BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARIVENT OF AGRICUL

No. 63

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
March 28, 1914.

_|ACTORS GOVERNING THE SUCCESSFUL SHIP-
. MENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA.’

FA. V: STUBENRAUCH, Pomologisi and Horticulturist, H. J. Ramsey, Pomologist in
Charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage Investigations, and Luoyp 8. TENNY,
‘ormerly Pomologist in Fruit- Transportation Investigations; assisted by ‘A. W.
McKay, B. B. Prarrt, C. S. Pomeroy, K. B. Lewis, G. M. Darrow, Marcaret

Jonnor, and J. F. FERNatp, of the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Inves-
igations.

i citrus-fruit industry of Florida is preeminently first among the agricultural and
jiness interests of the State. According to the figures of the last United States
\sus there were 3,864,514 orange trees in the State in the spring of 1910, 2,766,618 of
se being of bearing age and 1,097,896 nonbearing. The yield of the 1909 orange
9, as given by the census of 1910, was 4,852,967 boxes, valued at $4,304,987. From
best sources obtainable at the present time,” the citrus crop of Florida during the
on of 1912-13 amounted to 28,428 carloads, or 8,125,465 boxes, of which approxi-
ely 5,769,079 boxes, or 71 per cent, were oranges; approximately 2,031,367 boxes,
5 per cent, were grapefruit; the balance, of approximately 325,019 boxes, or 4 per
|, being tangerines, kumquats, and limes.

jaring the winter of 1894-95 there occurred in Florida two very severe freezes, which
jight great havoc in the groves of the State and permanently changed the character
liga citrus industry. Present conditions date from that season to a great extent.
ding to Hume? there were 5,055,367 boxes in the crop of 1893-94, and the output
ae following year would doubtless have reached 6,000,000 boxes, Exceptionally
emperatures, interspersed with periods of warm, growing weather, proved fatal.
ver, and a large number of trees were either killed outright or had practically all
air bearing wood destroyed. Instead of 6,000,009 boxes, the crop of 1894-95 was
:ed to 75,000, asa consequence. It will be seen, therefore, that so far
icerned, the Florida citrus industry is now just regaining the
jat the time of the freeze of 1895,

|

INTRODUCTION.

as production
position which it

LOCATION OF THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY.

vious to the freeze of 1895 the citrus industry of Florida was largely centered in
Orange, and Marion Counties, Af ter the destruction or serious damage to a large’
er of the best groves in these sections some of the owners became discouraged and

ort on harvesting, handling, and shipping experim
4-8 years, showing that decay can be materially
4) ical injury to the fruit.

@ figures were furnished by the Florida Citrus Exchange,

ae, H. Harold. Citrus Fruits and Their Culture. Jacksonville, Fla., 1904, p. 4.
23103°—Bull. 63—14—_} 1

Monograph

a. Coby

ents made on a commercial scale through seyen
lessened by greater care and the avoidance of

2 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 2 oy

«

either went north to engage in other enterprises or sought locations for their new groves

farther south, where conditions were considered safer. Since many of the older groves|

have been reestablished, the industry has become widely scattered over the State.
Plantings now extend in a narrow fringe along the east coast, from St. John County on
the north to below Miami, in Dade County, and along the west or Gulf coast they reach
from Citrus County almost to the southern boundary of Lee County. Extensive plant-
ings extend diagonally across the State from Volusia County on the east to Hillsboro,
Manatee, De Soto, and Lee Counties on the west, including large sections of Brevard,
Orange, Lake, Sumter, Hernando, Pasco, and Polk Counties, in addition to those
already mentioned. Sections in Marion, Alachua, Citrus, and Osceola Counties also
are devoted to citrus fruits. Figure 1 shows a map of the State with the location of the
citrus plantings indicated
by shading.

7
YACKSON/—=- =m

bain eit ttt
—T* ZGADSOBY ‘ ss r ASSAU f { < E;
z LP Zee OY S| LE clea glNsh The difficulties of han-
pare - rags VS Vacksonw/fe . .
Yoni! Sp AAI dling and marketing crops
TASS Sara ao of fruit produced in groves

Tw 7 AM)

f aLacHua ee b) iN scattered over so wide a ter-
iS SRN \ ritory are manifestly greater

than where the plantations
are confined to a more re-
stricted territory. Where
groves are located compara-
tively close together, as was
the case in many of the
older citrus districts of
Florida, a neighborhood
competition is stimulated,
especially in the produc-
tion of clean, bright fruit of
fine texture. There has
probably never been a re-
gion where so many varie-

erage URE Nl

NE santa! Liters, \ =—| ZY ties of oranges have been
+: cee wasel zy Pe! | developed and tested as in

)~N
wae | S/ N@ what, before the freeze,

were the old neighborhood
centers of production, or
where more strenuous ef-
forts have been made to pro-

Fic. 1.—Map of Florida, with the location of the principal citrus
plantings indicated by shading.
and flavor. Moreover, a

special effort was made to pack the fruit in an attractive manner and to have it reach
the market without decay. At present, with the groves so widely scattered through-
out the State, there is much less personal contact between growers, and the old neigh-
borhood competition in the production of fancy fruit has largely disappeared.
Although the industry has become better organized during the last few years, it is
extremely difficult to make effective any association which represents so many
diverse interests and whose members are so widely scattered. This situation has
proved a great barrier to the introduction of better handling and marketing methods.

HISTORY OF THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY.

It is believed that the orange was originally introduced into Florida by the Span-
iards, who imported a few sour oranges and gave some of the fruits to the Indians. The
seeds of these fruits, being distributed from village to village and finding congenial

|

duce fruit of fine texture ©

y 1h SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA, 5:

nd favorable climatic conditions in the hardwood forests and live-oak groves,

: the tall native growth protected them from sun and radiation, grew up into

seedling trees, and in time formed wild groves of immense extent throughout the
northern and central parts of peninsular Florida.’ Although sweet oranges were
known in Florida before the Civil War, they were not considered of commercial
importance because of the absence of transportation facilities. Commercial orange
culture dates back to between 1865 and 1870, when the success of the trees along the
banks of the St. Johns River began to attract attention to this industry as a good inyest-
ment. As the profits were large from the first, many were thereby induced to engage
in the business, and the industry gradually expanded until in 1895 the production
had reached nearly 6,000,000 boxes.

“f Transportation problems and market conditions have changed considerably since
Florida reached its highest point in citrus production before the freeze. First of all,
the citrus industry of California has been largely developed since that time. Through
the establishment of efficient transportation facilities and modern refrigerator-car
service, the California growers have been enabled to distribute their fruit over prac-
tically every State in the Union. In the early days of the industry, the Florida
orange growers did not have to meet the keen competition which has developed in
recent years, and therefore the condition of their fruit upon its arrival in the market
did not affect the selling price as much as it does at present. The market demand
for Florida oranges was strong, and fair prices were usually obtained in spite of the
presence of considerable decay. As the production increased just prior to 1894-95,
less favorable prices were being received, and at the time of the freeze efforts were
being made to extend the market both at home and abroad and to produce fruit of
better keeping quality.

The formation during that period of the Florida Fruit Exchange may be considered
as an effort among the growers to obtain better marketing conditions, induced, it is
thought, by the necessity of improving the quality and condition of fruit in the mar-
kets. Although the Exchange failed to accomplish the special object for which it
was created, it did prove that Florida oranges often failed to reach the northern mar-
kets in sound condition. Notwithstanding the general impression now current among
growers that the decay of oranges was unknown before 1894, it seems to be well estab-
lished that for many years the fruit has shown considerable waste.

A few reports taken from the current issues of the trade papers will serve to show
that even at that time the decay problem was of considerable importance. In the
issue of December 23, 1893, of ‘‘The Florida Despatch Farmer and Fruit Grower,”’
under the Buffalo-New York fruit-sales letter, a statement was made which is char-
acteristic of many others and serves to illustrate the wasted condition in which the
fruit often reached the market. This report reads, in part:

~ Very sorry to report that the fruit is still coming forward in poor condition. . . .
About 1,400 boxes, good and bad, mostly all of which showed more or less decay, aver-
aged $1.51.

Under date of December 2, 1893, the following report is given:

The dealers and handlers throughout the country are worn out with the constant
labor of repacking, in the effort to save something out of the ruins of the decay, and
to save the fruit from going bodily to the dump. Buyers are afraid to take hold,
because they have no assurance of getting an article that will hold together until
they can get rid of it.

Out of 19 telegraphic reports, 12 mention fruit showing decay, using such re-
marks as: “‘Both much decayed,’ ‘‘Some lots in very bad order,” ‘‘Oranges mostly
decayed,” and ‘‘Very rotten.’’ It will thus be seen that the conditions which are
conducive to the occurrence of decay were present in the early days of the industry.

1 Mead, Theodore L. Theorange. Article in Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, 1901, p. 1154.

4 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

With the extension of the plantings consequent upon the reestablishment of the
industry, and the resulting increase in production, existing conditions have been
largely responsible for the improper handling of the fruit, which has been shown by
later investigations to be the fundamental factor underlying the occurrence of decay.
Many of the new groves established since the freeze have been planted on pine land,
where it has been necessary to use heavy applications of fertilizers. Frequently the
fertilizers have been selected with the purpose of producing large crops rather than
fancy fruit, and this seems to haye been at the expense of quality, thus partly account-
ing for the large proportion of rough and unattractive oranges now to be found in the
Florida crop. The production of large quantities of rather coarse and uninviting
fruit has in turn led to rough and careless handling, for, as a general rule, the more
attractive the fruit the greater will be the incentive to handle it carefully when
preparing it for shipment.

In addition to the freeze, unfavorable conditions have existed which have more or
less discouraged many growers and which have led to the production of inferior fruit,
with a correspondingly increasing tendency to place it on the market in a manner
not conducive to the best results. The control of the white fiy, which has spread
over practically every citrus district in Florida, has been a serious problem. Fruit
which has been rendered unattractive through the attacks of this pest presents one
of the most discouraging problems which growers have to solve, for it is difficult to
make workmen who pick, grade, and pack unattractive fruit realize the importance
of careful handling. The sooty-mold fungus follows the attacks of the white fly,
covering the leaves and fruit with a dense black growth which detracts greatly from
the appearance of the oranges, and in order to prepare this smutty fruit for market,
cleaning is absolutely necessary. The effects of the cleaning processes upon the carry-
ing quality of the fruit will be described later.

The market demands high-grade, well-packed fruit. As long as the supply of a
commodity does not equal the demand, a poorer grade or a less attractive package
may yield satisfactory returns to the shipper. With keen competition, however,
and markets well stocked with good, carefully selected fruit arriving in sound condi-
tion, the packer of a poor grade of fruit which frequently arrives in bad order is ata
great disadvantage and suffers accordingly.

METHODS OF HANDLING THE FLORIDA ORANGE CROP.

The Florida orange begins to ripen in late October or early November, and the ship-
ping season extends until spring, some growers of late varieties even holding their fruit
on the trees until summer. Shipments are usually heavy during December, and in
the past approximately 50 per cent of the crop has been shipped before Christmas.
Tn fact, there has been a strong tendency to begin moving the fruit before it has reached
full maturity. ‘This practice has been stimulated because it frequently happens that
these early shipments give satisfactory returns, and fruit moved at this time runs
no risk of being frozen later in the season. The practice of placing on the market large
quantities of green fruit of poor eating quality is very objectionable, however, and
does not stimulate future consumption of the product. ;

During the past few years the tendency has been toward lengthening the marketing
season. Instead of attempting to dispose of the bulk of the crop before the holidays,
when a large proportion of the fruit has not reached full quality, the season has gradu-
ally been extended, so that Florida citrus fruits are now moved in large quantities
until the first of April, and even later. The influence of these changed conditions
upon the occurrence of decay and deterioration at the market end will be apparent in
the later discussion of the occurrence of decay at different times during the shipping
season.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 5
PICKING THE FRUIT.

Harvesting methods.—In harvesting the orange, it is necessary to sever the fruit from
the trees by means of clippers or shears, the common type being a sharp-pointed
clipper, such as is illustrated on the left in figure 2. Various other types are also in
use at the present time, two of which are shown in figure 2.

Since many of the orange trees in Florida are large, only a small proportion of the
fruit can be reached from the ground. The ordinary straight ladder, placed directly
against the tree, isin common use. In order to secure all of the fruit at the top or in
the center of the tree, the picker must stretch over a considerable distance, and he is
very liable to pull many of the oranges which he can not conveniently sever with his
clippers. Worse than this, however, it has not been uncommon to see the fruit on
the ends of the limbs shaken off and allowed to drop to the ground, later to be picked
up and placed in the field boxes along with the fruit properly handled.

Over the picker’s shoulder is thrown a basket or bag in which the fruit is placed as
clipped. The picking bag is sometimes an ordinary grain bag or gunny sack holding
about 30 pounds of fruit; formerly, some.men used a specially constructed bag which
fastened around the body and frequently held nearly enough fruit to fill one of the
boxes. The canvas-covered basket shown in Plate I, figure 1, holds approximately
half of a box of fruit. Another type of picking receptacle, illustrated in Plate I,
figure 2, has a hinged bot-
tom which may be let down
when emptying the fruit.
The most common bag now
in use is one made of heavy
canvas and open at the bot-
tom, so that the filled bag
can be placed in the box
and the fruit allowed to roll
out gently.

Field boxes.—The fruit is
poured from the picking re-
ceptacle into a field crate
or box. The box in gen-
eral use is about 28 inches
long, 12 inches wide, and
134 inches deep, has a capacity of a little more than one packed box of fruit, and may
or may nothaveacentral partition. Both typesare illustrated in Plate I, figures 1 and
2. The size of this box wasestablished through the practice of buying large quantities
of fruiton the tree at afixed price perbox. Originally this price was intended to be
per ‘‘packed box,”’ but sinceitis more convenient to keep the record of the fruit asit
leaves the grove, this type of field box, which holds enough fruit to allow culling and
still give the buyer a packed box of oranges, wasdeveloped. Other kindsof field boxes,
some of which are superior to the old box, are in use to a limited extent. Plate IT,
figure 1, shows a type of grocer’s delivery crate which some growers use for handling
their oranges.

The boxes in common use are constructed of such heavy material and hold such large
quantities of fruit that it is impossible to handle them with sufficient care. When
loading them on the field wagon or unloading them at the packing house, or even
when moving them about in the house, they oftentimes strike the floor with sufficient
force to cause some of the fruit to bound out. The objection commonly raised to
making boxes of lighter material is that the workmen will break them by rough han-
dling, especially when throwing them off the wagon in the field. It is a question,
however, whether the average laborer will not treat a lighter box more carefully than
he will a heavy iron-bound one, which tempts him to see how roughly he can handle it.

Fic. 2.—Three types of clippers used in picking Florida citrus fruits.

6 BULLETIN 63, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Plate IT, figure 2 shows that the effort to make a field box strong enough to withstand
“bucking” is not always successful. While it is difficult to estimate the amount of
damage which may result from the use of such boxes, it is apparent that this is very
great.

An enumeration of some of the injuries received in picking will be found under
the discussion of the causes of blue-mold decay.

HAULING THE FRUIT.

The fruit is hauled from the grove to the packing house on ordinary farm wagons,
which are often springless, or on specially provided wagons belonging to an association.
The owner of the grove or the manager of the packing house sometimes personally
superintends this transfer, but frequently it is done by contract with the owner of a
livery stable. There is usually a fixed price for this service, one large contractor
receiving 2 cents per box per mile, which is about the average of what is paid in differ-
ent parts of the State. The drivers are often ignorant of the importance of careful
handling, and their methods of loading and unloading are extremely crude and rough.
Tt is not uncommon to see them sitting on boxes of fruit as they ride to the packing
house. The haul may be long and over rough roads (PI. III, fig. 1), some packing
houses handling many boxes of fruit from groves 12 or 15 miles distant, or even farther.
Ox teams are often used for such long hauls (PI. III, fig. 2). It has even been the
custom, in the past, to carry many oranges loose in the wagon box, the unloading
being done with shovels or in other rough ways (Pl. IV, fig. 1). This practice has
been done away with, however, as it is recognized that good results can never be
obtained by such careless methods. Along with the numerous improvements which.
have been effected during the past two or three years in the manner of hauling fruit
from the grove to the packing house, must be reckoned the State-wide movement for
better roads,

PREPARING THE FRUIT FOR SHIPMENT.

Buildings and machinery.—Packing houses are usually located in villages and towns
along the railroad lines or in places accessible to water transportation. Many boxes
of fruit, however, are packed either openly in the groves or in houses located near the
farm buildings and are then hauled to a shipping point. Little attempt was made
until recently to build houses especially designed for packing citrus fruit. The aver-
age building usually had a capacity for handling not more than one car a day, very
little machinery being used in the old houses and the boxes being made by hand,
frequently in some place outside the packing house. This building generally con-
sisted of but one room, the sizing machine being located in the center, a little below
the main portion of the house, in what is called the ‘‘pit.’”” One common source of
trouble, even in the new-style houses, is the attempt to save floor space. The machin-
ery may be so adjusted that the orange has to follow a long and complicated path,
around abrupt angles, down gravity runs, and up unneeessary elevators, whereas
in a majority of cases the same end could have been attained at less expense by means
ofa moresimplearrangement. Simplicity should be the watchword in the adjustment
of all packing-house equipment. Some houses have gone to the other extreme of
doing practically all the work by hand, thus eliminating the expense of carrying belts
and other automatic devices. The character of the workmen is then of fundamental
importance, and it is doubtful whether, in the long run, hand work can be accomplished
with as little injury as results from the use of properly adjusted, simple machinery.

Fruit which was clean and did not require washing was formerly poured into a hop-
per and rolled by gravity in front of the grader to the sizing machine. The latter
was sometimes run by power, but more often it was treadled by the man who did the ~
grading. As the oranges were sized they fell into different bins and from these were

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

Fia. 1.—EMPTYING ORANGES FROM A PICKING BAG INTO A FIELD CRATE, SHOWING AN
INCORRECT METHOD, WHICH RESULTS IN THE SERIOUS BRUISING OF THE FRUIT.

Fia. 2.—FLORIDA FIELD CRATE WITHOUT A CENTRAL PARTITION AND ONE TYPE OF
SMALL PICKING RECEPTACLE OPENING AT THE BOTTOM TO AvoiD BRUISING THE
FRUIT BY DROPPING.

