TEE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

FAMILIAR

LECTURES ON BOTANY,

INCLUDING

PRACTICAL AND ELEMENTARY BOTANY,

WITH

GENERIC AND SPECIFIC DESCRIPTIONS

OF THE

MOST COMMON NATIVE AND FOREIGN PLANTS

4ND A

VOCABULARY OP BOTANICAL TERMS.

FOR THE USE OP

HIGHER SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.

BY MRS. ALMIRA H. LINCOLN,

VICE-PRINCIPAL OF TROY FEMALE SEMINARY*."' "'

TEURD EDITION.

HARTFORD:
PUBLISHED BY F. J. HUNTINGTON.

NEW-YORK, COLLINS & HANNAY, AND G. & C. & H. CARVILL J BOSTON, RICHARDSON
LORD & HOLBROOK, CROCKER & BREWSTER, CARTER & HENDEB ; PHILA-
DELPHIA, KEY, MIELKE &. BIDDLE ; BALTIMORE, JOSEPH JEWETT ;
WASHINGTON, THOMPSON & HOMANS ; TROY, W. S. PARKER.

1832.

Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1831.
BY MRS. ALMIRA H. LINCOLN,

in the Clerk's Office of the Northern District Court of New-YoA.

HARTFORD:

Printed at the Secretary Office,

BT P. CANFIKLD.

IV

31

TO

MY MOTHER,
MRS. LYDIA HEART.

THODGH a name conspicuous in the scientific world might add
popularity to this little work now offered to the public, affection for
my venerable parent induces me to dedicate to her, what will, to
her, be interesting, however it may be regarded by the severe eye
of criticism. I have, within the past year, seen in my sister's dedi-
cation to our aged Mother, of " The History of the Republic of
America," that these marks of affectionate respect from her children
have the power of awakening more vivid emotions in her breast,
than most events connected with a world, which has almost vanish-
ed from her sight, in the brighter visions of eternity ; that ehe may
find the pious sentiments imbibed from herself, in some degree re-
flected from the following pages, is the wish of her

DAUGHTER,

ALMIRA H. LINCOLN.

Troy Female Seminary, April 20, 1829.

PREFACE.

" A PREFACE," says Smellie, author of the " Philosophy of Natural
History," "should contain an account of the circumstances and mo-
tives which induced an author to write upon that particular subject."
The origin of the present volume, may be briefly traced. In the
course of some years, devoted in part to the study of Botany, and with
the charge of a large class, I found the want of a suitable book for
beginners, and prepared for the use of my pupils a sketch, of which
the following pages are but the filling up. The pupils were in the
practice of copying the manuscript, but it required much time, and
some of them expressed a wish that they might have the same in a
printed form. With respect to botanical facts, I have no claim to any
discoveries, neither have I ventured to make any innovations upon
the science itself. The works of Mirbel, Demerson, Roeseau, St. Pier-
re, Smith, Thornton, Woodville, Eaton, Torrey, Bigelow, NuttalJ,
Elliot, Barton, Bartram, Sumner and Locke ; Encyclopedias and the

Journal of Science, have been consulted. For the style, the arrange

iplication of botanical facts to f
either with a view of strengthening its reasoning Ihcukiep, or of in-

ment of the work, and the application of botanical facts to the mind,

spiring devout affection, I consider myself as responsible. I have
not intentionally copied from any work, without giving credit to the
author. The History of Botany is, in part, translated from Mirbel's
Siemens de Botanique.

The description of the genera and species of plants, with the
Natural Orders of Linnieus and Jussieu, have been fiTrnished me by
Professor Eaton, to whom my thanks for this, and other kind office?,
are justly due.

It has been customary among botanical writers, to consider under
separate heads, the phy&iology, anatomy, and classification of plants.
This division, although proper in minute investigations unon physi-
ology and anatomy, seems not well adapted for a school book. I
have not therefore attempted to keep the departments separate.

This work has been prepared in intervals from duties connected
with this institution, and while instructing in such branches of edu-
cation, as required the best faculties of my mind ; it is larger than
was at first designed ; it may be urged, that remarks not strictly
connected with me subject are introduced, and that the substance of
the book might be much condensed. In answer to this objection, I
would remark, that from experience in teaching others, and from
observation of the operations of my own mind, I am led to believe
that books most remarkable for a concise style, are not the most fa-
vourable for the developement of the mind. If a book is to be com-
mitted to memory, every word, member of a sentence, or idea, not
absolutely essential, should be excluded ; but this fact with regard
to education seems now to be generally understood, that the memory

PREFACE, V

may be burdened without improving the other intellectual faculties,
and that the best method of teaching, is that which tends most to
develope, fertilize, and strengthen the mind.

A small text book, in a dry, concise style, may answer very well
where a teacher has leisure and ability to amplify and explain ; thus
supplying to the pupils the want of an interesting book : yet with all
this labour on the part of a teacher, a book containing interesting
illustrations, would be desirable. But many teachers have neither
the time, nor the confidence in themselves, to attempt to enlarge or
illustrate : considering their duty as terminating in a faithful expla-
nation of the book from which their pupils study.

It is desirable that school books should be easy to teach, and easy
to learn.

The essentials for these purposes are,

1st. A clear and methodical arrangement of subjects.

2d. Perspicuity of language.

3d. A pleasing style, and interesting illustrations.

Whether I have attained to this standard, it remains for experi-
ence to determine.

But much as I have desired to aid the youthful mind in acquiring
the elements of knowledge, still more have I desired to lead that mind
to the fountain of all knowledge, to teach it to behold the providence
of God as ever active, and watchful over all, even the least of his
works.

I am greatly indebted to the kindness of Dr. Robbins, who amidst
the fatigue of professional duties, has performed a service, for which,
by long and close study of the ancient languages, he i& peculiarly
well qualified, that of accenting the genera and species of plants an-
nexed to these*lectures. This it is believed will prove of great
utility both to teachers and pupils; for without some guide, those
who are unacquainted with the principles of accentuation in the
Latin and Greek languages, are liable to many mistakes in pro-
nouncing botanical names.

1*

PREFACE
TO THE THIRD EDITION.

THE first edition of this work was presented to the public with
many fears and much hesitation ; the favourable reception which it
received, was therefore gratifying, in proportion as it was unexpect-
ed. The encouraging voice and approving smile of our fellow tra-
vellers in the journey of life, have a powerful influence in exciting
us to greater efforts ; and while the virtuous mind would fear to in-
dulge in an inordinate love of human applause, it must feel that the
approbation of the good on earth, is a pledge of that higher reward
which awaits it hereafter. These Lectures, although written \\ith
a view to teach science, have yet a higher aim, that of leading the
youthful mind to view the wisdom, power and goodness of the Al-
mighty, as manifested in his creation — and no commendation which
this work has received, has been so gratifying to its author, as that,
which has ascribed to it a religious tendency.

Since the publication of this elementary work, the science of which
it treats has been introduced, as a study, into many of our principal
female seminaries ; and in the various applications for teachers,
which are made to this institution from different parts of the country,
an acquaintance with Botany is now often made an indispensable
qualification. It was the difficulty of procuring a 'female instructor
in this department which led the author of these lectures to apply
herself to the study of a science, whose beauties until recently have
been concealed from general observation.

In this edition care has been taken to profit by the remarks of teach-
ers and others who have used the work. The Physiological depart-
ment is rendered more full, by additional remarks upon the growth
of plants, circulation of fluids, MirbeVs arrangements of fruits,
*c. The wood cuts which are now added will, it is thought, be
found useful for purposes of illustration. The analysis of subjects is
now placed at the bottom of each page, as being there more con-
venient for reference, than at the end of the book.

To some scientific gentlemen, who, condescending to notice so,
unpretending a volume, have suggested the propriety of rendering
it more strictly scientific, the author would reply, that from the first
it was only intended as a popular introduction to the science. No
one department is considered as complete ; the botanical descriptions
do not include all the plants of any one section of the country, but
aome of the most common indigenous and exotic plants of the various
botanical districts of the United States ; such, as it is supposed, teach-
ers can easily procure for analysis in their classes. Pupils going into
the fields to collect plants should be provided with a Flora of the re-

PREFACE. vii

gion in which they attempt to botanize;* teachers for their own pri-
vate use, should be furnished with some work containing; descriptions
of all the plants of the country, as Eaton's Manual, Torrey's Bo-
tany, &c. Little alteration in the arrangement of the work, has
been made in this edition ; a few additions have been made, from
suggestions occasioned by the perusal of some English and French
botanical works of recent publication $ bnt in none of those works has
the author yet met with that simple and inductive method of treat-
ing the science for the benefit of learners, which she believes to be
exhibited in this humble volume.

* Professor Hitchcock's " Catalogue of the Plants growing m the vtcinitij of
Amherst College" furnishes nearly all the indigenous plants which may be
found in the Northern part of the United States. This Catalogue is the fruit
of twelve year's examination of plants, made by the Professor, aided by several
eminent botanists.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

LECTURE I. Page 13.
Importance of System. — Advantages to be derived from the Study

PARTL

LECTURE II. P. 18.

General division of the sciences which relate to mind and matter. —
DiH'crent departments of Botanical science. — Parts of a flower.

LECTURE III. P. 21.

Method of analyzing plants. Analysis of the Pink. Lily, Rose and
Poppy.

LECTURE IV. P. 29.
Latin and Greek numerals. — Artificial classes and orders.

" LECTURE V. P. 35.

Condensed view of the Natural Orders of Lonnams and Jueeieu. —
Directions for pronouncing the names of Plants.
LECTURE VI. P. 42.

Method of analyzing plants by a series of comparisons.— General re-
marks upon plants. — Method of preserving plants for an Herbarium. —
Poisonous plants, and those which are not poisonous.

PART II.
LECTURE VII. P. 48.

Importance of observing external objects. — Vegetables consist of two
sets of organ&--Of the Root. — The Stem.

LECTURE VIII. P. 64.
Of Buds.

LECTURE IX, P. 69.
Of Leave*.

LECTURE X. P. 80.

Anatomy and Physiology of Leaves. — Their use in the vegetable sys-
tern.— -Appendages to plants.

LECTURE XI. P. 88.

Calyx.

LECTURE XII. P. 93.
Corcdla.r— Nectary.

LECTURE XIII. P. 101.
Stamens and Pistils. — Pollen.

LECTURE XIV. P. 108.

Inflorescence. — Receptacle. — Fruit.— Mirbel's clasefficetion of fruits.
— Linneeas* classification of fruits.

LECTURE XV. P. 126.
The Seed.

LECTURE XVI. P. 133.

Physiological Views. — Germination of the seed. — Solids and Fluids
of vegetables.

CONTENTS. ix

LECTURE XVII. P. 140.

Physiological Views. — Solid parts of vegetables.— -Fluid parts of veg-
etables.

LECTURE XVIII. P. 147.

Bark, Wood and Pith.— Growth of a Plant.

LECTURE XIX. P. 156.
Chemical Composition of Plants.

PART III.

LECTURE XX. P. 163.

Method of Tournefort. — System of Linnaeus. — Method of Jussieu. —
Natural Method of Linnaeus.

LECTURE XXI. P. 172.
Characters used in classification.

LECTURE XXII. P. 176.
Natural Families.

LECTURE XXIII. P. 194.

Use of Botanical Names. — Artificial classes and orders considered in
groups. — Classes i. and n.

LECTURE XXIV. P. 200.
Classes m. and rv.

LECTURE XXV. P. 209.
Class v. ; Pentandria.

LECTURE XXVI. P. 216.
Class Pentandria, continued.

LECTURE XXVII. P. 219.
Class vi. ; Hexandria, and Class vn. ; Heptandri'a.

LECTURE XXVIII. P. 225.
Class vm. ; Octandria. — Class ix. ; Enneandria.
LECTURE XXIX. P. 229.
Class x. ; Decandria.

LECTURE XXX. P. 234.
Class xi. ; Icosandria.

LECTURE XXXI. P. 238.
Class xn. ; Polyandria.

LECTURE XXXII. P. 242.
Class xni. ; Didynamia, and Class xrv., Tetradynamia.

LECTURE XXXIII. P. 244.
Class xv. ; Monadelphia.

LECTURE XXXIV. P. 248.
Class xvi. ; Diadelphia.

LECTURE XXXV. P. 252.

Class xvn. ; Syngenesia.

LECTURE XXXVI. P. 257.

Class xvin.; Gynandria.

LECTURE XXXVII. P. 261.
Class xix. ; Monoecia, and Class xx. Dioacia.

LECTURE XXXVIII. P. 267.

Class xxi. ; Cryptogamia.

X CONTENTS.

PART IV.

LECTURE XXXIX. P. 278.
The Flowering Season of Plants.

LECTURE XL. P. 283.

Autumnal Flowers. — Evergreens. — Ancient superstition respecting
plants.— Various phenomena of plants.

LECTURE XLI. P. 289.

Habits of Plants. — Agents which affect their growth. — Their habi-
tations, and geographical situations. — Elevation corresponding to lati-
tude.

LECTURE XLII. P. 296.
Plants as affected by Cultivation, &c.

LECTURE XLIII. P. 302.

History of Botany, from the Creation of the World to the Revival of
Letters, in the reign of Charlemagne, A. D. 770.
LECTURE XLIV. P. 307.

History of Botany, from the eighth century to the discovery of
America.

LECTURE XLV. P. 311.

History of Botany, from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the
time of Linnaeus.

LECTURE XLVI. P. 317.
History of Botany, from the time of Linnaeus to the present.

LECTURE XLVII. P. 323.

General view of Nature. — Organized and Inorganizod Bodies. —
Classification of Animals.

LECTURE XLVIII. P. 335.

Man at the head of the kingdoms of Nature. Comparison between
Animals and Plants. — Conclusion of the Lectures.

Botanical Districts. — Explanation of characters, figures and letters.
P. 340.

Genera of Plants. P. 343.
Species of Plants. P. 372.
Vocabulary. P. 416.
Language of Flowers. P. 427.
Alphabetical Index. P. 431.
Common names of plants, 438.

TO TEACHERS.

IN offering this book to the public, the Author hopes to have renr
dered the first principles of the Science of Botany of easy attainment ;
arid that Instructors, in the developement of the work, will find such
methodical arrangements, and simple illustrations, as may render it
easy for their pupils, and agreeable to themselves.

The most proper time for commencing botanical studies, seems to
be that of the opening of flowers in the spring ; though, should cir-
cumstances render it desirable to commence in winter, every assist-
ance thought necessary, is offered by engravings, especially by the
representations of dissected plants. The arrangement of subjects
might be altered in pursuing the study, without the aid of natural
flowers. The second part, which treats of the various organs ol
plants, the formation of buds, and other subjects connected with vege-
table physiology ; \hefourtfi part, which gives the history of science,
with the distinctions in the kingdoms of nature, might be studied to
advantage, before attending much to the principles of classification,
which are mostly illustrated in the first and third parts.

The Botanical Class in this Institution, has for some years past
been composed of about forty pupils.* The method pursued in teach*
ing, has been very laborious, as the want of suitable books rendered it
necessary for the Author of these Lectures, who has had charge of
the class, to devote much time and attention, in gleaning from differ-
ent writers, such facts and principles as would illustrate the science,
and make it interesting to the pupils. This work contains the sub-
stance of what has been thus collected, and the method in which
those lacts and principles were illustrated and arranged. A brief
view of the manner in which I have proceeded in teaching, may be
satisfactory to those about to commence the science.

On the first meeting of the class, after some explanation as to the
nature of the study they are about to commence, each member is
presented with a flower for analysis. The flower selected is always
a simple one, exhibiting in a conspicuous manner the different oj?-
gans of fructification ; the lily and tulip are both very proper for this
purpose. The names of the different parts of the flower are then
explained, each pupil being directed to dissect and examine her
flower as we proceed. After noticing the parts of fructification, the
pupils are prepared to understand the principles on which the artifi-
cial classes are founded, and to tiace the plant to its proper class, or-
der, &c. At each step, they are required to examine their flowers,
and to answer simultaneously the questions proposed ; as, how many
stamens has your flower? Suppose it lo be a lily, they answer six.
They are then told it is of the sixth class. How many pistils ? They

* The summer term after the publication of the first edition of this work, the
number was increased to 70.

xii TO TEACHERS.

answer one — they are told it is of the first order. They are then
directed to take their books and turn to the sixth class, first order, to
find the genus. In each step, in the comparison, they are questioned
as above described, until, having seen in what respects their plant
agrees with each general division, and differs from each genus under
the section in which it is found, they ascertain its generic name.
They are taught in the same manner to trace out its species : their
minds perceiving at each step, some new circumstances of resem-
blance or difference, until they come to a species, the description of
which answers to the plant under consideration.

Technical terms are explained as we proceed ; and the advantage
in this kind of explanation, over that of any abstract idea, is, that it is
manifested to the senses of the pupils, by the object before them. If
a teacher attempt to define the words, reason, ioill, $c. or any other
abstract terms, there is danger that the pupil may, from misunder-
standing the language used in the explanation, obtain but a very
confused and imperfect idea of the definition ; and, indeed, what two
authors or philosophers give to abstract terms the same definition ?
Though mankind do not, in the purely mental operations, exhibit an
entire uniformity, yet, in their external senses, they seldom disagree,
A flower which appears to one person to be composed of six petate,
corolla bell-form, and of a yellow colour, is seen to be so by another.
Pupils who find it difficult to understand their other studies, (which
in early youth are often too abstract,) are usually delighted with this
method of analyzing plants; they feel that they understand the
whole process, by which they have brought out the result, and IHT-
haps for the first time enjoy the pleasure of a clear idea upon a scien-
tific subject.

It is necessary, before the meeting of the class, to have a suitable
number of plants collected, so that all may have specimens. In ex-
amining the pupils as they proceed in their study, each one, boi.U-s
reciting a lesson, should be required to give an analysis of a plant ;
aometimes the whole class having but one species ; sometimes giv-
ing to each pupil permission to bring any flower she chooses. This,
also, at public examinations, is a satisfactory method of testing their
knowledge of the subject. With respect to those portions of the work
to which their attention should most particularly oe paid, it must be
left to the judgment of the teacher. Whatever relates to modes of
classification, and makes part of a system, should be noted ; many re-
marks, illustrations, and quotations, are designed merely for reading,
without being considered as important matter for recitations.

An analysis of the subjects of each Lecture is given, as a substi-
tute for questions ; the practice of having set questions, appearing too
mechanical for teachers, who feel an interest in the sciences they
teach. This analysis, it is thought, will answer all the purposes of
questions, without being attended with their disadvantages.

INTRODUCTION.

LECTURE I.

Importance of System. — Advantages to lie derived from the Study
of Botany.

x

THE universe consists of matter and mind. By the faculties of
mind with which God has endowed us, we are able to examine
into the properties of the material obje'cts by which we are
surrounded.

If we had no sciences, nature would present exactly the same
phenomena as at present. The heavenly bodies would move
with equal regularity, and preserve the same relative situa-
tions, although no system of Astronomy had been formed. The
laws of gravity and of motion, would operate in the same man-
ner as at present, if we had no such science as Natural Phi-
losophy. The affinities of substances for each other were the
same, before the science of Chemistry existed, as they are now.
It is an important truth, and one which cannot be too much im-
pressed upon the mind in all scientific investigations, that no
systems of man can change the laws and operations of Nature ;
though by systems, we are enabled to gain a knowledge of
these laws and relations.

The Deity has not only placed before us an almost infinite
variety of objects, but has given to our minds the power of
reducing them into classes, so as to form beautiful and regular
systems, by which we can comprehend, under a few terms, the
vast number of individual things, which would, otherwise, pre-
sent to our bewildered minds a confused and indiscriminate
mass. This power of the mind, so important in classification,
is that of discovering resemblances. We perceive two objects,
we have an idea of their resemblance, and we give a common
name to both ; other similar objects are then referred to the
same class or receive the same name. A child sees a flower
which he is told is a rose ; he sees another resembling it, and
nature teaches him to call that also a rose. On this operation
of the mind depends the power of forming classes or of general-
izing.

By the faculties of mind we examine the properties of matter — Human
science cannot alter the laws of nature — Power of the mind to form classes,

2

14 INTRODUCTION.

Some relations or resemblances are seen at the first glance ;
others are not discovered until after close examination and re-
flection ; but the most perfect classification is not always
founded upon the most obvious resemblances. A person
ignorant of Botany, on beholding the profusion of flowers
which adorn the face of nature, would discover general resem-
blances, and perhaps form in his mind, some order of arrange,
ment ; but the system of Botany now in use, neglecting the
most conspicuous parts of the flower, is founded upon the obser-
vation of small parts of it, which a common observer might not
notice.

System is necessary in every science. It not only assists in
the acquisition of knowledge, but enables us to retain what is
thus acquired ; and, by the laws of association, to call forth
what is treasured up in the storehouse of the mind. System is
important not only in the grave and elevated departments of
science, but is essential in the most common concerns and ope-
rations of ordinary life. In conducting any kind of business,
and in the arrangement of household concerns, it is indispensa-
ble to the success of the one, and to the comfort of those inter-
ested in the other. The very logical and systematic arrange-
ment which prevails in Botanical science, has, without doubt, a
tendency to' induce in the mind the habit and love of order;
which, when once established, will operate, even in the minu-
test concerns. Whoever traces this system, through its various
connexions, -by a gradual progress from individual plants to
general classes, until the whole vegetable world seems brought
into one point of view ; and then descends in the same methodi-
cal manner, from generals to particulars, must acquire a habit
of arrangement, and a perception of order, which is the true
practical logic.

The study of Botany seems peculiarly adapted to females ;
the objects of its investigation are beautiful and delicate ; its
pursuits, leading to exercise in the open air, are conducive to
health and cheerfulness. It is not a sedentary study which can
be acquired in the library, but the objects of the science are
scattered over the surface of the earth, along the banks of the
winding brooks, on the borders of precipices, the sides of moun-
tains, and the depths of the forest.

A knowledge of Botany is necessary to the medical profes-
sion. Our Almighty Benefactor, in bestowing upon us the
vegetable tribes, has not only provided a source of refined en-
Classification not always founded upon the most striking resemblances, as in
Botany — Importance of system— The study of Botany is practical logic—
Proper for females — Necessary to the medical profession.

INTRODUCTION. 15

joyment in the contemplation of their beautiful forms and co-
lours ; in their fragrance, by which, in their peculiar language,
they seem to hold secret communion with our minds ; He has
not only given them for our food and clothing, but with kind,
parental care, has, in them, provided powers to counteract
and remove the diseases to which mankind are subject.
For many ages plants were the only medicines known, or
used ; but modern discoveries in Chemistry, by forming com-
pounds of previously existing elements, have, in some degree,
superseded their use. Although the science of medicine has
received much additional, light from Chemistry, it may perhaps
in modern days have occupied the attention of medical men too
exclusively ; inducing them to toil in their laboratories to form
those combinations which nature had done, much more per-
fectly, in the plants which they pass unheeded. It is probable
that the medicinal productions of the animal and mineral king-
doms, bear but a small proportion to those of the vegetable.

When our forefathers came to this country, they found the
natives in possession of much medical knowledge of plants.
Having no remedies prepared by scientific skill, the Indians
were led, by necessity, to the use of those which nature offered
them ; and, by experience and observation, they had arrived at
many valuable conclusions as to the qualities of plants. Their
mode of life, leading them to penetrate the shades of the forest,
and to climb the mountain precipices, naturally associated them
much with the vegetable world. The Indian woman, the pa-
tient sharer in these excursions, was led to look for such plants
as she might use for the diseases of her family. Each new
and curious plant, though not viewed by her as a botanist
would now behold it, doubJess was regarded with scrutinizing
attention; the colour, taste, and smell, were carefully re-
marked as indications of its properties. But the discoveries
and obsorvations of the Indians have perished with themselves;
having no system for the classification or description of plants,
nor any written language by which such a system might have
bean conveyed to others, no vestige, but uncertain tradition, re-
mains of their knowledge of the medicinal qualities of plants.

The study of nature in any of her varieties is highly interest-
ing and usjful. But the heavenly bodies are far distant from
us, and were they within our reach,, are too mighty for us to
grasp ; our feeble minds seem overwhelmed in the contempla-
tion of their immensity.

Animals, though affording the most striking marks of design-

Experienes of the Indians with respect to plants — Medicinal virtues of
plants — Heavenly bodies — Animals.

16 INTRODUCTION.

ing wisdom, cannot be dissected and examined without painful
emotions.

The vegetable world offers a boundless field of inquiry,
which may be explored with the most pure and delightful emo-
tions. Here the Almighty seems to manifest himself to us with
less of that dazzling sublimity which it is almost painful to be-
hold in His more magnificent creations ; and it might almost
appear, that accommodating the vegetable world to our capa-
cities, He had especially designed it for our investigation and
amusement.

The study of Botany naturally leads to greater love and
reverence for the Deity. We would not affirm that it does in
reality always produce this effect ; for, unhappily, there are
some minds which, though quick to perceive the beauties of na-
ture, seem, blindly, to overlook Him who spread them forth.
They can admire the gifts, while they forget the Giver. But
those who feel in their hearts a love to God, and who see in the
natural world the workings of His power, can look abroad, and
adopting the language of a Christian poet, exclaim,
"My Father made them all."

/ DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT.

Having endeavoured to convince you that the study you are
about to commence, is recommended by its own intrinsic utility,
and especially by its tendency to strengthen the understanding
and improve the heart, we will now proceed to lay before you
the arrangement which we propose to follow in our course of
instruction.

We will divide our course of study into Four Parts, viz. :
PART I. Will be chiefly devoted to the Analysis of Plants, or

lessons in Practical Botany.

PART II. We shall here consider the various organs of the
plant, beginning with the root and ascending to the flower ;
this part will include what is usually termed Elementary
Botany ; it will also contain remarks upon the uses of the
various organs of plants, the nature of vegetable substan-
ces, and other circumstances connected with Vegetable
Physiology.

PART III. In this part we shall consider the different systems
of Botany. We shall examine some of the most impor-

Study of the vegetable world — The study of Botany tends to piety — Divi-
sion of the subject into four parts — I. Practical Botany — II. Vegetable Physi-
ology—Ill. Systematic Botany.

INTRODUCTION. , 17

tant Natural Families ; and then proceed to give a detail-
ed view of the Linncaan System ; remarking some of the
most interesting genera, and natural families found under
each class, and order.

PART IV. In this part we shall consider the Progressive ap-
pearance of Flowers during the season of blossoming ;
their various phenomena produced -by the different states
of the atmosphere, light, &c. ; their distribution over the
face of the earth, and the effect of elevation as similar to
that of distance from the equator. After giving a History
of Botany, we shall take a general view of Nature ; the
distinction between organized and inorganized matter ; the
classification of Animals, with the analogies, and differ-
ences presented by a view of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms.

IV. Various phenomena of Plants, History of Botany, and General Views of
Nature.

2*

PART I.

LECTURE II.

General division of the sciences -which relate to mind and matter —
Different departments of Botanical Science — Partsofajlower.

THE Universe, as composed of mind and matter -, gives rise
to various sciences. The SUPREME BEING we believe to be
immaterial, or pure mind.

The knowledge of mind may be considered under two gene-
ral heads.

1. THEOLOGY,* or that science which comprehends our views
of the Deity, and our duties to Him.

2, PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN MIND, or, metaphysics, -\
which is the science that investigates the mind of man, and ana-
lyzcs and arranges its faculties.

The knowledge of matter, which is included under the gene-
ral term, Physics, may be considered under three general heads.

1. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, which considers the effects of bo-
dies acting upon each other by their mechanical powers ; as
their weight and motion.

2. CHEMISTRY, in which the properties, and mutual action
of the elementary atoms of bodies are investigated.'

3. NATURAL HISTORY, which considers the external forms
and characters of objects, and arranges them in classes.

NATURAL HISTORY is divided into three branches.

1. ZOOLOGY, J which treats of animals.

2. BOTANY, which treats of plants.

3. MINERALOGY, which treats of the inorganized masses of
the globe ; as stones, earths, &c. GEOLOGY, which treats of
minerals as they exist in masses, forming rocks, is a branch of
mineralogy.

Having thus presented you with this general view of the
natural sciences, we will now proceed to that department which
is to be the object of your present study.

Departments in Botany.

