families at a time, it is quite clear that this amount of ashes meant a very long occupancy. Even with continuous habitation, several centuries would be required for such a quantity to accumulate; and if residence was desultory and intermittent, as 1s customary with roving or hunting tribes, or if it was only a winter home for some of those living in the villages mentioned, the period would be greatly lengthened. Yet the remains found in these ashes were of the same character from top to bottom. The artificial objects found numbered about 75 mortars, more than 200 pestles, hundreds of flint knives or spear heads, numerous implements of bone, antler, and shell; quantities of crude pottery fragments, a few tomahawks, and two pipes. While the many mortars and pestles indicate much use of grain, seeds, and nuts, at the same time the great amount of mammal, bird, and fish bones showed that a large part of their sustenance was derived from animal food. Of more than 20 skeletons found in various stages of decay, only two were of aged individuals, most being remains of children or young persons. The skulls were of low type. Not an ornament of any sort was found except a few rude ones of bone or shell. Some of the human bones, mostly those of children, were charred and broken, and mingled with the debris of food animals and ashes as if the flesh had been used for food, and the broken bones thrown aside with the refuse. There was no evidence of the crema- tion of bodies; the condition of these bones points to the practice of cannibalism. The second cave explored is situated a mile south of Waynesville, on land belonging to Dr. J. W. Sell, and was probably a temporary camping place. Its opening is on a hillside facing Roubidoux creek, and is easily accessible from either the top or the bottom of the hill. A few rods back from the entrance, water stands on the floor through- out the year: so that only the front part of the cave was used for shelter. At the entrance is a pile of earth washed from the sloping No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 10g surface of the hill above, over the ledge that forms the roof. This accumulation spreads for 50 feet into the cave, but not so far on the outside, because there it washes down the slope. From its surface to the clay floor on which it rested the greatest depth was a few inches over six feet. From top to bottom there was found in this cave the ordinary debris of an Indian campfire. Buried at various depths here and there, in the portion within the cave were 14 human skele- tons, most of them so decayed that only a few fragments were remain- ing. They are of persons of various ages; some of the skulls were low, small, and flat. A long period of occupancy is indicated by the conditions here as at Miller’s cave. While the amount of earth heaped in front of the cave does not seem large, yet it all has come from a space not exceed- ing 6,000 square feet in area and most of this is bare rock with humus of decayed vegetation existing only in the crevices or on the few flat surfaces. All the other water from the hill runs to the slopes and does not reach the cave. A violent storm passed over the region soon after the work was concluded, in which 12 inches of rain fell in three days, yet not more than a wheelbarrow load of soil was washed down over the roof to the pile already there. It is evident that cen- turies would be required to build up the mass, throughout which these traces of man’s presence are scattered promiscuously. During all the period these caves were in use no improvement took place in the fabrication of stone implements or pottery. Specimens found nearest the top of the ashes or dirt could not be distinguished from those of the same class from the rock or clay floors. The inhabi- tants remained in the same plane of culture. The thousands of small mounds extending southward from the upper swamp region of Missouri have long been a puzzle to arche- ologists and until recently it has been supposed that in this state they are confined to the southeastern portion: but in the course of Mr. Fowke’s field-work they have been found to extend to the north and west as well. Groups of them have been located in Oregon, Dent, Phelps, Pulaski, Osage, and Morgan counties, the latter along the Benton County line. Their purpose has not yet been determined, although Thoburn’s hypothesis that they are due to the Pawnees, whose line of migration was through the area in which they occur, and are the remains of earth-covered houses, seems the most tenable yet advanced. This theory implies that when this tribe passed beyond the region in which suitable timber for supporting the weight of the earth, and also earth adapted to such use, could be procured, they were compelled to substitute for them small poles overlaid with grass 8 110 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. '72 Comparison with the typical modern Pawnee earth lodge, a photo- graph of which Miss Densmore published in her account of field- work for 1919, corroborates Thoburn’s interpretation of these Missouri mounds. ARCHEOLOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE IN HAWAII With an allotment from the Bureau of American Ethnology, Mr. Fowke spent the entire summer of 1920 in the Hawaiian Islands, making a careiul examination of all ancient works of whatever nature, that could be visited with the time and opportunities at his command. While there is abundant evidence everywhere that the old Hawaiian people were extremely industrious, using vast quantities of stone in Fic. 124.