PICKING RECEPTACLES AND FIELD BOXES FOR FLORIDA CITRUS
FRUITS.

Bul. 63, U.S. Dept of Agriculture

AMET
wn

A

PLATE II.

a
i i \ 1
AE mg Ml

ayer i iM z aa

afi}) I i

‘Hit Addl!

ped

Fic. 1.—Grocers’ DELIVERY CRATES USED By SOME GROWERS FOR HOLDING ORANGES

This crate supplies maximum ventilation and has no sharp corners or projections to

injure the fruit.

Fic. 2.—BROKEN FIELD CRATES.

The splinters, sharp edges, and projecting nails are common sources of serious injury to Florida

TYPES OF FIELD BOXES FOR CITRUS FRUITS

citrus fruits.

IN FLORIDA.

Bui. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fic. 1.—HAULING ORANGES OvER ROUGH ROADS ON WAGONS WITHOUT SPRINGS.

The jolting and jarring and the driver seated directly upon the fruit result in serious injury.

Fic. 2.—HAULING ORANGES BY TEAMS OF OXEN HITCHED TO SPRINGLESS WAGONS.

TRANSPORTING FRUIT FROM THE GROVE TO THE PACKING HOUSE
IN FLORIDA.

Bul 63, U.S Dept. of Agriculture PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—GRAPEFRUIT CARRIED LOOSE IN THE BED OF A SPRINGLESS WAGON AND PILED
IN THE GROVE.

Note that the wagon driver is in the act of throwing fruit from the wagon to the pile.

Fia, 2.—ONE TYPE OF ORANGE WASHER NOW IN USE IN FLORIDA.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. ll

packed out (Pl. V, figs. 1 and 2). In most of the houses at the present time the fruit
is carried in front of the graders on canvas belts to the sizing machines, which are
usually run by power. The majority of the packers now wish to ship their fruit as
soon after picking as possible. Some, however, still keep it for a couple of days to
wilt or ‘‘cure,’’ as the process is called.

Cleaning.—During the past few years cleaning the fruit has become more and more
necessary because of the spread of the white fly. At the present time probably 75
per cent of the Florida orange crop is cleaned either by washing or by the sawdust
method. Untilsome method of controlling the white fly has been discovered, it will
be necessary to continue these processes and even to extend them to a larger propor-
tion of the fruit.

Various methods of washing are used, and many different types of washers are now
in operation in the State. Some of the machines developed and used extensively in
California have been installed, and other types have originated in Florida. The
fruit is either dumped into a small hopper leading to a tank of water or is emptied
directly into the water, and the cleaning process consists of passing the fruit, either
while in the water or while still wet, over or between rapidly moving brushes, which
remove the sooty coating from the skin (PI. IV, fig. 2, and Pl. VI, fig. 1). A number
of washers are used in which the cleansing is done by means of sponges or rags.
After the fruit has been washed it is run through ‘‘artificial” forced-air blast driers
or else elevated to drying racks (Pl. VI, fig. 2) and when dried is ready to be graded
and sized.

Another method of cleaning citrus fruits, especially grapefruit, is with sawdust.
Large horizontal cylinders are completely filled with fruit, a few pounds of wet
sawdust are added, and the cylinders are then revolved for 8 or 10 minutes by hand
or other power. The movement of the sawdust over the surface of the fruit rubs off
much of the dirt and sooty mold. No drying is required after this process (Pl. VII,
fig. 1).

Grading.—There are no set rules for grading oranges and grapefruit in Florida.
As a tule, only two classes are made, ‘‘brights” and “‘russets,’’ in addition to a
poorer grade which is shipped to near-by markets. The bright fruit is that which
is free from the effects of the work of the rust mite, a small mite which punctures
the oil cells in the skin of the fruit, causing the surface to become brownish in appear-
ance. The russet grade is composed of fruit more or less affected by the work of the
rust mite. Fruit affected with melanose, a disease common in many sections, is
also usually placed in the russet grade. The russeting due to the work of the rust
mites is quite characteristic of the Florida orange and has been almost a trade-mark
for the fruit, the general impression prevailing in the North that such oranges are a
distinct variety grown only in Florida. Consequently, this grade frequently brings
as much money as bright fruit. It has never been determined that the work of the
rust mites affects the quality of an orange or grapefruit. The number of mites
varies considerably in different localities and even in groves in the same locality,
and when present they may be largely controlled by the use of sulphur sprays or
by dry sulphur blown upon the trees.

A few packing houses in the State make more than two grades. The finest of the
bright fruit may be packed as ‘‘fancy,’’ or some of the brightest russets may be
Jabeled ‘‘golden.’’ There are no uniform rules in the State, however, and similar
grades of fruit from different packing houses may be sold under different names.
Moreover, all grading is without reference to the size of the fruit. As one man grades
a car or more of fruit each day, the work can not be done very thoroughly. There
is a strong tendency at present to establish more definite grades and to secure better
methods of grading (Pl. VII, fig. 2).

The sizes of Florida oranges vary from 80 to 420 fruits in a box, some fruit occa-
sionally falling outside even these wide limits. The common sizes are 126, 150, 176,

8 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

and 200 oranges to a box. When only two grades of fruit are made, a double sizing
machine is commonly used, and both grades are sized at the same time (Pl. VIII,
figs. 1 and 2).

The Florida grapefruits are packed with 28, 36, 46, 54, 64, 72, 80, or 96 fruits to the
box, the most desirable sizes being 46, 54, and 64. The “Standards” vary from 54
to 80. Fruits packed 46 to the box and larger are known as “‘large off sizes,’’ grape-
fruit being occasionally offered as large as 18 to the pack. This is more of a novelty
than a commercial proposition, however. The ‘‘small off sizes” are those packed
96 to the box and smaller. Some of the regular orange-sizing machines can be
adjusted for the sizing of grapefruit, but few of them are wholly satisfactory, on
account of the variation in shape of the fruit.

Packing.—Many houses now employ girls and women as packers, although formerly
the work was done almost exclusively by men, who were usually paid by the day.
High-grade work is done on the average, and considerable care is taken to have
each orange put in its place with a little pressure. This makes a firm pack and one
which is smooth and of good appearance. The box is filled an inch or more above
the top, and when the cover is put on pressure is used to bring the fruit at the ends
even with the top of the box. A few shippers fill their boxes much higher than
this, thereby making necessary considerable pressure in order to nail on the cover.
This type of package, known as the ‘‘bulge pack,’’ was developed to meet the buyers’
demands for a full box of fruit on arrival in market. High packing is often an excuse
for poor packing, however, since oranges which are laid in the box loosely and without
pressure must be forced into place when the cover is nailed on, thereby increasing
the liability of crushing the fruit in the top layers. A pack which is of medium
height, with every orange firmly in place, is less liable to be injured in transit than
is a high, loose pack, and the fruit will arrive in market with a more attractive
appearance and will remain in good condition for a longer period.

The “nailer’’ takes the box after it is packed, and holding the cover across the
fruit with both hands, he gives the box two or three sharp jolts upon the floor, first
at one end, then at the other, before nailing it fast. Box presses are in use in a
number of houses in the State. Whether the nailing is done by hand or with the
aid of a press, care should be exercised to avoid injuring the contents of the top layer
against the sides and ends of the box. Some pressmen have the habit of adjusting
the covers after pressure has been applied by tapping the ends of the slats, but this
scratches or rasps the fruit on top and serious injury sometimes results. The beveled
ends, sides, and center pieces which are coming into general use are of great value in
preventing injuries during the nailing operation. ——

The Florida shipping box for both oranges and grapefruit measures 12 by 12 by 27
inches, inside dimensions, and has an estimated weight of 80 pounds when filled.
It is made with paneled heads, has sides of veneer in one piece, and is bound with
three straps of birch or other wood. Wire hoops are now used extensively in place
of the wooden straps. This makes a strong package, suitable for long-distance
shipments.

Shipping.—More attention than formerly is now being given to loading the fruit
in the cars. It has been the custom to stack the boxes loosely in the ears, those in
the lower tier standing on end and the rest placed lengthwise on top. On account
of the strength of the box and the comparatively short haul, the loading is done.
rather carelessly, very little bracing being used, and often none at all. Although it
ig not common for the boxes to reach the market in a broken condition, considerable
injury in transit is liable with a load of this kind. The better method now coming
into general use in Florida is to stack the boxes two tiers high on end, using a car
strip across each row and bracing the load securely in the middle. This insures a
minimum of broken boxes or other injury on arrival in market.

Bul. 63, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—EXTREME TYPE OF LARGE HopPeR FORMERLY IN USE, THE SIZE BEING INDI-
CATED BY THE SIZE OF THE MOWING MACHINE AT THE RIGHT.
The fruit is emptied from outside through trap doors in the background, « wagonload at a time

Serious injury is caused by bruising and by the twigs and other débris accumulating on the
floor of the hopper

Fia. 2.—ANTIQUATED MACHINERY FOR GRADING AND SIZING THE FRUIT.

Note that the sizing machine is being treadled by the grader. Note also the large hopper at
the rear.

INTERIOR VIEWS OF OLD ORANGE-PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE VI.

Fic. 1.—ONE TYPE OF ORANGE-WASHING MACHINE USED IN FLORIDA.

The fruit isalways in sight as it passes through the machine.

Fic. 2.—DRYING FLORIDA ORANGES IN THE SUN.

Serious injury follows the use of unprotected brooms, and bruising from rolling oyer and
dropping through steep gravity runs.

Bul. 63, U S. Dept of Agriculture Pate VII.

Fic. 2.—GRADING BELT BUILT BY THE BUREAU WORKERS FOR EXPERIMENTAL PURPOSES
TO REPLACE THE LARGE HOPPER SHOWN IN PLATE V, Ficure 1.

PACKING-HOUSE MACHINERY IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE VIII.

Fic. 1.—TYPE OF ORANGE SiZER, HOPPER, AND BINS USED IN THE OLD PACKING HOUSES
IN FLORIDA.

Fic. 2.—ONE TYPE OF SIZING MACHINE IN A MODERN PACKING HOUSE IN FLORIDA.

ORANGE-SIZING MACHINES.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 9

The length of time in transit from central Florida to Philadelphia or New York
varies from four days to more than a week. There are several routes by which fruit
may be shipped to northern points. It may go “all rail’’ by freight, either in car-
loads or by local freight. Small consignments are sent by express to Savannah and
from there by freight to their various destinations, and some fruit is shipped by water
from both Jacksonville and Sayannah. The rates to northern points vary somewhat
by these different routes. Jacksonville is the basing point, and the “all rail’’ freight
rate thence to Baltimore is 43 cents per box in carload lots.. This rate to New York
is 46 cents, to Boston 51 cents, to Pittsburgh 52 cents, and to Chicago 53 cents. The
water rate from Jacksonville is 35 cents to New York and 40 cents to Boston. In less
than carload lots the “all rail’’ freight rate to Baltimore is 474 cents, to Boston 59
cents, and to Chicago 97.2 cents. These rates apply on shipments moving through
Jacksonville for points beyond. The rate is higher when the fruit is shipped to
Jacksonville, the freight charges paid there, and the shipments rebilled to points
beyond. In addition to the above charges the shipper has to pay the local freight
from his shipping station to Jacksonville. This local freight rate per box is 15 cents
from Orlando, 20 cents from Arcadia, and 26 cents from Miami.

During 1912-13 there were 321 boxes in the average carload. A few men shipped
400 or more boxes per car, but this practice should be discouraged. Such heavy load-
ing leaves no space in which the air may circulate and affords a splendid opportunity
for the development of decay in transit. The Florida car is smaller than the one used
by the California shippers and should contain not more than 360 boxes. The inside
measurements of the standard shipping car for oranges are 33 feet in length, 8 feet in
width, and 844 inches in height. The minimum freight weight of a standard car of
300 boxes is therefore 24,000 pounds, reckoning each box at the arbitrary weight of 80
pounds. The freight rate is assessed per box, the average rate on citrus fruits shipped
from Florida during 1912-13 being 65.7 cents per box of 80 pounds’ weight. A car of
oranges may contain boxes of oranges of all sizes, the fruit being generally loaded in the
cars “orchard run,”’ although some purchasers specify in advance the sizes desired.

Refrigeration and ventilation.—Prior to the season of 1912-13, nearly all of the ship-
ments of Florida citrus fruits were handled under ventilation. A few of the late
oranges, especially Valencias, have been shipped under refrigeration during the latter
part of the season when the weather was warm either in Florida or while the fruit was
in transit, but it is estimated that not more than 1 per cent of the shipments of citrus
fruits were iced in any season previous to 1912, The conditions surrounding the
citrus-fruit industry of Florida have been largely responsible for the lack of the proper
facilities for the shipment of oranges under ice. Before the reorganization of the
industry, following the introduction of modern handling and packing facilities, there
was little or no opportunity to utilize refrigeration in transporting the citrus crop to
market. A large proportion of the fruit was handled in local consignments to central
points, such as Jacksonville, Fla., or Savannah, Ga., and at these gateway cities carload
shipments were made up. In some instances the fruit was sent by boat to Jackson-
ville or Savannah and thence forwarded north by railroad. During the past three or
four years this practice has changed to a very great extent, and at the present time only
a small proportion (if any) of the shipments of Florida citrus fruits are assembled after
local shipment at the central points mentioned. Packing houses equipped with
modern appliances have been erected throughout the State. Full carloads are now
made up at these houses and the fruit is shipped north direct from the point of produc-
tion or packing. The opportunities for utilizing refrigeration have thus been increased,
as the fruit can now be loaded direct into iced cars instead of being first shipped locally
in unprotected “ ventilator’’ or box cars.

The prevailing opinion among fruit growers and shippers formerly has been that
Florida citrus fruits do not need refrigeration. Practically the entire crop is moved

23103°— Bull. 63—14——2

10 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

during the winter and early spring months, when the prevailing outdoor temperature
is low, so low at times that the problem has been to protect the fruit from freezing rather
than to reduce its temperature by artificial means. During periods of extremely cold
weather refrigeration may be a distinct disadvantage rather than otherwise. With the
present refrigerator-car equipment, the insulation provided to keep the fruit cool
during transit must also be relied upon to protect the fruit from freezing. This it does
by retarding the cooling of the fruit and reducing its temperature very slowly, thus
enabling the car to reach the market before the contents are actually frozen. It is easy
to see that the length of time required to cool the fruit to an injurious extent depends
upon (1) the outdoor temperature, (2) the efficiency of the insulation of the car, and (3)
the temperature of the fruit at the time the car encounters extreme weather conditions
in the North.

The present-day refrigerator car is only partially efficient during extreme weather,
There are many types of refrigerator cars with varying insulation, but none are able
to withstand extreme cold for any considerable length of time without the use of
artificial heat, just as they are unable to keep the contents cool in hot weather with-
out the use of ice. It follows, then, that under ordinary conditions during cold
weather fruit which has been cooled by the use of ice during the early part of the
trip from Florida will be more liable to injury from freezing than fruit which has not
been so cooled before it is subjected to extremely cold weather. The appreciation of
this point is of great importance in discussing the refrigeration of Florida oranges,
because a very large proportion of the crop is moved during periods of excessively
cold weather in the North, although the temperature in Florida may be sufficiently
high to warrant the use of ice at the beginning of the trip.

The investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry have amply demonstrated that
Florida oranges may be transported to market under ventilation with a minimum
loss from decay, even during periods of warm and humid weather, if sufficient care is
used to preserve the skin of the fruit in a sound, unbroken condition. None of the
experimental shipments commented upon in this paper were refrigerated. The use
of refrigeration during transit to market must not be considered as a means to offset
the effects of rough or careless methods of handling. Icing can not permanently
prevent deterioration. The low temperature only temporarily arrests the develop-
ment of the decay fungi. As soon as the fruit has been unloaded in market it warms
up, and decay develops very rapidly if a considerable number of the oranges have
been injured by careless handling. As a result such fruit soon gains a reputation for
very poor market-holding qualities. It isas important to have the fruit reach the con-
sumer in good condition as it is to have it arrive in the market sound.

A considerable number of shipments were iced during the season of 1912-13,
especially during January and during a later period of warm, humid weather, when
heavy decay developed in nearly all shipments. It is safe to say that the number of
cars handled under refrigeration during this season was greater than during all pre-
vious seasons together. Many of the shippers claim that they have been able to
place the fruit on the market in much better condition when shipped under refriger-
ation than when shipped under ventilation only. This conclusion is based upon a
comparison of iced and noniced shipments. It is probable, however, that the com-
parison was not always fair, for the reason that no systematic study was made of the
behavior of fruit of the same grade and quality under the two systems of shipment.
Nevertheless, the general opinion prevails among growers and shippers that icing has
resulted in material benefit to the fruit and has yielded increased returns. Refriger-
ation, therefore, bids fair to become an important factor in the handling and ship-
ment of the Florida citrus crop.

During the past season, with its periods of excessively high decay, the Florida
Citrus Exchange strongly urged its members to move their fruit north under refriger-
ation, The recommendations of the exchange officials, in brief, provided (1) that the

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 11

ice should be put in the tanks 24 hours before loading the fruit, and preferably 48
hours previous, in order to properly cool the cars; (2) that the baxes of oranges should
be stacked near to the car and when the doors were opened the loading should com-
mence immediately and not consume more than one hour; (3) that the doors should
then be tightly closed and the car moved forward immediately. Since the refriger-
ating rates are per car and not per box, some growers loaded the cars very heavily
this past season, shipping 400 or 500 boxes per car, in order to reduce the refrigerating
charge per box. This left no room for ventilation or circulation of air, and asa result
decay was heavy, especially in the top tiers. Boxes should not be loaded more than
2 tiers high and no car should contain more than 360 boxes. These may be loaded
6 rows across, 30 boxes long and 2 tiers high, on end.

Many refrigerator cars were shipped under one-half icing during 1912-13. When
the fruit was very soft or from groves known to be diseased, full icing was found to be
necessary. Table I gives the refrigerating rates for half icing from Florida to various
points throughout the United States, these being in addition to the regular rates for
transportation. When the entire ice bunker is filled, the charges are increased 50 per
cent above those for half-bunker icing. For example, when the half- ELS rate to
New York is $50 per car, the full-bunker rate is $75.