BOTANY§ treats of the vegetable kingdom, including every

* From the Greek Theos, God, and logos, a discourse.

t From meta, beyond, and phusis, nature. This term originated with Aris-
totle, who, considering the study of the intellectual world as beyond that of the
material world, or physics, called it meta taphusis.

\ From zoe, life, and logos, a discourse.

§ From the Greek, botane, an herb.

Divisions of the sciences which relate to mind— Those which relate to mat-
ter— Branches of Natural history.

DEPARTMENTS IN BOTANY.

19

thing which grows, having root, stem, leaf, or flower. This sci-
ence comprehends the knowledge of the methodical arrange-
ment of plants, of their structure, and whatever has relation to
the vegetable kingdom. The study of plants may be consi-
dered under two general heads.

1st. The classification of plants by means of comparing their
different organs, is termed Systematic Botany.

2d. The knowledge of the relations and uses of the various
parts of plants with respect to each other, is termed Physiologi-
cal Botany. This department includes Vegetable Anatomy.

Systematic Botany is divided into the artificial and natural
methods. The artificial method- is founded upon different cir-
cumstances of two organs of the plant, called the pistils and
stamens. Linnaeus of Sweden was the first who discovered
that these organs are common to all plants, and essential to
their existence. Taking advantage of this fact, hefounded his
classes and orders upon their number, situation, and proportion.
By this artificial system, plants which are unlike in their gene-
ral appearance, are brought together, as in a dictionary, words
of different signification are placed together from the mere
circumstance of agreement in their initial letters.

Fig. i. Parts of the flower.

Before you can learn
the principles on
which the classifica-
tion of plants depends,
it is necessary that
you should become
acquainted with the
parts of a flower ; for
this purpose, you
have here the repre-
sentation of a Lily.
(See Jig. I.) You
know that at nrst this
flower is folded up in
a little green bud,
and that by degrees,
it expands and chan-
ges its colour ; being
in some kinds of lilies,
white, in others, yel-
This is the picture of a white lily.

low, orange, &c.

Definition of Botany— Systematic Botany— Physiological Botany— Artificial
Method— Names of the different parts of a dower.

20

PARTS OF THE FLOWER.

The part which you would call the blossom, is the corolla ;
this is composed of six pieces, each of which is a petal, as seen
at a. Fig. 2.

By examining the lily you
will observe within the corolla
six thread-like organs ; these
are called Stamens. Each
stamen is composed of two
parts, one long and slender,
called the Filament (Fig. '2, a),
the other part called the An-
ther (/;), is a kind of knob, like
a little box, which, when the
flower comes to maturity,
opens, and throws out a colour-
ed dust, called the Pollen.

The central organ is called
the Pistil (c) ; this consists of
three parts, the top, which is
called the Stigma (rf), the slen-
der filament which bears the
stigma is called the Style (e),
and the base is called the
Germ (/).

In many flowers the corolla is surrounded by a kind of cup call-
ed the Calyx, this is wanting in the Lily, but exists in the Pink.
The Receptacle (g), is the end of the stem, where all the
other parts of the flower are inserted.
Fig. 3.

The Peri,
carp (Figure
3), is the
germ in a ma-
ture state ; the
name is deri-
ved from the
Greek, perir
around, and
karpos, fruit,
denoting that
it surrounds
the fruit or
seed. This
kind of peri-
carp is called

>rolla— Petals— Stamens, and parts of— Pistil, and parts of— Calyx— Receptacle
-Pericarp.

PARTS OF THE FLOWER. 21

a capsule, or little chest ; at a is a row of fine fibres, which
connect the valves or pieces of the capsule, and through which
the seeds are admitted. At b the capsule appears as if cut
transversely, shewing three cells or apartments, each contain-
ing two triangular seeds (b, b).

These 7 parts constitute what are called the organs of Fruc-
tification,* viz.

Calyx, the cup. Pericarp, containing the seed.

Corolla, . blossom. Seed, rudiment of a new

Stamens, organs within plant.

the corolla. Receptacle, top of the stem.
Pistil, central organ.

We have now examined each part of a flower ; this is one
kind of analysis, or separation, but there is another kind of
analysis with which you are now to be made acquainted, viz.
that which we employ in finding out the Botanical name of a
plant.

DIVISION OF PLANTS INTO CLASSES, &C.

According to the system now most used by botanists, plants
are divided into twenty-one classes. Each class is divided into
Orders, the Orders into Genera,f and the Genera into Species.
The name of the genus is like a family name or surname ; the
name of the species is like the particular or Christian name ; for
example ; the Rose family contains many different species ; as
Rosa alba, the white rose, Rosa damascena, the damask rose,
&c.

The specific or individual name in botany, is placed after
the family name, as Rosa alba, which is Rose white, instead of
white rose : this circumstance is probably owing to the names
being in Latin ; as in that language the adjective is generally
placed after the noun, instead of before it, as in English.

LECTURE III.

Method of analyzing plants. — Analysis of the Pink, Lily, Rose,
and Poppy.

WHEN you begin to analyze plants, you will meet with

* From fructus fruit, and J ado to make, signifying that those parts serve to
the maturing of the fruit.

t Plural of genus, a family or tribe.

Seed — Organs of fructification — Number of Classes — Genus — Species,

22

ANALYSIS OF THE PINK.

many new terms. It will be necessary in these cases, to re-
sort to the vocabulary of botanical words ;* by the obsorvation
of plants, connected with definitions, you will soon become fa-
miliar with the technical terms of Botany.

We will now proceed to analyze a flower in order to ascer-
tain its botanical name. We will commence with the Pink, as
you are provided with a drawing which you can examine if
you have no natural flower.f
s Analysis of the Pink.

^•4- The first step,

is to find the
class. We will
suppose this
flower to be-
long to one of
the frst ten
classes; in this
case, all you
have to do, is
to ascertain the
number of sta-
mens, as by
this .circum-
stance only all
these cl
are arranged.

Because there are ten stamens (Fig. 4), the Pink is in the
10th class, the name of which is Decandria. Having now
ascertained its class, the second s:ep is to find its order. In the
first 12 classes, the orders depend on the number of pistils ;
these, you must count ; b< -cuu.su )<>u find tiro (Fig. 4, 6), you
consider your flower as belonging to the 2nd order, the name
of which is Digynia.

You must now turn to the description of the Genera of plants $
find class 10th, order 2nd. The third step is to ascertain the
genus of your plant ; for this purpose, you must compare it
with each genus, until you find it described. You find first,

* This is placed in the latter part of this volume.

t In analyzing a natural flower, it is necessary to separate the parts ; first»
if there is a calyx, remove it carefully, th'jn take off the corolla, or i I it is mo-
nopetalous, cut it open with a knife. A microscope is necessary if the organs
are very small.

t This follows Part IV.

First step in the analysis of the Pink — second step — third step.

ANALYSIS OF THE PINK.

23

w * * * « HYDRANGEA. Calyx 5 tooth-
id, superior ;" your calyx is 5
toothed, (see the notches around
the top of it, at Fig. 5, a ;) but it
is not superior, that is, it does
not stand upon the germ. You
must go to the next genus.

" SAXIFRAGA. Calix 5 part-
ed, half superior," but your ca-
lyx is not half superior, or part- ,
ly above the germ. You must
go to the next genus.

" SAPONARIA. Calyx inferi-
or, (under the germ ;) 1 leafed, (all of one piece ;) tubular, (long
and hollow like a tube ;) 5 toothed," — so far the description
agrees with the Pink ; next, calyx without scales, (see fig. 5,£.)
In this particular, your flower, the calyx of which has scales,
does not correspond with the description, therefore you must
go to the next genus.

DIANTHUS. Calyx inferior, cylindrical, (much the same as
tubular ;) I leafed, with four or eight scales at the base ; petals
fve, Fig. 4, a, with claws, (long and slender at the base ;) cap-
sule cylindrical, 1 celled, (having no partings ;) dehiscent, (open-
ing at the top.) Fig. 5, at c, represents the capsule of the pink
as it appears in a mature state, the valves or pieces which
compose it, opening spontaneously, as if for liberating the seed ;
at d, the capsule appears cut horizontally, showing but one cell,
which contains many seeds. Fig. 4, at c, represents the germ,
as seen when the pink is in blossom. Your flower agreeing
with every particular in the description of the last mentioned
genus, you may be certain that you have found the generic or
family name of the Pink, which is DIANTHUS.

But there are several individuals or species in this family ;
you wish to know to which species of Dianthus the Pink be-
longs ; and this process constitutes a fourth step in your anal-
ysis.

Turn to the Alphabetical Arrangement of Genera,* where the
species of each Genus are described, and look for Dianthus.
Now compare the description of each species, with a natural
flower; " Armeria, flowers aggregate" (in a thick cluster;)
this does not agree ; you must look further.

* This follows the Description of Genera.

Fourth step in the analysis of a plant.

24 ANALYSIS OF THE LILY.

« Barbatus, flowers fascicled," (crowded together,) but your
flower grows singly on each stalk.

" Caryophyllus, flowers solitary, scales of the calyx sub, (partly,)
rhomboid, (diamond shape ;) very short, petal-s crenate, (scollop,
ed on the edge :) beardless, (without any hair or down.)

The pink is, in all respects, answerable to this description.
It is also added that the " leaves are linear," which signifies
long, and of nearly equal width ; "subulate" signifies pointed
at the end, like a shoemaker's awl ; " channelled" signifies hav-
ing a groove or channel running through the leaf.

You have now found the name of your plant to be DIAN-
THUS caryophyllus, belonging to

Class 10th, DECANDRIA. Order 2d, DIGYIYIA.*

And in this way it should be labelled for an herbarium or col-
lection of dried plants.

Let it now be remembered that in this process, four distinct
steps have been taken ; the first, to find the class; second, the
order ; third, the genus ; and fourth, the species.

You can now proceed with the analysis of any plant which
belongs to the first ten classes, in the same manner as you have
done with the Pink ; as all these classes depend upon the cir-
cumstance of the number of stamens.

Analysis of the Lily.

In analyzing the Lily you can refer to Figures 1st, 2d, and
3d ; you will find this flower belonging to the 6th class, the
name of which is HEXANDRIA ; and to the 1st order, MONOGY-
NIA. This order containing a great many genera, is divided
into several sections.^

1st Section contains flowers " with a perianth" (that is, a kind
of calyx,) and " corolla without a spatha," (a kind of wrapper.)

The Lily has no calyx, therefore you will not find it in this
section.

2nd Section. " With a spatha or glume, (a kind of sheath,)
without a perianth."

The Lily has no spatha or glume, therefore it is not in this
section.

3d. Section. " Flowers having no calyx."

The Lily has no calyx, therefore you may expect to find it
described under this section. You can proceed, as in the Pink,

* The student can consult the synopsis of artificial classes and orders to as-
certain the etymology of their names ; the whole system has not been introdu-
ced before, because it is thought better to lead the mind, by gradual induc-
tion,-to generalize for itself.

t The pupil must turn to Class VI., Order L, in the Description of Genera.

Analysis of the Lily— parts of the plant referred to in describing the genus.

ANALYSIS OF THE ROSE. 25

to compare each genus with your flower, till you find a descrip-
tion which corresponds with the Lily.

" HEMEROCALLIS. "Corolla six parted." Six parted shows
that the corolla is all of one piece, having divisions around the
border. The Lily is not six parted, but has six petals, there-
fore you need look no farther in this genus.

" LILIUM." Now compare each particular in this description
with your flower, (looking out; the terms in the vocabulary,) and
you will find an agreement in every respect.

In the description of a genus, nothing is said about any part
of the plant, except the different organs which compose the
flower; in the species, the distinctions are chiefly drawn from
different circumstances of the leaves, stems, <fyc.

The flowers of two plants may agree so as to belong to the
same genus,, while the leaves, stalks, and branches are very
unlike, and the plants are therefore considered as belonging to
different species.

Thus in the genus Lilium, the shape of the leaves, the man-
ner in which they grow on the stem, the height of the stem, the
number of flowers growing upon the stem, the manner in which
they grow whether erect or nodding, and the shape of the co-
rolla; all these, and some other circumstances, distinguish
the1 different species. The colour, a quality of the flower
usually the most striking, is, in botany, little regarded, while
many other circumstances, which might at first have been
scarcely noticed, are considered as important.

In the llth class, Icosandria, and the 12th class, Polyandria,
we are to remark, not only the number of stamens, which is
always more than ten ; but the manner in which they are inserted,
or the part of the flower on which they are situated. If in pull-
ing off the corolla, the stamens remain upon the calyx, the
plant belongs to the 1 1th class ; but if the corolla and calyx
may be both removed, and the stamens still remain on the re-
ceptacle, the plant is of the 12th class.

It is .said that no poisonous plant has the stamens growing on
the calyx ; it is in the 1 1th class that we find many of our most
delicious fruits, as the Apple, Pear, &c.

Analysis of the Rose.

The rose, on account of its beauty, is one of the most con-
spicuous flowers in the 1 1th class ; it is considered as one of the
most interesting of the vegetable race, and is often dignified
with the title of " queen of flowers."

in the species. — New ckcumstanees to be considered in the llth and 12tU
classes— Analysis of the Rose,

3

26 ANALYSIS OF THE POPPY.

You will perceive, on examining the formation of the
Rose, that its numerous stamens are attached to the calyx. A
more perfect idea of their situation may be obtained, by re-
moving the petals and cutting the calyx longitudinally. There-
fore, because it has more than ten stamens growing upon the
calyx, it belongs to the llth class, Icosandria. The pistils be-
ing more than ten, it is of the 13th order, Polygynia. It be-
longs to the genus Rosa.

The shape of the calyx is " urnform ;" the calyx is " inferi-
or " or below the germ; it is "Jive cleft" or has five divisions
around the border; "it is fleshy" or thick and pulpy, "contract-
ed towards the top;" "petals 5," (this is always the case with a
rose in its natural state, unassisted by cultivation;)" seeds nu-
merous, bristly, fixed to the sides oj the calyx within."
<° There is no seed vessel, or proper pericarp to the rose ; but
the calyx swells and becomes a dry, red berry, containing
many seeds.

The genus Rosa contains many species, distinguished, one
from another, by the different shape of the germ, the smooth-
nessf or roughness of the stems, the presence or absence of
thorns, the shape of the leaves, and the manner in which the
flowers grow upon the'Wftks, whether solitary or crowded to-
gether in pairs or scattered, and whether erect or drooping.

The Moss rose, (RosAmuscosa,) is distinctly marked by the
hairs, resembling moss, which cover the stems of the calyx ;
these hairs are a collection of glands containing a resinous
and fragrant fluid.

The apple blossom ap'^pars like a little rose ; its calyx be-
comes thick ancP^Jjlpy, and at length constitutes that part
which we usually call the fruit, though strictly speaking,
the seed only, is the fruit. On examining an apple, you may
notice, at the end opposite the stem, the five divisions of the
calyx.

Analysis of the Poppy.

The B|J>py affords a good illustration of the 12th class, Po-
lyandria ; here are numerous stamens, always more than ten,
sometimes more than a hundred, growing upon the receptacle;
the Poppy has but one pistil, and therefore belongs to the first
order, Monogynia ; the genus is PAPAVER. The Poppy has a " ca-
lyx of two leaves" but these fall off as soon as the blossom expands,
and are therefore called " caducous ;" the corolla (except when
double) " is four petaled ;" it has no style, but the stigma is set
upon the germ, and is therefore said to be sessile.

— why is t in the llth class ? — why the 13th order? — Generic characters of
the rose— Circumstances which distinguish the different species of the genus
Rosa— Apple blossom and fruit— Analysis of the Poppy.

ANALYSIS OF THE POPPY. 27

The germ is large and somewhat oblong, the stigma is flat
and radiated. The pericarp is one-celled or without divisions, it
opens at the top, by pores, when the seeds are ripe. The spe-
cies of Papaver which is cultivated in gardens, is the somnifer-
um, which name signifies to produce sleep. It is often called
Opium Poppy.

By observing the figures which stand at the right hand of
PAPAVER in the description of genera, and also of species, you
will find to what natural order the plant belongs. The num-
ber 27 refers to the natural orders of Linnreus ; on looking for
these you will find against this number Rhceadcea, which includes
plants with capsules and caducous calyxes. Such plants, as to
medicinal properties are anodyne (causing sleep), and antiscor-
butic (curing eruptions).

The number 62 points to the natural orders of Jussieu ;* on
referring to these, you will find this number to stand against
Papaveracea, which is a word in the plural number, signify-
ing poppy-like plants. You cannot at present understand
what is meant by natural orders or natural families, but when
you have become familiar with the analysis, and different parts
of plants, we will give an explanation of these orders, and of
the principles by which they are arranged.

In the commencement of a new science, it is not to be ex-
pected that every idea, or principle of arrangement will seem
perfectly clear, as such may often relate to other principles not yet
explained. In architecture, we know it would be impossible to
form a clear idea of the use or beauty of a particular part of
an edifice, until it was considered in its relation to the whole.
The beginner in any branch of scientific knowledge, is not like
one travelling a straight road, where every step is so much
ground actually gained ; but the views which he takes are like
the faint sketches of a painter, which gradually brighten and
grow more definite as he advances.

The idea which was formerly entertained, that students must'
learn perfectly, every thing as they proceed, appears to be found-
ed upon a wrong view both of the nature of the mind, and of
the sciences. The memory may be so disciplined as to retain a
great many words, but words are only valuable as instru-
ments of conveying knowledge to the mind ; and if, after
a careful attention to a subject, something in your lessons may
appear obscure, you must not be discouraged by attributing the

* The table of contents will shew where the natural orders are to be found.

Natural order, how pointed out— Remarks respecting the commencement of
a new science— Words of use only as instruments.

28 ANALYSIS OF THE POPPY.

difficulty to the duiness of your own faculties ; it may arise from
want of clearness in an author's style, or the subject may be
connected with something which is to follow ; therefore, you
should patiently proceed, with the hope and expectation that
difficulties will gradually disappear.

We shall not at present give any more examples of analyzing
plants. With even the little practice you have now had, you
can analyze flowers of any of the first thirteen classes ; but it
is necessary for you to know before proceeding farther, that the
two circumstances of the number and insertion of the stamens,
are not all that you are to talte into consideration, in tli
rahgement of the classes ; this was not sooner observed, that
your minds at first might not be confused with too many IK w
ideas.

You are now prepared to comprehend the general features
of the Linnaean system* and to study the whole of the classes
and orders in a connected view. Before proceeding to this, it
seems necessary that you should have some knowledge of Greek
and Latin numerals. In our next lecture we shall commence,
by this necessary preparation, and shall then explain the char-
acters of the classes and orders, and illustrate the same by draw-
ings. Sensible objects are of great assistance to the mind, by
enabling it to form definite ideas of the meaning of words. In
abstract studies we cannot have such aid ; and in order to com-
prehend instructions given upon them, it is necessary that the
definitions of words should be well understood. Many persons
are satisfied with a general notion of the meaning of abstract
terms ; thus, they speak of " a sensation of pity," when they
mean an emotion. A more critical knowledge of the mdaning
of words, would enable them to perceive, that sensation is a
term appropriated to that state of the mind which immediately
follows the presence of an external object : it depends on the
connexion between the body and the mind. The mind, separa-
ted from all the organs of sense, could have no sensations ; but
it could have emotions, for they are feelings which the mind has,
independently of the senses.

The, great advantage of pursuing studies which relate to ma-
terial objects, is, as we have before remarked, in being able to
illustrate principles, and define terms by a reference to those
objects themselves, or to delineations of them.

Assistance which the mind derives from sensible object*— Example of using
terms indefinitely.

LECTURE IV.

Latin and Greek numerals. — Artificial classes and orders.

WE shall now present you with a list of Latin and Greek nu-
merals; these it is necessary to commit to memory, in order
that you may understand the names given to the classes and or-
ders. It is not in Botany alone, that a knowledge of these nu-
merals will be useful to you ; many words in our common lan-
guage are compounded with them ; for example — uniform, from
unus, one, and forma, form; octagon, from octo, eight, and gonia
an angle, hexagon, pentagon, &c. ; decimal, from decem, ten.
These few examples may show you the importance of knowing
these numerals, which will serve as a key to the meaning of
many words in common use.

NUMERALS.
Numbers.
1.

Latin.

Unus,

Bis,

Tres,

Quatuor,

Quinque,

Sex, ,

Septem,

Octo,

Novem,

Decem,

Undecem,

Duodecem,

Tredecem,

Quatuordecem,

Quindecem,

Sexdecem,

Septendecem,

Octodecem,

Novemdecem,

Viginti,

Multus,

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Many.

Greek.

Monos,

Dis,

Treis.

Tettares.

Pente.

Hex.

Hepta.

Okto.

Ennea.

Deka.

Endeka.

Dodeka.

Dekatreis.

Dekatettares.

Dekapente.

Dekaex.

Dekaepta.

Dekaokto.

Dekaennea.

Eikosi.

Polus.

single,
twice.

THfE CLASSES OF LINNJEUS.

These are founded upon distinctions observed in the STAMENS.
According to this system, all known plants are divided into
twenty-one classes.

Importance of understanding Latin and Greek numerals — Latin numerals-
Greek numerals— Classes of Linnaeus, on what founded ? — HJW many ?

3*

30

CLASSES OF LINNAEUS.

The first twelve classes are named by prefixing Greek numer-
als to ANDRIA, which signifies stamen.

CLASSES.

Names. Definitions.

C 1. MON- ANDRIA, One Stamen.

2. DI-ANDRIA, T/ro Stamens.

3. TRI-ANDRIA, Three Stamens.

4. TKTR-AMJRIA, Four Stamens.
Number of 5. PENT-ANDRIA, Five Stamens-
Stamens. I 6. HEX-ANDRIA, Six Stamens.

7. HEPT-AXDRIA, Seven Stamens.

8. OCT-AXDRIA, Eight Stamens.

9. ENNE- ANDRIA, Nine Starnens.
. 10. DEC-ANDRI \, Ten Stamen*.

Fig. 6.

Number and
position.

'11.

(Eikosi.)
20

12. POLY- ANDRIA,

(Polus.)
many.

Fig. 7.

r Over ten Sta-
mens inserted
on the Calyx.
Over ten Sta-
mens inserted on
the Receptacle.

The two following classes are named by infixing Greek nu-
merals to DYNAMIA, which signifies poweflK length.

C Two Stamens longer
DYNAMIA, < or more powerful
f than the other two.

Number and
relative length

.MIA, wnicn :
? 13. Di-i

* The name of this cj&ss does not now designate its character, since the num-
ber of stamens is oftepmore or less than twenty.

First twelve, how named 1 —Those which depend on the number of stamens —
those which depend on number and position — Number and relative length — Ex-
plain the signification of the names of the classes now described.

CLASSES OF LINNAEUS.

31

^ C C Four Stamens longer

Icx1 < 14. TETRA-DYNAMIA, < or more powerful
relative length. A * - J

Fig. 8.

than the other two.

The two following classes are named by prefixing Greek nu-
merals, to the word ADELPHIA, which signifies brotherhood.

( Stamens united by

15. MON- ADELPHIA, < their filaments in one

f set or brotherhood.

16. Di- ADELPHIA, Two brotherhoods.
The next class is named by prefixing SYN,

signifying together, to GENESIA, which signi-
fies growing up.

17. SYN-GEHESIA,

Fig. 9.

Connexion.

Jtowers compound.

The next class is named by an abbreviation of the word GYNIA,
which signifies pistil, prefixed to ANDRIA, showing that the sta-
mens and pistil are united.

18. GYN-ANDRIA, \ Stamens growing out

I of the pistil.
The two following classes are named by

prefixing numerals to (ECIA, which signifies a

house.

f Stamens and Pistils
j on separate corollas
\ upon the same plant,
t or in one house.

Position.

19. MON-CECIA,

What classes depend on the connexion of the stamens ? — Explain the signi-
fication of their names— What classes depend on the position of the stamens ?

ORDERS OF LINN.EUS.

Position.

f Stamens and Pistils
J in separate corollas
| upon different plants
I or in two houses.

The name of the last class is a compound of two Greek
words, CRYPTO and GAMIA, signifying a concealed union.

f Stamens and Pistils

Natural. <! 21. CRYPTO-GAMIA, \ ininsible.or loo small

i | to be seen with the

[naked eye.
Fig. 11.

Lichens. Mushrooms. Ferns. Mosses.

The number of classes as arranged by Linnaeus, was twenty,
four. Two of them, Poly-delphia, (many brotherhoods,)
which was the eighteenth class ; and Poly-gamia, (many unions,)
the twenty -third class, have, by late botanists, been rejected as
unnecessary.

The eleventh class, Dodecandria, which included plants
whose flowers contain from twelve to twenty stamens, has been
more recently omitted. The plants which belong to these have
been distributed among the other classes.

A few botanists retain the whole twenty-four ; among Ame-
rican writers who adopt but twenty-one, are Eaton, Torrey, and
Nuttall.

THE ORDERS OF LINN^US.

The orders of the first twelve classes are founded upon the
number of PISTILS.

What does Gynandria signify ? — Monoecia ? — rDicecia ? — Natural Class —
Classes omitted — Orders of the first twelve classes, on what founded ?

ORDERS OF LINNAEUS.

33

Orders found
in the first
twelve classes.

No. of pistils.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. this order seldom found.

7. this still more unusual.

8. very rare.

9. very rare.
10.

The orders are named by prefixing Greek numerals to the
word GYNIA, signifying pistil.

ORDERS.

Names.

1. MONO-GYNIA,

2. Dl-GYNIA,

3. TRI-GYNIA,

4. TETRA-GYNIA,

5. PENTA-GYNIA,

6. HEXA-GYNIA/
7i HEPTA-GYNIA,

8. OCTO-GYNIA,

9. ENNEA-GYNIA,
10. DECA-GYNIA,

^ 13. POLY-GYNIA, over ten pistils.
The classes vary as to the number of orders which they
contain.

The orders of the 13th class, Didynamia, are but two.
1. GYMNOSPERMIA. From GYMNO, signifying naked, and
SPERMIA, signifying seed, implying
that the seeds are not covered.
From ANGIO, signifying bag or sack,
added to SPERMIA, implying that the
seeds are covered.
The orders of the 14th class, Tetradynamia, are two, both
distinguished by the form of the fruit.

1. SIUCULOSA. Fruit, a silicula, or roundish pod.

2. SILIQUOSA. Fruit, a siliqua, or long pod.

The orders of the 15th class, Monadelphia, and of the 16th
class, Diadelphia, are founded on the number of stamens, that
is, on the characters of the first twelve classes, and they have
the same names as Monandria, &c.

The 17th class, Syngenesia, has its five orders distinguished
by different circumstances of the florets, as ;

1. EQUALIS. Stamens and pistils equal, or in proportion ; that

is, each floret has a stamen, a pistil, and one seed. Such
florets are called perfect.

2. SUPERFLUA. Florets of the disk perfect, of the ray contain.

ing only pistils, which without stamens are superfluous.

3. FRUSTRANEA*. Florets of the disk perfect, of the ray neu-

tral, or without the stamen or pistil ; therefore frustrated,
or useless.

4. NECESSARIA. Florets of the disk staminate, of the ray pis-

seeds usually four
lying in the calyx.

2. ANGIOSPERMIA.

seeds numerous
in a capsule.

How are the orders named ?— Orders of the class Didynamia— Of Tetradyna-
mia—Of the classes Monadelphia and Diadelphia— Of the class Syngenesia*

34

CLASSES AND ORDERS OF LINN^US.

tillate ; the latter being necessary to the perfection of the
fruit.
5. SEGREGATA. Florets separated from each other by partial

calyxes, or each floret having a perianth. •

The orders of the 18th class, Gynandria, of the 19th class,
Monoecia, and the 20th class, Dioecia, like those of the 15th
and 16th classes, depend on the number of stamens.

The orders of the 21st class, Cryptogamia, constitute six na-
tural families.

1. FILICES, — includes all Ferns, having the fruit on the
leaves.

2. Musci,- — Mosses.

3. HEPATICAE, — Liverworts, or succulent mosses.

4. ALGAE, — Sea- weeds, and frog spittle.

5. LICHENES, — Lichens, found growing on the barks of old
trees, old wood, &c.

6. FUNGI, — Mushrooms, mould, blight, &c. .

No confusion is produced in taking the character of some
classes, for orders in other classes ; for example : if you have
a flower with ten stamens, united by their filaments into one set,
you know by the definition of the classes that it belongs to the
class Monadelphia, you can then, because it has ten stamens,
place it in the order, Decandria.

