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S. A, legal even ©) ah Each year the Smithsonian Institution and certain of its branches— notably the U. S. National Museum, the Bureau of American Eth- nology, and the Astrophysical Observatory—send into the field expe- ditions for the purpose of obtaining information and collections needed in the pursuance of their researches in biology, geology, anthropology, and astrophysics. The results of these researches are published sooner or later, usually as technical papers, in one of the series issued by the Institution. In the meantime it is considered desirable to present in this annual explorations pamphlet brief articles on the field expeditions themselves. The articles, written by the field workers, tell of the purpose of the expeditions, the methods of acquiring the desired ma- terial, something of the results obtained, and perhaps a little of the interest of scientific work in the field, often in places seldom visited by man. The whole gives an idea of the wide scope of the Institution’s scientific activities, undertaken with the sole purpose of increasing knowledge and diffusing it. W. Ps irue; Editor, Smithsonian Institution. CONTENTS PAGE Nlovoones (CA (Gew sSabiahiabarer nye’ Sibiilan Gog Bo aeiolee GoGo ieee cin oc ar racia niet I ANiketsicln, Jo Wile (Collkaciines 1Rihes sh wae WWEStes ono bocuboesoounoaenoboeeece 107 Bartsch, Paul. Further Explorations for Mollusks in the West Indies..... OI Bassler, IR, Sq Ieee INTOKOORSHIIS 5 cop caeeouese seu bul docUoe cousobobeE I Businell Davide leanlitamNlonacaneSitesmitin VaGodniae sca cies sceeiee seis sel: 211 Collins, Henry B., Jr. Ancient Culture of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska..... 135 Densmore, Frances. Music of the Winnebago, Chippewa, and Pueblo enh vaatin Secs hops ted sa Peto rete esac RENO 5 Eis A ager dy Sits ey 217 Friedmann, Herbert, Explorations of the Rey. David C. Graham in Saal anienn, Clarhake ys ker peters SARE a, REN yee Rae Gl OR ee emM A el Bk Tal Gidley, James W. Continuation of the Fossil Horse Round-Up on the OldwOrecontrltrailkve ms a: ce ete Ue sk Cee aoe ee eee 33 Gidley, James W. Further Investigations on Evidence of Early Man in TEL ayer bey) | 2c APS. ERA gala en eA A aes EMEC AP A gp IO ea AI Gilmore, Charles W. Fossil Hunting in the Bridger Basin of Wyoming.... 13 Harrington, John P. Studying the Indians of New Mexico and California. . 187 Henderson, Edward P. Collecting Silver Minerals in Ontario, Canada.... 45 Hewitt, J. N. B. Field Researches Among the Six Nations of the Iroquois.. 201 HintchcockepAw Ss Aw botanical Visit to South and East Atricas...as.0. 46: on} Hrdlicka, Ales. Anthropological Work on the Kuskokwim River, Alaska.. 123 Judd, Neil M. Arizona’s Prehistoric Canals, from the Air............... TS Kellers, Henry C. Biological Collecting on “Tin-can Island”............ 67 Kellogg, Remington. Ancient Relatives of Living Whales................. 83 Krieger, Herbert W. Prehistoric Santo Domingan Kitchen-middens, Gemectenicommean dal anthiwOtkse set py aciiae ac cear ee et revi eee 145 Michelson, Truman. Studies of the Cheyenne, Kickapoo, and Fox........ 207 Perrygo, Watson M., and Wetmore, Alexander. The Cruise of the IES NOAM Wes AGEN IG eins seein iene cans Grito nen en OOo roa a aor 59 Resser, Charles E. The Search for Ancient Life Forms in the Rocks of them ViestennaWimitedmStatescran sq riaccreiert cae siece cuaisesuehe ompee rein atc Ryser 21 Roberts, Frank H. H., Jr. A Prehistoric Village on the Zuni Reservation, INTENT AICS SKC se teatoeh, 3 oie cia ctr nic or Re ers ercehe Gis ch oo cicero ont a Schmitt, Waldo L. Trawling for Crustaceans at Tortugas, Florida....... 103 Stirling, M. W. Mounds of the Vanished Calusa Indians of Florida....... 167 Stirling, M. W. Archeological Reconnaissance in Texas and Nevada..... 173 Swanton, John R. Indian Language Studies in Louisiana:..::....-...-.-- 195 Wetmore, Alexander. Afield with the Birds of Northern Spain.......... 49 Wetmore, Alexander, and Perrygo, Watson M. The Cruise of the ESAT ORDANG al HIGH, att dean SS Eo RT ERE TR DI eI On oe OG oa 50 STUDYING. TEE SUN By GG. ABBOT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory For many years we have operated stations on high mountains in distant desert lands making daily observations of the intensity of the sun’s rays, on which all life and weather depend. This tedious cam- paign is just reaching its victory. As shown in figure 1, short-interval changes of solar radiation, taking four or five days in which to produce a rising or a falling sequence of solar change averaging only 0.8 per cent, obviously cause changes in the temperature and barometric pressure at Washington.’ Opposite causes in solar change plainly produce opposite effects in weather. Some of the effects are simultaneous with their solar causes. Others are delayed 10 or more days, probably drifting down in waves from distant centers of direct solar action. These delayed effects, as well as the direct ones, are often large, equalling or exceeding 5° Fahrenheit in their average values. The conclusion is surprising. Hitherto it has commonly been sup- posed that weather is merely the fluctuation effected by local terres- trial conditions in the orderly periodic march of climate. These new results indicate, on the contrary, that weather is principally caused by frequent interventions of variations of the sun, affecting terrestrial affairs. The delayed effects just pointed out give promise of long-range forecasting values. It would be still more promising if regular perio- dicities should be found in the solar variations. This is the case. Figure 2 shows that from 1918 to 1930 the principal variations in the solar radiation, as given by monthly mean values, are well represented as the sum of five periodicities, and five only. They are of 68, 45, 25, Ir, and 8 months, respectively, and are all closely related to the 114-year sun-spot cycle and the 33-year Bruckner cycle. The search for shorter periods is beginning, and, as curve H shows, reveals a period of 45 days and another one-eighth thereof as having continued through the year 1924. The expected march of solar variation in the years 1931 and 1932 is shown in curve I. 1 And other stations as well. Z SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION € DAYS ZERO 5 10 15 20 NY ya 1 es Ee Jt | N py a 4 | N TEMPS RAT URES: Coy - = Ms ~ JE ii es MARCH Sceellead =1.00 -a°b A 2 =I / paesfunes 0.00 SS 4 [S 1 Ke +1.00 is ea Ie s laaal ia He ae 4 aul rs IN T -200 4° a /{\ MI / PARAS -100 2 Z ora aN v NS a | f 000 ok Za Z ‘ TEMPERATURES cgailihass AND zie \_| PRESSURES, = eee we Ce \ APRIIL 4 Si Ie | ieee ; \ ed 00-2) Ue ee aimee PAB = s lee == 2 Le Bl \/ Pay TEMRERATURES “AIRES d wd. % i I*tg. 1—Average trends of temperature and pressure at Washington corresponding to average solar changes of 0.8 per cent. The solar changes culminate on the day “zero,” but weather effects sometimes occur much later. Weather effects corresponding to rising solar radiation, full lines ; to falling radiation, dotted. SMITHSONIAN ‘EXPLORATIONS, 1930 ‘UOHIPRA AVJOS UL SaT}IOIPOLIagG—'z “OL ove: vee) ere) es6) 9s6" JL 230 AON 130 GIS) (OV (1 26"| ce =s1-— £61 v6) r a F v6) S6! 8 won? — $6! T ———t + + + + + +$——+ + +--+ - — ert + 96) “8dv nvr | “Px ‘ \ yond “Ar ala AT ay “ar wav ee ee CS abe gh the ahr ado 7130 var adr Ree natore (ie Daekeoe (as mace peau ere) LT iin ose, * PERSE oe mle CES Te cde. * a 238) ev S61 ove) 16) i 4 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Itc. 3—Mount Brukkaros, South West Africa. The Smithsonian solar observing station is near the top. Tic. 4.—Observing tunnel and instruments, Mount Brukkaros, South West Africa. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 “BILITY SIM YINOG ‘soreyyNAg Junoyy ‘jojsid ev yyM Jed 94} Worf Joys Yoqsursds sy .[—9 ‘IY “BILIFY 3S9M\ YYNOS ‘soleyynig jyunoy ‘des, ysy 30jU9}}0]4 Be SUI}eI]SUOWap [YepIOG ‘sipy—'S “DIY 6) SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Our three observatories in the field at Montezuma, Chile, Table Mountain, California, and Mount Brukkaros, South West Africa, have carried on as usual. The following extracts from the diary of Mrs. Sordahl, wife of the director at Mount Brukkaros, show some of the unusual incidents of life in a Hottentot reservation. January 2, 1930. The blue cats of Mount Brukkaros celebrated the New Year by raiding our chicken house at two o’clock this morning. Adam woke us up, and Louis jumped out, grabbed his pistol and rifle and flash light and went up to the chicken house. The wild cat was still inside. Louis shot it with his .32 Luger. Adam skinned the cat and I prepared it as a flat skin. We had a chicken dinner. January 24, 1930. During last night’s storm, the lightning had struck the tunnel. The cotton wrapping on the wires was burned, also the wires, box, shunt, resistance box and Wheatstone bridge; both strips in the bolometer were broken, lights burned out, second Wheatstone damaged, and theodolite blackened. Alfred went to town, sent cablegram to Dr. Abbot. .... 4 January 25, 1930. The men worked all day repairing instruments. ..... January 26, 1930. The men worked all day at the tunnel. I stood by and tried to be of help, but per- haps was more of a hindrance. They ran a plate test at 5:30 p. m. Had a ter- “stopped up” so the men had to fix that too, and the whirlwind took the sacks off the coleman lamps. Trouble never comes singly. May 18, 1930. Went back to Berseba and waited to see the wedding. The Hottentots perform their own pagan ceremonies of marriage first, and the next day they have the missionary marry them according to Christian rites. The bride was hidden away from all the ceremony and celebration. This is done to test her faithfulness as a lover. The groom walked about with a look of loneli- ness and despair as he could not take part in the gayeties either. He wore a bright orange pair of trousers, black pointed shoes, and a felt hat, all of which made a peculiar combination of Hottentot and European styles. The groom’s relatives form a procession and go to the bride’s parents’ home with the inheri- tance. The bride’s relatives do likewise to the groom’s home. The groom’s rific whirlwind today. The stove became train consisted of seven yoke of oxen drawing a wagon load of food. The wagon was covered with green foliage. Behind the wagon, the men drove teams of goats. A long line of women walked on either side, carrying green branches forming an arch over the oxen and goats to conceal the gifts that the bride was to receive. The two parties met half way between the homes, crossed paths and proceeded to the opposite home. After this ceremony the celebration begins. They build a large fire to barbecue the meat and cook the mealy meal. Mr. Mutz told us that in good years they kill as many as twenty head of oxen for a wedding, but during poor years such as this one the number seldom exceeds seven. They eat, drink, dance and sing all night. The next noon the missionary marries them again. PURSUING MICROFOSSIES Brak sy BAS SIEHIR: Head Curator of Geology, U. S. National Museum During the last quarter of a century the Smithsonian Institution has fostered the study of three groups of micro-organisms, the Bryozoa, Ostracoda, and Foraminifera, originally as a contribution to pure science, and later, when their value in determining oil and other zones in the earth’s crust became evident, as a distinct aid to economic progress. In this work the Institution has had the valuable assistance of two collaborators, Dr. Joseph A. Cushman of Sharon, Massachu- setts, the well-known authority on Foraminifera, and Dr. Ferdinand Canu of Versailles, France, one of the foremost students of post- Paleozoic and Recent Bryozoa. Since 1909, it has been my privilege to be associated with Doctor Canu, not only in research on the Bryozoa, but also in building up the Museum's study series of this class. Our first extensive work, based on the Tertiary rocks of North America, was prepared under the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the United States Geological Survey. Its purpose was to work out a classification for the group, and also to learn the strati- eraphic occurrence of the numerous American species to further their utilization in geologic work. Our later studies have included both the Mesozoic and Recent faunas, while there was recently completed a monographic study of the Philippine fauna in which many of the post- Paleozoic genera are described and illustrated. Our collaboration has been carried on almost entirely through corre- spondence, and it was not until the past summer that Doctor Canu found an opportunity to make his first visit to the United States. Meeting in New York upon his arrival early in June, we immediately started on a field trip through the New England States, during which we combined the collecting of Recent bryozoans along the coast with explorations for suitable exhibition material from the igneous rocks of Massachusetts and Maine. We were fortunate during part of our trip in being the guests of our friends Dr. and Mrs. J. A. Cushman. They took us by automobile to the various areas we wished to study, and most kindly entertained us at their home in Sharon, also the site of the Cushman Foraminiferal Laboratory. This laboratory is of such interest to scientific students that I am including an account of its work and aims, furnished me by Doctor Cushman : 8 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 7—The Cushman Foraminiferal Laboratory. (Photograph by Cushman. ) Stein ee ee Fic. 8—Rocky cove along the Massachusetts coast. (Photograph by Bassler.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 9 The Laboratory was built in 1923 to serve as a private research laboratory connected with problems on the Foraminifera. Later one room was opened for graduate students of Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology who received instruction here. There is also room for visiting workers on the Foraminifera. The building consists of laboratory rooms and rooms for clerical work, library, etc., on the main floor, together with a steel and con- crete addition somewhat separated from the main building but connected with it, in which are housed the collections, special library, card catalogue, etc. The basement is given up to rooms for preparation of material, photographic work, and a room for carpentry work such as building cases, etc. There is gathered together here a great deal of material from classic localities representing vari- ous parts of the world, which has been acquired through exchange, collecting, or purchase. There is a library of between 2,000 to 2,500 separates, including practically all the important works on the Foraminifera. There is also a unique card catalogue of figures and references to published records on the Foramin- ifera. These, which number at the present time about 75,000 cards, have a copy of the original figures pasted on the card with the references given, the original place of publication, formation and locality, with often times the complete description and notes. These are arranged by genera, by species under each genus, and the references under each species chronologically. In addition there is a separation of Recent, Tertiary, Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Paleozoic, indi- cated by colored tab cards. This makes it possible to very quickly find the original figure of any species, or the records for a given formation. There are also collections containing many thousand slides of identified species, many of which are from the original type localities, together with a very consider- able number of actual holotypes and figured specimens. These collections are being augmented rapidly, and are eventually to go to the U. S. National Museum where it is hoped active work will be continued on the group for a long time as is now being done here. After several days at the Laboratory spent in reviewing past work and planning for the future, and studying Doctor Cushman’s methods, we motored north along the Atlantic Coast from Cape Cod to Portland, Maine. On this trip my attention was given over to the location of outcrops of igneous rocks from which large specimens showing geo- logical phenomena could be quarried for exhibition at the Museum. Doctor Canu’s interest, on the other hand, was concerned with the collecting of Recent Bryozoa, which he found encrusting pebbles of the igneous rocks or attached to the seaweed. Our present studies were therefore far apart in time, his relating to the present while mine dated back millions of years—almost to the beginning of earth history. Figure 8 illustrates how a small area can serve such widely divergent interests. Doctors Canu and Cushman are seen collecting Recent bryo- zoans in the rocky cove (near Scituate, Mass.), while nearby can be observed a dike of dark igneous rock cutting through the light colored granite. 10 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 9.—Outcrop of Paleozoic glacial tillite at Squantum Head, Boston Bay. (Photograph by W. S. Cole.) Fic. 10.—Quarry at Vincentown, New Jersey, showing the well developed unconformity (indicated by ink line) between Vincentown bryozoan marl, below, and Tertiary sands, above. (Photograph by Bassler.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 Te Proceeding northward along the coast, the Boston Basin, one of the classic geologic areas of America, was next in order. Here Doctor Cushman pointed out the complicated structure of the Paleozoic rocks, particularly the Roxbury conglomerate and the associated beds of tillite. The origin of these two formations was much in doubt until, in 1910, a resemblance of the tillite to present day glacial bowlder clay was recognized by Dr. R. W. Sayles. This tillite, now known to be of Upper Paleozoic age, is especially well exposed at Squantum Head (fig. 9), the peninsula jutting out into the southern part of Boston Bay. The outcrops here are of such interest that the area has been presented to the city as a public park. Consequently no exhibition specimens could be collected, but Doctor Sayles, who is much interested in having a display of the conglomerate and associated bowlder clays in the National Museum, holds out a hope that permission may be granted for obtaining such an exhibit in the near future. Since two of the main building stones of our Natural History building came from adjacent areas—the granite used in the construc- tion of the basement from Milford, Massachusetts, and the white mica granite used in the first and second stories from Bethel, Vermont, | was naturally interested in spending some time in a study of their characteristics and occurrence. Continuing north, other regions along the coast were explored, the last being the Leda clay district of Maine where the possibility of securing a considerable section of this interesting laminated clay was investigated. On the return trip we took the route through the White Mountain district and the peneplain area of lower New England, securing photo- graphs illustrative of the physiographic development of these regions. Leaving New England, where we had enjoyed such pleasant associa- tions and gained important geological information, Doctor Canu and | proceeded to Washington. After spending several weeks together at the Museum in preliminary work on our next bryozoan monograph, several short trips were made to Atlantic Coastal Plain areas to study at first hand the geological relationships of faunas under consideration. Our particular interest lay in the bryozoan fauna of the so-called Vincentown, New Jersey, marl, whose close faunal relation to the Upper Mesozoic of Europe is most striking. Until recently this marl has been regarded as marking the top of the Mesozoic era, but Ameri- can students who have investigated the other classes of fossils of this fauna and associated strata, now question the Cretaceous age of the deposit, believing it to be Middle Eocene, a much younger formation. As the Vincentown marl is at the boundary between two great eras of 2 12 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION geologic time, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, and apparently shows rela-~ tionship—at least in its bryozoan fauna—to certain strata in Europe, it is desirable that a detailed study be made, not merely to present descriptions of the species, but to bring out principles involved in intercontinental correlation. Our collections of Bryozoa secured from Vincentown, New Jersey (fig. 10), and other points along the Atlantic Coastal Plain, assure us of abundant material from which to obtain tangible results. The work had progressed so far by July, the time of Doctor Canu’s return to France, that completion of the monograph is practically assured. POSSIE HUNTING IN THE BRIDGER BASIN OF WYOMING By CHARLES W. GILMORE, Curator, Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, U. S. National Museum In the southwestern part of Wyoming an extensive area of badland country known as the Bridger Basin has long been a fertile collecting field for those in quest of the remains of fossil vertebrates. This basin, the formation, and the early military post called Fort Bridger were all named in honor of Jim Bridger, that intrepid frontiersman, scout, and Indian fighter who pioneered this region. The first collection of fossils from the Bridger formation was made in 1870 by a Yale party under the leadership of Prof. O. C. Marsh, and it marked the beginning of a long series of expeditions which have disclosed the varied and abundant animal life that existed here in Eocene times. The need of an adequate representation of this impor- tant fauna in the National Museum collections has been long felt, and it was to supply this need that in the spring of 1930 plans were consummated for an expedition into the Bridger area. In the latter part of May, I left Washington for Green River, Wyo- ming, the base of operations, where I was joined by Messrs. George F. Sternberg and George B. Pearce, both of Hays, Kansas; the former as field assistant and the latter as cook for the party. From Green River we proceeded almost immediately to Fort Bridger in the southwestern part of the Basin where supplies were obtained, and our first camp was established on Smith’s Fork, near the small town of Mountain View. Prior to entering the field my tentative plan of operations was to begin in the southwestern part of the Basin and work eastward, searching in succession the exposures which are to be found paralleling the courses of the several creeks that flow northward into the Basin from the foothills of the Uinta Mountains to the south. In the main this plan was adhered to. Failing to find much of interest along Smith’s Fork, we soon moved camp to the head of Little Dry Creek where better success awaited us. Several weeks were spent here in systematically searching the denuded breaks and hills that form the escarpment along this creek and our work was well rewarded. In the first few days here an incident occurred that is so unusual as to seem worth relating. One day in crossing a small water course the car became stalled in the soft mud of the creek 13 I4 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION lic. 11.—Bridger badland exposures along Little Dry Creek, Bridger Basin, Wyoming. Lower half of formation. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) Frc. 12.—Badland exposures south of Sage Creek Mountain, Bridger Basin, Wyoming. Upper half of Bridger formation. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 15 bottom. Looking about for stones with which to block up the wheels, we noticed a rocky layer protruding from the bank and Pearce was instructed to get the pick and pry out some of it for ballast. A stroke or two with the pick brought an exclamation of surprise, for on the under side of the first slab detached was the complete skull of a croco- dile in excellent preservation. A most happy surprise and a valued addition to our then small accumulation of fossils. On June Ir, camp was moved to a site on Leavitt Creek and here we were successful in finding some of the best collecting ground yet encountered. Four weeks of collecting here brought us past the middle of the season and inasmuch as all of our work had been in the lower half of the formation, it was decided to move to a locality where the upper measures offered good collecting ground. Accordingly on July 16 our fourth and last camp was established on Henry’s Fork, about a mile north of Lone Tree postoffice and here the remaining weeks of the season were profitably spent. As a result of this work a great mass of material was accumulated which is thought to contain much of scientific interest and importance, in addition to some few specimens of an outstanding character. The collection filled 24 large cases having a combined weight of 7,430 pounds. Among the specimens of outstanding interest are an almost complete articulated skeleton of Hyrachyus, a rhinoceros-like animal about the size of the modern tapir ; a skeleton slightly less complete of Orohip pus, a small primitive horse; two partial skeletons of Palacosyops and two crocodile skeletons that are more or less complete. At least four mount- able skeletons for the exhibition series will result from the above mentioned materials. In addition there are many parts of skeletons, i. ¢., skulls, jaws, articulated limbs and feet of both large and small mammals. Irom a scientific point of view, the small mammal material such as tooth-filled jaws and parts of skulls in some instances associated with parts of skeletons, may prove to be the more important part of the collection. In all there were nearly 200 such specimens coming from all horizons, ranging from near the base to the top of the formation, representing beds of not less than 1,000 feet in thickness. In this connection it is of interest that in two instances we definitely located the source of certain elements of this micro-fauna by finding a considerable number of specimens actually in situ. The importance of thus locating them may be better appreciated if I explain that perhaps 50 were thus located, whereas 150 others were collected from 16 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 13.—Skeleton of the primitive rhinoceros Hyrachyus partly uncovered and as it lay in the ground. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) Mic. 14—Hyrachyus skeleton swathed in plaster bandages, preparatory to removing it from the ground. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 W7, Fria. 15.—Collecting the shell of a large land tortoise. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) 18 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION the weathered surfaces and their precise position in the geological section could not be accurately determined. Thirty-eight turtle specimens representing several genera and species and varying in size from those with shells a few inches in length to giant tortoises nearly a yard long are also included in the collection. In two instances complete skulls and other bones of the skeleton were found associated with the carapace and plastron. Turtle skulls are extremely rare, and both of those obtained appear to be perfect with the lower jaws in place. Perhaps in no other formation of North America is there such an abundance of turtle specimens as are found in the Bridger. They occur almost everywhere in the formation both horizontally and vertically. In one locality we found an outcropping layer 50 feet or more in length that was composed almost exclusively of turtle shells. These were packed together so closely that it was impossible to remove one specimen from the mass without damaging a number of others. So far as could be determined in the field all appeared to pertain to a single genus. Although there can never be more than surmise as to the catas- trophe that brought about this great destruction of chelonian life, several possibilities might be mentioned. A shower of volcanic ashes, any one of noxious gases, or a sudden flow of superheated water these would be capable of destroying these animals. That volcanoes were active in Bridger times is abundantly proved by the well estab- lished fact that many of the layers of this formation are composed exclusively of volcanic ash. The concentrated accumulation of so many turtles in this one spot may possibly be explained as having been brought about by current action. A flowing stream during a freshet may have assembled the shells from a considerable area and floating down stream these were caught in an eddy or were stranded on a sandbar and thus were brought together in this one spot. The many broken shells and the manner of their overlapping, one shell upon another, would make such an explanation plausible. Despite their abundance, however, well preserved turtle specimens, while not rare, are found only occasionally. Crocodiles are also com- mon and in the collection made there are no less than nine skulls, two of which are associated with much of their skeletons. A considerable variety of lizards is known from the Bridger and of these small reptiles several specimens of a fragmentary nature were collected. The value of the collection was greatly increased through the coop- eration of Dr. W. H. Bradley of the United States Geological Sur- vey, who secured the necessary field data from which he will prepare Wy) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 ‘aIOYy Nps (*S19quta}g “5 Aq ydessojoyg ) 4) PUNOF dom SMeL [eLUURLN []eUIS AUR ‘SfolSoanjMg JO UOJays paye[Noysesip e Buyoajoo—ol “oy 7 Se eR sd na ER aS oe ae ae a aie ) 20 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION a scale map on which all of the more important finds will be accu- rately located. This mapping, combined with the several geological sections measured by him, insures the accurate placement both geo- logically and geographically of the specimens collected. This phase of the work should be of the utmost importance in making this a basic collection for the more exact determination of the faunal zones as well as assisting in a more precise correlation of the horizons with those of the other Tertiary basins of the Rocky Mountain region. So far as I am aware never before in the work on the Bridger formation has a paleontologist had the cooperation of a trained geologist in these determinations, and it is felt that the final results will prove of great importance. THE SEARCH FOR ANCIENT LIFE FORMS IN THE ROCKS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES By CHARLES: E: RESSER; Curator of Stratigraphic Paleontology, U. S. National Museum The geologist, in his endeavors to obtain the minutiae that will even- tually yield an understanding of the laws of his science, must spend many hours of patient toil climbing steep mountains, penetrating deep canyons, or tramping the bare expanses of deserts. From year to year he must take advantage of favorable weather and of every other oppor- tunity to seek details for completing the picture he is attempting to draw. My quest for facts to assist in depicting earth conditions that pre- vailed when the earliest life record was in the making took me over a considerable part of the western United States during the field sea- son of 1930. Two general problems were chosen for attack. In view of the increasing interest of geologists in the earliest forms of life on the earth as well as the role played by algae as rock makers, the purpose of the first explorations of the season was to study the ancient sedimentary rocks exposed in the Grand Canyon of the Colo- rado River. The search for organic remains in these old, relatively unmetamorphosed sediments was particularly desired by Dr. David White, Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution, in conjunction with his studies at the Grand Canyon, and it was through his arrange- ments with the Carnegie Institution and the National Park Service that the trip was made possible. The second general field of inquiry to be given consideration was Cambrian geology, in which I am especially interested and which I had previously studied in the Great Basin and the Rocky Mountains to the north. As I had never seen the geology of Arizona, it was with eagerness that I seized the opportunity to make a hurried visit to most of the more important Cambrian exposures in that state. In order to do the contemplated work in the Grand Canyon before hot summer weather, I left Washington May 13. At the Grand Can- yon, I found everything in readiness. The party consisted of Dr. A. A. Stoyanow, of the University of Arizona, and myself as geologists, with Ernest Appling as guide and Howard Childers as packer. Upon the arrival of Doctor Stoyanow we immediately crossed the Canyon to the North Rim. We planned to traverse the narrow peninsula which 2 = 22 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 17—Museum at Yavapai Point, Grand Canyon National Park. Inter- esting geologic exhibits have recently been installed both within the build- ing and on the porch. (Photograph by Resser.) ame). a aaa 5. j Fic. 18.—View from the Tonto Platform up the Bright Angel Trail. Indian Gardens is situated under the big trees. The fault that makes this trail possible is apparent in the offsetting of the beds near the top of the trail. (Photograph by Resser.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 23 separates the head of Bright Angel Creek, up which the Kaibab trail leads to the North Rim, from the pass into Nankoweap Creek, where our field investigations were to be conducted. However, as the winter snow still lay deep in the woods, offering too much difficulty for laden pack animals, our plans had to be changed. Doctor Stoyanow and J, with food and equipment, were transported by a Park Service auto- mobile 90 miles to South Canyon. Meanwhile our riding and unladen pack animals were driven by a straighter route through the forest to the rendezvous. In order to understand this narrative more fully, both the geography and the geologic structure of the Grand Canyon must be called to mind. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado is developed where the river cuts deeply into almost horizontal strata on the flanks of the Kaibab Plateau, the higher portions of which attain an elevation of 9,500 feet above sea-level. As this mountainous mass was bowed up, the river, which previously probably followed a rather straight south- west course, was forced to make a wide sweep to the east, where, after notching into the surface, it cut the canyon. As a consequence, the Grand Canyon is now a great curved gorge. Work in the canyon is very difficult. Besides the obstacle of its vast depth, the harder horizontal strata everywhere form cliffs, and since several of the geologic formations are rather thick, these vertical faces often reach several thousand feet in height. However, a thou- sand foot cliff is not needed to stop one’s progress—a vertical wall only a few feet high, adjacent to steep slopes, becomes unscalable when the footing is insecure. The uplift of the Kaibab Plateau having occurred rather gently, few breaks in the horizontal formations re- sulted, and therefore weathering has not torn the rocks to pieces to form talus slopes over which trails might be made. Furthermore, in this dry region few side streams enter the river, particularly on the south rim where the gentle dip of the beds carries all water southward from the margins of the uplift. Therefore trails in the Grand Canyon exist only where advantage can be taken of slight natural breaks, and there only by the expenditure of considerable sums of money. South Canyon, just east of the Park boundary and south of House Rock Valley, is a small dry valley cutting into the Kaibab Plateau and draining into the Marble Canyon. Our camp was made in the former home of “ Uncle” Jim Owen; now a subsidiary National Forest ranger station and some of the claws of the 2,200 cougars he is said to have killed are still seen tacked to the barn. In the cool Kaibab forest nearby, deer as well as the big cats are exceedingly plentiful. 24 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 19.—South Canyon Ranger Station. Note the cougar claws on the barn in the rear, and the juniper forest. (Photograph by Resser.) Fic. 20.—View across upper portion of Nankoweap Valley into Kwagunt Valley, Grand Canyon. (Photograph by Resser.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 25 We noted many scores of hoofs and other parts of deer killed in the great slaughter of the previous fall. The morning following our arrival, our pack train was organized and we made our way through the juniper forests up into the pines of the higher levels to the peculiar gap that breaks through most of the thickness of the massive Kaibab limestone and Coconino sand- stone which form the unscalable cliffs just under the rim of the Can- yon. From this point into the Nankoweap Basin, we traversed a trail built in 1881 by Major John W. Powell, then Director of the United States Geological Survey, and used the following winter by Dr. Charles D. Walcott, who succeeded Major Powell and who later became Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Today there stands on the South River a finely executed monument commemorating Major Powell’s successful navigation of the Colorado River throughout the Grand Canyon. It is assumed by the general public, and even by most students, that the geological history of the major national parks is well known. Thousands of people from all over the world who visit these parks each year seek an explanation of the things seen—rocks, fossils, ero- sional features, or plants and animals. Notwithstanding this wide- spread interest, little has been accomplished toward mastering the geologic history of the Grand Canyon since the studies that resulted from Major Powell’s and Doctor Walcott’s explorations 50 years ago. As the Nankoweap trail has not been repaired since it was first constructed, except casually by a prospector or two, travel was quite precarious and at places even dangerous, especially for the pack ani- mals. Fortunately no accidents happened, although several of the animals had very narrow escapes from falling over the cliffs, which at places drop away from the trail-side 3,000 feet. Nankoweap Creek is the most easterly in the Grand Canyon National Park and hence lies below Point Imperial. Its valley is variously referred to as a valley or a basin, the latter designation being unusual for a tributary to the Colorado in the canyon country. Nankoweap valley like its near neighbors is basinlike in its openness, which simply reflects the local structure. With the uplift of the Kaibab plateau, some faulting— slipping of the strata along lines of weakness—took place. These basins lie inside the row of buttes margining the river for many miles, beginning at the up-river edge of the Kaibab Plateau and extending below the mouth of the Little Colorado. The Colorado River cut its channel beyond the fault, and erosion, operating in the usual manner along the fault, produced a high ridge in the intervening space, which was cut into rectangular buttes by the side washes. Nankoweap Creek, 26 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION scsi Sapa ad yk soa — - Fic. 21.—Pack train on the Nankoweap Trail. Note how advantage is taken of a softer bed to locate the trail. (Photograph by Resser.) Fic. 22—One of the large algal masses found in the shales of the Nankoweap Valley. (Photograph by Resser.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 27 where it cuts across this block, has the usual steep canyon, but up- stream it widens into a basin where softer rocks have been removed. Doctor Walcott’s interpretation of this unorthodox fault is sometimes questioned, but Doctor Stoyanow and I, after considerable discussion of several alternatives, think Doctor Walcott is correct; in fact, we found further corroborative evidence not mentioned in his publica- tions. Our chief task on this expedition was to search the rocks thoroughly for traces of animal remains. As expected we found abundant im- prints of delicate plant tissues and rather large masses of algal lime- stones, but nothing that can really be regarded as animal, though the limey and carbonaceous shales are fitted in every way to preserve a record of the life extant in the waters by which the sediments were deposited. Just what significance the barrenness of these sediments has, 1s not yet apparent. We camped, without tents, in the channel of Nankoweap Creek under a cutbank where one of the half-dozen siz- able trees in the basin is located at the only campsite in the valley near water. Each day the search for fossils was extended to new ground so that almost every exposed bed was investigated in the eight days we remained in this basin. When we prepared to climb out of the Nankoweap basin, I did not care to trust my notes or photographs to the mule but carried them in my pack. Fourteen hours of strenuous work were required to climb the vertical mile between our camp and the north rim, and to traverse the 15 miles of trail to the point on the road where the Park Service auto- mobile could pick us up. Within the Canyon the last few days had become quite hot, but on the north rim we found early spring, with the snow bank just shoveled from the hotel porch and spread in the sun for quicker melting. The crossing to the South Rim, which was completed in a snow storm, seemed very cold, since we were outfitted for the heat of the canyon depths. Now that the Nankoweap trip was completed, Doctor Stoyanow kindly arranged for use of the State Geological Survey automobile to afford us means for a brief examination of other Arizona Cambrian outcrops. This interesting journey began with the study of the Music Mountain section west of Peach Springs. A day here showed us how this section, which offhand would be assumed to coincide exactly with its apparent continuation northward in the Grand Canyon, differs in lithologic detail and relative thickness of beds. From Peach Springs our course naturally led southeastward diagonally across the State, for the older strata outcrop only along the northeastern edge of the old basement rock mass forming the southwestern portion of the State. 3 28 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Da tants Soe 2 me: te pe erek Frc. 23.—Another view of the large algal masses found in the shales of the Nankoweap Valley. The pictures represent masses washed into the gullies; it is not possible to photograph entire colonies in position. (Photograph by Resser. ) Geological Survey, standing by a cholla or jumping cactus, so called because the smaller branches cling so easily and persistently to shoes and clothing. In fact the heat or moisture of one’s hand held close causes the branches to turn toward it. (Photograph by Resser.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 29 The rocks in this old land mass are quite similar to the gneisses in the inner gorge of the Grand Canyon, and must have furnished the material now composing much of the Cambrian and subsequent strata offshore to the north. The Cambrian series exposed in Music Mountain outcrops south- eastward for a short distance, extending perhaps to the vicinity of Seligman. In the middle portion of the above-mentioned diagonal boundary of the sedimentary plateaus, no Cambrian is present, and a much younger series of beds rests directly on the ancient weathered rock surface. Southeastward from Globe, however, Cambrian sedi- ments reappear, but contain no beds correlative with the Grand Canyon sequence. Doctor Stoyanow had worked out these general strati- graphic facts by years of patient work and it was a great privilege and pleasure to have him point out the evidence on which he based his conclusions. In a trip across Arizona, it is interesting, especially to one who has not previously seen the southwest, to note how very sensitive the flora is to elevation. The various cacti seem to have exact physiologic re- quirements, and therefore even a low hill will often rise above the level required by a conspicuous cactus. Another exceedingly interest- ing experience was a visit to Natural Bridge, which is situated not far from the villages of Pine and Payson. Here one finds both unusual geologic features and interesting human activities. A deep, V-shaped canyon was cut by a small stream flowing apparently along a fault zone, as the rock series in the two walls of the canyon are not the same. Several large springs issue from the east side of the canyon several hundred feet above its bottom. Algae living in the abundant waters from these springs have precipitated enormous quantities of lime, until a level fill several hundred feet deep and 25 acres in extent was formed across the canyon. Subsequently, the creek dissolved a channel through this fill, thereby forming a large natural bridge. More than 50 years ago a Scotch family occupied this level tract which is naturally very fertile but almost completely shut off from the world. Mrs. Goodfellow, the wife of the original settler, is still living, and it is very interesting to hear her accounts of the early days. Fruit trees of many sorts were planted when the Goodfellows first arrived. An apricot tree planted 52 years ago beside one of the irrigation ditches apparently found its situation most favorable. Its trunk is now more than 3 feet in diameter, with a spread of branches exceeding 100 feet, and this summer the tree bore approximately 100 bushels of fruit. After an extended survey the Los Angeles papers are reported to have admitted that this is the largest apricot tree in the world! 30 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION About the middle of June I returned to the Grand Canyon, where the Park Service again kindly put at my disposal equipment and ani- mals. I now had the pleasure of studying the well exposed rocks along the Kaibab and Bright Angel Trails. This work was done in conjunc- tion with Edwin McKee, the efficient Park Naturalist, who is carrying forward investigations that will contribute much to our deficient knowledge of Grand Canyon geology. My journey to Salt Lake City was made via San Francisco, where I examined certain type specimens in the University of California collections. At Salt Lake City, I was joined by Dr. Riuji Endo of Mukden, Manchuria, who was to accompany me during the remainder of the season. After organizing for camping, we went to Delta, Utah, pre- paratory to a trip into the Utah desert. Here we were joined by Mr. Frank Beckwith, editor of the local paper, who is greatly inter- ested in the geology of his country. At this point the unusual weather of the season began to impress itself upon us. During May and June rains fell when none were due, but the departure from normal was not so great as to attract more than passing notice. The past several years had been dry throughout all the west and consequently rain was greatly desired. At Delta much rejoicing was apparent when heavy rain began to fall particularly on the watersheds that fed the irriga- tion canals. Cloudy, threatening weather attended our departure into the desert, making the temperatures very comfortable where we ex- pected to experience the usual burning heat. In the House Range Mr. Beckwith took us to Antelope Springs, a small permanent flow of water near the fossiliferous outcrops studied many years ago by Doctor Walcott. After reviewing these sections we crossed the range by Marjum Pass and then followed the usual rough desert track that by courtesy is called a road. Travel was exceedingly rough as heavy showers had either washed ridges of dirt and stones across the road or cut parallel grooves. Saturday evening we reached Ibex in the Confusion Range. Mr. Beckwith introduced us to Jack Watson who has lived there for many years, mostly alone. No springs or streams occur here, as the nearby ranges do not attain the height of 10,000 feet necessary to cause sufficient precipitation to insure springs. Consequently Mr. Watson must depend solely on rain water captured in tanks formed by dams across gullies. When we arrived we found that he had no water left in his tanks, since the regular spring showers had not materialized, nor had the rains that began ten days previously in the higher mountains to the east yet spread this far into the desert. He was particularly SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 ou Fic. 25-—View down stream across Natural Bridge, Arizona. The flat cultivated land is merely a fill of algal limestones under which a huge natural bridge was subsequently dissolved by the creek. The flower stem of a century plant stands in the immediate foreground. (Photograph by Resser.) es Bes Fic. 26.—One of the excellent new mud volcanoes that developed last spring near the Dragon’s Mouth, Yellowstone National Park. (Photograph by Resser.) 32 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION annoyed a few days earlier by having a heavy shower pass within a few miles of the bare rock expanse that catches most of his water. Consequently he had to get up each morning at 2:30 and haul water in barrels on a truck from Wah-Wah Spring, 31 miles away for 33 head of cattle! Information he was able to give us and the fact that our engine was functioning perfectly caused us to risk a reduction of our car’s water supply and we gave one of the cows 9 gallons. Upon returning from our investigations in the desert ranges, we decided to visit the nearby Zion National Park. Quite unexpectedly we found that, as in the Algonkian rocks of the Grand Canyon, the much younger sediments in Zion Canyon also lack fossils except algal limestones. The final field for investigations before beginning our homeward journey lay in the vicinity of the Yellowstone Park plateaus. Conse- quently we went north from Zion by way of Bryce Canyon and the Sevier Valley through the Salt Lake region, then by way of Star Val- ley to the Tetons. From about the 24th of July onward the rains that had been increas- ing in frequency all summer began to interfere with our travel and work. In the Teton Range, where last season not a drop of rain fell all summer, it was almost continuous. Our tents were wet for weeks at a time. Finally rain became so frequent and so violent that few roads remained open. For this reason we abandoned our attempts to reach several localities and went northward away from the high regions. During our investigations in the Tetons and the Yellowstone we were accompanied by Dr. Curt Teichert and Mrs. Teichert of Freiburg, Germany. Our final studies in the Rocky Mountains were in the Beartooth Range near Red Lodge, Montana, where Princeton University has begun geologic studies. Scarcely another region in North America exhibits such varied geology, and if researches are continued for a sufficient length of time, important results may be expected. This appears to be the focal point where the Rocky Mountains change their general type of structure, and the extensive Yellowstone Plateau with its lava flows ends, joining both the central and northern types of ranges, and where the results of glacial, erosional, and other geologic processes are clearly exhibited. CONTINUATION OF CHE POSSIL HORSE ROUND=UP ON RAE sOED OREGON “DRAIE By JAMES W. GIDLEY, Assistant Curator of Mammalhan Fossils, U. S. National Museum The results of the Smithsonian expedition to the Snake River Val- ley, Idaho, in 1929, were so encouraging that it was decided to con- tinue operations for another season or two. Accordingly, early in May, 1930, preparations were made to resume work at the site of our former collecting ground. For five days, rain, snow, and general bad weather held our party in the little town of Hagerman, Idaho. But on May 9, high winds and a brilliant sun gave promise of drying up the county roads sufficiently to make possible a move into camp, and no time was lost in loading a two ton truck with camp equipment, a week’s supply of rations, boxes, lumber, and about 30 gallons of water. Our trusty Ford was also loaded with baggage and lighter material, and we were soon on our way. Our objective, a camp site at the edge of the desert near the fossil bone deposit worked last year, was only two miles in an air line from Hagerman, but there intervened the canyon of the deep and swiftly flowing Snake River, and on its bank to the west a sloping sandy escarpment of over 600 feet elevation above the river bed. To reach this camp, therefore, it was necessary to cross the river on the main highway bridge about four miles south of Hagerman and make a detour of about 25 miles over a hilly and little-used country road through the border of the desert country. Part of this route was over a portion of the picturesque Old Oregon Trail, hallowed by the strug- gles and privations of a pioneer people opposed by the stubbornly waged warfare of the Indians, who were fighting for their beloved lands and hunting grounds. Over this trail during the following weeks we made our biweekly trips to town for water, supply provisions, and materials as they were needed. I learned from the early settlers in the region that this was a particularly hazardous stretch of trail in the early days. Here the old trail left the river to wind its way up the steep divides to the top of the plain about 5 miles to the west, whence it continued westward over a dry sage-brush-covered desert to the next place where water was to be found, a total distance between watering places of over 20 miles. In these days of automobiles this journey is so easily accomplished that the word hardship does not occur in connection with it. 33 34 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 3ut not so with the early users of the trail. To them it was a real hardship to be overcome. [ven for the stage coach, drawn by four or occasionally six light horses, it was a long and tedious day’s travel. And for the heavier loaded and slower moving emigrant and freight outfits a single day did not suffice for the journey. It was their cus- tom, I was told, to divide their wagon trains at the Snake River, tak- ing one half up the first five miles of heavy climb to the top of the divide and leaving them there for the night, while the oxen or horses Fic. 27.—A bit of the Old Oregon Trail, looking east toward Snake River from the top of the Plain, near which an Indian attack is reported to have taken place. were taken back to the river to bring on the remainder of the wagons early the next morning, when the journey through the sandy sage brush country to the next water hole was resumed. The necessity of breaking up the wagon trains at this point naturally weakened their defense against attack by hostile Indians. This fact was evidently recognized and taken advantage of by the latter, for it was here some of their most successful attacks were made. It was said that here one whole emigrant train was surrounded and burned. Mute evidence of the tragedy is still perceptible in the form of occasional pieces of wagon irons that may be found scattered through the sage brush near WwW SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 (‘of61 ‘oun ‘Aayprry “AA “f Aq ydersojoyg) ‘Aypeoo] Ueutasep] ay} Ul Ysodep au0q [ISsOf dy} puke duiej—Rz “OIYT 36 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION the top of the hill. I here secured for the National Museum’s histori- cal collection three of the old cast iron hub-thimbles. Our party this year included Mr. C. P. Singleton, chief field assis- tant; Mr. S. P. Welles, graduate student of the University of Cali- fornia; Mr. Frank Garnier, cook and camp assistant ; and as occasion permitted Mr. Elmer Cook, the discoverer of the fossil bone deposit. After a week’s service Mr. Garnier was replaced by Mr. J. Young Rogers as camp man. Camp established, the work of the summer began where we left off the previous season in the development of the fossil bone deposit. This deposit is situated at the southern extremity of a short hill or spur that juts out from the border of the plain, about a quarter of a mile from our camp and about 45 to 60 feet below the top of the hill. (See fig. 28.) It is evidently the remnant of a stream channel deposit made up of cross-bedded layers of coarse and fine sand with occasional pebbles and here and there patches and lenses of almost pure clay, forming a part of the horizontally laminated beds of the Idaho formation. hese beds reached a thickness of several hundred feet and at one time extended many miles in every direction, completely occupy- ing the area now excavated by erosion to form the Snake River Valley of this region, and the present day rough terrain to the west and south of Hagerman. The bone deposit was evidently at the time of its formation a boggy, springy terrain, perhaps a drinking place for wild animals in a semi-arid country where water holes were not abun- dant. This assumption is based on the general character of the de- posits as stated, and the fact that it contains the bones of literally hundreds of animals, mostly belonging to an extinct species of horse. For the most part the bones are disarticulated, intermingled, and scattered in a way to suggest that they represent the slow accumula- tion of many years rather than the sudden overwhelming of a large herd in one grand catastrophe. Springs and swampy conditions are indicated from the fact that there are in the deposits the remains of frogs, fish, swamp turtles, beavers, and other water living animals, and abundant evidence of vegetation as shown by remnants of coarse grass stems, leaves, and even small pieces of wood. The best evidence of the former presence of springs is the fact that numerous pebbles are found scattered throughout many of the layers of both coarse and fine sand, although there are no distinct layers of gravel. In the lower stratum of this deposit the sand is heavily stained and many of the fossil bones are encrusted and stained with light accumulations of bog iron. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 ios) N Frc. 30.—Fossil bones in situ. At left center is a skull and jaws of a horse, Plesippus shoshonensis, still articulated with the entire neck and the anterior portion of the thorax. 