Tae I.—Rates per car for half icing from Florida to points in the United States, season

of 1912-18.
|
To southern points. : To eastern points. To northern and western points.
In State of— Rate. From Jacksonville. Rate. | In State of— Rate.
$50. 00
50. 00
55. 00
50. 00
55. 00
55. 00
55. 00
55. 00
bay 5 -| 62.50
North Cavlina eee ens 5. i --| 55.00
Virginia (as to Lynch- 55.00
burg, Norfolk, Rich-
mond, Roanoke, and
Portsmouth)..--..----- 45.00

MARKETING THE FRUIT.

Noncooperative buyers.—Most of the Florida citrus fruits have been handled on the
market by fruit buyers and speculators. Large quantities have been bought on the
trees, either in bulk or at a fixed price per box, by local buyers who own packing
houses in near-by towns. There are many such buyers, and, although very few of
them are growers, they purchase enough fruit each year to pack and ship thousands
of boxes. The largest part of the Florida citrus crop has been handled in this manner
in recent years, the picking and hauling being done under the direction and at the
expense of the buyers. These men have regular customers to whom they make ship-
ments, and they also consign large quantities of fruit to commission houses. If a
grower desires to pack his own fruit, he may be able to sell it before shipping it, but
usually he consiens the cars to a commission man whose agent has solicited his trade.
If the grower is doing business with a reliable firm, the success of this method depends
largely upon having a good grade of fruit which is packed in an attractive manner and
reaches the market in sound condition. Since most of the commission houses operating
in Florida are located in the larger northern and eastern cities, the heavy shipments
of fruit to these points often cause the market to be glutted with Florida oranges.

12 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Several large selling agencies are now operating in Florida and are handling much
of the citrus fruit. These firms may or may not be directly concerned with the grading
and packing of the fruit. Although in a few instances they control this portion of the
work almost entirely, and so are able to offer for sale large quantities of fruit of a rather
uniform grade, their primary aim is to handle for the packers all matters pertaining to
the sale of the crop. They claim to be abie to keep a closer watch on the markets
and on general trade conditions than an individual grower or packer can possibly do,
and, by means of competent sales agents throughout the country, to be able to control
the distribution of the product so as to avoid gluts and the resultant low prices. Their
selling charge may be a flat rate per box, but more often the business is conducted ona
percentage basis.

Florida Citrus Exchange.—The movement for cooperative marketing, begun during
the season of 1909-10, gained considerable headway among the citrus fruit growers
of the State and resulted in the formation of the Florida Citrus Exchange. The
organization was modeled after the California Fruit Growers’ Exchange, which has
been successfully packing and marketing a large percentage of the citrus fruits of
California for a number of years. During its first season (1909-10) the Florida Citrus
Exchange handled more than 1,000,000 boxes of fruit.

The Florida Citrus Exchange is composed of a number of cooperative associations
throughout the State. These are made up of individual growers who form a corpora-
tion, build a packing house, elect a manager, determine the grades under which
their fruit is to be shipped, and attend to all the business directly connected with the
harvesting, packing, and shipping of the fruit. The cooperative packing houses
located in any one of the several citrus districts of the State unite to form a subex-
change, whose manager has charge of the larger business interests of the houses in his
district, keeping in close touch with the central offices of the exchange, and advising
with them regarding the qualities and grades of fruit in the various cars shipped, the
methods of packing employed, and all other matters regarding which a selling agency
should be well informed. A union of the various subexchanges forms the Florida
Citrus Exchange, which has its headquarters at Tampa. This is an incorporated body,
with a board of directors and officers for carrying on the business of marketing the
product. Representatives of the exchange, who are paid on a salary basis, are located
in the various trade centers and have charge of the sale of the fruit.

The fruit of the individual grower may be handled in the packing house as a sepa-
rate account; or it may be packed under certain grades, a record being kept of the
number of boxes of each grade made from the fruit of that grower, whose identity is
lost as soon as thisamount has been recorded. When the latter plan is followed, the
season is generally divided into periods of several weeks in length, called pools, the
receipts for all fruit shipped during each period being averaged by grades. The
individual grower receives a pro rata share of the proceeds, determined by the quantity
of each grade of fruit which he has delivered at the packing house during that pool.
In a few packing houses one pooling period extends over the whole season, and the
only average made is based upon the proceeds of the entire crop.

KEEPING QUALITY OF FLORIDA ORANGES.

The keeping quality of the orange is naturally good. Since the life processes of
the fruit continue after it has been severed from the branch, there is a prolonged
period during which an uninjured orange remains sound and free from all decay.
Ultimately, when the life span has been run, the tissues die and decay follows even
in uninjured fruits. The delay is long enough, however, to allow the average fruit to
be packed and placed on the market and to reach the consumer in sound condition,

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 13

HEAVY LOSSES FROM DECAY IN COMMERCIAL SHIPMENTS.

The losses from decay during transit have been very heavy in the commercial ship-
ments of fruit, and the experimental work of the Bureau of Plant Industry was under-
taken in Florida in response to the many requests for advice and assistance which
came to the Department of Agriculture. It is difficult to estimate what the actual
loss from this cause has been during past seasons. Several reliable commission men
who handle large quantities of Florida oranges each year have stated that averaging
the good with the bad years probably 10 per cent of the fruit decayed before reaching
the consumer. Experimental shipments made under the direction of this bureau
indicate that the loss may have been fully as heavy as this.

Since Florida’s orange crop averages 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 boxes per year, the
decay of 8 or 10 per cent of this fruit entails an annual financial loss of at least half a
million dollars. Ten per cent of 4,000,000 boxes amounts to 400,000 boxes, on which
the picking and packing charges have been paid, with approximately $50,000 spent
for box material alone. The freight charges represent something like $200,000; and
these amounts, together with the commission charges, the value of the fruit discarded,
and the cost of repacking what is left, bring the total loss high enough to seriously
endanger the welfare of the industry.

REPUTATION INJURED BY DECAY IN TRANSIT.

Unfortunately, the financial injury is not confined to the fruit actually decayed.
It is impossible to estimate the loss which has resulted to the industry from the bad
reputation which Florida fruits have gained in the trade. While it is difficult to dis-
cover how far the low prices occasionally received have been due to this cause, many
fruit handlers in northern markets condemn very strongly the poor keeping quality
of the Florida orange and willingly admit their intention of using fruit of better
keeping quality if they can obtain such from other points. The situation of the
Florida orange grower would be critical indeed if it were not for the fact that fruit
handled carefully shows so much less decay than does fruit picked and packed under
careless commercial conditions.

HISTORY OF THE DEPARTMENT WORK IN FLORIDA.

Investigations by the Department of Agriculture, having in view the discovery of
the factors underlying the successful shipment of oranges from Florida to northern
markets, began during the season of 1907. The work, which was planned along lines
similar to those followed in the California investigations, included the determination
of the character and type of handling employed in the various operations of preparing
fruit for shipment and the discovery of the relationship between present methods
and the occurrence of decay. The object of the work of the department was to sug-
gest changes in the industry which should reduce the immense annual financial losses
of the Florida growers by enabling them to market their fruit in sound condition.

The first researches in Florida were conducted by Mr. L. 8S. Tenny, who devoted
his attention to an inspection of the work done by various picking crews and individual
pickers, as well as to the character of work being done in the packing houses. It
required only a short time to indicate that what had previously been found to be the
case in California was also true in Florida, viz, that the fruit was receiving consider-
able injury in the course of its preparation for shipment. Conditions were, if any-
thing, somewhat more exaggerated, owing to the fact that the thin-skinned, juicy
Florida orange is of a more tender type and is more easily injured than the bulk of
the oranges grown in California. It is safe to say that the kind of handling which
would enable the California orange to go through the various picking and packing
operations without injury is not safe for the Florida product. The importance of
avoiding dropping or puncturing by long stems is most urgent when dealing with

14 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

thin-skinned, juicy fruit. The necessity of handling with extreme care so perishable
a product as the Florida orange can not be too strongly emphasized.

After the determination of the character of work being done and the discovery that
considerable injury was being inflicted on Florida fruit, the investigations were so
planned as to determine whether it was practicable to handle the fruit with sufficient
care to prevent injury. At first demonstrations corresponding to those carried on in
California were made in the packing houses, using fruit selected for soundness and
similar lots showing injuries of various kinds. The effects of dropping the fruit and of
washing it to remove sooty mold were also demonstrated. These lines of work proved
conclusively that blue mold develops wherever the skin of the orange is injured in any
way, and that dropping is followed by serious decay, especially when the fruit falls
into a receptacle containing dry twigs, gravel, splinters, or other matter rough enough
to bruise or puncture the skin.

After the packing-house demonstrations, showing that sound, uninjured Florida
oranges are not affected with blue-mold decay, shipping experiments under com-
mercial conditions were undertaken. These experiments consisted of forwarding
boxes of fruit of known history to Washington, where the percentages of decay were
carefully determined on the day of arrival and after one, two, and three weeks, the
fruit meantime being held under ordinary open-market conditions.

These experiments were followed during five successive seasons, thus enabling the
investigators to determine the effect of seasonal influences. The data obtained during
1910-11 and 1911-12, when the work was undertaken on a more extensive scale than in
the former seasons, corroborated the early results without exception, and the carrying
quality of the Florida orange when packed and shipped in sound condition was
proved to be as good as that of the California product. An injured orange, whether
grown in California or in Florida, will decay whenever the conditions for the develop-
ment of blue mold are favorable. A sound orange in good, healthy condition, whether
grown in California or in Florida, is able to resist blue-mold decay.

BLUE-MOLD DECAY OF THE ORANGE.

Indications of decay.—The characteristic appearance of the orange decayed by blue
mold is too well known to need description. Every handler of citrus fruits knows blue
mold, which is by far the most common form of decay. The grower frequently sees it
in the oranges hanging upon the trees, when the fruit has split or has been injured by
thorns or twigs. He finds it in the fruit which has dropped to the ground. The packer
sees it in the cull pile or in the boxes of fruit left standing in the house for a few days.
The receiver of the fruit finds the decay as the boxes are opened, and frequently he
smells it before removing the covers.

The first indication of decay is a small area of soft tissue at some point on the surface
of the fruit. This increases rapidly in extent if the weather is moist and warm, and
within a day or two a bluish or greenish spot develops. If weather conditions continue
favorable, the entire fruit is rotted within a few days, and the surface is generally coated
with a bluish or greenish blue mat or powdery covering.

BLUE-MOLD FUNGUS.

Blue-mold decay is caused by the growth of a minute organism within the tissues
of the fruit. Laboratory experiments have shown this organism to be a fungus of the
genus Penicillium, which includes the familiar blue mold or mildew on bread, on the
surface of canned fruit, and on other vegetable matter. Growth takes place within
the orange, the bluish mat on the skin being composed of the fruiting bodies made up
of chains of spores, massed together in great numbers. The fungus is spread by means
of these spores, which, like the seeds of many higher plants, germinate and grow as -
soon as they find lodgment under conditions favorable for their development. They

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 15

require heat and moisture, and when these are present growth proceeds at a very rapid
rate. The blue-mold fungus has not the power to penetrate the sound living tissue of
a well-grown fruit; hence, there must be a break or an abrasion of some kind in the skin,
through which the disease may find anentrance. When growth has once started, even
inasmall way, the fungus is capable of killing the surrounding tissues and thus produc-
ing material on which to grow. This process continues until the entire fruit is de-
stroyed. If, therefore, a fungous spore is present and lodges in an injured spot, the
initial step toward decay has been taken, and if the temperature and moisture condi-
tions during the next few days are favorable, the development of the fungus proceeds
rapidly and the orange is almost sure to rot. Many experiments have been made in
California and Florida packing houses in placing spores on fresh injuries, and, without
exception, the characteristic decay has resulted. On the other hand, large quantities
of fruit have been held under weather conditions most favorable to the development of
decay, and the results prove that fruit which has been so carefully handled as to pre-
serve the skin in an uninjured condition shows practically no decay even when the
surface has been purposely covered with spores. The development of decay is most
rapid during warm, moist weather, fruit packed during a cool, dry period frequently
reaching the market without much waste even though injuries are present. Under
changed atmospheric conditions, the same fruit may arrive in a badly decayed condi-
tion. During an average Florida winter there are usually periodical warm spells.
Reports of general heavy decay at the market end can almost without exception be
traced to fruit packed and shipped during these warm periods.

With this understanding of the nature and cause of the most common form of decay,
it becomes easy to see how the harvesting and handling methods may have an impor-
tant bearing on the keeping quality of the fruit. If these are such as to break the skin
or injure the orange, even slightly, favorable conditions for the development of blue-
mold decay exist and such decay is almost certain to result, as observation has shown
that the spores of the blue mold are present practically everywhere. It is safe to say
that most of the decay occurring in Florida oranges while in transit is due to blue mold.
There is some loss in transit from decay due to other forms of rot, but this is usually
very slight as compared with the loss from blue mold.

CAUSES OF BLUE-MOLD DECAY.

Since the principal means of securing oranges of good keeping quality is by elimi-
nating mechanical injuries to the fruit, the occurrence of decay is therefore closely
connected with the handling methods in use in the grove and packing house.

Thorn punctures, which are made while the fruit is still on the tree, are among
the first injuries to which citrus fruits are subjected. These are generally unavoidable,
as during every wind storm a certain percentage of the fruit is injured by being blown
against thorns. The puncturing which occurs when the fruit is being picked may be
prevented, however, although it is frequently difficult to handle the oranges with
sufficient care to avoid pressure against thorns or dried twigs when these are present
in large numbers. Fruit is often bruised when the ladder is placed carelessly in the
tree or when the sack is allowed to strike or is pressed against the branches or ladder.
(Pl. IX, figs. 1 and 2.) Moreover, filling the field boxes so high that the fruit pro-
jects above the top will result in crushing the oranges when the boxes are stacked
one on top of another. The oranges may be bruised on their way from the grove to
the packing house by being jolted over rough roads in springless wagons. The driver
of each wagon should be given a specially prepared seat and not allowed to sit upon
the fruit.

Among the most common forms of injury may be mentioned scratches made by the
finger nails of the pickers and packers, each of whom should be required to wear
gloves. It is comparatively easy for packers, especially if their finger nails are long,

16 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to seriously injure a large percentage of the oranges which they handle. Some packers
also do a great deal of harm by dragging the oranges around in the bins and by tossing
the off sizes into the neighboring bins. Abrasions due to the presence of gravel,
twigs, splinters, protruding nails, or other foreign matter in the picking receptacles,
field boxes, or packing bins may have far-reaching consequences. f

Bruises caused by dropping the fruit in the various stages of picking or packing
have been found to cause serious loss from decay. There are a number of places
where oranges may be greatly damaged by dropping. First of all, the picker may
toss them carelessly into his picking basket or bag. Careless pickers frequently
throw the oranges into the open receptacle by means of a shove with the clippers,
the fruit sometimes falling as far as 3 or 4 feet. Serious damage may also result from
emptying the fruit roughly into the field box. Plate I, figure 1, shows how the bag
or basket may be held too far above the box and the fruit allowed to fall too great
adistance. In case the bottom of the box is covered with twigs or small pieces of dirt
the injury is greater. A sack which opens only at the top and from which the fruit
must be poured into the boxes is likely to cause severe damage because of the bumps
to which the fruit is subjected. Usually no greater care is observed when emptying
the fruit into the field box and from that into the hopper of the washer, grader, or sizing
machine. The washing machine provides excellent opportunities for the infliction
of mechanical injuries and for infection from dirty water. This phase of the subject
will be discussed later.

Decayed fruit and trash should not be left in the boxes or allowed to accumulate on
the floor and under the packing bins. The slightest breeze will scatter great quan-
tities of blue-mold spores from these rotted oranges over all the fruit in the house.
A clean, well-lighted packing house greatly diminishes decay by reducing the chances
of infection. It has a beneficial influence on the workmen as well, offering a great
incentive to better work. Moreover, a clean packing house is a good indication of
the character of work being done throughout and indicates whether genuine efforts
are being made to improve the methods of handling.

The hopper into which the fruit is emptied has always been the source of much
injury to citrus fruits in Florida. In the old style of packing house, existing before
the work of the Bureau of Plant Industry was begun, the hopper was frequently large
enough to hold a wagonload of fruit. Few, if any, of these are nowin use. Even the
more desirable small hopper was constructed with such a steep gravity run that the
fruit was subjected to a severe bump on reaching the bottom. In going through the
machinery or over the grading table other chances for injury occurred, and the final
drop into the packing bin was sure to add several bruises. The desirable hopper has
padded sides and allows the fruit to be emptied gradually by means of moving belts,
which carry the fruit to the washing machine or grading belt; it is not necessary for the
fruit to fall by gravity at any stage of its journey.

The most serious form of injury, however, is made by the clippers in removing the
fruit from the tree. These clipper cuts are not as prevalent in Florida oranges as was
found to be the case in the California fruit, for the reason that the Florida oranges are
round and do not have the depression at the stem end which exists in the Washington
Navel. Nevertheless, enormous damage has been done to the Florida fruits either
by cutting the skin near the stem end when severing them from the branch or by
puncturing them with the points. It is essential to have the ends of the clippers
rounded or blunted in order to eliminate the possibility of piercing the fruit.

The presence of long stems on the oranges may be reckoned as equally disastrous.
For this reason, in determining the character of work being done by a picking crew
or individual picker long stems are included as imperfections. A long stem is just
as serious, if not more dangerous, than an orange which has been injured in some way.
The latter decays, but this rot seldom affects a neighboring orange; whereas a long
stem has ample opportunity to injure a number of fruits in their progress from the tree

PLATE IX.

Bul. 63, U.S. Dept of Agriculture.

“SNOINNINI
3d OL NIVLY3Q .SOWTY SI 103439 3HL Y3qGGvVq 3HL

ISNIVDY G3SS3Y¥d SI MOVS SHL NI LINHY SHL NAHM

‘¢o ‘Old

“SADNVYO

OSNINOId

“LINN SHL OL ANNPN| ASNYO OL BI19VIq
AYBA 3YV 33YL S3HL NI AISSSTSYVO Ga0v1d s¥aqgqvq—'}

a-

Pe
‘al
mn
%
‘;
tie
<4

‘O14

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.

Fic. 1.—OLD PACKING HOUSE IN FLORIDA.

Showing a water tank made of an old wine cask and a pile of field boxes 90 per cent of which
were broken or splintered,

;

Atte Hi
H

iy

Fic. 2.—OLD PACKING HOUSE IN FLORIDA.