Having explained the principles on which the artificial
classes and orders are founded, we will now place them before
you, in a synoptical or general view.

•'SYNOPSIS OF THE CLASSES AND ORDERS OF LINNAEUS."
CLASSES. ORDERS.

1. MONANDRIA, 1 stamen.

2. DIANORIA, 2.

Number of
Stamens.

Number and
Position.

Number and
relative
Length. '

3. TRIANDRIA, 3.

4. TKTRANDRIA, 4.
/>. I'KNTANDRIA, 5.

6. HEXANDRIA, 6.

7. HEPTANDRIA, 7.

8. QCTANDRIA, 8.

9. ENNF.ANDRIA, 9.

10. DECANDRIA, 10.

11. ICOSANDRIA, over 10
stamens, on the calyx.

12. PoLYANDRiA,many sta-
mens, not on the calyx.

Number of styles ; if styles arc
wanting, number of sessile stig-

mas. Monogynia, 1 style or one
sessile stigma. Digynia, 2. Tri-
gynia, 3. Tetragynia, 4. Pcn-
tagynia, 5. Hexagynia, 6. llep-
tagynia, 7. Octogynia, 8. Enne-
agynia, 9. Decagynia, 10. Poly-
gynia, any number over 10.

13. DIDYNAMIA, 4 stamens I 1. Gymnospermia, seeds naked.

2 of them longest. 1 2. Angiospermia, seeds in cap-

14. TKTRADYNAMIA, 6 sta- | sules.

mens,4 of them longest. | 1. Siliculosa, pod short.

J 2. Siliquosa, pod long.

Of the classes Gynandria, Monoecia, and Dicecia— Of the class Cryptogamia
— Synopsis of artificial classes and orders.

NATURAL ORDERS.

35

n,

| 16.

Connexion of
the Stamens)
by filaments \
or anthers. 17.

Position of
the Stamens
relative to
the Pistils.

Characters and names of pre-
ceding classes. As, 1. Monandria,
2. Diandria, 3. Triandria, 4. Te-
trandria, 5. Pentandria, 6. Hexan-
dria.

Disk and ray florets compared.
1. ^Equalis, 2. Superflu'a, 3. Frus-
tranea, 4. Necessaria, 5. Segre-
gata.

Characters and names of prece-
ding classes, (as under the classes
15 and 16,) 7. Heptandria, 8. Oc-
tandria, 9. Enneandria, 10. Decan-
dria, 12. Polyandria, 16. Monadel-
phia.

Invisible or J
Caducous. ',

MONADELPHIA, fila-
ments united in 1 set.
DIADELPHIA, filaments
united in 2 sets — papili-
onaceous.

SYNGENESIA, anthers
united — flowers com-
pound.

GYNANDRIA, stamens
on the pistil, distant
from corolla.
MONCECIA, stamens in
flowers separate from
pistils, on the same
plant.

DICECIA, stamens in
flowers separate from
pistils on separate plants

CRYPTOGAMiAjStamens I Natural families. 1. Filices, 2.
invisible, wanting, or } Musci, 3. Hepaticae, 4. Algse, 5.
very caducous. J Lichens, 6. Fungi.*

We have now exhibited the Linnsean system ; a thorough
knowledge of it can be gained only by a series of inductions
made by the analysis of single plants. You cannot be too
much impressed with the idea, that a knowledge of nature can
be acquired but -by the* observation of material objects.

LECTURE V.

the

[The beginner in Botany may omit the whole of the fifth Lecture, except
a "Directions for pronouncing the names of plants."]

Condensed view of the Natural orders of Linn&us and Jussieu.

After you have analyzed a number of plants, you will begin to observe a
striking resemblance in many genera, and your own minds will suggest the
propriety of arranging them into groups, without any reference to the artificial
class or order where they may have been placed. We thus form natural fa-
milies.

Among resemblances which give rise to natural families ; are,
1st, resemblance in seeds,
2d, in pericarps, or the envelopes of seeds,
3d, in stamens and pistils,
4th, in corollas and calyxes,
5th, in the modes of inflorescence, or the manner in which the

flowers grow together upon the stalks,
6th, in leaves,
7th, in roots and stems.

In order to form a correct idea of the natural methods of classification, it is
necessary to observe many plants, and the most constant characters of most of

* Eaton.

Synopsis of artificial classes and orders — What is necessary in order to gain
a knowledge of nature ? — Arrangement of plants into natural families — Impor-
tant resemblances which give rise to natural families.

36 NATURAL ORDERS OF LLNN^US.

their organs. To find the place of plants in the artificial classes and orders, it
is only necessary to observe the distinctions of the stamens and pistils.

You will therefore recollect that Natural Methods depend on many considera-
tions ; the Artificial System is founded on a few simple principles.

But without attempting to explain to you the peculiarities of Natural Me-
thods, we will now place before you those of Linnaeus and of Jussieu.
These you are to refer to, in your analysis of flowers, rather than to
study in regular order. The physician is chiefly conversant with the natural
characters of plants, especially with such as are connected by medicinal qual-
ities; he would say of one group, they are narcotics; of another, these are
tonics ; of another that they are refrigerants* &c.

Although the natural method is of the greatest utility, its chief use depends
on a knowledge of the artificial system, which enables us to find, in an expedi-
tious manner, the name of a plant, and then its place among the natural families
or orders.

Linmeus did not suppose his natural method could be used without the as-
sistance of the artificial system ; but he considered the former as ingrafted upon
the latter.

NATURAL ORDERS OF LINNAEUS.

1. PALM^E. Palms and their relatives ; as Cocoanut, Frog's bit. Farinace-
ous diet.

2. PIPERIT^. Pepper and its relatives. IB crowded spikes ; as Indian-
turnip, sweet flag. Tonics and stomachics.

3. CALAMARI^C. Reed-like grasses, with culms without joints ; as cat-tail,
sedge. Coarse cattle fodder.

4. GRAMINA. The proper grasses with jointed culms; as Wheat, Rye, Oats,
Timothy-grass, Indian-corn. Farinaceous diet, and cattle fodder.

5. TRIPETALOIDE^E. Corol* 3-petalled, or calyx 3-leaved; as Water-plan-
tain, Rush-grass, Arrow-head. Tonics and rough cattle fodder.

6. ENSAT.*. Liliaceous plants, with sword-form leaves ; as Iris, Blue-eyed
grass, Virginian spiderwort. Antiscorbutics and tonics.

7. ORCHIDE/E. With fleshy roots, stamens on the pistils, pollen glutinous,
flowers of singular structure, with the germ inferior ; as Ladies' slipper, Are-
thusa. Farinaceous diet and stomachics.

8. SCITAMINE.*. Liliaceous corols, stems herbaceous, leaves broad, germ
blunt-angular ; as Ginger, Turmeric. Warming stomachics.

9. SPATHACE.*. Liliaceous plants with spathes;t as Daffodil, Onion,
Snow-drop. Secernant stimulants.

10. CORONARI^E. Liliaceous plants without spathes ; as Lily, Tulip, Star-
grass. The nauseous scented and bitter are antiscorbutic and cathartic, the
others Emollient. ^

11. SARMENTACE.S. Liliaceous corols with very weak stems; as Asparagus,
Bell-wort. Tonic* and Secernant stimulants.

12. OLERACE*: or HOLERACE*:. Having flowers destitute of beauty, at
least of gay colouring; as Beet, Blight, Pig- weed, Dock, Pepperage. If nau-
seous, Cathartic ,• others, mild stimulants and nutrientics.

13. SUCCULENT.*. Plants with very thick succulent leaves ; as Prickly-
pear, House-leek, Purslane. Antiscorbutic and Emollient.

14. GRUINALES. Corpls with five petals, capsules beaked ; as Flax, Wood-
sorrel, Cranes-bill. Tomes and Refrigerants.

15. INUNDATAE. Growing under water, and having flowers destitute of
beauty ; as Hippuris, Pondweed. Astringents.

16. CALYCIFLORAE. Plants without corols, with the stamens on the ca-
lyx ; as Poet's cassia, Seed buckthorn. Astringents and Refrigerants.

* In explanation of these terms, see vocabulary.
t Or corolla. t Or spathas.

Difference between natural methods and the artificial system — The physi-
cian chiefly conversant with natural methods — The artificial system an index
to natural methods — Natural orders of Linnaeus.

NATURAL ORDERS OF LINN^US. 37

17. CALYCANTHEM^E. Calyx on the germ or growing to it, flowers beauti-
ful ; as Willow-herb, Ludwigia, OEnothera. Astringents.

18. BICORNES. Anthers with two straight horns ; as Whortleberry, spicy
and bitter Wintergreen, Laurel. Astringents.

19. HESPERIDES. Sweet-scented, leaves evergreen; as Myrtle, Cloves,
Mock-orange. Astringent and stomachic.

20. ROTACE./E. Corols wheel-form ; as Gentian, St. John's wort. Tonics.

21. PRECISE. Plants with early spring flowers, of an elegant, shewy ap-
pearance; as Primrose. Astringents.

22. CARYOPHYLLE^E. Plants with caryophyllous corols; as Pink, Cockle.
Astringent and Secernant stimulants.

23. TRIHILATJE. Flowers with 3 stigmas, capsules inflated and winged,
and generally three-seeded with distinct hilums ; as Nasturtion, Horse-chesnut.
Tonics and -Nutrientics.

24. CORYDALES. Corols spurred or anomalous; as Fumitory, Touch-me-
not. Narcotic and Antiscorbutic.

25. PUTAMINEAE. Plants which bear shell-fruit ; as Caperbush. Detergent
and Antiscorbutic.

26. MuLTisiLiQiLiE. Having several pod-form capsules to each flower;
as Columbine, Larkspur, Rue, American cowslip. Cathartic and Caustic.

27. RIICEADEAE. Plants wilh caducous calyxes, , and capsules or siliques;
as Poppy, Blcod-root, Celandine. Anodyne and Antiscorbutic.

28. LURIDAE. Corols lurid, mostly monopetalous ; flowers Pentandrous, or
Didynamous with capsules ; as Tobacco, Thorn-apple, Night-shade, Fox-glove.
Narcotic and Antiscorbutic.

29. CAMPANACEAE. Having bell-form corols, or those whose general aspect
is somewhat bell-form ; as Morning-glory, Bell-flower, Violet, Cardinal flower.
Cathartics and Secernant stimulants.

30. CONTORTS. Corols twisted or contorted; as Milk- weed, Periwinkle,
Choak-dog. Cathartics and Antiscorbutics.

31. VEPRECUL,*:. Having monophyllous calyxes, coloured like corols ; as
Leatherwood, Thesium. Antiscorbutic and Emetic.

32. PAPILONACE^E Having papilionaceous flowers ; as Peas, Beans, Locust-
tree, Clover. Emollient, Nutrientic.

33. LOMENTACE.E. Having legumes or loments, but not perfect papiliona-
ceous flowers ; as Cassia, Sensitive plant. Emollient, Astringent, Cathartic.

34. CucuRBiTACEjE. Fruit pompion-like, anthers mostly united ; as Me-
lons, Cucumbers, Passion-flower. Cathartic and Refrigerant.

35.''SENTicos.E. Prickly or hairy, with Polypetalous corols and a number
of seeds either naked or slightly covered; as Rose, Raspberry, Strawberry.
Astringent and Refrigerant.

36. POMACE^E. Having many stamens on the calyx, and drupaceous or po-
maceous fruit ; as Pear, Currant, Cherry, Peach. Refrigerants.

37. COLUMNIFER^E. Stamens united in the form of a column; as Holly-
hock, Mallows, Cotton. Emollient.

38. TRICOCC^E. Having 3-celled capsules ; as Castor-oil plant, Spurge,
Box. Cathartic.

39. SiLiciuosvE. Having silique pods ; as Cabbage, Mustard, Shepherd-
purse. Antiscorbutic, Nutrientic.

40. PERSONATE. Having personate corols; as Snapdragon, Monkey-
flower. Deobstruents and Cathartics.

41. AspERiFOLiiE. Corqls monopetalous, with 5 stamens, seeds 4, naked,
leaves rough ; as Comfrey, Stone-seed, (lithospermum.) Astringents and De-
obstruents.

42. VERTICILLAT^;. Having Labiate flowers ; as Sage, Thyme, Catmint,
Motherwort. Stomachics nnd Astringents.

43. DUMOS^E. Bushy pithy plants with small flowers, petals in 4 or 5 divi-
sions ; as Sumach, Eldfr, Holly. Tonic, and Cathartic.

44. SEPIARI*. Having mostly tubular divided corols with few stamens ;
being ornamental shrubs ; as Lilac, Jasmine. Astringent.

45. UMBELLATE. Flowers in umbels with 5-petalled corols, stamens 5,
styles 2, and 2 naked seeds ; as Fennel, Dill, Carrot, Poison-hemlock. Sto~
machic and Narcotic,

38 NATURAL ORDERS OF LINN.EUS.

46. HEDERACEJS. Corols 5-cleft, stamens 5 to 10. fruit berry-like on a com-
pound raceme ; as Grape, Ginst-ni:, Spikenard. Tonics and Refrigerants.

47. STELLATE. Corols 4-rldi, st:unc>ns 4, seeds 2, naked, leaves mostly
whorled ; as Bedstraw, Dogwood, Venus' pride. Tonics and Deobstruents .

48. AGGREGATE. Having aggregate flowers; as Button-bush, Marsh-rose-
mary. Tonics and Secernant stimulant*.

49. COMPOSITE. All the compound flowers; as Sun-flower, Boneset, Tan-
aey, Thistle. Tonics and Secernant stimulants.

50. AMENTACE^E. Bearing pendant amenta ; as Hazle, Oak, Chesnut, Wil-
low. Astringents.

51. CONIFERS. Bearing strobiles ; as Pine, Juniper, Cedar. Tonics and
Stomachics.

52. CoADUNAT^i. Several berry-like pericarps, which are adnate ; as Tu-
lip-tree, Magnolia. Tonics.

53. SCABRID.E. Leaves rough, flowers destitute of beauty ; as Nettle,
Hemp, Hop, Elm. Astringents.

54. MISCELLANKJE. Plants not arranged by any particular character ; as
Pond-lily, Poke-weed, Amaranth. Their qualities are various.

55. FILICES. All ferns ; as Brakes, Maiden-hair. Secernant stimulant*.

56. Musci. All mosses; as Polytrichum. Cathartics and Secernant sti-
mulants.

57. ALGJE. All Liverworts, Lichens and Sea- weeds ; as Jungermannia,
Fucus, Usnea. Tonics.

58. FUNGI. All funguses ; as Mushroom, Toad-stool, Puff-ball, Touchwood,
Mould. Tonics and Cathartics:'*

General Divisions of Jussieu.

The natural orders of Jussieu are arranged under the three following gene-
ral divisions, according to distinctions observed in the seed ; viz. into Acotyle-
donousj MonocotyledonousJ and Dicotyledonous* plants.

First Division.

The Acotyledonous plants correspond to the class Cryptogamia.ofthe arti-
ficial system.

Second Division.

The Monocotyledonous plants are divided into three classes characterised,
by the insertion of the stamens ; the 1st has the stamens hyp<>gynous, or under
the pistil ; as the grasses, &c. ; the 2d has the stamens perilous, or around
the pistil ; as the palms, &c. ; the 3d has the stamens epigynous, or upon the
pistil ; as the orchis, &c.

Third Division.

The Dicotyledonous plants are ten times more numerous than tho two pre-
ceding divisions ; the different classes are here arranged as in the other cases
with reference to the absence of the corolla, its presence, and the number of
petals. These plants are divided into four sections, as follows.

The first section Apetalous (wanting petals) is divided into three classes.
1st. Comprehends all dicotyledonous plants destitute of a corolla, which have

the stamens epigynous ; as wild ginger.
2d, Comprehends all dicotyledonous plants destitute of a corolla, which have

the stamens perigynous ; as dock, &c.
3d, Comprehends all dicotyledonous plants destitute of a corolla, which have

the stamens hypogynous ; as plantain, «fcc.
The second section, Monopetalous, is divided into four classes.
1st, Comprehends all dicotyledonous, monopetalous plants, which have the

stamens hypogynous ; as milkweed, &c.

*The preceding synopsis of artificial classes and orders, together with the
natural orders of Linnaeus, are quoted from Eaton, by permission,
t See these terms in the vocabulary.

Three general divisions of plants by Jussieu— Acotyledonous, Monocotyledo-
nous, how divided— Dicotyledonous, how divided— First section, into how
many classes divided — Second section, how divided.

GENERAL DIVISIONS OF JUSSIEU.

39

2d, Differs from the first only in having the stamens perigynous ; as the win-

tergreen, &c.
3d, Differs from the two preceding, in having stamens epigynous, and antherg

united ; as lettuce, &c.

4th, Differs from the third only in having the anthers separate ; as the elder, &c.
The third section, Polypetalous, is divided into three classes.
1st, Stamens epigynous : as, umbellate flowers.
2d, Stamens hypogynous ; as cruciform flowers.
3d, Stamens perigynous ; as the rose, &c.
The fourth section anomalous, contains the 15th and last class of Jussieu.

This class contains the melon, hop, oak, &c. ; it corresponds to the classes,
Monoecia and Dioecia, in the artificial system.

These fifteen classes are divided into 100 families or orders.

Names.

1. Fungi,

2. Algae,

3. Hepaticae,

4. Musci,

5. Filices,

6. Naiades,

7. Aroideae,1

8. Typhae, .

9. Cyperoicleae,

10. Gramineae,

11. Palmae,

12. Asparagi,

13. Junci,

14. Liliaceae,

15. Bromeliae,

16. Asphodeli,

17. Narcissi,

18. Irides,

19. Musae,.

20. Cannae,

21. Orchidae,

NATURAL FAMILIES OF JUSSIEU.

ACOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS.

CLASS I.

Examples.
Mushroom, mould,
Lichen, conferva,
Brook liverwort,
Proper mosses,
Brakes, polypod,
Duck meat,

Properties.

Tonic if dry, narcotic if juicy.
Tonic some used in dyeing.
Tonic, refrigerant.
Tonic, rarely cathartic.
Secernant stimulants.
Astringent.

22. Hydrocharides, Tape grass,

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS.

CLASS II. Stamens below the pistil.
Wild turnip, Warming, stomachic & antispasmodic.

Cat tail, Weak tonic.

Sedge grass, Tonic, coarse cattle fodder.

Timothy grass, Tonic, farinaceous, cattle fodder.

CLASS III. Stamens surrounding the pistil.
Date, cocoanut, Weak tonic, farinaceous.
Solomon seal, Secernant stimulant, mild tonic.

Sweet flag, Secernant stimulant, antiscorbutic.

Tulip, addertongue, Emollient, weak secernant stimulant.
Pine apple, Refrigerant.

Onion, hyacinth, Expectorant, tonic, cathartic.
Daffodil, Weak tonic, emollient.

Iris, blue-eyed grass, Antiscorbutic, tonic.

CLASS IV. Stamens on thepistil.
Bread-tree, 'Tonic.

Ginger, Warming stomachic.

Ladies' slipper, Emollient, stomachic, farinaceous.

Weak tonic.

DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS.

Section first, flowers apetalous.
CLASS V. Stamens on the germ.

23. Aristolochiae, Wild ginger, Tonic, warming stomachic.

CLASS VI. Stamens surrounding the germ.

24. Aeleagni,
25. Thymeleae,
26. Proteae,
27. Lauri,
28. Polygoneae,
29. Atriplices,

Pepperage tree,
Leather-wood,
Silver tree,
Sassafras,
Dock, rhubarb,
Beet, pokeweed,

Weak tonic.
Mild emetic, antiscorbutic.
Weak tonic.
Secernant stimulant, stomachic.
Mild cathartic, antiscorbutic.
Aperient, cathartic.

Third section — Fourth section — Jussieu's fifteen classes, into how many
families or orders divided.

40

NATURAL FAMILIES OF JUSSIEU.

Names.

30. Amaranthi,

31. Plantaginea,

32. Nyctagines,

33. PJumbagines,

34. Lysimachiae, Loosestrife,

35. Pediculares, Snakeroot,

36. Acanthi,

37. Jaamineae,

38. Vitices,

39. Labiatae,

40. Scrophulariae, Foxglove,

41. Solaneae,

42. Boragineae,

43. Convolvuli,

44. Polemonia,

45. Bignoniae,

46. Gentianae,

47. Apocyneae,
43. Sapotae,

CLASS VII. Stamens below the germ.

Examples. Properties.

Cock's comb, Weak tonic, secernant stimulant.

Plantain, Emollitnf.

Four o'clock, Cathartic, emetic.

Sea-lavender, Cathartic, tonic.

Section second. Flowers monoprtulous.

CLASS VIII. Corollas below the germ.

Weak tonic, secernant stimulant.
Tonic, nit fiurtir.
Emollient, weak tonic.
Tonic, secernant stimul'int.
Deobstruent, secernant stimulant.
Secernant stimulant, stowm-fiic, tonic.
Narcotic, absorbent, deobstrm ,,t.

Malabar nut,
Ash, lilac,
Vervain,
Sage, catnip,

Red pepper, henbane, Narcotic, cat hartic, warming, stomachic.

Astringent, vulnerary, emollient.

Cathartic.

Feeble tonic.

Cathartic, narcotic.

Cathartic, tonic.

Cathartic, narcotic, deobstruent.

( •aftiurtir, nut) spasmodic.

58. Caprifolia,

Comfrey,
Jalap, dodder,
Lichnidia,
Snake-head,
Caroline Pink,
Milkweed,
Sour sop,
CLASS IX. Corollas surrounding the germ.

49. Guaiacanae, Lignum vita, Tonic, warming, stomachic.

50. Rhododendra, Laurel, Tonic, narcotic.

51. Ericae, Wintergreen, Tonic, astringent, refrigerant.
52.Carapanulaceae,Lobelia, Cathartic, emetic, deobstruent.

CLASS X. CoroUas on the germ — anthers united.
63. Cichoraceae, Lettuce, endive, Aperient, mild anodyne.

54. Cinarocephalae,Th stle, burdock, Tonic, if nauseous, cathartic.

55. Corymbiferae, Boneset, fleabane, Tonic, secernant stimulant.

CLASS XI. Corollas on the germ — anthers separate.

56. Dipsaceae, Button bush, teasel, Weak tonic.

57. Rubiaceae, Bedstraw,venus pride, Weak tonic, aperient.

Elder, dogwood, Tonic, cathartic if nauseous.
Section third. Flowers polypetalous.
CLASS XII. Stamens on the germ.

59. Araliae, Ginseng, spikenard, Tonic, expectorant.

60. Umbelliferae, Cicuta, fennel, Stomachic, narcotic, if nauseous.

CLASS XIII. Stamens below the germ.

61. Ranunculaceae,Crowfoot,goldthread,Mzrco<ic, astringent.

62. Papaveraceae, Bloodroot, poppy, ' Narcotic, anodyne.

63. Cruciferae, Radish, cabbage, Emollient, stomachic.

Cleom 3, mignonette, Aperient, narcotic, if nauseous.

Soap-berry, Emollient.

Maple tree, Aperient.

Barbadoes cherry, Aperient.

John's wort, sundew, TOTU'C, vulnerary.

Misseltos-rose, Expectorant, secernant stimulant.

Orange, lemon, Tonic, refrigerant.

Tea, Astringent, anodyne.

Grape, [um, Astringent, refrigerant.

Wood-sorrel, gerani- Tonic, refrigerant, narcotic if nauseous

Hollyhock, Emollient, aperient.

White wood, Tonic, aperient.

Custard apple, Tonic, aperient.

Moonssed, Feeble narcotic.

Witch hazel, Astringent, refrigerant.

64. Cappnrides,

65. Sapindi,

66. Acera,

67. Malpighiae,
63. Hyperica,

69. Guttiferae,

70. Aurantia,

71. Miliae,

72. Vites,

73. Gerania,

74. Malvaceae,

75. Magnoliae,

76. Annonae,

77. Msnispsrma,

78. Berberides,

DIRECTIONS FOR PRONOUNCING. 41

Names. Examples. Properties.

79. Tiliaceae, Basswood, Emollient, aperient.

8D. Cisti, Rock-rose, violet, Tonic.

81. Rutaceae, Rue, Caustic, narcotic.

82. Caryophillae, Pink, flax, Emollient, aperient.

CLASS XIV. Stamens surrounding the germ.

83. Sempervivae, Houseleek, live-forever, Emollient, vulnerary.

84. Saxitragae, Saxifrege, currant leaf, Tonic.

85. Cacti, Prickly pear, currant, Refrigerant, emollient, tonic.

86. Portulacceae, Purslane, Emollient, vulnerary,

87. Ficoideae, Ice plant, Emollient, refrigerant.
83. Onagrae, Scabish, Tonic, aperient.

89. Myrti, Mock orange, Tonic.

90. Melastomae, Deer-grass, Feeble tonic.

91. Salicariae, Willow herb, Deobstruent, cathartic,

92. Rosaceae, Apple, rose, peach, Refrigerant, tonic, astringent.

93. Leguminosae, Cassia, pea, clover, Aperient, emollient.

94. Terebintaceae, Sumach, butternut, Cathartic, emetic, narcotic.

95. Rhamni, Winter berry, Jersey tea, Cathartic, tonic.

Section fourth. Diclinious or anomalous.
CLASS XV. Flowers mostly apetalous.

96. Euphobeae, Castot bean, Cathartic, mild emetic.

97. Cucurbitaceae, Cucumber, melon, Cathartic, refrigerant.
93. Urticae, Hop, hemp, fig, Tonic, anodyne.

99. Amentaceae, Oak, willow, elm, Astringent ionic, emollient.

100. Coniferae, Pine tree, cedar, Expectorant, secernant stimulant.
We1 shall, in considering more fully the principles of classification, hereafter

remark on the comparative merits of the most important methods of botanical
arrangement. As our object at this time is to prepare you for the analysis of
plants, it may be well to give you a few simple rules for pronouncing their
names, which, being derived from foreign languages, cannot be accented or
divided like analogous English words.

DIRECTIONS FOR PRONOUNCING THE NAMES OP PLANTS.

BOTANICAL names of plants are formed according to the anal-
ogies of the ancient languages, chiefly the Latin. Some of the
most common terminations of names of Genera and Species,
area, um, us, and is; for example, the generic names, GERAR-
DIA, TRIFOLIUM, pRUNus, and IRIS ; and the specific names,
virginica, candidum, blandus, and officinalis. A great propor-
tion of Botanical names terminate in a, in which case it has the
sound of a in father, as Rosa, Viola, &c.

The letter e at the end of a word is always to be sounded ;
for example, anemone, pronounced anem'-o-ne.

The e is long before s when it ends a word, as Bicor'nes.

In words that end in ides, the i is long, as in Hesper'ides.

The vowels ae and oe are often used as dipthongs, and then
have the sound of e, as Hepaticse, pronounced He-pat'i-ce, and

Di-oecia, pronounced' Di-e-cia.

C and g, as in English, are soft before e, i, and y, and hard

Botanical names, how formed ? — What syllables do they often terminate in ?
— a at the end of words — e, when sounded ? — When long ? — i in ides — The
vowels ae and oe — c and g.

4*

42 METHOD OF ANALYSIS,

before a, o, and w. The soft sound of c is like 5, the hard sound
like k. The soft sound ofg is like j, the hard sound like g in
the word gave; thus Algae is pronounced Al-je.

Musci Mus-si.

The letters ch are hard like k, as in Orchis; pronounced
Or-kis.

LECTURE VI.

Method of analyzing plants by a series of comparisons. — Gene-
ral remarks upon plants. — Method of preserving Plants for
an Herbarium. — Poisonous Plants, and those which are not
poisonous.

WHEN we dissect a plant, or examine separately each of its
organs, this is properly analysis; for the meaning of the word
analysis is a separation; but when we speak of finding out
plants by analyzing them, we mean something more than ex-
amining each part of the flower; this is indeed the first step in
the process ; but by means of observing these organs, we are
to ascertain the Class, Order, Genus, and lastly the Species of
the plant. " A person engaged in ascertaining the myne of a
plant, may be said to be upon a BotanicalJourney, and the plant
being his Directory ; if he can read the botanical characters
impressed on it by the hand of Nature, he will, .by following
system, soon arrive at his journey's end."*

In the first place we have two comparisons to make.