—Pawnee ceremonial earth lodge, exterior. Photograph by Miss Densmore. the construction of their temples, houses, garden enclosures, fish ponds, and taro terraces, there was nothing discoverable among all these remains which could be attributed to a prehistoric tribe, or to any other race than that found in possession when the islands were first known to the white man. The five principal islands were visited and explored as thoroughly as was possible in the circumstances. It was not practicable to ex- amine every feature of interest, where there is so much demanding attention; but at no place could there be discovered any indication which would seem to justify excavation with the expectation of un- NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 LEE earthing beneath the top soil remains which might differ in general character from those on the surface. There being no difference between remains belonging to the historic period and those superficially showing evidence of great age, it is logical to conclude that when that branch of the Polynesian race, now known as Hawaiians, left their home in the distant South Seas and migrated to these islands, they found the territory without inhabitants ; and there is no reason what- ever for supposing that any people culturally different from the his- toric Hawaiians had ever previously lived on the islands. FIELD-WORK AMONG THE FOX AND PLAINS CREE INDIANS Dr. Michelson, ethnologist of the Bureau of American Ethnology, began field-work among the Fox Indians at Tama, Iowa, about the Fic. 125.—The dwelling in which the White Buffalo Dance of the Fox In- dians is held. The building is the typical “ bark” house used by the Fox in the summer and early fall. middle of June. His main purpose was to restore phonetically a text containing the autobiography of an Indian woman written in the cur- rent syllabary which he had obtained in the summer of 1918, to correct the translation where there was need, to elucidate some ethnological references contained in the text, to clear up some grammatical ob- scurities, and to work out the verbal stems so far as was feasible in the field. All this was successfully accomplished, and Dr. Michelson left for Saskatchewan in the latter part of July for a preliminary investigation of the Plains Cree. The results of this investiga- tion show that the Plains Cree are tall and have a cephalic index 112 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS: COLLECTIONS VOL.9 72 ® Fic. 126.—An aged Plains Cree (File Hills Agency). L Fic. 127.—Tipi of the Plains C < ree (File Hills Agency). NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 113 of about 79, and evidently are the same type as the one which formerly occupied the Mississippi Valley, thus confirming the results of Dr. Boas, announced in 1895. The general grammatical prin- ciples which have been worked out for Fox apply also to Cree. In some respects Cree is more archaic than Fox, in others less so. Ethnologically the Plains Cree are about half way between more typical Indians of the Plains, such as the Blackfeet, and the Central Algonquins. An analysis of the myths and tales which cluster around the culture hero shows that we practically have the myths and tales of the culture heroes of the Blackfeet and Ojibwa combined. All this is just what one would expect from the geographical position of the Plains Cree. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TENNESSEE Mr. W. E. Myer, of Nashville, Tenn., spent September and October, 1920, making explorations for the Bureau of American Ethnology in the Cumberland Valley around Nashville. He dis- covered on the H. L. Gordon farm, one mile northeast of Brentwood, in Davidson County, the remains of an ancient Indian walled town. These were situated in a woodland and had never been disturbed by the plow. Their partial exploration brought to light some new and interesting details of the life of the inhabitants. Traces of 87 house circles and faint indications of several more could be made out. This town covered 11.2 acres and was surrounded by an earthen embank- ment which formerly supported a palisaded wall, equipped with circular towers every 55 feet. The ancient inhabitants, for some