38 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Regardless of its origin, two seasons’ work has developed the fact that this fossil bone deposit is one of the important discoveries in the field of vertebrate paleontology of recent years. The outcome of these operations by the Smithsonian Institution parties has been most grati- fying. As already stated the principal yield of the deposit consists of abundant remains of a hitherto unknown species of horse belonging to the rare genus Plesippus, an animal which stands directly intermedi- ate between the horses of the Pleistocene and present day, and the three-toed kinds of still more ancient time. The material collected from this deposit in the two seasons includes more than 40 more or less complete skulls and sufficient bones of other parts of the body to restore at least three or four entire skeletons. The bones collected represent all stages of growth of both sexes from embryo to old age. Thus they afford an unusual opportunity for a systematic study of the species, especially in reference to the limits of individual and sex variations. Other fossil remains found associated with the much more abundant horse material were those of a large beaver, an otter, a mastodon, a large peccary, a rodent of the muskrat group, a frog, a swamp turtle, and a small fish. From exposures of the same formation in the gen- eral vicinity were also collected remains of these and additional extinct species of mammals, the latter including several species of rodents, a large cat, two species of camel, and a small ground sloth. These, together with the animal remains of the fossil bone deposit, when studied, will give rather definite evidence regarding the true age of this mass of sedimentary accumulation to which has been given the name Idaho formation. Vhis formation has hitherto been regarded by some authorities as belonging to the Pleistocene, or so-called Ice Age, and by others as representing the upper member of the next older geologic period, the Pliocene. The preliminary study of the fossils collected by our party in the Hagerman locality seems strongly to favor the placing of their age as Upper Pliocene. This marks their time of deposition as not less than a million years ago. To the fossil hunter such a deposit as the one here described is of much more than passing interest. First there is a satisfaction in work- ing out a successful technique for collecting and preparing the bones for shipment to the laboratory; and there is the added keen pleasure of anticipation and expectation, as foot after foot and yard after yard of undisturbed ground is worked over, that the next bone to be dis- covered and developed will prove to be new to science or at least a better specimen than has before been found of an already known species. Such collecting also has its monotonous and prosaic side. At SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 39 eke Cat Fic. 32—Close-up of section in excavation showing the general character of the deposit. The shovel point rests on the bottom of the bone bed which here is about 2 feet thick. 40 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION the Hagerman locality it is often necessary to spend hours and even days in just plain shoveling of many cubic yards of sand to come to the bone-bearing layer. Once reached the bones are for the most part well mineralized, or petrified, and although more or less scattered are usually complete. But often the separate bones are much broken or cracked up, especially where they have lain for a long time near the surface of the sloping hillside from which they outcrop. This neces- sitates working very carefully around each bone, as developed, and giving many of them special treatment to prevent their being pulled apart in removing them from the loose sandy bed. The first care, therefore, was to make long strippings to remove the overburden from the bone bearing layers. Then as the bones were uncovered one by one or in groups and brushed clean on top and sides, the cracks and soft places were saturated with a thin solution of gum arabic (acasia). Following this treatment, as their condition and the collector’s experience suggested, they had to be still further protected by pasting them with strips of burlap dipped in raw flour paste or thin plaster of paris. This, when dry, forms a light, tough jacket which securely holds each piece in its original position, and the speci- men then may be turned over and the jacket completed on the lower side to finish its preparation for packing and shipping. For skulls and articulated sections this method had to be followed in nearly every case. In certain sections in the deposit the bones instead of being sur- rounded by a soft sandy mass, were completely incased with a nodular or concretionary formation of varying thickness of very hard sand- stone that is very tenacious and most difficult to break free from the bone without injuring its surface. Sometimes the bones were thus so deeply and solidly embedded as to make them almost worthless as specimens. FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON EVIDENCE OF BAREY MAN IN FLORIDA By JAMES W. GIDLEY, Assistant Curator of Mammalian Fossils, U. S. National Museum Following the controversy raised in scientific circles several years ago by the discoveries of Dr. E. H. Sellards at Vero, Florida, regard- ing the antiquity of man in that region, the Smithsonian Institution has conducted a series of investigations at various localities along the east coast of Florida, but principally at Melbourne and Vero. The results of these expeditions, which were placed under my charge, have been reported on from season to season, the last report appearing in last year’s number of this publication, Thanks to an extension of the kind generosity of Mr. Childs Frick, who for the past few seasons has shared with the Smithsonian the expenses of these expeditions, work in Florida was continued this year. Melbourne was again chosen as the base of operations, and during the greater part of February and March Mr. C. P. Singleton, my chief field assistant of former years, and I carried on explorations, excavat- ing considerable areas especially at Melbourne and other nearby locali- ties. Fair success crowned our efforts, though perhaps not to the same degree as on some of our former expeditions. The most impor- tant discoveries of the season at the Melbourne locality included the finding of two artifacts under circumstances that constitute additional evidence of early man in Florida. The first of these is a crudely formed arrow or spear point found by Mr. Singleton in situ in the undisturbed upper layer of the fossil-bone-bearing deposit known as “bed No. 2” of Sellards. It was lying directly under one of the large bones of a poorly preserved skeleton of a mastodon. The other artifact is a small bone awl taken from the undisturbed sand of the No. 2 bed somewhat below its middle section. In both instances the excavated areas were originally covered with a few feet of loose but characteristically stratified swamp deposit composed of alternating layers of sand, leaf mould, and swamp muck, positive evi- dence that the artifacts were a part of the formation in which they were found and not to be accounted for on the assumption of later intrusions. Several good specimens also were added to our growing collection of fossil mammal bones from this locality. *Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 19209, p. 37. 4I 42 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 33.—Following a lead near the old canal bank. Locality, a few hun- dred feet south of the Country Club Golf Links, 1930 expedition. Melbourne, Florida. Fre. 34.—Searching for fossil bones in the lower stratum of the “ No. 2 bed’ ( Pleistocene). Locality just below Golf Links. Melbourne, Florida. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 43 Fic. 35.—Inlet to the St. Lucie Canal near where mammoth remains were found at the Indiantown locality. Fic. 36.—Excavating in ‘“ No. 2 bed” for remains of mammoth discovered at the Indiantown locality, just back from point shown at extreme right foreground in Figure 35. 4 44 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION During the season we had occasion to examine a reported find of mammoth and mastodon bones on a truck farm near the ocean below St. Augustine. Here we found that the workmen, under the direction of the son of the farm foreman, had excavated the large part of a skeleton of the mammoth, but as they then planned to keep the speci- men for private exhibit we did no excavating there and returned to Melbourne. The most important work done other than at Melbourne was along the St. Lucie Canal, about 12 miles east of Lake Okeechobee near Indiantown. Here we secured a well preserved pair of lower jaws and a few other parts of a mammoth, and did sufficient develop- ment work to determine that the general geologic structure is the same as that at Vero and Melbourne. The formation underlying the No. 2 bed in the Indiantown locality, however, seems to vary in character more than at Melbourne, where marine shells form the greater part of the mass. At Indiantown large masses of sand under- lie thin layers of shells or in certain areas replace them entirely. The item of greatest value, perhaps, resulting from our work in this lo- cality, was the finding of a molar tooth of one of the more primitive mastodons. This tooth came from a consolidated bed of sand about 20 feet below the present surface of the land and underlying a thin shell layer of supposedly older age than our fossil-bearing beds known as the Melbourne or No. 2 bed formation. The mastodon tooth in question is of the type of those found commonly in the Pliocene, and thus implies either that the lower strata of the fossil beds at Indian- town are Pliocene in age, or that here in Florida this particular species of mastodon lived on into the Pleistocene, or still more probably, the tooth may have been redeposited, in the place where found, from an older deposit of Pliocene age. This and other interesting problems in connection with the early history of Florida remain still to be solved, and it is only by a con- tinuation of systematic work similar to that which the Smithsonian Institution has been carrying on for the past few years that this can be done. COLERPCHING SILVER’ MINERALS IN ONLARIO; CANADA By EDWARD P. HENDERSON, Assistant Curator of Geology, U. S. National Museum For the purpose of acquiring a series of silver minerals for exhibi- tion, I left Washington late in August on a collecting trip into the Province of Ontario, Canada, the National Museum’s collections being badly in need of material from the rich silver camps of this nearby region. Practically the entire month of September was spent in north- ern Ontario, and it would be difficult to select a more delightful sea- son in which to visit this magnificent country. At Toronto I spent several days in inspecting the collections at the Royal Ontario Museum of Mineralogy, selecting exchange material, and consulting with the mineralogists of the staff as to the best areas and mines to visit. Leaving Toronto, I first visited the Cobalt district some 300 miles north, where the country in general is rather rough with many rocky ridges, between which are lakes, swampy wastes, or agricultural low- lands. These lowlands and therefore the streams, lakes, and high- ways generally lie in a north and south direction. There is abundant timber, mostly spruce, birch, balsam, and jack pine. Many forests have been swept by devastating fires leaving only charred stumps stand- ing; in other areas, where more time has elapsed since the fires or original clearing for lumber, a dense, almost jungle-like growth has taken possession, the new growth being less suitable for lumber than the original stand of virgin timber. Previous to 1903 the area around Cobalt consisted of wooded land which served as a source for lumber and constituted a natural bar- rier to the agricultural lands farther north, but in that year, during the excavating for the Temiskaming and Northern Railroad, narrow veins of phenomenally high silver values were discovered. The silver content was so great that trained engineers who came to examine the find thought that the quantity could not be large because of its rich quality but time has proved these conclusions to be erroneous. The history of this celebrated silver camp is very dramatic and has been told so often that it need not be repeated here. The silver veins vary from minute seams up to a thickness of ten inches. In places the veins are almost solid silver and again the metal 45 40 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 37.—Silver mass from Keeley Mines, Silver Centre, Ontario. Weight 263 pounds, estimated to be 80 per cent pure silver. Itc. 38.—The vein here shown varies in width from 6 to 25 centimeters, consisting of silver and calcite, SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 47 occurs as a fine network of delicate veins or small irregular masses in both calcite and cobaltite. As simple a statement of the geology as can be given is that when this basic rock, called Nipissing diabase, was intruded into the older rocks, fractures were developed along the contacts and in these frac- tures the ore was undoubtedly deposited by solution originating in the cdiabase. A large irregular mass of silver found at the Keeley Mines, Silver Centre, Ontario, was exactly the type of material needed for our exhi- bition, provided some of the ragged appendages which marred the symmetry of the specimen could be removed. This operation developed into a thrilling experience. Hammering, even with a sledge, made no impression except a small bruise on account of the toughness of the silver. Finally, in despair, the mine captain suggested a shot of dyna- mite. Two sticks were plastered on the side of the specimen under a damp blanket of sand, the fuse was lighted, and we retreated to safe quarters to await the report. And what a report it was! Strangely enough very little silver was removed. One small fragment made a non-stop flight through the side of the mill house and several windows in nearby buildings were shattered, but most important, from my point of view at least, was the small crack which had just started through the specimen. Smaller charges of dynamite were carefully placed and exploded and little by little the irregular silver prongs were removed. Perhaps few geologists have had the experience of trimming such a precious sample by so unique and striking a method. The next district visited was Sudbury, the most important nickel district in the world. Much of the region surrounding the city of Sud- bury is practically barren of vegetation and perhaps to the tourist appears as a desolate waste, but to the geologist it is an admirable ex- posure of a series of interesting rocks. The igneous rock in which the nickel ore is found is a norite, this intruded rock forming a laccolithic sheet some 36 miles long and approximately 17 miles wide. This nickel eruptive was intruded under a thick blanket of older sediments and the slow cooling permitted the ore minerals to separate out towards the bottom of the laccolith. The ore is monotonously uni- form in character over much of the district. It consists of pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite, and appreciable quantities of platinum metals are also recovered from the ore body. A rather rapid series of visits was made to a number of the different pegmatite dykes in this province, resulting in the acquisition of sev- eral rather recently described minerals which were lacking in the 48 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION National Museum’s collections. These pegmatite dykes are located in two rather widely separated districts surrounding Parry Sound and farther east toward Bancroft. Several large and a few small specimens were collected which are now in the Museum’s exhibit. The success of the trip was due in a large measure to the hearty cooperation of mining companies, quarry owners, and of the staff of the Royal Ontario Museum of Mineralogy. APL ED RWitih, ik BIRDS OF NORTHERN, SPAIN By ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution Landing in the little seaport of Vigo in northwestern Spain late in the evening of April 23, 1930, I was awakened at dawn the following morning by the cheerful twittering of swallows at my window, the first species of living bird seen on a continent whose life was entirely new to me. Formalities for the entry of my scientific equipment were soon completed, thanks to arrangements made by the American Am- bassador to Spain, the Honorable Irwin B. Laughlin, a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and ina few hours I was en route for Madrid, where through the same interested official necessary permits for field collecting were granted. As an introduction to what was in store for me, friends at the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales arranged an excursion into the nearby pine forests of the Sierra de Guadarrama where I spent three days quartered in the Estacion Alpina de Biologia at a little more than 5,000 feet above the sea. In spite of almost continuous snow and rain I found here numerous birds, including among others two species of titmice, the nuthatch, robin, stone-chat, hedge sparrow, and goldcrest, all common birds but of keen interest to one who had not before seen them alive. Field work began in earnest on arrival at the little town of Puente de los Fierros at an elevation of 1,800 feet above the sea on the north slope of the Sierra Cantabrica, the great range of rugged mountains that as a continuation of the Pyrenees extends across northern Spain. The town lay in a deep valley that led up to the Pajares Pass, with the lower slopes divided by stone fences or lines of brush into pastures and cultivated fields frequently pitched at an angle of 45°, while wind- ing lanes crossing the hill slopes led to higher levels grown with brush and occasional groves of trees. The country people told me that I had brought spring, as the grass became green, fruit trees blossomed, and violets and other spring flowers appeared during the few days that I was there. Trees in Spain are as much a crop as grass, and impress one as having a hard and cheerless life. The forests in the Cantabrians are principally of oak and chestnut, growing to a diameter of four to six feet, there being no native pine in this range of mountains. The tops 49 50 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Itc. 39.—Estacion Alpina de Biologia in the Sierra de Guadarrama. Fic. 40.—Near Puente de los Fierros. Note pollarded trees. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 51 and larger limbs are cut off 20 to 30 feet from the ground, leaving the huge trunks grotesquely gnarled and twisted to stand in irrregular array, a hobgoblin woodland that often appears dark and gloomy with little animal life in evidence. When new shoots grow from the pol- larded trunks these are cut at intervals of a few years until with the passing of time decay creeps in through these repeated wounds, the tree trunk gives up the uneven battle with man, and is finally cut down and made into fire wood, Extensive forests are distant from the towns and in the better settled regions are of little area. Travel along the numerous footpaths at Fierros ordinarily was not difficult, except that one was continually climbing or descending, but the intervening slopes were steep and high so that collecting speci- mens was attended with considerable labor. The higher slopes had huge exposures of massive rock while far beyond were peaks covered with snow. Trees and bushes along the rushing streams of the lower valleys were half in leaf but a thousand feet above on exposed slopes the winds blew chill and buds were barely opening. Small birds were common, particularly in the shrubbery along the lower footpaths. The wren, a counterpart of our winter wren, sang gaily from tangles of weeds and brush, searching for holes in which to place its nest. The chiff-chaff, an Old World warbler of tiny size, sang its insistent song from low trees while hunting busily for insects in company with the black-cap, a larger species of the same family, with more musical song and quieter movements. The meadow bunt- ing, a sparrow with gray and black streaked head, was found in pairs through the open pastures, and on occasion I found its more brilliant relative, the yellow-hammer. Both are like our crowned sparrows in habit. Titmice were found in profusion ranging from the delicately colored blue tit to the slender bodied long-tailed tit, five species rang- ing through the same thickets and woodlands. Boarding the Mixrto one morning—a train that carried both pas- sengers and freight—I arrived within a short time at the little village of Busdongo on the northern side of the Pajares Pass at an elevation of about 4,300 feet with the summit of the pass a few hundred feet above. In the valleys here were little squares of cultivated fields and pastures separated by rock fences, and above, slopes covered with green grass or mats of heather and gorse. Banks of snow lay every- where, their melting feeding the little streams, and the higher hills were entirely white except where naked rock projected in rough, angular spires and massive blocks of cold, blue-gray stone. Flowers. dotted the meadows, clear bird notes and songs came to the ear, and over all SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 52 Fic. 41.—The mountain village of Busdongo. Fic. 42.—The Pajares Pass above Busdongo, one of the principal thoroughfares through the Cantabrian Mountains, SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 53 Fic. 43.—Valley of the Rio Esla below Riafio. Fic. 44.—A channel of the Esla in the village of Riafo. 54 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION lay a golden sunshine bathing the world with a warm light that miti- gated the chill of breezes blowing over the snowbanks. Pajares Pass, the frontier of the ancient kingdom of Asturias from which I had just come, was a sharply cut dividing line between the better watered brush- and tree-grown slopes descending steeply to the northern coastal plain toward Oviedo, and the more arid gradual decline toward the broad plains of Leon on the north with scattered mats of low brush as the principal woody vegetation. In this world of open mountain slopes and meadows, birds were abundant. Chaffinches, pipits, and yellow-hammers were everywhere. Whin-chats and stone-chats were common, and skylarks sang above the higher meadows, appearing as tiny specks hovering high against a sky of the clearest blue. Wheat-ears followed stone fences or rocky ledges, and white wagtails were found along the rough stream beds. The latter, called locally Javanderas (washerwomen) because like the native laundresses they had their principal activities along the streams, on alighting after a short flight twitched their long tails rapidly a dozen times and then stood motionless. On the rocky slopes above were found occasional rock thrushes singing clearly from open ledges, and approached only by arduous climbing. With them were alpine accentors, cousins of the little hedge sparrows that abounded in the matted brush above the valleys. One morning among the higher ridges a curious birdeall came for a time without visible source, until finally I located a black shadow moving along the mountain slope far below and, tracing it to its source toward the sun, saw a crowlike bird sweep- ing in bounds and circles over the mountain ridges. The binoculars revealed the curved red bill of a chough, and I watched its graceful evolutions for some time with keen delight. The heat of the city of Leén in the lowlands was almost oppressive after the sharper air of the mountains, and after a day during which I visited the cathedral, with jackdaws and merlins flying about its huge tower, I was pleased to continue by auto to Cistierna and from there to the inland village of Riano located in an open valley among mountains at an elevation of 3,500 feet. The little fonda where I obtained quarters was clean and comfortable, the people of the village were friendly, and the weather was pleasant ; and I was told again that spring had arrived in my company. Buds were already opening on the trees near the village, and during the next two weeks leaves grew apace until the lower slopes were entirely green and buds were burst- ing on the trees at the upper edge of the forests. At Riafo the Esla and Yuso rivers joined in a large stream abound- ing in trout. The open valleys were cultivated, while the slopes of the SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 55 Fic. 45.—Beech forest near the summit of the Collado de Terguena. Fic. 46.—A storehouse for grain in Riafio. Note the flat stones at the corners to prevent entry of rats. 56 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION hills were given to the grazing of herds of sheep, goats, and cattle. On many of the lower slopes were extensive forests of oak, beech, and chestnut, while above were open meadows dotted with low mats of gorse, and beyond, bare, rocky peaks rising to an elevation of 6,000 =e Fic. 47.—-Stork’s nest on a church tower near Riafio. feet or more. As in other sections in northern Spain the people lived clustered in little towns and villages, where their houses of stone with roofs of tile and slate huddled closely together. Daily men and women went out to tend their flocks or work their fields so that there were few country habitations. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 qn N Fic. 48.— View in the village of Riafo. Fic. 49.—View down the valley below the Ponton Pass in the Sierra del Ponton. 58 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION In the village, storks built huge nests in poplar trees, with one on the tower of a little church, wagtails nested under loose tiles in the roofs, and chaffinches and bright colored linnets chattered gaily. Northward migration among the smaller birds was in full course so that daily there were new arrivals. The song of the cuckoo—of which the striking of the cuckoo clock is so exact an imitation—was heard through the hills, with the rolling calls of the green woodpecker and the harsh notes of jays that inhabited the scrub and seldom came into the open. As days passed excursions were made steadily farther afield. Below the pass known as the Collado de Terguena was a fine forest of beech with the trees so heavily hung with moss that small birds were seen among the branches with difficulty. In the Sierra de Ormas was a great woodland of oak and chestnut as yet largely untouched by the ax of the woodchopper. From the snow-covered slopes above there was a wonderful view across wild, uninhabited mountain country in which wolves, wild boars, and bears were reputed to range. From the more distant Sierra del Ponton I had a view of the jagged Picos de Europa, the highest points in the Cantabrian Range, inaccessible however until later in the season because of the depth of snow in the intervening mountain passes. Work here was finally concluded because of the necessities of a schedule including other duties, though another month might have been profitably spent in this area. From Riafo I continued by motor to Cangas de Onis toward the north, passing through a remarkably deep and narrow defile, cut in places to a depth of more than 1,500 feet, at times with barely room for a stream and the auto road at the bottom, with cliffs rising precipi- tously on either hand. Field work was at an end; the interesting col- lections of specimens included a number of local races of birds new to the collections of the National Museum, where the birds of Spain had been previously almost unrepresented, and I came finally to Santander and the French frontier with the hope that some future journey might let me see more of the pleasant lands of Spain. (iE CNUIStsOr AV ES PE RANT A BO IAL DL By ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, AND WATSON M. PERRYGO Assistant Scientific Aid, U. S. National Museum The Parish-Smithsonian Expedition to Haiti, organized by the late Lee H. Parish, with the financial assistance and cooperation of his father S. W. Parish, left Miami, Florida, in the 80-foot ketch- rigged auxiliary yacht Esperanza, on February 15, 1930. In addition to the two mentioned the party included Mrs. S. W. Parish, who assisted in radio communication, in photography, and in other ways, and Watson M. Perrygo of the staff of taxidermists of the United States National Museum. Lee Parish served as captain and navigator and head of the party, and in addition assisted his father and Perrygo in collecting specimens, being indefatigable in his efforts to promote the success of the work. The work of the expedition was concerned with the collection of zoological material, particularly of birds and reptiles. The Esperanza, thoroughly seaworthy, offered an excep- tional opportunity for work on islands lying off the Haitian coast, and it was to these little-worked areas that the major part of the time in the field was directed. The route to Haiti led along the north coast of Cuba with stops for the collection of specimens at Gibara, Port Tanamo, and finally at Baracoa. The first specimen of the expedition was a migrant Maryland yellowthroat obtained as the Esperanza passed near Bimini in the Bahamas. Numerous birds were obtained at Gibara, and in the better watered region about Port Tanamo, with its dense forests, col- lecting continued apace. Cayo Grande de Moa and the Moa and Fabrico River were fruitful spots. Birds abounded, with trogons, parrots, todies, and others of brilliant plumage giving a touch of color to the daily bags of the collectors. On March 9 after a delightful trip through waters where imagina- tion might picture the passage of pirate ships and Spanish galleons of earlier days, the Esperanza anchored in the harbor of the quaint tropi- cal town of Baracoa. Bananas and cocoa-beans are the two chief products here and the plantations from which they come are well worth seeing. The party again set sail two nights later by the light 5 59 60 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION en t * © inh 2) - — Fic. 50.—The Esperanza under sail. Fic. 51—The rocky shore of Petite Gonave Island. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 61 of a tropical moon, passed into the Windward Passage between Cuba and Haiti, and then on March 13 anchored in the harbor at Port- au-Prince. After obtaining the necessary permits for scientific collecting through the kind offices of Gen. J. H. Russell, American High Com- missioner, and others, the Esperanza with Col. and Mrs. Coyle and Lieut. Wirkus added to the party, crossed to Gonave Island, working first at Petite Gonave, where the anchor was dropped in crystal clear water in which schools of brilliantly colored fish swam among beauti- ful coral formations. Petite Gonave, east of La Gonave Island, has an area of approxi- mately 15 acres, most of which is of a very sharply eroded limestone formation, with the center a mangrove swamp. Dozens of rhinoceros iguanas sunned themselves on the rocks, and when approached bobbed their heads up and down, swelling their throats like the Anolis before disappearing clumsily in the crevices of the rocks. Gonave Island proper, more than 30 miles long and from 7 to 8 miles wide at the widest point, in general is arid and open, rising in hills like those of Haiti opposite. Collections were made at the western end and at Anse-a-Galets, the headquarters of the Gendarmerie for the island. Native dances executed to the barbaric rhythm of wooden drums with heads of hide stretched while green, and the weird and mournful accompaniment of bamboo flutes added to the interest of the work. On March 23 the party returned to Port-au-Prince for supplies and then, reduced to the original personnel, sailed for the Cayemite Islands on the northern coast of the southern peninsula. Ién route they anchored for a time in Baraderes Bay. After show- ing credentials to the chief of the section at Grand Boucan, the collec- tors crossed Baraderes Bay in one of the small boats to Mapou te explore two caves for extinct animal bones. The first one was small and very dry, and several tests there produced nothing. A barn owl was shot, and ona shelf some human remains were found. The other proved to be equally barren; it was a deep cave with water seeping through the ceiling, the moisture destroying any bones that might have been preserved there. Many birds were seen in the banana, cocoanut. and mango trees. An expedition on horseback up the fertile valley of Petite Trou de Nippes, grown with royal and cocoanut palms, high bush cotton, bananas and coffee, with the chief of the section as guide led to an- other very large cave containing a pool of crystal-clear water, which was said to have been used by natives as a place of worship. Birds, 62 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 52.—View on the Baraderes River. Fic. 53.—A group on Grande Cayemite Island. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 63 reptiles, and mollusks were collected, and the natives captured 100 live lizards for exhibition in the National Zoological Park in Wash- ington. Grand Cayemite, the next stop, is a rather large island, rough and rocky, with large patches of Madame Michel grass. Parrots and white- winged doves were abundant. More detailed work was done on Petite Cayemite, little or no collecting having been done there previously. Petite Cayemite is a small island of roughly eroded limestone covered with Madame Michel grass, which grows densely in some sections. Travel was difficult, but the collectors were persistent, securing excel- lent series of birds and reptiles, with some fine specimens of fish and crustaceans. On April 19 the Esperanza left for Ile 4 Vache, stopping for mail at Jéremie, an old French town, and then sailed west along the coast to Dame Marie. A rough sea forced the yacht to anchor for two days in Bigie Bay, a small indentation on the extreme western end of the peninsula. Fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic creatures were col- lected at night by lowering a light over the side of the boat, attract- ing hundreds to the surface where they were easily secured with a net. After a brief lay-over at Aux Cayes for supplies, the Esperanza anchored in Feret Bay, Ile a Vache Island, on April 27. This island is approximately 8 miles long and 4 miles wide. Feret Bay is on the west end, surrounded by sandy beaches, behind which large cocoanut palms, cashew, and mango trees grow. The natives as a whole are much healthier looking than the average Haitian of other regions and are well-to-do through their crops of bananas, sugar cane, and sweet potatoes as well as their cattle. Crocodiles were obtained from one of the two lagoons on the western end of the island; lizards, boas and vine snakes were very common; and over one hundred birds were obtained. The island had previously been unknown zoologically. Returning to Bigie Bay, under favorable weather conditions, the Esperanza sailed 30 miles west to Navassa, an island seldom visited by naturalists, or for that matter by others, except for the lighthouse tender that comes to it periodically. Navassa is a rocky mass about 14 miles long, a 20-foot cliff around its entire shoreline making it inaccessible except in Lulu Bay, a small indentation in the rocky wall where there is a steel ladder leading down to the water. Because it is exposed to the open sea, this little bay is unsafe for ships except in the quiet seas of the early morning. The Esperanza anchored there in the calm of the morning of May to. The island itself is uninhabited, and is covered with low trees and thorny bushes. The rough, eroded 64 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION cae & i h a Fic. 55.—Crocodiles from the lagoon on Tle a Vache. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 i | i Fic. 56.—A shark on board ship. qn Fic. 57—The Esperanza at anchor off Navassa Island. 66 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION surface rock makes travel extremely difficult. Multitudes of red- footed boobies and frigate birds nested and roosted everywhere, and doves and a vireo were the common land birds. Lizards abounded, and black marine iguanas were reported but were not found. A very fair collection was made in the few hours that it was possible to remain, though the blazing sun over the dry scrub nearly prostrated the collectors. On the return to Port-au-Prince a second stop was made at Petite Gonave to secure living iguanas for the National Zoological Park. The native fishermen who live there are very much afraid of these great lizards, but said that they could be captured by putting rum in hollows in the rocks where the iguanas would drink it, making it an easy matter to catch and handle them, The six obtained however were captured by hand, the dangerous attributes of these animals being wholly imaginary. The Esperanza sailed from Port-au-Prince for Miami on May 24, leaving Mr. Perrygo to return a few days later on the steamer Ancon to New York. In its objective of collecting specimens on remote islands little known zoologically the expedition was singularly successful, the many specimens obtained, particularly of birds and reptiles, forming a valu- able addition to the Haitian collections of the United States National Museum. The birds will be the subject of a special report, and the notes on the reptiles will be included in a complete account of the herpetology of this region. The success of the work was due largely to Mr. Lee H. Parish, who was responsible for the organization and plan, and whose skill as a navigator, and resourcefulness under the trying conditions of this type of travel in waters remote from facili- ties and assistance, made possible the itinerary followed. He assisted constantly in the zoological work, both in collecting and preparation, in addition to his other duties. His untimely death a few months after the close of the trip, on the eve of development of plans for further work of a similar nature, is mourned by his many friends. BIOLOGICAL -COELECTING ON ~ TEN-CAN: ISEAND” BY HENRY (C) KELEERS; Umted States Navy Niuafoou Island in the Toga Archipelago, nicknamed “ Tin-Can Island” for reasons explained later, the last independent kingdom in the South Seas, was the site selected for the operations of the 1930 United States Naval Observatory Eclipse Expedition. Through the courtesy of the Naval Observatory and the friendly cooperation of the Navy Department, I was again detailed to act as representative of the Smithsonian Institution for the purpose of making biological collections. The expedition left San Francisco July 31 and arrived at Tutuila, American Samoa, August 13. We remained at Samoa four days while the U. S. S. Tanager was loaded with the 60 tons of stores and scientific apparatus, and the 12,000 feet of lumber required in setting up the various cameras and astronomical instruments. Leaving Samoa August 18, we arrived off Niuafoou Island August 21. The shore is rocky, with lava benches backed by cliffs 70 to 100 feet high rising abruptly from the ocean. Landing on the lava rocks at the village of Angaha was a most difficult feat, but luck was with us, and the sea was calm for 48 hours, a very rare occurrence. All the equipment, including the tube of the Einstein camera which weighed T100 pounds, was transferred from the small boats to the lava rocks with the assistance of the natives without accident. The equipment was then hauled up a steep trail to the top of the cliff 70 feet high and the camp site was located on the summit near the village of Angaha. Niuafoou Island, pronounced New-ah-fo-oh, latitude 15° 33’ 52” S., and longitude 175° 37’ 46” W., was discovered by Captain Edwards in the British Naval vessel Pandora, August 3, 1791, and named by him Proby Island; it was afterwards named Good Hope Island by the Dutch navigator Schouten, and is still so designated on the hydro- graphic charts. The nickname “ Tin-Can Island” was given to it from the unique method by which mail is delivered there. The mail steamer, which comes about every six weeks, throws the mail over- board in a sealed can and the natives swim out and tow it to the shore. The outgoing mail is carried out to the steamer by the swim- mers, who hold it on poles above the water. Niuafoou Island, one of the Toga Archipelago, is the last independent kingdom in the South Seas, ruled over by Queen Salote Tabou and a parliament, foreign 67 INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN 68 -o}oy ) ‘soded onsst ope ‘UOoul 9} FO ss 1p aIp (‘staqjay Aq ydesis atO[OD pue Yoo ede} Jo [eIUOUIsIIy— OS “OLA ‘OZOI JO MOY CAR] 94} JO 3UI9}x9 9y} SMOYS }J9] Je BaTe YOR oy TL ‘Osepodiysiy eso y ‘noofentny JO purest ay} FO yaeyQ—es “OL Eee “yas | fo) (maypyo py Ors sary , (weg aaogqn wai 94 INOGD aIDLAN'S IHVT IVA Sy no NS EER saa po a ? way 7, SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 69 affairs being looked after by the New Zealand Government under the mandate. Niuafoou is one of the world’s famous volcanoes. It is a crater island 44 by 5 miles in size, inclosing a circular lalze about 2 miles in diameter. The narrow circular ridge of land around the lake is 200 to 800 feet high, forming steep cliffs facing the lake. The lake has three small wooded islands in it, one of which contains two smaller crater lakes. The island is the peak of a volcano rising 6,500 feet from the ocean floor, which in that vicinity 1s formed by a flat shoulder of the Australian continent about 6,000 feet below the surface. Upon this the volcano rises as an immense cone 25 miles in diameter at the base. Fic. 60.—General view of the astronomical camp, showing the 63-foot direct view camera, the 65-foot reflecting camera, and the Einstein double camera on the right. (Photograph by Kellers. ) The known eruptions occurred in 1853, 1886, 1912, and 1929. All started with the splitting of the mountain across its flank except that of 1886, which was in the old crater lake, explosive in type, and mostly of ash, forming sand hills and lagoons. These ash hills are being gradually covered with a dense growth of ironwood trees, the only trees that appear to grow and thrive in the volcanic ash of the island. The 1929 eruption was on the western side of the island, the fis- sure system bursting open at 3 a. m., July 25, 1929, near the south- west corner of the island, and line northward in a series of fissures until it nearly reached the shore at the northwest. The cracks were more than 33 miles long, requiring several hours in opening the full length of the line of fracture. This delay gave the natives of the village of Futu time to escape to the ridge. The sick and the aged were 70 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 61.—The S. S. Tofua of the Union Steamship Company, which passes the island every six weeks. The mail for the island is thrown overboard from the steamer in a sealed can. (Photograph by Kellers.) Fic. 62.—Natives swimming in with the mail in the sealed can. Hence the popular name ““Tin-Can Island.’’ The swimmers use long poles as life preservers. (Photograph by George Finau.) Fic. 63.—After the volcanic eruption of 1929 the walls of the Catholic Church is all that remains of the village of Futu, on the western shore of the island. The natives had a miraculous escape. (Photograph by Kellers.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 al bundled up and many fled naked, a drizzling rain adding to their misery. Over all hung the pall of smoke from the oncoming fire at the south, the trade winds bringing the menacing odor of deadly sul- phurous fumes. The Futu-ites got across the northern crack before it opened, but when it did open, what a flood of fiery lava poured down on the ill-fated village! Two-thirds of the village was com- pletely wiped out by the lava, and at least ten lava flows reached the sea along a three-mile front. The chasms are 30 feet across where the lava came in greatest volume. Cocoanut trees by thousands were molded in lava casing, some of which were measured and found to be 13 feet high. They stand now in groves of rocky sentinels, the largest field of tree molds anywhere in the world. The eruption lasted until 10 a.m. on that day, and many of the fissures are still smoking and giving off sulphurous fumes. Fortunately, no lives were lost, and the natives of Futu have now settled near the village of Angaha. As soon as we were settled in camp intensive collecting began. Using the lure of candy, chewing gum, and bead necklaces, I soon had all of the children and many of the grown folks of the island working for me as collectors, and numerous specimens of crustacea, shells, lizards, and insects were brought in that I could not otherwise have obtained in the eight weeks allowed for collecting. Owing to the rough and rugged coast line, only three outrigger canoes were used about the island, and consequently the natives do very little fishing. The large seine I had with me was a curiosity to them, and as no beaches suitable for hauling it were found, it could not be used. When the native does go fishing he uses a large pole called Vaca- IKauhaga, which has two small pieces of wood lashed to the sides at the end, on which the catch of fish is strung. The native dives into the ocean with the pole, swims out for some distance and rests on the pole, fishing with a hand line often for hours at a time. The natives are good swimmers and divers; one boy was adept in diving and pick- ing starfish off the rocks in water four and five fathoms deep. Each time he emerged with a number of specimens he was rewarded with a corncob pipe and tobacco, which meant as much to him as the star- fish did to me. Dragonflies were very numerous, and many were collected. Only one kind of butterfly—a world-wide species, Anosia plexippus seen, and several were collected. All the birds, 20 in number, noted Was by Hubner in 1876, were seen except Puffinus obscurus, a dusty shear- water, and all but two were collected. A large series of the interesting Megapod was obtained. This genus contains many species; the one found on this island is known as bo SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ei Fic. 64.—One of the fumaroles still smoking from the 1929 eruption. The lava on cooling takes on fantastic shapes; the large mass to the left appears to have had the face of “Santa Claus” carved in it. (Photograph by Kellers. ) . Ae BH ™ - : me OE Fic. 65.—Doctor Kellers examining a morning catch of fish. Strange as it may seem, these South Sea Islanders are not expert fishermen. (Photograph by T. A. Jaggar, Jr. J oo Iv ifr " fen ye is 1 Se t a es Eng ee 050%. Soe Fic. 66.—Digging for the eggs of the “ Melau.’ the scratchings of the bird Lower, the boy has found the egg, white hat is the son of the trader and by Kellers.) on the side of the hill. and all are rewarded with cigarettes. my able assistant on collecting trips. Bs Oe Me hoe * Upper, a nest has been discovered by Middle, going down head foremost. The lad with the (Photograph lh 4o 74. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Megapodius pritchardi, and is among the smallest of the genus but lays a very large egg. The average measurements of the bird are: length 304 mm., circumference 228 mm., and spread of wings 609 mm. The average measurements of the light buff-colored egg are: long diameter 70 mm., short diameter 45 mm. The bird lays its egg in the ash hills of the 1886 eruption on the western side of the lake shore. It then buries the egg I to 2 meters deep in the ash and fills up the hole all the way to the surface. The temperature of the ash at the spot where the egg is laid is 98.1° F.; this heat is not connected with the heat of the volcano, but is rather a Dutch-oven effect. When the chick is hatched it scratches its way out of the ash and is ready to begin life’s battles. I could not find any evidence of the male bird tending the young chicks, as is usual with this genus in Australia and the Philippines. The most important product of the soil is the cocoanut. The island is a veritable paradise for cocoanut palms, for they have never been attacked by the rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinosccrae, the scourge of the South Sea Islands. It is one of the few islands in the Pacific free of that pest, probably because of its isolated position and consequent lack of communication with other islands. The trees here grow very tall, the roots forming a dense network extending out in all directions for many feet, enabling them to withstand the intense trade winds. This tree gives the natives shelter and food; it also furnishes a wel- come substitute for drinking water, as there is no fresh water on the island except the rain water that is caught in small tanks, which is quickly used up in the dry season. The water of the green cocoanuts is therefore the natives’ only beverage, and on the warmest days it is found to be cool and a very refreshing and wholesome drink. The extensive use of cocoanuts for domestic purposes by the natives does not seem to decrease the crop to any extent, for copra (the meat of the ripe cocoanut) 1s the one and only export from the island. There 1s evidence that the western side of the island is rising. The western shore of the lake shows an uplift and the lava is covered with lime deposits in the shape of large blisters, probably formed by blue- green algae. Under these blisters were found numerous small crabs of the genus A/etasesarma. Vow-net hauls were made from time to time in the lake with good results, one of the interesting specimens thus collected being a small shrimp of the genus Caridina, but no fish were found in the lake The water is no doubt accumulated rain water, and its alkalinity is due to the volcanic gases bubbling up from below. Five small sulphur lakes are located on the southern end of the island near the crater lake, one a bubbling lake giving off sulphuretted hydro- gen gas, the temperature of which was 98° F. Samples of water from all the lakes and craters were collected and brought back for analysis. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 75 Fic. 67-—A buxom Niuafoouite maiden combing her lustrous black hair. (Photograph by Kellers.) an Fic, 68—Natives roofing a house with the fronds of the cocoanut palm. Very little sugar cane, the leaves of which are generally used by the South Sea Islanders as thatch, is grown on Niaufoou. (Photograph by Kellers.) 6 76 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The natives are true Polynesians, light reddish-brown in color, well formed, erect in bearing, and handsome in features. The women in early womanhood have beautiful figures, but like all native women of the tropics, they soon lose them as they grow older. Their eyes are dark, with an expression of gentleness. They do not like to work, their wants are few, and little clothing is worn, although foreign clothing adapted to the climate is being worn more and more by both the men and the women. The men consider it undignified to appear without a shirt or coat, and always wear them on ceremonial occasions. The natives are expert weavers of rough baskets, taking from three to five minutes according to size to weave a basket out of the frond of a cocoanut palm. They are also adept in making fire by the primi- tive method of rubbing two sticks of wood together, 30 seconds being the time required to perform the feat. The natives were friendly, hospitable, and curious ; they were in and around the camp at all hours of the day or night, except when attend- ing one of the missionary churches, where they sang interminable hymns with much gusto, but very pleasing harmony. They were at all times quiet, dignified, and extremely interested in all the eclipse activi- ties, and they had offered many prayers for our success. A few of the ‘‘ Doubting Thomases ” wagered a pig against a shirt with the son of one of the traders that nothing would happen and that the sun would not be darkened, so that the young lad now owns more than his share of pork, which, next to roast dog, is their favorite food. Among other good qualities, these natives are absolutely honest and extremely virtuous. Towards the end of our stay on the island they brought in presents of many fine grass mats—Falas—and Tapa cloths. Finally on the morning of our departure, at least half of the population of the island including the High Chief Fotofili, his son-in-law and future successor, and the Magistrate, with their families, were down to bid us farewell. They all expressed genuine regret and many sincere Tofas (goodbyes ) at our departure, and were particular to inform us through the trader interpreter how much they had enjoyed having our party honor Niua- foou with such a noteworthy visit. The collections which have been forwarded to the National Museum as its share of the results of this expedition include 100 bird skins and over 7,000 alcoholic specimens of various kinds, as well as numerous geologic specimens, stalactites of lava, lava tree molds, and water sam- ples from the alkaline and sulphur lakes on the island. EXPLORATIONS, OFTHE REV. DAVID 'C.:.GRAHAM IND SZECHUAN, CHINA By HERBERT FRIEDMANN, Curator, Division of Birds, U. S. National Museum The Rev. David C. Graham has continued his missionary work in the province of Szechuan, western China, during the past year, and as usual has utilized his spare time in collecting for the Smithsonian Institution. Although no outstanding trip was made during the year, much material of value was gathered at or near Graham’s station at Suifu, all of which supplements previous collections from that area. During the year something over 62,000 specimens were received by the National Museum. Dr. Graham has also made plans and already taken care of the advance details for two trips of importance which he hopes to be able to realize next year—one to eastern Tibet, and the other to Tatsienlu. Just as last year the excessive rains made the journey to Moupin unusually arduous, so in the beginning of this year a prolonged gen- eral drought made collecting rather disappointing for a while at Suifu, and it was not until later in the year that rains began to fall and condi- tions were much improved. The drought caused a general scarcity of insects and other forms, and this scarcity considerably increased the effort involved in making collections. As in previous years, the hordes of bandits and robbers have been the greatest obstacles to travel and collecting. Thus, Graham writes in his diary on August 24, “. . . . we took a boat from Suifu to San Kuang, crossed overland at San Kuang, and went sixty li up the San Kuang River to Yo Keo. We could have gone farther, but there is a place between Yo Keo and Sa Ho where robbers constantly appeals seus) ; That robbers are not the only source of annoyance is evidenced by the following entry on September 4. “ When we were coming down the high mountain towards Tsanglinshien, I noticed that there was no one else on that road either going or coming. After reaching this city I learned that both leopards and robbers are fierce at the top of the high mountain between here and Tseo-Jia-Geo. Leopards were fiercer and more common over a wide territory than they have been known to be before, and probably hundreds are killed every year Tidf INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN (meyety “9 ‘q Aq ydess0j04q) ‘saeqpid 410 syystidn jo sjas 914} Sey s}e1Oqe]a sow oY J ‘od A4} ysoyduirs ay} JO QUO ST YoIe [eIIOWsW sIyy, ‘patedsoid ue poos 94} pue ssoupoos siy Jo asneoaq AON] awieoeq 4 ‘yon] peq suriq OyM SuoWeap Aq poz}sesuUl AT[e19Uas Vov[d eB pojIqeyur Ue poos Ule}I90 B UdYM Jey} Surkes joyqe} [erowswm wos “oy (Cmeyetn ‘d ‘q Aq ydeisojoyg) ‘“eulyD ‘QOUIAOIgG UBNYIIZS UI $}eOd PUL IIAII & apISeq ase[]I A—"69 “91 A SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 79 Fie. 71.—Artificial hill or mound near Chengtu, Szechuan, China, said to have been erected 700 B. C. as the burial mounds of an aborigine king and his queen. (Photograph by D. C. Graham.) Fic. 72.—The new modernized streets of Suifu, Szechuan, China. No auto- mobiles or horse carriages or street cars bump into the pedestrians. (Photo- graph by D. C. Graham.) 80 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION in the country south of Suifu, called the Lan Lut Shien District.” The country around Tsanglinshien is described by Graham as a beautiful district with high mountains, perpendicular limestone cliffs, and great forests. Coal, iron, and sulphur occur plentifully and all are being mined, although by crude methods. A phase of natural-history col- lecting in out-of-the-way places that probably would not occur to anyone not familiar with such work is hinted at in the following notes jotted down by Graham on September 3 at Tseo-Jia-Geo. “ One of Fic. 73.—A famous cliff, called by some foreigners ‘“ The Ribbon Counter,” on the north side of the Min River, about 60 li above Suifu. (Photograph by D. C. Graham.) the most trying experiences to a foreigner in West China, when travel- ling, comes from the fact that a foreigner expects and loves privacy when sleeping, studying, and working. It is nearly impossible to get privacy in Chinese homes (as a guest) and in Chinese inns, The Chinese have little conception of it. You try to work in a Chinese inn, and the first thing you know the room is packed, and crowds are peek- ing through the cracks and looking through the windows.” The great bulk of the collections sent in this year is made up of fine series of insects of all orders. Among these are many species new SI EXPLORATIONS, SMITHSONIAN (1esy ueny ulA devou tweyRin ‘dg “q 4q ydessojoyd) WOT} UOTJOIJOId puke SpOS sy} YIM AOAR} WI SOAS SIY TL Ud}IIM SIANJALIOG 24} punoie [aayM Siy} Suny -d149G YSIyYppne ay} JO suortzsO *SUOIJOAIP SNOT uisn jyoqry, jo tsddrys10omM vy jlloul oy} sey oy I}JIIM 91B Son} asojour taded ug ‘O ‘a Aq yd Bd} Surkaiwd sooo ssaury) Avid A[[vat you a9keid ,, pauin}-pue 82 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION to the National Museum and others new to science. The best results of this year’s explorations and collections are undoubtedly in the field of entomology. Other groups, both of vertebrate and of invertebrate animals, are also represented, as well as a number of interesting and important ethnological objects, such as rock carvings, vases, ete. ANGIE ND REECATIVIES OF LIVING WHALES By REMINGTON KELLOGG Assistant Curator, Division of Mammals, U. S. National Museum Nearly one hundred years have elapsed since the attention of the readers of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society was directed to the finding of an extinct relative of living whales in a marl bank within the present boundaries of the State of Louisiana. In the ensuing years numerous dissertations have been written in regard to this animal and yet many details of its bodily construction remained unknown. Notwithstanding the rather wide distribution of deposits in which such fossil remains occur, there still exists a sur- prising scarcity of material suitable for critical study of the peculiari- ties of this animal. In connection with a general interpretation of the geological history of the cetaceans, an effort has been made to augment available evidence by further field work in areas that gave some prom- ise of increasing our knowledge of these animals. Accordingly plans were made for a visit to one of these fossil bearing deposits and on October 2, 1929, the writer and Mr. Norman H. Boss left Wash- ington for Alabama under the joint auspices of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington and the Smithsonian Institution. The Jackson formation of the Gulf Coastal Plain, which consists of calcareous fossiliferous sands and clays of marine origin, outcrops in eastern Texas in the region between Trinity and Sabine Rivers, and also extends eastward across central Louisiana, Mississippi, and Ala- bama. This formation extends up the Mississippi embayment to near Forrest City in St. Francis County, Arkansas. In northern Louisiana the Jackson formation is concealed over a large area by swamp de- posits, but crops out in southern Caldwell Parish. It was in this parish that Judge H. Bree in 1832 found a partial skeleton of an at that time unknown colossal animal. Some 28 vertebrae were exposed by the slump of a hill near the Ouachita River after long continued rains. One of these vertebrae was sent to Dr. Richard Harlan at Philadelphia who hastened to publish an account of the discovery. On account of its supposed reptilian affinities, Harlan proposed to call this animal the king of lizards, Basilosaurus. The supposed affinities of Basilosaurus immediately aroused a world wide controversy. It was not until January, 1839, when Dr. Harlan arrived in London, England, with additional fossil remains which had been found on the plantation 83 . 