1st. Whether the Stamens and Pistils are VISIBLE; or,

2nd. Whether they are INVISIBLE.

IF the Stamens and Pistils are not visible, we have already
arrived at the class which is CRYPTOGAMIA.

If, however, the Stamens and Pistils are visible, we have
now two comparisons to make.

1st. Whether the Stamens and Pistils are enclosed in the
same corolla ; or,

2nd. Whether the Stamens and Pistils are placed on differ-
ent corollas.

If the Stamens and Pistils are on different flowers, we then
shall find oupplant either in the class Di&cia, or Moncecia ; ac-
cording as the Stamens and Pistils are on different flowers, pro-
ceeding from the same root, or from different roots.
* Thornton.

The letters ch — Meaning of the word analysis — How used in botany — What
two comparisons to be first made in analyzing a plant — When the stamens and
pistils are visible.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS. , 43

But if our plant has the Stamens and Pistils both enclosed in
the same corolla, we must next examine,
i 1st. Whether the Anthers are separate, or,

2nd. ^Whether the Anthers are united.

If we find^rue anthers united around the pistil, we have found
the class of our plant ; it is SYNGENESIA.

If the Anthers are separate, we must proceed to a. fourth stage,
and see,

1st. Whether the filaments are separate, or,

2nd. Whether the filaments are united with each other, or,

3d. Whether the filnments are united to the pistil..

If the latter circumstance is ascertained, we need search no
farther ; our plant is in the class GYNANDRIA.

If the flower has not the filamenjs united to the pistil, we
must ascertain if the filaments are united with each other ; if
they are so, and in two parcels or sets, the flower is in the class

DlADELPHIA, but,

If in one parcel or set, it is in the class MONADELPHIA.

But if the filaments are separate, we must next examine,

1st. iWhetherthese are similar in length, or,

2nd. Whether they are of different lengths.

(Of different lengths, those only which have four or six sta-
mens are to be regarded.) „

If we find our flower has six stamens, four long and two short,
we need go no farther, this is the class TETRADYNAMIA.

If the flower has four stamens, two long, and two short, it is
in the class DYDYNAMIA.

If, our flower comes under none of the foregoing heads, we
must then count the number of stamens; if these amount to
more than ten, we must then consider their insertion, as,

1st. Whether inserted on the calyx or corolla, or,

2nd. Whether inserted on the Receptacle.

If we find the Stamens inserted on the Receptacle, the flow-
er is in the class POLYANDRIA ; but if on the Calyx or Corolla, it
is in ICOSANDRIA.

If our flower has less than twenty stamens, with none of the
peculiarities above mentioned, of connexion, position, or length,
we have only to count the number of stamens in order to be
certain of the class ; if there are ten stamens, it is in DECAN-
DRIA; and so on through the nine remaining classes. This is
the true analytical process ; but when we put plants together to

When the stamens and pistils are inclosed in the same corolla what is next to
be considered — When the anthers are separate what must be observed — If the
filaments are separate what must be observed ? — If the flower has not stamens
of unequal length, what is to be observed ? — When is the flower in one of the
first ten classes ? — Difference between analysis and synthesis.

44 GENERAL FACTS RELATING TO VEGETABLES.

form a species, and species together to form a genus, and gene-
ra together to form an order, and orders together to form a class,
we then proceed in the way of Synthesis, which means putting
v together.

General Facts Relating to Vegetables.

Plants are furnished with pores, by which they imbibe nour-
ishment from surrounding bodies. Tin- part which fixes the
plant in the earth, and absorbs from it the juices necessary to
vegetation, is the root ; this organ is never wanting.

The stem proceeds from the root, sometimes it creeps upon
the earth, or remains concealed in its bosom; but generally the
stem ascends either by its own strength, or, as in the case of
vines, by supporting itself upon some other body. The divi-
sions of the stem are its branches ; the division of the branches
are its bough*. When the vegetable has no stem, the flower
and fruit grow from the tops of the root ; but when the stem
exists, that or its branches bear the leaves, flowers, and fruits.
Herbs have generally soft, watery stems of short duration,
which bear flowers once, and then die.

Trees and shrubs have solid and woody stems ; they live and
bear flowers many years.

Small bodies, of a round or conical form, consisting of thin
scales, lying closely compacted together, appear every year
upon the stems, the boughs, and the branches of trees. They
contain the germs of the productions of the following years,
and secure them from the severity of the seasons. These
germs, and the scales which cover them, are called buds.
The buds of the trees and shrubs of equinoctial countries, have
few scales, as they are less needed for protection against in-
clemencies of weather.

- Leaves like flowers proceed from buds; the former are the
lungs of vegetables ; they absorb water and carbonic acid from
the atmosphere, decompose them by the action of rays of li^ht
and exhale or give out oxygen gas. They are usually con-
nected at the base by a kind of stem called a pvtiolt •. and an?
sometimes accompanied by stipules, appendages similar to lit-
tle leaves.

Vegetables, like animals, produce others of their kind, and
thus perpetuate the works of creation. The organs essential
to the perfection of plants, are the stamens and pistils. Those
plants in which the stamens and pistils are manifest, are called
Phenogamous ; where these are rather suspected than demon-
strated to exist, they are called Cryptogamous. The presence

The Root — Stem — Branches — Boughs — Herbs — Trees and shrubs — Buds —
Leaves — Phenogamous and Cryptogaraous plants.

HERBARIUM. 45

.

of a stamen and pistil constitutes a perfect flower ; but in gen-
eral these organs are surrounded with an envelope called the
corolla, and an outer one called the calyx. Persons ignorant'
of botany give exclusively the name of flower to these en-
velopes, which are often remarkable for the brilliancy of their
colours, the elegance of their forms, and the fragrance of
their perfumes.

Method of preserving plants, and of preparing an herbarium.
PLANTS collected for analysis, may be preserved fresh many days, in a close
tfn box, by occasionally sprinkling them with water; they may also be preserv-
ed by placing their stems in WR' r, but not as well by the latter, as the former
method. While attending to the science of Botany, you should keep specimens
of all the plants you can procure. An herbarium neatly arranged is beautiful,
and may be rendered highly useful, by affording an opportunity to compare
many species together, and it likewise serves to fix in the mind the characters
of plants. It is a good method in collecting nlants for an herbarium, to have
a port-folio, or a book in which they may be placed before the parts begin to
wilt. Specimens should be placed between the leaves of paper, either news-
paper or any other kind which is of a loose texture, and will easily absorb the
moisture of the plants ; aboard with a weight upon it should then be placed
upon the paper containing them ; the plants should be taken out frequently at
first ; as often as once or twice a day and the paper dried, or the plants placed
between other dry leaves. Small plants may be dried between the leaves of a
book.

Plants differ in the length of time required for drying as they are more or less
juicy ; some dry in a few days, others not sooner than two or three weeks.
When the specimens are dry and a sufficient number collected to commence
an herbarium, a book should be procured, composed of blank paper, (white pa-
per gives the plants a more showy appearance.) A quarto size is more con-
venient than a larger one ; upon the first page of each leaf should be fastened
one or more of the dried specimens, either with glue or by means of cutting
through the paper, and raising up loops under which the stems may be placed.
By the sides of the plants should be written the class, order, generic, and spe~
cijic name ; also, the place where found, and the season of the year. The col-
ours of plants frequently change in drying : the blue, pale red, and white, often
turn black, or lose their colour ; yellow, scarlet, violet and green, are more du-
rable. An herbarium should be carefully guarded against moisture and insects ;
as a security against the latter, the plants may be brushed over with cor-
rosive-sublimate.

As a healthful and agreeable exercise, we would recommend frequent botanical
excursions ; you will experience more pleasure from the science, by seeing the
flowers in their own homes : a dry groveof woods, the borders of little streams,
the meadows, the pastures, and even the way-sides will -afford you constant
subjects for botanical observations. To the hardier sex, who can climb moun-
tains, and penetrate marshes, many strange and interesting plants will prpsent
themselves, which cannot be found except in their peculiar situations ; of these
you must be content to obtain specimens, without seeing them in their native
wilds You will no doubt easily obtain such specimens, for there is, usually,
among the cultivators of natural science, a generosity in affording assistance
to others, arid imparting the treasures which nature lavishes upon those who
have a taste to enjoy them.

Poisonous Plants and those which are not poisonous. '

Tn collecting flowers, you should be cautious with respect to poisonous plants.
Suchas have five stamens and one pistil, with a corolla of adull, lurid colour, and
a disagreeable smell, are usually poisonous ; the Thorn apple (stramonium) and

Method of preserving plants, and of preparing an herbarium — Botanical ex-
cursions— Poisonous plants.

46 GENERAL REMARKS.

the Tobacco are examples. The Umbelliferous plants, which grow in wet pla-
ces, have usually a nauseous smell : such plants are poisonous, as the Water
hemlock. Umbelliferous plants which grow in dry places, usually have an
aromatic smell, and are not poisonous, as Caraway and Fennel

Plants with Labiate corollas, and containing their seeds in capsules, arc often
poisonous, as the Foxglove ; (Digitalis ;) also, such as contain a milky juia , un-
less they are compound flowers. Such plants as have homed or hooded nec-
taries, as the Columbine and Monk's-hood, are mostly poisonous.

Among plant* which are seldom poisonous, are the compound flowers, as
the Dandelion and Boneset; such as have labiate corollas, \\iih seeds lying na-
ked in the calyx, are said, never to be poisonous ; the Mint and Thyme are ex-
amples of such plants. The Papilionaceous flowers, as the pea and bean ? the
Cruciform, as the radish and mustard, are seldom found to be poisonous. Such
plants as have their stamens standing on the calyx, as the Rose and applo, are
never poisonous ; neither the grass-like plants with glume calyxes, aa Wheat,
Rye, and Orchard grass, (Dactylis.)

Proper Flowers for Analysis.

In selecting flowers for analysis, you musljiever take double ones; the ?ta-
raens (and in many cases the pistils also) change to petals by cultivation, there-
fore you cannot know by adouble flower, how many stamens or pistils belong
to it in its natural state. Botanists M-.-IU to view n.s a kind of sacrilege, the
changes, made by culture, in the natural characters of plants ; they call the
double flowers, and the variegated ones, produced by a mixture of different
species, monsters and deformities. These are harsh expressions to be applied
to Roses and Carnations, which our taste must lead us to admire, as intrinsical-
ly beautiful, although their relative beauty, as subservient to scientific illu>t ra-
tion, is certainly destroyed by the labour of the florist. The love of native
wild Howrrs is no doubt greatly heigtened by the habit of seeking them out,
and observing them in their peculiar situations ; a Botanist at the discovery of
some lowly plant, growing by the side of a brook, or almost concealed in the
cleft of a rock, will often experience a more vivid delight than could be produ-
ced by a view of the most splendid exotic. Botanical pursuits render us inter-
ested in every vegetable production ; even such as we before looked upon as
useless, present attractions, as objects of scientific investigation, and become
associated with the pleasing recollections, arising from the gratification of our
love of knowledge. A peculiar interest is given to conversation by an ac-
quaintance with any of the natural sciences ; and when females shall have
more generally obtained access to these delightful sources of pure enjoyment,
we may hope that scandal, which oftener proceeds from a want of better subjects
than malevolence .of disposition, shall cease to be regarded as a charaeteristic
of our sex. It is important to the cause of science, that it should become./^A-
ivnuhle; and as one means of affecting this, the parlours of those ladies, who
have advantages for intellectual improvement, should more frequently exhibit
spei-imens of their own scientific taste. All the fashionable*/ iv/miNot'
books, engravings and albums, do not reflect upon their possessors any ::r. .u
degree of credit To paste pictures, or pieces of prose or poetry, into a book ;
or to collect in an album the wit and good sense of others, are not proofs <>f
one's own acquirements ; and the possession of elegant and curious enirravintrs,
indicates a full purse, rather than a well stored mind ; but fctfffamMtt and books
of inijH, -xsiniimi/ , -Aunti*,* drawings &c. show the taste, and knowledge of those
who execute them.

* MANNER OF TAKING IMPRESSIONS OF LEAVES. — Hold Oiled paper OVCr

the smoke of a lamp until it becomes darkened ; to this paper, apply the leaf,
having previously warmed it between the hands, that it may be pliant. Place
the lower surface of the leaf upon the blackened paper, that the numerous
veins which run through its extent, and which are so prominent on this side,
may receive from the paper, a portion of the smoke. Press the leaf upon the

Plants seldom poisonous — Double flowers not proper for analysis — Effect of
Botanical pursuits — Of an acquaintance with any of the natural sciences.

GENERAL REMARKS. 47

It is unfortunately too much the case, that female ingenuity, (especially in the
case of young ladies after leaving school) is in a great degree, directed to trivi-
al objects, which have no reference either to utility, or to moral and intellec-
tual improvement. But a taste for scientific pursuits once acquired, a lady
will feel that she has no time for engagements, which neither tend to the good
of others, or to make herself wiser or better.

paper, by placing upon it^some thin paper and rubbing the fingers gently over
it, so that every part of the leaf may come in contact with the sooted oil paper.
Then remove the leaf, and place the sooted side upon clean white paper, press-

ing it gently as before ; upon removing the leaf, the paper will present a deli-
cate and perfect outline, together with an accurate exhibition of the veins
which extend in every direction through it, more correct and beautiful than the
finest drawing.

Female ingenuity too often directed to trivial objects.

PART II.

LECTURE VII.

Importance of observing external objects. — Vegetables consist of
two sets of organs. — Of the root. — The stem.

THE exercises which constitute the principal part of our pre-
vious course of lectures, are chiefly designed to assist you in
practical botany. It is not expected that you are to be the .
passive receivers of instruction, but that you are to compare
with real objects, the descriptions which are presented ; by do-
ing this faithfully, you will find your minds gradually strength,
ened, and more competent to compare and judge in abstract
studies, where the subjects of investigation are in the mind on-
ly, and cannot, like the plants, be looked at with the eyes and
handled with the hands.

All our thoughts, by means of the senses, are originally de-
rived from external objects. Suppose an infant to exist who
could neither hear, see, taste, smell, nor feel ; all the embryos
of thought and emotion might exist within it; it might have a
soul capable of as high attainments as are within the reach of
any created beings; but this soul, while thus imprisoned, could
gather rio ideas; the beauty of re fleeted light, constituting all the
variety of colouring ; the harmony of sounds, the fragrant odors
of flowers, the various flavors, which are derived from our
sense of taste, the ideas of soft, smooth, or hard ; all these ideas
must forever remain unknown to the soul confined to a body
having no means of communication with the world around it.
The soul, in its relation to external objects, may be compared
to the embryo plant, which, imprisoned within the seed, would
forever remain inert, were no means provided for its escape
from this confinement, and no communication opened between it
and the air, the light, and vivifying influence of the earth.

Since our first ideas are derived from external nature is it
not a rational conclusion that we should add to this original

Study of external objects strengthens the mind — Abstract studies facilitated
by acquaintance with the natural sciences — Our first ideas gained by the senses
—Analogy between the soul and the embryo plant.

ORGANS OF PLANTS.

49

stock of knowledge, by a continued observation of objects ad-
dressed to our senses? After the years of infancy are past, and
we begin to study books, should we, neglecting sensible objects,
seek only to gain ideas from the learned ; or in other words,
shall we in the pursuit of human sciences, overlook the works
of God?

Having now enabled you to understand the method of analy-
sing plants, we shall proceed to consider more fully the different
organs of plants, with the uses of each, in the vegetable econ-
omy.

In plants, as well as animals, each part or organ, is intimate-
ly connected with the whole ; and the vegetable, as well as the
animal being depends for its existence on certain laws of or-
ganization.

We shall consider the vegetable organs under two classes ;
the first including such organs as promote the growth of the
plant ; the second such as perfect the seed, and thus provide for
the reproduction of the species.

1st. The Root, or descending part.

2nd. The Stem, which elevates and sustains the

branches.

3d. The Leaves, which are the lungs of plants,
inhaling nutritious gases, and exhaling such as
are not needed for the growth of the plant.
4th. The appendages, as leafets, tendrils, thorns,
&c.

1st. The Calyx, or outer part of the flower.

2d. The Corolla, or coloured blossoms within the
Calyx, or enclosing the stamens.

3d. The Stamens, organs surrounding the cen-
tral one.

4th. The Pistil, central organ.

5th. The Pericarp, covering the seed.

6th. The Seed, the essential part ,which contains
the rudiments of a new plant.

7th. The Receptacle, or base of the flower, being

the end of the flower stem.
The parts above enumerated consist of subdivisions, as may
be seen in the following table.

We should not confine our attention exclusively to books — Vegetable as well
as animal existence depends on certain laws of organization— Two kinds of or-
gans of vegetables— The first set of organs — The second set.

5

Organs which
promote the
growth of the
plant.

Organs which
perfect the
seed.

50

SYNOPSIS OF ORGANS OF PLANTS.

THE BOOT. $ CaU*ef>

1 radicles,

t branches,

THE STEM. 1 petioles,

( peduncles,

Organs of nu-

THE BUD. ) scales,

trition^ parts

s

necessary to <
the growth of

THE LEAF. 5 leafets,

the plant.

stipules,

prickles,

thorns,

glands,

APPENDAGES. \ ""*»'

scales,

tendrils,

pubescence,

. bracts.

CALYX divisions are called leaves.

COROLLA divisions are called petals.

C sometimes apart of tte corolla,

Organs of re-

NECTARY <
f sometimes a separate organ.

production, or
parts of fruc-
tification.

THE FLOWER.

^tes.<f*i

1

£ f/igma,

[

PISTIL < %Ze,
( ovary or germ. { ™ules.
Containing oil parts

oj the fruit which

are not the seed,

•

PERICARP < cells,

valves,

-

THE FRUIT.

dissepiments,
. columella.

(hilum,

albumen,

cotyledons,

embryo. — ^ radicle.

-

\ plume.

Parts of the root— Of the stem— Of the bud— Of the leaf— Appendages—
Parts of the calyx— Of the corolla— What is the nectary ?— Parts of the stamen
—Of the pistil— What is the pericarp ?— Parts of the pericarp— Parts of the
«eed— Parts of the embryo.

OF THE ROOT. 51

Of the Root.

The root (radix) is that part of the vegetable which enters
the earth, and extends in a direction contrary to the growth
of the stem ; it supports the plant in an upright position, and at
the same time gives nourishment to every part of it. There
are exceptions to the general fact, of a root being fixed in the
ground ; some plants, as the pond-lily, grow in water, and are
called aquatic, (from aqua, water,) some, like the misletoe, have
no root, but fix themselves upon other plants, and derive suste-
nance from them ; such are called parasites.*

The Root consists of two parts, the Caudex, or main body of
the root, and the Radicle, or fibres; these are a kind of capilla-
ry or hair-like tubes, which absorb the nourishment that is con-
veyed to other parts of the plant. This nourishment ascend-
ing by the action of the air, experiences in the leaves and green
parts of the plant, an important change ; and a part of it,
through a different set of vessels, flows back, in what is called
the returning sap or cambium.

Between the Caudex and stem is a point, sometimes called the
rootstock which is considered as of peculiar importance; any in-
jury to this part being followed by the death of the plant.
Duration of Roots.

Roots with respect to duration are, annual, biennial or peren-
nial.

Annual roots — are such as live but one year. They come
from the seed in the spring, and die in autumn, including such
as are raised from the seed every year : as peas, beans, cucum-
bers, &c.

Biennial roots — are such as live two years. They do not
produce any flowers the first season, the next summer they blos-
som, the seeds mature, and the roots die. The roots of cabbages
are often, after the first season, preserved in cellars during the
winter. In the spring they are set out in gardens, and produce
flowers ; the petals of which, in time, fall off, and the germ
grows into a pod or silique, which contains the seed. The root
having performed this office, then dies, and no process can re-
store it to life ; the flowering is thought to exhaust the vital en-
ergy or living principle. The onion, beet and carrot are bien-
nial plants.

* The \vordparasite, from the Greek para, with, and sitos, com, was first ap-
plied to those who had the care of the corn used in religious ceremonies, and
were allowed a share of the sacrifice ; afterwards it was applied to those who
depended on the great, and earned their welcome by flattery ; by analogy, the
term is now applied to plants which live upon others.

Definition of the root — Aquatic roots — Parasites— Division of the root — An-
nual roots— Biennial.

52 OF THE ROOT.

Perennial roots — are those whose existence is prolonged a
number of years to an indefinite period ; as the asparagus, ge-
ranium, and rose ; also trees and shrubs. Climate and cultiva-
tion affect the duration of the roots of vegetables. Many pe-
rennial plants become annual by transplanting them into cold
climates: the garden nasturtion, originally a perennial shrub
in South America,has become in our latitude an annual plant.

Botanists express the duration of vegetables by the use of
astronomical signs ; the annual plants are designated thus $&, de-
noting one revolution of the earth around the sun.

The biennials are represented by $, the planet mars, which
makes its revolution in two years.

The perennials are represented by If, the planet Jupiter,
which makes its revolution in many years.

The character *? , the sign of the planet Saturn, is used to
designate woody plants which usually live many years.

It is said, that great care in the culture may prolong the
life of annual plants beyond what appears to be their natural
term of existence.

Forms of Roots.

There are seven varieties in the forms of roots ; branching,
fibrous, spindle, creeping, granulated, bulbous.
Fig. 12.

1st. Branching Root,
(Radix ramosa.) (Fig. 12.)
This is the most common
kind ; it consists of numer-
ous ramifications, resem-
bling in appearance the
branches of a tree ; some of
these branches penetrate to
a great depth in the earth,
and others creep almost hor-
izontally near its surface.
Experiments have been made, which show, that branches by
being buried in the soil may become roots ; and roots, by being
elevated in the atmosphere, become branches covered with
foliage. We often see the roots of trees, which have been
blown down, throwing out leaves.

Branching roots terminate in fibres or radicles, which are in
reality the proper roots ; as they imbibe through pores, the
nourishment which the plant derives from the earth. Nature

Perennial roots— Classification of roots as founded upon their forms — Branch-
ing root.

OF THE ROOT. 53

furnishes this nourishment in the moisture, and various salts

which are contained in the soil.
Fig. 13.

2d. Fibrous Root, (Radix Jtbrosa.) (Fig.
13.) This consists of a collection of thread-
like parts ; as in many kinds of grasses,
and most annual plants. The fibres usual-
ly grow directly from the bottom of the
stem, as may easily be seen by pulling up
a handful of the most common grass.

Fig. 14. 3d. Spindle root (Radix fusiformis.\ (Fig. 14.)

This is large at the top, and tapering downwards ;
as beets; carrots, radishes, and many of the bien-
nial plants. This root is not well provided with
the means of imbibing sustenance, on account of
a deficiency of radicles ; it is sometimes furnished
with no more than one. That these radicles are
the agents, by which the root is nourished, may
be seen by immersing a young radish in water un-
til every part is covered except the radicles ; the
herbage will soon die ; but if the radicles of an-
other radish are immersed in water, the plant will
live and look fresh for some time. The spindle
root is often/brM as in the mandrake,* the divi-
sions of which are thought to resemble the lower
part of the human figure. Sometimes the spindle
root instead of termimating in a point, appears as
if the end had been cut or bitten off; this is called
an abrupt root, or more scientifically, premorse,
(See Fig. 15.) which Fig. 15.

signifies bitten. The vi-
olet and cowslip furnish
examples of this kind of root. A for-
eign plant called the Devil's bit,f re-
ceived the name on account of its ab-
rupt root; it having been superstitiously
believed in former times, that as the

plant was useful for medicine,'the devil *" /? C ' 7 1\ \

had, out of spite to mankind, bitten off
the root.

* Atropa Mandragora. The word mandrake is said to be derived from the
German Mandragen, resembling man.
t SCABIOSA succisa or a kind of Scabious

Fibrous root— Spindle root— Importance of radicles— Forked spindle root—
Premorse root. 5*

54

OF THE ROOT.

Fig. 16.

4th. Creepwg
root (Radix re-
pens.) (Fig. 16.)
This root, instead
of forcing its way
perpendicularly in-
to the earth, ex-
tends horizontally,
and sends out fi-
bres. It is very tenacious of life, as any part of it containing
a joint will grow. This root is sometimes useful, by its fibres
spreading and interlacing themselves, and thus rendering a soil
more permanent. Holland would be liable to be washed away
by the action of water were it not that its coasts are bound
together by these and other plants. This root will grow in
sandy, light soils, wliich scarcely produce any other vegetation.

5th. Gran-
ulated root
(Radix gra-
,nulata.)(¥.
,17.) This
consists, of
little bulbs

or tubers, strung together by a thread-like radicle ; this form
approaches to that of some varieties of the tuberous.

Fig. 18.

6th. Tuberous root
Radix tuberosa.)

^ig. 18.) This kind
of root is hard, solid,
and fleshy; it con-
sists of one knob or
tuber ; as in the po-
tatoe,a; or of many
such connected by
means of a number
of strings or fila-
ments, as in the arti.
choke,*. These tu-
bers are reservoirs
of moisture, nourish.
ment and vital en-
ergy. The potatoe
is in reality, but an
excrescence, pro-
ceeding from the

Creeping root—Its importance in Holland— Granulated root— Tuberous root.

OF THE ROOT. 55

real root ; and it is a singular fact that this nutricious substance
is the product of a plant whose fruit (often termed potatoe balls)
is poisonous. The root of some of the orchis plants consists of
two tubers, resembling the two lobes into which a bean may
be divided, c. Tuberous roots are knobbed as in the potatoe ;
oval, as in the orchis ; abrupt, as in the plantain ; fasciculated,
when several are bundled together, as in the asparagus, and
several species of orchis.

7th. Bulbous root (Radix bulbosa.) (Fig. 19.) A fleshy
root of a bulbous or globular form. It seems like a large ball
placed under ground, to enclose and protect the future plant.
Bulbous plants belong chiefly to the great division of Monocoty-
ledons, or those whose seeds have but one cotyledon ; they pro-
duce some of the earliest flowers of spring, and afford some of
the most beautiful ornaments of the garden. Among them are
the Hyacinth, the Crown Imperial, the Lily, and the Tulip,
with a great variety of other splendid and interesting flowers.
The use of the bulb being to preserve the future plant from
the effect of cold, we see the bountiful agency of Providence
in the greater number of bulbous plants in cold countries.

Bulbs seem to be analogous to the buds of trees, and in some
plants they grow like buds upon the stems or branches ; as in
one species of lily and the magical onion ; in the latter of which
the bulbs or onions grow upon the stalk in clusters of four or
five ; they continue to enlarge, until their weight brings them
to the ground ; here, if not prevented, they take root. This is
a viviparous plant, or one which produces its offspring alive ;
such plants as produce seeds, or such animals as produce their
offspring from eggs, are called oviparous. Bulbs are solid, as
in the turnip (Fig. 19, a), scaly, as in the lily (b), and tunicated
or coated (c), as in the onion.

Fig. 19.

Tubers, as the potatoe, not the real root— Different forms of tuberous roots —
Bulbous root— Use of the bulb -Analogous to buds — Viviparous and oviparous
plants -Different forms of bulbous root*— Difference in the production of plants
by means of bulbs and seeds.

5(5 . OF THE ROOT.

The limits between a bulbous and tuberous root are not easily
defined ; the solid bulb seems to partake of the nature of both.

Bulbs usually die after the blossoming of the plant ; "but new
bulbs are often formed from the base or sides of the original
bulb, which in their turn produce plants. This is the fact with
respect to the orchis tribe ; in which every year one bulb or
tuber dies, and the other throws out a new stem; by this means
it changes its position, though very slowly, since it takes but
one very short step each year. The production by means of
bulbs, is only a continuation of the old plant, while by means of
the seed a new plant is brought forth.

This is an important distinction ; and it is observed that in
process of time, a plant continued by means of reproduction,
whether by bulbs, grafting, or any other manner, ultimately
dwindles and degenerates as if worn out with old age, and it
becomes necessary to renew its vigour by producing a young
plant from the seed. This is the case with the potatoe, which
is ordinarily produced from the root ; but the farmer often
finds his stock de'generated, and is obliged to provide himself
with new roots produced from the seed.