Showing the method of emptying the fruit into the hopper from outside.

TYPES OF OLD PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate Xl.

Fic. 1.—A ONE-STORY COMMODIOUS BUILDING CONVENIENTLY ARRANGED FOR
HANDLING CITRUS FRUITS.

Fic. 2.—A Two-SToryY BUILDING WITH EXCELLENT FACILITIES FOR PACKING AND
SHIPPING CITRUS FRUITS.

EXTERIOR VIEWS OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIl.

Fic. 1.—AN OLD BUILDING FORMERLY USED FOR PACKING CITRUS FRUITS.

Note the erudeness of arrangement, the boxes of grapefruit stacked outside, and the many
broken field crates

Fic. 2.—THE MODERN BUILDING WHICH HAS REPLACED THE ONE SHOWN IN FIGURE 1.

ANTIQUATED AND MODERN TYPES OF FRUIT-PACKING HOUSES IN
FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.

Fic. 2.—GRADING CITRUS FRUITS BY LANTERN LIGHT AT MIDDAY.

INTERIOR VIEWS OF TWO OF THE OLD PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

Bul. 63, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XIV.

Fic.1.—CORNER OF A WELL-LIGHTED BUILDING.

Showing the type of machinery used for grading citrus fruits. The interior of this building is
shown in Plate XI, Figure 2.

Fic. 2.—GENERAL VIEW OF A CLEAN, WELL-ARRANGED BUILDING.

Showing new equipment for handling citrus fruits.

INTERIORS OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES IN FLORIDA.

PLATE XV.

Bul. 63, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture.

“LLOL SLNSWIYSdx9 ONId

dIHS-3

0 44

(1 0} JJay MOI

OSNVYO vaiyoly

[BALIIB WO IInd ay} JO UONTy

1109 9} SULMOL

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 17

to the packing box. <A sharp, ragged fragment of stem projecting from the orange
will injure all the fruit with which it comes in contact in the picking bag, field box,
brusher, washer, or packing bin. When it is considered that long stems are probably
the most common imperfections found in the work of the Florida crews, the importance
of giving particular attention to the picking becomes apparent. In most instances
it is impossible to avoid leaving long stems, unless the so-called double cut is made.
This means that the fruit is first severed from the tree with a stem half an inch long,
which is trimmed off when the fruit is held in the hands of the picker. This enables
the workman to cut closely and carefully without danger of clipper cutting, and at
the same time it prevents him from throwing or ‘‘shooting” the fruit into the picking
receptacle. Actual experience shows that it requires very little more time to make
the double cut, and when the picker becomes accustomed to clipping in this way he
can operate practically as fast as with the old method, where he has to use care to
prevent clipper cutting. Of course, it takes longer to make a careful double cut than
to pay no attention to the character of the work performed. Since the picker is fre-
quently unable to see the stem when the orange is on the tree, he consumes much
time in adjusting his clippers in the right position. In making the double cut he is
not concerned with the placing of his clippers, simply reaching out and severing the
orange with a stem long enough to avoid contact between the fruit and the clippers;
then when he holds it in plain sight he can easily make a smooth, close cut.

EVOLUTION OF THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY.

The results of the bureau investigations emphasize the importance of having the
fruit arrive in market in good condition and of having it remain sound while in the
hands of the wholesale and retail dealers. Shippers are frequently of the opinion
that their interest in the condition of the fruit does not extend beyond the percentage
of decay found on arrival. It is realized that buyers can claim allowance for such
decay, and consequently shippers are usually anxious to prevent it. In their opinion
any decay which results after the fruit is purchased is the buyer’s loss. This impres-
sion is erroneous, for the decay which develops after the fruit is in market is just as
directa loss to the growersand shippersas that which appears during transit. Although
the shipper does not have to make a cash allowance for decay occurring during the
market-holding period, brands which fail to remain in good condition lose their reputa-
tion and ordinarily do not command as high prices as do those which are known for
their good market-holding quality. The wholesale and retail merchants want oranges
upon which they can depend to remain in sound condition. For such fruit they
are willing to pay a premium, while fruit which develops a high percentage of decay
before it can be sold has nothing but itscheapness to recommend it. A grower or
shipper who consigns carelessly or poorly packed fruit with the expectation that it
will remain sound until it gets into market deceives no one but himself. He may be
able to dispose of a few cars at fair prices, but the buyers soon learn what to expect
and prices fall accordingly. Fruit which develops a high percentage of decay while
in the market is the poorest kind of an advertisement, not only for the brand under
which it is packed, but also for the section of the State from which it is shipped.

In many cases growers and packers are anxious to do careful work, but they do
not realize how many factors there are in the handling operations which may cause
injury and therefore decay. They do not appreciate what careful handling means,
and they underestimate its importance until the results are demonstrated to them.
Injuries causing decay in citrus fruits while in transit and in market may occur from
operations through which the fruit is put from the time it is taken from the tree until
it is placed in the packing box. It is the prevention of these injuries in grove and

23103°—Bull. 63—14——3

18 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

packing house that makes up careful handling, and both grower and packer are con-
cerned in knowing how they are caused and how they may be eliminated.

At the time the department investigations were started the methods of handling
Florida citrus fruits for shipment were extremely crude. Growers did their own
picking, there was no uniformity of system, and the work was performed only indif-
ferently well. ‘These statements are not meant to reflect in any way upon the standing
of the industry or to criticize the individuals who were concerned with the preparation
of the fruit for market. Practically all of the imperfections were due to a lack of
knowledge on the part of the growers and shippers and not to their desire to slight any
of the important work. No one realized the effects of injury to the fruit, and few,
if any, believed that injury was being inflicted. Growers and packers frequently
greeted the department workers with the statement that practically no injury was
being done to their fruit, whereas later examination often showed 15 or 20 per cent of
their oranges to be injured in some way. The scattered nature of the industry was
largely responsible for the crudeness with which the work was carried on. The old
neighborhood competition in the production of high-grade, attractive fruit disap-
peared after the freeze, when the plantings were distributed so widely over central
and southern Florida. Groves were more or less isolated, and a grower was frequently
wholly ignorant of the type of work being done by other producers of citrus fruits.

When the department investigations were begun it seemed almost hopeless to expect
that the results of the work could be made effective. The importance of getting in
touch with every grower and shipper was realized from the start, yet without some
central organization through which these individuals could be reached it seemed
impossible to expect that improvements in the methods of handling could be
inaugurated.

The changes which have taken place in Florida during the past five years are truly
remarkable. The old type of packing house has almost entirely disappeared (Pl. X,
figs. land 2). Modern houses, equipped with the newest machinery for handling fruit
properly, have been constructed in practically every citrus district in the State (Pls.
XTand X11), so that at the present time the industry is particularly well provided with
the mechanical appliances for doing good work. Plate XIV shows two views of clean,
well-lighted, modern packing-house interiors as contrasted with the dark and crowded
rooms of the old houses (Pl. XIII). The attitude of the growers and packers has
changed more slowly, however. The department has conducted a large number of
field demonstrations in order to educate pickers to the necessity of careful work, and
although much has been accomplished in this line, as is shown by the tabulated
figures given later on, much still remains to be done. The introduction of better hand-
ling methods is largely a business problem. It has to do with the reorganization of the
forces of workmen and with the method of paying them rather than with the discovery
of the cause of a particular form of decay.

Tn California the occurrence of injury in preparing the fruit for shipment was asso-
ciated with the way in which the work was done. The pickers were paid by the box,
and naturally each man was ambitious to pick as many boxes as possible during the
day, irrespective of the character ofthis work. A premium was thus placed on rough
handling. Several large companies, employing hundreds of men, demonstrated that
by changing from the box-payment to the day-payment plan and by insisting upon
careful work they could practically eliminate all picking injuries. A change in the
plan of payment is not, in itself, sufficient to bring about better work, however; the
workmen must be properly organized and supervised, and each individual picker must
be held responsible for the character of his work. In California a change from the
individual grower doing his own picking to the plan of association picking crews
resulted in very great improvement in the character of the work. The same plan has
more recently been carried out in Florida with very beneficial results,

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 19

INSPECTIONS OF PICKING CREWS AND FOREMEN.

Careful inspections of the work being done in different parts of the State have been
made during practically every season since the work has been in progress. Table II
and its accompanying diagram (fig. 3) show the average percentages of imperfections

found in the work of a num-

PEP CENT PEP CENT PER CENT . 5 c
CLIPPER CUTS LONG STEVTS euzéo__ her of picking crews in the
nono OJ
(9/0-/9// @m@m727©6=E 2.9% Gg 2.0% course of the comprehen-

1911-1312 WE 3.3% eS 0.37% @827% sive field inspections made

; ret b > department investi-

Fic. 3.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the y ine dey 5 ERED ENS
work of a number of picking crews inspected during 1910-11 and $2tors during the seasons
1911-12. of 1910-11 and 1911-12.

TasiE I1.—Imperfections in the work of a number of picking crews inspected during
1910-11 and 1911-12.

Class of imperfections. | 1910-111 1911-122
Per cent. Per cent.
LOLS bee mer bh Rene Banos ata 22 Seat eee ae eCee nee nen ide “SS Ceeneceee 4.2 3.3
Long stems E 12.9 18.3
OTE ES Sie oom A POSE RE SSIg ae SAPS: SQRCr Sh che Coen 6 Mee aN eA rS rE 2.8 2.7
1 Averages of 64 inspections of 51 crews. 2 Averages of 35 inspections of 34 crews.

Since the crews which were inspected were located in different sections of the State,
the percentages given in the table and graphically shown in figure 3 as the averages
ofallinspections represent very closely the type of work being done throughout Florida;
they indicate the necessity for more careful attention to the details of picking and to
the organization of the picking crews. This seems the most difficult reform to bring
about, yet no permanent improvement in the carrying quality of Florida oranges will
be reached until the field-handling operations are completely changed.

It is also necessary to devote more attention to inspecting the work of individual
pickers. Table III and its accompanying diagram (fig. 4) show the results of the

ye ae CGS Sips PULLED
4 Box FL0ox% Hocex 10.2%
2 ar B2% 23% : 0.0 Ye
3 80x WEMBss% ES /2./ i2/%
4 DAY Bc e% GREER 7 2% Gag 7.3 %
5 60x 10.3% ees 20.2% 10.3%
6 oDAY H2e6~% EE ee 50.6% EB 2
7 sox Se 3:. EES 23.0 Bro%
6 oar WS os CEE 7.6 2 G30%

Fic. 4.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of different picking crews
paid by the day and by the box, showing the variation in injury, 1910-11.

inspections of different picking crews in different parts of the State and are presented
to show that good work is possible. Crews Nos. 1 and 2 were doing practically perfect
work, but the work of crews Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 was far from perfect. The percent-
ages of long stems for which these last crews were responsible ranged from 11.4 to 30.6

per cent.
.

20 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tasie III.—Imperfections in the work of different picking crews paid by the day and by
the box, showing variation in injury, 1910-11,

Crew No. Paid -| Clipper | Long | puted.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

il 1.0 0.6 0.
2 1.2 2.3 0
35 4.5 12.1 2.
4. 4.2 11.4 4.
5... +3 20. 2 °
Ga 2.6 30. 6 2.
(oe 11.3 23.0 1.
8 9.5 14.6 3.

The percentages shown in Table IV and its accompanying diagram (fig. 5), which
were obtained from two representative crews working in different parts of the State,
give the average imperfections in the work of different individuals and show how wide
a variation exists in the character of work performed.

CREW N° / PAIO BY THE DAY CREW N29 2 PAID BY THE BOX
LPR tors LONG SHEOTS CUPEER OUTS LONE SFEOTS
wo 1 Bt/% EE 3 10.5% SE 20/5
2\ 0.0% a 9 % 21o.6% CE 23.67%
3W2/% 20.0% 3H 20% SEE 6.2%
SMS 7% 47 HB29% ae 0.2
SHEE so TE o.6 7% SUMI8% 8 WE20%
6 7 “9% CEE+7% = 20.57,

7H 6% =—los%
CURE 62% EEE 797.

(liemer we 1 was FOREMAN OF 71S CREW) SEER <:, SS 2
70 EE 7.57; 7.
1 ED 8 5% CES 7.2 7s
OE wm 757 ea «7% Avercce GEE 57 CREED 7.575

Fic. 5.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of two averag2 picking crews,
one paid by the day and one by the box, showing the variation between pickers, 1910-11.

Taste LV.—Imperfections in the work of two average picking crews, one paid by the day
and one by the box, showing variation between pickers, 1910-11.

NS

b

coomow~nnwe

Crew No. 1—paid by the day. | Crew No. 2—paid by the box.
i}
Ceo Clipper Long || Se RENT Clipper Long
Picker No. Gi. |) Gane. ll Picker No. cuts. | stems.
= SS —
Per cent.| Per cent. || Per cent. | Per cent.
11 33.4 || 1 | 0.5 20.
0 5. aoe 6 23.
2a: 20. 3... 2.0 8.
5.7 iG 4.. 2.9 10.
6.3 15. 5.. 3.8 2.
11.7 18. 6>3 4.4 26.
les 6.1 =
8.. 6.2 17.
GE 6.2 20.
7.8 14
8.8 11
SAIVETAPOW. 02 ssoeeeine oe oak 4.5 15: 7 BAVETAPOLE e cemocecse esos 4.5 | 14

oe NORCUNONNG-

1 Picker No. 1 was foreman of this crew.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 91

The figures are interesting and important because of the fact that the pickers in
one crew were paid by the day while those in the other crew were paid by the box.
It will be noted that there is practically no difference in the average percentages of
imperfections in these two crews. In crew No. 1 the foreman was such in name only.
He made no examination of the work of the men under his charge, and his own work
was shown by inspection (he was picker No. 1) to be the poorest in the crew. He
showed 1.1 per cent clipper cuts and 33.4 per cent long stems.

The pickers in crew No. 2, who were paid by the box, were not working with
sufficient care to avoid all injury to the skin, yet the average of imperfections in
the work of this crew was no greater than in the work done by crew No. 1, which
was paid by the day. The simple change from the box-payment to the day-payment
plan is insufficient, therefore, to bring about careful work. There must be an efficient

PICHERS DOING BEST WORK.

FAID CLIPPER LONG

PICKER BY CUTS STEIAIS PULLED

Wel DAY 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
2 B80X 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
3 DAY 0.0% 0.0% 89%
F BOXIOS% 00% 0.0%
5S B0xl0.6é% 00% 0.0%
6 DArloEe% 0.9% 0.0%
7 oArlo.7% 0.90% 0.0%
AVERAGEIO.4 % 0.0% 10.2%

PICHERS DOING POOREST WORK.
NV?) 60X ES -//-, EE 7.9.5 2 0.0%.

2 Sox WHEEBEEEE 25.7 -< ECS 2 7 @s2%
3 &0x WEEE 27 0~. GEES 2.5 G2s%
4 60x WEB 3.6 EE 30. 5% BHss5%
S 80x WH /0.8% EE 39.5 2, 10.4%
6 60x M47x% CEE TE 6 5 o, GB 5.02
7 DAY 0.0. % Se 50.5% GB sex
AVERAGE CME 6./ EE ss 3, @ss%

Tia. 6.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of seven pickers doing the
best work and seven pickers doing the poorest work, 1910-11.

field foreman whose duty it is to supervise the different pickers and who must be
capable of obtaining good work from them. He should watch carefully the output
of every laborer under his charge, should follow them to see what each is doing, and
should insist upon careful handling. It is practically impossible for him to carry
out these arduous duties if, in addition, he must pick fruit. It will be found
profitable to engage a foreman solely for the purpose of supervising the crew and to
insist that he give his entire attention to this work; if necessary, he should be pro-
hibited from picking any fruit.

The variation in the work done by different individuals is further emphasized by
the percentages shown in Table V and the accompanying diagram (fig. 6). The
average of the best seven pickers is practically perfect, while the average of the seven
pickers doing the most careless work shows a very high percentage of imperfections
of various kinds.

22

BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste V.—Imperfections in the work of seven pickers doing the best work and seven

pickers doing the poorest work, 1910-11.

Seven pickers doing best work. Seven pickers doing poorest work.
Picker Paid | Clipper Long Picker Paid | Clipper Tong

No. by— cuts. stems. eutlesh No. by— cuts. stems. igulled
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

1 Day. 0 0 0 eae Box 41.4 79.5 0
22. Box 0 0 0 seer tno --do 25. 4 62. 7 3.2
3... S2h|| Day-=s 0 0 UB) es le --do. 24.0 21.5 2.5
4. -| Box... 5 0 0 .-do. 18. 6 30.8 3.5
5. --do. -6 0 0 10.8 38. 5 4
6. Day..- -6 0 0 4.3 56.5 8.0
7 --do.- atl 0 0 0 50.8 6.6
Average.|......-- 4 0 2 Average.|.....-.- 16.1 45.4 3.3

The importance of thoroughly inspecting the crews and of training the foremen to

insist upon careful work is further emphasized by the percentages shown in Table VI

and its accompanying diagram (fig. 7).

These figures reveal very little difference in

CLIPPER? CUTS. LONG STEMAS PULLED
—
PAD BY THE DAY GEB37 % Ee 297% HB 23%
WHOIS) Lin py Ee Gox 775, EN 10.5 7% SBE 0%
PAID BY THE DAV 2/ % See S27 fo7%
(WANE Lipsy He eot E77 = 75% EI.

Fig. 7.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in the work of crews paid by the day
and by the box; average of all inspections, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

the averages of crews paid by the day and those paid by the box, proving that by means
of careful supervision a conscientious foreman can get as good work from pickers
under the box-payment plan as a more lax foreman can obtain under the day-payment

plan,

The efficient foreman is therefore the best solution of this problem.

Taste VI.—Imperfections in the work of crews paid by the day and by the box; average

of all inspections, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

1910-11 1911-12

Class of imperfections.

Crews paid | Crews paid

Crews paid | Crews paid

by day. by box.? by day.? | by box.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Clipper Cultsi asa. be sce = oot ce ee oe BEYe 4.4 2.1 s
Long stems. 9.9 13.8 15. 2 17.
Pilled cic 8s fee eae 2 Sie Soin ed EE 2.3 3.0 aif 3.8

1 Average of 18 inspections.

3 Average of 8 inspections.
2 Average of 46 mspections.

4 Average of 27 inspections.

Table VII and figure 8 show the averages of imperfections in the work of five of

the best and five of the poorest picking crews inspected during 1910-11 and 1911-12.