84 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ay Coes nfite Uj ; ee? sil PF a Itc. 76.—Fossil bones of a gigantic zeuglodont, Basilosaurus, partially exposed in a prairie field. Fic. 77,—A damaged head of the gigantic zeuglodont, Basilosaurus, was found on the hardened ledge in the background. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 85 of Judge J. G. Creagh in Clark County, Alabama, in 1834 that the precise relationships of Basilosaurus were recognized. Included among the fossil bones that Dr. Harlan brought with him were teeth which Professor Richard Owen was permitted to section and study. On the basis of a microscopic examination of these teeth, Professor Owen was enabled to demonstrate conclusively the mammalian nature of the animal. Consequently, Owen proposed to substitute for Basilosaurus the name Zeuglodon cetoides, in allusion to the yoke-like appearance of the cheek teeth. The next important discovery was made on the plantation of Judge Creagh in Clark County, Alabama, in 1842 by Mr. S. B. Buckley, who excavated a skeleton of Basilosaurus that consisted of portions of the head and of the fore limbs, and a vertebral column extending to a length of 65 feet. These remains were shipped to the office of the Geological Survey of New York at Albany where they were studied and described by Ibenezer Emmons. The subsequent history of this particular specimen is somewhat interesting in that some time later it passed into the possession of the Warren Museum at Boston. In time the Warren Museum passed out of existence and some years past this skeleton along with other vertebrate fossils was purchased by the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. The interest aroused by these discoveries induced Dr. Albert Koch, a German collector, to visit Alabama. Koch arrived at Claiborne, Ala- bama, in January, 1845, and after a brief reconnaissance in that vicin- ity moved his headquarters three weeks later to Clarksville. He was not entirely successful there, although portions of a zeuglodont were found nearby. While at Clarksville, however, Koch received the news that remains of this animal were rather plentiful near the Old Court House in Washington County. Arriving at the Old Court House on March 16, 1845, Koch immediately commenced excavating a skeleton that was found in the same neighborhood. Several wagon loads of bones were assembled at Washington Old Court House, from which Koch reconstructed an animal measuring 114 feet in length, but com- posed of five or more individuals. This composite skeleton of Basilo- saurus was exhibited for some weeks as a sea serpent in the Apollo Rooms on Broadway in New York City. Later on this skeleton was shipped to Germany and exhibited in the principal cities of Europe. The King of Prussia having purchased this skeleton for the Anatomical Museum in Berlin, Dr. Koch with the proceeds of the sale was enabled to visit Alabama again in 1848 and to resume his search for zeuglodont remains. A second skeleton was assembled in the vicinity of Washington Old Court House and 86 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION shipped to Dresden where the work of preparation for exhibition was begun. This zeuglodont was exhibited for some weeks at Vienna, Austria, and later, although the exact details are unknown, it was sold to the Chicago Academy of Sciences where it remained until destroyed during the Chicago fire of 1875. These discoveries and current stories in regard to the unusual abun- dance of remains of zeuglodonts in the Gulf states led the United States National Museum in 1894 to consider field work 1n this region. Accordingly Professor Charles Schuchert was detailed to investigate these occurrences and to collect if possible a specimen for the exhib1- tion series. On arrival at Cocoa, Choctaw County, Alabama, on November 2, 1894, Schuchert began his search and within a short time successfully excavated the head of one individual and twenty- four consecutive vertebrae of another, beginning with the atlas and ending with the third lumbar vertebra, in addition to the ribs and the major elements of the fore limbs. This material formed the basis for the restoration of the asilosaurus skeleton exhibited at the At- lanta Exposition in 1895. Inasmuch as the assembled skeleton was incomplete, Schuchert again returned to Alabama and in November, 1896, found near Fail in Choctaw County the tail portion of another zeuglodont which consisted of thirty-five consecutive vertebrae count- ing from the penultimate one forward, as well as the pelvis and one vestigial thigh bone (femur). This material was prepared for exhibi- tion in the laboratory of the United States National Museum and for some years this mounted skeleton has been on exhibition in the hall of fossil animals. After a rather hasty trip through Clark County, Alabama, Mr. 30ss and [| arrived at Silas, where we began our paleontological ex- ploration of the Jackson exposures in Choctaw and the adjoining Washington County. Inasmuch as we were unsuccessful in our search for well preserved specimens of zeuglodonts in this area, we departed for Melvin, also in Choctaw County. In that vicinity and under the guidance of Mr. Robert Land, we were shown the places where Schuchert had excavated the major portion of the material now in the United States National Museum. Associated with the gigantic Basilosaurus cetoides, which attained a length of from 50 to 70 feet and whose skull measured approxi- mately 5 feet from extremity of snout to back of braincase, was the little short bodied Zygorhiza kochii, which may have had a maximum length of from 12 to 15 feet. In the vicinity of Melvin and across the line in Clarke County, Mississippi, we were fortunate enough to SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 87 l"1c. 78.—Typical view of Jackson exposures in a “ washed-out ” prairie field near Melvin, Alabama. Fic. 79.—The head and neck of the little zeuglodont, Zygorhiza, was dug out of indurated elevation in the foreground. 88 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION locate an exceptionally well preserved skull and both lower jaws of one individual, and other portions of the skeleton of five additional indi- viduals of the little zeuglodont, Zygorhiza, which was our chief objec- tive on this trip. In many places remains of this little zeuglodont are almost as numerous as its larger relative. Among the contem- porary inhabitants of the same coastal seas were a large aquatic snake and a large tortoise-like turtle. Fish vertebrae measuring two or more inches in diameter, teeth of sharks, and the curiously ridged rod-like beaks of an extinct sword fish (Cylindracanthus ornatus) are fre- quently noticed in the washes. An abundance of rounded shells of small sea-urchins (Schizaster armiger and Macropneustes mortont), a small scallop (Pecten perplanus), a little oyster (Ostrea falco), with a thin shell fancied to resemble a hawk, and a large nautilus (Aturia alabamensis), the chambers of which are locally known as ‘ goat’s heads,” occur in the “ Zeuglodon ”’ horizon. The yellowish or gray marl, in which these zeuglodonts occur, 1s often hardened around the bones. From two to four hard ledges, a few inches in thickness and separated by layers of this marl, are also gen- erally present in the “ Zeuglodon”’ horizon. These ledges are quite resistent to the effects of erosion. Bones found in such ledges are generally difficult to extricate on account of the hardness of the matrix and the rather soft consistency of the bones themselves. The typical outcrop of the Jackson formation is located near Jack- son, Mississippi, from which locality it takes its name. The exposures of this formation in the prairie region of central Mississippi occupy an irregular belt that ranges in width from about 6 miles near the Ala- bama line in Clarke County to a maximum of more than 35 miles 1n the region west of Jackson. The total thickness of the basal member, consisting of quartz sand and glauconite, and the overlying clay mem- ber is approximately 150 feet in eastern Clarke County. This forma- tion increases in depth in a westerly direction and attains a thickness of more than 600 feet in Yazoo County. Inasmuch as the “ Zeuglo- don” horizon is relatively thin and is situated near the base of the upper clay member, which attains a total thickness of 70 feet in Clarke County, one usually has to locate deeply eroded prairies to be successful in a search for this fossil-bearing horizon. Several skele- tons of the gigantic Basilosaurus were located along the eastern border of Clarke County, but erosion and cultivation of the land had de- stroyed whatever value they may have originally possessed for paleontological study. Portions of two skeletons of the diminutive zeuglodont, Zygorhiza, were excavated in this area. 89 1930 iXPLORATIONS, E SMITHSONIAN ‘UMosnyy [euolye ny iS fa oy} Ul ‘SIPIOJII SNANDSO [svg ‘ JUOPO]sNsz tjuR: =] O I Sg Oo ol | + O UuO}I] IAS P910}S9Y— "Og “OI go SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION In central Alabama, the Jackson formation occupies the prairie region 1n Choctaw, Clark, Monroe, and Conecuh counties, but the exposures are often restricted to narrow belts by the overlapping of more recent formations. Although most of the territory, which was settled by the early pioneers, was at that time covered with coniferous and deciduous woods, there were small treeless tracts here and there which were called “ prairies.’ These open spaces were the first to be farmed and upon them flourished fields of cotton, which were culti- vated with the assistance of slaves. In time the natural fertility of the soil was greatly depleted and many of these prairie fields were allowed to revert to their natural condition. Others became impos- sible to cultivate because in plowing the furrows were thrown in such a way that the fields were subjected to severe erosion during long con- tinued rains. [ach drainage path in time became a deep gully and ultimately the field was so cut up that further cultivation was 1mpos- sible. For years the destructive action of erosion has been allowed to continue without any serious effort being made to check its ravages until now many of these fields are criss-crossed in every direction by deep gullies. In some places the * Zeuglodon ”’ horizon was so close to the surface that the skeletons were thrown out by the plow. These bones were gathered up by the negroes and dumped along the edges of the fields where occasionally they may now be found partially buried in the accumulated debris. Some twenty occurrences of remains of the gigantic zeuglodont that had been destroyed either by the plow or by erosion and weathering were observed in Choctaw County dur- ing the period of our visit. It is in these so-called ‘* washed-out ” prairie fields that one finds today numerous exposures of the “ Zeu- glodon ” horizon. In such fields were found a number of more or less complete skeletons of the small zeuglodont, Zygorhiza, and various portions of the skeleton of the gigantic Basilosaurus. In one instance various fragments of a skeleton of Zygorhiza were found scattered along an abandoned logging road. This skeleton has been exposed by the iron-rimmed wheels of lumber trucks and subsequently destroyed by the same agency. At another place a skeleton of another individual lay in a cow-path where it had been trampled on for many years by the feet of innumerable cattle. POUR TER EXPLORATIONS FOR MOLLUSKS IN (ele, MVS ONDINE By PAU BART SGEH: Curator, Division of Mollusks, U. S. National Museum The granting of the Walter Rathbone Bacon Travelling Scholarship to me for the third year made it possible to explore some of the West Indian territory much in need of investigation. Two years ago this same scholarship made it possible to subject all the provinces of Cuba, except Oriente, to a close scrutiny for land mollusks. The three and one-half months spent in this island, which supports a greater land shell fauna than any other equivalent area in the world, yielded an enormous amount of material. The same grant made it possible to spend the summer of last year in an exploration of Porto Rico and the Lesser Antilles lying between this and the island of Trini- dad, as well as the islands of Margarita, Orchilla and the Dutch West Indies lying off the coast of Venezuela. This year our efforts were focused on the southern Bahamas, the islands off the south coast of Cuba, and the Caymans. After a futile attempt to obtain a suitable vessel in northern waters to take the expedition to the Bahamas, contracts were finally closed in Mianu, Florida, for the use of the Jsland Home, a boat that seemed to meet our needs. The reason for again securing a vessel for this cruise was the fact that commercial transportation in the area to be visited was non-existent, for most of the territory to be explored con- sists of islands rarely visited by man. For this reason also, it became necessary to provide food for the trip at the outset. The large territory to be covered—some 2500 miles—made it desirable to secure sufficient assistants to reduce to a minimum the time spent upon each of the many islands visited. For this reason I tendered an invitation to Mr. Harold Chittick, one of my students at the George Washington Uni- versity, and to two Washington Boy Scouts, Ray Greenfield, who ac- companied me to Cuba two years ago, and Alva G. Nye, Jr.; also to Mr. Harold S. Peters of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture. To this staff were added the Cap- tain of the [sland Home, E. Roberts, and the engineer, B. E. Lowe. The Island Home was a 33-ton vessel, flat bottomed. 59 feet in length, with a 21 foot beam, and a draft of 44 feet, and provided with 7h OI Q2 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 81.—Loading fuel oil on the Jsland Home at the Naval Station, Key West, Florida. Fic. 82.—My scientific associates: right, Peters; next, Greenfield, Chittick, and Nye. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 93 a 60 H. P. engine. Leaving Miami June 9, we reached Key West after a two-day interval in which engine trouble developed, which, combined with fueling, delayed our sailing for the Bahamas until June 16. Here should be mentioned the kind assistance rendered our expedition by the United States Navy Department. Not only were we permitted to draw fuel and other supplies needed, but the engine shop made the necessary repairs to our engine and rendered every possible assistance to have us adequately equipped for the cruise. Leaving Key West June 16, we headed for the Cay Sal Bank, an irregular, pear-shaped submarine flat, a little more than 60 miles in length in a southeasterly and northwesterly direction. This bank is covered by a shallow sea, ranging from 34 to 15 fathoms, and fringed by a chain of cays on all but the southern side. The bank, while only some 20 miles from the central portion of the north coast of Cuba, is, nevertheless, separated from that island by very deep water—the Nicholas Channel—ranging from 212 to 534 fathoms. This great depth does not bespeak land connections with Cuba. From Florida it is separated by some 50 miles of equally deep water, and since the whole bank slopes abruptly on all sides to great depth, the land mol- luscan fauna was looked for with considerable interest. Each of the cays, beginning with Cay Sal on the southwestern edge of the bank and ending with Anguilla Cay, was explored, and the many interesting things thus obtained are now resting in the Museum, await- ing analysis. How little visited some of these cays are may be in- ferred from the fact that on one of the Damas Cays we found an ele- vated stake and curled about its base the white bleached bones of a man who had evidently been shipwrecked here and perished. On June 24 we left the Cay Sal Bank and crossed the deep Santaren Channel to the Great Bahama Bank. The 25th and half of the 26th were spent sailing some 180 miles over an almost calm shallow sea, out of sight of land but with the glaringly white calcareous sand of the bottom constantly in view. Like the northern Bahama Bank, this reach appears almost devoid of life at least visible life. We came to anchor at about 11 a. m. in the snug little harbor formed by islets, collectively known as Jamaica Cays. From this date until the evening of July 3 we explored the cays which stretch in an open looped chain southeastward to Great Ragged Island. These islands, which mark the western limit of another deep, are all composed of elevated reef rock less than 100 feet in height, and vary in size from mere rock points to miles in extent. They are 94 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION very rugged and may be barren or covered in spots with a growth of Sesuvium or Portulaca or a dense, almost impenetrable, thicket of Platopuntia or other cacti. Some of the larger cays, on the other hand, bear tangles of brush, or even what might be called trees, all of the vegetation, however, being of the drought-resistant type, save here and there where tangles of mangrove jut into shallow bays. On these cays the most conspicu- ous elements were the land mollusks of the genus Cerion, of which we gathered thousands, though these were by no means the only land mol- lusks of the region as evidenced by the collection now resting in the National Museum. Early on July 4 we left our anchorage in the Great Ragged Island harbor and headed for Cay Verde. All along our course we had met with many breeding colonies of sea birds, but Cay Verde is the only cay boasting a breeding colony of Man-o’-War birds in the Bahamas. Dull skies, squalls and heavy seas constantly breaking over our decks, somewhat modified our looked-for celebration of the day. Our ship soon had the putty, which had been used to close the seams of the ves- sel in place of oakum, pounded out by the waves, and a call to man the pump was in order. To make a short story of the longest day of our cruise, I will say, simply, that the ship slipped entirely off the Colum- bus Bank upon which Cay Verde is located, and we failed to sight Cay Verde, but were greeted about 2 o’clock the next morning by the welcome faint flashes of Castle Island lighthouse. The next two days were spent in an attempt to repair our ship, which was only in part successful, since we were unable to careen her on account of her flat bottom. From this time until August II we were forced to pump one hour out of every three, day and night, to keep the ship habitable, and even then the leaky decks soaked most of our belongings stored below. July 5 to 15 we spent exploring the Crooked Island group, a tri- angular bank about 45 miles in a north and south direction, and 35 miles east and west. This bank consists of Castle, Aklin, Crooked, Fortune Islands, and the Fish Cays. Here again the sea drops imme- diately off shore to a great depth, in places to almost 3,000 fathoms. The group is isolated from all the adjacent groups of islands by more than 1,000 fathoms. Some of its hills attain an elevation of 200 feet and habitats for our mollusks vary from bleak and barren sand spits to mangrove tangles, and from dense grass flats and brush land to small timber, as well as cultivated fields. The days spent here again proved worth while and very profitable. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ30 9 Fic. 83.—Three stages in the development of Audubon’s Shearwater (Puffinus 'herminieri) from the Cay Sal group, Bahamas. 096 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION July 16 we sailed for the Plana Islands from Jamaica Bay, Aklin Island, reaching our destination late in the afternoon. The evening of this day and the next day were spent collecting on the westernmost of the two cays. July 18 we attempted a landing on the eastern cay, being particularly anxious to do so because this cay appears to be the only one in all the Bahamas upon which Hutias, the large West Indian rodents are present, and we had been asked especially to secure a series of these for the National Museum. High seas and a very effective bar- rier reef frustrated all our attempts at landing, and as there are no residents on the Plana Islands who might have guided us through some narrow passage in the reef, we were compelled, very reluctantly, to forego an exploration of this island. The Plana Islands are also bounded by deep water. We next headed for Mariguana Island, a large cay some 25 miles in length and 8 in its largest diameter, with a shallow flat at the eastern extremity. This cay rises to an elevation of 80 feet at Abraham’s Hill, and presents all the varied habitats listed for the Crooked Island group. Here again we have deep sea on all sides immediately off shore. Mariguana and Booby Cay on its southern flat yielded many interest- ing mollusks, as well as a fine collection of birds, bats, and reptiles. At the crack of dawn July 22 we headed for the Caicos Bank, cross- ing the long stretch of the Caicos Island passage with some apprehen- sion, but we reached Malcolm Bay without mishap. From then until July 30 we explored the various cays bordering the Caicos Bank on the north and east side between Blue Hills and Cockburn Harbor. The Caicos Bank, like the other banks examined, rises abruptly from the sea, practically forming an atoll. It is some 72 miles in a southeast by northwestern direction, and about 58 miles in its widest east to west diameter. Its highest hill is said to be 280 feet. The same diver- sity of habitat mentioned for previous groups exists here, but in addi- tion, at least one cay—Pine Cay—of the Fort George group, west of North Caicos, boasts a fine stand of pine. The group as a whole yielded a fine series of mollusks, as well as many other things. July 30 we crossed the deep narrow channel known as Turk’s Island passage, and from then until August 2 devoted our time to an explo- ration of the cays situated upon the Turk’s Island Bank. The Turk’s Island Bank is the easternmost bank of the Bahamas that has habitable land projecting above the sea. Most of its cays proved rich in mol- lusks. On the afternoon of the second of August we re-crossed the Turk’s Island passage and explored the small cays at the southern SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 Q7 Fic. 84.—The José Enrique in Cuban waters. Fic. 85.—The stern of the José Enrique: central figure Captain Andre de Leon and the rest his crew. 98 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION end of the southeast Caicos group. We then crossed the Caicos Bank and devoted August 3 and 4 to an exploration of the cays off the south coast of Providentiales and of West Caicos, all of which yielded rich collections. August 5 we crossed the deep channel between west Caicos and Little Inagua, and the remainder of this day and part of the next were spent in a search for the mollusks which it harbors. On the afternoon of August 6 we headed for Great Inagua Island, which is by far the largest of the southern Bahamas. It has a length of almost 45 miles in a southwest by a northwesterly direction, and a north by south width of about 18 miles in its largest diameter. In reality it is another atoll which has emerged from the sea. Its high- est hill is said to be 132 feet. Its shores slope precipitously into the great depths of the sea on all sides. This island, as its wonderful molluscan fauna indicates, in reality represents a host of cays fused by elevation. We explored not only the ocean rim in our boat, but also the interior of the island, in a Ford truck. Inagua proved by far the richest of all the Bahamas in diversity of molluscan fauna. The barometer indicating fine weather, we put to sea at 4 p. m. on August 10 from Matthewstown for our naval station at Guantanamo, southeastern Cuba, a distance of some 120 miles. We selected a night run for its calmer sea. Favorable winds enabled us to sight the Cape Macy light in eastern Cuba a little after 10 o’clock, and we rounded the Cape at 2:30 in the morning of the 11th of August, reaching Guantanamo about 1:30 in the afternoon. The Naval authorities, at my request, examined the [sland Home and pronounced her unseaworthy and recommended her abandon- ment until suitable repairs could be made. Since it was impossible to obtain the necessary repairs for some weeks at the Station, other ves- sels being on the ways, I informed the owners in Miami of the fact and set about finding another suitable vessel in Cuban waters. The José Enrique, a 35-ton sailing bark, equipped with a 22 H. P. gasoline motor, carrying a complement of five men, was finally chart- ered at Santiago, Cuba, and after fueling at the Naval base we set sail for Santiago. On August 28 we again set sail westward, stopping at convenient intervals along the south coast of Cuba and exploring the many low keys in the embayment between Cabo Cruz and Bretton Cay, the westernmost of that labyrinth of keys in that part of Cuba, which we reached September 10. While these keys did not yield an enormous catch, many of them proving entirely barren of land mol- lusks, the specimens obtained nevertheless furnished information very desirable to our studies. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 99 Fic. 86.—Three views showing abundance of Cerion landshells on the island of Great Inagua. TOO SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION On September 10 we headed southward for the Cayman Islands, a group of three peaks whose molluscan fauna proclaims them a con- tinuation of the Sierra Maestra range of southeastern Cuba, from which they are separated by about 115 miles. About noon the follow- ing day we reached Cayman Brac, which looks like a block of honey- comb limestone elevated out of the sea to a height of about 130 feet. It is 10} miles long and about 14 broad. The top of the block is rough and covered with brush, and its sides are almost perpendicular. A coastal plain strip on the north and west furnishes arable land and good roads. We engaged an automobile and soon covered all parts sufficiently to get a representative collection of its molluscan and other faunas by the end of the next day. On the evening of September 11 we sailed for Little Cayman some 4 miles west of Cayman Brac. Engine trouble caught us at sea after dark. Approaching the northeastern end of Little Cayman we almost came to grief on a fringing reef. The coolheadedness and good seamanship of our captain, however, saved the day. Little Cayman, to which we devoted September 11 to 13, is about 9 miles long and 1 mile wide. Its highest peak is said to be about 100 feet. As a whole, it appears much lower than Cayman Brac and has less tillable land than that island and only a very scant population. Most of the island is covered with brush and timber. We found it splendid collecting ground for mollusks and other things, and made a large catch. On September 13, we left our anchorage in Blossom Village harbor and proceeded west toward Grand Cayman, which is about 60 miles distant. This is the largest of the three Caymans, having a length of about 20 miles and a breadth of about 8 miles. Its highest point is said to be only about 50 feet. Much of the island consists of sand dunes. North Sound, a great bay on the northwestern end, is man- erove-fringed. At Georgetown, the capital of Grand Cayman, we were met by one of my former students, Dr. Overton, the Chief Medical Officer of the Cayman Island, and thanks to his assistance and the kind helpful- ness of the Commissioner, we were enabled to explore the island thoroughly and to secure a large amount of material in the short time allotted to us. September 18, at 4a. m., we set sail for the Cuban coast, and reached the shores of Sandy Cay at about 9 a. m., on the roth, after sailing 145 miles. From this time until September 24 we cruised along and collected on the keys between Cayo Largo and the Isle of (Pines. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 IOT At dusk on the 24th we tied up against the dock of the Customs House at Nueva Gerona, Isle of Pines, where we were graciously and helpfully received by the Government officials. By the use of an automobile we were able to visit all the desirable parts of the island, securing a magnificent catch of much needed material. On September 27 we headed for our final port, Batabano, which we reached on the morning of the 29th with all things packed ready for transmission to Havana. The Port officials here, as elsewhere, had been apprised of our coming, which made it possible to have all things aboard a freight car within two hours after docking. A motor bus carried our party to Havana where we were met by Cuba’s grand old naturalist, Dr. Carlos de la Torre, who helped me with all my needs and gave to the rest of my staff a real glimpse of Havana. All things settled, we left Havana September 1 with 4 young, live tortoise-shell turtles purchased at Cayman Brac, 2 huge live iguanas captured on Cayo Rosario, and 120 huge hermit crabs caught on one of the Doce Leguas Cays as our chief baggage. These live animals were intended for the Zoological Park at Washington. In this connec- tion it might also be mentioned that I shipped by parcel-post from Guantanamo to the same institution 22 live iguanas which we had caught on various cays in the Bahamas. All of these animals arrived in good condition. Our main collection was shipped by freight, in part from Fortune Island, in part from: Guantanamo, and the rest from Cuba. We returned to Washington on October 3. This cruise has yielded a larger amount of molluscan material than any other in which I have had a part, excepting the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries expedition in the Philippines in 1907-1910. We obtained some 250,000 specimens of mollusks, and in addition 925 bird skins and 596 reptiles and batrachians ; likewise some mammals, fish, insects, and marine invertebrates. Great credit for the securing of these splendid collections is due to my energetic associates mentioned at the beginning of this article. The Cuban crew of the José Enrique also deserves special mention, from the captain to the cabin boy. Foremost of all, however, thanks are due to our Department of State for having secured not only free entry to all foreign ports for our expedition, but also that good will and helpfulness on the part of all officials in the places visited that makes an expedition of this kind a real joy. It would take more space than all these notes to adequately express thanks for all the favors 102 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION received. To the officers of our Navy at Key West and Guantanamo great credit is due not only for the assistance rendered in equipping both vessels, but the kindly way in which hospitalities were extended to us, which will always leave a pleasant memory of the occasion, RAVING HOR, CRUSTACEANS Ad PORTUGAS, FLORIDA By WALDO Ly SCHMITT, Curator of Marine Invertebrates, U. S. National Museum The richness of the crustacean fauna at Tortugas, Florida, and its importance in relation to the food habits and movements of certain fishes, led me to continue investigations at the Carnegie Marine Bio- logical Station from July 9 to August 8, 1930, through the kindness of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. It is planned as a point of departure for further studies on the crustacea to complete a survey of their kinds and distribution. Judging from the results already obtained, it is anticipated that at least 200 species will be found to occur at Tortugas and vicinity. This year was the first in which a preliminary investigation of the deeper waters readily accessible to the laboratory was undertaken. In the course of some 20 hauls made with the 30-foot otter trawl, two hauls between 180 and 237 fathoms brought to light 16 species of “deep sea’’ crustacea. Most noteworthy among these were eight specimens of that giant among isopods, Bathynomus, and a new Portunid crab of the genus Benthocascon, heretofore known only from a single specimen taken between 185 and 440 fathoms in the Andaman Sea. Three specimens of Bathynomus were obtained from the first haul in 180 to 220 fathoms, and five specimens in the second haul in 220 to 237 fathoms. The largest specimen measures 10$ inches long by 44 inches broad. In length it is only an eighth of an inch shorter than the record specimen taken at a depth between 225 and 594 fathoms off the northeast coast of Ceylon. The species is comparatively rare in col- lections. Between 1890 and 1906 nine specimens were taken by the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship /nvestigator in Indian Seas in the course of six hauls in from 195 to 740 fathoms, while seventeen speci- mens have been secured by various American vessels. The first speci- men known to science was taken by the Blake in 1878 from 955 fathoms in the Caribbean Sea; two specimens were secured by the Albatross in 1885 and 1888 in the Gulf of Mexico and the Bahamas in 730 and 1,186 fathoms respectively; six specimens were taken by the Bingham Oceanographic Expedition of 1925 off the coast of Brit- ish Honduras north of Glover Reef in 366 fathoms and, finally, the 103 TO4 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 87—The yacht Anton Dohrn of the Carnegie Institution. (Photograph by Schmitt.) Fic. 88.—Cocoanut palms shading the entrance to the main laboratory building. (Photograph by J. W. Manter.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 105 Fic. 89.—A glimpse of Bird Key, Dry Tortugas, Florida, showing the vast numbers of noddy and sooty terns, an estimated total of 75,000 to 80,000 birds. Due to the shifting of the coral sand forming the key, the house which was located approximately at the center of the island is all but submerged. (Photograph by Schmitt.) Fic. 90.—A few of the Greek spongers at Tarpon Springs. (Photograph by Schmitt.) 106 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION eight specimens recorded above were taken by the Yacht Anton Dohrn of the Carnegie Institution on July 31, 1930. Many species of corals flourish in these semitropical waters, and as a result dredging is carried on with considerable hazard to one’s gear, nets on occasion becoming hopelessly torn or caught on the huge coral heads. On one occasion our steel cable parted in ten fathoms of water, and the only large net seemed irrevocably lost. The swift run of tidal currents so stirs up the sediment in these otherwise unusually clear waters that the bottom can be seen only with difficulty. The buoy which marked the net was carried away in rough weather a day or two after its loss, but a week later, just at slack water when the sedi- ment disturbance was practically at a standstill, Captain Mills of the Laboratory’s yacht with rare good fortune saw the mud-covered meshes of the net on the bottom with the aid of a water glass. It was caught by several grapnels but could not be raised, and Captain Mills with the aid of only a metal diving hood descended in the 60 feet of water to affix a line to a strategic point of the net. He found that the net had at the time of towing brought up under a coral head not less than 12 feet high and thick and solid in proportion. Even a steel cable had to give way before such a mass of coral. It was with this net, after its recovery, that the most notable of the dredge hauls ever made by the Anton Dohrn were accomplished. I returned to Washington by way of Tampa and Tarpon Springs for the purpose of visiting this headquarters of the Gulf sponge fish- ery. It is conducted almost entirely by Greek spongers, who, with their families, form a considerable percentage of the population of Tarpon Springs. On the way to Tortugas, I called upon Mr. Robert Ranson of St. Augustine, Florida, and upon Will Wallis at Braden- ton, both of whom have contributed a number of interesting speci- mens to the invertebrate collections of the Museum from time to time. Iam very grateful to them for the many courtesies shown me in their respective cities, and to the Carnegie Institution for the opportunity afforded for studying the Decapod Crustacea of the Tortugas region. COVER CHING REIS IN THE WESt By J. M. ALDRICH, Associate Curator, Division of Insects, U. S. National Museum Continuing work which has now extended over a period of 40 years, I spent part of June and July, 1930, in making collections of flies in Idaho, Washington, California, and Colorado. The vicinity of Lewiston, Idaho, offers a great variety of climate, the city being situated in a deep valley only about 800 feet in altitude while nearby are foothills and mountains rising to about 5,000 feet. The low altitude has a warm climate, with sage-brush and other plants characteristic of the plains region, as well as some which occur much farther south. The higher altitudes are cooler, with more rainfall, and above 3,000 feet are generally forested. Thus there is a wide range of plant life, and a correspondingly great diversity in the insect inhabi- tants. Having lived for 20 years at Moscow, Idaho, altitude 2,700 feet, I have collected extensively over the region; but there were many flies that I had found only once in the whole time, and undoubtedly others yet undiscovered. In the recent visit I endeavored to collect in as many places as possible in the time at my disposal, with especial attention to those which previous experience had shown to be richest in flies. Across the Snake River west of Lewiston Hes the city of Clarkston, Washington, at the same altitude. In this warm climate the collecting is better early in the season, and only the late species were obtainable in June. I visited the canyon of Asotin Creek, above the town of Asotin, Washington, on several days, with fair results. Two visits were made to Lake Waha, a small mountain lake 25 miles south of Lewiston at 3,500 feet elevation, among coniferous forests, where many interesting species of flies were found; this is one of the best places in the region in June. Lapwai Creek ten miles south of Lapwai, Idaho, at an elevation of about 1,500 feet, yielded some valuable infor- mation about the distribution of species and also about their habits. Juliaetta, Idaho, elevation 1,200 feet, in a deep, rocky valley with tim- ber on the precipitous sides, was not so good as on some former visits, the best time for collecting having passed. About 12 miles northeast of Moscow, Idaho, is a small mountain range called Thatuna Hills on government maps, in which the main peak is called Cedar Mountain, but is locally known as Moscow Mountain. This is about 4,900 feet in 8 107 108 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 91—Moscow Mountain and adjacent range, back of Moscow, Idaho. A celebrated “type” locality for flies. Fic. 92—Collecting the fly with mandibles, Smith River, California. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 109 altitude, and a splendid place for collecting in June. I visited the summit twice. It is becoming well known to students of the flies from the considerable number of new species which have been described from specimens captured there. Entomologists stationed at the Uni- versity of Idaho (in Moscow) and those at the Washington State College (in Pullman, Washington, only ten miles west of Moscow) have done a great deal of collecting on Moscow Mountain, which is the “type locality’ of the new species just mentioned. Some 20 years ago I collected a new species of flesh fly at the summit, described afterward as Sarcophaga thatuna; curiously enough it has never been found anywhere except at the extreme summit of this mountain, and was common there on both my visits this year. The vicinity of Spokane, Washington, is also a diversified, semi- forested region lower in altitude than Moscow, but with many fine streams and lakes, which improve the collecting, as flies are generally fond of moist places. I collected at several places along streams in the outskirts of Spokane, and twice ascended Mount Spokane, the summit of which reaches an altitude of 5,808 feet. Little or no collect- ing of flies has been done on this mountain hitherto. The species are mostly the same as found on Mount Moscow, but there is a much larger alpine area. There is a fine road to the summit, and I should have spent more time there but for the fact that the mountain is 35 miles from Spokane. Moreover, I found the summit to be decidedly colder than that of Moscow Mountain, so that bright sunshine was necessary to make collecting of flies successful, as these insects are very sensitive to cold and disappear when the sun clouds over, even on warm afternoons. The total time that I was able to collect near the summit was much reduced by cloudy intervals during the two days I was there. There are a number of kinds of large, showy flies here, which are very characteristic of alpine situations in western North America, the same ones with some exceptions being found on many different mountains over a wide area. It is always thrilling to the entomologist to attain the altitude where they occur, even though many of them are well represented in collections and are therefore not especially desirable to collect. Leaving the region in which many years of collecting had made me rather familiar with the species, I devoted a week to collecting in the vicinity of the town of Smith River, California, situated on the shore of the Pacific Ocean at the mouth of the Smith River, about six miles south of the Oregon state line. Being at sea level this locality might be thought to compare with Lewiston, Idaho, in its insect population ; but this is not at all the case, as the narrow coastal strip is notably cool 11K) SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 93.—Sea beach near Smith River, California. Fic. 94—Redwood Highway near Smith River, California. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 IU4 in its summer climate, so that the vegetation and insect life are very unlike those of the interior. They are in fact largely a continuation southward of a flora and fauna which extend in some of its members all the way to Alaska. A few species of flies of more southern coastal distribution also come up this far. The forms characteristic of the seashore, living in the larval stage on seaweeds, coastal species of plants, or on other coastal species of animals, are by far the most important and interesting of the flies which I collected here. On seaweed-covered rocks washed by the ocean waves, I found the two known species of the singular genus Paraclunio. It belongs to the midge family, but is robust and strong. Its leathery wings are unaf- fected by sea-water; coming out of the receding wave it runs with fluttering wings over the wet rock until submerged again. One of the species has a range extending to Alaska, the other one being more local along the Oregon and California shores. The larvae live in the seaweeds on the rocks, but I could not find any present at the time of my visit. Another remarkable fly that I found is Melanderia mandibulata, previously known only from the Washington Coast immediately north of the mouth of the Columbia River. In this fly, the mouth is de- veloped into a pair of pincers for holding its prey—a_ structure unknown in other Diptera, as the real mandibles or pincers, such as occur in lower orders of insects, are reduced in other flies to small blades or needles, or more often to rudiments hardly recognizable. In Melanderia the organs are derived by modification of other mouth- parts, and only imitate true mandibles. Professor Melander, for many years connected with the Washington State College, is the only col- lector who had previously found this species. One of his specimens which I took to Europe last year and showed to many entomologists, excited the liveliest interest there. I found this species on the wet rocks above the ocean, where it finds its prey among the soft-bodied organisms occurring there. By spending much time for several days I obtained a large enough supply to enable me to present the species as a gift from the National Museum to several of the principal museums of the Old World, as well as those in North America; one went to Australia. This species was the principal find of my trip. Returning through Colorado, I stopped as I have done several times at Tennessee Pass, on the divide of the Rocky Mountains at 10,290 feet altitude. Being on one of the main railroad lines, this is a very convenient stopping-place. There is no hotel, but as before I was indebted to Mr. L. E. Maupin, a pioneer who arrived at the Pass in LIZ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1879, for accommodations and pleasant intercourse. The evenings by his fireside were, as in previous years, a memorable part of my trip. The coldness of the nights makes a fire always necessary; there was a heavy frost on one of the nights. The climate in midsummer com- pares with that of the far north, and the insects also are very similar Fic. 95.—Collecting place at Tennessee Pass, Colorado. Cabin of L. E. Maupin. to those occurring at lower levels near the Arctic Circle. My visit was at an earlier date in the summer than my former ones; conse- quently I was able to get some species not before collected here. While the total number of flies collected on my trip was not impres- sive as such things go—about two thousand—the collection included a larger number of interesting kinds than I have ever obtained before in the United States in a single season. Pp bOnANiCM Visit tO SOUTH AND HAST ABRICA: Bye JN, Sy JaUM Clay COXON Custodian, Section of Grasses, U. S. National Museum In June, 1929, I started for London on my way to South Africa to attend the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The sessions were held partly in Capetown (July 22-27) and partly at Johannesburg (July 30-August 5). Leaving London on the Llandovery Castle the latter part of June we arrived in Cape- town July 19. The passengers included 160 scientists bound for the meetings, and other boats brought their quota. We stopped a few hours each at Teneriffe, Ascension, and St. Helena but did not land at Ascension. Certainly good old St. Helena never saw such a swarming of scientists over her hills and valleys as took place on that day. Every effort was made by those in charge of arrangements in South Africa to make the visitors comfortable. Excursions permitted an examination of the local flora. Though it was winter many plants were in bloom. A two-day excursion on a special train through the Karoo allowed botanists to examine the curious xerophytic flora of this arid region. A stop was made at Kimberley to inspect the diamond mines. There the members saw the method of mining, the separating of the diamonds from the pebbles and gravel by means of “ grease tables,” and great piles of the diamonds themselves worth hundreds of thou- sands of dollars. After the conclusion of the meetings I joined an excursion to Vic- toria Falls and other points in Southern Rhodesia. We lived on a special train for 12 days, visiting points of interest to botanists, zoolo- gists, geologists, and archeologists. At Bulawayo motor cars took our party to a cave to inspect Bushmen drawings and to Motopos Hills to see the grave of Cecil Rhodes, for whom Rhodesia was named. On a high round-topped hill overlooking the country for many miles around lies the grave surrounded by huge boulders. The Victoria Falls of the Zambesi River are one of the wonders of the world. The river flows through a great lava bed and the surface of the surrounding country is the same above and below the falls. The * Although this trip took place in 1929 the author returned to America so late in the year that his article could not be included in Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1929.—Eprror. 113 It4 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 96.—Longwood, the house in which Napoleon lived during his exile on St. Helena (1816-1821). Fic. 97.—Victoria Falls on the Zambesi River. A small section near one side. It is very difficult to obtain a picture of the magnificent falls because of the contour and the spray. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q30 II5 Fic. 98.—Zimbabwe Ruins, Southern Rhodesia. The ruins are in part well preserved and indicate that an earlier race extracted gold here. Fic. 99.—Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa. The Kibo peak (19,710 ft.) as seen from about 14,000 feet. 116 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION falls are 420 feet high and about a mile and a quarter wide, thus ex- ceeding Niagara Falls by a considerable margin. But the view of Niagara is much more impressive because the whole of the falls may be seen at once and the volume of water is little obscured by spray. The Victoria Falls can be seen in their entirety only from the air and, especially at high water, the view is almost obliterated by the spray. One other point of particular interest in the province, especially to the archeologists, was the Zimbabwe Ruins, about 12 miles south of Fort Victoria, the nearest railroad station. The ruins are in part well preserved and indicate that an earlier race extracted gold here and used the stone structures for defense. The excursion ended at Beira in Portuguese East Africa, where the party embarked for home. It was interesting to note that four important food plants in South Africa came originally from America, maize (called mealies in Africa), white potatoes, sweet potatoes, and cassava. The last is a Brazilian plant whose fleshy starchy roots yield the tapioca of our markets. Some of the party went directly to London; others left the boat at Mombasa and spent two weeks at Nairobi. In company with Mr. Cotton, Keeper of the Herbarium at Kew, and a few others I disembarked at Tanga in northern Tanganyika. On the way from Beira we stopped a few hours at Dar-es-Salaam and Zanzibar. Mr. Cotton and I first went to Amani where is located the Amani Agricultural Institute. This was previously a scientific station in Ger- man East Africa. There are here good laboratories and a herbarium. We next went by rail to Moshi for the ascent of Mount Kilimanjaro but found that the most favorable starting point was Marangu, a village 10 miles to the northeast. From Marangu we had an easy climb on mule back by a good trail, taking a cook and four porters. The first night was spent at Bismark Hut, a resthouse near the upper limit of the forest at about 8,000 feet. The second and third nights were spent at Peters Hut, a resthouse in the alpine region at about 12,000 feet. On the third day I ascended to the limit of vegetation at about 14,000 feet where there was a good view of Kibo, the western rounded snow-capped peak of Kilimanjaro (17,910 feet). The alpine grasses belong to such temperate genera as Festuca, Poa, Trisetum, and Deschampsia. On the fourth day we descended to Marangu. Our next stop was Nairobi which we reached by rail from Taveta via Voi. Nairobi, the capital of Kenya, lies on a grassy plateau at an altitude of 5,500 feet, inland from Mombasa 330 miles. This is the point from which parties start on the big game hunts to the surround- ing territory. Ly, SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 "]]e} JooF SI noe st yurjd ayy, ‘Joay OOL*EI ynoqe ye FY ssdjoqg aaoqe osefuew IJ UO (110}}09 O1JAUaG) OIDIUAS $U0}JOJ— IOI “DIY ‘punoisyoeq oy} Ul SI JNY sAeU WY “(Sol[RawW 10 93zIeUr) Pjey UO. dAIZeU po ue UT st juRd oY y ‘OrefUeUTy snjoeo Y—OOI ‘SI Jeu Tysoyy ye 991} viqioydns oxi] 118 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Vic. 103.—Giant senecio (Senecio johnstonii) near Peters Hut on Kiliman- jaro at about 11,400 feet. Mr. Cotton is seen standing in the tall grass. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 119 A two-day trip by motor car was made to the vicinity of Mount Kenya (17,000 ft.), but there was not time for the ascent. Through the courtesy of Government officials a trip through Uganda was ar- ranged. The route was by rail to Kisumu, by steamer across Lake Victoria (26,828 sq. mi.; altitude 3,700 ft.) to Entebbe, the adminis- trative center for Uganda, by motor car to Kampala, the center of agricultural and botanical research, by motor car to Jinja, the term1- nus of the Uganda railroad, by rail back to Nairobi, with one-day stops at Eldoret, Nakuru, and Naivasha in Kenya. On September 28 I sailed from Mombasa for London via the Red Sea. Although I left the boat at Marseilles, crossed France and made close connections with a fast Atlantic liner, it took nearly a month to reach New York. The collecting (grasses only) in the Union of South Africa was meager because I was there in the winter season (112 numbers col- lected here). Through Southern Rhodesia the collecting was re- stricted because it was the dry season, though at Victoria Falls the spray from the falls gave moisture in the immediate vicinity (204 numbers in Southern Rhodesia, including 87 numbers at Victoria Falls). At Beira on the coast the collecting was better (56 numbers). The stops at Dar-es-Salaam and Zanzibar were short, but by going immediately beyond the limits of the town one and one-half hours were utilized for collecting at each place (Dar-es-Salaam 27 numbers, Zanzibar 23 numbers). At Amani the collecting was good (63 num- bers) and at Moshi also, except on the open ground where it was too dry (41 numbers). On Kilimanjaro the grasses were of much inter- est, especially in the alpine regions (89 numbers). In Kenya and Uganda the collecting was good though it was the dry season around Nairobi. At Eldoret and Nakuru the grasses were abundant and in fine condition (the numbers were as follows: Nairobi 117, Kisumu 35, Entebbe 52, Kampala 22, Jinja 50, Eldoret 51, at stations between Eldoret and Nakuru 35, Nakuru 42, Naivasha, in a much-erazed region, 19, Mombasa in about one hour’s collecting 40). The numbers for each locality represent for the most part differ- ent species. So far as collecting was concerned my attention was given exclu- sively to the grasses. But my interest, of course, extended to other plants. The peculiar flora of the Cape region, so rich in Proteaceae, was of interest to all the botanists present. The many succulent plants 120 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Frc. 104.—Native huts near Jinja on Lake Victoria (the source of the Nile). ee ae i Fic. 105.—Massai women, wives of a chief. Spirals of brass wire are worn around the neck and a heavy load is wound around the forearms. Heavy ornaments hang from the distended earlobes, supported by a band over the head. *SOATJEU 94} A 991} JY} UI pade]d SSO], MO][OY jo SOATYIAG 91B Sjoafqo oI1pul[AD asae] ayy, ‘Syoods []ews se sayoueriq 24} Suowre uses oq Abul spod 10 Ss}Inij sy ‘woseas AIP ay} I0F seaea] S}t paddoip sey 9013 AyUIeSun pue snorimno siyy, ‘o1efuewypy 4 Ivou IYSOy je (DjDpIHIp viUuOsSUDpf’) 92213 Geqoeq W—'LoOI “DIY SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 *‘SoAPa] oI1ayds -tuay OM} JO Sjstsuod juR[d Yoey “sMO1S 4I YOIYM Suowe souo0js a4} SUTTquasar Ajasopo Jueyd o1yAYydo1axX a]qeuyiewel yY ,,;00IRY ,, a4} Ul Uspier) Ue IY} Je MSNjOg UNWmWaYyJUDAAQuasayy¥—'901 “O1yT 122 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION of the Karoo reminded me of our own arid regions of the West. The grotesque baobab tree with its great trunk all out of proportion to the branches was photographed by everyone who had a camera. Altogether the trip was noteworthy because of the opportunity to meet the South African botanists, to renew acquaintance with the British botanists, to gain first-hand information concerning the floristic conditions of another continent, and to obtain a fine collection of grasses for the National Herbarium. ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK ON THE KUSKOKWIM RVR Ae Se By ALES HRDLICKA, Curator of Physical Anthropology, U. S. National Museum The work of the summer of 1930 was devoted principally to the Kuskokwim River, the second largest stream of Alaska and hitherto unknown to physical anthropology. The Kuskokwim flows to the south of the Yukon, from the McKinley range of mountains to the Kuskokwim bay or bight; and like the Yukon it has been partly peo- pled by the Indian and partly by the Eskimo. In the thirties of the last century it was discovered and sparsely colonized by the Russians. It has at present a fairly large native and a small white population, the latter consisting almost exclusively of traders, Government employees, and, in the upper parts of the river, miners. It can only be reached by the costly airplane, or over a broad and at times difficult portage from the Yukon, or twice a year by a freight steamer from Seattle. The route chosen was that across the portage. The trip from Wash- ington took a whole month, due partly to the delayed season. Head- quarters were established at Bethel, and from there two trips were made, one down the bay as far as Apogak, the other upstream as far as Stony River. The rapidity and success of the work were due largely to the long days, and to aid received through the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and the Government Bureau of Education.’ The natives themselves were all that could be desired. To make the work on the living more intelligible and sympathetic to them, it was combined with examination of the lungs and heart, which led to the learning of collateral facts of decided value. And the pathological factor was accentuated with much benefit also in making the skeletal * Special grateful acknowledgments are due to Messrs. Calvin F. Townsend and Charles MacGonagal of the Bureau of Fisheries; to Mrs. Lulu A. Heron, nurse, and Miss Anne Martin, teacher, Bethel, of the Bureau of Education: to the fine men and women of the Moravian Missions; to the President and traders of the Northern Commercial Company; to Mr. Clark M. Garber, Superintendent of the Bureau of Education Schools, at Akiak; to Messrs. Samuelson, Brown, Parent, and all the other traders along the river as far as this was covered; to Game Warden Hollson and Postmaster Link of Bethel; to Mr. Jacobsen in the same place; and to Messrs. Hofstedt, Frederickson, Sergei, and all those other friendly people of the river, white and also native, who aided me in my endeavors. 