The specific character of plants is sometimes taken from the
root, and in some cases the specific name ; as SOLA.NUM tubero-
sum, the potatoe, and RANUNCULUS bulbosus, the bulbous ra-
nunculus. The tuberous and bulbous roots distinguish those
species from all others of the families Solanum, and Ranun-
culus. • q

The forms of roots are so various, that it is impossible to give
names to all ; even in the same species of plants, the root pre-
sents many varieties of form. In the potatoe, for example, wo
see some roots round, and of an even surface, others, long or
oval, and some very knobbed and irregular ; but yet amidst all
this variety there is a prevailing uniformity, and we can usually
at one glance distinguish a potatoe, by its form, from all other
vegetables. It might, at first, have appeared as if there could
be little interesting in the consideration of roots, which are des-
titute of that symmetry of parts and liveliness of colouring,
which is exhibited in other organs of the plant. We find, on
casting a rapid glance over the face of the earth, that all this
variety in the form of roots is not without its peculiar use.
Mountains being exposed to winds, we find them covered with
plants which have branching roots with strong and woody
fibres. These, fastening themselves into the clefts of rocks,

Difference between the continuation of plants by bulbs, &c. and by raising
from the seed— Specific character and name taken from the roots— Roots of the
same species sometimes vary in form— Utility in the variety of form in roots.

OF THE ROOT. 57

take firm hold, and the trees they support seem, undauntedly,
to brave the violence of storms and tempests. Spindle roots
abound in rich, soft grounds, which they can easily penetrate.
Damp and loose soils are rendered fit for the use of man, by
being bound together by creeping and fibrous roots. We find
here, as in every part of nature, proofs of a wise Creator, who
makes nought,

" In vain, or not for admirable ends." ,

We have now described those roots which grow by being
fixed in the earth. But besides these, there are plants which
are not fixed, but float about in the water ; some grow upon
other plants, and some seem to derive sustenance from air alone.

Of the first kind, or aquatic roots, is the Lemna or duckmeat,
which grows in stagnant water, having thread-like roots, not
confined to any fixed place. The water-star grass,* previous
to its blossoming, floats about, and is nourished by its suspended
fibres ; after flowering, it sinks to the bottom, its roots become
fixed and its seeds ripen. These seeds germinating, a new race
of plants appear, which rise to the surface of the water, blossom
and sink to the earth, producing in turn their successors. Some
of the Cryptogamous plants, particularly of the genus Fucus,
exist in a wandering manner, often forming islands of conside-
rable size. In the Gulf of Florida, the Fucus natans is very
abundant ; this, by voyagers, is often called gulf- weed, and is
sometimes found in masses extending many miles, and,

" Sailing on ocean's foam,

Wher'er the surge may sweep, the tempest's breath prevail."

How strikingly analagous this poor weed to many a human
being, blown about on the ocean of life, by every breath of
passion or caprice ! Who would not rather, like the mountain
oak, meet the storms of life firmly rooted in virtuous principles,
than to be floated along even by the breath of pleasure, without
end or aim, forgetful of the past and careless of the future ?
To the virtuous, afflictions serve but to strengthen them in
goodness; so,

" Yonder oaks ! superior to the power

Of all the warring winds of heaven do rise,

And from the stormy promontory tower;

While each assailing blast increase of strength supplies."

We find roots which grow on other plants, appearing to de-
rive sustenance from their juices. These are called parasites ;
this term is often applied to persons who are willing to live in
dependence upon others ; and so despicable does this trait of
character appear, that we almost conceive it a kind of mean-

* Callitriche aquatica.
Aquatic roots — Parasitic plants.

58 STEMS AND STALKS.

ness, even for a plant to live without elaborating its own food.

Parasitic plants are common in tropical regions ; sometimes
many kinds are found upon the same tree, presenting a curious
variety of foliage. In our climate, except in the Cryptoga-
mous family, as lichens, mosses, &c. we have but few genera
of these plants.* The Dodder and Misletoe are celebrated
parasitic plants.

Some plants grow without roots; these are called air plants :
they are furnished with leaves or stems which seem to inhale,
but not to exhale fluids ; their substance is usually fleshy and
juicy ; some of them flourish in the most dry and sandy places,
exposed to a burning sun ; as the Stapelia, sometimes called
the vegetable camel. The Epedendrum grows and blossoms for
years, suspended from the ceiling of a room and nourished only
by air.

Many roots, as the rhubarb, wild-turnip, blood-root, &c.
possess important medicinal properties. The growth of the
root is most rapid in autumn ; at this season, the sun being less
powerful and the air more charged with moisture, the juices
condense in the lower part of the plant, and nourish it, but as
the season becomes cold, vegetation is checked ; the winter is,
therefore, the time to collect roots for medicinal purposes.
Stems and stalks.

The trunk or stem is the body of a plant, whether it be a tree
like the oak, a shrub like the lilac, or an herb like the pepper-
mint or sage ; its use is to sustain the branches, leaves, and
flowers ; and it serves as an organ of communication between
them and the root, conducting from the latter to the former,
animal and vegetable substances, the salts and earthy matter
which the radicles by their mouths, suck up for the nourishment
of the plant.

If a plant be watered by any coloured liquid, the stem will in
time, shew that this fluid has ascended into it. This organ also
contains asetof vessels which carry downwards certain juices,
which have passed through peculiar processes in the leaves of
the plant.

But of the circulation of fluids in the vegetable substance
we shall speak more particularly hereafter. Our present ob-
ject is, to describe the external appearance of the vegetable

* In the vicinity of Troy I have seen a very beautiful species of the Pterox-
pora, growing upon a branch of the whortle berry. Its colour was a bright
crimson, which contrasted finely with the white flowers, and green leaves of
the plant on which it grew.

Air plants—Proper time to collect roots for medicinal purposes— Trunk--
Its use.

STEMS AND STALKS.

59

organs and not their internal structure ; or* in other words, it is
the anatomy and not the physiology of plants, which we are now
attempting to explain.

The different kinds of stems, or stalks, have been divided in-
to seven classes, as follows —

Caulis* or proper stem, Culm, Scape, Peduncle, Petiole,
Frond and Stipe.
Fig. 20.

1st. Caulis or proper stem, is such as is seen
in forest trees, in shrubs, and in most annual
plants. The caulis is either simple, as in the
, white lily ; or branching as in the geranium ;
the branching is the more common form. You
vhave here Fig. 20, the representation of a
* caulis, or proper stem, (a) ; a peduncle, or flow-
er stalk, (b); and the petiole, or leafstalk, (c).

Fig. 21.

2d. Culm, or straw, (Fig. 21 ) is the kind of
stem which you see in grasses and rushes. The
culm is either without knots, as in the bulrush,
jointed or knotted, as in wheat and indian corn,
geniculated or bent like an elbow, as in some of
the grasses ; those culms which are bent, are also
knotted, though they may be knotted » without be-
ing bent. The Bamboo, Sugar Cane, and vari-
ous species of Reeds have stems of the culm kind';
some of them, particularly the Bamboo, are
known to attain the height of forty feet.

* This kind of stem is by the French called tige; the i should be sounded
like e, the g soft likej, as teje. The word Caulis is from the Greek Kaulos, a
stem.

Division of stems— Caulis— Culm.

60

STEMS AND STALKS.

Fig, 22.

3d. Scape, (Fig. 22, a, a,) a
stalk springing from the root, wlych
bears the flower and fruit, but not
the leaves ; as the Dandelion, the
Cowslip, and the Lily of the Val-
ley. Plants with scapes are some-
times called stemless plants ; in this
case, the scape would be consider-
ed as a peduncle proceeding from
the root.

4th. Peduncle, or flower stalk, is but a subdivision of the
caulis or stem, (See Fig. 20, b,) ; it bears the flower and fruit,
but not the leaves ; when the peduncle is divided, each subdi-
vision is called a pedicel.*

The peduncle, or flower stalk, is,

Cavline, when it grows immediately out of the main stem ;
Rameous, or branching, when it grows out of a main branch ;
Axillary, growing between a leaf and stem, or between a branch and stem;
Terminal, when it terminates a stem or branch ;
Lateral, when situated on the side of a stem or branch ;
. Uni-Jlora, bearing one flower ; bi-flora, two flowers ; tri-flora, three flowers ;
Multi-flora, bearing many flowers.

When there is no peduncle or flower stalk, the flowers are
said to be sessile.

5th. Petiole, or leaf stalk, is a kind of stem, like a fulcrum,
supporting the leaf (See Fig. 20, a,) ; it is usually green, and
appears to be a part of the leaf itself. The petiole of many
plants is somewhat in the form of a cylinder ; but the upper sur-
face is rather flattened, the under surface convex. You will
find this remark useful, in distinguishing the foot-stalks of com-
pound leaves, from young branches, with which they are some-
times confounded. In most cases, the leaves and flowers are
supported by distinct foot-stalks, but sometimes the foot-stalk
supports both the leaf and flower.

The petiole may be,

Terete, round, as in the Holly-hock ;

Semi-Terete, half round, as in the Yellow water-lily ;

Compressed, flattened, as the Poplar ;

Alated, winged, or furnished on each side with a leafy appendage ;

Cirriferus, having tendrils, as the Pea ;

Climbing, performing the office of a tendril, as the CLEMATIS virginica.

The Petiole is often compared with the leaf, as the peduncle
is with the flower, with regard to their relative length.

* In determining the species of plants, we often consider the length of the pe-
duncle, compared with the flower : as whether the peduncles are longer or
shorter than the flower.

Scape— Peduncle— Petiole.

STEM.

61

Fig. 23.

6th. Frond. (Fig. 23.) The
term Frond, belongs entirely to
Cryptogamous plants. This term
however is applied to the leaf
rather than the stem ; in this
sketch of the fern the leafy part
is the frond ; this bears the flow-
er and fruit. Linnaeus consi-
dered the leaves of palm trees
as fronds ; we shall hereafter
observe upon the different in-
ternal structure of their stems
from those of the oak anc^ other
plants which are termed cauline, because their stem is a caulis.
Plants with fronds and stipes are sometimes called by the gene-
ral name of s/?ped-plants ; they are monocotyledonous. The
stem of the fern (Fig. 23, #), is called a stipe. By observa-
tions of geologists it is ascertained that stiped plants were cre-
ated before cauline ones ; since petrifactions of the former are
found in the lower formations of the earth, while no remains of
cauline plants are ever found in them. Here is the sketch of
a fern ; its stem a, is called a frond.

7th. Stipe (Fig. 24), is the stem or leafless part
of a frond, or the stalk of a fungus or mushroom,
c The te;rm is also applied to the slender thread,
which in many of the compound flowers, elevates
a the hairy crown, with which the seeds are furnish-
ed, and connects it with the seed. Thus, in the
b seeds of the Dandelion, which is here represented,
the column (Fig. 24, a), standing on the seed (£), and elevating
the down (c), is the stipe.
Fig. 25.

Here is a mushroom with the cap (Fig.
25, d), elevated on its stipe (e).

Having considered the different kinds
of stems, according to the division which
most botanical writers have made, we will
now notice some general circumstances
relating to them, without reference to any
one of these classes of stalks in particular.
The coherence or hardness of stems has
given rise to the following distinctions :

Frond— Which part of the fern is its frond ?— Which the srtipe ?— Difference
between stiped and cauline plants— Which first formed ?— Different applica-
tions of the terra stipe— Stipe of a dandelion seed—Of a fungus.

6

62 STEM.

Herbaceous, having a tender substance, which usually dies every year ; in
some cases when the root lives more than one year, the stem is annual ; as in
the tulip; Woody, as in the o^ak ; Soli d, like the box ; Pithy, as the elder; Hol-
low, as in the onion ; Corky, as in the cork ; or Pulpy, as in the cactus or
prickly pear.

The stem with respect to its direction, or mode of growth, is

Perpendicular, or erect, forming a right angle with the ground, as the Pink ;

Procumbent, lying down ;

Oblique, when it is neither perpendicular nor horizontal ;

Creeping, as one species of Ranunculus ;

Reclining, curved towards the ground as the Blackberry ;

Radical, clinging to some other body for support, by means of fibres which
do nol imbibe nourishment ; as the common Creeper ;

Climbing, either with spiral tendrils for its support, as the Vine, or by adhe-
sive fibres ;

Twining, winding in a spiral manner around other plants, as the Hop ;

Trailing, a creeping stem destitute of flowers, thrown out from the root and
giving rise to another plant where it takes root, as the Strawberry.

Stems as to shape, are,

Terete or cylindrical, long and round ; as in the rose and lilac, and in most
of the woody and herbaceous plants ;

Comprefsed, more or less flattened on the sides ;

Anceps, two edged ;

Triangular, three edged ;

Quadrangular, square, or four sided ;

Pentagonous, five sided. If the number of angles is either variable, or more
than five, the stem is said to be angulosus, or angled.

The surface of the stem may be,

Glabrous, smooth, destitute of hairs or glands ;
Polished, the surface equal and smooth :
Pubescent, covered with hair, or glands resembling hairs;
Villuse., shaggy, covered with long soft hairs ;
Pilose, hairs long and distinct :

Tomentose, hairs short and closely matted together, like cotton or down ;
Hispid, bristly, hairs stiff;
Scaly, covered with membranous scales ;

Imbricated, stem concealed by leaves, which sit close like shingles on the roof
of a house;

Viscid, covered with a clammy juice ;
Papillose, cov. rod with soft points or tubercles;
Scabrous, rough to the touch ;
Hoary, as if frosted ;

Meaty, (glaucus,) of a sea-green mealiness, which easily rubs off;
Stridted,rm&rked w ith parallel longitudinal lines.

The stem is either simple, or divided into branches. The
branches are parts, of the plant which proceed immediately
from the trunk ; the divisions of the branches arc called branch-
lets ; a diminutive appellation, which means a little branch.
These parts resemble, in their formation, the trunk or stem,
which furnishes them ; the branch may be considered as a
tree, implanted upon another tree of the same species.

Branches sometimes grow without any apparent order in

Stems with respect to hardness— Direction— Shape- Surface— divisions
Disposition of branches.

STEM. 63

their arrangement ; sometimes they are opposite ; sometimes
alternate ; and sometimes, as in the pine, they form a series of
rings around the trunk. Some branches are erect as in the
poplar, others pendant as in the willow, and some, as in the
oak, form nearly a right angle with the trunk.

These various circumstances constitute distinctive charac-
ters in plants, a knowledge of which is very necessary to the
painter. Of all our forest trees, perhaps none, in the disposi-
tion of its branches, presents a more beautiful and graceful
aspect than the elm.

The branches of trees, as they grow older, usually form a
more open angle with the trunk than at first. We often see
branches form a very acute angle, but as the tree advances in
age, the angles enlarge more and more, until the branch be-
comes pendant.

Fig. 26.

Some stems are remarkable for bearing bulbs
in the axils of their leaves. . These bulbs like the
bulbous root, contain within them the germ of a
new plant. The LILITJM BULBIFERUM, or bulb-
bearing lily is of this description, (Fig. 26.)

A remarkable phenomenon is described by
travellers, as being exhibited by the stems of the
Banyan tree of India, Ficus Indicus ; their stems
throw out fibres, which descend and take root in
the earth. In process of time these stems become
large trees, and thus from one primitive root, is
formed a little forest. This tree is called by va-
rious names ; as the Indian-God-tree, the arch-
ed-Fig-tree, &c,

The Hindoos plant it near their temples, and
in many cases the tree itself serves them for a
temple. Milton speaks of this tree as the one
from which Adam and Eve obtained leaves to
form themselves garments ; he says it was not
the fig-tree renowned for fruit, but

" Such as at this day to Indians known

In Malabar or Decan, spreads her arras,

Branching so broad and long, that in the ground

The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow

About the mother tree, a pillar'd shade

High over-arched, and echoing walks between."

Knowledge necessary to the painter — Branches alter in their disposition as
they grow older — Bulb, bearing stems — Rooting stems.

04 OF BUDS.

You have here a description of this wonderful tree, which is
said to have given shelter to an army of seventy thousand men.
Fig. 27.

Ficus 1 n< lie i is.

All the varieties of stems which We have now considered may
be included under two divisions; 1st. such as grow externally,
having their wood arranged in concentric layers, the oldest be-
ing in the centre of the trunk and the newest forming the outer
layer. This kind of stem may be seen in the oak and other
forest trees in our climate, and also in most of our common
herbaceous plants ; these spring from seeds with two cotyle-
dons, and are called dicotyledons.

2d. Stems which grow internally ', as palms and grasses, their
wood instead of circling around the first formed substance, is
pushed outwards by the developement of new fibres in the cen-
tre of the stem ; this kind of stem belongs to plants whose
seeds have but one cotyledon, and which are therefore called
monocotyledons. *

LECTURE VIII.

Of Buds.

Most leaves and flowers proceed from scaly coverings called
buds. The scales envelope each other closely ; the exterior

* These two kinds of stem have by some French botanists been called exo-
genous and endogenous ; these words are derived from the Greek ; the first
signifying to grow externally, the second to grow internally.

Stems included in two divisions — Stems of dicotyledons — Of monocotyle-
dons.

OF BUDS. 65

ones being dry and hard, the interior, moist and covered with
down; they are also furnished with a kind of resin or balsam,
which prevents the embryo from being injured by too^ much
moisture : buds have been known to lie for years in water with-
out injury to. the infant plant or branch within.

The sap is the great fountain of vegetable life, by its agency
new buds are yearly formed to replace the leaves and flowers
destroyed by the severity of winter. Branches also originate
from buds. Linna3us supposed that buds spring from the pith,
this being found necessary to their formation and growth.

The bud is usually a cone-like protuberance formed by the
swelling of the germ ; and as for this purpose the agency of
an additional quantity of sap is needed, we see the bud appear-
ing at the axils of leaves or the extremities of branches and
stems where there is an accumulation of this fluid.

If you plant a slip of Geranium, you will observe that it ei-
ther sprouts from the axil of a leaf, or from knots in the stem
which answer the same purpose as the leaf, by slightly inter-
rupting the circulation of the juices, and thus affording an ac-
cumulation of sap necessary for the production of a new shoot.

Some botanists distinguish the bud as follows: that point in
the plant which gives rise to the bud is called the eye ; when
this begins to swell and become apparent, it is called the button ;
and when it begins to unfold, the bud.*

Herbs and shrubs have buds, but these usually grow and un-
fold themselves in the same season, and are destitute of scales ;
while the buds of trees are not perfected in less than two sea-
sons, and in some cases they require years for their full de-
vdopement. You have, no doubt, observed in the spring, the
rapid growth of the leaves and branches of trees ; and perhaps,
have also noticed, that as summer advances, the progress of
vegetation seems almost to cease, and that new leaves and
branches do not come forth as before ; but you may not have
known, that instead of resting in her operations, nature is now
busy in providing for the next year ; that she is turning the vi-
tal energies of the plants to the formation of buds. Those
little embryo plants so nicely wrapped up in downy scales as to
be able to bear the coldness of winter, in the ensuing spring
will come forth from their snug retreats, and taking the places

* These terms in French are Vceil the eye, bouton the button, and bourgeons
the bud.

Buds supposed to originate from the pith — Sap needed for its formation —
The eye, button and bud — Herbs and shrubs destitute of scaly buds — Period in
which the formation of buds commences.

6*

C6 OF BUDS.

of the leaves which had withered in autumn, delight us with
new verdure and beauty.

The poet Cowperhas the following lines on the formation of
buds ; they evince that character of piety which distinguishes
this excellent man, in all his writings:

"When all this uniform uncoloured scene,

Shall be dismantled of its fleecy load,

And flush into variety again,

From dearth to plenty, and from death to life,

Is Nature's progress, when she lectures man

In heavenly truth ; evincing, as she makes

The grand transition, that there lives and works

A soul in all things, and that soul is'GoD.

HE sets the bright procession on its way,

And marshals all the order of the year ;

HE marks the bounds which winter may not pan,

And blunts his pointed fury : in its case,

Russet and rude, folds up the tender germ,

Uninjured, with inimitable art ;

And ere one flowery season fades and dies,

Designs the blooming wonders of the next."

You may here see a representation of two scaly
buds; one of which appears as if cut vertically, in
'order to show the germ or embryo which is enfold-
ed by the scales.

Some French botanists* have explained the form-
ation of the scaly covering of buds in a manner
somewhat different from the generally received opin-
ion. 'They suppose that the bud does indeed begin its existence
in' tjie latter part of summer, the eye being then formed ; that
it exists in this state during the winter, but being acted upon by
some change of the temperature, it begins to force its way
through the bark into the atmosphere ; here the young leaves
which would put forth, becoming chilled by an ungcnial atmos-
phere, contract and harden, and at length form scales. These
scales afterwards protect the new leaves, that, urged by the
same vegetable instinct, are in their turn, seeking to emerge into
Tight and air. If we admit this explanation with respect to the
formation of scales, it seems not difficult to account for that of
the downy substance, which, lining these scales, protects the
embryo leaves and flowers from cold ; and the covering of
varnish, which defends them from moisture. When the leaf
becomes a scale, it then absorbs from the sap but a portion of
what was destined for its use, and it is supposed that this sap i«
converted into the resinous- substance, or varnish. With re-

* De Candolle, and some others.

Opinion of some botanists with respect to the formation of the scaly covering
of buds.

OF BUDS. 67

spect to the downy coat upon the inside of the scales, this may
be seen in the rudiments of the leaves, if examined before the
bud is developed.

These hypotheses do not, in any degree, derogate from the
wisdom of Him, of whom Cowper says, that " with art inimi-
table, he folds up the tender germ;" for whether He acts by
secondary causes, or " Speaks and it is done," the design is
alike apparent.

The term bud, in common language, extends to the rudi-
ments of all plants, whether with scales or without, which ori-
ginate upon other living plants. Buds with scales are chiefly
confined to the trees of cold countries. In the northern part
of the United States, there are few trees wjiich can endure the
cold weather, without this security. In Sweden, it is said,
there is but one shrub* destitute of buds, and this from the
peculiarity of its situation, is always protected from the in-
clemencies of the weather. •

It appears that no perennial plants, but those furnished with
scaly buds, can live in climates where it snows a part of the
year ; the trees of the torrid zone, the wood of which appears
hard and firm, perish in our climate. In warm climates the
buds of the trees are without scales, as the tender shoots do not
need their protection.

That there is, in reality, a difference in the nature of vege-
tables, as well as animals, is very apparent ; an orange tree
will never form scales to protect its buds from cold, any more
than the most delicate tropical animals can resist the rigors of
a polar climate. There are cases however in which plants, as
well as animals, change their habits. The horse-chesnut, in
India, its native climate, unfolds its leaves to the atmosphere,
without their receiving any check in their developement ; in a
colder climate, the leaves in attempting to unfold, are checked
in their progress, and degenerate into scales, and form buds.

Monocotyledonous plants seldom produce more than one bud
annually. On the summit of the palm appears the bud, con-
taining the leaves and flowers ; from the centre of this bud, a
footstalk springs up bearing the flower, while the leaves spread
out at its base. The following year the old leaves decay,
forming by their indurated remains a ring around the stipe of
the palm, and a new bud is formed upon its summit as before.

* A species of Wiamnus, which grows under trees, in marshy forests.

These hypotheses, if admitted, do not derogate from the wisdom of the Crea-
tor— The term bud, how extensive in its application — Scaly buds chiefly con-
fined to cold countries — Difference in the nature of vegetables — Plants some-
times change their habits; example, the horse-chesnut — Buds of the palm.

68 OF BUDS.

This bud of the palm, from its form and size, is often called the
cabbage.

Some botanists enumerate four kinds of buds : 1st. the bulb;
2d. the bulbille ; 3d. the turion, or little bulb ; and 4th. the
proper bud.

We have already considered the bulb, under the head of
roots. Botanists have occasioned some confusion in the science
by placing the bulb among roots and buds ; yet they seem to
bear a close analogy to both. An onion bulb, like the bud of
the palm, contains the stem, leaves and flower ; its radicles are
indeed the true root.

The bulbille is often found in the axils of leaves, as was rep-
resented at Fig. 26.

The turion differs but little, except
in size, from the bulb ; it appears up-
on roots of perennial plants, as may
be seen in Fig. 29, a.

Of the proper £ud, there are three sorts ;

1st. The flower bud, which is of a short round form, and
contains the rudiments of one or several flowers, without leaves,
folded over each and surrounded with scales. It is often found
at the extremities of small short branches ; this is the kind of
bud which is employed in grafting or innoculating. This ope-
ration is performed by cutting into the bark of another tree, and
placing a bud or several buds in the aperture.

2nd. The leaf bud, contains the rudiments of several leaves
without flowers ; it is usually longer and more pointed than the
flower bud.

3rd. The mixed bud; containing both leaves and flowers.
In the peach we have examples of the two first divisions ; the.
leaf and flower bud being distinct. In the" lilac they are en-
closed together in the same bud.

The leaf buds, if taken from the tree and planted in the earth,
will grow and put forth roots ; but the flower buds in the same.
situation will perish. You will jx)rceive that a striking analogy
exists between buds and seeds, as well as between buds ami
roots.

You have now seen the manner in which buds commence
their existence ; and how they gradually unfold themselves un-
til they become in their turn branches, covered with leaves
and flowers. In considering this subject you cannot but have

Different kinds of Buds— 1st. Bulb— 2d. Bulbille— Turion— Proper bud-
Flower bud— Leaf bud— 3Iiied bud— Reflections suggested by a view of the
subject.

LEAVES. 69

been impressed with a sense of the goodness of that great Being
who watches with unceasing care, over his vast creation. To
observe the progress of life, whether in the vegetable or animal
kingdoms, is highly interesting to an investigating mind ; but
here the power of man can achieve nothing ; he may plant
and water, but God alone giveth the increase.

A: bud lives, an infant lives ; both are destined to grow, and
to pass through physical changes ; but the bud, although ac-
tive with a principle of life, knows not its own existence ; while
the infant becomes conscious of its own powers and faculties,
capable of loving those who have contributed to its well being,
and especially of adoring the great Author of its existence.

It is delightful, while gratifying our natural love of knowledge,
by inquiring into the economy of nature, to be thus met at
every step, with new proofs of the goodness and wisdom of the
Author of Nature, particularly as manifested towards the hu-
man race. To discover the character of the Deity, should in-
deed be the end and aim of all knowledge ; and even should
an occasional digression from the subject of your present study,
retard your progress in botanical investigations, the loss would
be slight, compared to the gain of one pious and devout aspira-
tion of the heart.

When we become so deeply engaged in philosophical specu-
lations, as to forget Him whose works we study, we have wan-
dered far from the path of true knowledge. It was not thus
that Newton studied the laws of matter, or Locke and Watts
the laws of mind, or Paley the animal and vegetable physioL
ogy ; these great and good men, made their rich treasures of
knowledge subservient to one great design, that of illustrating
the character of God, and teaching our duty to him.

LECTURE IX.

Of Leaves.

You all know what is meant by the leaf of a vegetable ; but
were you called on to give a definition of the term leaf, you
might find it more difficult than at first you would imagine.
Young persons are often disconcerted, when asked by their
teachers to explain some word of which they have an idea, and
yet find themselves unable to give a definition ; but although

Comparison between a bud and an infant — The goodness of God particularly
manifested towards the human race — Philosophical speculations should not
lead us to forget the Author of nature — Difficulty in giving correct definitions.

70 LEAVES.

the pupil may be surprised at this fact, it is not unaccountable
to those who know, that although we may have the picture of
an object in the mind, it is not always easy to convey our con-
ceptions to the minds of others. To give correct definitions of
terms, is one of the greatest difficulties in science.

The manner in which different persons describe objects, va-
ries with the degree of knowledge possessed respecting their
properties. For example ; in attempting to describe common
salt, if a person knew nothing more of it than his unassisted
senses had informed him, he would speak of its colour, taste,
and other obvious properties ; one familiar with the principles
of chemistry, would first speak of the materials which compose
salt ; he would describe it as a compound substance, consisting
of chlorine and sodium; and then might enumerate its proper-
ties. In the first definition, given without any reference to
scientific principles, there is nothing so definite as to afford a
certain mark of distinction between salt and other substances ;
in the chemical definition, we have a test for salt, Sn a know-
ledge of its composition, which distinguishes it from all other
substances.