unknown reason, had deserted this village and the site had never afterward been occupied or dis- turbed. The deserted structures had gradually fallen down and the remains slowly buried under from 10 to 14 inches of earthmold. In some of these circles portions of beautiful, smooth, hard-packed, glossy-black floors were found. In the centers were the ancient fire- bowls, yet filled with the ashes of the last fires kindled in these homes before their owners left them forever. Near these fire-bowls often could be seen the metates, mullers and other household utensils, just as left the last time used. Underneath the floors were the stone slab graves of the little children, one of which is shown in figures 128 and 129, A level open space was found near the center of the town and on the western side of this plaza was a low flat-top mound that had originally supported some important building. Adjoining this mound I1i4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 72 on the west was an earth circle which probably outlined the ruins of the town house. At the center of this sacred structure, on the unique black glossy floor, an ancient altar (fig. 130) was found. It was still filled with the pure white ashes of what had once been the sacred fire. 128.—Child’s grave after removal of infiltrated soil, before disturbing mortuary vessels. Fic. This altar was carefully preserved and is now in the Bureau of Ethnology. The Gordon site is of much interest because here we have an ancient Indian village just as the original inhabitants left it. THE FEWKES GROUP Mr. Myer also partially explored an unnamed Indian village group at Boiling Spring Academy in Williamson County, Tenn. At the SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 I15 request of many citizens of Tennessee Mr. Myer named this site the Fewkes Group, in honor of Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, who had visited it and recognized its possibilities a few months before. . ~ , * Fic. 129.—Child’s grave after removal of body. floor composed of broken pottery. Note he earlier people built the mounds and most of the other remains. At a later The earlier people At least two different peoples have lived on this site. date a small band of some other tribe located here. buried their dead either in hexagonal or almost circular stone slab rraves, the bodies closely flexed. The later band used rectangular stone slab graves with the body extended full length on its back. 116 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 72 The Fewkes Group consists of four mounds, one on each of the four sides of a level plaza, the traces of about a dozen house circles, and a small remnant of what was once a considerable stone slab cemetery. Fic. 130.—Altar. Mound No. 2 on the map is a low oval mound situated on the western side of the plaza. The site of this mound had been lived upon for some time before any mound was raised. At last the mound was commenced and raised to a height of three feet and a building for domestic purposes erected thereon. This building was later torn down and then the mound was raised three feet higher. The mound was again used for domestic purposes for a period. Then a town house NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 LL? or sacred ceremonial house was built on it. This sacred building also had one of those rare, beautiful floors made of clay, smoothed, then hardened by fire, and finally covered with a coating which is yet black and glossy. - In the center of the building, on this beautiful floor, an altar was found. It was similar to the altar shown in figure 130. This building had walls made of cane stalks with the leaves attached, which had been woven in and out between the upright posts which supported the roof. These canes may have had a coating of earth, though no trace of it could be found, and the walls also had a Fic. 131.—Mortuary vessel from child’s grave. covering of woven cane matting. In some way the building was destroyed by fire. Earth was thrown on the remains in time to smother its still glowing embers, which produced a large amount of powdery charcoal containing fragments of cane stalks with the leaves attached, and portions of the woven cane matting. After this sacred building was burned the mound was raised one and one-half feet or more in height. All trace of its last use has been destroyed by 8&5 years of cultivation. The low mound, No. 3, on the south side of the plaza, was a burial mound belonging to the first settlers. The mortuary vessel shown in figure 131 came from a hexagonal grave in this mound. 118 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Mound No. 1 on the north side.of the plaza is 180 feet across the base and 25 feet high. It is the most conspicuous mound in the group. Lack of funds prevented its exploration. House circle No. 6 was one of the group of buildings, Nos. 6, 10, and 11, whose functions were doubtless closely interwoven. No. 6 contained in its center an altar or fire-bowl. There was evidence that this town had either been taken by an enemy and burned, or the ancient inhabitants, forced to flee, had burned their homes to prevent their falling into the hands of the invader. Fic. 132.