9 123 INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN ‘yUuOIF UL SUTeUIOI PjO AIBA aUOS ‘punorsyoeq oY} Ul s[eling Yoanyo-ueIssny “OAT WIMyoH -sny Jomo] ‘“yesody plo Jo spunois [end sy [— 601 “o1,T “OAT WIMYOYSN YT Jomo] ‘yesody pjo ‘aAvis ,, uesed ,, W—gOI “91g SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 TZ or collections. The latter was carried on with the full knowledge of the natives and often in their view and with their assistance. They were told that I wanted only the old ‘* heathen ” remains, in which no living person had any interest; that the bones were needed for studies and for comparisons of the development, the type, and the diseases of the old with those of the present people; and that they would be treated with all possible consideration. The results both with the living and with the skeletal remains were very gratifying. They comprise the measurements of every fullblood male that could be found along the lower 400 miles of the river and bay; observations on many of the women, children, and mixedbloods; and collections filling over 50 boxes of precious old skeletal material. An unexpected but welcome feature was the willingness of all the natives to be photographed, but unfortunately the prevalent drizzles and cold weather of this year pre- vented full success in this direction. At Bethel, thanks especially to Mrs. Heron and Miss Martin, con- tingents of Eskimo were obtained from a much larger territory than could be visited. There were numerous individuals from the “ tundra ”’ (Johnson River) and some from as far as Nelson Island and Good- news Bay. This gave valuable insight into conditions over a large and hitherto unknown region. More in detail, the results of the work were manifold. They may briefly be enumerated as follows: Population.—The native population of the Kuskokwim River is re- stricted to the lower 350 miles of the stream with its affluents and to its bay. It is estimated collectively at 3,000 individuals. It extends up to the Stony River. In the 200 miles between the Stony and McGrath there live now but three families of about 25 persons, a large proportion of whom are young children, with very few if any of the adults native to that region. Race.—The entire region, up to near the Stony River and includ- ing the Hoolitna River, is now and has apparently always been occu- pied by the Eskimo. Only three Indians were encountered in this region, all close to Stony River and all from elsewhere. The current notion that the Eskimo reached to Sleitmute and the Indians began above that was not borne out by the finds; the present extension of the IXskimo certainly reaches to and includes the Hoolitna, and there are no old sites between this and the Stony River which would show a previous existence here of the Indian. The Indian territory if it may be so called—for there are hardly any of them there—begins close to the Stony River. But an occasional Indian type of face may be noticed as far down as Napaimute and there are indications that INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN 126 ‘WIMYOYSNY, oppiu ‘oumysy jo dno1is y—' Ill “dy ee SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 127 some Eskimo-Indian mixture has taken place in these reaches. The Kuskokwim Indian below McGrath has practically vanished. The strong probability is that he was never over this part of the river in any larger groups or numbers and that the Kuskokwim was not an old home of the Indian. From Napaimute down to the bight there is no trace of anything Indian excepting a few individuals (one a Cherokee, another a Cree) who came here accidentally and merged with the Eskimo. The Eskimo.—tThe Eskimo of the Kuskokwim and the neighboring regions are of a remarkably homogeneous and interesting type. This type is characterized by short to medium stature, meso- to subbrachy- cephalic head, mostly a rather short and broad face, large malars, small prominence of the not very narrow nose, mongoloid eyes, full, dusky red cheeks in the children and young, black straight to broadly wavy hair, light brown (tan to submedium brown) skin, full chest, and often relatively short limbs. From Akiachok and especially Napaimute up the river, this type shows a somewhat higher stature and greater robustness. It is poor- est in the tundra region and in the coast villages towards Nelson Island. Those differences correspond directly to differences in environment and food—the worse these are, the lower in general is the physique and also the energy of the people. In the upper half of the Eskimo territory on the Kuskokwim, there are numerous traces of Russian admixture. This is generally easy to recognize by a greater stature and robustness, by the physiognomy, by lighter eye color, by nearly white color of the skin of the body (the face may be much as in fullbloods), and by greater and more white- man-like beard. In some of the native fullbloods of the lower river and the tundra the face is quite hairy, but the beard is not so thick and soft as in whites. A few mixedbloods were seen on the upper river that looked like Mexicans, indicating some Mediterranean admixture. In but one case was there an indication of negro blood; the Eskimo as a whole have been more fortunate in this respect than some of our Indians. Skeletal remains—The skeletal remains along the Kuskokwim occur in two forms. The old burials, from the pre-Russian to about the mid-Russian times, were all above or on the ground, in boxes or “ houses of the dead ”’ made of roughhewn thick slabs, joined in dove- tailed manner without nails. The bodies in these boxes lay invariably in the contracted position, on their side, and with the head in generally the same direction in one burial place, though this was not always the same as that in other burial grounds. The boxes were constructed ‘UO SUIOS SI JeYM je APISOLIND 9ATeU SuIUIeYD B OSTe sMOYS dSINO'T « OSRABS ,, B SEM jnq :W9y} JO [[B 0} [BIN}eU SI a[IWIs oY, ‘esino T—FEII “Oly dys OSE SY}UOW XIG ‘“puRIS] UOSJaN Woy ‘asmoyJ—II ‘ony INSTITUTION Za < Z 5 ) n kd a0) a = = n SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 I29 Fic. 114.—A narrow ditch between two lakes—a part of the Yukon-Kus- kokwim Portage. In places the boat has to be pushed or pulled through by the occupants. Fic. 115.—On the Lakes, a part of the “ Portage” between the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers, May 31, 1930. 130 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION much as were those on the Yukon, and many were evidently decorated by paint and even with animal and human figures. The body was covered with caribou skin, or laid in with just what little it had on. In some instances earth was placed about the corpse, but mostly there was no earth in contact with the body. A clay dish (lamp) was placed inverted in one corner, generally at the head but occasionally at the feet, especially with the males; and there was nothing else of value left or placed with the body. Above Bogus Creek, where the lamps must have been scarce, even they were usually absent in the burials. Above the body in the box was a “ roof” of supports, in some in- stances thick wooden slabs, and these were covered with birch bark; or there was only a birch bark cover, taken generally from a canoe and showing the sewing of the strips together. Then came 6 to 12 inches of earth; perhaps another birch bark layer and more earth; and finally slabs or flat rafters, forming the top of the box burial, the whole being supported by two side posts set in the ground and held together by cross-pieces. The details of the burials differed at different villages, but in any one burial place there was great similarity, suggesting that all or most of the burials at a given site were made by some one individual, an “undertaker.” The nature of the burial in these cases had a great ef- fect on the preservation of the remains, some of these being in excel- lent condition, some crushed more or less and rotted. The burials under Russian influence were all ground burials, with simple, nailed coffins, two to three feet of earth and a sod or plank covering on the top, headed by a Russian cross. The skeletal remains from the older box burials have proved to be of much more than usual interest from both the anthropological and the medical points of view. Over one hundred of the older skeletons were collected and more examined. They showed the following prin- cipal features : 1. The type of the skull and the stature are about the same as those of the people of today on the river. No marked change has taken place in these respects evidently within many generations of these people. The nature of the type, its sameness over a large ter- ritory, and its extension well into the pre-Russian times, are facts of much anthropological importance. 2. There is a remarkable freedom from fractures. There were found no wounds of the skull or face, no fracture of the ribs, and only two breaks of the long and other bones. These surely were no fighting people or people given to violent exercise or sports. lie EXPLORATIONS, I930 SMITHSONIAN ‘jayyaq fo JsomM af -Yj}410u ‘eiIpuny ou} jo osIuUUuyy 2] 9g—o]oqeuuy—'Z11 ‘SI “DOALT WIMYOYSNY ‘Joyjog sAoqe ‘oseueydigd) UOIssIyy URIARIOW JY} Ye URWIOM SUNOA OWITYSY VUY W—OII “Ol 132 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 3. There is no trace in the older burials of tuberculosis. Two cases that were encountered, were from burials of late Russian or earlier post-Russian times (near or after 1867). It is positive therefore that tuberculosis had not existed among these people before the contact with whites. It was evidently brought here by the Russians. This explains the present general lack of immunity against this scourge. Every one of these people must be regarded as predisposed to the disease, which is of consequence in dealing with them medically, in schools and otherwise. 4. None of the bones collected or seen showed any trace of cancer, tumors, inflammation, syphilis, or rachitis; and there were no signs of Scurvy. 5. The prevailing pathological conditions in the older individuals were those of the spine, accompanied occasionally with those of the joints, and were arthritic in nature. All grades of arthritis deformans were seen in the spine, from the beginning of marginal exostoses in the lumbar and lower dorsal region to an ankylosis of the whole spine due to fusion of those exostoses. In several cases two and in one instance three of the cervicals were fused, with the rest of the spine not much affected; in these cases there may have been some special factor at play. 6. There were but a few really old people in these burials, show- ing that real old age was rare; on the other hand there were but few young adolescents or adults of both sexes, indicating lower mortality among especially the young women than was found last year to have prevailed on the Yukon. This indicates the absence on the Kuskokwim of some pernicious habit that was present on the other river and that probably related to the period of child bearing in the young women. 7. There were no perceptible traces in the burials of any Indian influence or admixture. The whole study shows the presence, along the 400 miles of the lower Kuskokwim River and its bay, of a rather large and, in many parts of the region, still mostly fullblood population, of remarkably homogeneous character, and constituting the bulk of the western Eskimo. It makes it certain that this type did not arise through mix- ture with the Indian, but that it represents a pure old Eskimo strain, to which conform a large majority of the Eskimo people in the Bering Sea together with such important groups as those of Point Hope, Smith Sound and elsewhere. This is, according to present indications, the parental or basic type, from which the narrower and more keel- shaped skull type of parts of the Seward Peninsula and the Arctic, and ‘eysepy ut adoad Jo yo] ysorddey ay} wosrfZ au0d “TOALY WIMYyOYSN yy Ady} 1OF ‘optus 00} Ady}! ,, SOLYSNY ,, OWYSH II [—'OII “OL “SOTIUIS [BANZEU IIY} YPM ‘s[ILs OWITYSH 9IIY[—gII “IY SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 134 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION especially that of southeastern Greenland and of Labrador, has been developed. Thus the work of the last few years throws a new light on the whole Eskimo problem and brings it near, it would seem, to its final solution. The work of the last two years indicates also much as to the future of the Alaska Eskimo. He has a high mortality, but even higher fecundity. He is not dying out and will not do so. But he is becoming rapidly admixed with white blood. Part of this came from the Rus- sians, part from marriages or unions of later whites with the attrac- tive native women; and the mixedbloods are diffusing the blood among the rest of the people. In all probability no pureblood Eskimo will be born a century from now. Thus as a pureblood the western Alaska Eskimo will in a few generations become largely if not entirely a matter of scientific history. But the Eskimo-white population promises to increase rather than decrease. The tuberculous troubles are already frequently assuming a chronic form, and there are many cases of partial and even complete recovery. With increasing knowledge the people will also be able to better care for themselves. Thus it may safely be expected that the Eskimo population, though more or less altered in blood, will remain to form the human backbone of these far away coasts and rivers. With this in view, everything possible should be done towards curing and safeguarding this good, happy, tractable, and already fairly civilized people, from their one great scourge, tuberculosis, which is of white man’s introduction. AN Cia Nt "CULE MUR E Olt Si ILAWINENCE ISLAND: IE ASIN Bie IEUSINURAY 185 (COMILIUNS, Jie. Assistant Curator, Division of Ethnology, U. S. National Museum On May 13 Mr. J. A. Ford and I sailed from Seattle on the Coast Guard Cutter Northland for the purpose of conducting archeological investigations on St. Lawrence Island, near Bering Strait. This was my third consecutive cruise on the Northland and again I wish to thank Capt. E. D. Jones and the officers and men of the ship, especially Lieut. Comdr. N. R. Stiles, and Mr. H. Berg, for the many courtesies shown us. In 1928 and 1929 my excavations on Punuk and St. Lawrence Islands had revealed the existence of a prehistoric phase of Eskimo culture ancestral to the modern in that region and derived apparently from a still earlier phase, the only evidence of which was a few elabo- rately decorated artifacts of walrus ivory that had been found at various old sites in the vicinity of Bering Strait. This oldest phase of Alaskan Eskimo culture, the Old Bering Sea culture, appears to be the oldest that has been found anywhere in the Eskimo regions. It also possessed an art richer and more complex than that of any later Arctic culture. The intermediate or Punuk stage showed similar implement types, but the decorative designs, while they bore sufficient resem- blances to those of the Old Bering Sea culture to warrant the assump- tion that they had been derived therefrom, had become less flowing and profuse and had taken on a rigidity more like that of modern Eskimo aides While such a development of Alaskan Eskimo culture seemed cer- tainly to have taken place, much of the evidence was of an indirect nature, for at the sites excavated in 1928 and 1929 I had found an abundance of the Punuk art but hardly more than traces of that of the Old Bering Sea period—not enough to afford evidence of the exact relationship at these particular sites of the two old art styles. It was very desirable, therefore, to find some old site at which occurred 'The Ancient Eskimo Culture of Northwestern Alaska. Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1928, pp. 141-150, 1920. Prehistoric Eskimo Culture of Alaska. Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1929, pp. 147-156, 1930. Prehistoric Art of the Alaskan Eskimo. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 81, No. 14, 1920. 135 136 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION both the Old Bering Sea and the Punuk cultures, so that by strati- graphic excavation their relationship might be determined definitely. In 1928 and again in 1929 the Northland stopped for a day at Gam- bell (Sevuokok) at the northwestern end of St. Lawrence Island and I had an opportunity to examine several deserted village sites in the immediate vicinity. From the nature of the artifacts that had been excavated from them—some collected for me by Paul Silook, an Es- kimo at Gambell, and some shown to me by Mr. Otto Wm. Geist, who had been collecting for the Alaska Agricultural College—it was plain that these villages were of different ages. Only one of them had yielded artifacts bearing the Old Bering Sea ornamentation, and this was also the site which from its position in relation to former beach lines appeared to be the most ancient. Here then, at Gambell, was a series of old sites which gave promise of yielding the precise information needed as to the cultural changes that had taken place on St. Lawrence Island in prehistoric times, and it was accordingly selected as a place for investigation. Situated at the northwestern extremity of St. Lawrence Island, the Eskimo village of Gambell is only 40 miles from the Siberian coast which on any clear day is plainly visible. The 200 inhabitants live dur- ing the winter in domed skin-covered houses with inner skin sleeping room such as are also used by their Eskimo kinsmen in Siberia and by the coast dwelling Chukchee ; the smaller skin structures formerly used as summer dwellings have been almost entirely replaced by neat lumber houses, outward evidence of the-prosperity that has lately come to these Eskimo, principally from furs. The present houses are built at the far end of a flat gravel spit which extends westward for three-quarters of a mile from the base of the low Gambell Mountain. From the top of this mountain one has a clear view of the old beach lines, which, extending east and west on the gravel spit below, show the manner in which the spit has been built up. At the base of the mountain is the old village of Miyowagha- meet, enclosed within the first and second (the earliest) beach lines, and at the present time three-fourths, and half of a mile distant from the sea. Since all maritime Eskimo villages are built close to the sea it is only reasonable to assume that when Miyowaghameet was occupied the sea was much nearer and that the greater part of the present gravel spit has been built up subsequently. Some 200 yards to the northward is a smaller village site, levog- hiyogameet, its grass covered midden rising like a small island from the flat gravel plain. This village is separated from Miyowaghameet by four old beach lines, while to the northward six more beach lines OV, SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 -YSPMOTYIS WoO.Iry ‘ZI ‘ II : (UOTZBIOSIp BIS SUIS ‘QSEI[IA JSap[O WIOIy _ ‘a opeyq UOdT YIM Ustopowl “FI taselIA pauopueqe A]JUII01 ysoul Wosy ‘EI {yoSeVAR : POIUBSOATYSOAIT WO.IT ‘OI ‘6 £ (UOT}e1099 d PIO) PoweysemoAr wosy ‘S “bh ‘Ef ( p ynung ) Jooweysemodryy wosy ‘Q ‘Z ‘g UOTVIOIIP BAS SULIIG PIO) epIs|[iy uo I ‘[[oqurer) ye says ose]]IA PjO VAY oy} wWo1F spray uoodsey [eordA [—ozI “oI 138 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION lie between it and the sea. Its position would thus indicate that it had been built later than Miyowaghameet and that during the time of its occupancy and after its abandonment the sea had receded still fur- ther, piling up still more gravel ridges. Toward the end of the spit, behind the present village is the third old village, Seklowaghayaget, but its position with reference to the old beach lines is not so clear. Finally, immediately to the south of the present village are the ruins of the semi-subterranean houses of wood and whale bones, the last of which were occupied as late as 40 years ago. In the kitchen-middens and house pits of these old villages we and our Eskimo helpers excavated from June 20 to October 20. Our method of excavation was to sink pits 12 feet square at various places in the middens, taking them down in sections of a few inches thick- ness as the frozen ground slowly thawed upon exposure to the atmos- phere. As the work progressed we began to uncover a great variety of objects—ivory, bone, stone, pottery, wood, baleen—representing the hunting implements, tools, household equipment, ornaments and other possessions of a people who were seen to have been uncommonly skillful in shaping to their ends the material resources at their com- mand. The objects excavated number several thousand, and repre- sent a complete cross section of Eskimo culture at this one spot from the earliest known period down to the present. We had been excavating about a week when almost by accident we made a discovery that added greatly to the significance of these old villages as landmarks of Eskimo chronology. Just back of Miyo- waghameet, on the lower part of the mountain slope, we found a site of pure Old Bering Sea culture. The trail to the top of the mountain passed over the surface of this old village and although many genera- tions of Eskimo had followed it not one of those now living had sus- pected that anything lay beneath the moss and rocks. But this is easy to understand for the surface showed not the slightest irregularity, nor were there any timbers or whale bones or shallow depressions of house pits, such as usually mark the sites of old Eskimo villages. Only at one place was any refuse visible and this a small patch less than two feet square which by weathering had become exposed in a rock crev- ice. The rest of the midden for many yards around was so completely covered with moss and sod and fallen rocks that it blended perfectly into the hillside. As our work progressed it became clear that this site had been both settled and abandoned within the period of the Old Bering Sea culture, for from top to bottom of the small midden the about 30—were all of the Old Bering Sea style decorated objects SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 139 Fic. 121.—Gravel spit at Gambell on which are situated the present village, at the far end, and four abandoned villages. Miyowaghameet, the oldest of these is shown in the foreground. The lines of snow follow the old beach lines. Fic. 122.—Excavating a recent house ruin at Gambell. This type, with wooden floor and walls and roof of wood and whale bones, was occupied as late as 40 years ago. 10 I40 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION with no trace of the later Punuk art. Many undecorated objects were also found, revealing for the first time the common implement types of the Old Bering Sea culture. Harpoon heads were of various types: with closed and open shaft sockets, with one, two, or three spurs, with end blades and with side blades.’ At Miyowaghameet, the next oldest site, the eastern and southern parts of the midden were found to continue deep below the sod and to be practically continuous with the old hillside midden. The deco- rated objects from this section of Miyowaghameet belonged also to the Old Bering Sea period, but already a change was noticeable; the designs, while still very elaborate, were somewhat uniform, in con- trast to those of the hillside site which displayed more freedom in the utilization of the various design elements. However, the most beautiful objects were those belonging to this later stage of the Old Bering Sea Culture. At the upper levels of the eastern and southern sections of the Miyowaghameet midden were found a few scattered objects bearing the simple line and dot ornamentation of the Punuk period. At the opposite or northern and western parts of the midden Punuk art was found from the surface to a depth of about 5 feet, but below that Old Bering Sea pieces were the prevailing forms. A similar condition was found in regard to harpoon heads. Those from the older sections were mostly of the complicated Old Bering Sea types while the later ones, of Punuk age, were simpler in form as well as decoration. It is evident, therefore, that when the first settlers came to Miyo- waghameet—no doubt from the hillside village—they brought the Old Bering Sea culture with them. Somewhat later, as the village expanded to the northward and westward the rich old art had been replaced by the simplified art of the Punuk period. New types of harpoon heads appeared and some of the old types were discontinued. There were likewise changes in some of the other implement types but on the whole the material culture was not greatly altered. The Punuk art, which had appeared in the later sections of Miyo- waghameet, had continued to flourish at the next oldest village, now represented by the levoghiyogameet midden. But here it underwent certain changes ; the lines became straighter and deeper, and mechani- cally made circles appeared. Harpoon heads became simpler in form *Harpoon heads are seen to have assumed a wide variety of forms on St. Lawrence Island in prehistoric times but their development was along lines that to a considerable degree can be traced; there is reason to believe that these implements will have relatively as important a role in the elucidation of problems of Eskimo prehistory as pottery has had in the Southwest. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 I41I Fic. 123.—Eskimos hauling up a dead walrus on the beach. Fic. 124.--Ruined house, probably 200 to 300 years old. In foreground is shown the oval antechamber, connected by a narrow passage with the square inner room. Constructed of stones and whale and walrus bones. 142 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION and included a few examples typical of the Thule culture, an extinct Eskimo culture which formerly centered about Hudson’s Bay. At Seklowaghayaget we found again only the Punuk art. The harpoon heads from the lower levels of the midden were of the type found at levoghiyogameet but the simplification that had been in proc- ess at that place had here gone still further, for those found in the upper levels of the Seklowaghayaget midden were mainly of two types, one, evidently local, a small flat undecorated head with open shaft socket which in cross section approaches a triangular shape, and the other a small open socket head of Thule type without end blade. As Seklowaghayaget became abandoned, houses were built near by, immediately to the south of the present village, and these and the mid- dens about them represent the latest of the five abandoned sites in the vicinity of Gambell. The two types of harpoon heads last mentioned had continued in use but the local type with almost triangular socket underwent a series of rather rapid changes and emerged as the thick, iron-bladed, closed-socketed form of the present time. The refuse about these latest ruins yielded a few examples of Punuk art, but more of the modern. Glass beads and iron were also found as well as a number of modern types of implements that had not appeared at the older sites. In addition to the stratigraphic excavations made in the middens, ten house-pits were dug, one or more at each of the old sites. The houses of the Old Bering Sea period, heretofore unknown, were found to be small semi-subterranean structures, square in outline, with stone floors and walls of small driftwood timbers laid horizontally. There was a narrow entrance passage at a slightly lower level, with stone floor and walls and flat wooden roof. The earlier houses of the Punuk period were of exactly the same type but of larger dimensions. At one place in the Miyowaghameet midden, evidence of direct superposition was found: the corner of one of these larger houses, in which only Punuk art was found, had been built over the fallen wall of a smaller house from which came decorated pieces only of the Old Bering Sea type. In the later part of the Punuk period, house walls were made of stones and bones, principally whale vertebrae and walrus skulls. There was also an enlargement of, and sometimes an annex to the entrance passage, for use as a store room or for cooking. Wooden floors and walls of small upright timbers were found only in the latest house ruins. The excavations at Gambell have thus revealed in considerable detail the long succession of cultural changes that came about in past cen- turies as one village after another was established and then abandoned. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 143 The resulting chronology, as outlined above, is based on three main lines of evidence: stratigraphy, the evidence of the old beach lines, and the demonstrable succession of art styles and implement types. The value of the chronology that is thus set up will in a wider sense be determined by the extent to which it can be applied to the elucida- tion of cultural sequences elsewhere in the Eskimo regions. We know that the material culture of the modern St. Lawrence Island Eskimo stands somewhat apart from the rest of Alaska, being derived for the most part from the Siberian Eskimo who in turn have been strongly influenced in comparatively late times by the Chukchee. As we go Fic. 125.—Ruins of house of older type than fig. 124. Underground en- trance shown in background. At center foreground the rear wall extends over the corner of a still earlier house of the Old Bering Sea period. further back, however, it is seen that the St. Lawrence Eskimo, instead of being isolated, shared in the earlier and artistically more highly developed culture that formerly extended over a large part of northern Alaska and northeastern Siberia. For the Old Bering Sea culture is known to have existed also on the Siberian coast, the Diomede Islands, at Cape Prince of Wales, Point Hope, and Point Barrow, while the later Punuk art has been found at the Diomedes and at Point Hope. With regard to the relationship of the old Thule culture of the East, it is significant that on St. Lawrence Island definite Thule types do not appear until well into the Punuk period. This is in keeping with the general situation in Alaska wherever Thule types I44 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION are found; they seem to be always later than those of the Old Bering Sea culture. From present indications it appears probable that careful excavations around Point Barrow would reveal the best evidence of the exact relationship between these two old Eskimo cultures. Equally important is the question of the relation of the Old Bering Sea cul- ture to the existing Eskimo groups between Bristol Bay and the Yukon and even to the Indians of the Northwest Coast, such as the Tlingit and Haida. Then there remains the most important problem of all— the origin of the Old Bering Sea culture itself; but this, as well as the other problems of Eskimo archeology can only be solved by further excavations. While the Northland was staying at Unalaska for a few days in June and again in November we were able to make limited excava- tions at three ancient Aleutian sites on Amaknak Island. The midden deposits were of considerable size, ranging in depth from 5 to 15 feet. They were also easy to excavate, for unlike those on St. Lawrence Island, they were not frozen. However, compared with the Eskimo middens, they yielded but few artifacts, none of which were compar- able either in art or craftsmanship with ancient Eskimo specimens. The prehistoric Aleuts seem to have possessed a rather simple mate- rial culture which continued with little or no change during the cen- turies that they inhabited these barren and inhospitable islands. Fifty skulls and skeletons were collected at an old Eskimo site near Rocky Point, on Norton Sound, but probably none were over 100 years old. Twenty King Island Eskimos at Nome were measured and 60 St. Lawrence Islanders at Gambell; on the latter group hand and foot prints were also taken. The most interesting feature of the season’s work, aside from the archeological finds at Gambell, was the discovery of a fossil-bearing coal and shale outcrop of Tertiary age, rich with the remains of sequoia, poplar, and other plants. Prof. R. W. Chaney, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, is responsible for the discovery, for it was he who requested that I try to locate such fossils. The existence of fossils of sequoia and other trees on the now barren St. Lawrence Island is regarded by Professor Chaney as affording conclusive evi- dence of a former land connection between Asia and America; for sequoia, which at the present time are restricted to California, have been found as fossils in Southeast Alaska, Northeastern Siberia and Mongolia. Paleontologists have long assumed that there must have existed a land bridge between Asia and America in the region of Bering Strait, in Tertiary times, for in no other way could the simi- larity of the fauna and flora of the two continents be explained. PREHISTORIC SANTO DOMINGAN KITCHEN-MIDDENS. CEMETERIES, AND EARTHWORKS By HERBERT W. KRIEGER, Curator, Division of Ethnology, U. S. National Museum The third consecutive season of archeological work in Santo Domingo was begun in January and concluded in May, 1930. As in preceding years, the work was made possible through a subvention of Dr. W. L. Abbott, who had previously conducted biological investi- gations principally in the high mountains surrounding Constanza val- ley, and on the southern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the prov- ince of Azua. The season’s work opened on the south coast, at the little Domini- can village of Andres on the Bahia de Andres, an arm of the Carib- bean, situated approximately 30 kilometers east of the capital city of Santo Domingo. The writer first became interested in what had been reported as an Arawak burial ground at Boca Chica, when viewing in March, 1929, the collection of Senor Andres Socias, of Copey, Monte Cristi Province. In that collection was an earthenware vessel differ- ent from the usual type of pottery from the north coast of Santo Domingo. Senor Socias had obtained the vessel several years previ- ously from a friend residing at Boca Chica. The Indian burial ground at Boca Chica (Andres) had in the meantime been worked by Mr. Thomas Howell, of New York, the president of the Compania Azucarera Boca Chica. In 1928 while excavating for a new sugar warehouse many skulls, skeletons, and accompanying pottery vessels were uncovered. Before Howell’s attention was directed to these finds a large number of earthenware vessels had been wantonly destroyed by the laborers. In 1930 the writer proceeded to Andres hoping to learn more of the culture stratification in the adjoining kitchen-midden. Mr. Fox, the resident manager of the concern, during the absence of Mr. Howell, kindly granted the writer permission to carry on investiga- tions for the Smithsonian Institution on the property directly in front of the sugar warehouses where most of the finds were being made. Local officials of the Dominican Government granted permis- sion to explore within the confines of the adjoining village of Andres. Living quarters were supplied by the Compania Azucarera, the offi- cials of which assisted the undertaking in every possible manner. 145 146 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 126.—A modern sugar factory, Compania Azucarera, Boca Chica. Fic. 127,—Three-roller sugar mill, Valley of the Rio Tireo. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 147 The former aboriginal village site at Andres extends along the coast all the way from Boca Chica, at the eastern end of the Bay of Andres, through the village of Andres near the western end of the bay, where it terminates abruptly in front of the warehouses of the Boca Chica Sugar Central. The unusually extensive shell midden characterizing this ancient Arawak settlement rests directly on a bed of coral rock. Directly fronting the warehouses and refinery build- ings is a large sand spit projecting out into the bay and covering to a depth of 3 to 10 feet or more the coral rock which underlies the entire area. This sand spit was utilized by the former aboriginal occupants of the region as the only possible burial ground within an extensive area along the southeastern Santo Domingan coast. It was here that they buried with their dead many bowls, food dishes, and water jars. The Andres-Boca Chica site is perhaps the most extensive of any West Indian archeological station known at the present time. More skulls and earthenware vessels and other objects representative of Arawak culture have been recovered intact than from all other known sites in the West Indies combined. There is a remarkable uniformity throughout, both as to midden deposits and as to burial offerings, which had apparently not been disturbed, a favored position for the water jars being at either side and for the food dishes directly in front of the flexed skeleton. After making a representative collection of anteriorly deformed Arawak crania through excavating in front of the sugar warehouse and later within the village of Andres, studies were made of the midden deposits. These consisted for the most part of a dense layer of conch shells (Strombus pugilis L.) intermingled with fish bones, leg bones and carapaces of turtle, and of mandibles of several species of crab. The midden deposits resting on the solid coral do not exceed 5 feet in depth. A thin stratum of soil covers the midden. No stratigraphic changes within the midden were apparent at the places where test excavations were made. The next project to be undertaken during the 1930 season was in the nature of an archeological reconnoissance in the high mountain valleys of the provinces of La Vega and Azua. The mountainous backbone of the island, the Cordillera Central, starts from low hills in the Republic of Haiti on the east and attains its greatest height in the west central part of Santo Domingo. The range appears as a jumble of ridges and peaks and flat valleys. There are outcroppings of many different kinds of rocks—effusive and intrusive igneous rocks, schists and other metamorphics, and a great variety of sedimentary INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN 148 ‘speoq pur ‘sjurpuod ‘Joiqey e ‘MOjaq ! SapRyq axXB Ul YIOM duo}s JO SUIOF JeNSnUN ‘AOG YW :SAIPUY J USPPIWI-U9YIPY YBMPIY WOLF PIIIAOIIA JAR §1IAII 9UOJS JO SatdweXs] ‘QZI “Oly 149 1930 XPLORATIONS, 4 SMITHSONIAN ve ueuleg ul uol}e}10dsues} jo suvoll JoyjJOUuUV ‘OL 1 ‘OY ‘eooeqeief 1e3u ‘wa,qoid uorzejs1odsuesy ay} SUIAJOS—6zZ1 “DIyT 150 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION rocks, including coral beds in the vicinity of Loma de Rio Grande south of Constanza. The highway across the Cordillera Central from Santo Domingo City by way of the carretera Duarte passes through the town of Bonao, a town of 1,000 inhabitants, and terminates at La Vega. This is a well improved automobile highway and even from the seat of a speeding automobile one obtains a view of the surrounding country- side remarkable for its native and undeveloped beauty. La Vega is reached all too soon and the hunt is begun for a light car to take one on the first lap of the journey into the heart of the Cordillera. The goal of the journey is the valley of Constanza, well known to naturalists from the days of Humboldt, Schomburgk, and Gabb. In recent years Abbott, Wetmore, Ekman, and others, including Wythe Cook of the survey party conducting a geological reconnoissance of the Dominican Republic, have carried on investigations in their re- spective fields along the Constanza trail. One branch of this trail starts at Santiago de los Caballeros, passes southward along the east side of the Rio Yaque del Norte to the town of Baitoa. Later the Santiago trail is united with the La Vega branch of the Constanza trail which is passable for light automobiles, and trucks as far as Jarabacoa, although much work remains to be done in the way of bridge building and grading. The Rio Yami must be forded, as must also the Rio Jimenoa, before the immediate goal, the town of Jarabacoa, is reached, where the automobile is discarded for pack saddle and mule train. After leaving the valley of the Jimenoa and the proximity of Jarabacoa, the climb up the steep and rocky defile of the Arroyo Baiguate brings one to the top of El Barrero. The narrow trail, fol- lowing the crests of ridges that buttress the narrow mountain crest, descends the southern slope and again ascends to El Paso Bajito, once more encountering the Rio Jimenoa which is forded at El Rio. Here, in the narrow flat valley may be seen aboriginal earthworks resembling very much those to be described later from Constanza. After leaving El Rio one must ascend another mountain crest, the Loma del Hato Quemado which marks the watershed between the waters flowing east into the Camu and Yuna Rivers which empty themselves into the Bay of Samana on the Dominican east coast. Circling along the crests of ridges in a general southerly direction, the trail descends to the narrow valley of the upper Tireo River, a tributary of the Yuna River, where several aboriginal earthworks of the Constanza type were observed. There were also observed scattered groups of the peculiar natural mounds, resulting from ex- foliation, but which are locally known as Indian burial mounds. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 I51 Fic. 131.—Jarabacoa, a village in the interior mountain valleys of La Vega Province. Fic. 132.—The village of Constanza, Loma de Rio Grande in the background on the south. 152 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION From the valley of the Rio Tireo, the final ascent up the flank of the Loma del Valle brought into view the panorama of the flat valley of Constanza framed by encircling mountains. The valley occupies an area of 30 square kilometers and lies at an altitude of 1,100 meters above sea level. At its southeastern corner two tiny rivulets, the Pantufle and the Rio Constanza, drain the valley and unite to form the Rio Limon. The village of Constanza is sheltered under tower- ing mountains at the northeast corner of the valley. Just north of the village is the largest of the series of parallel aboriginal earthworks, first described by Schomburgk in 1851. Living quarters were obtained in the house of Senor Felix Matias, a kindly Dominican, whose aid in obtaining permits to carry on exca- vations was much appreciated and is here gratefully acknowledged. Laborers were readily obtained and within a few days a system of procedure was developed. Two apparently “ natural born” archeolo- gists, Antonio M. Garcia, the local weather observer for the Domini- can government, and a campesino who answered to the simple name of Pong, began a systematic survey of the surrounding mountains in search of caves or rock ledges containing Indian burials. In this they were quite successful. In the rock ledge burials on the flanks of the Loma la Cumbre between the Rio Tireo and the Jimenoa; on the slopes of Loma de Rio Grande, Monte Culo de Maco, Loma Rucilla, or Pico del Yaque, Loma Chinguela, and Monte Cucurucho, and of the hills in the more immediate vicinity of Constanza careful search was made for burial offerings. A few stone beads, pendants, zemis, fragments of burial pottery, also a small number of intact earthenware vessels were dis- covered in juxtaposition to the skeletal remains. Under the tutelage of a Dominican whose family name is forgotten, but whose given name of Josesito seemed particularly appropriate, the writer began a search within the valley of Constanza for a domi- ciliary midden sufficiently well preserved to yield cultural material for stratigraphic study. At many places in Constanza valley, also in the upper valley of the Tireo, pottery sherds were examined. Upon investigation the culture deposit invariably proved to be merely a few inches in depth and unsuitable for excavation. Opportunity was seized on these reconnoitering trips to purchase any archeological specimen offered. Soon the entire countryside became engaged in commercial archeology, but the ideal midden deposit remained undiscovered. Many natural formations resembling small circular artificial earth mounds, said to be Indian burials, were reported from widely sepa- rated locations, but on investigation they proved to be unusually ex- SM ITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 153 Fic. 133.—Pine forests on the slopes of Loma de Rio Grande. Fic, 134.—The Rio Grande. 154 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION foliated masses of rock and pebbles in circular heaps from five to eight feet in diameter projecting from one to four feet above the surround- ing soil level under which lay rock fragments and pebbles similarly exfoliated and disintegrated. The regularity of these natural mounds, dotting a flat valley floor in a striking way, is remarkable. The proof that they could not be aboriginal burials was near at hand if one were provided with pick and shovel. Test holes were made of these peculiar formations at Manabao, also in the valley of the Rio Tireo, and in the valley of Constanza on the otherwise level valley floor between the village of Constanza and the streamlet named Pantufle. Sir Robert Schomburgk in an article in the Athenaeum published in 1851 reported the presence of an Indian cemetery in the valley of Constanza and offers as evidence the following data: “ Nearby is a burial ground toward the foot of the southern mountains of the valley—one hour of brisk walking through pine forests brought us to a rivulet. Here were earthworks of semi-circular form. Crossing the brook were burials covered with greenstone in circular form bounded by the mound, the rivulet, and the pine forest.’’ Obviously Schom- burgk did not dig into these mounds as he makes no further mention of them. His observation has, however, been recorded on his map of the Dominican Republic, and for many years thereafter all maps of the country indicated the presence of an Indian cemetery in the valley of Constanza. Nearby, just above the waterfall locally known as El Chorro southeast of Constanza village, begins the rocky crest of a hogback, a long upward-sloping hill, under the scattered comb of which the writer was successful in recovering skeletal and cranial fragments along with pottery offerings. This cyclopean-like outcrop- ping of faulted rock has been mistakenly cited by some writers as an aboriginal monumental wall erected for defense. The culturally more advanced Arawak of the mountainous in- terior of Santo Domingo deserve to be classified with the Mississippi Valley mound builders, even though they did not construct burial mounds. Many artificial structures of earth were erected by them principally in the uplifted valleys of the northern central mountain ranges of Santo Domingo. Some of these mounds, varying in height but never exceeding more than a few feet at most, are round, others are rectangular. Most of them, however, are in the form of two par- allel embankments. Four series of these parallel embankments were observed by the writer in the valley of Constanza. Their average height is from 3 to 10 feet, with a width of 20 feet in transverse sec- tion at the bottom. The mounds are free from rocks and contain SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 Ay) O Sumo OWLS ‘UMasNyY [LUOCIFeN URoTUTWIOG dy} FO UOIZIATTOI dy} UT S9q}}Oq Jo}eM JIA ee a Tal ayyiea poyelos9q— StI “1 II 150 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION practically no artifacts except occasionally a broken celt, hammer- stone, or broken sherd from some water vessel or food bowl. At their bottom beneath the embankment at a level with the adjoining terrain, we again find the same soil that normally appears elsewhere as a surface stratum, showing that the entire structure had been laboriously piled up by the natives with earth from nearby fields for some un- known purpose. The 1930 season concludes the series of archeological investiga- tions conducted by the Smithsonian Institution and the United States National Museum in the territory of the Dominican Republic. Ac- knowledgment is made of the courtesy and aid extended by Domini- can government officials both in the capital city of Santo Domingo and in the provinces. It is hoped that the work accomplished may be of benefit to students of West Indian archeology generally and to those interested in correlating the northern and southern affiliations of Floridian and of Gulf State mound cultures. ARIZONA'S )}PREHISTORIC CANALS, FROM THE AIR* By NEIL M. JUDD, Curator, Division of Archeology, U. S. National Museum Out in central Arizona, where cotton fields, citrus groves and date palms reach out across endless miles to caress jagged igneous and sandstone buttes, prehistoric peoples once erected a noteworthy civilt- zation upon an agricultural foundation. That ancient civilization 1s gone now—lost with the desert acres on which it flourished—and few traces remain of the gigantic canals that made its primitive agri- culture possible. But those few traces merit careful preservation. They are all we have left to remind us of that unnamed, aboriginal folk whose engi- neering achievements rightfully arrest the attention of our mechanical age. For those prehistoric canals—it has been estimated that half a century ago there were no less than 300 miles of them in the Salt River valley alone—were so accurately and efficiently constructed that portions of them, taken over by white settlers of 1870 and thereabouts, are actually in use at the present time. And here is another point we are apt to overlook: Every mile of those ancient channels was lit- erally dug by hand, since the Arizona Indians knew nothing either of beasts of burden or metal tools until well on in the seventeenth century. Following the old canal banks, one occasionally happens upon the fragment of a stone “ hoe ”—a thin blade of igneous rock, chipped on one side to a cutting edge. With such rude tools, with fractured cob- blestones and sharpened sticks, the canal builders hacked and prodded at the hard desert soil. In baskets and blankets, we may safely con- jecture, women and children carried the loosened earth out from the excavation. Thus, mile after weary mile, an entire community labored to construct the canals that watered their communal fields. Nowhere else in the New World has evidence been found of pre- historic irrigation systems comparable to those of central Arizona. They may even have surpassed, both in size and in the number of acres served, those famous systems of the Tigris and Euphrates val- leys—irrigation works that watered the seed of native ability and In December, 1930, Mr. Odd S. Halseth, of Phoenix, was continuing cer- tain studies connected with this aerial survey, in behalf of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology. 157 Fic. 136.—Prehistoric Indian canal east of Mesa, Arizona, partly recondi- tioned and used by Mormon pioneers of 1878; subsequently replaced by the modern Consolidated Canal. (Photograph by Set. R. A. Stockwell; courtesy of the Chief of Air Corps, U. S. Army.) persis Fic. 137—‘“ The Park of Four Waters,” near Phoenix, preserves remnants of old Indian canals and the “ Swilling Ditch” of 1867. On the right margin, close above the Grand Canal, Pueblo Grande ruin shows through the trees. (Photograph by Set. R. A. Stockwell; courtesy of the Chief of Air Corps, WEeS® Ami; ) 158 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 159 brought forth into full bloom high civilizations that made Mesopo- tamia known throughout the ancient world. With prodigious labor, the Peruvians of pre-Spanish times led ir- rigation ditches along craggy heights of the Andes to their terraced gardens. Among the highlands of Mexico and again in various sec- tions of the southwestern United States, Indian farmers had learned that irrigation was necessary to the successful cultivation of food crops. In November, 1694, Padre Eusebio Kino stood before the drab walls of Casa Grande ruin and speculated upon the feasibility of restoring its abandoned, overgrown canals. Five hundred years before Kino was born the inhabitants of Pueblo Bonito, in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, were capturing the mid-summer rains, taming and guid- ing them onto thirsty fields. But none of these efforts matched the colossal, prehistoric irrigation systems of the Gila and Salt river valleys. We wanted maps of these latter, hand-made Indian canals. We wanted to know their extent, their position relative to each other, the approximate acreage they once watered. Similar desires on the part of other observers had prompted surveys which were not altogether successful for the very simple reason that so little is now visible of the ancient ditches. Modern agriculture has been too destructive; it has plowed and planted until the aboriginal farming communities and their works were pretty thoroughly obliterated. From the ground, one’s range of vision is too limited; from the air it might be possible to recover data for the maps we had in mind. At least this seemed the most promising, expeditious method when I made a preliminary study of the situation in the autumn of 1929." So, at the solicitation of United States Senator Carl Hayden, the Smithsonian Institution and the War Department cooperated in an aerial survey of the Salt and Gila river valleys, beginning late in January, 1930. Lieutenant Edwin Bobzien and Sergeant R. A. Stock- well, pilot and photographer, respectively, were detailed from the Air Corps unit at Crissy Field, San Francisco, and I was designated Smithsonian representative, to advise with the aviators. Our small party assembled at Phoenix, blocked out the areas to be photographed and speedily set to work. Smoke and ground haze drew an impenetrable blanket over Salt River valley each morning and evening, thus restricting flying time to a brief two hours at midday when shadows are at a minimum. The longer shadows of early morn- ‘Explorations and Field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1920, pp. 177-182. Washington, 1930. 160 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ing and late afternoon would naturally have thrown into greater relief those slight elevations which mark ancient house sites and irrigation ditches. But, despite handicaps of various sorts, our air survey proceeded about as we had planned it. First of all there was the Gila River val- ley, from its union with the Rio Salado to the northwestern slopes of the Tortilla Mountains—a far-reaching plain whereon Pima and Papago farmers tilled favored patches of irrigable land long before the advent of missionaries, trappers, Pony Express riders, and other pioneers of a period now all but forgotten. American settlers trailed into the upper Gila valley during the third quarter of the nineteenth century and drew so heavily upon the avail- able water supply that the Indian farmers below were finally brought to a state of destitution. Government promises of relief were made and remade but a half century passed before the Coolidge Dam was completed and provision thus made to meet the needs of whites and Indians alike. The great reservoir 1s slowly filling and, 70 miles away, farm lands wait thirstily for the life-giving waters. With huge, snorting machines that make an Indian’s home-made tools seem, by comparison, as nothing at all, 56,000 acres of desert land are being cleared, leveled, and otherwise prepared for irrigation at the rate of 20 acres a day. But the mechanical monsters of the modern engineer are no respecters of prehistoric canals! The latter were being destroyed along with other heritages from the past. Ours was the task of discerning and recording some vestige of those ancient irrigation systems while fleeting opportunity permitted. Up one side of the Gila and down the other, Lieutenant Bobzien held his blue Douglas observation plane on a fixed course at 10,000 feet elevation while Sergeant Stockwell pointed his camera through a hole in the floor and snapped the shutter with clock-like precision to picture a square mile on each successive negative. Over famed Casa Grande ruins the ship sailed lower in search of those ancient canals seen by Kino and which new cotton fields seem to have erased abso- lutely. And then back to the Indian gardens that border the meander- ing Gila from Sacaton to Pima Butte and beyond. Like strips of Grandmother’s quilt those gardens are! Queer, mis- shapen patches with thin ribbons of dark green running this way and that where lesser irrigation ditches crazy-stitched the variegated scraps together. Yet, hopelessly confused and insignificant as these minia- ture farms appear from a height of nearly two miles, they played a not unimportant part in the conquest of southern Arizona. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 161 (Photograph by Set. R. A. Stockwell; courtesy of the Chief of Air Corps, U. S. Army.) Fic. 138.—Prehistoric canals on north side of Salt River, north of Mesa, Arizona. 162 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Indian farmers tended those fertile fields for untold generations before Francisco Vasquez de Coronado and his band of resolute ad- venturers marched gayly northward out of Mexico in 1540 to dig mythical gold from the Seven Cities of Cibola. When Padre Kino came plodding his patient way toward salvation of the Pima and Papago tribes late in the seventeenth century, those funny Indian gar- dens fed his men and mules. And they supported, too, the westward- bound gold-seekers of ’49; the animals and personnel both of the Pony Express and the later stagecoach companies; the U. S. Army units stationed in Arizona before and after the Civil War. Except for those gardens and the Pima and Papago scouts who served so faith- fully throughout the protracted Apache campaign, Victorio and Geronimo doubtless would have continued their murderous depreda- tions for still another decade. The peaceful Indian tribes of the Gila valley have well merited, and with interest, the Government-aided irrigation system which once more makes possible the successful cul- tivation of their Lilliputian farms. In the Salt River valley, prehistoric peoples also converted cacti- covered wastes into gardens of maize, beans, and squashes. They built, nearby, thick-walled, flat-roofed homes of mud, pressed and patted into layer upon layer. Here, as along the Gila, industrious generations dwelt in peace and plenty, tending their growing plants, digging new ditches, hunting deer among thorny mesquite, until some great, irresistible force came finally to claim possession. What that force really was no one knows today. It may have been a slight diminu- tion in annual rainfall; more likely, it was increasing pressure from nomadic tribes. But, in either case, after a period which none may yet measure, the Indian farmers of the Rio Salado vacated their cultivated fields, abandoned their compact settlements and moved on to other, perhaps less favored localities. Substantial dwellings crumbled into low, spreading mounds ; irrigation systems slowly filled with wind-driven sand; the desert crept back to claim its own. Not until the middle nineteenth century did Salt River valley re- awaken to such industry as it had known in prehistoric times. Not until 1865, or thereabouts, did hardy pioneers follow in on the dim trails of the beaver trappers and the gold-seekers to select the thorny plains of the Rio Salado as a likely place in which to build their humble homes. Among these pioneers was one Jack Swilling, somewhat more imaginative than his neighbors, who appears to have been the first to recognize the possibility of local irrigation. Obviously influenced by the nearby prehistoric canals, Swilling started to clear out one of SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 163 Fic. 139.