In botanical definitions, we do not include the constituent
elements of the vegetable substance ; this belongs to the de-
partment of chemistry, but we consider the external forms and
uses of the various parts of the plant.

One botanist* says, " leaves are organs of an expanded form,
almost always of a green colour, internally vascular, and more
or less pulpy." Another botanistf says, "the leaf may be de-
fined to be a temporary organ of plants, which performs nearly
the same function in the economy of vegetable life, as the
lungs perform in the animal ; or, they are the respiratory or-
gans of plants."

We might go on quoting from different authors, each of
whom describe according to their own manner of considering
the subject ; but as our object is, to express botanical facts in
the most simple terms, we will merely add to^ the definitions
above given, one which, with your present knowledge, is as
scientific as you can understand.

The leaf is generally a thin, flat organ, consisting of an ex-
pansion of the fibres of the bark, connected by a substance
which is called the cellular tissue ; the whole is covered with
a green coat or skin called the cuticle. Leaves are furnished

« Withering. t Nutall.

Descriptions of objects vary with our knowledge of their properties — Differ,
cat definitions of leaves — General description of a leaf.

LEAVES. 71

with pores* for exhaling and inhaling gases ; and as they pre-
sent to the air a more extended surface than all other parts of
a plant, they are of great utility to the vegetable, by imbibing
suitable nourishment, and throwing off such gases as would be
useless or injurious.

We have seen how the bud is formed, and by what curious
means the principle of vegetable life which it contains is pre-
served and protected through the cold and dampness of winter.
In the spring, when the sun has turned his course towards the
north, recrossed the equator, and is advancing towards the tro-
pic of Cancer ; the vegetable world, quickened by its influence,
begins to awaken from its dormant state ; the leaf buds expand,
and soon bursting their envelopes, the green leaves come forth.
The manner in which the leaf, before it expands, lies wrapped
up in the scales of the bud, is called Foliation ; this presents an
interesting study, and is said to be sufficiently various, in differ-
ent families of plants, to afford a mark of distinction between
them.

In the buds of grasses the leaves are said to be rolled to-
gether ; in the rose, one side of the leaf is doubled upon the
stem ; in the maple, the leaves are plaited or folded up like a
fan ; in the blue bell, imbricated, or laid over one another like
tiles on the roof of a house ; in the monk's hood they are bent
downwards towards the petiole.

Some plants are destitute of leaves; they are then called
Aphyllous, which term signifies wanting leaves.

In determining the species of plants, the leaves are much re-
garded ; specific names are often given from some circumstance
of the leaf, for example ; the HEPATICA tritoba is that species
of the Hepatica, which has leaves with three divisions called
lobes ; the VIOLA rotundifolia is a species of violet with round
leaves.

A knowledge of the various appearances presented by leaves,
is of great importance; in order to become acquainted
with all their varieties, considerable practice in the analysis of
plants is necessary. Engravings will assist you in understand-
ing the definitions, but you must chiefly consult nature. There
are many terms to express the varieties observable in leaves ;
we shall here explain some of the most important.

* Technically called stomas.

Utility of leaves to the whole plant — The period at which loaves appear —
Foliation — Aphyllous leaves — Leaves furnish specific characters.

72 LEAVES. ,

Leaves considered with regard to the manner in which they sue-
ceed each other in different stages of the plant.

1. Seminal, leaves which come up with the plant when it
first appears above the surface of the earth : as in the garden
bean ; tnese leaves are only the cotyledons or lobes of the seed,
which, after nourishing the young plant, decay.

2. Primordial, leaves 'growing immediately after the semi-
nal leaves, and resembling them in position, form, and size.
The primordial leaf, according to the fanciful idea of a French
botanist, is a sketch which nature makes before the perfection
of her work.

3. Characteristic, leaves which are found in the mature state
of the plant ; or according to the idea above advanced, nature
in them, perfects her design.

It is not always, however, that this process with regard to
change of leaves takes place ; as in many cases the proper, or
characteristic leaf, is the only one which appears.

There are many terms to express the mode o}' insertion of the
leaf; such as radical growing from the root (radix), cauline
growing from the stem (caulis), &c.

To express imposition of leaves we find the terms, apposite,
alternate, &c.

The form of the leaf is expressed by various terms, borrow-
ed from the names of different objects ; as digetate (from digitus,
the finger), &c. For the explanation of these different techni-
cal terms we must advise you to consult the vocabulary as of-
ten as you find those you do not understand. We will, how-
ever, illustrate some of the most common forms of simple*
leaves.

Fig. 30.

Orbicular, or the round leaf; the Nasturtion (Tropoeolum),
affords an example of this kind (See Fig. 30, a) ; this is also

leaves with respect to succession — Insertion of leaves — Position — Form —
Orbicular.

LEAVES.

73

peltate, having its petiole inserted into the centre of the leaf,
and thus resembling a shield.

Reniform (from the Latin ren, the kidney), or as it is some-
times called kidney. form; the Ground-ivy (Glechonia), has a
leaf of this kind. (See Fig. 30, b ;) it is crenale, or has a mar-
gin with scalloped divisions ; ciliate, being fringed with hairs
like eyelashes.

Cordate (from the Latin cor, the heart), or heart-shaped.
(See Fig. 30, c ;) this form resembles more the figure of a heart
as seen in a pack of cards, than of a real heart ; this figure
represents a cordate leaf with an accuminated point, that is acute
and turned to one side ; the margin is serrated, or notched like
the teeth of a saw^; an example of this kind may be seen in the
aster cordifolium. Fig. 31.

Ovate, obovate, oval; these are terms derived from the Latin
ovum, an egg ; suppose the figure at 31, a, to represent an egg ;
you observe that one end is broader than the other ; now if to
this broad end you add a petiole prolonging it into a mid-rib
with some lateral divisions, you have, as at b, the representation
of an ovate leaf. If the petiole were placed at the narrowest
end, it would be an obovate leaf. An oval leaf (c), is when
both the ends are of equal breadth. When the length is much
greater than the breadth, the leaf is said to be elliptical, as at d.
Fig. 32.

Lanceolate,
this kind of
leaf may be
seen in the
peach tree ; it
is represented
in Fig. 32, a ;
this is an ac-
cuminated, or
slightly accu-
minate, with
a serrulated
or slightly
notched mar-
gin, at (£,)

Reniform— Cordate— Ovate— Obovate— Oval -Elliptical—Lanceolate.

74

LEAVES.

may be seen the cleft stipules or appendages of the leaf.
Linear, as the grasses and Indian corn, (Fig, 32, c,) represents
a leaf of this kind ; it is sheathing, or encloses the stem by its
base, as may be seen at d.

Deltoid, from tjie Greek letter delta v ; this kind of leaf is
represented at e, Fig. 32 ; the Lombardy poplar affords an
example of the same.

Fig. 33.

Sagittate (from sagittus an arrow), or arrow-shaped leaf; this
is represented at a, Fig. 33 ; the Sagittaria, an aquatic plant, af-
fords an example of this leaf.

Acerose, or needle-shaped ; this is represented at b, Fig. 33.
Leaves of this kind are mostly clustered together, as in the
pine ; they are subulate or pointed like a shoemaker's awl ; they
are rigid and evergreen.

Trees with acerose leaves, are usually natives of mountain-
ous or northern regions ; any other kind of leaves would in these
situations be overpowered by the weight of snow or the vio-
lence of tempests ; but these admit the snow and wind through
their interstices ; their many points or edges, presented even to
a gentle breeze, produce a deep solemn murmur in the forest ;
and when the storm is abroad and the tempest high,

"The loud wind through the forest wakes,

Linear — Sagittate — Acerose.

LEAVES.

With sound like ocean's roaring, wild and deep,
And in yon gloomy pines strange music makes" —

75

Burns in describing such a scene, says ; " this is my best sea-
son for devotion : my mind is wrapt up in a kind of enthusiasm
to Him who, in the pompous language of the Hebrew bard,
* walks on the wings of the wind.' "

Pinnatifid, may be seen at Fig. 33, d ; leaves of this form
are sometimes finely divided, like the teeth of a comb; they are
then said to be pectinate.

Lyrate, differs from pinnatifid in having its terminating seg-
ment broader and more circular. (See Fig. 33, c.)

Fig. 34.

Palmate, or hand shaped (Fig. 84, a) ; one species of the pa&-
sion flower (Passiflora ccendia) affords a good example of this
kind of leaf. The oblong segments like fingers, arise from a
space near the petiole, which may be considered as resembling
the palm of the hand.

Digitate, or fingered leaf (Fig. 34, b), differs from the pal-
mate leaf in having no space resembling the palm of a hand;
but several distinct leafets arise immediately from the petiole,
as may be seen in the Horse Chesnut.

Connate (Fig. 34, c) : the bases of opposite leaves are united
so as to appear one entire leaf.

Pinnatifid— Lyrate— Palmate— Digitate— Connate.

76

LEAVES.

Fig. 35.

Lobed, when leaves are deeply indented at their margins
they are said to be lobed, and according to these indentures,
they are said to be three lobed, four lobed, &c. Fig. 35, a, rep-
resents a three lobed leaf, as may be seen in the Hepatica tri-
loba.

Sinuate, from the Latin sinus, a bay ; this term is applied to
leaves which have their margins indented with deep roundish-
divisions as at b, Fig. 65.

Eniarginate, denotes a slighter indentation as at c, Fig. 35.
Fig. 36.

FlabcJ/fform, or fan
shnped (from flabdlum,
a fan) ; this form of the
leaf is seen in some of the
palms. In China they
are used for fans and sold
to foreign merchants for
the same purpose. Fig.
36 is a representation of
the dwarf-fan-palm (Cha-
mccrops hu?nilis).

Lobed Sinuate - Emarginate— Flabelliform.

LEAVES.

77

Fig. 37. Stellated, or whorled (from Stella a

star), this term is applied both to leaves
and flowers and relates to the manner m
which they grow around the stem, as in
Fig. 37.

Tubular, there are many varieties of
this kind ; the leaf of the onion is a com-
plete tube ; the Sarracenia or side-saddle
flower has the sides of its leaf united form-
ing a cup, which is found filled with liquid,
supposed to be a secretion from the ves-
sels of the plant. In some countries of the torrid zone is the
wild pine, Tillandsia, the leaves of which are hollowed out at
their base, so as to be capable of containing more than a pint.
A traveller says, by making an incision into the base of this
leaf and collecting the water in our hats, we could obtain a
sufficient supply for the relief of the most intense thirst. The
fluid is not a secretion from the plant, but is deposited during
the rainy season.

Fig. 38.

The pitcher-plant (Nepenthes distillatoria) (Fig. 38), affords a
most singular tubular- receptacle in an appendage to its leaf; this
is lanceolate ; beyond the apex of the leaf « , the mid-rib extends
in the form of a tendril ; at the extremity of this tendril is the
cylindrical cup or pitcher b, about six inches in length and one
and a half in diameter ; it is furnished with a lid, c. This is
usually found filled with pure water,' supposed to be a secre-
tion from the plant. Insects which creep into this cup are
drowned in the liquid, except a small species of shrimp which
lives by feeding on the rest. The pitcher-plant is a native of
Ceylon where it is called monkey cup, on account of its being
frequented by these animals for the purpose of quenching their
thirst.

Compound leaves.

When several leafets grow on one petiole the whole is term-
ed a compound leaf, as in the rose.

Stellated — Tubular — Compound leaves.

7*

78

LEAVES.

Fig. 39.

Pinnate, at Fig. 39, a, represents the petiole or principal
leaf stalk ; from this spring out other divisions, each bearing a
leafet; $, b, represent the stipules or appendages, the \v hole-
taken together forms one compound pinnate leaf. The term
pinnate is from the Latin pinna, a wing or pinion.

Binate ; when two leafets only form the petiole, as in Fig.
39, c.

Fig- 40. Ternate;

when the
leafets a-
rise from
the petiole
as Fig. 40,
a. Biter.
nate is a

second division of threes, us Fig. 40, F. Triternatc is a third
division of threes, as Fig. 40. c.
Fig. 41.

Decompound, when a pinnate leaf is again divided, or has
its leaves twice compound, as Fig. 41, a. At I, is a represent-
ation of thrice compound leaves.

Leaves with respect to Magnitude.

Leaves vary in size, from the small leaves of some of the

Pinnate— Binate— Ternate— Biternate— Triternate — Decompound — Size of
leaves.

LEAVES. 79

forest-trees of our climate, to the spreading Palms and Bananas
of the torrid zone. As we approach the torrid zone, the leaves
increase in magnitude ; we can however scarcely credit the re.
ports of travellers, who say, that the Talipot tree, in the Island
of Ceylon, produces leaves of such size, that twenty persons
may be sheltered by one single leaf. Although this account
may be exaggerated, there is no doubt of the fact, that the
leaves of the torrid zone are of a wonderful size ; and that
whole families can make their habitations under the branches
of these trees. Here we see the care of that ever kind Prov-
idence, which, in countries parched the greater part of the
year by a vertical sun, has formed such refreshing shelters.

Mungo Park, in his travels in Africa, remarks upon the
many important uses of palm leaves ; serving as coverings to
cottages, as baskets for holding fruit,- and umbrellas for defence
against rain or sun. These leaves are a good substitute for
paper, and were so used by the eastern nations. Many sup.
pose that the scriptures of the Old Testament were originally
committed to palm leaves.

The magnitude of leaves often bears no proportion to the
size of the plants to which they belong. The oak, and other
forest trees, bear leaves, which appear very diminutive when
compared with the cabbage, or burdock.

Leaves, with respect to Duration, are,

Caducous, such as fall before the "end of summer.

Deciduous, falling at the commencement of winter ; this is
the case with most vegetables, as far as 30° or 40° from the
equator.

Persistent, or permanent, remaining on the trees amidst the
changes of temperature : as,the leaves of the pine and box.

Evergreen, preserving their greenness through the year ; as
the fir-tree and pine, and generally all cone-bearing and resin-
ous trees; these change their leaves annually, but the young
leaves appearing before the old ones decay, the plant is always
green.

In our climate the leaves are mostly deciduous, Teturningin
autumn to their original dust, and enriching the soil from which
they had derived their nourishment. In the regions of the tor-
rid zone, the leaves are mostly persistent and evergreen ; they
seldom fade or decay in less time than six years ; but these
same trees, removed to our climate, sometimes become annu-
al plants, loosing their foliage every year. The passion-flow-
er is an evergreen in a more southern climate.

Palm-leaves - Leaves not corresponding in magnitude to the size of the plant
— Duration.

80 ANATOMY OF LEAVES.

Leaves with respect to Colour.

Leaves have not that brilliancy of colour which is seen in
the corolla or blossom ; but the beauty of the corolla, like most
other external beauty, has but a transient existence ; while the
less showy leaf remains fresh and verdant, after -the flower has
withered away.

The substance of leaves is so constituted as to absorb all the
rays of light, except green ; this colour is, of all others, best
adapted to the extreme sensibility of our organs of sight. Thus,
in evident accommodation to our sense of vision, the ordinary
dress of nature is of the only colour upon which our eyes can
for any length of time rest without pain.

But although green is almost the only colour which leaves
reflect, their variety of shades is almost innumerable.

" No tree in all the grove but has its charms,
Though each its hue peculiar ; paler some,
And of a wannish grey ; the willow such,
And poplar, that with silver lines his leaf;
And ash far stretching his umbrageous arm :
Of deeper green the elm ; and deeper still,
Lord of the woods, the long surviving oak."*

The contrast between their shades, in forests, where different
families of trees are grouped together, has a fine effect, when
observed at such a distance, as to give a view of the whole as
forming one mass.

A small quantity of iron, united to oxygen in the vegetable
substance, and acted upon by rays of light, is said to give rise
to the various colours of plants. f If this theory is correct, the
different shades of colour in plants, must be owing to the differ-
ent proportion in which the iron and oxygen are combined.

To quote the words of a celebrated Chemist, " When Nature
takes her pencil, iron is the colouring she uses."

LECTURE X.

Anatomy and Physiology of Leaves — Their use in the Vege-
table System. — Appendages to Plants.

LEAVES are compared to the lungs of animals ; they are or-
gans for respiring, perspiring, and absorbing. When leaves

* Cowper.

t This idea coincides with the supposition, that the green colour of leaves is
changed to brown by the loss of an acid principle ; that when the petals of
flowers turn from purple to red, they have an increase of an acid. The base of
this acid is oxygen.

Colour of leaves— Different shades in the colour of leaves — What is the causo
of the different shades of colour in leaves ?— The use of leaves in the vegetable
economy.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 81

are wanting, as in the Prickly Pear, (Cactus,} the green sur-
face of the stem appears to perform the office 01 leaves. If you
will observe a dead leaf which has for some time been exposed
to the action of the atmosphere, you may see its skeleton, or
frame work ; this consists of various fibres, minutely subdivided,
which originate from the petiole. This skeleton of the leaf
may be examined to advantage, after boiling the leaves slight-
ly, or rubbing them in water ; the cuticle or skin easily sepa-
rates, and the pulp, or cellular texture, may then be washed
out from between the meshes of the veined net-work ; thus the
most minute cords of the different vessels become perceptible,
with their various divisions and subdivisions ; this forms what
is called the vascular system. (See Fig. 42.)

• Fig-42' In external

appearance the
organs which
compose the
vascular system
are analogous
to the bones
which consti-
tute the founda-
5tion of the ani-
mal system, but
are considered

as performing the office of veins or arteries. They are found
to be tubular ; in some cases, this is ascertained by the naked
eye ; in others, beautifully illustrated by immersing the fibres
of the leaf in some coloured liquid ; on taking it out, they are
found to contain internally a portion of the liquid ; this experi-
ment proves them to be transparent as well as tubular.

The covering of this frame-work of the leaf is the cuticle and
a pulpy substance, called the parenchyma, or cellular texture.
Some leaves contain much more of this than others, of course
they are more pulpy and juicy ;. it is found, as its name cellular
would denote, to consist of a mass of little cells, various in size
in different leaves ; in some, with the most powerful magnifiers,
the cells are scarcely perceptible ; in others, they may be seen
with the naked eye. These cells are of important use, in the
secretion and communication of substances through the leaf;
and may thus be considered as a kind of glands, having a com-
munication with the vascular system.

The covering of the leaf, or the cuticle,* guards the vascular

* The cuticle is sometimes called epidermis, from epi, around, and derma,

Skeleton of the leaf— Vascular system — How ascertained to be tubular and
transparent — Cellular texture— Cuticle,

82 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LEAF.

system and cellular texture from injury, and is the medium, by
which the leaf performs the important functions of absorbing
nourishment, and throwing off such substances as are useless
or hurtful. The cuticle is sometimes covered with downy or
hairy glands, which seem to afford security against changes of
weather ; such plants are capable of enduring a greater degree
of heat than others. In some cases the cuticle is covered with
a transparent varnish, which preserves the plant from injury
by too much moisture, and adds to the beauty of the leaves.
The trees of Abyssinia and some other countries, which are sub-
ject to long rains, and continued moisture, are thus shielded
from the injurious effects of the weather.

Some of the uses of Leaves.

Leaves perform a very important office, in sheltering and
protecting the flowers and fruit ; the fact of their inhaling or
absorbing air, is thought to have been proved, by placing a plant
under an exhausted receiver, permitting the leaves only to re-
ceive the influence of air ; the plant remained thrifty in this
situation for a length of time ; but as soon as the whole plant
was placed under the receiver, it withered and died.*

The upper surface of leaves is usually of a deeper green, and
supposed to perform a more important part in respiration, than
the under surface. The upper surface repels moisture ; you
may perceive upon a cabbage leaf after a shower, or heavy
dew, that the moisture is collected in drops, but has no appear-
ance of being absorbed by the leaf. It has been found that the
leaves of plants, laid with their upper surface upon the water,
wither almost as soon as if exposed to the air ; although the
leaves of the same plants, placed with their under surfaces upon
the water, retain their freshness for some days. But few among
the vegetable tribes are destitute either of leaves, or green stems,
which answer as a substitute. The Monotropa, or Indian pipe,
is of pure white, as if made of wax ; the mushrooms are also
destitute of any green herbage. It is not known in what man-
ner the deficiency of leaves is made up to these vegetables.

The period in which any species of plant unfolds its leaves, is
termed its Frondescence. Linnaeus paid much attention to this

skin ; the true skin being not the outer covering, but a cellular substance be-
neath; thus the thin skin upon the hand which so easily becomes rough, is the
cuticle, or epidermis (sometimes called the scarf-skin), while the real skin is
below.

* I give this experiment on the authority of Barton; but although the respi-
ration of leaves seems not to be doubted, this experiment may not be thought a
fair one ; for it would seem very difficult, to place a plant under a receiver, with
the leaves exposed to the air, without at the same time admitting any air into
the receiver.

Important office of the leaf— Few plants destitute of leaves— Frondescence.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LEAF. • 83

subject ; he stated as the result of his investigations, that the
opening of the leaf buds of the Birch tree, (Betula,) was the
most proper time for the sowing of barley. The Indians of our
country had an opinion, that the best time for planting Indian
corn, was when the leaves of the White oak, (QUERCUS alba,)
first made their appearance ; or according to their expression,
are of the size of a squirrel's ears.

One of the most remarkable phenomena of leaves, is their
irritability, or power of contraction, upon coming in contact
with other substances. Compound leaves possess this property
in the greatest degree ; as the sensitive plant, (MIMOSA sensitiva :)
and the American sensitive plant, (CASSIA nictitans :) these
plants, if the hand is brought near them, seem agitated as if
with fear, but as plants are destitute ^of intelligence, we must
attribute this phenomenon to some physical cause, perhaps the
warmth of the hand, which produces the contractions, and dila-
tations of the leaves.

The effect of light upon leaves is very apparent, plants being
almost uniformly found to present their upper surfaces to the
side on which the greatest quantity of light is to be found. It
has already been observed that plants throw off oxygen gas ;
but for this purpose they require the agency of light.

Carbonic acid gas is the food of plants; this consists of car-
bon and oxygen, and is decomposed by the agency of light ; the
carbon becomes incorporated with the vegetable, forming the
basis of its substance, while the oxygen is exhaled or thrown
off into the atmosphere.

Many plants close their leaves at a certain period of the day,
and open them at another ; almost every garden contains some
plants, in which this phenomenon may be observed ; it is par-
ticularly remarkable in the sensitive plant, and the tamarind
tree. This folding up of the leaves at particular periods, has
been termed the sleep of plants; it may seem a singular term to
apply to plants ; but a celebrated botanist* remarks, " this fold-
ing up of the leaves may be as useful to the vegetable constitu-
tion, as real sleep is to the animal." Linnaeus was led to ob-
serve the appearance of plants in the night, from a circum-
stance which occurred in raising the Lotus plant ; he found
one morning some very thrifty flowers, but at night they had
disappeared ; this excited his attention, and he began to watch
the plants through the night, in order to observe the period of
their unfolding. He was thus led to investigate the appearance
of other plants in the night, and to observe their different man-
ner of sleep. He found that some folded their leaves together,

* Sir J. E. Smith.

Irritability— Effect oflight— Sleep of plants.

84 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LEAF-

others threw them back upon their stems, and exhibited a va-
riety of appearances. This phenomenon has been attributed
to the absence of light. A curious experiment was made by
a botanist, who placed the sensitive plant in a dark cave, at
midnight, and then lighted up the cave with lamps ; the leaves
which were before folded up, suddenly expanded, and when on
the following day the lights were extinguished, the leaves again
closed.

The period at which the leaves fall off is termed the DefoU-
ation* of the plant ; about the middle of autumn, the leaves of all
annual, and of many perennial plants, gradually lose their vi-
gour, change their colour, and at length fall from their stems.

The " fall of the leaf" may be referred tb two causes; the
death of the leaf, and the vital action of the parts to which it is
attached. If a whole tree is killed by lightning, or any sudden
cause, the leaves will adhere to the dead branches, because the
latter have not the energy to cast them off. The richness and
variety of colouring exhibited about the end of autumn, by our
groves and forests, is splendid beyond the power of the painter
to imitate. Yellow, red, and brown, are the most common
colours of the dying leaf; but these colours vary from the
brightest scarlet, and the deepest crimson, intermixed with every
shade of yellow, from the deep orange, to the pale straw
colour.

Although we have said considerable upon leaves, yet, we have
merely touched upon the most important circumstances with re-
spect to them. You will, perhaps, be induced to pay piore at-
tention than formerly to them, in their different stages ; from
their situation in the bud, to their full growth and perfection ;
and will feel a new interest in their change of colour, when you
understand something of the philosophy of this change ; even
the dry skeletons of leaves, which the blasts of autumn strew
around us, may not only afford a direct moral lesson, but, indu-
cing you to examine their structure, lead you to admire and
adore the power which formed them.

Appendages to Plants.

Plants have a set of organs, the uses of which are less appa-
rent than those we have been considering ; but we should not
infer, because the design for which they have been formed is in
some measure concealed from us, that they were made for no
purpose, or exist by mere accident ; let us rather with humility,

* From de, signifying to deprive of, and/oZtum, leaf.

Defoliation— Fall of the leaf— Concluding remark— Reflections upon the use
of certain organs.

APPENDAGES TO PLANTS. 83

acknowledge that this blindness must be owing to the limited
nature of our own faculties. It would be impious for us to ima-
gine, that all the works of God which we cannot comprehend,
are useless.

The organs to which we now refer are called by the gene-
ral name of appendages ; they consist of seven different kinds,
Stipules, Prickles, Thorns, Glands, Stings, Scales, Tendrils,
Pubescence, and Bracts.

Fig- 43. 1st. Stipules, are

membranous or leafy
scales, usually in pairs,
at or near the base of
the leaf or petiole. The
stipules furnish charac-
ters used in botanical
distinctions. They are
various in their forms
and situations, found in most plants, but sometimes wanting.
In the garden violet, VIOLA TRICOLOR (Fig. 43, a, a), the sti-
pules are of that form called lyrate pinnatifid, while the true
leaf (#), is oblong and crenate. The most natural situation of
the stipules is in pairs, one on each side of the base of the foot-
stalk, as in the sweet pea ; some stipules fall off almost as soon
as the leaves are expanded, but in general, they remain as long
as the leaves.

2d. Prickles, arise from the bark; they are sometimes
straight, sometimes hooked, and sometimes forked. They are
usually found upon the stem, as in the rose ; but in some cases,
they cover the petiole, as in the raspberry ; in others, they are
found upon the leaf or the calyx, and in some instances, upon
the berry ; as in the gooseberry.

3d. Thorns, seem to be a kind of short pointed stem, easily
distinguished from prickles, as they grow from the woody part
of the plant, while the prickle proceeds only from the bark. On
stripping the bark from a rose bush, the prickles will come
away with it, but let the same experiment be made with a thorn
bush, and although the bark may be separated, the thorn will
still remain projecting from the wood.

Different kinds of appendages— Stipules— Prickles— Thorns— Difference be-
tween the thorn and the prickle.

APPENDAGES TO PLANTS,

In this drawing (Fig. 44V you will observe the thorn (a) to
remain on the stem, while the bark (b) has been peeled off. In
the prickle (c) the whole appears separated from the plant.
The thorns in some plants have been known to disappear by
cultivation. The gr.eat Linnseus imagined that in such cases,
the trees were divested of their natural ferocity and became
tame. You may smile at such a strange idea, but even great
minds have their weaknesses ; when persons become enthusias-
tic in any science, they are in danger of fancying analogies or
msomblances, which exist only in their own minds. A more
rational opinion is given by another botanist, viz. — that thorns
are in reality buds, which a more favourable situation converts
into luxuriant branches. But in some cases they do not disap-
pear even under circumstances favourable to vegetation.
Thorns have been compared to the horns of animals.

4th. Glands are roundish minute appendages, sometimes
called tumours or swellings ; they contain a liquid secretion
which is supposed to give to many plants their fragrance.
They are sometimes attached to the base of the leaf, some-
times, they occur in the substance of leaves ; as in the lemon
and myrtle, causing them to appear dotted when held to the
light. They are found on the petioles of the passion flower,
and between the teeth or notches of the leaves of many plants.

5th. Stings are hair-like substances, causing pain by an acrid
liquor, which is discharged upon their being compressed ; they
are hollow, slender, and pointed, as in the nettle.