CLIPPER CUTS LONG STEMS PULLED
5 6000 CREWS B/.4 Yo GB 3.67: lo.2%
19/0-//
S °00R cREews GHEE 6.9. GEES 27.5 Ga 79% |
S Go0D CREWS #0.8 % GRBE 6. ¢# @2%

1911-12
E POOR CREWS GHEE 7.2%

EN 52 /°: NE 6.7 7%

Fig. 8.—Diagram illustrating the average percentage of imperfections in the work of five picking crews
doing good work as compared with five picking crews doing poor work, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 28}

Taste VII.—IJmperfections in the work of five picking crews doing good work as compared
with five picking crews doing poor work, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

1910-11 1911-12

Class of imperfections.
Vive good | Five poor | Five good | Five poor

crews. crews. crews. crews.
Per cent, Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
(CLSRYO Aaah ee oe Ree Serge coeccoacssngoan seodnmod q 8.9 0.8 163
Long stems 3.6 24.8 6.4 32.1
TEU CA Ags d Sonera aaae sséacto rds snanopeoe se SseeeaaeSs 2 7.9 12 6.7

Along with the inspections of the work of the crews and the individual pickers, an
attempt was made to demonstrate the practicability of training workmen to use more
care. The workers of the Bureau of Plant Industry kept in close touch with the
foreman of a representative picking crew, taking pains to indicate to him the scope
and character of the inspections which it was desirable for him to make. In Table
VIII and figure 9 are shown the results of work of this character. The first inspection

cumpenCune fe Lowe STEPIS COPPER CUS. LONG STEPAS poet CO Lone STIS

le eS EES SSS
N° / ME S.2% EEBoex 00% WEES<% B.s% 105%
we 2s Ga co 00% QEM6% feos% 1as%
& v9 3 mE s/o 1.0% a .2% los% 20%

8 we 4H/% ee Rs Ge 67 7B 2.0 5
Ses Bom Mss floez% 1oe%
Noe §ee% HGS % 2% we%
No 7 loe% W377 los% 105%
BEE WMS. 7 EEE 9.9 7 609% MEMS % Bos 8 fos%

Fic. 9.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections found during three inspections of one
picking crew ranging from three to seven persons, showing great improvement.

was made on January 14, when the crew consisted of four men, the average of imper-
fections at that time being 5.4 per cent clipper cuts and 9.9 per cent long stems. The
importance of careful work was urged upon the foreman and crew, and when on Janu-
ary 20 a second inspection was made, a very material decrease was found in the per-
centages of imperfections. The crew had been increased to seven by that time, and
the average of clipper cuts was 0.9 per cent and of long stems 5.1 percent. Afteran
additional demonstration of the effects of rough handling, no examination of the work
of the crew was made until March 4, when the third and last inspection of the season
was made. The average percentages of the seven pickers composing the crew on
that date were 1 per cent clipper cuts and 0.6 per cent long stems. An examination
of the work of the different individuals shows that one man (picker No. 4) was doing
practically all of the clipper cutting, his average being 6.4 per cent; it will also be
noted that his average of long stems (2.8 per cent) was greater than that of any of the
other pickers. If it was impossible for this workman to improve the character of his
picking he should have been discharged. Without him the average percentage of
clipper cuts would have been reduced to 0.7 per cent and of long stems to 0.5 per
cent.

94 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tasie VIII.—Imperfections found during three inspections of one picking crew, showing
great improvement.

Jan. 14, 1911. Jan. 20, 1911. Mar. 4, 1911.
Picker No. :
Clipper Long Clipper Long Clipper Long
cuts. stems. cuts. stems. cuts. stems.
|
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

1 5.2 3.6 0 5.4 11 0.5
5 0 3.6 5 5
1.0 9.2 5 2.0
4.8 4.8 6.4 2.8
1.0 4.5 6 6
-6 3.5 1.2 1.8
-6 3.4 5 ot)
at!) 5.1 1.0 -6

While these figures plainly demonstrate the practicability of training a crew of pickers
to do careful work, permanent improvement can not be accomplished without continu-
ous attention to the details of inspection and constant urging of the workmen to better
efforts. There are cases where picking operations were improved as long as the men
thought that inspections would be made; as soon as these were discontinued, however,
it frequently happened that the character of the work changed, and injuries again
became common. Continual vigilance is therefore the prime requisite for carrying
on picking operations in such a way that the number of injuries can be held at a
minimum.

PROPER FIELD EQUIPMENT.

The efficiency of the foreman and of the picking force in general is frequently
lowered by poor field equipment. In some instances associations of Florida growers
have spent large sums in building and equipping modern packing houses, while their
field outfits and methods have been neglected and consequently are so crude that
the expensive packing-house equipment is of practically no value ia so far as careful
handling of the fruit is concerned.

A frequent source of injury is the clipper. Unless the shears are systematically
inspected by the foreman they soon become dull and loose at the joint, and clipper
cuts and long stems are almost sure to follow. It has not been uncommon to see a
crew of pickers using clippers so dull and worn that it was impossible to make a close,
clean cut. Clippers with rounded or blunted points should also be supplied in order
to run no risk of puncturing the fruit.

The type of picking receptacle used is fundamentally important. Next to poor
clippers, probably more injury is caused by poor picking sacks than by any other
form of equipment. The old type of gunny sack, holding from three-fourths of a box
to a full box of fruit, is still in use to some extent. Such a sack is so long that it is
almost impossible to avoid pressing it against the ladder and branches. Moreover,
it is made of such loosely woven material that the fruit may easily be punctured by
thorns or twigs, and it is so heavy and unwieldy when filled with fruit that the picker
can not always prevent injuries of this kind. The most objectionable feature, how-
ever, is the fact that the fruit must be emptied through the top of the sack into the
field box, and even with the best of care the oranges must drop a foot or more when
emptied in this way.

The best type of sack is one which opens at the bottom, so that it may be placed in
the field box before being emptied and the fruit allowed to roll out gently without
any appreciable drop. The mouth should be partly closed, so as to make it impos-
sible for the picker to toss or drop the fruits into it. The material of which it is made

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 25

should be heavy enough to protect the fruit from thorns or twigs, and the capacity
should not be more than half that of a large, standard field box. With a bag of this
size and texture it is comparatively easy for the picker to protect the fruit from
bruising against the ladder or branches. The wicker basket in use in some districts
is supposed to prevent injuries from pressure, but it has several objectionable features.
It is, first of all, awkward to handle. The wide mouth is an additional disadvantage,
as it tempts the picker to drop the fruit; moreover, the large open baskets have no
equals as collectors of dry twigs, leaves, and other trash. Some baskets open at the
bottom, but from most of them the oranges must be emptied through the top, thus
entailing a considerable drop.

The defects of the ordinary field box have already been discussed. Smaller boxes
made of lighter material than those now used in most groves are to be recommended.

INFLUENCE OF CLEANING OPERATIONS UPON DECAY.
NECESSITY FOR WASHING.

On account of the wide distribution throughout Florida of the white fly and its
attendant sooty mold, the washing of citrus fruits has become a necessity in most
sections of the State. In some localities where the fly has not yet become prevalent
washing is practiced in order to give the fruit a higher polish and to improve its
appearance. The removal of dust and stains can be equally well accomplished by
dry brushes, however, and the risk of infection is not so great. During the past few
years there has been a great increase in the proportion of fruit washed or otherwise
cleaned until now the practice is very general throughout the State. The investiga-
tions of the Bureau of Plant Industry included a study of the relationship of washing
or other cleaning operations to the amount of decay developing after the fruit is
packed, and the results indicate that the extent of the deterioration from decay varies
with the character of the work done in the cleaning processes. Asa general rule, any
operation to which the fruit is subjected increases the chance for injury and conse-
quent decay. Well-grown fruit, comparatively free from stain or rust, is sufficiently
attractive without being cleaned. Demonstrations with both California and Florida
citrus fruits have shown that receivers in eastern and northern markets can not dis-
tinguish between washed and unwashed packs if the fruit is at all clean when it comes
from the grove. From the viewpoint of the effect of any particular operation upon
the subsequent behavior of the fruit, the soundest policy is one which will reduce to
the lowest possible minimum the processes to which the fruit is subjected in the
eourse of its preparation for shipment. Washing is perhaps the severest treatment.
that can be given to citrus fruits, and wherever it is not absolutely necessary in order
to render the fruit marketable it should be omitted. When oranges have been
exposed to attacks of the white fly, washing or some other cleaning process is
imperative because of the sooty mold, consequently a large proportion of the fruit
must always be subjected to this treatment. The importance of having the work
carried on in such a way that as little damage as possible will result becomes doubly
urgent when it is considered that the washing processes offer ideal conditions for the
spread of blue mold.

Wherever washing and subsequent drying are practiced, the combined operations
are the most complicated processes through which the fruit is put in the packing house.
They involve extra handling of the fruit and accordingly furnish additional oppor-
tunities for mechanical injury. The results of the bureau investigations clearly show
that decay in the packed fruit is largely due to injuries received or aggravated during
the operations of washing and drying, although it is difficult, if not impossible, to
indicate any particular point at which most of the injury takes place. The results
of the Florida experiments show that where injuries to the fruit were confined almost

23103°—Bull. 63—14——4

26 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

wholly to those received in the commercial field-handling operations the decay was
practically the same as in the case of lots where injuries were confined to those received
in the washing and drying operations. From this the assumption may be drawn that
the bad effects following washing are due not so much to actual injuries made in
passing the fruit through the machine as to the ino7ulation of injured and bruised
spots through the agency of dirty, infected water. There seems to be a definite
relationship between the type of field handling and the occurrence of decay following
washing. Injuries made in the grove, punctures from long stems, or other damage
received as the oranges pass through the machinery are aggravated by the addition of
moisture, especially when the water is not clean. On the other hand, the quality of
work performed by the machinery is largely dependent upon the manner in which
the fruit is handled in the grove, and this consideration emphasizes the necessity of
careful and systematic methods, especially where washing must be employed. Fruit
which is handled in groves and packing houses with sufficient care to insure its packing
without injury usually shows much less decay after washing than the same or similar
fruit which has been treated less carefully.

Fruit which is covered with sooty mold must be thoroughly soaked before it is in
proper condition for washing. This introduces a prolific source of infection—the
soaking tank. Unless the water in the soaking tank is kept sanitary by being fre-
quently changed, it soon becomes heavily charged with blue-mold spores, and is
then one of the most dangerous features of the washing operations. As yet, no disinfect-

ant has been found which
CAREFUL COMMERCIAL E a
PICK AND PACK PICK AND PACK proves effective against
= blue mold. Extensive in-
vestigation of this phase of
w4sreo TE +7. EE 0.2 =the subject has shown the

“. x Ks - ‘ ize aa spores to be so resistant
1G. 10.—Diagram illustrating the percentage o ue-mMo ecay .
after holding oranges, washed and not washed, for two weeks in that uy solution used to
a packing house; summary of all experiments, 1910-11. destroy them must be of
sufficient strength to injure
the surface of the fruit. The importance of maintaining the soaking tank in a sanitary
condition is therefore fundamental. Itshould be emptied frequently, and sprays of
fresh water should be directed against the fruit as it passes through the washing
machine.

wor WASHED Wo % EEE 3.6%

RESULTS OF WASHING EXPERIMENTS.

Tables IX, X, and XI, and figures 10, 11, and 12 show the results obtained during the
season of 1910-11, when the washing experiments of the bureau were carried on in a
comprehensive and systematic manner, giving the average percentages of decay found
in carefully and commercially handled fruit, washed and not washed, respectively.
The fruit was packed as if for shipment, but instead was held for two weeks in the
packing houses and the percentages of decay determined by actual count. Table IX
and its accompanying diagram (fig. 10) present a summary of all the washing experi-
ments carried on during the season, including the work of 13 different types of ma-
chines, operated in 32 packing houses. The figures show the relative increase in
decay due to the washing operations alone in the case of the carefully handled fruit
and to the combination of causes in the case of the commercially handled fruit. The
carefully handled oranges, not washed, showed 1 per cent of decay after two weeks;
the washed, 4.1 per cent. In the commercially handled lots, the fruit not washed
showed 3.6 per cent of decay and the washed fruit 10.2 per cent. The figures
include the results of work done in many different ways, and while they summarize
the general effects of washing, some analysis of the data is necessary in order to bring
out the points of fundamental importance.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 27

Taste 1X.—Blue-mold decay after holding oranges, washed and not washed, two weeks
in packing house; summary of all shipments, 1910-11.

+
Careful |, Commer-
Treatment. pick and cial pick
pack. and pack.

Per cent. Per cent.
1.0 3.6

WEE U Loe neko oa a ne oe ae Sg me pg Oo ee ae 4.1 10.2

1 Results of 37 experiments in 32 packing houses, in which 13 different types of washers were used.

Table X and its accompanying diagram (fig. 11) show the wide variation in the
amount of decay found in five houses selected for careful work, as compared with five
houses chosen for rather careless work. While the average percentages of decay in
the washed fruit of the five better houses were only slightly higher than the percentages
of decay in the fruit not washed, it will be noted that the cleaning operations in the
five careless houses increased the amount of decay to a material extent, even in the
carefully picked and packed fruit. The significant point to be noted in these results
is that the washing operations were conducted in the careful houses in such a way
that little or no harm ensued, while in the more careless houses they were followed
by serious injury. It is impossible to state definitely whether this result was due

to the use of different types ELOUSES suOWIG Low aCAY

of machines or to the more PICK AND PACK PICA ANE nore
. een

careful operation of the 7 “sven fos% Wcox

WASHED 0.6% GEE coce

machinery in the five best
S HOUSES SHOWING HIGH OECAY

packing houses. It is se7rwasveommsx cae 2-7
probable, however, that WAS TTS 2 RTE
both factors were in some a 27.3

degree responsible. Ob- yg. 11.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay ap-

servation has shown that pearing after holding oranges, washed and not washed, for two weeks
ipulation of in a packing house, showing high compared with low decay in care-

RES P fe 9 fully handled and commercially handled fruit.

the best machinery is fre-

quently followed by as serious deterioration of the fruit as is the careful handling
of less desirable types of machines.

Taste X.—Blue-mold decay after holding oranges, washed and not washed, two weeks in
a packing house, showing high and low decay in fruit carefully handled and commercially
handled, 1910-11.

Careful | Commer- = Careful_| Commer-
pick and } cial pick Packing houses and treat- pick and | cial pick

Packing houses and treat-
pack. | and pack. Ear pack. |and pack,

ment

5 houses showing low decay: | Per cent. | Per cent. || 5housesshowing high decay: | Per cent. | Per cent.
Not weebed dridasbtoacecis 0.3 0.9 Not washed....-.-..-.--- 1.3 tial
IWiESHOd cece ss sncee eee = 6 159 AVES eR odacedsaacccaasd 10.7 24.3

In order to bring out the relationship between field handling and packing-house
management, Table XI and its accompanying diagram (fig. 12) are presented. These
give the results of experiments made at the same time in two houses in the same local-
ity, the character of fruit handled in both houses being practically identical. Obser-
vation showed that the work of house No. 1 was careless, while in house No. 2 system-
atic management and careful methods prevailed. That the character of the fruit was
the same is shown by the fact that the lots carefully picked and not washed showed a
minimum percentage of decay in both cases. The fruit was held two weeks alter

28 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

packing, and decay was determined by actual count. In house No. 1 the carefully
handled fruit, not washed, was held for two weeks with only 1.1 per cent of decay, while
the washed Jot of the same fruit developed 14.1 per cent. The carefully handled
oranges, not washed and washed, showed 0.8 per cent and 1 per cent of decay, respec-
tively, in house No. 2. The commercially handled fruit, not washed, in house No. 1
developed 4.7 per cent of decay after two weeks, while in house No. 2 this class of fruit

showed only 1.2 per cent of

decay. 9.5
nee coe Spee 2S es
SSS ;
sacar ap tor msn Wi ——— cent of decay in the washed
‘ ms A/mm 39.5% lots of commercially han-
on {VT WASHED 00.8% w2% dled fruit from house No, 1,
ape ee but in house No. 2 enly 1.3

Fic. 12.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay per cent of the fruit handled
in oranges, washed and not washed, from two houses in the same = =
locality, after holding the fruit for two weeks in the packing houses, in the same AY, showed de
1910-11. cay at the end of two weeks.

The significance of the ef-
fects of rough field handling and subsequent poor manipulation of the machinery is
amply shown, and the practicability of carrying on washing operations with care suffi-
cient to reduce decay to a minimum is likewise demonstrated.

Taste XI.—Blue-mold decay in oranges, washed and not washed, from two houses in the
same locality after holding the fruit for two weeks in the packing houses, 1910-11.

Careful | Commer-
pick and | cial pick

Careful | Commer-

Packing houses and treat- cial pick | cial pick

Packing houses and treat-

ment. pack. |and pack. ment. pack. |and pack.

House No. 1: Percent.| Percent. || House No. 2: Per cent, | Per cent.
Not washed ....----.--.-- 1.1 4.7 Not washed....-.......-- 0.8 12
SWisshed a teem een ee 14.1 39.5 Washed? 2ietas asses 1.0 1.3

In the bureau investigations 12 different types of washing machines and one sawdust
cleaner were used, A few of the machines were of such evident impracticability that
they were rapidly going out of use, and of those which gave satisfactory results it is
manifestly impossible to name any one which is best suited for all purposes, The
quantity of fruit to be handled and the nature of the work to be performed are impor-
tant factors which must be considered in determining the value of any machine.
When purchasing this part of the equipment, it is important to choose the type of
machine which will do the best work from the standpoint of careful handling and
will eliminate, as far as is possible, the detrimental results of washing.

Some of the features which should be avoided in washing machines are as follows:

(1) Completely inclosed brushes. The fruit should be in plain sight at all times.

(2) Pressure on the fruit other than that afforded by the weight of the fruit itself.

(3) Opportunity for the fruits to tumble over or rub against one another to any great
extent.

(4) Any arrangement of brushes, mats, etc., which allows twigs, thorns, nails, etc.,
to become lodged in the runway through which the fruit must pass.

Any one of these features may be the means of much injury, especially in houses
where careful attention to the operation of the machinery is not given at all times, or
where the field-handling operations have been more or less careless.