—House circle No. 17. Cleared floor of wigwam, showing ancient fire-bowl. Body of child was found by side of upright stone. Its head rested within edge of fire-bowl. Top edges of upright stone slab sides of another coffin in corner to right of women. House circle No. 17, shown in figure 132, was a typical dwelling. It was evidently the home of a neat housekeeper. No broken animal bones, pottery, fragments, or other evidences of untidiness littered the floor. The floor was of hard-packed clay and a fire-bowl was sunk in the center of the floor. At this fire-bowl a puzzling burial was unearthed. A child, about eight years of age, was buried by the side of the upright stone slab, with its head resting just within the extreme edge of the fire-bowl, whose rim had been cut away at this point to admit the top of the child’s head. The fire-bowl was found still filled with ashes, and although the ashes covered the top No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 11g of the child’s head, the head showed not the faintest trace of the action of fire. The graves of two infants were also found in the floor of this house. At both the Gordon and the Fewkes groups every piece of bone and every fragment of pottery was carefully saved and location noted. These thousands of fragments will give a reliable record of the food animals and practically a complete list of all the sizes, colors and shapes of their domestic pottery. Both these sites, when explorations were completed, were accurately restored to their original shape for the benefit of coming generations. The interesting altars, fire-bowls, building post-holes, and vestiges of domestic life were carefully preserved, and again covered up so as to allow their future study. It is strongly urged by the citizens of Tennessee that the Fewkes Group be made a national monument. Mr. Myer discovered a great Indian fortress on the long, narrow point of land between the Harpeth and Cumberland rivers, at their junction, in Cheatham County, Tennessee. This fortress consists of a thin, double-faced bluff, about three-quarters of a mile in length, and only from 10 to 250 feet wide along its tall and narrow summit. It faces both rivers and has nearly perpendicular sides along its entire length on both streams. It can be scaled with very great difficulty and at only a few places. The Indians protected these few places of ascent with breastworks or mounds. This was a central place of refuge for a series of scattered Indian settlements extending about six miles up and five miles down the Cumberland River and about five miles up the Harpeth. The four pipes from this region are unlike any found elsewhere in the valley, and probably the culture of the ancient people who used this fort was different from any other known at present in the Cum- berland Valley. On a recent visit Dr. Fewkes examined the great unexplored mound group on Harpeth River at the mouth of Dog Creek, in Cheatham County. This group is the remains of one of the important pre- historic settlements east of the Mississippi. There is a great mound, with wide earthen platforms, capping a hill in the up-stream end of this settlement. A portion of the hill has been artificially shaped so as to give greater prominence to the works on top of it. Surrounding these works on the summit are the ruins of a large edifice and other important remains. This portion of the settlement covers about 40 acres and is said to be connected by an embankment with the remainder of the mounds in Mound Bottom, I20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 about two miles down the Harpeth. The Mound Bottom portion, shown in figure 133, covering about 50 acres, contains Mound No. 2 with large platform ; Mounds Nos. 1, 4, 5, and 6; cemetery No. 7, and other traces of a considerable population. Fic. 133—Mound Bottom. Other great mounds belonging to this unexplored group. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN NEW MEXICO During July, and a part of August, Mr. J. A. Jeancon, special archeologist of the Bureau of American Ethnology, made a recon- noissance and conducted intensive archeological work at Taos, New Mexico. While it has been known for a long time that there was excellent archeological as well as ethnological material to be obtained in this valley, no archeological research has been done there before the present work in the summer of 1920. The great number and variety of sites seem to indicate a long period of occupancy of the region. These sites are well-defined smail house groups, each indicating one, two, or more rooms. There are also great communal groups as that at Bagley ranch and the Arroyo Hondo. The mounds are sometimes over 20 feet in height; the pottery sherds scattered over these sites range from the primitive black-and-white ware to what appears to be the so-called biscuit ware. A small pueblo ruin at Llano was selected for excavation and, while the yield of pottery was small, many interesting facts were obtained. The ruin is located on the south bank of the Little Rio Grande, one mile and a half from the plaza of Ranchos de Taos. Situated on the edge of a high mesa it commands a magnificent view of the country for miles around, excepting to the east, where the view is cut off by NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I920 I2!I the mountains. The fields which probably furnished the villagers well-watered agricultural areas are situated in the valley below. The excavation showed that there had been two occupations on the site. In several places the remains of earlier old walls show beneath the present walls, indicating that the first and second buildings had Fic, 134.—Ruin at Llano, Taos Valley. totally different ground plans. All of the walls (fig. 134) were made of a mixture of wood ash, small stones (about the size of pebbles ordi- narily found in gravel), and adobe which when exposed to the air becomes very hard. The walls of the second occupation are not as well made as those of the first, but the floors of both resemble those of the older villages still inhabited, where the blood of animals was used to give them temper and polish. 122 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 The general plan of the ruin recalls those of southwestern Colo- rado. The kiva at Llano (fig. 135) was completely surrounded with rooms and when the roof was intact its surface was a small plaza surrounded by the buildings of the main group. An evidence of the two occupations is that the more recent kiva was built inside the older, and the space between their walls had been filled in with rubbish. No roof timbers remained in the ruin, but there were in the kiva four upright posts upon which the former roof rested. In about the center of the kiva there was an excellent fireplace, and in the floor directly Fic. 135.—Kiva at Llano, Taos Valley. adjoining the fireplace a plastered pit (fig. 135), an unusual adjunct to the fireplace, the purpose of which is unknown. Between the fire- place and the pit is a stone slab, one foot high and about nine inches wide. The excavations brought to light a very small number of the undecorated sherds of white ware; the black-and-white pottery is unusually hard and fine, but the black or rather brownish-black ware used for cooking and storage is very soft. The forms of and designs on the black-and-white pottery strongly suggest the San Juan ware. During the month of May, 1920, Mr. Jeancon made a satisfactory reconnoissance in the country lying south and southwest of Dulce, No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 123 Fic. 136—Ruin in La Jara Canyon. ae La > Fic. 137.—Ruin in La Jara Canyon. 124 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 New Mexico. He found in Burns, La Jara and other canyons indi- cations of two periods of occupation evinced by the pottery which belongs to the old pre-Spanish black-and-white and the hard- coiled wares. The houses of the earlier period were “earth lodges” of a primitive type. The house remains point to the second occupation and are in many cases built on the tops of high masses of sandstone (fig. 136), and show the crudest workmanship. A common site for buildings is the edge of high points (fig. 137), along the terraced (natural) sides of the canyons. All of the later sites give Fic. 138.—Dulce Ruin. an impression that they were more or less defensive and _ hastily erected. Associated with these buildings are remains of metal objects, apparently of Spanish manufacture ; many of the beams in the houses plainly show the marks of metal tools. The pottery has a bluish-black color, closely resembling a modern vitrified brick, and is so hard that when struck it rings with a clear bell-like tone. The surface suggests old Hopi ware and the decorations are similar to the older Zuni and Acoma designs. The pottery and associate remains probably do not antedate the reconquest of the Southwest by the Spaniards in 1690. It is known that some of the pueblo people fled from the Spaniards at the time of NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1920 12 on the great rebellion and took refuge in the mountains to the north. It is probable that further investigation will show that in this area the ruins ascribed to the second period were built and inhabited by refugees from Zuni and Acoma. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN TEXAS Archeological field-work was carried on in 1920 by the Bureau of American Ethnology in co-operation with the University of Texas under direction of Professor Pearce and Professor Engerrand. Several localities in Texas were visited and considerable intensive work done in the eastern part of the state. The region in eastern Texas to which most attention was given was in the vicinity of the little city of Athens in Henderson County. Judge A. B. Watkins of that city has long taken a keen interest in the history and archeology of the region and was of great help to Professor Pearce in his field-work. A number of aboriginal objects, complete specimens of pottery, clay pipes, conch-shell cores, fine arrowheads and human bones were obtained from an ancient burial ground two miles northeast of Frankston on the De Rossett Farm. One of the objects found was a “ turkey call” or whistle made from the drumstick of a turkey. This is identical with those used not many years ago by old white hunters on the frontier and Professor Pearce feels sure that the white man’s use of this device was borrowed from the Indian. Professor Pearce finds that the east Texas region contains numerous mounds, village sites and burial places, among which may be mentioned Nacogdoches, Panola, Bowie, Wood and other counties. Three interesting mounds on the Morrall Farm four miles east of Cherokee County were investigated. The highest of these mounds has an altitude of about 35 feet above the level valley or field in which they are all located and is about 80 feet across at the base. This mound is very steep and even now after long erosion its sides rise at an angle of 45°. Mound B is 180 feet long by 75 feet wide and rises only 15 feet above the general level. The other three mounds in the vicinity of Athens have been ploughed into and have no regularity in form. On the Quate tract east of De Rossett farms there are Indian mounds which were not regarded as very ancient. Several mounds situated in Harrison County on the farm of Mr. Lane Mitchell, of Marshall, were examined and remains of earth lodges with central fire pits were reached. These mounds are probably very ancient, 126 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS. COLLECTIONS VOL. 72 Numerous other sites were explored, yielding a collection of pottery, stone implements and other objects, illustrating the life of the pre- historic aborigines of eastern Texas. Everything found implies that the Indians of this region lived in relatively settled villages, had considerable agriculture, made pottery extensively and of a high-grade, and were altogether in a considerably higher stage of culture than were those who occupied the prairies and plains. ~. ih ae Rye: Le nae tyes jake Th a Umian de® | an) Pen *. “3 10,0 aay - Jt WA » * a ye we oh) es? ae Pal a = » i Irn, | LEELA EE Riinean | 4 FUE LT MM | Nat ‘vd om ret 4 “ z hy HI - lS of . < Map deeb Ae " YB . veuen.. ttt ge tree Xi ay ¥V¥ : es j . Soe = ‘oa were | \ Mwy 1 ~~ é Ores HR 4. v aN = PY 4 A \V Av ” ¥ uy ¥ AE, cee inode Se R am et id os dpe: PA ney hi er ' MY “4 A wane ¢ | ' { u | m4 y ev v iT GE | a TTT ih Angee a Artin noattt m4 ) tae Niet MH Ie ‘ D a5 = < y By 4 °c @ over "Heyy. val HA TTT TT THAT Priist COE ikl Oak Gu A OI ea ft pe OE MANES LA arr Lacan WE RTRs ny 4 A, ee wd dpe 1 i ard ae wwf a wty We cats a | bol ol SO alee Teh Se bl eae ety yew ee eae Neat it thee MITE sco cermseytt™ nv | tages TUTE OP rnc eeee a ies Saeeaazatewe SL el eT HL eel be irae yen ire Ju js) Contd) eatiteWre’s, "Werte Ut cs eMMbAE 4 | * ale . Wading, rein : Ee toe ibe * F ! 5 ‘ € ce | ah Df || hs Pad: 4 . Wy wees PALE eile bray TO gon pled pnt Wim ee mew ttn. BERRA Lin Shes Dey. b helt et 7 Ve eeeae Am. oa . ne eS yf Ae Re i othe the ODE Pye Pf pe yaa ta EE blctot 1 prlipaet OE et hte dadt t4 if hig F ae s tity iv v ALI Patan aay ¥ p VWiitha 3 Nees’ ; a rea Punts nat > 24 a etn | | - an Pom A | jl at y Pn, erty! || al >, ‘ } mae ee CVU Or stereo, mish A " at: 1) tie, * SARARED Acletiete 4 bh inde rt WT Menenons RwEvine Trane? “e er. dh) +t HL Saf cee dal 14414 tr ! atte 5 eo '. a “~ Tag Ti Teanseere ne \ * oe ae > rereehee, _~ a % ve v- ¥ saa Nevayen ny We 1 ‘wy a's wt - "WOnae / |)” as | Cah SRS our Ue x © D ALON “en eye ’ +78 \ Ay seth ¢' 1 NOP atte naan tate anit ot 11 iE Moin IRB R EERIE eget oe e vr ts jut “Tey Tels | ys Tete NY an Me aneraneee 1 THT THT wu piss: gh innate. finn 't rye» BU ty wv wre oo! ¥ ~ Fes {lH he wh o hak oat NANO rune OS Th We Vewe* wg . Be | NS pee Seip 4 Pied Neva nen a yA pura ‘3 ahd Be we L red | wr ts he MD ee regain: el MOM RM tere ein 9 Se sea ear ate TL LRA Sees TI THAIN ign undl Niteeaettren ean . ate tye nis ok ea ww Oe eke, eae TL he oN dM). Atateew ttt ai || ie | sVvvT®S nee PU Anne 4 m7 dil LAME bpAL “40° ‘° X 53] ee me ~~ T tT} : on fe Pyar | bie \ 4 t+) Pes ‘ Me » Ne neem | ‘ att asta Mes aryne a + | yor’ rary ath aE tnt 4 /Phe . ty \ar . te lamerereny an aul ered ign i(f} (fing cae 0° TRY yadda Aah . ‘hic i ; r ee its Lok ted wl 0 | 00960 ill 58 I