6th. Scales are substances, in some respects resembling the
coarse scales of a fish ; they are often green, sometimes colour,
ed, and are found upon all parts of vegetables, upon the roots
-of bulbous plants, and upon the stems and branches of other
plants. They are imbricated upon the calyxes of most of the
compound flowers. You have seen in buds, how. important the
scales are to protect the embryo plant during the winter. Ca-
lyxes surround the flowers of grasses, under the name of glumes.
Scales envelope and sustain the stamens and fruit of the pine,
oak, chesnut, &c.

Thorns in some cases made to disappear— Glands— Stings— Scales.

APPENDAGES TO PLANTS.

87

Fig. 45.

7th. Tendrils, or claspers, thread-like, or
filiform appendages, by which weak stem*
attach themselves to other bodies for sup-
port ; they usually rise from the branches,
in some cases from the leaf, and rarely
from the leaf stalk or flower stalk. You
have here the representation (Fig. 45) of
a tendril. Tendrils are very important,
and characteristic appendages to many
plants. In the trumpet flower and ivy, the
tendrils serve for roots, planting themselves
into the bark of trees, or in the walls of
buildings. In the cucumber and some other
plants, tendrils serve both for sustenance
and shade. Many of the papilionaceous,
or pea blossom plants, have twining ten-
drils, which wind to the right and back
again. Among vegetables which have ten-
drils, has been discovered that property,
which some^have called the instinctive in-
telligence *of plants. A poetical botanist
represents the tendrils of the gourd and
cucumber, as " creeping away in disgust from the fatty fibres
of the neighbouring olive." The manner in which tendrils
stretch themselves forward to grasp some substances, while
they shrink from others, is mcTeed astonishing, but instead of
imagining that they have a preference for some and a dislike
for other objects, it is much more philosophical to conclude
that these effects arise from physical causes, which may, here-
after, be discovered. It has been ascertained by experiments,
that the tendrils of the vine, and some other plants, recede from
the light, and seek opaque bodies. The fact with respect to
leaves is directly the reverse of this, for they turn themselves
round to seek the light..

Some plants creep by their tendrils to a very great height,
even to the tops of the loftiest trees ; and seem to cease as-
cending only because they can find nothing higher to climb.
One of our most beautiful climbing plants is the CLEMATIS vif-
ginica, or virgin's bower, which has flowers of a brilliant
whiteness.

8th. Pubescence includes all down, hairs, woolliness, or silk-
mess of plants. The pubescence of plants varies in different
soils, and with different modes of cultivation. The species in
some genera of plants are distinguished by the direction of the

Tendrils— Recede from the light— Pubescence.

88

ORGANS OF FRUCTIFICATION.

hairs. The microscope is sometimes necessary in determining
with precision the existence and direction of the pubescence.
It has been suggested that these appendages may be for similar
purposes as the furs, hairs, and bristles of animals ; to defend
the plants from cold, and injuries from other causes.
Fig. 46.

9th. The Bract is a leaf among or
near the flowers, different from the
leaves of the plant. You may in this
branch (Fig. 46) observe the differ-
ence between the real leaves (b, 'b)
and the bract (a) ; the former being
cordate and crenate, the latter lanceo-
late and entire.

In some plants, as in several species
of sage, the transition from leaves to
bracts is so gradual, as to render it
difficult to distinguish between them,
and a considerable part of the foliago
is composed of the bracts. In some
plants, as the crown imperial, the stem
is terminated by a number of large and
conspicuous bracts. These appen-
dages are sometimes mistaken for the
calyx. Bracts are either green or
coloured, deciduous or persistent. The
Orchis tribe have green leaf-bracts.
No plants of the class Tetradynamia
have bracts.

We have, in regular order, considered the first of the two
classes of vegetable organs", viz : such as tend to the support
and growth of the plant, including root, stem, leaf and append-
ages ; we are soon to enter upon the class of organs whose
chief use appears to be that of bringing forward the fruit, or
the organs of reproduction.

LECTURE XL

Calyx.

We are now to consider the second division of vegetable or-
gans, viz. : such as serve for the reproduction of the plant, usu-
ally called organs of fructification. Their names were consid-
ered, when commencing the analysis of flowers ; but we aro

Bract — Difference between the real leaf and the bract — Recapitulation— S»»
eond division of vegetable organs.

CALYX. 80

now to examine them with more minute attention, and to re-
mark upon their different uses in the vegetable econo'my.

You are no doubt pleased to have arrived at that part of the
plant, which is the ornament of the vegetable kingdom. Flow-
ers are delightful to every lover of nature ; a boquet or even
the simplest blossom, presented by a friend, interests the heart.*
How many pleasant thoughts are awakened by the fresh and
perfumed incense which is offered by flowers ; their odour has
been poetically termed the language by which they hold com-
munion with our minds. Females are usually fond of flowers ;
bilt until recently, the greater number have only viewed them
as beautiful objects, delighting the senses by their odour and
fragrance ; without being aware that these objects, lovely as
they seemed, might be rendered doubly interesting, by a scien-
tific knowledge of the relations and uses of their various parts.
Even at the present period, there are those who spend years in
cultivating plants, ignorant of their botanical characters, when
a few hours study might unfold to them the beautiful arrange-
ment of Linnaeus, and open to their astonished minds a world
of wonders.

Although every part of a plant offers an interesting subject
for study, the beauty of the blossom, seems by association, to
heighten the pleasure of scientific research. Flowers are in-
deed lovely, but like youth and beauty they are fading and
transient ; they are, however, destined for a higher object than
a short lived admiration ; for, to them, is assigned the important
office of producing and nourishing the fruit : like them may
you so improve the bloom of life, that when youth and beauty
shall have faded away, your mind may exhibit that fruit, which
it is the important business of the present season to protect and
nurture.

The parts of the flower, or the organs of fructification are
the following,

Calyx, Pericarp,

Corolla, Seed,

Stamen, Receptacle.
Pistil,

Calyx.

The Calyx is frequently wanting ; as in the tulip. The co-
rolla is also wanting in many plants ; as, in most of the forest
trees which, to a careful observer, may seem to produce no flow-
er, but the presence of a stamen and pistil, is in botany consider-
ed as constituting a perfect flower. These two organs are es-
sential to the perfection of the fruit ; and when a flower is des-

Flowers delightful— Many who cultivate thorn ignorant of their botanical
characters — Flowers analogous to youth — Organs of fructification — Calyx,
sometimes wanting.

8*

90 CALYX.

titute either of stamens or pistils, it is termed imperfect. A
flower is said to be incomplete when any of the seven organs of
fructification are wanting.

The word Calyx is derived from the Greek, and literally
signifies a cup; it is the outer cover of the corolla, and usually
green ; when not green it is said to be coloured. This organ is
an expansion of the bark of the flower-stalk, as appears from
its colour and texture. The calyx usually envelopes the corol-
la, previous to its expansion, and afterwards remains below or
around its base. Sometimes the calyx consists of one leaf on-
ly, it is then called monophyllous ; when it consists of several
distinct leaves, it is called potyphyllous ; when one calyx is sur-
rounded by another, it is double ; when one calyx surrounds
many plants, it is common.

In the calyx are three parts, very distinct in calyxes which
are long and cylindric; they are, 1st. the tube which commences
at the base, or the top of the peduncle; "2nd. the throat, above
the tube; and 3d. the mouth, or the upper and expanded part;
the tube of the calyx is cylindric in the pink, and prismatic in
the stramonium,

The position of the calyx with respect to the germ, offers an
important mark of distinction between different genera, a ml al-
so between different natural families of plants. The calyx is
said to be superior when it is situated on the summit of the germ
as in the apple ; it is inferior when situated below the germ, as
in the pink. In many plants the calyx is neither superior or
inferior, but is situated around the germ.

When the calyx drops oif before the flower fully expands, it
is called caducous; the petals of the poppy are, at first, enclosed
in a calyx of two large green leaves, but these fall off before
the flower is fullblown. When the calyx withers and drops off
with the corolla it is called deciduous. In many plants it re.
mains until the fruit is matured ; it is then called persistent. In
a pea- pod, for example, the calyx may be seen as perfect as it
was in the blossom. In an apple or a pear, the dried leaves of
the calyx may b£ seen on the tops of the fruit; this shows that
the calyx was superior.

According to the divisions of Linnaius there are seven kinds
of calyxes; viz.

Perianth, G'nme,

Incolucrum, Calyptra,

Amnit, Volva.
Spalha,

Perianth. This term is derived from the two Greek words
peri, around, and anthos, flower. This is the only real calyx
or cup, as the term cup does not properly apply to the other

Description of the calyx -Parts of the calyx -Position with respect to the
germ— Duration— Different kinds of calyxes— Perianth.

CALYX.

91

kinds. A good example of the perianth calyx is presented in
the rose where it is Mr?i-form, with divisions at the top resem-
bling small leaves. In the pink, the perianth is long and tubu-
lar, having the border dentate or toothed. The holly. hock, hi-
biscus, and many other plants have a double perianth. The
general remarks which were made upon the calyx may be con-
sidered as chiefly applicable to the perianth.

Involucrum. This term is derived from the Latin, involve,
to wrap up ; this kind of calyx is usually found at the base of
an umbel, as in the carrot. It is said to be universal, when it
belongs equally to the whole of an aggregate flower ; and par-
tial when it encloses one floret, which, with others, constitutes
a compound or aggregate flower. The term involucrum is al-
so applied to the membranous covering in the fructification of
ferns.

Ament or catkin. Is a kind of calyx, by some classed as a
mode of inflorescence ; it consists of many chaffy scales, ranged
along a thread-like stalk or receptacle ; each scale protects ono
or more of the stamens or pistils, the whole forming one ag-
gregate flower. The Ament is common in forests trees ; as in
the oak and chesnut ; and is also found in the willow and pop-
lar. In some trees, the staminate flowers are enclosed in an
ament, and the pistillate in a perianth.

Spatha, signifies a sheath. It is that kind of calyx which
first encloses the flower, and when it expands, bursts lengthwise
and often appears at some distance below it. The wild turnip
or ARUM, furnishes an example of this kind of calyx, enclosing
a kind of inflorescence called a spadix. From the peculiar ap-
pearance of the spadix, as- it stands up surrounded by the spa-
tha, it is sometimes called Jack in the pulpit. The spatha is

common in many of our
cultivated exotics, as in tho
daffodil (NARCISSUS) where
it appears brownish and
withered, after the full ex-
pansion of the flower.
You see here a representa-
tion (Fig. 47), of the spa-
tha of the arum (&), and of
the Narsissus (c). In the
EgyptianLily, the spatha is
white and4 permanent and
the stamens and pistils grow
separately upon the spadix.

Fig. 47.

Involucrum — Ament — Spatha

92 CALYX.

Palms have a spadix which is branched, and often bear* a
great quantity of fruit.

Fig. 48.

Glume, is from the latin word gluma, a husk. This is the
calyx of the grasses, and grass like plants. In the oat, and
wheat, it forms the chaff, a part which is thrown away as
worthless. In the oat (Fig. 48), the glume calyx is composed
of two pieces or valves ; in some kinds of grain, of but one, in
others of more than two valves. To the glume belongs the
awn or beard. The corolla of grasses is husky, like the calyx,
and is sometimes considered as a part of it. A French Bota-
nist says, that there is in the grasses, neither calyx nor corolla,
that these scales are only membranous bracts. He thinks, the
confusion with respect to those parts has tended to render the
study of grasses difficult.

Calyptra. This term is derived from the Greek, and signifies
a veil. It is the cap, or hood of pistillate mosses, resembling
inform and position the extinguisher of a candle.

Volva, or curtain ; the ring or wrapper of the Fungus plants.
It first encloses the head of the Fungus, afterwards bursts and
contracts ; remaining on the stems, or at the root.

We have now considered the different kinds of calyx ; we
find that the calyx is not essential, since it is wanting in some
plants, but its presence adds to the completeness of the flower;
and in some cases it is the most showy part ; as in the Lady's-
ear-drop, where it is of a bright scarlet colour, and the Egyp-
tian Lily, where it is pure white.

The calyx is of use in protecting the other parts of the flow-
er, before they expand, and afterwards supporting them, by
keeping all in their proper position.

Pinks having petals with long and slender feet, which would
drop or break without support, have a calyx. Tulips having

Glume—Calyptra— Volva— Uses of the calyx.

COROLLA. 93

firm petals, and each one resting upon a broad strong basis,
are able to support themselves, and they have no calyx.

In some plants the calyx serves as a seed-vessel ; as in the
order Gymnospermia, of the class Didynamia, where there are
four naked seeds lying in the bottom of the calyx.

LECTURE XII.

Corolla.

The term corolla, or corol, is derived from the Latin, corona,
a crown or chaplet. As the calyx is formed by a continuation
of the fibres of the outer bark, the corolla is a continuation of
the cellular integument, or inner coat of the same. The tex-
ture of the corolla is delicate, soft, watery, and coloured. It
exhales carbonic acid gas, but does not give off oxygen, either
in the dark, or when acted upon by light ; as is the case with
the green parts of plants. The cuticle or outward covering
of the corolla is of an extremely fine texture. The rich and
variegated colours of flowers, are owing to the delicate organi-
zation of the corolla ; and to this cause, its transient duration
may also be attributed.

The corolla exhibits every variety of colour, except black ;
florists sometimes present us with what they term black roses,
and we see some other flowers, which approach this colour, yet
none are perfectly black ; the darkest being but a very deep
shade of purple.

Corollas are white, yellow, blue, violet, &c. ; in some, dif-
ferent colours are delicately shaded, and blended ; in others,
they meet abruptly, without any intermediate tint.

The colour of the corolla, in the same species, often varies
without any assignable cause. This fact is strikingly illustra-
ted in the Four o'clock, (MIRABILIS,) the flowers cf which are
sometimes of a pale yellow, sometimes a bright crimson, and
often richly variegated. Man does not create these varieties;
they are the result of circumstances unperceived by him, and
not under his controul ; the florist watches these changes, and as
far as possible, avails himself of them in the production of new
beauties in the vegetable kingdom.

The corolla, before blossoming, is folded in the calyx, as the
leaves are within the scales of the leaf-bud, and the whole is
then called the flower bud. In most cases the calyx and corol-

Corolla — Derivation of the term — A continuation of the cellular integument
— Description of the corolla — Colour — Its situation before expanding.

94 COROLLA.

la are so distinctly marked, that it is perfectly easy to distin-
guish them; the colour usually constitutes a very striking mark
of difference ; the calyx being ordinarily green, and the corolla
of a more lively hue, but the colour is not always a criterion.
In some cases the calyx is beautifully coloured. In the Fi SCHIA,
(Lady's ear-drop,) the calyx is of a bright scarlet; you would,
no doubt, at first think it to be the corolla ; but if you remove
the scarlet coat, you may see, wrapped around the eight stamens,
a purple covering ; on taking off each piece carefully, you will
find four petals,* as distinct as the petals of a rose ; you will
then see that the outer covering must be the calyx.

Linnaeus, made the following distinction between the corolla
and the calyx ; viz. that the corolla has its petals alternate with
the stamens, and the calyx has its leafets arranged opposite to
them. This rule is not found to be invariable ; it has led some
botanists to call that the corolla, which others have named the
calyx. It seems as if nature had not placed any absolute limits
between these two organs.

The corolla sometimes falls off soon after the flowering, as in
the poppy; it is then said to be caducous; sometimes it fades
and withers upon the stalk, as in the blue bell ; it is then said
to be marescent or withering.

Each simple part, of which the corolla is composed, is called
a petal. A flower with petals is said to be petalous ; without
petals, it is called apetalous. The petals are definite when their
number is not more than twenty ; they are said to be indejinitf
when they exceed that number.

If the corolla is formed of one single piece, or petal, it is
monopetalous ; if of more than one, it is polypetalous. You
may sometimes find a difficulty in determining whether a corolla
is in one piece or more ; for monopetalous flowers often have
deep divisions, extending almost to the base of the corolla ; but
they must be divided at the base, or be in separate pieces, in or-
der to be considered as polypetalous. It is a good rule to con-
sider the parts into which a corolla naturally falls, as so many
petals.

Monopetalous corollas (see Fig. 50), consist of the tube,
throat and limb. The tube is the lower part, having more or
less the form of a tunnel. The throat is the entrance into the
tube ; it is either open, or closed by scales or hairs. The limb
is the upper border of the corolla.

* Some Botanists call these nectaries, but this seems to be making an unne-
cessary confusion in terms ; for they have as much the appearance of petal*,
as those of a rose or pink.

How distinguished from the calyx ? — Rule of Linnaeus— Duration— Parts of
the corolla— Monopetalous— Polypetalous corollas, how divided ? — Forms of
mouopetalous corollas.

COROLLA.

Fig. 49.

Polypetdlous corollas consist of several
petals. Each petal consists of two parts,
the lamina and claw.

The lamina (Fig. 49, a), is the upper
and usually the thinner part of the petal ;
its margin is sometimes entire, 6r without
divisions, as in the rose ; sometimes notch-
ed, or crenate, as in the pink. The lami-
na corresponds to the limb of monopeta-
lous corollas.

The daw (Fig. 49, b), is the lower part
of the petal, and inserted upon the recep-
tacle ; it is sometimes very short, as in
the rose ; in the pink, as seen at Fig. 49, it is long and slender.
The claw is analogous to the tube of monopetalous corollas.

The corolla is superior when it is inserted above the germ ;
inferior, when below. It is regular when each division cor-
responds to the other. The rose and pink have regular corol-
las. When the parts do not correspond with each other, a co-
rolla is irregular, as in the geranium, pea, and labiate flowers.

Different forms of Monopetalous Corollas.

Monopetalous corollas may, according to their forms, be di-
vided as follows.

Fig. 50.

1st. Bell-form (campanulate, from
campanula, a little bell); the tube is
not very distinct, as the corolla gradu-
ally spreads from the base ; as in the
blue bell, hair bell, &c. At Fig. 50
is the representation of a bell-form co-
rolla ; it is monopetalous ; the limb (a)
is five parted; calyx (b) five parted;
corolla superior.

2d. Funnel form (infundibuliformis, from infundi-
bullum, a funnel), having a tubular base, and a bor-
der opening in the form of a funnel, as the morning
glory (Fig. 51).

Polypetalous — Corolla, superior— Inferior — Regular— Irregular —Bell-form
—Funnel-form.

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.

COROLLA.

3d. Cup shaped (Cyaihiformis, from cya-
thus, a drinking cup), differing from funnel
shaped in having its tube, and of course its
border, less spreading ; and from bell form,
in not having its tube appear as if scooped
out at the base (Fig. 52).

4th. Salver form (hypocrateriformis,
from the Greek krater, an ancient drink-
ing glass, called a Salver). Having a
flat spreading border, pcoceeding from
the top of a tube (Fig. 53).

Fig. 55.

5th. Wheel form (rotata, from rota, a
wheel), having a short border without any
tube, or with a very short one (Fig. 54).

6th. Labiate (from labia, lips), consist*
of two parts, resembling the lips of a horse,
or other animal. Labiate corollas are said
to be personate,* having the throat closed,
or ringent,f with the throat open. You
have here a labiate corolla of the ringent
kind (Fig. 55). ,

* From persona, a mask.

t From ringo, to grin or gape.

Cup-shaped — Salver-form — Wheel-form— Labiate, how divided ?

COROLLA.

97

Kg. 56.

Different forms of Polypetalous Corollas.

1st. Cruciform (from crux, a cross), con-
sisting of four petals of equal size, spreading
out in the form of a cross, as the radish, cab-
bage, &c. (Fig. 56).

2d. Caryopliylkus, having five single pe-
tals, each terminating in a long claw, en-
closed in a tubular calyx, as the pink,
(Fig. 57).

3d. Liliaceous, a corolla with six petals, spreading gradu-
ally from the base, so as to exhibit a bell form appearance, as
in the tulip and lily.

4th. Rosaceous, a corolla formed of roundish spreading pe-
tals, without claws, or with very short ones, as the rose and
apple.

Fig. 58.

5th. Papilionaceous, a flower
with a banner, two wings, and a
keel : the name is derived from
the word papilio, 9. butterfly, on
account of a supposed resemblance
in form, as the pea blossom (Fig.
58).*

If a corolla is not in its form
like any of those we have descri-
bed, it is said to be anomalous. f

[t For this note, vide page 98.]
* It is proper here to observe two important facts connected with the descrip-
tions of plants, which are made by references to natural and artificial forms.
w 1st. A certain number of forms were assumed by Linnaeus as standards for

Forms of polypetalous corollas — Cruciform— Caryophyllous— Liliaceous—
Rosaceous — Papilionaceous — Anomalous corollas.

98 COROLLA.

Odour of Flowers.

The odour of flowers has its origin in the volatile oils, ela-
borated by the corolla : its production results from causes both
external and internal, but equally beyond our observation.

Temperature renders the odours of flowers more or less sen-
sible ; if the heat is powerful, it dissipates the volatile oils more
rapidly than they are renewed ; if the heat is very feeble, the
volatile oils remain concentrated in the little cells where they
were elaborated ; in both cases the flowers appear to possess
but little odour.

But if the heat is neither too great nor too Iktle, the volatile
oils exhale without being dissipated, forming a perfumed at-
mosphere around the flowers.

You see now the reason, that when you walk in a flower
garden in the morning, or towards evening, the flowers seem
more fragrant, than in the middle of the day. The air being
also more charged with humidity, is another cause of an in-
crease of fragrance at those times ; the moisture, by penetra-
ting the delicate tissue of the corollas, expels the volatile oils.
There are some exceptions to the laws just stated ; for some
flowers are only odorous during the night, and some, others
during the day. Some flowers exhale fetid odours, which at-
tract such insects as are usually nourished by putrid animal
substances. Many flowers exhale sweet odours; but however
odours may differ, in the sensations which they produce, it is
certain, they all have a stupifying, narcotic effect upon the
nerves, and that it is dangerous to respire, even the most
agreeable of them, in a concentrated state, for any great length
of time.

One important office of the corolla, is to secure those delicate
and important organs which it encloses, the stamens and pis-
tils, from all external injury, and to favour their developement.
After the germ has become fertilized* by the influence of tho

references ; none o£ which are to be considered as perfect. But when any one
of these forms ia referred to, it is to be understood that it is nearer the true
form of the organ under consideration, than any other of these standard forms.
U2d. All' standard forms are either drawn from well known natural bodies,
or from artificial bodies, or implements known to the ancients. Some of the

most common natural bodies are the egg, lips of animals, the throat, head,
knee, the heart, the kidneys, the hand, bird a feet, spur, feather, tooth, hair,
bristles, silk, down, eye lashes, veins, nerves, wings, ears, claws, &c. Some of

the most common artificial bodies or implements, are a spike, spindle, circle,
oval, lance, line, awl, arrow, halbert, viol, lyre, saw, shield, cross, sabre, nee-
dle, bell, keel, club, cone, leather, cup, fork, urn, wheel, &c.— Eaton.

t Anomalous is derived from twoaGreek words, a, without, and nomoffjaw;
it signifies without law or rule.

Origin of the odour of flowers^Odour affected by temperature — Odour af-
fected by moisture— Odours sometimes disagreeable — Dangerous of respiration
for a long time — Uses of the corolla.

NECTARY. 99

pollen, the corolla fades away, and either falls off or remains
withered upon the stalk ; the juices which nourished it then go
to the germ, to assist in its growth and enable it to become a
perfect fruit.

Another use of the corolla seems to be, to furnish a resting
place for insects in search of honey.

The corolla is supposed by Darwin to answer the same pur-
pose to the stamens and pistils, as the lungs in the animal sys-
tem ; each petal being furnished with an artery which conveys
the vegetable blood to its extremities, exposing it to the light
and air under a delicate moist membrane ; this vegetable blood,
according to his theory, is then collected and returned in cor-
respondent veins, for the sustenance of the anthers and stigmas,
and for the purpose of secreting honey.

Bernardin de Saint Pierre,* author of the interesting story of
Paul and Virginia, thinks the corolla is intended to collect the
rays of the sun, and to reflect them upon the stamens and pistils
which are placed in the centre.

After all our enquiries into the uses of the corolla, we arc
obliged to acknowledge that it appears not as important, in
the economy of vegetation, as many less showy organs. It
seems in reality designed chiefly to beautify and enliven crea-
tion, by the variety and elegance of its forms, the brilliancy of
its colouring, and the sweetness of its perfume.

..«:* Nectary.

In many flowers there is an organ called the nectary, which
secretes a peculiar fluid, the honey of the plant ; this fluid con-
stitutes the principal food of bees, and various other species of
insects.

Linnaeus thought the nectary to be separate from the co-
rolla ; and every part of the flower which was not stamen, pis.
til, calyx or corolla, he called by this name : his remarks on
this subject have given rise to more severe criticisms than al-
most any other part of his system. It is thought he applied
the term nectary too extensively, and in too vague a manner.
We cannot assert that the nectary is a separate organ from the
corolla, because it often makes a part of it ; although some-
times it is entirely separate.

The nectary seems not to be confined to any particular part
of the flower. Sometimes, it is a mere cavity, as in the lily.

* This ingenious author remarks, that man seems the only animal sensible
to the sweet impressions, made by the colour and odour of plants upon the
senses ; but we think he has asserted too much. Do not the brute creation
seem to enjoy, by the sense of smelling, the freshness of the verdant fields ?
But man is very apt to say, " See all things for my use."

Nectary— Its use—Not always a separate organ.

100 NECTARY.

Fig. 59.

The crown imperial (Fritittaria Impe-
rialis), exhibits in the claw of each of its
petals, a nectary of this kind ; each one
being filled with a- sweet liquid, the secre-
tion of the flower. If these drops are re-
moved, others immediately take their
place. You have here a representation
(Fig. 59) of the crown imperial ; its pe-
tals appear cut off near the base, in order
to show the six nectariferous glands at tho
base of each.

In the ranunculus, the nectary is a production of the corolla
in the form of a scale; in the violet a process of the same, in
the form of a horn or spur. In the columbine, the nectary is
a separate organ from the petals in the form of a horn. In the
monks-hood, one of the petals being concave, conceals the
nectaries ; they are therefore said to be hooded.

In monopetalous corollas, the tube is supposed to answer the
purpose of a nectary in secreting the honey. In the honey-
suckle we find at the bottom of the tube, a quantity of nectari-
ferous liquid, yet there is no appearance of any gland or organ,
by which it could have been secreted, unless we suppose the
tube to have performed this office.

With respect to the purpose for which honey is secreted by
the nectary and other parts of the flower, there seems, among
authors, to be some difference of opinion. Darwin supposes
this to be the food with which the stamens and pistils are nour-
ished, or the unripe seeds perfected. Smith asserts, that tho
only use of honey with respect to the plant, is to tempt insects,
which in procuring it, scatter the dust of the anthers, and fertil-
ize the flower, and even carry the pollen from the barren to the
fertile blossoms ; this is particularly the case in the fig-tree.
Although in the case of. plants whose stamens and pistils are
on separate flowers, we see this advantage arising from the
fact of insects being attracted by the honey, yet since the great-
er number of plants do not need this assistance in carry in<£
their pollen to the stigmas, we cannot agree with Smith that the
only use of honey is to tempt insects.

With respect to the use of honey in the vegetable system, it
seems difficult to determine ; some imagine that it especially
contributes to the perfection of the stamens; but plants without
appearing to secrete honey, have perfect stamens. One thing

Nectary of the crown imperial — Different forms of nectaries — Opinions (jf
different writers respecting their use — Honey.

STAMENS. 101

, however is certain with respect to this fluid, that without detri-
ment to the plant, it yields to the industrious bee the material
for the manufacture of honey, a luxury highly valued from the
most ancient times. Virgil knew that bees made honey from
the juices which they gathered from flowers; and we indeed,
on this subject, know but little more than he has beautifully ex-
pressed in his pastorals.

Although we are always discovering something new and
wonderful in the economy of nature, and in some cases seem
permitted to search into the hidden mysteries of her great Au-
thor, yet in our researches we are ever made sensible of the
limited nature of our own faculties ; and a still, small voice,
seems to whisper to man in the proudest triumphs of his rea-
son, "Hitherto shalt thougo, but no farther."

LECTURE XIII.

Stamens and Pistils.