IMPORTANCE OF DRYING.

Fruit should never be packed while moist or wet. Moisture is one of the prime
requisites for the development of decay, and, as the temperature of the fruit during
the Florida packing season is usually high enough to facilitate the germination of the

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 29

mold spores, the importance of having the fruit perfectly dry can not be too strongly
emphasized. Weather conditions in Florida are practically never such that fruit
may be allowed to stand wet in the boxes for several days, although this practice
prevails to some extent in California. The wet conditions within the mass of fruit
renders ideal the conditions for the development of any mold, especially where the
packing-house premises are not strictly sanitary. Injured fruits handled in this
way frequently develop decay which has not advanced far enough to be detected
when the fruit passes over the grading belts and which might have been prevented
by prompt drying. Later drying or even icing in transit can not entirely arrest the
growth of the mold.

In some districts the sun rack (Pl. VII, fig. 2) is depended upon for drying the fruit,
and with favorable weather conditions this method is as effective as the use of many
of the so-called artificial-drying machines. The chief objection to this rack is that
frequently sufficient space for its proper construction is not available, and it is there-
fore not made large enough to accommodate all of the fruit or to insure perfect drying.
Moreover, the handling of the fruit on this rack is often very rough and conducive to
severe injury, unprotected brooms or wooden implements being generally used to
dislodge the fruit or to spread it over the rack as it comes from the washing machine.
Another point of injury is where the fruit is allowed to run off the bottom of the rack
into the field boxes, from which it is again emptied into a hopper leading to the grading
machine. These various operations and the more or less rough type of handling greatly
multiply the chances for injury and increase the liability of blue-mold infection.

The drying of fruit in Florida is difficult at best, and the artificial drier seems to be
an ultimate necessity, at least from the standpoint of thorough work and careful
handling. Frequently weather conditions are such that complete drying is practically
impossible unless some artificial method is devised to evaporate the water from the
surface of the fruit. A properly constructed drying machine can be adjusted so as to
carry the fruit continuously from the washing machine to the grading belts, without
drops, gravity runs, elevators, or even the use of the human hand. A machine which
can thus be adjusted to carry on the work with proper care is more reliable than are
workmen of the type usually employed in a packing house.

The artificial drying of fruits is still in the experimental stage in Florida, and a machine
which will prove wholly satisfactory under all conditions has not yet been devised.
All the types of mechanical driers have yielded good results under favorable weather
conditions, and all have given more or less trouble on cloudy days or at any time
when the humidity was very high.

In the most effective driers now in use, an air blast is circulated around the fruit
in such a way that the moisture is more or less completely removed. The intro-
duction of artificial heat or some other means of drying the circulating air will greatly
improve the character of the work and will materially lessen the distance over which
the fruit must travel. Other things being equal, the more promptly the drying can
be accomplished the less chance there will be for the development of blue mold.

PACKING AND SHIPPING EXPERIMENTS.
EXPERIMENTAL CONSIGNMENTS DURING TWO SEASONS.

During the seasons of 1910-11 and 1911-12 comprehensive series of shipping experi-
ments were made in order to demonstrate the application of the results of the packing-
house tests made during previous years. More than 90 experimental shipments
of oranges were made from Florida in 1910-11, and 65 shipments were sent out in the
course of the work during 1911-12. These consignments were composed of fruit
from practically every orange-growing district in the State, including the Manatee
River district, the Pinellas Peninsula, and the Hillsboro County sections on the
west coast; the groves extending from Fort Myers to De Land in the interior; and

30 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the section: along the east coast from Daytona and New Smyrna to Miami. They
represented a great variety of conditions and formed a fair average of the character
of the fruit in the State, as well as of the manner in which it was prepared for market
under commercial conditions. Some of the best as well as some of the poorest houses
were represented in these tests, and a number of houses which may be classed as
average were also included. :

Each shipping series consisted of six boxes of oranges; two of these were carefully
picked, graded, and packed by the bureau workers; two were picked by regular pickers
but were carefully graded and packed; and the last two were taken from the ordinary
commercial run of the houses from which the experimental shipments were made.
The shipments were divided into two parts. In one the grading, packing, and ship-
ping were made on the same day on which the fruit was picked, or as soon after-
wards as possible, and in the other the same fruit was held for three or four days in
the packing house before packing and shipping. The former were designated as
“immediate” and the latter as “‘delayed” shipments. All lots were sent out with
the regular carloads of fruit from the various packing houses, and the experimental
boxes were expressed to Washington from the northern markets to which the cars
were consigned. Each box was inspected on the day of arrival in Washington and the
percentage of decay accurately determined. The fruit was held for three weeks.
under ordinary open-market conditions, and inspections were made at the end of
the first, second, and third weeks. The results obtained give a fair representation
of the average decay occurring in a commercial pack and show the percentage of
loss which can be avoided by more careful handling.

Plate XV illustrates the condition in which the three lots shipped from one packing
house using very little care arrived on the Washington market. The carefully picked,
graded, and packed fruit (on the left in the illustration) showed 4 per cent of decay on
arrival; the commercially picked but carefully graded and packed fruit (in the cen-
ter) showed 35.6 per cent of decay, and the commercially handled fruit (on the right)
had 65.9 per cent of decay. After intervals of one, two, and three weeks the three lots,
respectively, showed decay as follows: After one week, 4 per cent, 46 per cent, and
71.6 per cent; after two weeks, 11.5 per cent, 54 per cent, and 72.2 per cent; after three
weeks, 11.5 per cent, 57.1 per cent, and 72.2 per cent.

Table XII and figure 13 show the average percentages of decay found in the ship-
ments during 1910-11 and 1911-12.

Taste XIT.—Blue-mold decay in oranges carefully handled and commercially handled,

on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks; average of all inspections,
1910-11 and 1911-12.!

Careful pick and Commercial pick Commercial pick
pack. and careful pack, and pack,
Time of examination.

1910-11 1911-12 1910-11 1911-12 1910-11 1911-12

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
0.6 0.6 2.5 1.4 7.0 4.0
ial 9 4.3 2.2 10.8 6.8
1.6 1.4 5.5 3.5 13.1 10.4
19 2.2 6.1 5.5 14.2 14,2

1 From 79 comparable shipments made in 1910-11 and 65 comparable shipments made in 1911-12.

Table XIII and its accompanying diagram (fig. 14) summarize the results of the two
seasons’ work and show the average of all experiments carried on during the two years.
In the illustration the results are marked as curves, using the percentages of decay
for the vertical lines and the times of arrival and of holding for the horizontal lines.
In this way the progress of the deterioration can readily be traced, and the influence
of the different systems of handling upon the occurrence of decay is strikingly
shown.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA, ol

The carefully handled fruit arrived in Washington during both seasons with less
than 1 per cent of decay, or an average for the two years of 0.6 percent. The commer-
cially picked but carefully packed fruit showed much more decdy on arrival, while
astill higher percentage of decay had developed in the iruit picked and packed under
ordinary commercial conditions. The average percentage of decay which was de-
veloped in the carefully picked and packed fruit during a holding period of three
weeks was about the same as that shown on arrival by the commercially picked but
carefully packed lots. The fruit handled under commercial conditions throughout

1S

14

42

VN © 8B

9)

PEP CENT DECAY

AG

Qo
ON ARRWAL 1 WEEAT 2 WEEAS 3 WEES
LATER LATER LATER

Fig. 13.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of bluemold decay in carefully handled and com-
mercially handled oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks; average of
all inspections, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

had developed more than twice as much decay by the first inspection as occurred
in the carefully picked and packed fruit at the end of three weeks. The latter boxes,
with 2.1 per cent of decay, were still in good marketable condition after holding for
three weeks under ordinary market conditions, but the commercially handled fruit
had developed 5.5 per cent of decay on arrival, which was increased to 14.2 per cent at
the end of three weeks.

Taste XIII.—Blue-mold decay in oranges carefully handled and commercially handled, on
arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks; summary of the results of the
two seasons’ work, 1910-11 und 1911-12."

Careful Commercial Commercial

ick and pick and pick and

Time of examination. Pp pack. ae pack.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
irri ee eee ee en fon eter docs cs ccanesncns=nr 0.6 2.0 5.5
After 1 week........-. MRS Las C8 ee Sone ewe kee 1.0 ora 8.8
(hapainp- Wi Gt US Be pee de LES eae (DOSE ne aE eee ee ease aenneSrcros 1.5 4.5 11.8
PATER ANVORKS woe eee nen seo cast ccaas cacaccr se endecee==m=-5 == 2.1 5.8 14.2

1 From 79 comparable shipments made in 1910-11 and 65 comparable shipments made in 1911-12,

3} BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

These results strongly emphasize the very definite relationship which exists between
the type of handling given the fruit in preparing it for shipment and its behavior dur-
ing transit, and they show that the condition of the fruit after arrival in market de-
pends largely upon the character of the work done in the grove and the packing house.
They also show that the Florida orange, when properly handled, has excellent shipping
qualities and that practically all loss from blue-mold decay, such as has occurred in
the past, can be eliminated. This is the fundamental factor wpon which will even-
tually depend the successful marketing of the crop as well as the extension of the
territory over which sound fruit can be distributed. The importance of having the
fruit remain in good condition after arrival in market is most urgent. Carefully han-
dled fruit which has good keeping quality will always command a premium over fruit
which has a bad reputation. The former will enable buyers to break up carloads and
to ship sound fruit to smaller markets over an area two or three times as large, while

is

14

43)

PER CENT DECAY
N

ol A
On 7 WEEP 2 WEEAS B WEEKS
ARRIVAL LATER LATER LATER

Fic. 14.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay in carefully handled and commercially
handled oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks; summary of the
results of the two seasons’ work, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

fruit of a less desirable quality must be consumed quickly in order to avoid further
serious loss. Moreover, aside from the actual saving of fruit, the reputation of a brand
which holds well on the market can not be adequately estimated in dollars and cents.

EFFECT OF DELAYED SHIPMENT.

Experiments with delayed shipments were made in order to determine the effect
of “curing” fruit before packing. One of the strongest traditions which existed
among packing-house men in the past was that curing was necessary in order that
the fruit might be in proper condition for packing. The slight wilting and consequent
softening of the oranges was supposed to enable the packer to place them more firmly
in the box. The results of the shipping experiments carried on during the two sea-
sons did not show that there was any advantage to be gained from curing. Contrary
to the general belief that cured fruit is less easily injured in packing, the average
decay in the delayed lots was considerably higher than in the immediate shipments.
Table XIV and figures 15, 16, and 17 give the average percentage of decay found in the

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 33

immediate and delayed shipments during the seasons of 1910-11 and 1911-12. Suffi-
cient data have been accumulated to indicate that carefully handled fruit may be
cured without serious loss, but that wherever the fruit has been appreciably damaged
in the course of its preparation for shipment, decay is materially greater in the delayed
lots. The carefully handled immediate and delayed shipments during 1910-11 and
1911-12 arrived with 0.5 per cent and 0.7 per cent of decay, respectively, the differ-
ence being so slight that it may be neglected entirely. The commercially handled
immediate shipments showed 4.6 per cent of decay and the delayed ones 6.6 per

1s

19

PER CENT DECAY

|
|

Zeal
—

— SHIPIIEN T-

ON 4 WEEE 2 WEES FWEEAS
ARRIVAL LATER LATER LATER

Fic. 15.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots and in im-
mediate and delayed shipments, 1910-11,

cent on arrival. After holding these lots of fruit for three weeks the decay in the
carefully handled fruit had increased to 2 per cent, while the commercially handled
shipments showed 13.8 per cent of decay for the immediate and 14.8 per cent for the
delayed ones. Once again the effect of careful handling upon the behavior of the
fruit after arrival in market is strikingly shown.

TaBLE XIV.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for
three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled and in immediate and
delayed shipments, 1910-11 and 1911-12.!

Careful pick and pack. Commercial pick and pack.
Time of examination.

as Average es Average
1910-11 1911-12 2 seasons. 1910-11 1911-12 2 seasons.
On arrival: Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
0.5 0. 5 6. 4.6
ait oii bi 7.3 5.8 6.6
1.1 -9 1.0 10.4 5.7 8.1
1.2 1.0 iy 11.2 8.7 9.9
1.4 1.4 1.4 12.9 9.7 11.3
y' 1.8 1.5 ie, 13.4 11.7 12.5

After 3 weeks:
Wmimedid ses. o- ssatene. secs el - ssc eee 17 2.3 2.0 14.1 13.5 13.8
RIB VEU 5 aime me See aeee aetste sacc iad 201 2.0 2.1 14.4 15.1 14.8

1 From 39 comparable shipments made in 1910-11 and 28 comparable shipments made in 1911-12,

34 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The prevailing opinion that fruit packed soon after picking or before it has had
time to cure will arrive in slack condition has not been borne out by the bureau inves-
tigations. When the fresh fruit is firmly and properly placed in the box, it is no more
liable to make a slack pack than is the cured fruit. It is probably true that the latter
can be more easily packed, for less effort is required to press it into the box. The
work of many rapid packers who make no effort to place the oranges firmly and who
rely upon the press to squeeze the fruit into place, is conducive to poor carrying
quality as wellas toslackness. Each layermust be properly placed. Where the press
is depended upon to shove the fruit down into the box the force exerted reaches through
only two or three layers and often squeezes the oranges in these to the extent of break-
ing the skin or inflicting serious bruises. After the boxes are loaded on the cars,
jolting during transit loosens the improperly packed layers, and the fruit arrives on
the market in a slack condition. When every orange is firmly placed, however, there
is little chance that such slackening will result.

Moreover, fruit held loose in the packing house during warm, humid weather is
afforded an additional opportunity for blue-mold infection. Although some packers

46

PER CENT DECAY
®

JPMENTS.
DELAKED, SHIPMEITS.
FE SHIPMENTS

On (WEE 2 WEEAS PWEERS
ARRIVAL LATER LATER LATER

Fic. 16.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots and in
immediate and delayed shipments, 1911-12.

consider this delay necessary in order to eliminate the injured oranges which have
begun to decay, experience and observation show that while graders are occasionally
able to discern and throw out such fruits, it is practically impossible to discover all
infected specimens. The development of blue mold during the curing period accounts
for the advanced stages of the decay usually found in delayed shipments on arrival
in market.

The average length of time during which the experimental shipments were in tran-
sit from Florida to Washington was 10 days; as a rule, from § to 10 days are required
for Florida oranges to arrive at their destination. Several days may then elapse before
the fruit is sold, and a still longer period usually intervenes before it is placed in the
hands of the consumer. The 3-weeks’ period used in the Washington market-holding
tests represents approximately the length of time required to finally dispose of the

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. Be

fruit. When the fruit is held for 3 or 4 days in the packing house the period elapsing
between picking and final consumption is unnecessarily and even dangerously length-
ened. From this standpoint alone curing is unwise, as the delay“increases the chance
for the infection of bruises or injured spots and facilitates the development of decay
before shipment and in transit.

PER CENT DECAr

ON / WEEK 2WEEAS FIWEEKS
ARRIVAL LATER LATER LATER

Fic. 17.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges, on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots and in
immediate and delayed shipments; average of the two seasons, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

A comparison of commercially handled immediate and delayed shipments from
two packing houses, in one of which the work was being done very carefully, while
in the other the handling was of a rather rough character, emphasizes the relationship
which exists between delay and the occurrence of decay while in transit. Table XV
and its accompanying diagram (fig. 18) give the results of commercial shipments from
these two packing houses during the season of 1910-11. The houses were located in
the same district and the fruit was similar in character.

TasLeE XV.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for
three weeks, the immediate and delayed shipments from two houses, 1910-11.

House No. 1. House No. 2.

Time of examination. E -
Immedi- Delayed. Immedi-

ate. ate, | Delayed.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
26.1

BNEArTVAl eee see ae a yo Se ee cts = Seo ecee see seca eee e rs seeks 0 6. 67.3
ENG) Nes 1.2 6 40. 4 71.3
After 2 weeks- - Skul 1.4 42.6 71.9
After 3 weeks. . .- 4.0 1.4 42.8 71.9

The fruit from house No. 1, which was carrying on the work in a careful manner,
arrived in Washington with no decay in either immediate or delayed lots, and after
holding for three weeks the immediate shipments developed 4 per cent of decay,
while the delayed ones had less than 2 per cent. In house No. 2, where the work
was being carelessly done, the difference between the percentages of decay was very

36 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

great. It will be noticed that even in the immediate shipments the proportion of
decayed oranges amounted to 26.1 per cent on arrival and at the end of three weeks
constituted 42.8 per cent of the total. In the delayed shipments, 67.3 per cent of de-
cay had developed on arrival, and this was increased to 71.9 per cent after three weeks.
This isan extreme case, of course, and it is only fair to state that few housesin Flor-
ida were doing as poor work as this during 1910-11. The figures are presented to em-
phasize the contrast between commercial work performed under different conditions.

Table XVI and its ac-
ED <a
5 Wo Fata 5 zee
poe =

companying diagram (fig.

zg 19) give the results of im-
mediate and delayed ship-
ments of fruit from a single
packing house during the
period when high decay is
usually most prevalent in
Florida. The work done
in this house could not be

#8
nee considered as first class.
Ig 4% For the sake of contrast,
Reel immediate and delayed lots
8 <g carefully handled by the
‘ we bureau workers were sent

out at the same time as
the commercially handled
shipments. The carefully
handled fruit, shipped im-
mediately, arrived in Wash-
ington with 1 per cent of

decay, while the commer-

cially handled oranges
nouse No.) Leeman showed 5.1 per cent. The
onan (Maen 2 WEEKS swems carefully handled delayed
Fic. 18.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of lot had-developed ad) pet
oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three Cent of decay on arrival,
weeks, in immediate and delayed shipments from two houses, while the commercially

1910-11. handled delayed shipment
showed 36.9 per cent at the same time. After holding the carefully handled fruit in
Washington for three weeks, the immediate shipment was still in very good market-
able condition with only 2 per cent of decay, whereas the percentage in the delayed
lot had increased to 6.3. The latter fruit was still marketable, although subject
to discount. Both lots of commercially handled fruit, however, developed decay
far in excess of any market allowance, the immediate lot showing 25.6 per cent and the
delayed 44 per cent.

TasLe XVI.—Blue-mold decay of oranges in immediate and delayed shipments from one
house, on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks during a period of high
blue-mold decay, December, 1911.