—A section of an ancient Indian canal west of Granite Reef dam. (Photograph by Judd.) A partially destroyed ancient Indian canal west of Granite Reef dam, lying 25 feet above the present bed of Salt River. (Photograph by Judd.) Fic. 140. 164 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION these as a ready means of watering his own fields. And then, in 1867, he organized the company which constructed the first modern canal in Salt River valley. Remnants of this old “ Swilling ditch ” and sections of three ancient Indian canals are still visible in ““ The Park of Four Waters,” wisely preserved by the city of Phoenix. Close by stands the ruin of Pueblo Grande, a huge pile of crumbling walls and pale yellow clay, excava- tion of which was initiated in 1929 by City Archeologist Odd A. Halseth. Largest surviving example of the communal dwellings which dotted Salt River valley in prehistoric times, Pueblo Grande marks a former center of population from which industrious Indian farmers trudged forth to their daily toil. From the flat roofs of their earth-walled homes those same farmers saluted the rising and setting sun as the father of all living things. For in olden times, no less than today, the sun meant life to dwellers in Salt River valley. Over on the south side, Pioneer Charles T. Hayden camped one day at the foot of Tempe Butte and watched the swollen river race past. Then he constructed a rude ferry to float his wagons across; remained to transport other early settlers, to build the first local store, walled with mud-plastered willows. More than this, he cleaned out an old Indian canal and drew into it, from the Rio Salado, water with which to turn the wheels of his primitive mill. The new Hayden mill, erected on the same site, is no longer powered by an irrigation ditch but it served, nonetheless, as one of our principal landmarks in the recent aerial survey of Salt River valley. Mormon settlers came, in 1878, to found the contented village of Mesa; to recondition other abandoned Indian canals and thus save their pioneer community an estimated $20,000 in labor alone. Part of one such rebuilt ditch is still in use but, as elsewhere in the valley, increase in population has brought about larger, more serviceable canals with their far-flung network of laterals. Inquiry elicits the information that there are no fewer than 1,200 miles of these modern watercourses. Most of them measure from 18 to 90 feet wide at the top and average about five feet in depth; sec- tions of them have cost as much as $22,000 a mile to construct. But the prehistoric canal builders, with barefooted helpers instead of caterpillar tractors, with stone hoes as precursors of the steam shovel, unhesitatingly set about the completion of comparable works. I pho- tographed one aboriginal canal north of Mesa that stands today 66 feet wide and 8 feet deep. It led from the Rio Salado far across the valley ; as the river cut its channel below the canal floor, the useless ditch 165 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 ; (upes[eH ‘S ppo Aq ydes8ojoyg) ‘Ng eduoy, Ivou TAN SuapAep{ je [eued uPIpUy] pouolnipuosdy— zl “1 ‘S PpO Aq yde1s0j0y J ) WYSIy Aep-put ]JoM3903S '¥SS pue (}fo]) UsIzqo q “ynol Cupes[eH eB Joy Suttedoid uz NEI 166 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION was replaced by another which connected with a new intake, farther up stream. Such substitutions were necessitated by altered conditions in prehistoric times no less than today. Modern irrigation canals and the industry they symbolize have done most to erase from central Arizona former vestiges of that native civilization which once prospered there. The sad ruins of aboriginal homes have been leveled with their neighboring fields; the ditches which once watered those fields have been filled or scraped away. Where Indian farmers eight or ten hundred years ago cultivated gar- dens of beans, maize and squashes, vast acres of cotton, lettuce and melons are now harvested. Neat orchards of dates and grapefruit flourish where catclaw and mesquite stretched their spiny branches only a generation ago. The diabolical Apache has been tamed if not conquered. Bow-legged cowboys, garbed according to the latest fash- ion notes from Hollywood, ride herd on eastern “ dudes.” Attractive dwellings and sumptuous winter resorts, with green lawns and flower- bordered walks have replaced the mud-walled habitations of the ancient folk. As one looks down from the air upon this Paradise that 1s Salt River valley today, one is impressed first of all by the orderly habits of mankind. At least there is a semblance of order, from a height of 2,000 feet or more. Long, straight roads on which autos slither away like headless roaches; brown and yellow fields all nicely squared; orange trees that seem as tiny pellets of dark green, patiently arranged, row upon row; little cubed houses, fringed with flat green things. Reaching across these fields and under these houses, light or dark streaks mark former prehistoric Indian canals which only the avia- tor may readily detect. Silt deposited in those old ditches shows dark brown against the drab desert soil; pale yellow lines remain where embankments have been smoothed away. Slight differences in vegetation, imperceptible when close at hand, take on color variations that enable one at a considerable height to retrace works which other- wise have been wholly effaced. The blue Army plane glides down from the clouds and back to port with numbed crew and empty cameras. Camel Back Mountain squats complacently at one side and looks out across the valley where such momentous changes have taken place within memory of men still living. Squaw Peak lifts her unkempt bulk to frown upon this new civilization, as she did upon the old. A setting sun momentarily gilds the giant sahuaro whose long, fingered shadows point eastwardly to rugged mountain ranges whence flow the life-giving waters of the Gila and the Rio Salado. MOUNDS OF THE VANISHED CALUSA INDIANS OF FLORIDA By ME We Sie TRIEDNG, Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology When the Spaniards first visited the west coast of Florida early in the sixteenth century, the region from Tampa Bay southward to the Keys was occupied by the Calusa Indians. At this time they were an important tribe, but in common with the other aboriginal Indians of Florida they disappeared rapidly upon contact with the whites. Un- fortunately no early traveler has left an adequate description of this interesting group. As a result we must depend almost entirely upon the results of archeological investigations in reconstructing their mode of living. It was for the purpose of continuing such researches that the writer visited Florida during February, March, and April of 1930. Through the kindness of Mr. Lee Parish, the writer was enabled to accompany him on his yacht Esperanza through the intricate channels of the Ten Thousand Islands, where a number of old village sites were located and excavations conducted on a typical southern Calusa mound on Horr’s Island. Numerous trade objects of European manufacture discovered in course of the excavations helped to confirm the writer’s previous view that the mounds of the Ten Thousand Island district are probably the most recent in Florida. It was in this hidden and comparatively inaccessible region that the Calusa Indians finally re- tired as a result of pressure from the north and here made their last stand against encroaching civilization. Here and there among the maze of keys comprising the Ten Thousand Islands is one which has caught the wind-blown sand in such a manner as to build it up, forming “ high ground ” above the level of the surrounding mangrove swamps. Such localities were invariably utilized by the Indians as places of abode, the height of the ground in most instances being con- siderably augmented by the accumulation of shells and village débris. On the east end of Horr’s Island is a rather extensive shell deposit now overgrown with a dense underbrush. Three hundred yards to the eastward of the village site is a sand burial mound 35 feet in diameter and 7 feet in height. Working among dense clouds of mos- quitoes and sand flies, we excavated a sector of the mound compris- ing about one-third of its volume. Seven burials were encountered, 167 168 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION a en aa ree Fic. 143.—Mr. Lee Parish standing beside our mosquito-infested camp on Horr’s Island. Fic. 144.—The sand mound at Safety Harbor looking toward the bay. Before excavation the surface of the mound was covered with a dense growth of trees and underbrush. In its original condition the mound was 13 feet high. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 169 Fic. 145.—The large shell mound at Safety Harbor as it now appears overgrown with vegetation. This flat-topped mound was once the substruc- ture for an Indian temple. Fic. 146—Where the waters of Tampa Bay are cutting away the village site at Safety Harbor. Many relics were found along this stretch of beach. 170 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 147—Removing the top level of the Safety Harbor burial mound. In this level several articles of European manufacture were discovered. Fro. 148.—-As the burial mound appeared with excavations well under way. To prevent caving, the mound was excavated by a series of trenches. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 IL ZA all within 3 feet of the surface. These were secondary interments and in no instance was the skeleton complete. Objects accompanying the burials were scarce, consisting only of glass beads, an unidentified iron object with crude repoussé designs upon it, perforated Arca shells and conch shell cups. After completing the work in Ten Thousand Islands the writer proceeded to Lacoochee, Florida, where a mound on the south bank of the Withlacoochee River was excavated. Upon the completion of this task a site was selected at Safety Harbor, at the head of Old Tampa Bay, where excavations were undertaken on the property of Fic. 149.—With the top of the mound removed. Showing the method of excavation of the Safety Harbor burial mound. The men are standing on an ancient ash bed at the base of the structure. Col. Thomas Palmer, to whose interest is due the preservation of this interesting mound group. Permission was generously given to the Bureau for the excavation of the large burial mound. The principal mound of the group is a large, flat-topped shell mound with precipitous sides. The waters of the bay have gradually en- croached upon the site until the northern and eastern edges of the mound are but a few yards from the water. Extending eastward from the mound is a long sand spit which was formerly dry land and the site of part of the village to which the mound belonged. Fifty yards west of the large mound is a small shell mound about 7 feet high, while 50 yards west of this is a low circular shell mound 45 feet in diameter. 12 172 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Four hundred yards to the west of the large mound is a sand burial mound. This mound had been considerably dug over on the surface by pot hunters, but it was so large that none of the diggers had pene- trated very far. Just east of the mound was a deep circular depression from which the material was taken for its construction. The complete excavation of this mound showed that it had been raised by gradual stages, the burials being of a secondary nature and placed without order. Over 100 burials were removed and a considerable archeo- logical collection obtained. The presence of such articles as a silver tubular bead and an iron ax with burials in the top portion of the mound showed that the latter stages were post-Columbian. No such objects were found in the lower levels of the mound, where artifacts of any kind were rare. Pottery, except for a few shards, was found only on the surface at the base of the mound where food bowls had evidently been placed as offerings, without interring them. From the evidence gathered from the mound and village site it is probable that this village was occupied at the time De Soto visited Tampa Bay and continued to be inhabited for a considerable period subsequently. Because of the fact that it bridges the period between the historic and the prehistoric, it is of unusual interest to archeology. ARCHEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE IN TEXAS AND NEVADA By M. W. STIRLING, Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology An important area marginal to the well-known culture centers of the pueblo section of the Southwest is the so-called Big Bend region of Texas. During the latter half of July, 1930, the writer went to Marfa, Texas, for the purpose of examining a number of caves which had been reported to the Bureau of American Ethnology from that region. Through the kindness of Mr. L. F. Curl of the Department of Agriculture, it was possible to visit all of the more promising locali- ties within a radius of 30 miles from Marfa. Several caves containing pictographs were examined in the vicinity of Limpia Canyon north of Marfa, and on the Knight ranch 18 miles southwest of Valentine a number of very interesting caves were examined and selected as sites for excavation in the near future. Leaving Texas the writer proceeded to Deeth, Nevada, where in company with Mr. William Murdock a number of caves and archeo- logical sites were examined in the territory lying between the Ruby and Jarbidge Mountains. On the west side of Marys River, about 10 miles north of Deeth, a low flat-topped hill about 75 yards wide and 200 yards long rises from the sagebrush plain. It is capped by a con- glomerate rock which has been undercut by the river so as to form a number of rock shelters, most of which are now almost entirely filled with débris. Most of these are smoke-blackened and show abun- dant evidences of habitation. About 10 yards below the largest of the shelters is a large flowing spring. A test pit dug in the floor of this cave revealed fragments of badly decayed matting, burned bones, flint and obsidian rejects. The flat top of the hill is littered with arrow- heads, flint implements and rejects. Several miles northwest of this site in the midst of a large bowl of barren desert hills stands a giant geyser cone about 300 feet in diameter. The Ute Indians of the region have the tradition that in the old days captives were disposed of by throwing them down the crater of this cone into the boiling water which still fills the throat of the cave. The geyser is no longer active as the water has broken through at the base, where a large hot spring now flows. 173 174 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 150.—Cave formerly occupied by Indians on the headwaters of the Bruneau River in northeastern Nevada. Fic. 151.—Hot Spring Butte, a giant geyser cone on Marys River, Nevada. ‘syoafer Arend oie *MOJaq Joo} OL Ja}eM Surproq punois oy} UO soyRY o}IYM 94, “SpeayMor1Ie pue SIATUH 94} OUT uO; ePd [eInzeu sty} Wor; Woy} Surpiny Aq BULINJORJNULUL OJ [BLLeJeU pouleiqo SuULIPU] oY} 2404H SaAndes yo pasodsip suRIPUT a3 ay) APIoWOg ‘ayNg ‘epeaoN “‘Ayuno) oyfy ur Arienb yedQ— esi “S14 Suridg JOT JO 10}e19 94} UMOP SuTyoo[—'zSI “9Iy 175 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 176 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Northward from this point the watershed between the Snake River and the Humbolt is crossed. Here on the headwaters of the Bruneau River several caves were visited. In the vicinity of Coyote Lakes a very interesting outcrop of white opal was discovered. This had been intensively quarried by the Indians. Most of the implements dis- covered for many miles around appear to have been made of material from this quarry or from obsidian obtained from the lava beds farther to the north. The entire region, which is well watered and abundantly supplied with game, made an ideal environment for the Indian, except- ing for the one drawback of a very severe winter climate. A PREHISTORIC VILLAGE ON THE ZUNI RESER- VATION, NEW MEXICO By FRANK H. H. ROBERTS, JR., Archeologist, Bureau of American Ethnology One of the most interesting groups of small house remains which thus far has come to light in the Southwest was uncovered by the writer in western New Mexico during the summer of 1930. The ruins are located 16 miles northeast of the Indian village of Zuni, on the Zuni Reservation, at the juncture of Red Paint and Nutria canyons. Three communal dwellings and two large ceremonial chambers or great kivas comprise the cluster. Although numerous investigations and extensive explorations have taken place in that region since it was first traversed by Coronado and his adventurous soldiery in 1540, few seem to have observed and no one has recorded the existence of these particular ruins. They were virtually unknown to the white inhabi- tants in the vicinity and most of the Indians were not aware of their presence. In contrast to numerous other house and village remains on the reservation, there is no Zufi name for this group. That the ruins escaped notice for so long a time may be attributed to their inconspicuous nature. Lying on the talus at the foot of a series of low cliffs the stone and grass-covered mounds appeared, unless closely observed, to be a part of the natural formation (fig. 154). The writer found them while conducting a reconnaissance on the res- ervation during the latter part of May. Their possibilities were so alluring that steps were immediately taken to have the permit which had been issued for another site changed to allow investigations at this place. The Department of the Interior, upon the recommendation of its archeologist, readily acceded to the request, and after a camp had been established excavations were started. When the season was brought to a close late in September two of the houses and a number of ceremonial chambers had been excavated and three refuse mounds had been thoroughly explored for burials (figs. 155, 156, and 157). The larger of the two houses had contained 64 rooms and 3 average size circular ceremonial chambers or kivas, and had a great kiva joined to its southern side. South of the main build- ing and completely subterranean in character were four more cere- monial chambers. The smaller of the two structures had contained 177 178 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 154.—Site at the beginning of excavations. Camp of expedition in the backeround. a neath gs ee oa ees es ag wr ES sin se ta ee : 4 ee Fic. 155.—Same view as figure 154 taken at the end of the season. Large structure in foreground and small house at right center of picture. Two great kivas appear in central part of the photograph. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 179 only 20 rooms and in contrast to its larger neighbor had no circular chambers. Lying in the court formed by the two buildings, and com- pletely detached from them, was the second great kiva. South of it was the mound covering the third house, which had been a very small dwelling (fig. 158). It was not possible to excavate the isolated great kiva, but its walls were traced in order that the size could be deter- mined and the structure properly plotted on the map of the site. Only one room was excavated in the small structure to the south. This was sufficient to indicate that the building had been of the same general character as the other small dwelling. The largest of the houses shows only 60 rooms on the ground plan (fig. 158). The four additional chambers constituted a second story in the central portion of the building. The rest of the structure had been but a single story in height. Evidence showed that it had not been erected as a complete unit and that it was not occupied in its entirety at any time. The central block and great kiva constituted the original part of the structure. The east and west wings and the series of chambers south of the main block and east of the great kiva were subsequent additions. Masonry in the walls of the later portions was inferior to that in the old section and the outlines of the rooms are so irregular that it would seem that they may have been built by a different group of people. Walls in the original section were con- structed of well dressed stones, long and tabular in form, and are characterized by alternating thick and thin courses. This feature is one which is outstanding in some of the ruins in the Chaco Canyon 85 miles northeast of the Zuni district. The walls in the later addi- tions were formed from large blocks of stone, not particularly well shaped for the purpose, and were not carefully laid. A considerable part of the older section was abandoned after completion of the newer units. This was evidenced by the fact that several of the rooms and two of the kivas were completely filled with refuse of the kind which accumulates around an occupied village. The ceremonial chambers dug into the earth in front of the struc- ture appeared to have belonged to the later sections of the building. Both these and the ones located within the mass of the house are of interest because they show a decided northern characteristic in the deep niche or recess at the southern side. Two of the kivas were found to contain features which thus far have been observed in only a very few examples of small ceremonial chambers. They are long, rectangular pits or vaults at the west side of the room (fig. 161). There is no satisfactory explanation as to their purpose and the Zuni 180 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 156.—Large ruin from the east end. One of the great kivas at left center of picture. Fic. 157.—Portion of the small ruin. 2 Reruse ’ \ Moun —_— 5 if / Great Kiva No. 2 WALLS TRACED, CONTRAL PART NOT CRCAVATCO \ My \ aK heme \ a ay 5 4 Reruse mR Mone NanEr —, ne Wi if Z CA ad ex ee iS C= 5) ! LARGE BOWLDERS so Scale FEET ri 7? q Re i Ay, SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 MAP OF RUINS AT MOUTH OF RED PAINT CANYON Fic. 158.—Plan of the house group. Reruse Mou SS rE ny ie 181 hy ie ante pee oy v?¢ O Ne DERS Og Thayne” t & 182 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION could give no reason for their presence. Similar vaults form one of the typical elements in great kivas but are not common in the lesser chambers. The small house did not give evidence of growth stages as distinct as those observed in the large building. It did show, however, that a fairly small structure had been enlarged from time to time by the erection of additional rooms. The walls, like those in the later por- tions of the large structure, had been built of cubical blocks of stone. 3ut in contrast the material in this building had been worked and shaped to a greater degree and more care had been expended in the construction. The dwelling may have been erected by the same group which built the later portions of the large structure, but they were more particular about results in this instance. The lack of ceremonial chambers in the block of the building, as well as their absence in the earth outside, presents a perplexing problem. One explanation for the condition is that the people from this dwelling may have joined those in the large structure in the performance of sacred rites and for that reason did not construct chambers of their own. The finding of two great kivas is significant. They demonstrate that the type had a wider distribution than has heretofore been sus- pected and are another indication of a Chacoan element in the com- munity. Investigations in the Southwest have shown that such struc- tures are always associated with some form of that culture. Great Kiva No. I was completely excavated, and it revealed all of the essential characteristics of such a building. Because of this it may be supposed that they also were present in the other one. Great Kiva No. 2 is the largest yet discovered. Casa Rinconada in the Chaco Canyon has long been regarded preeminent among super ceremonial houses, but it must yield to the one in this group. Great Kiva No. 2 averages 78 feet in diameter while Casa Rinconada is only 72 feet across. Great Kiva No. 1 is larger than many great kivas. Its average diameter is 55 feet. These super kivas represent a tremendous amount of labor on the part of people equipped only with stone im- plements and must have been of great importance to them. The exact function of such structures is not known but it 1s probable that they were dedicated to the performance of major communal cere- monies whereas the lesser observances took place in the small circular chambers. Two great kivas in a community as small as this might imply that the ceremonial side of its life was overemphasized. It is possible, however, that this was the religious center for the whole district. Within a radius of several miles are many house sites, none SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 183 Fic. 159.—Starting the excavation of the large ruin. Fic. 160.—Removing débris from the small house. 184 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION of which indicates the presence of a large ceremonial structure. Con- sequently it may be postulated that all of the people in the valley gathered here during periods of exceptional liturgic importance and participated in the religious rites appertaining to the super kivas. The excavations yielded, in addition to the information on house types, 400 specimens of the people’s handicraft. The collection includes pottery vessels, stone and bone tools, ornaments, and a num- ber of stone images. The pottery consists of two groups, painted Frc. 161.—One of the ceremonial chambers in the large ruin. Portion of subfloor vault shown in lower right corner of picture. Fire pit and ventilator opening in front of Indian boy. and unpainted wares. The latter comprise the culinary jars. The painted vessels are of the black-on-white and black-on-red varieties. Both classes contain specimens typical of the Chaco Canyon wares and of the ceramics of the Upper Gila region to the south. Other ex- amples indicate that the characteristics of the two cultures were blended to form a local ceramic type. Of the other groups of objects the stone images are the most interesting. They are the heads of animals but probably are only symbolical, as the creatures depicted cannot be accurately identified. They may have been the symbols of the clans which dwelt there. This is suggested by the fact that they were found in the small ceremonial chambers. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 185 Fic. 162.—Group of prehistoric pictures on cliff back of large ruin. Fic. 163—Modern drawings made by Zuni Indians. 186 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The specimens were obtained from the houses and the graves. Burials were for the most part located in the refuse mounds. The remains of 60 individuals were uncovered and in all but one instance funerary offerings were found near the head. In the case of the single exception the pottery accompanying the body had been placed at the feet. This was probably due to an error and the unintentional reversing of the body bundle, because all of the other interments had the head to the east while here it was to the west. Additional examples of the handiwork of the inhabitants of the community are to be observed along the cliffs to the north of the large structure. Here a large number of figures were cut and pecked into the rocks. They occur singly and in groups. One cluster is especially interesting because of the variety of things represented (fig. 162). In addition to strictly geometrical patterns, there are numerous quad- rupeds, a humpbacked flute player, a human hand, and a great diver- sity of serpent symbols. Not far from this prehistoric series of rock drawings is a group of pictures made by some of the present day Zuni. The contrast between the two sets of figures is striking. The modern examples are done in color and are quite lifelike in char- acter (fig. 163). Asa result of the summer’s investigations it is possible to state that this community belonged to the great period of the prehistoric Pueblos, the era which is designated Pueblo III in southwestern chronology. The houses were probably built and occupied late in the 12th century A. D. Evidence also shows that there was a fusion of two groups of people at this location. One came from the Chaco area in the north and the other from the Upper Gila villages in the south. This is the first time that a complete group belonging to this phase of Pueblo development had been thoroughly excavated in the Zuni region and the information obtained from it will be of considerable help in the solution of problems pertaining to the district. SLUDYING THE INDIANS “OF NEW MEXICO AND CALIFORNIA By JOHN P. HARRINGTON, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology The old dogma of the textbooks that the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona speak four stock languages unrelated with one exception to other North American languages seems doomed to ulti- mate abandonment according to indications revealed in a careful com- parison of the Taos and Zuni languages made by me in New Mexico as part of a general plan of reexamining these languages. The work in 1930 was a continuation of researches begun the year be- fore and described in “ Explorations and Field-Work of the Smith- sonian Institution in 1929.” Working with Natchipanih, an excellent informant if one already knows a little of the Zuni language, for only his English is deficient and he does not hesitate in giving to his friends the most sacred religious terms, a Taos dictionary was worked over into the Zuni tongue, thus obtaining voluminous material for comparisons—and contrasts. The Zuni language is spoken, at pres- ent at least, in a single dialect, and by a population of some 1,600 individuals, nearly all of whom live in a single city as quaint and iso- lated as Lhasa, the old Tibetan capital. This city is called Ciwin’ah, and one of its inhabitants is called Ciwih (Ciw’a:tchih, dual; ‘A: ciwih, triplural ). The language is about as harsh and clear sounding as German; its alphabet consists of 35 letters, including the five well-known vowels, pronounced as in Spanish, varieties of stops with h after them and with simultaneous choking in the larynx as well as the ordinary Span- ish variety, k, n and ng inflected with y position as well as the ordinary kind, and a Welch Il, written by the Polish character of 1 with a swipe through it. Examples of the clean-sounding words of this language are Towayalanneh, name of the famous mesa to be seen south of Zuni; and H6’°n’a: wona: wil’onah, God, or better Fate, one of the religious words, literally Our Holder of the Trails. Although it was not neces- sary for phonetic exactness, this work was supported by the obtaining of several hundred kymographic tracings on sooted paper, which at least give the satisfaction of showing for instance that a sound heard as long had such or such a duration in units of the second. Some 13 187 188 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 164.—Mrs. Phoebe Maddux (ImkYanvan), my aged Karuk informant, with her grandchildren. (Photograph by J. P. Harrington.) Peet er Fic. 165.—La Brea, the mineral oil lake between San Juan and Gilroy, in which wild animals used to get mired and perish. Don José Mondragon, son- in-law of Dofia Ascension, shown standing by the tar pits. (Photograph by J. P. Harrington.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q30 189 of these tracings were assembled to form a Zuni alphabet, an album of the sounds’ own pictures. The work established what had long been suspected by me, that there is a definite but distant genetic connection between the Taos and Zuni forms of speech, and that this connection also extends to the language of Acoma and other Keresan dialects. Whether anything still Fic. 166.—Mrs. Fannie Orcutt, aged Karuk Indian, Salmon Billy’s younger sister, holding her white great-grandson. (Photograph by J. P. Harrington. ) more closely related to the Zuni will be discovered in the great field of American languages remains for the future to reveal. The phonetic systems of Taos and Zuni and many of the grammatical features are as much alike as children of the same family, and come from the same cradle of old Indian linguistic inheritance. On the Klamath River in northern California, in a wilderness of soapstone formation mountains overgrown with conifers and brush Igo SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION of a hundred species known to the Indians, I did further work with Imk’anvan (Mrs. Phoebe Maddux) on the customs of the Karuk people of the lower central section of the river, and especially with Mrs. Fannie Orcutt, younger sister of the famous Salmon Billy, the Indian who went around with Stephen Powers when he was collect- ing information for the Smithsonian in the early seventies of the past century, nearly 60 years ago. This sister of Billy’s is now more than 8o years old, and evidently possesses the knowledge that the deceased Billy had, and along certain lines doubtless more. Mrs. Orcutt was diligently interviewed along the lines of old family history and gossip and in the field of Indian ceremonial doings as well. She has in her possession several old relics, including a black flint blade, to which great importance was attached until I learned that one of her sons had made it and many others, some of which are doubtless now treasured by collectors and museums, with modern tools, whereupon my appreciation only increased at the uniqueness of the situation. Another unique situation in Mrs. Orcutt’s family is that this family typifies the great process which is everywhere going on of amalgama- tion of the Indian race into the white. Each successive generation is “twice as white’’ as the preceding, and Mrs. Orcutt requested that I take her picture holding her little great-grandson (fig. 166), amused at the situation that this normal appearing white child had her blood. Field-work attempting to rescue what can still be obtained from the wreck of former Indian custom and language at San Juan Bautista, in central California, not far south of San Francisco near the coast, was accomplished in the very nick of time, for I arrived while Dona Ascension Solorsano, last speaker of the language, was still alive, and although very ill, survived long enough to enable me to put on paper practically all that she knew about her people. In fact, Dona Ascension was the best person who could have been obtained as informant even several years ago, for she had the qualifications of a truthful heart, a vivid memory, and lifelong curiosity about Indian ways and things, many of which had passed out of use even before the lifetime of her mother. The peculiar amount of knowledge which survived in her was due to the fact that her father and mother talked the language together throughout their lives, each having lived more than 80 years. Dona Ascension lived with them practically all her life. Donia Ascension was known as a doctora or curandera of the sick, for she treated cases of all kinds during all the latter part of her life at her little home in Gilroy, near San Juan, which was known as her hospital. Indian and Spanish Californian herb remedies were largely employed, and from her and her old nurse, Dona Antonia Sanchez, SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 IgI Fic. 167.—San Juan Bautista Mission, taken from the “ Bajillo” or low- lands east of the Mission. The old Indian cemetery, overgrown with gigantic olive trees, where lies the body of Dona Ascension, is seen on the slope be- tween the Mission church and the plain. (Photograph by J. P. Harrington.) Fic. 168.—Early etching of San Juan Bautista Mission by Henry Chapman Ford, looking from the southwest. (Photograph by J. P. Harrington.) INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN (uojsuliey “gd “f Aq ydeas -OJOYq ) “UINI dy} JO JUOIF Ul Surpur}s st ‘uoIsUISY BUOCT jo Joqysneppuess ‘eiiaidy{ “[ eYeyY ssipy ‘worssipy uenf ueg jo jref 10 | ozoqeed,, plo ay,—oZr “DI (uoysurepy “gq “f Aq ydessojoyg) ‘aamyord ayy jo JoJU99 9Y} UT sdeds Patea]D ay} Je seM YURI IY J “syRad 9} FO UO SuIMOYsS ‘eUY JUS dp sOYyeoIg SO] 1B JoyJOU pue Joyzyey SuoIsusdsy euod Jo YURI sy .—69I “DIF ‘ SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 193 I obtained accounts of the treatment given for some 137 different dis- eases and ailments. These accounts were obtained, as was all the work done, in California Spanish text along with all the Indian that she could recall. The memory of the cures and kindnesses extended to Fic. 171.—‘* Abuhas”’ or needles, the divining rods, carried by members of Dona Ascension’s family when we went on our expeditions to visit various Indian places. Used for locating minerals and buried treasures. (Photograph by J. P. Harrington. ) the sick by this poor woman will long survive in the families of those who were benefited. Other material obtained consisted of Indian myths, Spanish tales, voluminous and unique material on early Indians and the lore and his- tory of the Mission, and accounts of artifacts made. A long list of plants with scientific identifications is closely related to the medicine 194 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION practices. An animal list, in the preparation of which I was assisted by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, who had also worked with the San Juan Indians, gives descriptions and lore about the animals as well as their names. Accounts of several mineral products were also obtained. Dofia Ascension survived long enough for me to do full duty to the recording of her information, and the material is at the present writ- ing practically ready for the printer with the exception of some sec- tions of the linguistic information. The information is of the great- est importance for understanding the ethnology of a section of Cali- fornia from which little has been recorded, for the history of San Juan Mission, and for putting on record the San Juan language and the Spanish language as spoken by San Juan Indians. INDIAN LANGUAGE STUDIES IN LOUISIANA By JOHN R. SWANTON, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology More languages were spoken within the boundaries of the present State of Louisiana when it was settled by the French than in any simi- lar area north of the Rio Grande and between the Rocky Mountains and the Atlantic. —The number was even increased at a later date by the entrance of several tribes from points east of the Mississippi. In consequence Louisiana has always been one of the most interesting regions in the eastern United States for students of American Indian languages. Systematic work was begun here by Dr. A. S. Gatschet of the Bureau of American Ethnology about 1880 and it has been con- tinued at intervals ever since. In 1907 the writer took up Dr. Gat- schet’s work and has visited the State a number of times, but until the introduction of the automobile it was difficult to reach all corners of it or to say positively how many speakers of the aboriginal tongues still survived. The past summer, however, through the kind coopera- tion of Miss Caroline Dormon, of Chestnut, Louisiana, a leader in movements for the conservation of the natural resources and antiqui- ties of this commonwealth, and her sister Mrs. Miller, who acted as chauffeur in the various expeditions which were undertaken, nearly all groups of Indians in that part of Louisiana west of the Missis- sippi of whom knowledge could be obtained were visited and accu- rate information was secured regarding the remaining ethnological possibilities of the section. ‘ The language of the Atakapa or “ man-eating Indians,” formerly spoken on the coast between Vermilion Bayou and Galveston, Texas, in two dialects, is absolutely extinct, except as the knowledge of a few words survives in the memory of one old woman at Sulphur. Chitimacha, which was in use by an interesting tribe about Grand Lake, is known to but three or possibly four individuals, most of whom live at Charenton, a picturesque old Creole town on Bayou Teche. Their cane basketry industry is the best that survives in the eastern part of our country, and its preservation was largely due to Mrs. Sidney Bradford of Avery Island, who induced the Indians to discard store dyes in favor of their old native colors derived from 195 196 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 172.—Basketry of Indians living at Charenton, a picturesque old Creole town on Bayou Teche, Louisiana. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I930 IQ7 black walnut and a species of dock (fig. 172). From Benjamin Paul, chief of this little band, small additions were made to the writer’s collection of folklore and native texts. Choctaw was formerly spoken by some small tribes along the Mis- sissippi and 1s still used by several scattered families, one of which was visited, but it is preserved by several thousand Indians in Oklahoma and Mississippi and is in no immediate danger of extinction. The Tunica, who have occupied a small reservation near Marksville for over a hundred years, may properly be regarded as Louisiana Indians since they hunted and boiled down salt in the northern part of the State from the earliest times of which we have any knowledge, though their towns were usually just beyond the Mississippi. Their reservation contains remnants of other tribes to which it furnished a haven of refuge from the advancing white settlements. Among these tribes were the Biloxi from the Gulf coast of Mississippi, and the Ofo or Ofogoula, a people associated historically with Yazoo River but traceable as far north and east as Cincinnati. With them were also descendants of the Avoyel (from whom the parish of Avoyelles re- ceives its name), the oldest known inhabitants of the country and said to be a branch of the famous Natchez Indians. The Avoyel tongue itself is extinct but the blood of the tribe is preserved in the veins of Earnest Pierrette (fig. 173) along with strains of Tunica and Biloxi. Since his wife was an Ofo woman, their daughters are descended from four tribes belonging to three distinct linguistic families. From the mother, Rosa Pierrette, the writer collected in 1908 a considerable vocabulary which showed its affinity with the Siouan linguistic family, including such well-known peoples as the Sioux, Osage, Omaha, and Crow. This fact also helped to identify the tribe with an ancient people formerly living in Ohio. When Rosa Pierrette died, about 15 years ago, the Ofo language died with her. The extinct Avoyel tongue was probably nearly like that of the Natchez still known to two or three Indians in Oklahoma. Earnest Pierrette himself is one of the few individuals who can still speak Tunica fluently. Another, Sesostrie Yauchicant (fig. 174), whose name his American neighbors have “shortened” to Sam Young, was for many years chief of the tribe, and he proved to be a splendid informant, possessed of the ability, rather rare among Indians, of dictating texts slowly in his own language. The stories in Tunica and English obtained from him, while for the most part short, are a valuable addition to our too limited knowledge of the tongue and traditions of these Indians. Fic. 173.—Earnest Pierrette, one of the few remaining speakers of the Tunica language, also descended from the Avoyel and Biloxi tribes. His wife, Rosa Pierrette, was the last who knew the Ofo tongue. (Photograph by Miss C. Dormon.) Raber Fic. 174.—Sesostrie Yauchicant or “Sam Young,” one of the last speakers of Tunica and the writer’s principal informant. (Photograph by Miss C. Dormon. ) 1908 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 199 When the two men just mentioned are gone, Tunica also will proba- bly go, but the speech of the Koasati who live near Kinder (fig. 175 will have a considerably longer lease of life since it is spoken by 60 or 70 individuals of both sexes. The writer worked about 10 days with Jackson Langley, chief of this group, collecting bits of information regarding the ancient life of his people, native texts, and a consid- erable vocabulary of the language. Although an interesting variety of speech, it is not so unique as either Chitimacha or Tunica, for it is Fic. 175.—A group of boys belonging to the Koasati Indian tribe. (Photograph by Miss C. Dormon.) a sister tongue to Alabama which is still used by about 200 Indians, and is also related to Choctaw and Creek. The Alabama and Koasati Indians both came from the State which bears the name of the former, and they are quite late intruders west of the Mississippi River. From the above narrative it is evident that the work of the ethnolo- gist in Louisiana is urgent, and that it must soon be replaced by that of the archeologist for whom the State may prove to be an even richer field. Near the Tunica reservation at Marksville is a group of mounds which was partially explored by Mr. Gerard Fowke for the Bureau 200 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION of American Ethnology some years ago, A few interesting pots were obtained at that time and the writer was able to add some fragments, picked up during his visit to the site. The whole northeastern por- tion of the State is dotted with mounds and other marks of aboriginal occupancy calling for systematic and extended examination. FIELD RESEARCHES AMONG THE SIX NATIONS OF THE IROQUOIS By J. N. BB. HEWITT, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology To resume his field researches among the tribal remnants of the famous Six Nations of the Iroquois, the writer left Washington May 8, 1930. The war of the American Revolution wrecked the solidarity of the famous League of the Iroquois, consequently the several tribes composing it became separated into a number of divisions which finally settled in various places—some on reserva- tions in the State of New York, others in Canada—so it is not strictly accurate to speak of the Six Nations of Canada or of New York State. Only portions of the Six Nations dwell in Canada on several reservations, while in the State of New York a remnant of the Onondaga tribe, the several sections of the Seneca, and the rem- nant of the Tuscarora of New York, reside, maintaining a dubious form of tribal organization, but not as coordinate units of the League of the Iroquois, for the Mohawk, the Oneida, and the Cayuga tribes no longer have a tribal organization in the State of New York. On the Grand River in Ontario, Canada, and elsewhere in Canada, other portions of the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Onondaga, the Seneca, the Cayuga, and the Tuscarora tribes are found. Those on the Grand River Grant occupy a reservation of about 56,000 acres, in large part of very fine agricultural land, and these tribes up to the year 1924 maintained a semblance of the old government of the League of the Iroquois. But the majority of the members of these Grand River tribes had become so indifferent to the institutions of the League—its institu- tions, its customs, and its laws, and regulations—that they were no longer able to maintain an efficient tribal organization for the estab- lishment of order and justice, and therefore much disorder and law- lessness resulted. These conditions finally became such that in 1924 the Canadian Government wisely abrogated the remaining semblance of the ancient government of the League of the Iroquois. By this legal change of status of these tribes the famous League of the Iro- quois came to an end on this reservation after enduring for 375 years. It was instituted by the statesmanship and the altruistic labors of 201 INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN ‘stonboiy ‘epeUrey ‘UONPAIISAY JIA pues eo0Uag BsnAe) ‘uosqiryy ApsiepY uyof—Z. ‘ stonbory ‘epeuey ‘UONPAIISAY JOA pues esnkey) ‘101UdS ‘ssaz{ qooef JorygQ— gZI 2) as | SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 203 Deganawida and Hiawatha for the purpose of establishing a state of peace and harmony among men which through the forms of law should cause the shedding of human blood to cease. The organic units of an Iroquoian tribe were the Ohwachira, the Clan, and the Phratry or Sisterhood of Clans; two or more Ohwachira formed a Clan; one or more Clans formed a Phratry or Sisterhood of Clans; and two Phratries or Sisterhoods of Clans constituted the tribe. The organic units of the League were Phratries of tribes; two Phra- tries of tribes constituted the League. The definition of these several Fig. 178.—Chief Simeon Gibson, World War Veteran, Cayuga Seneca Iroquois, Grand River Reservation, Canada. organic units have come down to us in general terms, although they should be specifically defined to give a full comprehension of their structure. This deeper study of these units was a part of the writer’s task this season. It is among these people that one still finds today the very few persons who retain a precarious hold on the fragmentary knowledge of the complex institutions of the League of the Iroquois. And because of the paucity and the dubiousness of this knowledge it is fast pass- ing out of the thinking of the native general public. 204. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Outside of translations of texts and the textual criticism of the records, the writer had several important problems to solve. Of these one was to determine the probable number of clans which functioned in the first session of the Federal Council of the League of the Iro- quois, and to obtain further information for a clearer definition and description of the Ohwachira and the Clan in Iroquoian polity. In regard to these matters there is much confusion in the literature. No little mental effort is required to appraise fully and correctly the dominant and fundamental character of the functions of the Oh- wachira—the uterine brood or family—in the organic structure of the tribal and the League organizations of the Iroquois peoples. It is most important to bear in mind that the Ohwachira which owned a male Federal Chiefship title was self-governing within the scope of its rights and obligations. One of its important rights was to select and install suitable executive officers, namely a Chieftainess who was the Trustee for the public property, the rights, and the obhi- gations, of the Ohwachira whose agent she was. She ranked as a peer of the male Federal Chieftains of the League, and was e.-officio a full member of the great Federal Council of the League, wherein she could sit at will. Like the male Federal Chieftains of the League she had assigned her by her own Ohwachira a male Chief Warrior who was her executive aide and spokesman in public assemblies and in the sessions of the Council of the League; she and he were chosen and installed in the identical manner in which the male Federal Chief- tains were. With the advice and consent of the members of her own Ohwachira, she was the official censor of the acts and the conduct of the male Federal Chieftain who represented her Ohwachira in the Federal Council of the League. And as spokeswoman for her Ohwachira she could with the active support of her Chief Warrior Aide depose said Federal Chieftain for just cause, but not before three admonitions had been made to him to reform and repent of his errors. She and her Chief Warrior Aide retained office only during good behavior. This Chieftainess was entrusted with the very important duty also of seeing that the Federal Chieftain of her Ohwachira had the loyal support of its members, and to see that his larder at all times had the provisions needful in receiving and in entertaining foreign official visitors. It was also her duty to appoint such other minor function- aries as civil and religious affairs demanded. One of the problems calling for explanation is the fact that certain clans, apart from the three stated to be common to all the tribes, had SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 205 Fic. 179.—A ferry-float across the Grand River on the Six Nations Indian Reserve; it is propelled by the hands turning a toothed wheel over which passes a chain fastened to the shore, at either end. ay . Fic. 180.—The Onondaga Mountain, situated about 8 miles south of Syracuse, New York; the Onondaga tribe received its name from this mountain. 206 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION no Federal representation in the Council of the League. Evidently they had vicarious representation in the officers of some sister clan. The Mohawk and the Oneida tribes had nine Federal Chiefships respectively, equally apportioned among the three clans. But it is found that the titles of Chiefship do not belong to the clan as a whole. Certain Ohwachira (or uterine broods or families) within the clan owned such titles, one such to every owning Ohwachira. It is a well-known fact to careful students of the tribes of the Iro- quois League and of cognate tribes that there is a perplexing dis- crepancy in the number and in the names of the clans assigned to these several tribes in the several lists found in the literature on the subject. In the Mourner’s Chant of Welcome in the Ritual of Con- dolence and Installation of the League, the Liturgy, after reciting a long list of towns assigned to the Wolf, the Turtle, and the Bear Clans, contains this brief statement: “‘ This was the number of the Clans in ancient times.” These three clans are the only ones found among the Mohawk and the Oneida tribes. The other tribes of the original League, the Onondaga, the Seneca, and the Cayuga, have these and five or six others. This fact is noteworthy since the Mohawk tribe belongs to the Male or Father tribal phratry, while the Oneida belongs to the Female or Mother tribal phratry. Thus, it seems probable that these three clans were the founding clans of the League and that therefore they were primordial. The researches of the writer among the scattered rem- nants of the Wyandot peoples disclose the remarkable fact that these peoples had a like organization of the three clans, the Wolf, the Turtle, and the Bear, each having three Ohwachira, and each Ohwachira pos- sessing a Chiefship title, thus making nine Chieftains for the three clans. The writer had the satisfaction also of demonstrating conclusively that the Chieftainesses of the several Ohwachira formerly bore of- ficial personal names which corresponded with those of the male Fed- eral Chieftains, like Tekari‘ho'ké™ and Hatyo™“hwa't‘ha. This sys- tem of names has long been lost to the teachers of the Iroquois peoples. Attention was also devoted to the methods of preparing wampum strings, for the purpose of determining whether the admixture of the white and the purple beads in varying proportions was in accordance with fixed rules. The writer was urged to do this because of the very contradictory meanings assigned to a large collection of such strings in his possession. StUDMmsS OF THE Chk VENNE, KICKAPOO, AND FOX By TRUMAN MICHELSON, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology The Cheyenne and Kickapoo tribes of Oklahoma and the Fox of Iowa formed the subjects of my field-studies during the summer of 1930. I left Washington for Oklahoma early in June, and first spent a week of intensive study of Cheyenne linguistics, general ethnology, and physical anthropology. The results of this may be briefly sum- marized as follows: The statement made by me in 1912 in the 28th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, that Cheyenne is a major group of the Algonquian stock, 1s valid. The thesis stated by Sapir (J. des Américanistes de Paris, 1923, p. 46, footnote 1) that Arapaho and Cheyenne should be grouped together in a single major division of the Algonquian stock, is untenable. The phonetic shifts of the two are too divergent, and their grammatical specializations too great to permit such a view. Owing to the complex phonetic shifts which exist, only a small percentage of the Cheyenne vocabulary thus far can be rigorously proved to be Algonquian, but it is always pos- sible that a larger percent actually is. Without a knowledge of the shifts who would suspect that Fox poni “ cessation,’ Arapaho tein (same meaning), and Cheyenne en (same meaning) all go back to the ‘ same archetype? So with discovery of more such shifts, more lexical material may fall in line. It may be added that I discovered some Algonquian grammatical traits hitherto unrecognized. The results of the work in physical anthropology are rather interesting. The cephalic index of 17 adult males averaged 82.55 which is rather higher than that given by Boas (Z. f. Ethnologie, 1895), namely, 80.3 (57 subjects being measured). I have nevertheless found out by calculation that the difference is one which may be entirely due to random sampling. The stature of 18 adult males, deducting 3.5 cm. for shoes, averages 170 cm. which is much lower than the average given by Boas. If, however, a veritable giant, whom I suspected of having a little white blood, had been included in my series, it would have raised the average. Also a couple who were found to have other Indian blood than Cheyenne, were excluded: had they been included, as both were taller than 170 cm., the average would have raised. The auricular 207 208 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 181.—Frank Shawata. A Fox Indian of Iowa. He is an important ceremonial leader. (Photograph by Michelson, 1930.) Fic. 182.—Jewelry makers. Fox Indians of Iowa. (Photograph by Michelson, 1930.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 209 bregmatic height of the head (Hrdlicka’s method), yielded but an average of 130 mm. for 15 adult males. However, one subject was distinctly very platycephalic; so this adversely affected the average, and it should be remembered the series is small. The width of face of 20 adult males averaged 148 mm., a pretty good guarantee that only fullbloods were measured. Work among the Kickapoo was confined largely to mythology and, to a lesser extent, social organization. The myths were obtained prac- Fic. 183—Two Mexican Kickapoos, Okla- homa. (Photograph by Michelson, 1930. ) tically exclusively in the current syllabic script which though deficient in phonetic niceties, is nevertheless very practical. And myths obtained in this manner from native informants are in much better literary style than those obtained by dictation. Most of the material published pre- viously by Jones (edited and translated by myself) was duplicated, and a large body of new material collected. As I have mentioned pre- viously (Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1929, p. 207), Kickapoo mythology is more northern than is Fox; this season’s work confirmed this. The portion of Kickapoo mythology 210 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION which is still practically terra incognita is the ritualistic origin myths. The conservative character of the Kickapoo is responsible for this. I even failed to obtain the tale of the death of the culture-hero’s younger brother. One informant admitted with obvious fear that he knew it, but not sufficiently well to narrate. It has become clear that among the Kickapoo of Oklahoma some gentes definitely belong to one of the tribal dual divisions, others to the other; and a few gentes are not strict. As descent is male, it follows that the tribal dual divi- sion does not divide each gens as it does among the Fox. The object of the trip among the Fox of Iowa was to restore one Fox text phonetically, and to obtain some new texts (in the current syllabic script ) on Fox ceremonials, in both which projects I was suc- cessful. Conditions are rapidly changing from when I first was among the Foxes in 1911. The fight against schooling was rampant at that time. Ceremonial life is still very active, but the younger generation are becoming sophisticated. Years ago this was not so, as the follow- ing anecdote will show. On one occasion during field-work several years ago, a young Indian man drove me to town. In the bank, where I had an errand, I happened to notice that the barometer read * cy- clone.” I hurried out, and, in spite of the protests of my Indian driver, insisted upon going out to my residence, explaining that there was going to be a big rain, although the sun was then shining brightly. We drove out, but had barely reached the outskirts of Tama when the sky became black, and a terrific storm was upon us. The worst was over when we reached my residence, so I took my packages, and started to go to the house. The Indian drove on, and then turned back and beckoned to me. “* Mike,” he said, “ how did you know it was going to rain?” I explained the workings of a barometer to him, but he looked at me incredulously, almost with awe. Had I told him that I had been blessed by the Thunder-birds, he would have under- stood and believed me. MONACAN SITES IN VIRGINIA BYSDAVID T BUSEIN EEE Wik: When the English colonists reached the shores of Virginia, early in the seventeenth century, they found the country occupied by several groups of tribes speaking different languages. [Extending westward from the coast to the falls were numerous villages of the Powhatan Confederacy. Beyond the falls, in the piedmont section of the pres- ent state, lived Siouan tribes constituting two or more distinct groups. Southward from the Potomac to the Rapidan were the Manahoacs ; adjoining them and claiming the country as far as the valley of the James were the Monacan tribes. In 1608 the latter occupied five large villages, and although only two of the ancient towns were visited by Europeans the names and locations of the remaining three were so clearly stated by Indians that it was possible to indicate them on a map prepared in 1612. The three villages which had been abandoned by the native inhabitants before the country was entered by European settlers, and consequently may never have been seen by the colonists, were Rassawek, which stood at the confluence of the Rivanna and James Rivers; Monahassanugh, on the left bank of the James just below the present town of Norwood, Nelson County ; and Monasuka- panough, on both banks of the Rivanna, a short distance above the Southern Railway bridge, in Albemarle County. The area, roughly triangular, bounded on two sides by the rivers and on the third by the foothills of the Blue Ridge, with the three native villages occupying the angles, was evidently a favorite hunt- ing ground as is shown by the vast number of arrowpoints scattered over the surface, as well as by traces of small camps often encountered in the vicinity of springs or on the banks of the smaller streams. Many sites have been examined by the writer during the past year and small collections of typical stone objects formed. In the southern part of the triangular area, a few miles from the left bank of the James, on both sides of the line between Albemarle and Nelson Counties, are exten- sive outcroppings of soapstone. Many pits, excavated by Indians, are easily discerned, and quantities of broken bowls and bits of stone left by the Indian artisan are scattered over the surface near the quarries. Settlers entered the region just two centuries ago. Few Indians remained. Game was abundant and even buffalo are known to have 14 21r SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION to rar to - as Fic. 185.—Old log cabin south of Hardware River. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 213 crossed the mountains from the westward. Log cabins soon occupied the sites where mat-covered lodges had stood a generation before, and roads soon followed the courses of the Indian trails through the dense forests. Now, after the lapse of many years, traces of the early days may often be found in secluded spots. Deserted cabins are frequently encountered near old clearings, in some instances believed to be ‘“ Tndian fields,’ and sunken graves may usually be discovered near-by. It is a region of much natural beauty, and beyond the valley of the Rockfish the Blue Ridge attains an elevation of more than 3,500 feet above sea level. Fra. 186.—A road in the Blue Ridge. The most extensive site examined stands on the banks of the Rivanna, believed to have been the village of Monasukapanough of the Saponi and deserted by that tribe some time after 1608 and before 1670. It is a beautiful situation for a native village, divided by the Rivanna and protected by encircling hills at the foot of which are many large flowing springs. Corn was probably raised on part of the low grounds where it is now grown by the present occupants of the land. Numerous stone implements have been discovered on the sur- face and quantities of pottery, broken into small bits by the plow dur- ing the past years, have been recovered. No objects of European origin 214 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 187—Eastern portion of the site of Monasakapanough. The Rivanna visible between trees on right. Fic. 188.—Hardware River, east of Red Hill. Site of iron furnace built in 1781. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 2 Fic. 189—Arrowheads, etc., found on the surface about midway between the sites of the two great native villages. These are made of white quartz. The great majority are made of quartz and quartzite, a small proportion are made of chert, jasper, and argilite. Two-thirds natural size. on 216 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION have been found on the site, and nothing has been discovered to sug- gest that the inhabitants of the village had come in contact with the English settlements far eastward. Many of the implements recovered from the site are crudely made, rough but serviceable, and are be- lieved to represent the last of the stone age in this part of Virginia. The small fragments of pottery vary greatly in texture, finish, and decoration, but better examples may be secured later. The large burial mound, examined and described by Jefferson soon after the Revolu- tion, belonged to this village and stood near the right bank of the Rivanna. Smaller sites which evidently belonged to the same people have been discovered on the banks of the Rivanna both above and below the great village. Material recovered from the village site on the James, believed to have been occupied by the Tutelo, and desig- nated Monahassanugh on the early map, resembles that found on the Rivanna site. However there is a noticeable difference between this and the objects encountered on the surface in many localities between the sites of the two great native villages. The real significance of this variation is not known; whether all should be attributed to the same people has not yet been determined. This and other questions may be solved during the coming season as work, now planned. progresses. MUSIC{OF LHE WINNEBAGO, CHIPPEWA, AND PUEBLO INDIANS By FRANCES DENSMORE, Collaborator, Bureau of American Ethnology In continuance of the writer’s study of Indian music for the Bureau of American Ethnology, three field trips were made during the past year. The work has comprised further study of Winnebago and Chip- pewa music and the recording of songs by Pueblo Indians who were connected with a pageant at Kilbourn, Wisconsin. The first field trip was made in June, 1930, to the Winnebago living near Tomah and Pittsville, Wisconsin, songs being recorded in both localities. John Smoke (fig. 190) was the Indian selected near Tomah, and he had as his guest Paul Decora, a Winnebago of Ne- braska who also recorded songs. Smoke, whose Winnebago name means “ Standing in the day,” is the possessor of a water-spirit bundle, inherited from many previous generations. He permitted the writer to see this bundle, removing the outer wrapping of deer hide and reveal- ing a bag, or packet, of soft matting filled with medicines, several small packets of herbs, and a short flute. In the spring he gives a feast at which this is the only bundle opened, and sometimes he takes it to the Winter Feast of Bundles, when the contents of many bundles are exposed to view. He believes that by the proper use of this bundle he is free from calamity and his wants are gratified. The songs belonging to the bundle and sung to make it effective are 18 in number, six being sung while a feast is cooking and 12 during the dance which follows the feast. He recorded songs of both classes. The other songs recorded at his house were those of the green corn dance, friendship, war, “ fortynine”’ and squaw dances, the moccasin game and hand game, love songs, and a lullaby which was recorded by Mrs. John Smoke. Two flute melodies were recorded by Frisk Cloud who said that “love songs are words put to flute melodies.’ Frisk Cloud is a maker of flutes and described his system of measurements in terms of fingerwidths; he also transferred to the writer the flute on which he had been playing. It is made of iron pipe, is 234 inches long and has six finger holes. George Monegar, living near Pittsville, also recorded a flute melody, using a flute made of brass pipe. The legendary origin of the Winne- bago flute was described by this informant who said that a young man 217 218 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 191.— Winnebago women dancing the wild goose dance, commonly called the swan dance. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1930 219 Fic. 194.--Mr. and Mrs. Tom Thunder, Winnebago. 220 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION in a fasting dream saw a man walking through the air, travelling toward the west and playing on a wooden flute. He instructed the boy in making the first flute known to the Winnebago. Numerous songs were recorded by Monegar who is considered an authority on the Winnebago of Wisconsin. A fine specimen of a wooden flute was obtained later in the season. In July the writer went to the Grand Portage reservation in Minne- sota to attend the dancing at a Fourth of July celebration. This locality was visited in 1905 in connection with the early study of Chippewa music, so a return to the place was particularly interesting. Grand Portage (figs. 192 and 193) is on the north shore of Lake Superior, near the Canadian boundary. It is the site of the oldest settlement of white men in Minnesota and was a trading post of the Northwest Company in 1780. Today it is an isolated village of about 20 Chippewa families, descendants of the old inhabitants who retain many of the old customs. Among the dances seen in 1930 was a war dance that could be danced only by men who had dreamed of a grizzly bear. Such dances imitated the actions of a bear before going to war. The dream and this dance were said to have been so strong a protection that the arrows of the enemy could pass through a man’s body without injuring him. A wabunowin (east god dance) was held on July 5 and the writer was invited. The dance was held in a long Medicine lodge, and a little windmill was whirling on a post at the east entrance. This was placed to summon the east wind which, it was said, always came and made its presence known in this manner. Those who have dreamed of the east god are believed to have particularly strong “‘ medicine ” and this dance was believed to benefit a certain sick man. The dance was in charge of Edward Ely Burntside (Sun climbing the sky), a medicine man reputed to have great power, who afterward sang four of his wabuno songs for the writer. The melodies were similar to the songs of the Chippewa and Menominee Medicine Lodge. The words were concerning the wahbuno spirit who gave medicine to cure the sick, and the words of the first song of the set were translated as follows : On the north shore of Lake Superior, Seashells around my neck. The cliffs are where I get my medicine. More than two wecks later, at the same place, the shaking of a jug- eler’s tipi was seen. This performance is very rare at the present time and was given by Edward Ely Burntside to ascertain whether his treatment of a certain sick man would be successful. In a subsequent SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 19 5 ) O i bd ies a * bo bo vergreen Tree, a singer from Cochiti. E IG. 196. 4 | Lucero, a singer from Isleta. .—Anthony I 6 Pe) Fic. 19 222 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION conversation he said that if the spirits whom he summoned into his tipi “* spoke loud and clear” he knew the sick man would recover, but if their voices were faint the man would die. The response at this time was said to have been satisfactory. The writer, remaining at a reasonable distance, watched the shaking of the tipi and listened to the juggler’s songs for almost an hour. The singing and drumming was similar to that of the Chippewa Grand Medicine (Muidewiwin). Although the evening was without a breeze, the tipi (a tall, slender structure) swayed back and forth with the regularity of a pendu- lum, its top describing a wide arc, then it stood still for a few moments and then was shaken convulsively, the cloth cover flapping as though in a tempest. This was repeated over and over. Burnt- side said that he was securely tied with thongs when he was put in the tipi and freed himself from these cords. The writer was allowed to inspect the hoops and poles of this tipi a few days later. The holes in the ground were more than a foot deep and their edges did not show the crumbling that would inevitably have resulted if the framework of the tipi had been shaken as violently as it appeared to be shaken during the juggler’s performance. Numerous cords were attached to the hoops and it appears possible that these cords could have been manipulated in such a manner as to produce a motion of the cloth cover without disturbing the framework of the tipi. This trick of Indian medicine men has, however, remained without a satisfactory explanation for many years. The purpose of this demonstration was to cure a man said to be suffering from typhoid fever. A ‘“ beneficial dance’ was held at his house the next day and attended by the writer. The dance was in a long Medicine lodge, and the dancing and songs were like those of the Midewiwin. About a week later the man was said to be recovering. The study of Indian music was resumed in August at Kilbourn, Wisconsin. Two pageants are given simultaneously at the Dalles of the Wisconsin River, each employing about 100 Indians from many tribes. While the Winnebago were the chief interest, songs were recorded by two Pueblo Indians, Pawi’tla of Isleta, known as Anthony Lucero (fig. 195), and Hatcu’ke of Cochiti, known as Evergreen Tree (fig. 196). The Pueblo songs thus obtained were more than 30 in number, including songs of war, hunting, corn grinding, and various dances, with detailed descriptions of their use. On arriving at Kilbourn the writer learned that Mrs. Tom Thunder, a Winnebago, had died during the previous night. Mrs. Thunder and her husband (fig. 194) were photographed in 1927 when he recorded songs at Hunter’s Bridge. The writer went at once to Thunder's tent ‘IgQuep OSeqouul \\ B ‘ropuny yy, Aquap] ‘say —'gOI “DIT "eYSeAGIN JO AopIVD wes—ZOr “91 et N *g 4 sex + XPLORATIONS, 1930 ,) J SMITHSONIAN 224 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION and found him with blackened face, after the manner of his people when in grief. The burial of his wife was according to the ways of the white man but the native custom of four feasts was observed. There was no singing until the fourth night when the spirit of the dead was believed to start on its journey. During the four days that followed Mrs. Thunder’s death her cooking fire was kept burning in her wig- wam and it was with charcoal from this fire that her husband black- ened his face. The gathering on the fourth night was attended by the writer, who remained until midnight. The later events were described by Sam Carley (fig. 197), brother of Jasper Blowsnake, and a leader in the native rites. He said that a feast was served, and after the people were seated Andrew Black Hawk, a relative, talked to the spirit of Mrs. Thunder. He told her that she would follow a trail to a wigwam (rep- resenting the earth) where she would find an old woman (our earth mother). This woman would say “ You are going to leave your earth mother and begin a spirit life.’ Then the old woman would tell of a blazing thicket, an enemy who would spit upon her, and finally a great darkness beyond which she would find her deceased relatives and be welcomed to the spirit village. She was told to go bravely through these difficulties. It is the belief of the Winnebago that the spirit of a slain enemy is at the command of its conqueror and at this feast four Winnebago who had served in the United States Army during the World War commanded the spirits of their slain enemies to attend the spirit of Mrs. Tom Thunder on its journey, to assist it in every way and provide warmth, food, and light for it at night. As the edge of the sun appeared above the horizon the women began to play the bowl-and-dice game, given to Indian women by the spirit women in the eastern sky. While they were playing, the spirit of Mrs. Thunder went away. The next morning her cooking fire bad been obliterated, the cover was gone from her wigwam, and someone was swinging a baby in a little hammock, suspended from the framework of the wigwam. Two songs of the fourth-night feast for the dead were recorded, as well as songs of the Winnebago Medicine Lodge, the buffalo feast, and the night-spirit bundle. Among the songs of games and dances were those of the fish dance and the wild goose, commonly known as the swan dance. The latter is danced by women and was witnessed at Stand Rock (fig. 191). Mrs. Henry Thunder (fig. 198) is fre- quently a leader in this dance, taking the position at the point of its wedge formation. Re ee re fs az - “3 : * ~ oe te" ee ps ze: { ; 4 | “SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1931 (PUBLICATION 3134) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1932 4 . ' * . is it ‘ =) 5 . f 4 ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 6 ' A ; , Ae . *. . SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 193] Yr. ow aur ITV JAINGTO (PUBLICATION 3134) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1932 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. S& A. PREFACE The present pamphlet contains preliminary illustrated accounts of the year’s field expeditions of the Institution and certain of its branches, namely, the National Museum, Bureau of American Eth- nology, Astrophysical Observatory, and National Zoological Park. The full results of this field-work will be published later in the vari- ous series issued by the Institution. In the branches of science that constitute the main activity of the Smithsonian Institution—geology, biology, anthropology, and astro- physics, field-work is essential in the collection of specimens and in- formation needed in the researches under way. Many of these expedi- tions perforce visit little-known regions of the earth, and it is the hope that the reader will find in these brief accounts some of the interest of scientific exploration. WP. TRUE, Editor, Smithsonian Institution. CONTENTS IND bot Cal Goalie sseanch mom anew solan obsenvatonya Sites. eosin I Aldrich, J. M. Collecting flies in the Gaspé Peninsula of eastern Quebec... 83 Bartsch, Paul. Mollusk explorations in the Florida Keys................ 73 Bassler, R. S. Studying fossils in England, Austria, and Hungary......... 5 Boss, Norman H. Explorations for fossil horses in Idaho................ AI Collins, Henry B. Archeological investigations in northern Alaska....... 103 Cooper, G. Arthur. Dry-dredging in eastern central New York........... 19 Densmore whirancesmulNccondines lncdianemtislGaeeie: eal oem sae eerie 183 Foshag, W. F. Further mineral collecting in Mexico..................... 33 Gilmore, Charles W. Fossil hunting in Montana and Wyoming............ 13 Hewitt, J. N. B. Field studies among the Iroquois tribes................. 175 Hindlickawelesy Anthropological awonk im Alaskaly assem oe aac: gI hrc iene ieee shintinembasketsmnmeAudz Once erro eeiieicicetieeie ceticitts 125 Kirevers erbert awe, Culture sequences) im Elattt.......-6..-.000-4.- 00a 113 Mann, W. M. Collecting live animals in British Guiana.................. 55 Michelson, Truman. Anthropological studies in Oklahoma, Iowa, and INAtorater aa MA epee tens vrcittri te yrnieires ste stetessuceaie =, eeitonars sci els Ons lela Ska a(S elsectapete Parana ne 179 Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Collecting in the caves and kitchenmiddens of Jamaica. 65 Resseru Gharlesmalmers Geolocicallstudies: imiunopes--e 5 scree eee ae ene 23 Roberts, Frank H. H., Jr. An important archeological site in eastern PNG UZ OLA Ree eee Me rca stores eared reac tN AT USPS ci con vonit uke a oenehtoces So Mona rook I41 Sailer, lBiramlk IMI, VA jpreanguere Gaye iim IESG. cogeuascouncvogccbenueuer 133 Strong, William Duncan. An archeological reconnaissance in the Missouri NEU UREN oes Baar in ites 8 Cio ORTON REG HEMET CDCR: Cl IGEN ORE TERE PE MER ed ROE SES PERE BS nc I51 Swallen, J. R. Collecting grasses in Texas, Louisiana, and northeastern IMMIGSESICGT iy clatdostcaag at ica cn ee DIRE 0 cro oie oe es nea eC Esa taro a eye 8&7 NVialkeraWinsloweNiqedbne: cavecultunesot Ankansase na. eee seemcee eee 159 Walker, Winslow M. A reconnaissance of northern Louisiana mounds.... 160 ‘Wetmore, Alexander. Rain forest and desert in Hispaniola................ 45 Mi SEAKCEH POR ANEW SOLAR OBSERVATORY SITE By C..G, ABBOT Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory The sun’s radiation varies in a combination of five regular periods. Such is the harmonious result of exact independent observations made at three stations in California, Chile, and South West Africa. There are strong indications that these solar variations affect temperature conditions all over the world. At present the results of the Chilean station are far better than those of the other two, owing to the excep- tional clearness and steadiness of sky conditions there. A friend of the Institution became strongly impressed with this ap- parent correlation between solar variation and weather. He believed that before long the Observatory would be called on to furnish solar- radiation values of highest accuracy on every day of the year, for the use of official weather bureaus of all countries. He therefore made a grant of $28,000 to enable the Institution to keep a trained observer, A. F. Moore, in the field for a whole year, testing high altitude desert stations and seeking to find another in the Old World as favorable as Montezuma, Chile. It was hoped that such a station could be found where observations of Montezuma on many days could be duplicated, and many days lost by clouds at Montezuma could be filled in by ob- servations under fine sky elsewhere. Mr. and Mrs. Moore visited Fogo Island in the Cape Verde group, and made daily observations on a high peak there for over a month. Though generally cloudless, this mountain proved to be surmounted by a very high thick blanket of haze nearly all the time, which seems to arise in the Desert of Sahara. Disappointed here, Mr. and Mrs. Moore went on to South West Africa, where they occupied Mounts Lord, Erongo, Gansberg, Grosskopf, and attempted the Brandberg unsuc- cessfully. Some of these stations were occupied for several weeks on two separate occasions, and their skies were compared with those of Mount Brukkaros where regular observations were going on. Although some of these South West African peaks proved a little superior to Brukkaros, they lacked much of the excellency of Montezuma. Funds for continuation of Mount Brukkaros station being now nearly exhausted, and no station of much better character being found I bo SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 1.—Bearers carrying Mr. Moore’s outfit on Fogo Island. How would you like to carry a box like these on your head for 20 miles for $1.50? Fic 2—The main volcanic cone of Fogo Island; huge lava flow in the fore- ground. The cone rises about 3,000 feet above the floor of the outer crater. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 3 Fic. 3——Camp and observatory of Mr. Moore at Fogo. From left to right Mr. Moore, his assistant, and Mrs. Moore. The principal instrument for measuring atmospheric humidity, brightness of the sky, and intensity of solar radiation in the background. Fic. 4.—Thke new instrument at Fogo. Close-up view of Mr. Moore with the combination instrument for measuring atmospheric humidity, brightness of the sky, and intensity of solar radiation. 4 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION near it, Brukkaros was closed in November, 1931, and its outfit shipped to Washington. Mr. and Mrs. Moore and Mr. and Mrs. Sordahl have gone on to Egypt, where a test of Mount Saint Catherine, near Mount Sinai, is to be made. Meanwhile regular solar-radiation measurements are being con- tinued at Montezuma, Chile, and Table Mountain, Calif. Fic. 5.——Mr. Moore’s observations in South West Africa. West Gansberg taken from eastern part of peak. This mountain is about 7,600 feet high. The writer, after attending as delegate the Faraday and Maxwell celebrations in England September 21 to October 2, 1931, and address- ing the hundredth anniversary meeting of the British Association, compared instruments at Potsdam. Twenty years ago the Smithsonian Institution furnished to the Meteorological Observatory at Potsdam one Abbot silver-disk pyrheliometer, standardized to the Smithsonian scale for measuring solar radiation. Comparisons made in October, 1931, show no change above one-tenth of one per cent in the scale of this instrument after 20 years of use. STUDYING, FOSSIES IN ENGLAND, AUSTRIA, AND HUNGARY By R. S. BASSLER Head Curator, Department of Geology, U. S. National Museum The circumstances attending the acquisition by the Institution of the remarkable Frank Springer collection of fossil echinoderms, as well as Doctor Springer’s plans for its study and increase, were set forth in the Explorations Report for 1929." Here also I reported how in fulfillment of his wishes I spent my field season of 1929 in Europe in obtaining new material and especially in preparing casts of unique type specimens in the Barrande collection at Prague, Bo- hemia. It was here noted that time was available for collecting only in France and Germany, leaving other equally interesting areas for future investigation. Much effort has since been spent in the prepa- ration and installation in the study series and the exhibition series of fossils resulting from that summer’s work. One of the results, a slab of limestone about 4 feet in length, ob- tained from the Mesozoic (Triassic) limestone of Germany in co- operation with the Geological Institute of the University of Halle, originally showed upon its surfaces only a few calices of crinoids, or so-called sea-lilies. Preparation in the National Museum’s laboratory by carefully chiseling away the surrounding rock has revealed no less than 30 complete bodies and a multitude of columns, many preserv- ing their bases. Although not a result of the present field season’s work, this slab is of such interest as an exhibit and also as evidence of tangible results in building up the Springer collection that a photo- graph of it is here introduced (fig. 6). This illustration does not do the subject justice, as the solid, slightly expanded bases of the crinoid, the long columns composed of many buttonlike segments with a body or calyx several inches in length are unusually well preserved in the rock and still possess a reddish tint, possibly as in life, which causes the fossil remains to stand out sharply on the creamy white back- ground of the limestone. Opportunity for continuing field-work abroad was afforded the past summer when in the interests of the Springer collection I was detailed to study in various European museums, particularly of Eng- "Explorations and Field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1929, p. 9, 1930. 5 0 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION (Photograph by G. I. Hightower. ) sermany. natural size) from the Triassic limestones of ( 1 6 Portion of crinoid slab ( 6.— Eines SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I93I 7. land, Austria, and Hungary, and to collect in certain of their classic geologic areas. Doctor Springer’s last work, “ American Silurian Crinoids,” a quarto volume published by the Smithsonian Institution shortly be- fore his death, monographed the very complete series of these fossils in his collection, but some of the rare species found in Great Britain where the Silurian strata are typically developed were lacking. To remedy this I spent a week at the British Museum of Natural History in studying the collections and preparing casts of many of the fine fossil crinoids assembled by Dr. F. A. Bather, Europe’s leading student of these forms. A great similarity of the fossil crinoids in certain formations of the English and American Silurian has given rise to interesting problems of intercontinental correlation of these strata, so that complete suites of fossils of both areas are necessary for future studies. Incidental to the work for the development of the Springer collection arrange- ments were made with the authorities of the British Museum for a mutual exchange of recent and fossil bryozoans and also for obtaining samples of deep-sea dredgings resulting from the Challenger and other exploring expeditions of many years ago. These dredgings will furnish the National Museum with rather complete sets of Ostracoda and Foraminifera described long since and now much needed in the pursuit of micropaleontology by American students. While in Eng- land opportunity was also taken to gain an idea of the Tertiary de- posits of the London Basin and to study the Chalk cliffs along the southeastern coast. In each case samples of the different strata con- taining microfossils were secured for future study. After a few days at Versailles, France, spent mainly with Dr. F. Canu in collaboration upon our next joint work (the Tertiary Bryozoa of Australia) I proceeded to Salzburg, Austria, stopping at Zurich and Innsbruck for short periods to get an idea of Alpine structure. Near Salzburg I had the pleasure of meeting two valuable correspon- dents of the Smithsonian, Dr. Othenio Abel and Dr. Curt Ehrenberg of the Paleontological and Paleobiological Institute of the University of Vienna who have their summer home at Mondsee, a glacial lake in the Salzkammergut region. Again one of the rare clear days of the season occurred and through Doctor Abel’s kindness I obtained an excellent impression of the Salzkammergut, an area of ancient salt mines in the Austrian Alps, interesting in history as well as in geological structure. Part of the day was spent upon Mondsee itself, in which interesting environment arrangements were made for future interchanges of needed collections. 8 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The next objective was the Vienna Basin and Hungarian Plain for the purpose of securing echinoderm fossils and washings, with micro- fossils from the various Tertiary formations of these classic areas. It should be explained at this point that in Europe there are various basinlike areas which were flooded by the sea during the era pre- ceding the present and that these preserve rather complete records of the life of the time, particularly of the microscopic organisms that abounded in the sea then as now. These basins, now uplifted often high above the sea, are usually occupied by large rivers on whose fer- tile flood plains people have settled in great number. Accordingly we have these basins named after large cities such as London, Paris, and Vienna, each of which has become a center for geologic research. In the United States these same marine Tertiary rocks were depos- ited along the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains and the Pacific Coast. In the last two areas these rocks are the source of economically im- portant products such as oil and gas, in locating which it is necessary to have a knowledge of the microscopic fossils found in the strata. Such fossils from the various European basins have been described in great detail but in most cases these accounts published years ago are accompanied by such diagrammatic drawings that in the refinement necessary in present day work it is usually impossible to recognize these European species from their illustrations. Collections from the type localities must therefore be obtained and studied before accurate work can be done upon the corresponding American fossils. Such collections are now being assembled in the National Museum as a result of trips like the present one and are being rapidly studied by specialists so that within a short time the National collections can be employed in the accurate study of the American species. The study of the geology of the Vienna Basin and Hungarian Plain is greatly facilitated by the use of the steam-boats of the Danube Steamship Company. Boarding the boat at Linz, Austria, for Vienna we pass first through beautiful meadow lands and then mountain scenes with granite outcrops as the river skirts the edge of the Bohemian massif of igneous rocks to the north. The Danube now narrows and we are passing the rocky region of the Struden or Swirls, once a dangerous passageway for the navigator and now an area with ruined castles and churches on either side as in the Rhine Gorge and equally rich in legend. Soon in the distance high up on the rocks are seen the towers of the ancient monastery of Melk, a medieval town well known as the site of the Niebelungenlied. Before reaching Melk however the Ruin Whitenegg on the ridge contrasts strongly with the modern SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 9 houses and the ship station at its base (fig. 7). Viewed against a set- ting sun such ruins display to the fullest extent their interest and charm (fig. 8). From Melk to Krems the Danube flows in a gorge through the Wachau, a mountainous region of cool forests, imposing ruins, bright green vineyards and quaint villages to attract the artist and many rock outcrops to interest the geologist. We are now in the foothills of the Alps and range after range of mountains appear. Fic. 7—Ruin Whitenegg along the Danube. (Photograph by Bassler.) The first ridge is guarded by Schloss Schonbohel, an ancient strong- hold. Ruin after ruin now comes to view and everywhere the mountain slopes are terraced for grape culture. On a steep height is the castle Durnheim where once Blondel found his imprisoned King—Richard. the Lionhearted—and where now the village at its base is the center of the celebrated wine industry (fig. 9). At Krems the Wachau is left and broad stream valleys and willow- tufted plains now prevail. Tulln, an old Roman settlement, celebrated for the great festivals of the Niebelungen, is soon passed and shortly the Wienerwald, the Vienna Woods of Song, comes into view ; then Ss? Vienna the beautiful city of music and art. IO SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 8.—Sunset on the Danube. (Photograph by Donau Dampfschiffahrts Gesellschaft. ) Fic. 9.—Diirnheim on the Danube. (Photograph by Donau Dampfschiffahrts Gesellschaft. ) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 II Fic. 10—View from Royal Castle in Buda overlooking Pest on the Hun- garian Plain. (Photograph by Magyar Rotophot.) i h4 Me MEW: (Ree Re a Ne ee os Fic. 11.—Buda by night. (Photograph by Magyar Rotophot.) to I2 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Much could be written of Vienna as a scientific center but it must suffice here to state that it is a paradise for the geologist. Neighbor- ing localities are classic ground for the paleontologist, the nearby Alps afford many problems of structural and stratigraphical geology, and the museums along the Ringstrasse give the student every opportunity for study and research. Here I spent a week most pleasantly and profitably in the field and in the several natural history museums. Wonderful exhibits of rocks, minerals, and fossils have been installed in the Natural History Museum under the direction of Dr. F. X, Schaffer and supplementing these in the Paleontological and Paleo- biological Institute of the University of Vienna, Doctor Abel and his assistants have built up most interesting series of fossils illustrating the relation of the life of the past to its environment. The trip to Budapest is likewise made most pleasantly by means of the Danube boats. For miles the scenery is charming, especially in the region of the Bakony Forest and the Little Carpathians. Then the Danube takes a southern course and approaching Budapest after dusk one can see the brightly illuminated Coronation church and other pub- lic buildings an hour or more before they are reached. Approached thus after dark, Budapest presents an enchanting spectacle, but equally delightful is its charm in the day time, for quiet Buda with its Royal Castle, Coronation church, and other ancient artistic monuments lo- cated on the slope of the Buda Mountains is in great contrast with Pest, a modern business metropolis on the other side of the Danube. Several days were spent at Budapest where a study of its museums and the local geology of the Hungarian Plain was made, but no field collections were possible because language difficulties prevented finding the localities. However, through friends made at this time it will be possible to obtain valuable material later on. Returning to Paris in order to take the boat at Cherbourg, short stops were made at Vienna and Munich, particularly to study the new developments in natural history museums. The cold, rainy condition in Europe made field-work, especially in the clays of the London and Vienna basins, somewhat difficult, but, nevertheless, I feel the time was profitably spent, for considerable collections from various classic localities were obtained. The work in the various museums, however, was very successful, with the re- sult that many casts of type fossil echinoderms and _ particularly Silurian crinoids hitherto wanting in the Springer collection have been obtained. FOSSIL HUNTING IN MONTANA AND WYOMING By CHARLES W. GILMORE Curator, Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, U. S. National Museum Exploration of the Miocene and Oligocene formations of south- western Montana was planned for the season of 1931, in an effort to fill existing gaps in the fossil vertebrate collections of the National Museum. Leaving Washington on June 1, I first visited Trinidad, Colo., to investigate a discovery brought to our attention by George Heap of that city. A week spent here resulted in the recovery of a large marine turtle from the Pierre formation. Turtles are rarely found in this formation, and since this large swimming turtle (Archelon) was previously unrepresented in our collection it is a welcome addition. Following this, I joined my party at Belgrade, Mont., on the eve- ning of June 11, where camp had been established and work begun by George I. Sternberg and M. V. Walker, engaged as field assis- tants prior to my leaving Washington. A week’s work on their part in the Miocene exposures paralleling the Madison River for some miles along its lower course had produced meager results and it re- quired but a short time to convince me that to continue exploration in the Madison formation of this region was but a waste of time and effort. Collecting conditions were rendered difficult by the vegeta- tion which covered the exposed slopes and the fact that bands of sheep had recently grazed over the area. Some desirable material new to the collections was found, but not sufficient to justify the expense and labor involved. Unlike many fossil fields where a party of three men may spend an entire season in one locality without covering all of the ground, the Tertiary of this part of Montana consists for the most part of small, scattered patches of exposures. Consequently from June 13 until the latter part of the month we were almost constantly on the move. Under the guidance of C. A. Kinsey, of Belgrade, a corre- spondent of the Museum who is familiar with the fossil beds of this part of Montana, we visited the famous Pipestone Creek locality near Pipestone Springs. The formation here, named for the creek, 1s of Oligocene age and consists of a few outcropping exposures along the 13 INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN 14 (‘Aosury “Vy ‘Dd Aq ydessojoyg) ‘sodojs pspnusp ssoyy WOIJ Po}d9[JOD oJOM suSUTIDds AuR]Y “‘JUOTY ‘ssulidg suojsadig Ivou ‘UOMeUIIOY Yoo 9u0Jsodiq JO soinsodxs puer[peq—I ‘oIyy SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 15 base of the foothills (fig. 12). In fact, so much has been written of this formation and its fossils that the literature is all out of propor- tion to the extent of the collecting ground, which consists of only a few widely scattered acres. Although Mr. Kinsey and his associates had collected in this lo- cality the previous year, we were well repaid for the two days spent here. More than 150 tooth-filled jaws of extinct rabbits, rodents, insectivores, and lizards of the microfauna, a complete turtle shell, and parts of two Mesohippus skulls rewarded our efforts. Fic. 13.—Collecting a skeleton of a large merycoidodont from the Miocene, near Canon Ferry, Mont. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) Having prospected all available ground, we next investigated an outcropping of Oligocene exposure along the Big Hole River near Glenn Station some 80 or go miles southwest of Pipestone Springs. According to information furnished by an old collector, important specimens from this locality had been obtained years ago by Earl Douglass. Again, however, we were disappointed not only by the scarcity of fossils but also by the small extent of available collecting ground. On June 17 we arrived at Canon Ferry, a locality on the head- waters of the Missouri River that in years past has yielded important 10 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Miocene and Oligocene fossils. In the few days spent here we secured a small but interesting collection especially rich in the larger merycoi- dodonts, of which several skulls and a considerable part of the skele- ton of one individual were found (fig. 13). Having collected in all outcrops in the vicinity of Canon Ferry we next moved to White Sulphur Springs, where the Deep River formation of Miocene age was explored. In fossil collecting, ground devoid of vegetation and débris always offers the best opportunity, for in such areas the occurrence of specimens can be more easily detected. Of the several miles of escarpment of the Deep River for- mation along Smith River it is only here and there that ground is thus denuded, and although specimens are fairly abundant, our work was again hampered by the small size of the outcrops. A considerable number of desirable specimens were obtained, but so much time was spent in traveling from one area to another that with the completion of this work we decided to abandon further collecting in the Tertiary of Montana. The material assembled at Belgrade was boxed and shipped, and upon receiving authorization to transfer our activities to the Wasatch formation for the remaining part of the season, we started for Basin, Wyo., some 300 miles distant, on June 27. Basin, the county seat of 3ig Horn County, is a small town on the eastern edge of the badland country in which we proposed to work. The Big Horn Basin has long been known as a rich field for the remains of Eocene vertebrates, and as the Wasatch badlands cover an area approximately 60 miles long and 40 miles wide, our worries in regard to restricted collecting grounds were over for the season. The term ‘ basin” as applied to many of these Tertiary fields is a low, central area, the sides of which just what the name signifies are formed by mountain ranges. The central part has been filled with stratified layers of rocks, and it is in these layers that the fossil bones occur. In the case of the Big Horn Basin, the deposits are made up of materials derived chiefly from the erosion of the sur- rounding heights. Acting upon the recommendation of William A. Stein, an ex- perienced collector thoroughly familiar with the region, we com- menced work on the breaks along South Fork of Elk Creek on the eastern side of the basin. Confining our efforts to the lower part of the formation on the eastern side of the basin, we successively worked the badland escarpments of South Elk Creek, Fifteen Mile or Cotton- wood Creek, Ten Mile Creek, and Five Mile Creek. The latter part of the season was given over to the Middle Wasatch as exposed along SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 17 Fic. 14.—Collecting the skull and lower jaws of a creodont mammal in the Big Horn Basin. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) Fic. 15.—Collecting a disarticulated skeleton of Coryphodon from the Wasatch, Big Horn Basin, Wyo. (Photograph by G. F. Sternberg.) 18 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION the western side of the basin, especially on Dorsey Creek. For lack of time no collecting was done in the upper beds. In the time spent here we were successful in obtaining some few specimens of outstanding interest and a great mass of scientifically important material. Worthy of especial mention are the following: A considerable part of the skeleton of a large creodont, Pachyaena, a large carnivorous mammal; three partial skeletons of Coryphodon, a rhinoceroslike animal (fig. 15) ; a skull and lower jaws of the dawn horse Eohippus; a skull and lower jaws of a rare edentate ; lizard remains ; and six more or less complete crocodile skulls of the genus Allogonathosuchus. In addition there were found fragmentary parts of no less than five individuals of Diatryma, the giant nonflying bird of this period. Since it reached a height of nearly 7 feet, the large size of its bones probably accounts for the considerable numbers of individuals that have been found, as bird remains are among the rarest of fossils. In this connection, William Stein brought to my attention the interesting fact that all of the known Diatryma remains found in the Wasatch formation of the Big Horn Basin, including a nearly perfect skeleton discovered by him, have come from a nar- row strip of country on the eastern side, not more than 2 miles wide and 4 or 5 miles long. During the entire field season good weather prevailed, except for the extreme heat, and only two days were lost on account of rain. Although we were not fortunate enough to find a paleontological prize, such as a complete skeleton, the collections made are of the utmost importance from the fact that practically all of the specimens secured are new to our collection and thus fill gaps existent since the establishment of the division of vertebrate paleontology in the Na- tional Museum. From a scientific point of view, the small mam- malian material—tooth-filled jaws and parts of skulls, some of them associated with skeletal material—forms the most important part of the year’s collections. In all there are more than 600 such specimens, which, although containing some duplicates, give to the division an adequate working series of this basic fauna. It is anticipated that many new forms of animal life will be revealed when a systematic study is made. DRY-DREDGING IN EASTERN CENTRAL NEW YORK By G. ARTHUR COOPER Assistant Curator, Division of Invertebrate Paleontology, U.S. National Museum New York State has long been classical ground for the study of Paleozoic formations, particularly those of the Devonian system. Many Devonian localities are now world famous and are visited every year by geologists. It would not be expected, therefore, that much of the new or unusual is still to be found. Nevertheless, several regions in New York have been neglected or overlooked since the earliest survey of the State in the years 1836-1842. This is notably true of the country lying between Chenango Valley and the Helder- bergs in eastern New York. The writer has long been interested in the Devonian rocks of this little-known region and most particularly in the outcroppings in the vicinity of Hamilton, where the geologists of New York’s early survey chose the typical or reference region of a series of rocks which they termed the Hamilton Group. When in the employ of Colgate University some years ago, the writer mapped the detailed stratigraphy of this critical area. It was his purpose this year to make collections for the United States National Museum from the more fossiliferous layers, few specimens of which had ever been acquired by this institution. The region furnishing the bulk of the material collected is em- braced by the Cazenovia, Morrisville, and Norwich quadrangles. The Cazenovia and adjacent Morrisville quadrangles lie between the meridians of Syracuse and Utica and some distance to the south. The Norwich quadrangle adjoins the Morrisville on the south. Physio- graphically the region is a portion of the maturely dissected Allegany Plateau. The hills are gentle, having a relief of about 300-500 feet, but rarely attaining 1,000 feet. Post-glacial gorges tributary to the main streams afford adequate exposures and good collecting grounds. Hamilton, a quiet little village, lies near the head of the Chenango Valley. Natural exposures and quarries are abundant in and about the village. The general geology of Hamilton and vicinity is rather simple. The rocks are all Paleozoic in age, dipping gently to the southwest a little less than one degree. Minor undulations cause local changes in dip; no faults complicate the sequence. The portion of the Paleozoic column exposed is from the Upper Silurian (Vernon shale) to the 19 20 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Ithaca division of the Upper Devonian. The writer was interested chiefly in the Middle Devonian and the lower Upper Devonian, the times during which the Hamilton Group and Tully formation were deposited, the latter overlying the former. Although the structure of the Hamilton Group is simple the de- tailed stratigraphy is more difficult. As a whole the group is a great wedge of clastic rocks less than 300 feet thick at Lake Erie but in- creasing to an unknown thickness, probably exceeding 2,500 feet in eastern New York. In western New York much of the lower part is a black shale denoting near-shore conditions of a peculiar kind and containing a peculiar fauna. Toward the east these black shales are replaced by mudstones and sands and the peculiar black shale fauna gives way to large species which inhabited the active shore zone. In other words, as one travels eastward in following the Hamilton across the State, he leaves an old land on the site of the present Lake Erie and approaches the shoreline of the old continent of Appalachia which lay southeast of New York. Between the two lands was the open sea which trapped the sediments. The village and township of Hamilton are in a critical geographical position as regards the stratigraphy of the Hamilton Group, lying in the area where there is a notable change from characteristic marine conditions to the close-shore region. Still farther east, in the vicinity of Albany and Catskill, the upper part of the Hamilton has been replaced by continental beds. A fourfold division of the Hamilton rocks from the bottom up is recognized: Marcellus, Skaneateles, Ludlowville, and Moscow. In the region visited the first formation is composed of black shales which cover the hilltops in the northeastern part of the Morrisville quad- rangle and form the bottom of the Chenango Valley as far south- ward as the village of Hamilton. The Skaneateles division underlies the villages of Cazenovia and Morrisville, and in Chenango Valley extend to the south margin of the Morrisville sheet. The succeeding divisions cover the southern portions of Cazenovia and Morrisville quadrangles and the northern one-third of the Norwich area. The numerous ravines and quarries around Cazenovia, Morrisville, and Hamilton are delightful collecting grounds, yielding a great va- riety of fossils. For the most part the entombed animals are inverte- brates. Most numerous are the clams occurring in great numbers and representing nearly 150 species. Second in point of numbers and species are the brachiopods. Other divisions of the invertebrates are present but less numerous. The fossils occur usually in the form of external and internal impressions, as the actual substance of the shell has been dissolved away by surface waters. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I93I1 2i Fic. 16.—Delphi Falls, a delightful collecting locality in the lower Skaneateles beds. Fic. 17.—Devonaster eucharis (Hall), a Devonian starfish from the Uni- versity Quarry on the campus of Colgate University. Note also the small ophiuroids or brittlestars of the genus Encrinaster. 22 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The writer arrived in Hamilton in early autumn and collected in this region for two weeks. Later he moved to Cazenovia where he was joined by Dr. Edwin Kirk of the United States Geological Sur- vey and the two collected togther for one week from several famous localities. Pratts and Delphi Falls (see fig. 16) were visited in order to secure fossils from the Skaneateles formation, and for the Ludlowville and Moscow fossils Earlville and Georgetown were visited. At Hamilton collections were made from the quarry just south of the buildings of Colgate University. It is well known for its yield of starfishes and other rare echinoderms as well as peculiar types of clams and brachiopods. (See figs. 17 and 18.) Doctor Kirk and the writer obtained a splendid collection from this place, including some of the rare echinoderms. Fic. 18.—University Quarry on campus of Colgate University. The Tully limestone was also of interest and was visited for the purpose of making collections. In the Cazenovia, Morrisville, and Norwich quadrangles it consists of about 20 feet of argillaceous lime- stone. Across the Chenango Valley, at West Brook, 3 miles south of Sherburne (on the New Berlin sheet, adjacent to the eastern edge of the Norwich sheet ), there is a predominance of silty shale and sand. Some of the shale beds abound in good fossils. Collections were obtained alike from limestone and shale in the vicinity of George- town, Fabius, and Sherburne. The collecting trip was culminated by a visit to Palmers gully in Unadilla Valley about 16 miles east of Hamilton where some fine crinoids were obtained. In all, more than 2,500 specimens of fossils were added to the Museum’s collection as a result of three weeks’ work. GEOEOGIECN. SEUDIES LN EUROPE By CHARLES ELMER RESSER Curator, Stratigraphic Paleontology, U. S. National Museum Usually the geologist takes advantage of suitable summer weather to examine rock outcrops for needed data, but occasionally it becomes desirable to learn by personal contact what others, working along similar lines, have discovered. Thus, during the past field season | pursued the latter course and spent the available time in examining the Cambrian fossils in European museums and visiting the local workers. As space does not permit the recording of more than a mere fraction of my observations, it is necessary to present but a very sketchy account of the season’s work. In recent years several Norwegian geologists have attacked the very difficult problems presented by the mountain region that forms the backbone of Norway, and by patiently and faithfully applying modern geological principles, they have been able to uncover unsus- pected structure and to elucidate whole chapters of geological history. Having read much about this work I was anxious at least to see these highlands from the train windows in crossing to Oslo, and therefore I first went direct to Bergen. Bergen is, in many respects, the most beautiful city it has been my lot to see. Situated on several narrow strips of comparatively flat land at the head of a long, winding fjord, it is flanked on three sides by hills that rise very abruptly to a height of a thousand feet. Viewed from the restaurant high up near the top of these hills, reached com- fortably by a funicular, the city is spread out as on a map. From this vantage point the intimate contact of the Norwegians with the sea is forcibly brought to one’s attention by the numerous ships and boats dotting the waters and by the proximity of the buildings to the sea. June 15, the Sunday spent in Bergen, was one of the three or four cloudless days experienced all summer. The ride across the moun- tains to Oslo was very interesting and instructive for besides the opportunity to observe the topographic, glacial, and geological fea- tures, numerous illustrations of intelligent adjustments to the envi- ronment were constantly brought to my attention. Notwithstanding the late spring which had not yet melted the heavy winter snows or permitted vegetation to put out leaves, our train was filled up several times with people young and old all carrying back packs, either going 23 24. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION out or coming in from long tramps through the mountains. Certainly more enjoyment can thus be had than by driving about in automobiles as we in America are wont to do. In the beautiful capital of Norway, as in the other places I worked, local geologists were more than generous in giving me assistance. Thus in Oslo, Prof. Johan Kiaer corrected mistaken views derived from my reading of Norwegian geological literature and freely gave additional unpublished information obtained through his field-work. At Oslo I was advised to go to Stockholm via Trondhjem in order to discuss with Prof. Thoralf Vogt the unique folded belt in the Nor- wegian mountains. This route follows for many hours the shores of beautiful Lake Mjgsen, which contrasts most strongly with the bleak though attractive Dovre Mountains traversed in the afternoon. Professor Vogt has spent many seasons studying the complicated structures, and a pleasant and profitable day was spent here in spite of the cold and rain. In going by this route to Stockholm the Nor- wegian highlands were crossed for the third time, whereby I gained an indelible impression of the landscape as well as some knowledge of the geological structure. Stockholm well deserves its reputation as the most beautiful Euro- pean capital; it is often referred to as the ~ Venice of the North Of particular interest to the geologist are the wonderful fossil col- lections dating back to the time of Linné, now housed for the most part in the Riksmuseum and the adjacent Geological Survey Museum. Several of my old friends, particularly Dr. A. A. Westergaard, went to great lengths in supplying information. From Stockholm the ancient university town of Uppsala is easily reached. Here it was a great pleasure to have Prof. C. Wiman ex- plain certain obscure geology, and to view the new Paleontological Institute building now nearing completion. That Professor Wiman has spent many years dreaming of this structure is apparent from its most satisfactory arrangement and design. The old quarters of the geology department are scarcely more than 50 feet from the main entrance to the cathedral, within which is the tomb of Linné, and a delightful hour was spent in his old garden, started with his own hands, where descendants of many foreign plants described by him are growing. A thrill was experienced in seeing the maize, even though the plants were rather sickly owing to the adverse climate. After a few days given to studies in Copenhagen, I visited an old friend at Helsingborg, Sweden, where I was shown interesting topo- graphic features developed prior to glaciation and recently exposed in the sand pits. Of even greater interest are the terraces cut by the SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 aS % Fic. 19.—Hotel at Finse, the highest point on the Bergen-Oslo line, famous resort for mountain sports, both summer and winter. Aspect of the Nor- wegian mountains well shown in this landscape. Fic. 20.—Beautiful Lake Mjgsen, north of Oslo. Many famous fossil localities occur on its shores. 26 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION sea as the land was uplifted following the removal of the ice. Care- ful work has enabled the local geologists to correlate these terraces fairly precisely with the development of the human race as illustrated by its artifacts. Perhaps nowhere in Europe is the recent enlargement of cities and villages so strikingly apparent as in Czechoslovakia; the old buildings are usually dark colored from weathering, so that the new construction forms a light-colored ring around the old nucleus. Six years ago I first became acquainted with attractive Bohemia and con- sequently welcomed the opportunity of spending several weeks within its confines this summer. Prague is ever alluring. Hours pass as moments when one walks about in the narrow winding streets of the two old sections of this ancient city. Each corner opens a dif- ferent vista by day, but the greatest charm is at night when the soft white gaslamps in the quaint old lanterns shed just enough light to bring out the picturesque buildings. The fossil collections also are more than usually interesting, as they contain some of the earliest described fossils, besides many others to which long histories are attached. Under the guidance of Dr. Jan Koliha I visited several interesting villages east of Prague. One evening we went out to the beautifully restored monastery-castle at Zbraslov, presented by its owner to the government to be used as an historical museum, and another of our visits to important outcrops took us to the famous Karlstein Castle, now also national property. The most interesting Czech village visited was Skreyje, famous as the locality from which so many fine Cam- brian fossils have been obtained. The hotelier, Mr. Sindler, main- tains a fine private museum which he delights in showing to visitors. At Prague I was joined by Prof. and Mrs. B. F. Howell, of Prince- ton University, and Dr. FE. S. Cobbold, the octogenarian English geologist of whom I shall speak later, for a geological trip to Poland. At Kielce in central Poland southeast of Warsaw, our party was met by three of the local geologists ; automobiles were provided and our entire party was shown the geology about the city and eastward into the Sainte Croix Mountains, the most primitive region in all Poland because of its sandy soil, derived chiefly from the glacial débris. Immediately east of the Sudete Mountains, which separate former Russian territory from that which belonged to Austria, Russian dress, farm implements and methods of farming appear and increase in relative numbers eastward. We next visited Warsaw and looked over the collections at the Geological Survey and the university. The Geological Survey was SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I93I 27 Fic. 21.—Landscape of the rich, carefully farmed lands near Skreyje, Bohemia. Fic. 22—Zbraslov, south of Prague, an old castle-monastery, now a national historical museum. The small lookout, built for Napoleon’s visit, can be seen above castle. 28 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 23—Evening in Skreyje, Bohemia; wheat cut with the sickle being thrashed by electricity. Nee uke eee i ; Ee TR Le Fic. 24.—Karlstein, Bohemia, street scene beneath the castle. Note the cows used as draft animals, the ever present geese, and the complete distribu- tion of electricity. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 29 just completing a very handsome and efficiently arranged building to house the magnificent collections made since Poland obtained its inde- pendence. It is astonishing to note how much scientific progress these eastern countries have made in recent years. The Jewish villages in central Poland differ from the Polish towns, in lacking farmers. It is difficult to see how these people, often in very unproductive surroundings, are able to make a living without farming and manufacture, but our guides told us that they subsist solely on trade. Leaving Warsaw, where our party disbanded, I stopped next at Dorpat, the university town of Esthonia, and after looking over the collections at the university took a train to Tallinn, the city we knew as Reval. This beautiful city was founded by the Danes many centuries ago and the old walls still stand nearly intact. Since more peaceful days have come to Europe, houses have been built against the walls and of course the city has grown far beyond them. It is the intention to restore the walls and remove the houses built against them. From the vicinity of Tallinn, the Baltic shores stretching away to Russia are peculiarly attractive to the geologist, for here the Cam- brian or other old sediments are still unconsolidated and the millions of shells which make up some of the layers still retain much of their original nacre. Elsewhere in the world all of these strata are hardened and often buried under tremendous masses of younger sediments, from which fact we draw the conclusion that this region must have had approximately its present day aspect for hundreds of millions of years. Because the shells in these beds have been so little altered they are quarried for the manufacture of phosphate—in fact they are often used directly on the land. During the war the Russian govern- ment undertook to make Tallinn its chief naval base in the Baltic and consequently erected large shipbuilding docks which of course today are standing idle, the machinery rusting away. But—more im- portant to the geologist—they also began land fortifications, draw- ing three circles around the city, the outer one being 12 kilometers out. As the country is low-lying and the rainfall considerable, much drainage had to be undertaken, so that besides the diggings for the fortifications themselves, long drainage tunnels had to be constructed, one of which is shown in Figure 27. The result of this work was the opening of fine exposures in these soft sediments which could have been brought about in no other way. Because these sediments are soft it will be only a few years until the excavations slump, again concealing the sediments and therefore I had rather extensive collections sent to the National Museum. 30 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 26.—Our group in Kielce, Poland. Left to right: Jan Samsonowicz, the writer, Roman Kozlowski, Jan Czarnocki, E. S. Cobbold, and B. F. Howell. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 31 Fic. 27.—Dr. A. Opik (at right) and the writer at the mouth of a drainage tunnel belonging to the uncompleted Russian fortifications about Tallinn, Esthonia. The rock is the famous Obolus sandstone. Fic. 28.—View across Doctor Cobbold’s garden to the Caradoc range. Overhanging branches of the cedar of Lebanon. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION (os) bo Returning to Germany from eastern Europe I visited first Frank- furt a. M., one of the livest centers of scientific activity in Europe. Following the transfer of Strasburg to France, the German students of the old university moved out and established themselves at Frank- furt, where in consequence exists the only European university in the American style. A little time was spent in Bavaria and Freiburg during the latter part of August, when the continuous rains became particularly heavy, changing to snow in the Bavarian Alps. Two clear days followed this excessive rainfall, but with the great mass of fresh snow, temperatures were barely above freezing. In fact there was no more than 10 days all summer when one could go without an overcoat. The last three weeks of September, were given to work in England, beginning with a half week in the Sedgwick Museum at Cambridge University where so many of the historical Cambrian collections, as well as more recent ones, are housed. From there I went across to Shropshire and spent a number of days in the home of Dr. E. S. Cobbold. For nearly 50 years he has lived quietly and pleasantly in the Caradoc region and by painstaking searching has unraveled much of its exceedingly complicated geology. As a consequence of this work Doctor Cobbold is now the outstanding Cambrian geologist of Ikurope. It was most delightful to live in his beautiful house, part of which is three centuries old while the newer addition is only about two hundred years of age. The garden, a corner of which is illus- trated, has been cultivated continuously for at least two centuries, so that its attractiveness rests not alone on the beauty of the blooms or the landscaping. In the midst of the garden stands a_ beautiful example of the cedar of Lebanon. London claimed my attention during the last 10 days, both for the purpose of studying the collections in the Geological Survey and the Natural History museums and for the Centenary meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the 50-year Jubilee of the Natural History Museum. This brought together not only a good representation of British scientists but many others from all parts of the world. BDURTEDR MINERAT COELECTING IN MEXICO By W. F. FOSHAG Curator, Division of Mineralogy, U. S. National Museum After leaving Laredo, the border point on the Mexican National Railroad, the traveler proceeds for a short time over flat and uninter- esting country. Soon, however, he sees before him, rising from the monotonous plain, rugged mountains, the first of the series of loosely connected ranges that make up the Sierra Madre Oriental. From here south, mountains are always close at hand, some of them low rolling ridges, but most of them steep or palisaded masses of limestone or flat-topped ridges of broken lava. Scant brown herbage or stretches of scattered thorny scrub, cactus, and yucca cover much of the coun- try; only the highest elevations are forested with groves of pines and cedars. When one has passed the first range he enters a mineral region rich in gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc. There are also minor deposits of mercury, antimony and tin, and of precious stones—topaz, turquois, and opal. Numerous evidences of mining activity can be seen as the train passes southward, but the most important localities are away from the main line and hidden in the heart of ‘rugged ranges. On this, my third trip into Mexico, it was my desire to seek new collecting fields ; consequently at Monterey, the first important point on the railroad, I stopped for a few days to obtain information from mining men regarding favorable localities to visit. This modern city is almost surrounded by high and rugged mountains, the most striking of which is the Sierra de la Silla, or Saddle Mountain, lying a short distance north of the city. From here I proceeded to the district of Concepcion de Oro to explore its mines of copper, silver, lead, and zinc. The high granite peak of Temerosa, one of the highest points in the state of Zacatecas is the focal point of the district ; to the south lie the copper mines of Aranzazu and Concepcion del Oro; to the west and north the lead, silver, and zinc mines of Bonanza, of which the Providencia is now the most important. Its extensive workings penetrate the mountain for long distances and extend through the flank of the range to connect with mines on the other side. The peak of Temerosa is flanked on all sides by steeply tilted beds of limestone and shale, and it is at or near the contact of the granite with these rocks that the important bodies of ore lie. 33 34 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 29.—Sierra de la Silla or Saddle Mountain, at the outskirts of Monterey, during a storm. Fic. 30.—The camp of Providencia, Zacatecas, with the trail to Aranzazu. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 35 The camp of Providencia clings to the steeps flanks of Temerosa, and facing it is a high and rugged palisade of limestone up which a burro trail zigzags its way to the pass and on to the copper camp of Aranzazu across the range, where a second granitic mass is exposed. At or near the contact of this rock with the surrounding limestones are extensive deposits of copper of the contact type. The principal cop- Fic. 31.—Patio of the Santa Maria de la Paz mine with workmen breaking ore by hand. per minerals are chalcopyrite and bornite associated with bodies of garnet, epidote, and related minerals. A long tunnel, two kilometers in length, has been driven through the massive granite to intersect the ore bodies, offering an exceptional opportunity to study this type of ore occurrence. At Aranzazu is a small grove of pines and cedars, the last remnant of the extensive groves that once covered all the higher slopes of the range. A rocky trail, in places blasted out of the 36 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION dense granite, takes one to Concepcion del Oro, the commercial center of the district and the rail head. Matehuala in the northern part of the state of San Luis Potosi is a little town sprawled out in a barren valley, with little to commend it but the interesting mineral deposits close by. To the west rises a short but steep range of mountains, the Sierra del Fraile, at the foot of which lies the famous silver mine, Santa Maria de la Paz. The rich silver ores are found as an intricate vein system cutting shale. Many of the mine workings are extremely hot and until these have pro- gressed sufficiently for proper ventilation the miners can work for only one-hour periods. West of the Sierra del Fraile lies a long and rugged mountain chain, the Sierra de Catorce, containing the old and once very rich camp of Catorce. Like the Sierra de Concepcion this range is said to have been forested formerly with pines and cedars but the slopes are now almost bare rock with the scantiest herbage that can be imagined. Only the lower slopes are covered with a growth of cactus, yucca, and similar plants. The town itself is one of the most picturesque in Mexico. It occupies a high shoulder overlooking a deep and rugged canyon, here little more than a cleft in the mountain range. Behind the town rise mountain slopes of red, mauve, and purple shales, almost totally devoid of grass or other vegetation. Its population, once num- bering over 50,000, has dwindled to less than 400 persons, but the town, except for its lack of the human element and the usually ubi- quitous dogs and pigs, seems little changed from its original condition. The houses and shops are well preserved, the sloping streets with their paving of geometrically laid cobbles are worn but still intact. Above all rises the huge bulk of the cathedral, built, it is said, at a cost exceeding one million dollars. The mines are scattered over the barren hills about the city and over the ridge toward the more recent town of Potrero. The ore-bearing veins occur in both shale and limestone and are variable in width. The smaller ones are often very rich, and some of the larger ones contain great bodies of extremely rich ore—the bonan- zas of the early days of mining—in the leaner vein matter. Like many of the rich old camps of Mexico, the mining works are impos- ing structures. At the San Augustin mine not only workshops but also the mine chapel have been hewn out of the solid rock at the mine entrance. From Catorce I proceeded to Charcas, one of the oldest of Spanish towns in Mexico. It les some distance from the main line of the SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I93I ‘IsoJOg sin ueS ‘zed e] ap elreyy eyues je oue Fst, SOs ‘seoajeoe7 ‘ezueuog ‘seueueq jo sayound se Siq s¥ siaMoY snoynpusd yyM seoonA asnp{[—'zt “oI 38 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION railroad, with which it is connected by a small branch. Situated in a broad open valley surrounded by low hills, its green trees, the blue domes of its churches, and the whitewashed adobe houses give it a pleasing and restful aspect. The city of Charcas was founded in 1574, the rich silver veins in the vicinity attracting early attention. It was also an important stage stop. On the walls of the old stage station can still be discerned in faint characters the destinations of the stages and distances of the stations to points as far away as Cali- fornia. It is said that Cortez once made this his stopping place. The mines, once worked for silver, are now more valuable as producers of lead, zinc, and copper. The principal mine, Tiro General, situated a few miles west of town at the base of a low range of hills, is one of the great producing mines of Mexico. Copper and lead-zinc-silver ores are both mined; the ores occur at or near the contact of a porphyry and limestone. Old accounts describe the number of mine workings in the district as innumerable but by far the greatest number of them are shallow and appear to be of little economic importance. Antimony, mercury, and tin are also found in minor quantities in the surrounding hills. Caves containing old Indian remains are occasionally discovered in the surrounding region and I had an opportunity of visiting one recently discovered from which skeletal material and a few shell orna- ments and similar material were recovered. Between Charcas and San Luis Potosi the character of the country changes abruptly from an area characterized by steep and rugged limestone mountains to one of the flat-topped ridges of old rhyolitic lava flows. Vegetation, too, becomes more abundant, the most con- spicuous forms being candelabria and organ cacti. The lava flows contain minor deposits of tin and topaz but the more important ore deposits are still largely confined to the limestone rocks. Fifteen miles east of the city of San Luis Potosi is the mining camp of San Pedro, another ancient camp discovered in the latter part of the sixteenth century. The richness of its mines gave it at one time the name Potosi, which was afterwards applied to the entire state. The district lies in a comparatively low range of barren mountains. The slopes of the mountains show abundant evidences of intensive mining operations ; in places large blocks of the mountain side have collapsed into the old mine workings. The ore bodies lie along fault planes in limestone with porphyry in close proximity. The rich ores for which the district was famous appear to be largely mined out, the only evidence of their former presence being the huge underground chambers from which the ore seems to have been totally removed. Mining operations are at present confined to a large, recently devel- SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 39 oped body of sulfides of lead, zinc, and silver near one edge of the district. The city of Queretaro, capital of the state of the same name, lies among green and fertile fields and is a place of considerable histori- cal interest, having been the scene of many incidents of Mexican his- tory. To the south of the city are low hills capped by old flows of Fic. 34.—A cottage at San Pedro, Mexico. rhyolitic lavas that contain, in numerous places, the opal mines so famous for the richness and variety of their products. The opals are found in the steam cavities of these old lavas over a wide area but active mining is carried on only in a desultory manner by the natives. The stones are brought to Queretaro where they are cut upon common grindstones and polished on wooden wheels. Clear opals with little fire are abundant and cheap; the finest stones are much rarer, more costly and are of great beauty. 40 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION From Queretaro, | proceeded to Mexico City, and further field studies were deferred until another season. During the two and one- half months spent in active field-work a considerable amount of geo- logical material was collected including systematic series illustrating the mineral occurrence, processes in ore formation, such as oxidation and enrichment, and large exhibition specimens of lead, silver, zinc and copper ores. A small collection of Indian remains and artifacts was obtained at Charcas. PeELORATIONS FOR FOSSIL HORSES: IN IDAHO By NORMAN H. BOSS Chief Preparator, Department of Geology, U. S. National Museum Field operations in the vicinity of Hagerman, in the Snake River Valley, Idaho, had demonstrated the fact that here was the greatest accumulation of fossil horse remains ever discovered. Two seasons’ work under the direction of the late Dr. J. W. Gidley had brought to light and added to the Museum’s collection such a vast amount of valuable material without exhausting the resources of the quarry that a third season was deemed profitable. As the condition of Doctor Gidley’s health made it imprudent for him to undertake the strenuous work of directing a party this year, I was detailed to take charge of the 1931 expedition. Arriving at Hagerman on June 4, I was joined by C. P. Singleton of Melbourne, Fla., who had had previous experience with Doctor Gidley ; C. W. Caldwell was employed as “ handy man,” and Charles Bremer as cook, thus completing the personnel of the party. I wish to say here that such success as attended the expedition was due in large measure to their cooperation and understanding helpfulness. Camp established, the work of the season began by collecting such specimens as were left from the previous year’s excavations. It was soon determined, however, that to work the deposit successfully other means than pick and shovel would be necessary for removing the over- burden of sand and gravel. Two weeks spent by the entire force in stripping by use of plow and scraper resulted in exposing a portion of the bone-bearing layer approximately 5,000 square feet in extent. The magnitude of this task may be better understood when it is ex- plained that the back wall of the excavation was 45 feet in height. This deposit of fossils is situated on the southern extremity of a short, steeply sloping hill that juts out from the border of the plain. Thus, as work progresses into the hillside, the depth of the overburden above the fossil layer rapidly increases, for not only is the face of the hill steeply inclined, but the bone horizon dips rapidly downward. Resuming work with small tools on the ground uncovered, we found fossil bones in great abundance (see fig. 37). Literally hundreds of bones are present here, although disarticulated and widely scat- tered, and nearly all pertaining to the extinct horse Plesippus shoshonensis. However, 5 more or less complete skeletons, 32 skulls, 41 42 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 35.—Fossil horse quarry, from the opposite side of canyon. (Photograph by N. H. Boss.) Fic. 36.—Starting the stripping above the bone layer. (Photograph by IN EE Boss.) SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 (Cssog ‘HN Aq ydeasojoyg) ‘uozi0y duog 94} %AOGR Joo} Qz SI SUIPURYS St UPL ATOM Jeaoy ‘Arsenb jo yJeM yoeq Jo uojIOg—sge ‘oy (‘ssog ‘H 'N Aq ydessojoyg) ‘patoaooun dI9M ADY} SB 9SIOY B JO UOJIJays oy} JO souoq—ZE “oly 44 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 48 pairs of lower jaws, and numerous articulated limb and foot bones, all in an excellent state of preservation and representing all stages of growth of both sexes, were recovered. In order to preserve the evi- dence of original association all articulated skeletons were collected in large blocks and the removal of these to the camp on top of the hill, a quarter of a mile distant, in order to pack them for shipment, pre- sented one of the difficulties of the task. The blocks varied in weight Fic. 39.—Method of removing heavy bone encased blocks to the level of the plain. (Photograph by Harold Tucker. ) from 200 to 400 pounds, and to transport them suspended from the center of a pole resting on the shoulders of two men along a narrow cow path (see fig. 39) was a matter of no small difficulty, particularly in the extreme heat which prevailed most of the time. At the request of the State Historical Society of Idaho, arrange- ments were made by which their representative, Harold Tucker, spent six weeks at our camp collecting material for the society. He obtained a small but representative collection which it is their intention to ex- hibit in the State Capitol at Boise. RAIN FOREST AND DESERT IN HISPANIOLA By ALEXANDER WETMORE Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution In continuation of the biological survey of Hispaniola initiated for the Smithsonian Institution a number of years ago by Dr. W. L. Abbott, the writer returned to Haiti in the spring of 1931, with Frederick C. Lincoln, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, as com- panion, to visit regions from which information on the bird life was desired. We landed in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, from the Panama Line Steamship Ancon on March 22. After three days occupied in neces- sary arrangements for our work, in which we were aided most courte- ously by the American Minister Doctor Munro, by Colonel Cutts in command of the Marine Corps, by officers under his command, and other officials, we were off for the northern plain. In company with S. W. Parish, M. W. Stirling, and H. W. Krieger, who were engaged in archeological work, we proceeded to a great plantation near Terrier Rouge where we were hospitably received by Mr. and Mrs. R. Petti- erew and began our studies and collections. The thorny scrubs of the level plain had been pes for an area of 7,500 acres to allow the planting of sisal, and additional acreage of like extent was at the time being cut away for extension of the fields. A low, double-pointed hill, the Morne des Mammelles, rose at a little distance, being the only eminence in an otherwise level land- scape. On this we found the curious flat-billed vireo, a little known species, to be common, and while collecting specimens we were able to gain some insight into its manner of living, hitherto uncertain. Here too we obtained the fourth specimen of a curious goatsucker, Antro- stomus cubanensis ekmani, and other rarities. Returning to Port-au-Prince, one clear morning at dawn, with Sergt. R. A. Trevelyan, of the Marine Corps, as pilot, I made a reconnais- sance by airplane of the little known mountain range of La Hotte near the end of the Tiburon Peninsula. Three peaks composed the mountain mass, and it was exhilarating to circle above the deep valleys separating them and to fly low over slopes heavily forested with pines and rain forest, looking down into dark, wet depths of jungle unknown to man and peopled in imagination with any manner of strange and unusual birds. 45 40 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION I lite oh PLS Fic. 40.—Looking across sisal fields toward the Morne des Mammelles near Terrier Rouge, Haiti. Fic. 41.—Field party at Post Avancé, Haiti. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 47 With the invaluable information thus gained from the air we or- ganized a pack train at Post Avancé, the present terminus of a pro- posed roadway between Aux Cayes and Jérémie, and accompanied by S. W. Parish set out into the La Hotte region. The journey by air had been a simple matter of three hours absence from the flying field at Port-au-Prince, but on land we found travel slow and laborious. At the end of six days of almost constant rain, over trails whose steepness and badness beggars description, we came finally to La Cour Z’ Anglais where the slopes became so abrupt that our animals could go no further and it was necessary to gather a train of porters. After another day of this travel, including a night when our outfit was scattered for miles across the face of a great mountain, and we our- selves sat around a smoky fire in a little native hut thankful to be out of the downpour of rain, we reached the little group of three huts called Caye Godet, the last human habitation on the higher slopes of Pic de Macaya, the highest mountain in the La Hotte group. At the edge of the forest, at an elevation of 4,200 feet we dug out the face of a slope against a huge log wedged against boulders and made a level platform large enough for our Baker tent. The moun- tain descended steeply below us into a deep valley whose sides were planted in bananas, sweet potatoes, coffee—grown without shade be- cause of the almost continuously clouded sky—and other crops. Across from us rose the steep pitches of La Grande Colline, and ahead we had a glimpse of the forested slopes of Pic du Formon, the third of the peaks of La Hotte. Wind currents drawing through the valley brought an everchanging appearance in the landscape. Clouds of fog came swiftly in to obscure the view and then in a few moments broke away to show the ragged silhouettes of the pine covered ridges opposite. Occasionally the mountain slopes stood out clearly except for scattered, drifting rays of mist but this was exceptional as rain fell for the greater part of each day. In spite of this continued precipitation the slopes were so steep that we had to depend on rainwater caught from the tent for camp use or else have water brought up the steep trails from a river 3,000 feet below. At 4,000 feet the rain disappeared into the ground and there were no streams or pools. From this camp we climbed to the summit of Pic de Macaya through a dense growth of rain forest, replaced above 6,000 feet elevation by a stand of tremendous pines 4 to 6 feet in diameter with their lower limbs cloaked in moss and epiphytes and the ground beneath covered with dense growths of dripping bracken. 4 48 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The botanist, Dr. E. L. Ekman, had collected plants in this region but to our knowledge we were the first to make zoological collections on this mountain, so that our enthusiasm for the new and unknown repaid the hardships of scrambling up and down muddy trails, of cutting passages through the jungle across the mountain slopes, and of the continual rain. Trogons, hummingbirds, brilliant-colored tanagers and other birds abounded, but the most attractive form was the solitaire, found throughout the forest and at this season in full song. Its marvellously clear, flutelike notes were constantly in our ears and we never tired of the music of these gifted performers. At our camp interesting birds were continually under observation at our very door. The country Haitians came in groups, interested in a friendly fash- ion in the strange customs of the white man, and marveled at our little tent with its compact camp equipment. Each morning at dawn Monsieur Godet, whose real name was Plaisimond Geélin, climbed up from the huts below to drink a cup of coffee, with an abundance of sugar, and to discourse on food, the coffee crop, and kindred subjects. His family brought us vegetables, including excellent white potatoes, profiting thriftily through our purchases. On occasion the local Societé came at dusk and to the throbbing beat of drums danced and sang for hours before our tent. With our cases filled with specimens we came finally out of this mountain area, moving slowly over the wretched trails and finally descended again to Aux Cayes on the coast. From here through the kindness of Lieut. Charles Klein of the Garde d’Haiti we crossed in a launch to Ile a Vache a few miles distant, and in a short time had our camp once more established, this time back of the sandy beach of the little land-locked harbor of Feret Bay. After the muddy trails of La Hotte it was a welcome sensation to be clean and dry and to walk about on level ground. Collecting went on apace supplementing the material obtained here last year by the Parish-Smithsonian Ex- pedition led by Lee H. Parish. By the beginning of May our work here was finished and we were again in Port-au-Prince. Abandoning mules as a means of transport we obtained a Ford and with our equipment crossed through the mountain highways into the Dominican Republic, where, thanks to the interest of the President, Gen. Rafael Trujillo, we were received at the border with every courtesy. We continued to San Juan and from there to Barahona through an area of desert with giant cacti and mesquite growing over hills cut by dry arroyos that were reminiscent of Arizona. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 Fic. 43—Crossing the Roseaux River below Bois Lacombe. 49 50 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 44.—Caye Godet on the slopes of Pic de Macaya. Fic. 45.—Camp on the shore of Feret Bay, Tle 4 Vache. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I93I1 SI Frank Warmoth, John L. Segall, and George Hamor of the Bara- hona Company, devoted to the making of sugar, received us most hospitably, and through their kind assistance we engaged a little sail- boat, the Rosita, with a crew of three men, and set out one evening for the island of Beata off the extreme southern tip of the Barahona Peninsula. The following afternoon we landed in the little bay of Ocrik on the north shore of Beata where through the kindness of Don Eduardo Echevaria we were given quarters in a little house, a most welcome attention, as the sun’s heat was so strong that a tent would have been almost unbearable. Beata Island is low and slightly undulating, composed of a mass of limestone much eaten by erosion so that the surface is rough and broken. Thorny bushes, trees, and vines growing from the scanty soil accumulated in crevices in the rock form a jungle so dense that it may be penetrated only along trails cut laboriously into the interior. The coast was bare and open with stretches of sandy beach alternating with low, rocky headlands. Within 15 minutes after leaving camp on our first morning afield we obtained specimens of a wood warbler that was recognized in- stantly as new to science. Its near relatives inhabit the high rain forests of the mountains so that it was a surprise to find a repre- sentative in the dry scrubs of Beata. Snakes were common and lizards abounded, and several collected proved to be new to science, as did several forms of land shells. We captured a number of brilliantly colored, ground-living lizards alive, and brought them home with con- siderable difficulty for the National Zoological Park. Our work afield was pursued principally in early morning as by tI o'clock the blazing sun beating down on the island made any physical exertion arduous. Even in the earlier part of the day the heat was at times most oppressive. Our afternoons were occupied at camp with notes and specimens. Pelicans, terns, and gulls fished along the beach just beyond our front door, while from the opposite doorway we looked out over a lagoon where often three or four pink flamingoes stalked solemnly about, occasionally within 200 yards. One day we went out in the boat to a series of offshore rocks where we saw boobies, frigate-birds and tropic-birds, and found breeding colonies of bridled and noddy terns. Roseate terns and least terns nested near our camp. A kingfisher and a few barn swallows from North America passing in migration as late as the middle of May were reminders that the time for our own journey northward was near, and we finally set out one evening in the Rosita on our return to Barahona. With contrary winds a small sailboat is not to be recommended for 52 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 46.—Dominican frontier at Comendador. Fic. 47.—Desert water-hole between Azua and Barahona. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 53 Fic. 48.—The Rosita at Puerto Caiman en route to Beata Island. Fic. 49.—Settlement at Ocrik on Beata Island. 54. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION travel, particularly when a crowded deck offers the only passenger accommodation, and it is necessary to shift about at every tack in the course. The morning and evening light on the water, a flock of flamingoes passing at sunset along an uninhabited shore, and bands of terns, shearwaters, and other interesting birds are pleasant memories of this voyage that overshadow the blazing, shelterless heat of mid- day and the interminable tacking in an endeavor to work up the coast, that continued for three days before we finally arrived at Barahona. Return to Port-au-Prince was varied with stops to search for speci- mens and when once more in Haiti we had time for several journeys into the Cul de Sac region, including a trip to the great salt lake, the Etang Saumatre, before we left on May 27, sailing once more on the Ancon for the north. Hispaniola and our many friends and acquaintances there will live long in pleasant memory. COLLECTING LIVE ANIMALS IN BRITISH GUIANA By W. M. MANN Director, National Zoological Park Under an appropriation for travel for the purpose of collecting live animals, the writer and Frank Lowe, assistant head keeper at the National Zoological Park, spent the months of August and September, 1931, in British Guiana. Mrs. W. M. Mann accompanied us un- officially. At Georgetown the party was very kindly received by His Ex- cellency the Governor, Sir Edward Denham; facilities were given for work in the interior, and a permit to collect certain protected species was issued to us. The first objective was Tumatumari on the Potaro River, reached by launch from Bartica, which is on the Essequibo. The govern- ment mail launch was not due to leave Bartica for 10 days after we arrived there, but members of the Mount Roraima Boundary Com- mission, A. J. Cheong, Theodore Orella, C. P. de Freitas, and James Bamford, generously invited us to accompany them in their already well-laden boat. This boat was 30 feet long, and contained in addi- tion to 5,000 pounds of baggage these four members of the Commis- sion, twenty-two boatmen, and the steersman. Added to these were the three of us and a native assistant, Eric Chin. What we lacked in comfort and space on the up-river voyage was delightfully compen- sated for by the companionship of these gentlemen, all of whom had spent their lives in the more out-of-the-way places of Demerara. Bird life on the river was abundant and varied, and I personally acquired a violent dislike for toucans. We saw literally hundreds of them sitting on bare branches of trees near the river’s edge and squawking derisively at us. At the end of our trip our total catch of toucans was three! Three days of gasoline engine and paddling took us to our first destination, the government rest house at Tumatumari. This was formerly a thriving gold and diamond mining center, but due to the falling off in the price of diamonds, we found it almost abandoned. Moreover the Potomoonie Indians, on whom we had depended for assistance in collecting, were nearly all gone. The chief, Captain Johnson, and Paul, a Macoushi Indian from above Kaieteur, were there and they joined our party as guides and collectors. 55 56 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 50—Tame manatee. One of six in Botanic Garden at Georgetown. This botanic garden is second to none in the New World. Fic. 51.—Hindoo fruit vendors at Old Fort Island. There are over 100,000 East Indians living in British Guiana. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 57 Collecting was not good at Tumatumari, so, in a boat loaned us by Michael McTurk, a local settler and trader, we went up the river and then walked to Minnehaha, a gold-dredging station, and remained there a week as guests of Allan Humphreys. Here a number of rep- tiles and one sloth were secured. On our return to Tumatumari we raided the Indian village for pets, and brought away several parrots, finches, and chachalacas. The head of the Boundary Commission, Mr. Cunningham, arrived at Tumatumari at this time and gave us permission to return down the river in the boat that had brought him up. The down trip took a day and a half, with a night’s camp at Rockstone, where we stayed in what was formerly a thriving hotel but was then entirely deserted and stripped of furniture. Rockstone is just above the rapids of the Essequibo and in times past was a way station for Wismar on the Mackenzie River some 19 miles distant. By going overland to Wismar and then down the Demerara River the rapids could be avoided, but the little overland railway is now abandoned. We continued in our launch down the river to Bartica. The ride was interesting but not especially exciting until we noticed some wreckage in the river and later learned that two boats preceding us had been wrecked and 12 men had been drowned. After that we had more respect for these rapids. Returning to Georgetown we were invited by Mr. Rucker, mana- ger of the Bauxite Mines, to visit him at Mackenzie, 65 miles up the Demerara River, where we were taken on a Bauxite Company’s steamer. Mackenzie is a model tropical village, each house with great screened verandahs and all modern sanitary conveniences. In addition to the genial hospitality of Mr. and Mr. J. S. Rucker, we here found numerous people willing and able to help us in our collecting. People began bringing birds and animals into camp, so we decided to make this our headquarters for the rest of our stay in Demerara. Mr. Lowe took up his residence in the clubhouse of the community. This had an open basement under it—an ideal place for keeping animals ; and there he spent the next month, collecting, making cages, and caring for the stock that was brought in. Mrs. Mann and the writer returned to Georgetown and from there left immediately on a small but comfortable river steamer maintained by the government, going about 70 miles up the Pomeroon River to Pickersgill, the site of the Pickersgill saw mill, and moved into the government rest house. Pelham Young, manager of the saw mill, had notified Mr. Lee, his resident manager, of our coming and had had his own private system of electric light installed in the rest house, so 58 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 52.—Left, Paul, a Macoushi Indian; right, Captain Johnson, chief of the Potomooni_ tribe. These were our guides and assistants in the Potero region. Fic. 53.—Members of the Boundary Commission who invited us with them up the Essequibo. Left to right: Mr. Orella, Mr. de Freitas, Mrs. Mann, Mr. Bamford, and Mr. Cheong. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 59 Fic. 55.—Rapids in the Essequibo River, from snapshot made from launch while passing through. Fic. 56—The Commission leaves us at Tumatumari, headed up-river for Kaietieur Falls, and then to Mount Roraima. 60 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION we had the experience of living in a large, airy, palm-leaf house set on piles on the swampy river bank, and at the same time enjoying this modern luxury. Pickersgill was the best region for collecting that we found. The river people were anxious to help us, and animal life was fairly abundant. The things one does not catch are often the most interest- ing. We had the pleasure of seeing a troup of seven otters on the river, some of them sliding down the bank into the water and the others swimming with their heads held high up to observe us in our boat. Five hours up the river from Pickersgill was a lumber camp, named for Mr. Laulys, the resident manager. The camp consisted of three sideless houses, the largest of which was 8 by 1o feet. This was turned over to us, and palm-leaf sides put on to give us a little privacy. It was jungle life de luxe, for Mr. Laulys even cut a trail for us down to a little clear-water bathing pool. A cage with two live curas- sows in it serving as our table and two equipment boxes for chairs comfortably furnished our house. From the uprights were hung our hammocks. Game was abundant, and in the newly cleared areas on the forest and along the wood trails were obtained a fair number of specimens, including Anilius scytale, a small brillant red and black burrowing snake related to the boas, and as far as we know the first to come alive into any collection. Seventeen Indians and Negroes, engaged in felling greenheart trees and roughing them into logs, kept on the alert for specimens. One morning Mrs. Mann discovered a specimen of the ‘jumping johnnie” (Liophis sp. —), a small snake which has the vuder side of its tail colored a brilliant red. When picked up it goes through the motions of stinging with its tail, hitting the hand that holds ‘ it again and again with the vivid red tip. Unfortunately this speci- men died before we could exhibit it in Washington. Our time was much too short at Laulys Camp and we left with deep regret. From Pickersgill we made one short excursion up Tapacuma Creek, a winding, black-water stream, with Indian villages scattered along the bank. At its very end there is an incline to about 15 feet above, which takes one to the Essequibo drainage basin—one steps abruptly from dense jungle country to open savannah land. We spent two days here at the Indian Mission School and were hospitably entertained by the schoolmaster in charge. We obtained from the Indians several parrots and other birds. When we left Pickersgill finally we had 37 crates of specimens. On our way up the Pomeroon more than two weeks before, the little SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 61 Fic. 57—Government rest house on the Pomeroon. Though 7o miles up the river, there is a 5-foot tide. Fic. 58—Green-heart logs at Laulys’ camp on the Upper Pomeroon. These logs are hand-hewn and taken down the river to the saw mill at Pickersgill. Green-heart is used chiefly for piling in docks. 62 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION steamer had stopped at almost every house on the river and we had gone ashore and explained to the residents that we were in the mar- ket for snakes, lizards, and small animals. On the down voyage we discovered that we had demoralized, at least temporarily, the entire population of the river. They had stopped other work and gone out collecting, usually with very poor success, but at almost every settle- ment there was something for us. Various small creatures in quakes (openwork Indian baskets used for carrying vegetables but adapted to the confinement of animals for us) were brought aboard the boat and after the usual amount of gesticulation were purchased and placed on the deck of the steamer, to the consternation of the steward- ess responsible for the condition of that deck. We trust that by this time all traces of our menagerie have been removed. At Georgetown we found Mr. Lowe who had come down from Mackenzie with his catch, and we combined the collections in a large storeroom beneath the Park Hotel, through the courtesy of the man- agement. Mr. Lowe remained here while Mrs. Mann and I made a hurried trip eastward into Berbice, in the hope of securing some Surinam toads. Dr. Roth of the Georgetown Museum had told us that he believed Pipa did not exist in British Guiana but we hoped to find it towards Surinam. Berbice is low and flat, tenanted largely by Hindus. One had the impression one was crossing the Punjab, except that the Punjab is never flooded as was this area. Wading birds swarmed, white egrets, blue herons, jacanas, and gallinules predominating, and we saw many readheaded troupials. We had been introduced by telephone to our host, G. M. Eccles, at Blairmont on the Courantyne River, and his first question to us was “Where do you expect to find these toads?’ There was a canal be- side a canefield and we asked how long it had been there. He told us that it had been dug about a hundred years before, so it seemed prob- able that if the toad existed in the area it might be found in the mud at the bottom of the canal. Mr. Eccles thereupon had the canal drained for us. A half-day’s exploration of ooze 6 inches deep re- sulted in the finding of nothing but some catfish. Mr. Eccles placed a car at our disposal and we crossed the Courantyne River on a ferry and scouted the countryside, dipping in pools with nets and raking mud and weeds from the bottom, but still with no success. The Surinam toad lives in Surinam, so we decided, despite the short amount of time at our disposal, to go there. A half-day’s auto- mobile trip took us to Springlands, the last British settlement. The customs boat took us across to Nickeri, where Mr. Gordon of the SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 63 Waterloo estate met us and took us to his home. A canal had just been drained and we spent a half-day, assisted by 26 Javanese la- borers, poking into the mud. The same 26 Javanese spent another half- day groping in the mud at the bottom of a flooded rice field. Then we took a seine and worked half a mile of a canal, drawing the seine every 20 or 30 feet. Snakes were found, and many fish, but no Pipa. Our time was drawing to an end. The assistant manager of the plan- tation, born and raised in Surinam, remembered the toad from his boyhood days in Paramaribo, but he had never seen it in the vicinity of Nickeri; so as it seemed fairly certain that we were in the wrong place, we reluctantly abandoned our quest and returned to Georgetown. A friend of ours in Paramaribo had promised to collect some of these specimens for us, but during two months he was unable to find any on account of the high water. Later on, when the pools dry out more, he has promised to send us a milk-can full of toads, so we feel that our search was not entirely in vain, especially as we secured in Nickeri a number of rare birds and lizards.’ Each evening in the village of Nickeri there come from the sur- rounding country thousands of red-spotted green parrots ( Aratinga sp.) which crowd the fronds of the palms on which they roost and fill the air with their cries. At Georgetown on the day of sailing we heard that our steamer was caught beyond the bar and could not get in until high tide the following morning, so we dismissed the porters and proprietors of donkey carts waiting to help us load our specimens, and told them to be on hand at five o'clock next morning. But we had misjudged the captain of the steamer, who waded his boat through the mud of the bar and docked at ten o’clock that night. The boat was to sail at four in the morning! With a hurriedly gathered crew of assistants we loaded 99 crates of specimens, and 12 days later landed practically all of them alive in New York for shipment to Washington. The first officer had given us ample space between decks so the stock had comfortable, uncrowded quarters. Many courtesies were extended to us during our stay in British Guiana. Dr. George Giglioli, of Mackenzie, himself a keen naturalist, 1A. J. Jessurun, our friend at Paramaribo, kept his promise and three months after our arrival at Washington we received two crates of the sought-for Suri- nam toad Pipa americana. We met the steamer in New York and came to Washington immediately with them. There were 88 live specimens, enough for a splendid exhibition in the new reptile house, as well as some for distribution to other collectiens. iont 64 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION cared for Mr. Lowe when he was ill with malaria, and gave us sev- eral of his personal pet birds and a beautiful baby deer. F. M. Walcott, of Hope Estate, presented us with a fine ocelot that he had captured. Aurelio Gomes gave us a fine pair of whistling ducks. John Swearingen, United States Vice Counsel at Georgetown, from the very first took an active interest in our work and for his assistance and friendship we are deeply grateful. Fic. 59.—Three-toed sloth with baby in arms. The results of the trip were an addition of about 350 live speci- mens to the National Zoological Park, including 128 birds, 21 mam- mals, and 1&9 reptiles. Several of these, such as the black-headed saki monkey, the tailed agouti, the yellow-breasted flycatcher or kiska- dee, the ani or tick bird, the Itai macaw, and numerous reptiles are new to the history of our Zoo. Those not new to its history, but not represented in the collection at the time, include a fine Yaguarondi cat, two-toed and three-toed sloths, a four-eyed opossum (so called because of a spot above each eye), black-headed caiques, and a splendid series of boa constrictors, anacondas, and other reptiles. COLLECTING IN THE CAVES AND KITCHENMIDDENS OF JAMAICA Dive GiB RUS.) MIRE IB RS. JiR: Curator, Division of Mammals, U. S. National Museum The pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Greater Antilles are known to have commonly eaten mammals of several kinds that are now either very rare or quite extinct. The remains of these food animals have been rather carefully investigated in the kitchenmiddens of Cuba, Hispaniola, and Porto Rico, but those in the middens of Jamaica have received little attention. Duerden recorded the frequent presence of bones of the now almost extinct “coney”’ (Geocapromys brownii) in most of the Arawak deposits that he excavated (Journ. Inst. Jamaica, vol. 2, pp. 1-51, July, 1897), and I called attention to remains found near Salt River that appear to indicate the former occurrence of a different but nearly related animal (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 29, p. 48, February 24, 19160). No one else, apparently, has given the subject any attention, in print, at least. Mr. Anthony’s report (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 42, pp. 469-475, December 11, 1920) deals with the remains of Jamaican mammals that probably became extinct long before man arrived at the island. With the main object of systematically collecting bones of mam- mals from kitchenmiddens and from the superficial deposits in caves I visited Jamaica during February, March, and April, 1931. Work was carried on from three principal centers, Kingston, Mandeville, and Montego Bay. At Kingston, Dougall McDougall, Esq., kindly permitted me to in- vestigate the extensive deposit of shells and broken pottery that cov- ers an area approximately 200 yards long and 75 to too yards wide on his estate at the summit of Long Mountain (figs. 60, 61, 62). Ex- actly why the Arawaks should have made a situation of this kind their dwelling place is not easy to explain. The only water supply appears to have been some pools that seem likely to have gone dry during the winter ; and the people were forced to bring all their fish and shellfish up a very steep slope 1,300 feet high. Bones of mam- mals, mostly those of the “ coney,”’ were rather numerous among the shells and fragments of broken pottery of which the deposits chiefly consist. The photographs (figs. 60, 61) give some idea of the abruptly 65 60 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION [oo «Rog fal, Meee aera al bears Sk ae Bw Det i Fic. 60.—Long Mountain, whose steep 1,300-foot slope limits the growth of Kingston toward the east. Arawaks carried tons of shellfish to their settlement on the summit. Fic. 61.—A general view of the kitchenmidden on the summit of Long Mountain. Fic. 62—A section of the kitchenmidden on the summit of Long Mountain. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 67 Fic. 64.—A Jamaican “barbecue.” Every large estate has one of these concrete platforms for drying coffee and other products. Fic. 65.—Market at Santa Cruz. The hats in the foreground are for sale. The large pillowlike objects are heaps of cassava bread covered with white cloth. 68 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION rising Long Mountain ridge as seen from Kingston and of the gently rolling topography of the summit, near Mr. McDougall’s house. At one end of the flower bed shown in Figure 62 the Arawak deposit was nearly 3 feet deep, with abundant shells and pottery fragments, and a few bones. In the Mandeville region I was unable to find any Arawak de- posits. Three small caves in the decomposing limestone, a very slight idea of which is given by the photograph of a recently cleared and planted peasant’s tobacco field (fig. 63), yielded some interesting re- mains of mammals. No rock carvings or other indications of Arawak occupancy were detected. At Mandeville and also at Pepper, in the Santa Cruz Valley, I was enabled, through the kindness of Aubrey M. Lewis, Esq., and my cousin, Mrs. Lewis, to make a large collection of samples of wood of the native trees, which grow in great profusion on the Lewis es- tates at both places. Attention was also given to the reptiles and to the treefrogs that take advantage of the miniature aquaria held at the heart of the larger epiphytic plants. Near Montego Bay the chief objects of interest were the burial cave at “‘ California’? (now merged with the Rose Hall estate) on the north shore of the island and the extensive middens on the Bogue estate across the bay from the town. The cave at Rose Hall has been accurately described by Duerden. During the 35 years since he visited the locality the vegetation on the surface of the ridge where the cave is situated has changed from “more or less ruinate’ pasture to dense young forest. Under such a cover so small an object as the entrance to the cave is effectually hidden. The difficulty of finding it was greatly increased by the reluctance of the negroes on the estate to act as guides. One old man who had shown the place to Duerden nearly collapsed when ordered to accompany me. He said that immediately after going there with the “* other gentleman ” he was sick for two years, and that the night before my visit, having been told that he was to be ready the next morning to guide me, he dreamed that he saw two men digging his grave. That he was rendered quite useless by fear was evident. A bolder man was finally persuaded to take me to a point from which he could indicate a tree that marked the entrance of the cave. Arrived there he immediately sat down in the middle of the cart track that we were following, and for some time refused to move, thus signifying his determination to avoid danger. Some idea of the reason for this fear is given by Duerden’s remark (p. 28) that many of the bones in another Jamaican cave had been removed by the “ obeahmen’’ for SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 69 Fic. 66.