Carefully handled | Commercially han-
fruit. dled fruit.

Time of examination. I di I di
mmedi- mmedi-
ate. | Delayed.| "ate. | Delayed.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.
1. 5 36.9

On arrival 0 3.6 b.1

After 1 week. 1.0 4.6 16.5 38.0
After 2 weeks. 1.2 5.3 23.3 39.4
After 3 weeks. 2.0 6.3 25.6 44.0

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 37

Unless unfavorable weather conditions prevail, a delay of several days is not serious
under a system of careful handling which insures the packing of the fruit in sound
condition, but it is far better to avoid delay as much as possible, even if the attendant
conditions are most favorable.

COMPARISON OF THE WORK OF DIFFERENT PACKING HOUSES.

Typical rough and careful handling —The figures presented in Tables XVII to XX
and the accompanying diagrams include the averages of both commercial and experi-
mental shipments from a number of houses representing all classes of work. Extremes
of rough handling and con-
sequent very high decay ~*
during transit, as well as io
extremes of careful han- 49 sy supe
dling accompanied by ex- ae a

cellent shipping quality,
were found in different
parts of the State.

Table XVII and its ac- 30

companying diagram (fig. x
20) give the average per- &_. ee
centages of decay occur- :
-ring during 1910-11 and j
1911-12 in the commercial Nad
shipments from 12 houses @

using care and from alike = ,,
number of houses in which
the work was roughly done.
During both seasons the
percentage of decay in the

att
? : F ed
commercial fruit shipped 5 cameruL WANs Oe as ae
by the houses using care com

63

CAREFUL HANOLING , (MMEDIATE SHIPIIENTS. 420
was almost as low as the ,, — os
average forany of thecare- ava “(ate olen "ee

fully handled lots, picked, ia. 19.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of
graded, and packed by bu- oranges in immediate and delayed shipments from one house, on
reau workers. The prac- arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks during a
ticability Be Bend Gtine period of high decay, December, 1911.
5

commercial operations with sufficient care to eliminate decay is thus plainly demon-
strated. Theresults of the two series of shipments present a striking and consistent
contrast throughout both seasons. The averages of the carelessly handled commercial
lots were somewhat lower during 1911-12 than they were in 1910-11, but the proportion
of decayed fruit on arrival (10.9 per cent) is still too high for good commercial results.

Taste XVII.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding
for three weeks, in shipments showing high and low blue-mold decay in careful and in
commercial pack, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

12shipments show-| 12 shipments show-

ing low decay. ing high decay.

Year. Inspection. C C

ommer- ommer-

Careful. aaah Careful. cial:
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
OTs kal) CRN eh re er 0.1 0.4 0.4 14.6
Ler iinweekst ae eee, Pe SL RE tee 2 8 8 22.2
PLETE RW CO KGa mass SS Seo co Lee eons sd 72 1.3 1.5 7.8
After 3 weeks. . 73 1.6 21 30.8
1911-12...) On arrival. ... ail -6 Teh 10.9
After 1 week... 23 ikey 1.3 16.1
PANTGE: 2 WeGks: Semen tt ids. e222 o eee 6 3.0 D7, 20.5
FAULOLGLWOGKS cueP om in CARE ee E . Socenesnene-cdesscecee 1.2 4.4 2.7 25.9

38 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Table XVIII and figure 21 give the average percentages of decay of oranges from
two packing houses in the same locality working on practically the same kind of fruit,
The type of work in house No. 1 was good, but that in house No. 2 was rather poor.
These shipments were made at the same time, and the results of carefully handled
lots prepared by the bureau workers from the same houses are given fot comparison.

32

GO}-
28 |
26)

24

N

Ly}
S

3

3

N

PEP CENT DECAY

ING on
COMMERCIAL HU ——so-

4 5
ON ARRIVAL 7 WEED 2 WEEKS I WEES
LATER LATE”?

Fig. 20.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in shipments showing high compared with low decay in commercial
pack, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

Taste XVIII.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after hold-
ing for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots shipped from
two houses in the same locality, 1910-11.

House No. 1. House No, 2.
Time of examination.
Com- Com-
Careful. mercial. Careful. mercial.
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
. 4 2.4 0. 21.
1.5 4.5 3 28.9
1.8 5.7 -3 48,2
2.5 5.7 7 59.5

It will be noticed that the commercial shipment from house No. 1 gave practically
as favorable returns as the specially prepared shipments of the bureau workers, the
difference being only 2 per cent, both series from this house having less than the
commercial allowance of 3 per cent decay on arrival. The commercial shipments
from house No. 2, where observation showed the handling to be rather careless, had
developed 21.3 per cent of decay on arrival at Washington, while the fruit handled
by the bureau workers at the same time and shipped under identical conditions
showed 0.3 per cent of decay. After three weeks the commercial shipments from
house No. 1 averaged 5.7 per cent of decay, and those from house No. 2 showed 59.4
per cent, as against 2.5 per cent and 0.7 per cent, respectively, for the carefully
handled fruit.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 39

Relation of character of picking to decay.—A study of field handling in connection
with the occurrence of decay in commercial shipments was made in two packing
houses in Florida during 1911-12. It would be hard to find a more striking illustra-
tion of the effects of careless handling than that presented in Table XIX and in the
diagram (fig. 22). It should be borne in mind that all of these rel were obtained
from lots of commercially handled fruit, no attempt being made by the bureau work-
ers to influence the type of handling. They merely inspected the field work and made
sure that the boxes selected for experimental shipment were representative.

60
ae 59.5

8

FER CENT DECAY

FG WEEKS
LATER

i o.

ARRWAL 2YIED

Fia. 21.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington
and after holding for three weeks, in carefully handled and commercially handled lots shipped from

two houses in the same locality, 1910-11.

In house No. 1, where the type of handling was fairly good, the proportion of clipper
cuts was 0.2 per cent; of pulled fruit, 1.6 per cent; and of long stems, 4 per cent.
The immediate shipments of this fruit showed no decay on arrival, while the delayed
lots had 3.7 per cent. After holding three weeks in market, 6 per cent and 8.2 per
cent of decay developed in the immediate and delayed shipments, respectively.

Taste XIX.—Imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of commer-
cially handled oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, from
two houses in the same locality, 1911-12, showing the effect of careful handling on the

carrying quality of fruit.

Picking inspections.
Class of impertections. House Hocse
No. 1. No. 2.
Per cent. Per cent.
Peet Sane arenes on. Sct oc ea sw aiele oe ceo don ccieeecsscacaud seiteaeens 0.2 7.4
Long stems. . oer aatr eae ans = 4.0 56.8
Pulled 1.6 al

40 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste XIX.—Imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of commer-
cially handled oranges on arrival in Washington, ete.—Continued.

Experimental shipments.
it A caN
a. Giexanimation: House No. & House No. 2.
Imme- Imme-
diate. | Delayed. | diate. Delayed.
| Per cent | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Onvarrivalln <2 l2sccene ce cen einen soe ean va ade se see se buf 8.0 19.4
After 1 week : 4 ait 12.0 23.0
After 2 wee | 7 15.6 27.4
After 3 weeks | 2 22.4 34.5

In house No. 2, which was selected for rough handling, the percentage of clipper
cuts was 7.4 per cent; of pulled fruit, 0.1 per cent; and of long stems, 56.8 per cent.
The immediate shipments from this house showed an average of 8 per cent decay on
arrival and the delayed shipments 19.4 per cent, these percentages being increased
to 22.4 and 34.5, respectively, after three weeks in Washington.

The relationship between the type of field handling and the behavior of the fruit
while in transit has been definitely established by numerous experiments during
several seasons. The experiment cited above fairly represents the general character
and results.

PICKING INSPECTION

CLIPPER CUTS LONG STEMS PULLED
HOUSE PERCENT PER CENT PER CENT
NO.} “224 0 com

N02 77 56.5

EXPERIMIENTAL SHIPIFENTS

36 i
-
-
=

28|
» : Sie ieee ie
5 24} Aree PIED Foam
& HOUSE M2 ZEEE = —Va30 =

-
% ‘fia
SW

% MEDIATE GULLS, — =

ge Miprousee Bie C2 120
| eee ae
q é Ce = i

xz
a HOUSE NOL DELA -.
oO HOUSE N2/ MUILIAIATE Soe MIS
or
men ee 2 WEL
at ee EEE Lee

Fic. 22.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-
mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, in commercially
handled lots from two houses in the same locality, 1911-12, showing the effect of careful handling on
the carrying quality of the fruit.

The figures presented in Table XX and the accompanying diagrams (figs. 23 and 24)
are shown to indicate the practicability of improving the handling and shipping
conditions by giving special attention to the organization of the labor forces. The
packing house from which the data were obtained was reorganized at the end of the
1910-11 season; the machinery was simplified and every effort was directed toward
the introduction of better handling methods. Two experimental shipments were
made—one during 1910-11 and one during 1911-12, two lots being sent out each season.
The results of the inspections of the field work are given to show the great improve-
ment in the second season, the results of careful handling by the bureau workers
being also included for comparison with the commercial work done during the two
seasons.

ee. |

a. She

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA.

41

Taste XX.—Imperfections in picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of fruit on
arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, shipped from one packing house
during 1910-11 and 1911-12, showing decrease in blue-mold decay due to greater care in

handling.
Picking inspections. | | Experimental shipments.
|
Class of imper- Time of exam- | bis =
fections. 1910-11 1911-12 ination. 1910-11 ! 1911-12 2
mee 7 i RE ‘ | Com ae | i i Commer.
Jan. 17. | Mar.3. | Dec. 13. | Careful. cial, | Careful. ciel

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. o Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Clipper cuts... . 11.3 5.7 1.8 || Onarrival.... 0.2 8.0 .3 11
Long stems ..-.. 23.0 11.9 10.4 ||"After 1 week. . 6 12.6 9 2.4
Tevet ers lee 1.0 5.1 1.4 || After 2 weeks. 18 15.3 1,2 2.8
After 3 weeks. 1.3 15.8 1.5 4.1

1 Fruit picked Feb. 1, 1911. 2 Fruit picked Dec. 13, 1911.

It will be noticed that in 1910-11 (fig. 23) the total imperfections in the field
handling amounted to 35.3 per cent at the first inspection and 22.7 per cent at the
second. Theaverage percentage of decay in the commercial shipments was 8 per cent
on arrival at Washington, the carefully handled lots developing 0.2 per cent. In
1911-12 (fig. 24) the field
work, while far from perfect,
was considerably improved,
the inspections showing 13.6
per cent of imperfections.
The commercially handled
fruit showed 1.1 per cent of 16
decay on arrival, and the lots
prepared by the bureau
workers had 0.3 per cent.
After holding the fruit in
Washington for three weeks
the commercially handled
oranges developed 15.8 per
cent of decay during 1910-11
and 4.1 per cent during
1911-12. When it is con-
sidered that the variation in
the percentage of decay for 2
these two seasons may easily
mean a difference between
profit and loss in the sale of
the fruit from this house, the
data presented become par-
ticularly impressive. It
would be difficult to assem-
ble a stronger array of facts
than those brought together in this figure to illustrate the fundamental importance of
preserving the sound carrying quality of oranges. The significance of the connection
between field handling and the occurrence of decay during transit is definitely shown,
as well as the practicability of improving conditions by means of more systematic man-
agement. This presentation should be sufficient to convince even the most skep-
tical that loss from decay in the shipment of Florida oranges is dependent upon the
character of handling given the fruit in field and packing house.

SANUARY (7 MARCH 2
CLIPPER CUTS (EERE 2 Yo a =: 7 22
LONG STEMS BESS PaaS 270 Ss 9
PULLED B40 % Ga =. 2

EXPERIMIENTAL SHIPMENTS.

PER CENT DECAY.
ie\)

3 WEEKS
LATER

ONE
ARRIVAL
Fig. 23.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in
picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on
arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, in fruit
shipped from one packing house, showing decrease in blue-mold
decay due to greater care in handling, 1910-11.

49 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RESULTS FROM A FINANCIAL STANDPOINT.

In order to emphasize the importance of careful work, the data may be analyzed
from a financial standpoint. The results are perhaps more impressive when expressed
in dollars and cents than when a statement is made regarding the percentages of
decay in various lots of fruit.

The difference between the average percentages developed in the carefully picked
and packed and the commercially picked and packed fruit during the season of 1910-11
was 6.4 per cent. This means that 1 out of approximately every 154 boxes shipped
during the season was unnecessarily destroyed by blue-mold decay, and that this
loss might have been avoided if the fruit had been handled with care approximating
that given by the bureau workers. It is only necessary to extend this line of reason-
ing. Out of every 100 boxes of fruit shipped, the avoidable loss was 64 boxes; there-
fore, on a basis of 3,500,000 boxes of oranges shipped from Florida during the season
of 1910-11 this loss aggregated 224,000 boxes, which at a fair f. 0. b. price of $1.50
per box gives a direct money loss of $336,000.

In 1911-12 the difference in decay between the carefully handled and commercially
handled fruit was 3.5 per cent, or a loss of 1 box for every 284 boxes shipped. A fair

estimate of the total ship-
P. IGHING INSPECTION. ment of oranges during that
DECEMBER 1/3.

He season is 3,750,000 boxes.
CLIPPER CUTS 1.8 Yo.

The loss on this fruit, at the
10nG sTéMSs GEE /0.7 Yo rate indicated, aggregates
PULLED B/4 Yo

131,250 boxes, which,

figured at prevailing prices,
EXPERIMENTAL SHIPMENTS.

may be valued at approxi-

= G: mately $200,000. Perhaps
u 4 he) this is an exaggerated
S MERCIAL MAND LS ae me = method of analyzing the
i. =OEe— J true condition of affairs,
ef Aye HANDLING. yet when one takes into
q i) consideration the immense

ee. ae eee TER? financial outlay necessary

to pick, haul, grade, and
pack these oranges, the
actual money loss is not far
from the amounts stated.

The figures stated above
approximate the net loss to the growers due todecay. In addition, there isa large loss
due to the cost of transporting and selling. According to statistics recently compiled,
it costs from $1.75 to $1.93 to produce, prepare for shipment, and deliver in market
one packed box of oranges.!_ With this cost as a basis, the losses reached the stupen-
dous totals of $432,320 during 1910-11 and approximately $250,000 during 1911-12.

From the standpoint of the effect upon the reputation of the Florida product the
financial loss is even greater. It is impossible to give such a loss in actual figures,
for the value of a reputation for high shipping and holding quality can not be estimated
in dollars and cents. It is safe to say that the introduction of more careful methods
would not increase the cost of handling to any material extent. No figures are avail-
able for such an increase, but the extra expense would certainly be only a small frac-
tion of the actual money loss enumerated above. Leaving out of consideration the
desirability of a good reputation, these figures should serve to convince those people
who can appreciate values only from a financial standpoint that careful handling is
necessary for the success of the industry.

Fic. 24.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of imperfections in
picking and the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on
arrival in Washington and after holding for three weeks, in fruit
shipped from one packing house, showing decrease in blue-mold
decay due to greater care in handling, 1911-12.

1Statements of J. C. Chase and W. C. Temple before the Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House
of Representatives, 1913.

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 43

SEASONAL INFLUENCES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DECAY.

It has been the general experience that blue-mold decay is more prevalent in Florida
during the early months of the shipping season than it is later. Losses are most severe
in December and January, the former month as a rule having the highest percentage
of decay. So characteristic has this early deterioration been in the past that growers
have become convinced that the underlying causes are not confined to improper
methods of handling, and that the loss is due to some disease other than blue mold.
Careful observation on the part of the bureau workers has shown this impression to
be incorrect. An analysis of the circumstances under which fruit is handled during
December shows that at that time of the year the conditions for the development of
blue mold are particularly favorable. Rains are more or less prevalent and the hu-
midity is generally high. It follows, therefore, that the type of handling which might
suffice under favorable weather conditions will not then prove satisfactory.

In addition to bad weather conditions, the character of work done during the early
part of the season is undoubtedly less careful than what is practiced lateron. Shippers
are in a hurry to get their fruit on the market in time for the holiday trade, and most
of the workmen have not had sufficient experience. It seems impracticable, in
Florida at least, to.hold field and packing-house labor together throughout the year
and to maintain a permanent organization. New pickers must therefore be trained
each season, the same being true in the case of the packing-house labor, although
probably to a less extent. These factors tend to lower the standard of early handling
operations.

All the experiments made by the Bureau of Plant Industry emphasize the impor-
tance of systematic organization of the labor forces and careful handling of the fruit
in every stage of its preparation for shipment. Every effort should be directed toward
maintaining the fruit in sound condition from the time it is picked until it is unloaded
at its final destination and placed in the hands of the consumer. During unfavorable
seasons, frequent thorough inspections of the various operations through which the
fruit passes are most essential. Instead of lowering the standard at this time, it is
extremely important to approach the ideal as closely as possible.

In Tables XXI and XXII and figures 25 and 26, the percentages of decay occurring
during the months of December, January, and February in 1910-11 and 1911-12 are
presented. Table XXI and figure 25 show the decay in the carefully handled and
commercially handled experimental shipments on arrival in Washington during
December, January, February, and March, for both seasons. During December,
1910, the average percentage of decay in commercial shipments, on arrival at Wash-
ington, was 13.9 per cent. During December, 1911, the corresponding lots showed
9.4 per cent on arrival. The careful shipments during these months had 2.3 per cent
in 1910 and 1.3 per cent in 1911, respectively.

TasLe XXI.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding
for three weeks, by months, in 1910-11 and 1911-12.

Careful pick Commercial || | Careful pick Commercial
Time of exami- and pack. pick and pack. Time of exami- and pack. pick and pack.
nation. nation.

1910-11 1)1911-122/1910-11 | 1911-122 1910-11 1)1911-122)1910-111 1911-123

On arrival: Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. || After 2 weeks: Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
December... 2.3 1.3 13.9 9.4 December. - . 4.3 1 21.6 14.1

5 -6 6.8 4.0 January....- 1.6 1.4 14.5 10.1
-5 -2 6.2 1.6 February.... 1.4 1.0 12.4 9.6

68) | EaSoteed GS (0)i| bs March....... ILO beseaces HEY) Se ce

After 3 weeks:

3.4 1.7 19.1 12.2 December. - - 4.4 2.8 22, 2 17.2
11 mt!) 11.4 6.8 January..... ltt) 252) 15.8 13.5
.9 4 10.2 4.5 February... ibe 2.0 13.3 14.2

ali} |jEns55ce CESS bsecccice March....... D2 eee Eb herogese

1 The figures for 1910-11 include 7 comparable shipments for December, 28 for January, 28 for February,
and 16 for March. :
aan figures for 1911-12 include 8 comparable shipments for December, 39 for January, and 18 for
‘ebruary.

44 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Averaging the results for December, 1910 and 1911, the commercially handled fruit
showed 11.6 per cent of decay on arrival and the carefully handled 1.8 per cent.
During the months of January, 1911 and 1912, the decay of oranges shipped under
commercial conditions was 6.8 per cent and 4 per cent, respectively. The corre-
sponding carefully handled fruit showed 0.6 and 0.5 per cent, respectively, or
practically the same for both years.

During February commercially handled fruit showed 6.2 per cent of deterioration
on arrival at Washington in 1911, the percentage of decay for the following year being
1.6 per cent. The average of the February lots for the two seasons was 3.9 per cent.
Carefully handled fruit during 1911 and 1912 arrived with 0.5 and 0.2 per cent of
decay, respectively, the average for the two years being 0.3 per cent.

No experimental shipments were made later than February during the second season.
In March, 1911, the average percentage of decay in commercial shipments was 5 per
cent on arrival, the carefully handled lots showing only 0.3 per cent.

oO
Ws Ne

>,
cs
‘S % su ie eo a
C4
i) Ne

94 = +S
Nees N= —
oh NS &
N Ex — =
poe we Ne
Q SSS
Ne
7) Saas 5
& Yo NS, MF
<o.NES —=
iva 6 GE RS
‘ < Se
s
= ’
I
40 —
2 SS iL
3
2.3 CAREFUL HANDLING
P AVERAGE 2 SEASONS
at —S
a O1E
43) SI |
1 CARE =
HANDLING 757] 0.5) CAREFUL HANDLING /9/0-I/
a 0.5 9 2)
QECEPIBER UANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH

Fic. 25.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival, by months,
during two seasons, 1910-11 and 1911-12.

These figures are significant in that they show a very high percentage of decay
during December, followed by a gradual decrease as the season advances. This is
true for both commercially and carefully handled fruit, although in the case of the
latter the loss was, without exception, below the usual 3 per cent commercial allow-
ance. It is scarcely probable that decay can be held below this point even with the
best system of handling, for it is practically impossible to eliminate every injured
orange or to carry on the handling operations in such a way that absolutely no injury
is done. The general principle that very slight injury will result in decay when
weather conditions are favorable for the development of blue mold is substantiated
by these figures, and the importance of extra care during the early months is again
emphasized.

—_—_- -—-—-—S

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA, 45

Table XXII and figure 26 show the average percentages of decay found in fruits
shipped during December, January, and February, 1910-11 and 1911-12, on arrival
at Washington and after holding for three weeks under ordinary market conditions.

TABLE XXII.—Blue-mold decay of oranges on arrival in Washington and after holding
for three weeks; average of the two seasons, by months, in 1910-11 and 1911-12.

Careful | Commer- Careful. | Commer-

Time of examination. pick and | cial pick Time of examination. pick and | cial pick
pack. |and pack. | pack, |and pack.

On arrival: Per cent. | Per cent. || After 2 weeks: Per cent. | Per cent.
Wecewbers nea cass 1.8 11.6 December's <jsa2-2 2 sees 3.2 17.8
Tananyee Gases oe ee -6 | 5.4 January ...- 1.5 12.8
IR@BBUANY) <2. cs5-.o—--~ ao =Bh 3.9 eDIMIARY renee cease 1.2 10.5

After 1 week: After 3 weeks:
DWecembepee.s-==--—- == 2 2.5 15.7 Each loser Bceinaanes 3.6 19.7
TADUARY en oeie nose 1.0 9.1 January sie ee eon cece 2.1 14.6
. February -7 7.3 WOpruBnys eee seen se eee 1.8 13.8
| !

The commercially handled fruit, picked and shipped during December, showed
the highest average percentage of decay on arrival (11.6 per cent), and the increase
after three weeks was correspondingly higher than was the case for fruit picked
and shipped during January
and February. Commer-
cially handled fruit, picked 9
and shipped during Janu- ,,
ary, arrived with 5.4 per
cent of decay, and that
sent out during February
showed 3.9 per cent on ar-
rival. The shipments of 4
carefully handled fruit ar-
rived with an average of 1.8

: x
per cent during December, %
0.6 per cent during January, §
and 0.3 per cent during : so

6
i

February, and after holding
for three weeks showed 3.6
per cent, 2.1 per cent, and
1.8 per cent of decay, re-
spectively. Allofthecare- ©
fully handled fruit, even
that shipped during De-
cember, showed much less
decay after three weeks in
market than the commer-
cial shipments during Feb- //
ruary showed on arrival. of

The superior shipping and
market-holdine qualities of Fic. 26.—Diagram illustrating the percentage of blue-mold decay in

= 5 carefully handled and commercially handled oranges picked during
carefully handled fruit are December, January, and February; average of the two seasons,
evident. 1910-11 and 1911-12.

On / WEE 2 WEES WEL
ARRIVAL LATER “are Tee

PRECOOLING.

The term ‘“‘precooling” has been used to designate the prompt and rapid cooling
of fruit prior to shipment. The initial cooling of the product is accomplished very
slowly when the fruit is shipped under ordinary icing conditions, the ice of a refrige-
rator car not being able to cool the fruit with sufficient promptness and rapidity to

46 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

prevent the development of decay. Consequently, deterioration is often far advanced
before the temperature of the fruit is reduced-to the point where these processes are
checked. Under a system of precooling, the ice of the refrigerator car is relieved of
the burden of initial cooling and is merely required to keep the fruit cool during
transit.

Precooling is accomplished by means of special equipment, the refrigerating medium
being either ice and salt or special refrigerating machinery. When adequate equip-
mentis supplied, the initial temperature of the fruit may be reduced in a comparatively
short time. The work may be done in refrigerated rooms or chambers before the boxes
are placed in the cars, or it may be accomplished by circulating cold air around the
packages after loading. The comparative advantages and limitations of these two
systems can not be discussed here, but a few important points regarding the applica-
tion of precooling to the shipment of Florida oranges must be emphasized.

Precooling may not safely be depended upon to offset decay following mechanical
injuries due to improper methods of handling the fruit when preparing it for shipment.
Tt is, however, a valuable and legitimate means of insuring arrival on the market in
sound condition after each grower, packer, and shipper has done his share in properly
handling the fruit. Precooling, in order to be effective, must be accomplished
promptly and rapidly. A considerable delay in applying the process may nullify all
possible benefits and defeat the object for which the work is undertaken.

Icing has been practiced to a limited extent in Florida, but precooling has not as
yet been attempted. The value of this method of shipment in marketing Florida
oranges is largely problematical. Its advantages are likely to be overestimated if the
general distribution and application of the processes are attempted without careful
and systematic investigation. During the warm and humid weather usually prevalent
in Florida in December and January, precooling may be of considerable benefit, pro-
vided always that it is not expected to offset the bad effects of careless or improper
handling. During warm and humid weather, such as occurred during the months
of December, January, and part of February of the season of 1912-13, oranges are
injured more easily than under ordinary conditions and are more subject to decay
from these injuries. Infection from the ever-present, blue-mold spores is almost
certain, and stem-end decay or other diseases may gain considerable headway. Rapid
cooling (precooling) may possibly delay the development of stem-end decay for a
week or more after the fruit arrives in market. While precooling and refrigeration
can not do more than to delay for a short time the occurrence and development of
this disease, such delay may prove of material benefit.

Precooling may reduce the quantity of ice consumed during the trip to market by
removing the necessity of cooling fruit at the beginning of the trip. Possibly during
the winter season, when the weather is cool or cold along the route, fruit which has
been precooled may be moved to its destination under the initial icing alone. Pre-
cooling is expensive, and unless a material advantage can be obtained thereby its
application can not be justified. If asum of money equal to the expense of precooling
is expended in insuring careful handling of the fruit during the course of its prepara-
tion for shipment, the returns will probably be more certain and more lasting.

STEM-END ROT.

Tn addition to the losses from blue mold, there has been considerable deterioration
of Florida citrus fruits after arrival in market due to the attacks of the stem-end decay
fungus. Unlike blue mold, this fungus does not apparently depend upon injuries or
breaks in the skin through which to gain entrance to the tissues of the fruit. Investi-
gation during the season of 1910-11, in cooperation with the Florida experiment
station, proved conclusively that the stem-end rot disease can not be controlled by

ee

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 47

means of careful handling. The results of this investigation into the nature of the
fungus, its manner of growth, and its development have been published by the Florida
experiment station.!

SUMMARY.

The orange crop of Florida averages 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 boxes per year, and it
has been estimated that, reckoning the good with the bad years, probably 10 per
cent of the fruit decays before reaching the consumer. This entails an annual finan-
cial loss of at least half a million dollars. By far the most common form of decay is
that caused by the growth of the blue-mold fungus within the tissues of the fruit,
entrance being obtained only through some mechanical injury to the skin. The
first researches of the Bureau of Plant Industry indicated that, owing to improper
equipment in grove and packing house as well as to the carelessness of pickers and
packers and their ignorance of the essential factors of good handling, considerable
injury was being inflicted on the fruit in the course of its preparation for shipment.
Most serious of all are the injuries inflicted by the clippers in severing the fruit from
the tree and the punctures caused by the presence of long stems on the oranges.
Many bruises or abrasions, especially those caused by dropping the fruit, can not
be detected by packers and develop heavy decay in transit.

In most sections of the State cleaning the fruit has become a necessity, owing to the
wide distribution of the citrus white fly and the development of the sooty-mold
fungus which follows in the wake of that pest. At present probably 75 per cent of
the Florida orange crop is cleaned either by washing or by the sawdust method. The
Department investigations show that decay in transit or on the market is largely due
to injuries received or aggravated during washing and drying and that these opera-
tions may be conducted in such a way that little or no harm ensues or may be fol-
lowed by serious deterioration. The experiments of the Bureau of Plant Industry
during the past seven years prove conclusively that the condition of the fruit after
arrival in market depends largely upon the character of the work done in the grove
and the packing house; that it is possible to so conduct the operations of picking,
packing, and shipping as to inflict a minimum of mechanical injuries; and that unin-
jured Florida oranges can be placed on the market in practically sound condition
even in seasons of very high decay. Practically all loss from blue-mold decay, such as
has occurred in the past, can be eliminated.

The sizes of Florida oranges vary from 80 to 420 fruits in a box, the most common
sizes being 126, 150, 176, and 200 to a box. The Florida shipping box measures 12
by 12 by 27 inches, inside dimensions, and has an estimated weight of 80 pounds
when filled. The average shipment per car totals 321 boxes, loaded 2 tiers high. <A
standard shipping car is 33 feet Jong, 8 feet wide, and 844 inches high; the minimum
freight weight of a standard car of 300 boxes is 24,000 pounds. The average freight
rate on citrus fruits from Florida during 1912-13 was 65.7 cents per box of 80 pounds
weight.

During the past five years the Florida citrus industry has been reorganized and the
changes have greatly improved the handling of the fruit. At the time the Depart-
ment investigations were begun the methods of preparing oranges for shipment were
extremely crude; there was no uniformity of system and the equipment was wholly
inadequate to the needs of the industry. Of late years the old type of packing house
has almost entirely disappeared. Modern houses, equipped with the newest machin-
ery for handling fruit properly, have been constructed in practically every citrus
district in the State, so that the industry is now well provided with the mechanical
appliances for doing good work. Further reforms will include improvement of field
equipment and more careful attention to the details of picking and to the organization

1 Fawcett, H.S- Stem-end rot of citrus fruits. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 106.

48 BULLETIN 63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the picking and packing crews. The men should be paid by the day instead of
by the box, and a conscientious foreman should carefully oversee the work of the indi-
vidual pickers. The bureau experiments prove that it is possible to train workmen
to use more care and to greatly reduce their percentage of imperfections.

More than 90 experimental shipments of oranges were made from Florida in 1910-11,
and 65 were sent out in 1911-12, including fruit from every section of the State and
from good, poor, and average houses. Plate XV illustrates the condition in which
some of these lots arrived in Washington. The carefully picked, graded, and packed
fruit showed 4 per cent of decay on arrival, the commercially picked but carefully
graded and packed fruit showed 35.6 per cent, and the commercially handled fruit
had 65.9 per cent. After one week these percentages had increased to 4 per cent, 46
per cent, and 71.6 per cent, respectively; after two weeks they were 11.5 per cent,
54 per cent, and 72.2 per cent; and after three weeks, 11.5 per cent, 57.1 per cent,
and 72.2 per cent.

The carefully handled fruit arrived in Washington during both seasons with less
than 1 per cent of decay, or an average for the two years of 0.6 per cent for all the
experimental shipments. The fruit handled under commercial conditions through-
out had developed more than twice as much decay by the first inspection as occurred
in the carefully handled fruit at the end of three weeks.

That commercial handling may also be careful handling is demonstrated by the fact
that during both seasons the average percentage of decay in the commercial fruit
shipped from 12 houses using care was almost as low as the average for any of the lots
carefully handled by the bureau workers. In one packing house, where during
1910-11 the percentage of decay in the commercially handled fruit reached 15.8 per
cent after holding for three weeks in Washington, the handling operations were so
improved by the adoption of the bureau methods that during 1911-12 only 4.1 per
cent of decay developed in the commercially handled fruit at the end of the same,
period.

It has been the general experience that blue-mold decay is more prevalent in
Florida during the early months of the shipping season than it is later. All of the
fruit carefully handled by the bureau workers, even that shipped during December,
showed much less decay after three weeks in market than the commercial shipments
during February showed on arrival. The shipping experiments showed that care-
fully handled fruit may be ‘‘cured”’ without serious loss, but that whenever the fruit
has been appreciably damaged in the course of its preparation for shipment, decay is
materially greater in the delayed lots.

Although not more than 1 per cent of the total shipments of citrus fruits had pre-
viously been iced, during 1912-13 a considerable number of commercial shipments
were sent north under refrigeration. No systematic study was made of the behavior
of fruit of the same grade and quality under the two systems of shipment, but the
general opinion seems to prevail among shippers that the icing resulted in material
benefit to the fruit. The investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry have demon-
strated, however, that Florida oranges may be transported to market under ventilation
with a minimum loss from decay, even during periods of warm and humid weather,
if sufficient care is used to preserve the skin of the fruit in an unbroken condition.

CONCLUSIONS.

Tn the light of the principles established by the workers of the Department of Agri-
culture in the investigations and experiments of the past seven seasons, viz, that the
condition of the fruit after arrival in market depends largely upon the character of the
work done in grove and packing house, and that it is possible to so conduct the opera-
tions of picking, packing, and shipping as to inflict a minimum of mechanical injuries

SHIPMENT OF ORANGES FROM FLORIDA. 49
from which decay may develop, the following points are recommended to the attention
of growers and shippers of Florida citrus fruits:

Workmen, especially pickers, should be paid by the day and not by the quantity
of work done.

More careful attention to the details of picking and to the organization and inspec-
tion of the picking crews is necessary. Each member of the crew should be held
responsible for the character of his work. An efficient field foreman should supervise
the pickers, watch their output, and insist on careful handling. He should be
prohibited from picking fruit himself.

Clippers with rounded or blunted points should be supplied. These should be
frequently inspected by the foreman to prevent their becoming dull or loose at the
joint.

Picking sacks of heavy material, which have partially closed mouths, allowing the
fruit to be emptied from the bottom, and having a capacity of not more than half of a
large standard field box, should be used.

Pickers should not pull the fruit from the tree. All oranges should be severed by
means of the ‘‘double cut.”

Fruit should be placed carefully in the picking sack and not dropped or tossed in.

The picking sack should be lowered into the field box and the oranges allowed to
roll out gently without appreciable drop.

No fruit should be picked up from the ground and placed in the field boxes.

Smaller field boxes of lighter materials are recommended.

The fruit should not project above the top of the field box, and the latter should
be transported to the packing house on a spring wagon. The driver should be given
an especially prepared seat and not allowed to sit on the fruit.

Each picker and packer should be required to wear gloves.

Picking receptacles, field boxes, and packing bins should be kept free of gravel,
twigs, splinters, protruding nails, or other foreign matter.

The efficiency of the packing house may be spoiled by a desire to save floor space.
Simplicity should govern the choice and disposal of all equipment.

The desirable hopper is small, has padded sides, and allows the fruit to be emptied
gradually by means of moving belts. The fruit should not fall by gravity at any
stage of its journey.

Uniform and definite grading rules should be established for the State.

Wherever washing is not absolutely necessary in order to render the fruit market-
able it should be omitted.

Water in the soaking tank should be frequently changed, and sprays of fresh water
should be directed against the fruit as it passes through the washing machine.

The best type of washing machine has the fruit in plain sight at all times, allows
no pressure on the oranges save that afforded by their own weight, does not allow
the fruits to tumble over or against each other, and does not allow twigs, thorns,
nails, etc., to become lodged in the runway through which the fruit must pass.

Fruit should never be packed while moist. An artificial drier in which a warm
air blast is circulated around the fruit seems to be a necessity from the standpoint of
thorough work and careful handling.

The sawdust method of cleaning grapefruit is ineffective as well as highly injurious.

Loose packs of fruit are more liable to be injured in transit than those of medium
height with every orange firmly in place.

Decayed fruit should not be left in the boxes or allowed to accumulate on the floor
or under the packing bins in the packing houses.

Curing is unwise, as the delay increases the chance for the infection of bruises or
injured spots and facilitates the development of decay before shipment and in transit.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

63, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF A( Q uu | 790 5 ¢

During unfavorable seasons, especially during December and January, when warm
and humid weather is prevalent in Florida, frequent thorough inspections of the
various operations through which the fruit passes are most essential. Instead of lower-
ing the standard at this time, it is extremely important to approach the ideal as closely
as possible,

Precooling may not safely be depended upon to offset decay following mechanical
injuries due to improper methods of handling the fruit when preparing it for ship-
ment, but it is a valuable and legitimate means of insuring arrival on the market in
sound condition after each grower, packer, and shipper has done his share in properly
handling the fruit.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT
20 CENTS PER COPY.

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