—The Rose Hall mansion, of historic and legendary fame. An important Arawak burial cave is hidden in scrub back of the ridge. Fic. 67.—View on the Hampden estate. The pond abounds in native water birds, very tame and easily observed. Fic. 68.—Montego Bay. The sail boat is in water about 10 feet deep, so clear that the patches of coral and sponge on the bottom are plainly visible, 7O SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION their superstitious practices; and the local atmosphere of terror that is the heritage of the negroes with whom I came in contact has been vividly described by Herbert G. de Lisser in his ‘“‘ White Witch of Rose Hall.” (Ernest Benn, London, 1929). At the cordial invitation of Mrs. Maurice Malcomb and with the as- sistance of her overseer Cyril R. Andresen, 1 spent threelidaysmin examining an extensive Arawak village site on the shore of the Bogue estate near the mouth of the Montego River. The area occupied by this site is now at least three acres in extent. Formerly it must have been much larger, as the shoreline is undergoing rapid encroachment by wave action. Many stumps and trunks of large trees can be seen along the beach and in the shallow water of the bay. Bits of pottery and broken shell plates are numerous on the beach and in the water near it. How much has been removed by the sea cannot be determined, but I was told that the land extended out at least two chains (132 feet) beyond the present shoreline within the memory of persons now living. Shells and pottery fragments are thinly scattered every- where over the remaining portion of the village site, and are con- centrated in several large flat-topped mounds and ridges arranged with their long axes parallel with the beach. These deposits are of all depths up to about 4 feet. Though somewhat obscured by brush and by the cocoanut trees that have been planted on them the middens be- come sharply outlined as soon as their surfaces are cleared. This site was not described by Duerden, and is not mentioned in the manu- script list of more recent discoveries kindly given me by Frank Cundall, Director of the Institute of Jamaica. It appears to have re- mained unnoticed until Mr. Andresen detected it in January, 193r. Trenches cut through each of three of the mounds yielded many pottery fragments of the usual type as well as roughly chipped flints and some shell utensils. Bones of mammals were rather scarce. The Windsor estate (fig. 70), in the northern edge of the Cockpit country, was visited as a side trip from Montego Bay. [very facility for becoming acquainted with this exceptionally interesting region was furnished by Mrs. Agnes Donald-Hill, the owner of the estate, and her son, William Donald-Hill. A very large cave of great beauty, well lighted by electricity, is a notable feature of this estate. This cave shelters great numbers of bats, mostly of three kinds at the time of my visit, one of them the smallest known to occur in Jamaica. One shot from a “ game getter’ secured 27 specimens of this rather uncommon species (Chilonatalus micropus ). At Windsor a small cave and a rock shelter gave evidence of hay- ing been inhabited by Arawaks. Ashes, large land shells, mostly SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 i Fic. 70.—Wiindsor estate in the edge of the Cockpit country. Fic. 71.—Jamaica’s nearest approach to desert conditions. Coast region / oS < = > east of Kingston. 72 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Pleurodonte acuta and Pleurodonte jamaicensis, and broken pottery were deposited in both, theugh in small quantities as compared with the marine shells in the middens on Long Mountain and at Montego Bay. A noteworthy feature of both deposits was the presence of bones of the domestic pig, an animal of which I found no trace at the other sites. Possibly this occurrence of pig remains indicates that the natives were able to hold their own longer in the excessively rough Cockpit country than was possible for them along the coast, where their extermination by the Spaniards must have been easy and rapid. As the Cockpit country is of great botanical interest I spent much time, while at Windsor, in collecting plants. I also visited the cave at Pantrepant, the estate adjoining Windsor on the west, and there successfully photographed the curiously carved stalactite, a rough diagram of which was published by Duerden (p. 49). Here, as at all the other localities that he described and I visited, I found that Duerden has given a very full and accurate account of the existing conditions. Except for obtaining more complete details about the mammalian remains and discovering some rude shell utensils that he apparently failed to recognize as artifacts I found little that the earlier investigator had not seen or that was not fully represented in the Museum at Kingston. Characteristic specimens of these shell utensils have been given by the United States National Museum to the Institute of Jamaica. MOERELUSK EXPLORATIONS IN THE, FLORIDA KEYS By PAUL BARTSCH Curator, Division of Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates, U. S. National Museum During 1931, my explorations were confined to the Florida Keys with the main object of determining the status of my Cerion colonies, brought here from various parts of the Bahamas and the West Indies to determine the effects of changes in environment upon these or- ganisms, as well as the effects of hybridization produced by crossing various members of the genus. These colonies have been established at various times in the interval between 1912 and the present, and, thanks to the joint cooperation of the Smithsonian and Carnegie Institutions, I have had the opportunity of examining them nearly every year since the beginning of this work. Arriving at Key West on August 12, I made a collection of Cerion incanum there which I felt might possibly be needed in my experi- ments at the Tortugas. I also examined the two colonies planted at the former Fisheries Station, which were found to be merely hanging on. On August 13 I joined the Anton Dohrn on her last trip to the Tortugas, where the time between August 14 and 27 was spent in ex- amining Cerion colonies on Loggerhead and Garden keys, and in photographing the bird rookeries on Bird Key. I also exposed 800 feet of standard moving picture film undersea, obtaining additional photographs of the coral reef and its associated elements. I also joined the Anton Dohrn on a deep-sea dredging expedition off the Tortugas, where a lot of very interesting material was collected, which has been brought to the National Museum. I shall first say a word regarding the bird rookeries, and then re- turn to the Cerion problem. In the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1917, I published a short article on ‘* The Bird Rookeries of the Tortugas,” in which were described, among other things, the tern colonies of Bird Key. Since that paper was published, a decided change has taken place on Bird Key. All of its tree, bush, and shrub vegetation has been either entirely swept away by hurricanes or by their after effects, leaving little vegetation beyond the few species of ground-covering plants. Even the many coconut palms planted by the Audubon Society have gone under, only one of them remaining this summer. This change of vegetation has produced an interesting effect upon the habits 73 74 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION sien : : _, we ALS. WILD LIFE REFUGE } TRESPASSING PROHIBITED BIOLOGICAL SUP Fic. 72.—Bird Key with its tern colony at the end of the breeding season of 1931, showing the barren condition of the island and the crowding of its birds. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 NI Fic. 73.—Bird Key, taken on the same day as Figure 72, showing the birds sunning on the beach, and the fate of the warden’s house, which will soon be a thing of the past. cn 76 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION of the noddy terns, which formerly made their nests in trees or shrubs. This summer all had changed to a ground-dwelling habit. Still re- taining the desire to make nests, they gathered bits of dead twigs and shaped them into a semblance of a nest upon the ground. They ap- pear to have a decided ligno-tactic sense, for old boards seem to satisfy the desire for wooden homes, and birds were found incubating their eggs placed upon bare boards. All but one nest was on the ground, the exception being a nest placed in the single remaining young coconut. sird Key has been reduced to about half its former size by wind and waves, and the warden’s house, which some years ago was trans- ported from the west side to the center of the island, has been de- stroyed, the roof now resting upon the ground. This marks the en- croachment of the sea, which has eaten away the western half of the island. Figures 72 and 73 show glimpses of conditions as they obtained this summer. They should be compared with the illustrations in the paper referred to above. CERION COLONIES Prior to my experiments with Cerion breeding, it was generally held that these land mollusks were very plastic and readily responded to annual differences in environment; for example, it was held by some that a dry year might produce a dwarf progeny, a wet year with its more luscious vegetation, the opposite, and that the many forms which characterize the Bahamas, for example, might best be consid- ered merely responses to temporary environmental conditions. Our breeding experiments have already determined that the Bahaman Cerions require three years to attain maturity, and the West Indian four, which eliminates the seasonal effect. All our experiments to date, with one exception, have shown that during the interval of our experimentation, the various generations produced under the changed environmental conditions, and these are many, have produced no recognizable changes in the progeny of the different generations. Our hybridization experiments, on the other hand, have brought to light what I believe to be the basis of mutation. In both of the instances re- ported here and elsewhere where we have crosses of unrelated species an enormous number of mutants have appeared in the second genera- tion, paralleling such observations as have been noted for Lamarck’s evening primrose and the fruitflies. I have elsewhere recorded a simi- lar state of affairs for the genus Cerion, which I have found taking place in nature without the intervention of man. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I93I1 77 Fic. 74.—Three views of deep-sea dredging operations on board the Anton Dohrn, the yacht of the Marine Biological Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution. 78 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION On Loggerhead Key the colonies of Cerion casablancae and Cerion viaregis are in excellent condition. The small colony of Cerion in- canum between the dining hall and the water tower is doing well. From the mixed Colony I of Cerion casablancae and C. viaregts I gathered all the dead specimens—some 200—in order to study them at my leisure in Washington, to determine if the shells show any signs of hybridization of these two species. The colony of Cerion cras- silabris from Porto Rico, while not in a flourishing state, is, never- theless, holding its own. On Loggerhead Key all the other West Indian transplants have disappeared, including the huge importation of Cerion uva from Curacao. Fic. 75.—Eight hybrids of Cerion incanum and q Cerion viaregis produced in cages on Loggerhead Key, Fla. The most interesting part of the Cerion problem, however, hinges upon the low cages in each of which I had planted a specimen of Cerion viaregis and Cerion incanum. Here I obtained six adult speci- mens of the first generation hybrids, one almost adult, and young individuals. These we have planted in a similarly constructed cage, 6 x 6 feet in size, and it is hoped that we may obtain second generation progeny from them. No survivors were found on all the little artificial islands which have been reported upon previously. On Garden Key, I was greatly surprised to find three of the five Cuban species planted on the parapet in 1924 thriving, namely, Cerion SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 79 mummia, Cerion chrysalis, and Cerion tridentata. Two, Cerion sculp- tum and Cerion species?, seem not to have survived. On the morning of September 22 we set out for Key West in the launch Darwin, stopping at Boca Grande Key to determine the state of our Cerion viaregis colony there. This place seems to have been persistently burned over, even the Government beacon about which we scattered our mollusks failing to furnish protection, as it too has been burned down. We next visited Man and Boy Keys, and found that on both of these islands the places where our colonies had been planted were burned over. And, as on Boca Grande, not even a single dead shell was to be found. On September 23 we set out for Miami on the Darwin, and made our first stop on New Found Harbor Key. Here we found the hybrid colony Cerion viaregis * Cerion incanum flourishing. Mr. Munson, the owner of the island, has well kept his promise to protect these mollusks. I took 200 specimens, 100 for cytologizing and 100 for the National Museum collection at Washington. This did not make a serious inroad in the colony. Our next stop was on Bahia Honda, where I received several sur- prises. The first was the finding of a thriving colony of Cerion in- canum in the elevated sandy stretch of the southeast portion of the island. In all our previous visits to this key we were unable to find any living specimens of Cerion incanum. Dead shells, it is true, were buried in the sand in many places, but so were those of Orystyla undata. I took several hundred of these shells for the collection at Washington. The second surprise was a hybrid between Cerion incanum and Cerion casablancae. These hybrids occur about the junction of the incanum colony and the colony of Cerion casablancae on the south side of the ditch that divides the Cerion casablancae colony. Judging from the great diversity of form among these hybrids, I believe them to represent, at least in part, second generation material. Next to the New Found Harbor Key colony I consider this the greatest return in the hybridization work. Figures 76 and 77 show a hundred of these mollusks ; the specimens are now in the collection of the United States National Museum. Still a third surprise was a change in size even apparent in the field—in the members of the Cerion casablancae colony on the north side of the ditch. Comparing the average measurements, as well as 6 INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN 8o -}0q) aIuD/GQvsvI °F ay} 0 (QZ “Sy Jo doz) wus ‘AON BpuopY eye uO si AUOJOD ay ‘satdads OM} asat -SIJ Ul UMOYS sso} YIM 1943980} YOIyA ‘avI2uD)GQvsp “(£2 ‘sy Jo wo} ur“) 94} WOI} UOWYPRIS B SMOYS UOTI]aIS INQ) “ePy ]} UZIMJoq PoJI}o IB} OS SsO41D 4sIY 94} JUaSdIda1 QZ 91n I UOldaD X WNUDIUI U014d) JO splaqdy AVrI—'o9Z ‘OIN SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I93I1 81 .—Fifty more hybrids of Cerion incanum X Cerion casablancae. ice, G74 82 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION the greatest and least altitude and diameter of a check series measured in 1920 with the present results, we obtain the following table: No. of Altitude Diameter whorls of shell of shell peecey sa f Check series vette eens 10.92 27.19 TU, | Bahia Honda series.... 10.05 23.118 11.592 Crete oN (Check “seties 720 4. Ital 32.9 15.6 \ Bahia Honda series.... 11.4 28.3 1333 Cr ee f Check SELICS Mee 10.0 24.0 11.0 | Bahia Honda series.... 8.6 18.5 10.2 This shows plainly that there has been a decided tendency toward dwarfing in all measurements in this colony; the single increase of 0.3 of a whorl in one of the hundred specimens seems negligible. It would be interesting to know the factors that are responsible for this. We next visited Cerion Key, wrongly listed as Duck Key in 1912 when we planted 500 Cerion viaregis here. As on several previous visits, not a Cerion was to be found, the rank grass having completely swamped them. Anchoring near Tea Table Key for the night I visited that island at dusk and was very pleasantly surprised to find the colony of Cerion casablancae flourishing to such an extent that I was easily able to pick up Too specimens from the vegetation bordering the north shore of the island. These are now in the United States National Museum. A comparison of the average measurements, as well as the great- est and least altitude and diameter of the check series with similar measurements of the specimens from Tea Table Key, yields the fol- lowing table: No. of Altitude Diameter whorls of shell of shell ¢ Check GEREN Goocossec 10.92 27.19 G7 IAVELARECY 1. wie). Te: ae: aa hae i | Tea Table Key series.. 10.537 28.097 12.703 iCheclkeaseriesi lec seuss + a: LLad 2, 15.€ Greatest ..... ons S a ra 3 9 5-9 \ilea Dable Keyvseries\. .115 32. 15.1 ie ( Checksseries --.....-% 10.0 24.0 11.0 \ Tea Table Key series.. 9.5 23.8 11.2 This shows that the Tea Table colony has continued to breed true to type. On August 24 we visited Indian Key where a careful search failed to show Cerions. This colony, too, is extinct. Later in the day Sands Key and the Ragged Keys were subjected to an equally careful search, but all of these failed to reveal Cerions. The colonies near Miami must therefore be considered wiped out—one of the results of the Florida boom, which changed these keys from primitive tangles into estates and building lots. COEMECTING FLIES IN RHE GASPE’ PENINSULA OF PASTE RN QUEBEC By Jo MAL DRICEH Associate Curator, Division of Insects, U. S. National Museum That portion of eastern Quebec lying south of the St. Lawrence River is included in the so-called Gaspé Peninsula. This region has several features of interest to the student of geographic distribution. For one thing it represents the extreme northeast end of the Ap- palachian Mountain system, which terminates, as far as the main land is concerned, at Cape Gaspé, although the mountains of New- foundland are considered to belong to the same system. A second feature of interest is that this region is separated by a comparatively narrow body of salt water (the Lower St. Lawrence) from Labrador. The latter region includes many plants and insects of the northern circumpolar region, in other words, species occurring in Northern Europe and Asia as well as in North America. I was interested in endeavoring to learn whether any of the characteristic northern flies of Labrador could be found on the south side of the St. Lawrence. About three years ago a graveled automobile road was completed around the entire outer edge of the Gaspé Peninsula with a connecting link from St. Flavie across the base of the peninsula, forming a loop about 525 miles in length. It has therefore become possible quite re- cently to explore the peninsula by automobile and this was the pur- pose of my trip carried out in July, 1931. Leaving Washington on the first day of the month, accompanied by my wife, we drove through New England and New Brunswick to Shippigan, a fishing town at the northeast point of the province of New Brunswick. Here we turned west and followed the south shore of Bay de Chaleur to its head at Metapedia, where we entered the province of Quebec. Turning eastward we followed the automobile road close to the seashore to the eastern extremity of the province at the town of Gaspé, and after a few days continued west along the north side of the peninsula, returning to Washington via the cities of Quebec and Montreal. The Peninsula is almost entirely without settlement in its interior, the population living in a very narrow strip along the seashore all the way around the margin. A railroad extends along the south side to 83 84 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 78.—Gaspé Bay, looking northeast from Buckley’s Camp, Gaspé. Daisies grow so luxuriantly that they soon crowd out the timothy in the hay fields. Fie. 79.—Head of Gaspé Bay, looking northwest. Note the settlement confined to ocean shore. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 85 Si ee Fic. 80.—Cape Gaspé, north side, looking east against the sun. Gasoline launches used in cod fishing are at anchor in foreground. Fic. 81.—Riviere a la Martre, Gaspé. : 86 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION the town of Gaspé and another line extends from the city of Quebec along the north side of the peninsula to Matane, but eastward from Matane to the tip of the peninsula is a strip of nearly 200 miles not provided with any railroad, where the new automobile road is the only means of communication except the ocean. Of course, the entire population is French and we found compara- tively few people who could speak English, even those in charge of the hotels. Tourist business, however, is increasing so rapidly that it seems inevitable that more provision will be made in the near future for travellers who speak only English. The country is very beautiful and we enjoyed every hour of our stay init. I found it much more difficult than I had expected to reach the higher altitudes of the mountains in the interior; so | was unable to collect on any real mountains at all, although altitudes of 600 to 800 feet were occasionally attained. A considerable number of flies were collected, representing many species, most of which however seemed to be the commoner forms occurring in the Appalachian Mountain system much farther south. A good deal of attention was given to collecting the species of flies characteristic of the seashore, in the hope that some of the Labrador forms would make their appearance here. As far as the material has yet been studied, however, it seems that no striking northern forms were found; from which the preliminary conclusion is drawn that the breadth of the Lower St. Lawrence is sufficient to form a barrier against the spread of the northern flies southward. Curiously enough I repeatedly found on the seashore of this peninsula the same species of flies I have often collected on the shore of Chesapeake Bay, near Washington, D. C. These flies have a much wider distribution north- ward than had hitherto been supposed, which was one of the inter- esting discoveries of my trip. We found the automobile a very satisfactory means of travel. We did not try to make very long daily journeys, stopping to collect 1n- sects occasionally. At night we stopped at tourist camps where these were available, and where there were none, we made use of the hotels of the country. My illustrations are from photographs that I took on the Gaspé Peninsula. COLLM CHING GRASSES, IN TEXAS, LOUISIANA, AND NORTHEASTERN MEXICO By J. R. SWALLEN Section of Grasses, U. S. National Museum The territory including Louisiana, Texas, and northeastern Mexico contains many varied and interesting grasses. During April, May, and June, I made a trip to various localities in this region to study this element of the flora in the spring and early summer. Arriving at 3rownsville, Tex., early in April, I spent about two weeks in collect- ing in the Rio Grande Valley and on the Coastal Plain as far north as Sarita. During recent years the Rio Grande Valley has greatly developed its agricultural resources—so much, in fact, that 1f the same rate of ad- vance is continued in the future, it will not be many years until the native flora will be largely a thing of the past. As the soil is naturally very fertile all that is needed to bring it into productivity is clearing of the land and a sufficient water supply. Where there was once mesquite and cacti, truck farms and orange groves now flourish. It is highly desirable that as much of the original flora as possible be known before it is gone forever. Of especial interest along the Rio Grande is the grove of the endemic palm (Sabal texana). In sharp contrast to the rich valley are the sandy stretches of Kennedy and Willacy counties, an excellent region for grasses which provide good forage for cattle. Characteristic of this region are the low sand hills—areas of barren, loose, shifting sands. It is not diffi- cult at places to imagine oneself in the midst of a vast desert. The month of May was spent in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico, a region that has scarcely been touched by botanical explorations. The area is a rolling plain, with mountains in the south and central por- tions, and is only slightly developed. Stock raising, for which the country is well suited, is one of the principal industries. Fruits, hene- quin, and sugar cane are among the principal agricultural products. For several days I collected near Victoria, the capital of the state, and in the foothills of the Sierra Madre nearby. The lower part of the mountains supports a dense growth of brush and small trees, making travel difficult off the regular trails. The upper slopes, however, are more open and are covered with a dense growth of various kinds of 87 88 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION i ¢ “ Fic. 82—One of the hills of shifting sand in Kennedy County, Tex. aie Fic. 83.—Low sand dunes on Padre Island off the coast of Texas. The . vegetation here is mainly Sporobolus virginicus. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 89 Fic. 84—A view along the main ridge of the Great Smoky Mountains looking from Thunderhead to Gregory Bald. c=) oa 2 paar tee ad me RS 4% ote Fe ee ee : es a See Fic. 85.—Near the summit of Thunderhead are brilliantly colored azaleas and rhododendrons which contrast sharply with the brilliant green of the grassy meadow. gO SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION grasses, one of the more frequent being a species of Epicampes, a genus which is rather common in the mountains of Mexico. I made a short trip to Jaumave, which is situated in a mountain valley to the southwest of Victoria, where a large amount of henequin is grown for fiber. However, the season was a little too early in the mountains for profitable collecting. The largest and most interesting part of my collections I obtained at El Chamal, about 7 miles from the coast and a short distance north of the Soto la Marina River. The grass flora is surprisingly rich in this locality, owing in part at least to the diverse habitats, which vary from open sandy grasslands to rich brushy woodland. A large proportion of the species found were either additions to the flora of Mexico or extensions of known ranges. The work in Louisiana included a study of the marsh lands of Cameron Parish and a visit to Last Island. Last Island is one of a series of islands a short distance off the coast in the Gulf of Mexico. They are of special interest in that they are gradually disappearing and eventually may be reduced to nothing more than sand bars. A number of years ago Last Island was a well-wooded, popular resort, and hotels were maintained there. Severe storms, however, have completely de- nuded it, and the only inhabitants are a few scattered fishermen. From the mainland it appears only as a dark line on the horizon. About 12 species of grasses are found there, one of them being a little- known species of Andropogon which is common on some of the low sand dunes. Toward the last of June I made collections in the vicinity of Biloxi, Miss., and in the Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee. During the three months’ trip a total of nearly 1,000 specimens were collected, together with the necessary information concerning them. ANTHROPOLOGICAMO WORK IN ALASKA By ALES HRDLICKA Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. S. National Musewm My work in 1931 extended to the Nushagak, Molchatna, and Wood rivers, Bristol Bay, the Kvichak River, parts of the Iiamna Lake region, and portions of Kodiak Island. It consisted, as in previous years, of anthropometric observations on the living, and of the col- lection of the older skeletal as well as archeological material, involv- ing considerable excavation. The results were gratifying, definitely clearing up a number of problems, and adding over 100 boxes of specimens to our collections. The success of the work in these difficult and isolated regions was largely due to the generous aid extended to me by the Alaska Pack- ers Association, San Francisco, through its Vice-President, B. R. Hart, and its Superintendents, particularly Gordon Jones in Larsen Bay ; by the Pacific American Fisheries, through its Vice-President, A. W. Shiels, and its Superintendents, especially F. Daly, A. D. Daly, and A. S. Foster; by the officials and employees of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, particularly Dr. W. H. Rich and F. Lucas ; and by many individual friends. Especial thanks among the latter are due to Mrs. Laura Jones, of Larsen Bay, who not only donated a series of rare specimens but aided me in every possible way and even assisted, with Doctor Rich, Mr. Hart, and other friends, in the actual excavations. Much valuable aid and hospitality was also received, and is hereby gratefully acknowledged, from P. A. Berglund, Superinten- dent of the Northwestern Cannery at Naknek; from Chris Nielson, at Koggiung ; from Hans Sieverson of the Iliamna Lake; and from the captain and other officers of the steamships Chirikof, Chilcat, Ad- mirally, Crane, and Lakina. The work began in the latter part of May at the head of Bristol Bay, but as the ground was still much frozen, I proceeded to Dilling- ham, on the Nushagak River, where I hired a small trapper’s boat and with this and the aid of Butch Smith, its owner, covered in three weeks over 600 miles of the Nushagak River and its tributaries. The region was found to be but very sparsely peopled now, the total num- ber of natives reaching barely over 200, most of them mixed bloods. 3ut there we found a good number of old sites, at least one of which was of greater extent than any seen on the more northern rivers. OI g2 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION There were indications that all these villages existed up to the time of the coming of the Russians and some even until the arrival of Ameri- cans, the last remnants of their people dying out during the influenza epidemic of 1919. The natives now on these rivers are almost all later comers with accretions from places as far distant as Togiak and the Kuskokwim. No part of this region had ever been touched by a scientific man and it therefore presented a virgin field for exploration. The old sites yielded much precious skeletal material, but all attempts at archeological excavation had to be abandoned for the time, owing to complete lack of labor. The measurements on the living and the skeletal remains showed conclusively that the entire watershed of the Nushagak, with the probable exception of the uppermost reaches of the Molchatna, was peopled by a uniform type of Eskimo population, identical with that of the Kuskokwim basin. The burials also were of the Kuskokwim type, with local modifications. A few of the burials in the old sites had been above ground, but the majority were from 23 to 35 feet deep in the ground, which was still partly frozen. The bodies in the older burials were invariably in the contracted position. Upon return to Naknek a second effort was made to excavate the burials of the old “ Aleut” village of Pawik, uninhabited for at least 75 years and covering a large site on the high right bank of the Naknek River, not far from its mouth. But the ground was still frozen so deeply that not much could be done, and so I proceeded 35 miles westward, to the Egigik River. Here was found the very advantage- ously situated burial ground of the old Egigik village, and a few days of trenching and other excavation produced some excellent material. Here is also one of the shortest and still used passes across the Peninsula. It takes but nine hours with a small motor boat and over the short portage to reach the Pacific. All through these regions and those visited later there were heard tales, both from the natives and the old white settlers, of former 1n- cursions from the Kuskokwim, from Togiak, from Kanakak, and even from the western ‘‘ Aleut” territory, and of consequent “ battles,” some of which ‘‘ made the waters run red.” It was invariably those from the north or the west who were attacking the people of the eastern parts of the Peninsula. The results of this were the intro- duction of more or less newer blood and customs, but also more or less local breaking up or depopulation. The complete extinction of the old peninsular villages however is ascribed invariably to epidemics brought by the white man, the final blows having been the several attacks of the “ flu.” That of 1919 left so many dead in places that SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 93 Fic. 86.—Our boat on the Nushagak River, off Kakwak. Approximately 600 miles of the Nushagak and affluent rivers were covered in this boat, which also carried our gasoline, provisions, empty boxes, specimens, and tools. Be ae ee Fic. 87—Nushagak River, June 5. Deep snow on north bank, 30 miles above Dillingham. In places the snow and ice were still up to ro feet in thickness. The frozen ground in these regions constitutes a great obstacle to excavation. INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN O4 ‘pjo sxeaX 1 ynoqe ‘pooyqyny ‘19yysnep SEM On Nb “JOATY YYYLL Yeuesieyy—o6g 9) ‘po saeof gi ynoqe “pooyqyny ‘Aoq EEE) SEN JOATY AMPYLL “Yeuesyeyy—gg “oy SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 95 the United States Coast Guard Service had to be called on for the disposal of the bodies. From Egigik I returned for the third time to the important Pawik site on the Naknek River and this time, thanks to the kind aid and hospitality of P. A. Berglund, Superintendent of the nearby North- western Cannery, and because of the advanced season, it was possible to unearth a series of old skeletons, as well as a fair collection of archeological remains. A particularly interesting find among the latter was that of parts of four slate arrow or dart points of the “ Folsom type,” one of which lay in the deposits near a blue Russian bead. Another point of the same type had been obtained previously on the Nushagak River, and the same bilateral fluting is common .in the points of the fossil ivory culture of the Bering Strait region. The next prolonged stop was on the Kvichak River, 4 miles from its mouth in the Iliamna Lake. Here on the left bank of the river exists a large old site, abandoned “ long ago,” which notwithstanding much frost and ice in the ground could be explored with some ade- quacy, thanks to the aid of the fine lot of boys from the nearby weir- camp of the Bureau of Fisheries, headed by Fred Lucas, and which yielded very valuable material. From the Kvichak two trips were made to the great Hiamna Lake, which although not rich in anthropological results yielded some ob- servations on a remnant of living “Aleut” natives at the Newhalen River, and four fine “ Kenai” skeletons from Knud’s Bay. The route then led, in company with Mr. Hart, across the 12-mile portage to Iliamna Bay on Cook’s Inlet, and, with the invaluable aid of one of his boats, to Larsen Bay on Kodiak Island. The work in Uyak and Larsen bays, Kodiak Island, proved from the start one of absorbing interest. It is another virgin field, and proved to be one of unexpected richness. With the help of excellent friends, Mr. Hart, Mr. and Mrs. Jones, Doctor Rich, Mr. Barnaby, and others, I was soon able to locate a series of sites, several of which were of considerable extent, and the excavations in one of these proved so fruitful from the first day that they were carried on for 15 days without interruption. Not a day elapsed without the discovery of some unique specimen ; some of the objects showed remarkable art, hitherto wholly unknown from these regions. Much skeletal material was also recovered. The site in which the excavations were carried on is on an elevated rocky point projecting into Uyak Bay. It extends both back and laterally and covers approximately about two acres. Over this 7 96 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 90.—Woods Lake. Old site at mouth of Woods River. Depopulated during the last epidemic of influenza. Fic. 91Woods Lake site excavations. Strenuous work in the jungle which obscured traces of ancient burials. ‘Butch’? Smith on the right, the writer taking out an old skeleton. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 9 Fic. 92—Kaskanok, Kvichak River. The Bureau of Fisheries boys at the excavations. Doctor Rich farthest on the right. These men, and par- ticularly the third from the left, have helped much in the author's excava- tions on the river. Fic. 93 —Kodiak Island, Uyak Bay. Jones Point, from the east. The top of the elevation in middle and all the background to the extent of about 2 acres is covered by an important pre-Russian site. It was here that excava- tions were conducted. The site has been named by the author in honor of Mrs. Jones, who made the original excavations on the site. 98 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION the remains of semisubterranean dwellings and their accumulations (kitchen refuse) range from approximately 4 to over 15 feet in depth, reaching collectively about 500,000 cubic feet of ashes, shell detritus, rubble, and earth, throughout all of which are found with more or less frequency specimens of cultural nature, with animal and human bones. According to all indications this site is one of the oldest yet discovered in the far north. The lack of all traces of white man, wood reduced to streaks of formless brown rot, and the considerable filling in of the dwelling depressions with subsequent burials in these by later natives, all point to the conclusion that the site is prehistoric, ee Fic. 94.—Jones Point, Uyak Bay, Kodiak Island. Excavations by the writer on the east side of the point. Mrs. Jones standing to the left of the excavation. pre-Russian, and that its occupation extended for a relatively long time backward. The deposits, further, are not homogeneous and may be the result of repeated occupation. As on the Nushagak and on Bristol Bay, I was confronted here with an enormous and highly promising task, and at the same time with a total lack of labor. The very few whites and natives that live on the bay were all fishing, and the cannery, with the unexpectedly large run of fish this year, was itself short of labor. Asa great favor, nevertheless, they gave me one of the dock hands to help for two weeks with the shoveling. With him, though he observed strictly union rules and hours, and the help each day of from one to four friends, it was possible to make four satisfactory ‘‘ incisions ” into the SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 99 edges of the deposits, besides a few trenches and holes in the more cen- tral parts of the site, all of which resulted in 19 boxes of specimens. The burial ground of the site, which may contain many skeletons, was not discovered, and a vast amount of promising material remains to be worked over. This must be the task of another season and under better conditions so far as help is concerned. Besides the work at the site just mentioned, which in honor of Mrs. Laura Jones I have called the “ Jones Point Site,” visits were made to the important region of Karluk Village and River on the northern shore of the island; to Chiefs Point, at the head of the Uyak Bay ; to Amok Island, deep in the bay ; and to the head of Larsen Bay. At all these places were found large and important sites that call for exploration. And many other sites were reported in different other parts of the island, calling for a survey of the whole region. This summer’s exploration and anthropometric observations have resulted in clearing or settling the following hitherto obscure points: The natives of the Nushagak River and watershed are definitely all Eskimo. They belong to the southwestern type of the race, are identi- cal with the Kuskokwim and the neighboring Tundra Eskimo, and are largely if not entirely derived from these. The Peninsula was a regular sieve for movements of people from the north southward. There is a whole series of passes more or less easily practicable for even primitive people. About every 30 to 40 miles from east to west a good sized “river” extends for various distances from the north into the peninsula, ending in one or more lakes from which generally smaller streams lead farther southward to within a short distance of streams that run towards the Pacific. People such as the Eskimo or the Indian could readily, it was seen, have come along the western coasts, reached these passes and carried their skin boats over the few rapids and portages, after which they found themselves close to or within Shelikof Strait, facing the visible Kodiak Island, or in Cook’s Inlet; and from both of these regions the way towards the northwest coast and the rest of the continent was open. This was plainly the most natural and the easiest way of procedure for all comers from the Bering Sea and northwestern Asia. The peopling of America therefore, as surmised before, took place not through Alaska but along its western coasts and through the Peninsula. The now nearly extinct people of the eastern half of the Peninsula, from probably. beyond Port Moller to and including the Kvichak River, though they uniformly called themselves “Aleuts,” were found in substance to be the same as those of the Nushagak, the Togiak, and the Kuskokwin regions, and are doubtless of the same old derivation. INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN TOO ‘sayour fg ‘ysuoT ‘pue[sy yeIpoy ‘Aeg yex~, ‘yulog Sauof ye uoeAeoOXa UI Ja}4IM 94} Aq punoy ‘ainziesjiod s[qeyivuiat e Surmoys ‘qt ayeymM e& JO JNO paaieo JuRepuead jsvoiq adie] W—'96 “DIY ‘soyour € ‘yyslofY ‘“9U0}S YIIM prIe[UT usaq sary ABUL S}PIGIOQ “juepuad yseoiq eB A[qeqoig ‘afoyM 94} surljunou -Ins UMOID JO }10S B pue UOlJe1OD9p aos os[e ‘ainyeszi0d a[qeyieuiot eB Ssurmoys anbejd A1oAT plo [njneag——S6 ‘Iq IOI SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I931 , *‘Soyout FOL ‘Yjsue] 94} UO SSUTATeS 19430 PUB [MO 24} JO Peay ay} Je sInsy UuPUNnY sijy Aq Wnosnyy [PUOTJENY ‘pur[s] yRiIpoy ‘Aeq HPAL) Ur 9}Is ueissny-otd e wor} due] au0}s adie] B yo yde1s0j04q— 46 “OL ‘Q0Bf.INS XIAUOD ‘sayout 6 ‘yysuaT “YseAA ‘aII}e9g ‘[peqqnA Ase Mousueauigad ! : : S) jo Ajstodoig S9}€}S pails) 94} 01 payeuog -Y1eWaI OM} SMOYS [MO 94], JU0}S ISIP] ‘sayeyM yoR[q jo Sainsy painqdynos nyyywey Alqe ‘e[Nsuluag leusy ‘Avg YyeuUayoRy [BUISsI10 40 ‘souof PBine| ydeis0j04q—'g6 102 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The root of the word Al-eut is really, it seems, “ute,” meaning + people,” and identical with the ute ‘or uit)’ in” Une” (Cpro- nounced “ In-ute’’) in “ Mahlem-ute” and other names ending similarly, of the Eskimo further north. There are only some dialectic with a few cultural differences between these “Al-utes” and the people of Nushagak, Kanatak, Togiak, Kuskokwim. These eastern “Al-utes ” extend, or did so in the recent past, over the Iamna Lake to Newhalen River and Knud’s Bay, on the northern shore, where they met with or superseded the Kenai; and they ex- tended along the whole southern shore, though there were but a few settlements. The Kenai began at Newhalen River, Knud’s and neigh- boring harbors, and at Hiamna Village, extending thence to the Clark Lakes and Cook’s Inlet. The lines of demarkation between these eastern eskimoid Al-utes and the neighboring “‘ Kenai” are not very distinct and many in- dividuals of either group cannot be distinguished from those of the other, but in general the Kenai in their physiognomies approach more closely the Indian. The Kodiak Island culture presents considerable individuality, and evidence of considerable age. It shows a relationship on one hand to that of the Eskimo, and on the other to that of the northwest coast. The skeletal remains appear to resemble those of the eastern AL-ute, but show also other interesting characteristics. Kodiak Island shows the first trace in the far north of cranial de- formation, of the cradle-board variety (occipital flattening). But this was not universal. The remains on Kodiak Island show numerous and unmistakable signs of long-continued cannibalism. The numerous old rich deposits on Kodiak Island, hitherto un- touched, open an important new, large, and promising field for Ameri- can exploration. ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN NORTHERN ALASK” [Bae IBUBINIROY 18 (COINS, IIR Assistant Curator, Division of Ethnology, U. S. National Museum In continuation of the Institution’s program of investigation of prehistoric Eskimo cultures, Messrs. James A. Ford and Moreau B. Chambers were detailed to carry on archeological work in Alaska during the past summer. Mr. Ford had spent the summer of 1930 in Alaska, principally on St. Lawrence Island, with the writer. Attention was directed again to St. Lawrence Island, just south of Bering Strait, where the previous excavations had revealed abundant evidence of the ancient and highly developed Old Bering Sea culture. In addi- tion, the work was extended to Point Barrow on the Arctic coast, which apparently marked the eastern limit of this culture. The St. Lawrence investigations were conducted by Mr. Chambers, while Mr. Ford proceeded to Point Barrow. As in previous years, transportation from Seattle was furnished by the Coast Guard Cutter Northland, and especial thanks are due to Capt. E. D. Jones for his usual interest and cooperation. While waiting at Unalaska for the ice in the Bering Sea to break up there was opportunity for excavating to some extent in the large kitchenmiddens which mark the sites of two of the prehistoric Aleut villages on Amaknak Island. The middens in this part of Alaska are large in extent, and being unfrozen, are relatively easy to excavate; but, for the same reason, many objects of a perishable nature have not been preserved as is the case in the permanently frozen Eskimo middens farther north where material such as wood, hides, and baleen is held in perpetual cold storage. A burial cave on a small island near Unalaska was also explored and a collection of bones and artifacts dating from pre-Russian times was obtained. The bodies apparently had been mummified and wrapped in matting and other fabrics according to Aleut custom, for pieces of dried flesh and fragments of the wrappings were found. However, the cave had been disturbed previously and the bones and other ma- terials were scattered about in confusion. One of the most interest- ing objects found with the burials was a unique type of stone labret, having two projections representing the upper central incisor teeth. 103 104. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Late in June Mr. Chambers was put ashore at the Eskimo village of Gambell, at the northwestern end of St. Lawrence Island, where he remained until the Northland returned for him in September. Exca- vations were carried on at several old village sites in the vicinity of Gambell which, in 1930, had yielded a remarkably clear picture, or cross section, of prehistoric Eskimo culture from a very early period down to the present time.’ The material excavated by Mr. Chambers adds to the completeness of the picture, furnishing additional links between the several culture stages. The oldest evidence of human occupancy thus far found on the Is- land was obtained at a small village site near Gambell which was dis- covered almost by accident. This site, on the lower slope of the Gambell cape or mountain, had been completely covered over by moss and tundra and the Eskimos living at Gambell, less than a mile away, were not aware of its existence. Excavation has proved this to be a pure site of the Old Bering Sea culture, a village which had been es- tablished and abandoned during the period, many centuries ago, when this rich old Arctic culture existed along the coasts of Siberia and Alaska in the vicinity of Bering Strait. The material excavated from this site and from the next oldest site, nearby, affords a basis for a reconstruction in outline of the life and habits of the Eskimos of the Old Bering Sea period. They lived in small houses, square or rectangular in outline, which were built partly underground and entered by means of a long narrow passageway. The floors were of stone slabs and the walls were made of small drift- wood timbers laid horizontally one above the other and held in place with bone and wooden stakes. The nature of the roof construction has not been determined clearly but it seems likely that timbers were also employed for this purpose. These earliest St. Lawrence Eskimos lived by hunting, very much as do those of the present day. The principal animals captured were walrus, seals, and birds, and these supplied the essential means of livelihood: blubber and meat for food ; oil for heat, light and cooking; and skins for clothing, boat coverings, and other purposes. Whaling occupied a much less prominent role in their lives than it came to have among the later Eskimos. Many of the com- mon implements in use at that time differed little or not at all from those used centuries later. Their art, however, was unique, and it is this feature which gives the Old Bering Sea culture its character- istic stamp. ‘Ancient culture of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Explorations and Field- Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1930, pp. 135-144. 105 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 ‘g[AJs YNuNG a} Ul payesodap aie pue J9}R[ J1e 6 0} Q Woy aSOY} !a[AJs BAS SBULI9g PIO PY} UI payerodop 91B S 0} IT WoI} potoquinu spofqo oyy, y4e OWLYsy S1410ysIYosd JO Sa8vjS OM] SUIMOYS PURIS] SUaAIMET “JS UO SoseI[IA OUNLYSa Pauopueqe Worf payBavoxa syoa/qo AIOAT— 60 “DIY 100 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Fic. 100 —St. Lawrence Island Eskimos. Paul Silook, at left, and his family at Gambell. Fic. 101—The walls of an ancient Eskimo house begin to appear in one of the excavations at Miyowaghameet, a deserted site near Gambell, St. Lawrence Island. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 107 Working with stone tools, these prehistoric Eskimo artists carved from bone and walrus ivory their many and ingenious forms of imple- ments, weapons, and ornaments. Some of their productions, such as animal figures and human heads, are very good examples of carving in the round, but the art that is most typical of the period consists of a graceful arrangement of curving, flowing lines deftly incised on ivory surfaces. The essential motives around which the designs center are circular or elliptical figures, made free hand and usually slightly raised so as to suggest the eyes of an animal; lightly incised lines, some of them dotted, along with more deeply cut lines for contrast, serve to balance and unify the designs. The beauty of the Old Bering Sea pieces thus decorated is accentuated by the soft rich shades of cream, brown, and even black which the ivory has assumed through centuries of burial in the frozen soil. After having flourished for centuries in northern Alaska and Si- beria there came a time, probably more than a thousand years ago, when certain aspects of the Old Bering Sea culture, particularly its art, underwent rather sudden change. Instead of the skillfully ex- ecuted curvilinear designs, the lines became deeper, straighter, and more evenly incised, resulting in a style which while still graceful, was distinctly inferior to that which had preceded it. This style of art has been designated as Punuk, from the small island 4 miles off the eastern end of St. Lawrence, where in 1928 it was first found in iso- lation. At Gambell, Punuk art appears for the first time in the upper levels of the second oldest site and overlies material of Old Bering Sea type. In two other sites nearby it occurs exclusively, and at a third site, very recent as shown by the presence of iron, glass beads, and modern types of implements, it is scantily represented. There is now a sufficient body of material from the old sites on St. Lawrence to show that the simplified Punuk art was mainly an outgrowth of the curvilinear art of the Old Bering Sea period, even though at first glance the two styles appear hardly related. While it is often a fruitless procedure to speculate on the causes which may have brought about cultural changes in the remote past, there is some evidence that a contributing factor toward the decline of the rich Old Bering Sea art was the introduction of iron tools from the Orient some hundreds of years before the arrival of the Russians into northeastern Siberia in the seventeenth century. Authentic Chi- nese records are known which show that iron was being used in north- * Prehistoric art of the Alaskan Eskimo. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 81, no. 14, 1929. 108 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION sastern Siberia in the third century A. D. This being the case, it would be natural to assume that the neighboring Eskimos would likewise have possessed some of the metal, if only in very small quantities. At any rate, it is certain that the deeply and evenly incised lines and the perfect circles of the Punuk period were produced with metal instru- ments; and that these must have long antedated the time of first Russian contact is shown by the fact that typical Punuk art is found from top to bottom of 16-foot kitchenmiddens at old sites which ac- cording to every indication have been abandoned for two hundred years. While the Old Bering Sea art was undergoing changes in the western area around Bering Strait, as outlined above, modifications along somewhat different lines were taking place farther to the east- ward. Recent excavations 1n the central Eskimo area of northern Canada and also in Greenland have brought to light evidence of a widespread old Eskimo culture which has been designated as Thule. Instead of being similar to the culture of the present Central Eskimo, the old Thule culture shows a surprising resemblance to that of Alaska. Indeed, the resemblances are so close and so many that there can be no doubt but that the Thule culture had its origin in Alaska. Thule types of implements, particularly harpoon heads, are found also on St. Lawrence Island and at Bering Strait, but there they are comparatively recent, being associated with the later stages of the Punuk. As we proceed eastward along the Arctic coast, however, Thule traits are seen to become more abundant, and since there have been no systematic archeological investigations in this area the pre- cise nature of the relationship between the two old cultures remains to be determined. The most important strategic point for such an in- vestigation seems to be Point Barrow, for according to present indica- tions this was on the one hand the most easterly point to which the Old Bering Sea culture extended and on the other the most westerly point at which the Thule existed as a predominant type. The determination of the exact relationship between the Old Ber- ing Sea and Thule cultures was made one of the primary objectives of the 1931 expedition, the investigation being intrusted to James A. Ford. After leaving the Northland at Nome, Mr. Ford continued north- ward through Bering Strait and up the Arctic coast to Point Barrow on the trading schooner Patterson. The Institution is greatly in- debted to Capt. C. T. Pedersen for his assistance in furnishing Mr. Ford with transportation. As originally planned, excavations SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1931 109 Fic. 102.—The Coast Guard cutter Northland plowing its way through the ice in Norton Sound. Fic. 103—Eskimos cutting up walrus killed on the ice off Wainwright, on the Arctic coast of Alaska. Fic. 104.—Umiak used by Mr. Ford in landing the mail and camp equip- ment from the Patterson at Peard Bay. The 50 miles from Peard Bay to Point Barrow was made with dog team and sled. See Figure 107. 110 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION about a month—hbe- were to be made at Barrow during the period tween the arrival of the Patterson and the departure of the last ship late in August. However, ice conditions along the Arctic coast of Alaska were the worst in many years, and the Patterson and the few other ships bound for Barrow were greatly delayed. The following extracts from letters received from Mr. Ford will give some idea of the conditions encountered : The 15th (of July) found us off Point Lay. Since then we have been waiting for a favorable NE. wind to let us through but the southeasterlys have moved the ice pack up to Wainwright. We have been back to Point Lay five times and to Icy Cape so often that we are considering erasing the “of San Francisco” on the stern and substituting “of Icy Cape.” .... While still stuck below Wain- wright I took an Eskimo crew and worked along the shore in an umiak as far as possible and walked in carrying the mail. I went so that I might have an opportunity to examine several sites along the coast, but found none that were very old. At Wainwright the teacher showed me some harpoon heads he had purchased from a native living at the old site of Nunakaak, 23 miles up the coast, which led me to make an examination of the site. As the sea was closed I went by dog team and got in four days of work before the ice opened and the Patterson picked me up. The harpoon heads we found were mostly modern and Thule, no Birnirks. Finally, after very slow progress through the ice pack, the Patter- son reached Peard Bay, 50 miles below Barrow, and being unable to proceed further, Mr. Ford left the ship in an umiak, taking with him the mail for Barrow and the most necessary items of his equipment: No one could say when or if we would get through. The more experienced the ice man the less he said. Captain Pedersen wanted to get the first-class mail into Barrow; I wanted to get to Barrow and also to see the coast, so as he offered me his umiak, motor, and crew I took advantage of the first SE. wind— which opens a narrow shore lead—to go ashore where I found a camp of Barrow Eskimos just north of Skull Cliff. There I managed to scrape up 15 dogs and an old broken down sled. The natives had to work several hours fixing the sled with everything from baling wire to old Sunday neckties. We got over the 45 or 50 miles to Barrow with 200 pounds of mail and camp equipment in two days—15 hours travelling time. The people at Barrow were glad to get their mail but seemed even more delighted with the two packages of cigarettes I happened to have. I arrived on August 16 and started work at Birnirk the next day; worked until the 20th, finding Birnirk type harpoon heads in the top layers of the mounds. The older sites up here are not continuous middens as on St. Lawrence but each house is on a mound. These mounds are from 4 to 10 feet high, and dotted over a flat marshy place such as that occupied by Birnirk or Nunakaak, they look very much like Indian mounds in the Southeast. As the ground was already freezing and there was little chance of getting any work done before the close of the season, Mr. Ford com- municated by radio with the Museum, requesting permission to stay at MEME 1931