ALTHOUGH the calyx and the corolla may be wanting, the sta-
mens and pistils are indispensable to the perfection of the fruit.
They are in most plants enclosed by the same envelope, or stand
upon the same receptacle; in the class Monoecia they are on
different flowers which spring from one common root ; and in
Dioecia, they are on different flowers, springing from different
roots. Yet however distant the stamens and pistils may be, na-
ture has provided ways by which the pollen from the staminat6
flowers may be conveyed to the pistillate, and there assist in
perfecting the seed . That you may the better understand this
curious process, and the organs by means of which it is carried
on, we will examine each one separately.

Stamens.

Stamens are thread-like parts which are exterior with respect
to the pistil, interior with regard to the corolla. They exhibit
a variety of positions with respect to the pistil. These po-
sitions seldom vary in the same family, and they have therefore
been taken by the celebrated Jussieu as one of the fundamental
distinctions in his classification, called the natural method. If
the stamens are inserted upon the pistil, as in umbelliferous
plants, they are said to be epigynous (from epi upon, and gynia
pistil) ; if the stamens are inserted under the germ, as in cruci-
form plants, they are laid to be hypogynous (from hypo under,
nnd gynia pistil) ; when the stamens are inserted upon the calyx,

Reflections — Stamens and pistils necessary — -Definitions of the stamen —
Positions with jespeet to the pistil.

9*

102 STAMENS.

and thus stand around the germ, as in rosaceous plants, they are
said to be perigynous, (fromperi around, and gynia pistil).

When a corolla is rnonopetalous, the number of stamens is
usually either equal or double, or half that of the divisions of
the corolla ; the stamens in such flowers never exceed twenty.

In polypetalous corollas, the number of stamens may be much
greater. When the number of stamens equals the divisions of
the corolla, they usually alternate with these divisions. WheA
the number of stamens is double the divisions of the corolla,
half of the stamens are usually placed in the intervals of the
divisions, and the remaining half before each lobe of the corolla,
corresponding to the intervals in the divisions of the calyx. If
any of the stamens are barren or without anthers, they are
those which are placed before the lobes of the corolla.

In commencing the analysis of flowers according tothe Lin-
naean system, you learned that the number of stamens, their po-
sition, relative length, and connection, taken either singly or in
combination, afford certain and distinctive marks for purposes
of classification.

In the first place we find the stamens differing in number, in
different plants ; some plants have but one, some two, and so
on till we come to ten ; when they have more than ten, we find
the number in the same plant varies, and therefore we cannot
depend on the cirumstance of number for further classification.

We then resort to position, and consider whether the stamens
are inserted upon the calyx or not, thus furnishing an eleventh
and a twelfth class.

Inequality in the length of stamens, considered with respect
to number, furnishes us with a thirteenth and fourteenth class.

The connection or union of stamens gives us the fifteenth
class, where the filaments of the stamens are united in one set;
the sixteenth class where they are in two sets ; the seventeenth
where the anthers of the stamens are united.

The three remaining classes of phenogamous plants are dis-
tinguished by the position of the stamens with n-spect to the
pistils. In the eighteenth class the stamens stand on the pistil ;
in the nineteenth the stamens and pistils are on separate flowers
on the same plant ; in the twentieth they are on separate plants ;
and in the twenty-first they are invisible.

We will now proceed to the parts of the stamen ; these are
two. The filament and anther.

The Filament, is so called fromJUui^i, a thread. Filaments

Divisions of monopetalous corollas usually in proportion to the number of
stamens— Situation of the stamens with respect to the divisions of the corolla
— Stamens used for purposes of classification — Differ in number — In the mode
of insertion— Stamens differ in length — In connection — In position with respect
*« the pistil — Parts of the stamens — Filament.

PISTIL. 103

vary in their form ; some are long and slender, as in the pink ;
others are short and thick, as in the tulip. They are usually
smooth, but in the mullein they are bearded ; in the spider- wort,
(Tradescantia,) they are covered with down. In most cases a
filament supports but one anther, but sometimes it is forked and
bears two or more ; in some instances, many filaments have
but one anther. When the filaments are enclosed in the tube
of the corolla they are said to be inserted, when they extend
out of it, exserled. In some cases the filament is wanting, and
the anther is sessile, or immediately attached to the corolla.

In double flowers, the stamens, which seem to be intimately
connected with the parts of the corolla, are changed to petals.
Thisns the effect of cultivation, which by affording the stamens
excess of nourishment, causes them to swell out, and thus as-
sume the form of petals. In some double flowers almost every
trace of the stamens disappears ; in others, it is very easy to
perceive the metamorphosis which they have undergone, as
they retain something of their original form. The anthers usu-
ally disappear, which shows that the filaments have absorbed all
the nourishment. In many double flowers, roses especially, we
can see the change as it takes place, some stamens entirely
changed, others retaining something of their form, and others
still perfect. When all the stamens disappear, no perfect fruit
is produced. On account of this degeneration of the stamens,
cultivated flowers are not usually so good for botanical analysis,
as wild ones. The single flower exhibits the number of parts
which nature has given to it. The rose in its native state has
but five petals.

Anther, is a little knob or box usually situated on the sum-
mit of the filament ; it has cells or cavities which contain a pow.
der called the pollen ; this is yellow, and very conspicuous in
the lily and tulip. You have here the representation (Fig. 60)
of a stamen with its filament (a),
its anther (&), and the discharging
pollen (c). In many flowers you
will perceive the filament to be want-
ing ; the anthers are then said to be
'sessile ; that is, placed immediately
upon the corolla ; as at (d), which
represents a flower cut open, and its
five stamens growing sessile in the
throat.

Pistil^

In the centre of the flower stands the pistil, an organ essen-
tial to the plant. Like the stamens, the pistils vary in number

Stamens changed to petals— Anther— Pistil, situation and number.

104 PISTIL

in different plants, some having but one and others hundreds.
Linnseus has founded the orders of his first twelve classes on
the number of these organs. When they are more than ten,
he does not re-ly upon their number, which in this case is found
to vary in individuals of the same genus.

The pistil consists of three parts, the germ, style and stigma.
It may be compared to a pillar ; the germ (Fig. 61, a), corres-
Fig. 61. ponding to the base ; the style (b) to

the shaft ; and the stigma (e) to the

capital.

The figure at (g) represents the pis-

°^* ^e P°PPy » tne germ or base is
rery large ; you will perceive that
'the style is wanting, and the stigma
is sessile, or placed immediately on
the germ. The style is not an essen-
tial part, but the stigma and germ are never wanting ; so that
these two parts, as in the poppy, often constitute a pistil.

Germ. The germ contains the rudiments of the fruit yet in
an embryo or unformed state. A distinction is to be made be-
tween the germ here spoken of and the germ of the bud. This
germ is the future fruit, and in passing to the state of the mature
fruit, it undergoes a very great change. You would scarcely
believe that the pumpkin is but the germ of the small yellow
flower of the plant. The germ is said to be superior when placed
above the calyx or corolla, as in the strawberry : inferior when
below them, as in the apple. The figure of the germ is round-
ish in some plants, cordate and angled in others; but its vari-
ous forms can better be learned by observation than descrip-
tion.

Style. This, like the filament, is sometimes wanting ; when
present, it proceeds from the germ, and bears the stigma on
its summit. It is usually long and slender, of a cylindrical
form, consisting of bundles of fibres, which transmit from the
stigma to the germ the fertilizing pollen.

Stigma. This word signifies a perfecting. The stigma is
the top of the pistil, and always present ; if the style be want-
ing, it is placed upon the germ, and said to be sessile, as in the
tulip. The stigma is various in size and form ; sometimes it
is a round head ; sometimes hollow and gaping, more especial-
ly when the flower is in its highest perfection ; it is generally
downy, and always more or 'less moist with a peculiar viscid
fluid.

Orders founded upon the pistil — Parts of the pistil — Pistil compared to a pil-
lar—Germ— Style— Stigma.

STAMENS AND PISTILS. 105

Use of the Stamens and Pistils.

In a former part of our lectures, it was observed that the
stamens and pistils were necessary to the perfection of the
fruit ; we will now explain to you the manner in which they
conduce to this important object ; as you are now acquainted
with the different organs and their names, you will no doubt
easily understand the explanation.

The pollen, which in most flowers is a kind of yellow dust, is
thrown out by the bursting of the anther, which takes place in a
certain stage of the flower. The pollen is very curiously form-
ed ; although appearing like little particles of dust, upon exa-
mining it with a microscope it is found to be composed of
innumerable organized corpuscles. These little bodies, though
usually yellow, are sometimes white, red, blue, &c. In order
to observe them well, it is necessary to put them upon water ;
the moisture, by swelling them, renders their true form per-
ceptible. They are oblong in the Umbelliferous plants, globu-
lar in the Syngenesious, and triangular in some others. In
some their surface is smooth, in others armed with little points.
They are connected together by minute threads , as in the
honey-suckle, &c. These little bodies, thus placed upon water,
swell with the moisture until they burst ; a liquid matter is
then thrown out, and, expanding upon the surface of the water,
appears like a light cloud.

" I should never finish," (says the French botanist,* from
whom this account of the pollen is translated,) "if I should at-
tempt to describe the varieties of appearances in the pollen."

If you have paid attention to what has been said respecting
the pollen, you perceive that wonders exist in nature, which
are entirely unperceived by a careless observer. .You would
scarcely have imagined that the yellow dust seen upon the lily
or tulip, and scarcely visible upon many other flowers, should
exhibit appearances so interesting, as to engage the attention
of a learned philosopher to such an extent, and in such a num-
ber of experiments, that he should find it too long a task to
enumerate all the phenomena which he had observed. It is
to convince you that the field of observation in the works of
nature is absolutely unbounded, that we have brought this sub-
ject before you ; for in general our limits do not permit us to
penetrate into the minute investigations which delight those
who have passed beyond the first principles of natural science.

Another purpose, and one more connected with our present

* Mirbel.

Use of the stamens and pistils— Description of the pollen— Why the subject
is introduced.

106 POLLEN,

design, in calling your attention to this subject, is to shew ther
use of the pollen in the vegetable economy. You have seen
the effect of moisture upon the pollen ; you will recollect that
the stigma was said to be imbued with a liquid substance, anrt
that the anther, when ripe, throws out the pollen by the spon-
taneous opening of its lids or valves ; the pollen coming in
contact with the moist stigma, each little sack of it explodes,
and the oily substance which it contains being absorbed by
the stigma, passes through minute pores into the germ.

In the germ are seeds formed, but these seeds require tho
agency of the pollen to bring them to the perfection necessary
for producing their species. You see now why the stamens
and pistils are so essential to the perfection of a plant. Na-
ture does not form a beautiful flower and then leave it to
perish without any provision for a future plant ; but in every
vegetable provides for the renewal of the same.

The real use of stamens and pistils was long a subject of
dispute among philosophers, till Linnaeus explained it beyond
a possibility of doubt ; these organs have from the most remote
antiquity been considered of great importance in perfecting
the fruit. The Date Palm, which was cultivated by the an-
cients, bears stamens and pistils on separate trees ; the Greeks
discovered that in order to have good fruit, it was necessary
to plant the two kinds of trees near together, and that without
this assistance the dates had no kernel, and were not good for
food.

In the east, at the present day, those who cultivate palms
select trees with pistillate flowers, as these alone bear fruit.
When the plant is in blossom, the peasants gather branches of
the wild palm trees, whose blossoms contain stamens, and strew
the pollen over their cultivated trees.

Pistillate flowers are called fertile, staminate infertile flowers.

As moisture causes the pollen to explode, rains and heavy
dews are sometimes injurious to plants ; the farmer fears wet
weather while his corn is in blossom. Nature has kindly or-
dered that most flowers should either fold their petals together,
or hang down their heads when the sun does not shine ; thus
protecting the pollen from injury.

The fertilization of the fig is said to be accomplished by in-
sects. In this singular plant the fruit encloses the flower; it is
at first like a hollow receptacle, lined with many flowers, sel-
dom both stamens and pistils in the same fig. This receptacle
has only a small opening at the summit. The seeds are ferti-
lise of the pollen in the vegetable economy — Real use of the stamens and
pistils unknown till the time of Linnaeus — Cultivation of palms in the east —
Flowers fold their petals in wet weather — Fertilization of the fig.

POLLEN. 107

iized by certain little flies, fluttering from one fig to the other,
and thus carrying the pollen from the staminate to the pistil-
late flowers.

Although the fertilization of plants where the stamens and
pistils are on separate flowers, depends a little upon chance,
the favourable chances are so numerous that it is hardly pos-
sible, in the order of nature, that a pistillate plant should re-
main unfertilized. The particles of the pollen are light and
abundant, and the butterflies, the honey bees, and other in-
sects, transport them from flower to flower.

The winds also assist in executing the designs of nature.

The pollen of the Pines and Firs, moved by winds, may
be seen rising like a cloud above the forests ; the particles be-
ing disseminated, fall upon the pistillate flowers, and rolling
within their scaly envelopes fertilize the germs.

A curious fact is stated by an Italian writer, viz. that in
places about forty miles distant, grew two palm trees, the one
without stamens, the other without pistils ; neither of them
bore seed for many years ; but in process of time they grew
so tall as to tower above all the objects near them. The wind
thus meeting with no obstruction, wafted the pollen to the pis-
tillate flowers, which, to the astonishment of all, began to pro-
duce fruit.

The number of plants in which the pistils and stamens are
on different flowers, is few compared to those which have these
important organs enclosed within the same corolla ; this is the
case with most of our plants and shrubs, and even with the trees
of hot countries ; whose leaves being always present, might
impede the passage of the pollen. On the contrary the treed
of cold climates have generally the stamens and pistils on sepa-
rate flowers, blossoming before the leaves come forth, and in a
windy season of the year. Those which blossom later, as the
oak, are either peculiarly frequented by insects, or like the
numerous kinds of firs, have leaves so little in the way, and
pollen so excessively abundant, that it can scarcely fail of gain-
ing access to the pistillate flower.

In all cases the pollen and stigma are in perfection at the
same time, and the stamens are generally shortest in drooping
flowers, and longest in erect ones ; thus in both cases hanging
over the stigma. " Gardeners formerly attempted to assist na-
ture, by stripping off the infertile flowers of melons and cucum-
bers, considering them as unnecessary incumbrances, since

Various methods by which nature conveys pollen to the pistillate plants —
Facts stated by an Italian writer — Trees of hot countries have mostly stamens
and pistils on the same corolla — Trees of cold countries have the stamens and
pistils on separate flowers — Pollen and stigma in perfection at the same time.

108 INFLORESCENCE.

they would never become fruit. But finding that they then
obtained no fruit at all, they soon learned the wiser practice
of admitting the winds to blow, and the insects to transfer the
pollen of the infertile to the fruit-bearing flowers."*

LECTURE XIV.

Inflorescence. — Receptacle. — Fruit. — MirbeVa classification of
fruits. — LinncBus' classification of fruits.

HAVING given our particular attention to the important uses
of the stamens and pistils, we shall now proceed to consider
the various ways in which flowers grow upon their stalks ;
this is called their inflorescence, or mode of flowering.

Inflorescence.

The position of the flower may be considered under thre«
heads.

With respect to the organs which it contains.

With respect to the branches which support it.

With respect to the flowers which are near it, or which
grow on the same peduncle.

1st. The corolla with respect to the organs which it contains.

The corolla, when it is monopetalous, supports the stamens,
the number of which in this case always corresponds to tho
number of divisions of the limb of the corolla. When the co-
rolla is polypetalous, the stamens are inserted upon the calyx
or upon the receptacle ; their number is then usually double
the number of petals ; as in the pink, which has ten stamens
and five petals. When inserted beneath the germ or base of
the pistil, the corolla is said to be hypo.gynous (underneath tho
style or inferior) ; as in the stramonium. When it is inserted
into the calyx and surrounds the germ, as in the currant, it is
said to be peri-gynous (around the style, or enveloping it).
When the corolla is inserted upon the germ, as in the trumpet-
honey-suckle, it is said to be epi-gynous (upon the germ, or
superior).

2d. The corolla with respect to the branches which support it.

The disposition of flowers upon their branches is analogous
to that of leaves ; thus, flowers are either radical, coming from
the root, or cauline, coming from the stem ; they are peduncled

* Smith.

Inflorescence — Position of the corolla considered under three heads— 1st.
Corolla with respect to the organs which it contains — 2d. Branches which
rapport the corolla.

INFLORESCENCE. 109

or sessile, solitary, scattered or opposite, alternate or axillary.
Sometimes they are unilateral, growing on one side of the
branch, and sometimes fixed equally upon all parts of the pe-
duncle and pointing in different directions.

3d. The corolla with respect to the flowers which surround it,
or which grow on the same peduncle.

The different modes of division of the common peduncle, in-
to lesser peduncles or supports, cause a great difference in the
appearance and situation of flowers, and appear under a variety
of forms. The green part which comes from the stem and
supports the flower, is called the peduncle ; sometimes it is call-
ed the foot stalk of the flower or fruit. The divisions of the
peduncle are called pedicels.

When the plant is one flowered, the flower is usually insert-
ed at the end of the stem ; the peduncle in that case is scarcely
distinct from the stem.

The most common kinds of inflorescence are as follows ;
Fig. 62.

1st. Whorl (Fig. 62), an assemblage
of flowers surrounding the stem or its
branches, constitutes a whorl or ring ;
this is se^n in mint and many of the la-
biate plants. Flowers which grow in
this manner are said to be verticillate,
from the Latin word verto, to turn.
Leaves surrounding the stem in a simi-
lar manner are said to be stellate, or
like a star.

3d. Flowers which surround the corolla— Different kinds of inflorescence
-Whorl.

10

110

INFLORESCENCE

Fig. 63.

2d. Raceme (Fig. 63,
a), consists of numerous
flowers on its own stalk
or pedicel, and all ar-
r;ui'_red on one common
peduncle, as a bunch of
currants.

3d. Panicle (Fig. 63,
b), bears tin- flowers in
a kind of loose subdivi-
ded bunch or cluster.
without any regular or-
der; as in the oat. A
panicle contracted into
a compact, somewhat
ovate form, as in t he-
lilac, is called a thuw
or bunch ; a bunch of
grapes is a good exam-
ple of a thyrse.

4th. >>'/.'• (Fig. 64
a), this 'snii assrn.hlag'-
of flowers arising from
-'di s of a n.inmon
; the flowers an-
sessiV: or with very
short peduncles ; as the
greases ;;nd the mullein.
A spike is generally
erect. The lowest flow -
crs usually blossom and
fade before the upper
ones expand. When the
flowers in a spike are
crowded very close, ai:
ear is formed, as in In-
dian corn.

5th. U?nbel(Fig. 64,
&), several flower stalks
of nearly equal length,

Raceme— Panicle— Spike— Umbel .

INFLORESCENCE.

Ill

spreading out from a common centre, like the rays of an um- .
brella, bearing flowers on their summits ; as fennel and carrot.
6th. Cyme (Fig. 64, c), resembles an umbel in having its
common stalks all spring from one centre, but differs in having
those stalks irregularly subdivided*; as the snow ball and elder.

Fig. 65.

7th. Corymb (Fig. 65, a), or false umbel, when the pedun-
cles rise from different heights above the main stem, but the
lower ones being longer, they form nearly a level or a convex
top ;, as the yarrow.

8th. Fascicle (Fig. 65, &), flowers on little stalks variously
inserted and subdivided, collected into a close bundle, level at
the top ; as the sweet william ; it resembles a corymb, but the
flowers are more densely clustered.

9th. Head (Fig. 65, 'c), or tuft, has sessile flowers heaped
together in a globular form ; as in the clover, and button bush
(cephalanthus).

Cyme— Cory mb — Fascicle— Head .

112

INFLORESCENCE

Fig. 66.

10th. Ament or catkin, is an assemblage
of flowers, composed of scales and stamens,
arranged along a common thread-like re-
ceptable, as in the chesnut and willow;
this is more particularly described under
the divisions of the calyx. The scales of
the ament are properly the calyxes ; the
whole aggregate, including scales, sta-
mens or pistils,1 and filiform receptacle, con-
stitutes the ament. At Fig. 66 is the rep-
resentation of the ament of the poplar, con-
taining pistillate flowers; this is oblong,
loosely imbricated, and cylindrical; the
'• calyx is a flat scale, with deep, fringed
i partings. At b, is a representation of the
'fertile or pistillate flower; the calyx or
bract is a little below the corolla, which is cup shaped, of one
petal, and crowned with an egg-shaped, pointed germ ; the
germ is superior, and bears four (sometimes eight) stigmas.

The staminate ament resembles the pistillate, except that its
corolla encloses eight stamens, but no pistil. The poplar is in
the class Dioecia, because the pistillate and staminate flowers
are on different trees, and of the order Octandria, because its
barren flowers have eight stamens.
Fig. 67.

llth. Spadix,isa.n
assemblage of flowers
growing upon a com-
mon receptacle, and
surrounded by a spa-
tha or sheath, as in
the Egyptian lily.
At Fig. 67 a, is a rep-
resentation of the
blossom of the wild
turnip (arum) ; a rep-
resents the spatha
which is erect, sheath-
ing, oblong, convolute
at the base, b; com-
pressed above and be-
low the middle ; c rep-
resents the spadix
which, from its club-
shaped appearance, is called clavi form (from

Ament — Spadix.

FRUIT,

At B is the spadix divested of the spatha; a is the clavi-
form summit ; b a ring of filaments without anthers ; c a ring
of sessile anthers ; d a dense ring of pistillate flowers with ses-
sile stigmas ; each germ produces a one-celled globular berry.
This plant is of the class Moncecia because its staminate and
pistillate flowers are separate, but yet grow on the same plant ;
it is in the order Polyandria, because its stamens are nu-
merous.

Receptacle.

The receptacle is the extremity of the peduncle ; at first it
supports the flower, and afterwards the fruit. As this is its on-
ly use, it may properly be considered in connexion with the
organs of fructification. In simple flowers, as the tujip, the
receptacle is scarcely to be distinguished from the peduncle,
but in compound flowers it is expanded and furnishes a sup-
port for the flowers and fruit. Receptacles are of various
kinds; as,

1st. Proper, supports but one flower, as in the violet and
lily.

2d. Common, supports many flowers or florets, the assem-
blage of which forms an aggregate or compound flower, as in
the sunflower and dandelion. The common receptacle pre-
sents a great variety of forms ; it is either dry or pulpy : it is
concave in the artichoke ; convex, in other plants ; flat, in the
sunflower, conical in some, and spherical in others. As to its
surface, it is punctate, or interspersed with hollow points or
dot'fi, as in the daisy, hairy as in the thistle, naked as in the
dandelion, or chaffy as in the chamomile.

3d. Rachis, is the filiform receptacle which connects the flo-
rets in a spike, as in the heads of wheat.

The Fruit.

The fruit is composed of two principal parts, the pericarp
and seed. The term pericarp is derived from peri around, and
karpos seed or fruit ; it signifies surrounding the seed. All
that in any fruit which is not the seed belongs to the pericarp.

Let us now inquire into the progress of the fruit from its first
appearance in the germ to its mature state. When you ana-
lyze a flower, you often find it necessary to ascertain the num-
ber of cells contained in the germ. In making this examina-
tion what appearance did the interior of the germ present, when
exposed' by cutting it horizontally'? You saw there minute
bodies of a pale green colour, and an apparently homogeneous

Receptacle — Different kinds of receptacles — Fruit, the two principal parts —
Derivation and signification of the word pericarp — Progress of the fruit con-
sidered.

10*

114 PERICARP AND SEED.

nature ; each of these is called an ovule* and their outer cover
ing, an ovary. These ovules, before the fertilization of the
germ by the pollen, are scarcely perceptible ; after this period,
and the fading of the corolla, the ovules increase in size, and
the embryo and other parts which constitute the seed become
manifest. The ovary enlarges with the growth of the ovules;
the use of this covering is not confined to the mere protection
of the seeds from injury, but it is furnished with glands, which
secrete such juices as are necessary for the growth and de-
velopement of the ovules. As the ovary becomes more inatun-
it takes the name ofpericarj). Pericarps in their growth be-
come either woody or pulpy ; the letter absorb oxygen ga-
• throw off carbonic acid; saccharine juices are elaborated in
their cellular integument. In another stage, the pulpy sub-
stance passes through a slight fermentation, the organization
is affected, the juices sour, the pulp decomposes and putrefac-
tion ensues. Such is the change which you may see in the
orange, apple, &c. during their progress towards maturity and
decay.

Pericarp and Seed.

The germ being fertilized, the piirts of the flower which are
not necessary for the growth of the fruit, usually fade, and
either fall off, or wither away. The germ continues to enlarge
until it arrives at perfection. Every kind of fruitf you can see
lias been once but the germ of a flower. The size of fruit is
not usually proportioned to that of the vegetable which produ-
ced it. The pumpkin and the gourd grow upon slender her-
baceous plants, while the large oak produces but an acorn.

Every pericarp is formed of a parenchymous substance ; this
substance is surrounded externally by a cuticle called the epi-
carp, internally by a membrane called the endocarp, and an in-
termediate part called the mesocarp. In a peach, for example.
the kernel is the seed ; the fleshy substance the pericarp; the
skin is the epicarp ; the pulpy cellular substance, which ab-
sorbs a great quantity of sap and constitutes the principal part
of the fruit, is the mesocarp; the shell, deprived of moisture
and nourishment by the absorbtion of the mesocarp, and thus
contracted in its fibres and rendered dry and tough, is the en-
docarp.

* From ovum, an r,gg.

t The term fruit, in common Inn'ru.'ure, is limited to pulpy fruits which arc-
proper for food ; but in a botanical sense, the fruit includes the seeds and peri-
carps of all vegetables.

Ovules — Ovary — Use of the ovary — Its name in a mature state — Pulpy peri-
carps— Germ — Size of fruit not in proportion to the plant that produces it —
Epicarp— Endocarp — Mesocarp.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. 115

The pericarp consists of different parts, as,

1st. Valves or external pieces, which form the sides of the
seed vessels. If a pericarp is formed of but one piece it is uni-
valved; the chesnut is of this kind. A pericarp with two
valves is said to be bivalved, as a pea-pod. The pericarp of
the violet is trivalved, that of the stramonium quadrivalved.
Most valves separate easily when the fruit is ripe ; this separa-
tion is known by the term dehiscence.

2d. Sutures or seams, are lines which show the union of
valves ; at their seams the valves separate in the mature stage
of the plant ; they are very distinct in the pod which has two.

3d. Partitions or dissepiments, are internal membranes which
divide the pericarp into different cells : these are longitudinal
when they extend from the base to the summit of the pericarp ;
th6y are transverse when they extend from one side to the
other.

4th. Column or columella, the axis of the fruit ; this is the
central point of union of the partitions of the seed vessels ; it
may be seen distinctly in the core of an apple. This was no-
ticed under the head of receptacles ; it is the receptacle of the
fruit.

5th. Cells, are divisions made by the dissepiments, and con-
tain the seeds ; their number is seldom variable in the same
genus of plants, and therefore serves as an important generic
distinction.

6th. Receptacle, is that part of the pericarp to which the
seed remains attached until its perfect maturity ; this organ,
by means of connecting fibres, conveys to the seed for its nour-
ishment juices elaborated by the pericarp.

Some plants are destitute of a pericarp, as in the labiate
flowers, the compound flowers, and the grasses ; in these cases
the seeds lie in the bottom of the calyx, which performs the of-
fice of a pericarp.

MirbeVs classification of Fruits or Pericarps.

Mirbel has divided the fruits of all phenogamous plants into
two classes ; 1st. gymnocarps, which include all such as are
not masked or covered by any strange organ, or form no union
which conceals their true character. 2nd. angiocarps, which
include all fruits covered by any strange organ, which dis-
guises them from observation.

Valves — Sutures — Partitions, or dissepiments — Column — Cells — Receptacle
of the pericarp— Pericarp sometimes wanting— Mirbel's two grand divisions of
fruit.

116

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.

CLASS 1. GYMNOCARPS,
Or fruits not concealed.

ORDER 1st. CARCERULARES (from career, a prison), simple
fruits which never open spontaneously.

This order includes the fruits of syngenesious plants, of the
grasses, fyc.

Fig. 68.

Cypsda (Fig. 68), repre-
sents a fruit of this genus ; it
is of the syngenesious family ;
the pericarp (a) is turbinute
(shaped like a top); its sur-
face is pubescent and furrow.
« « 1 : it is /' ndehiscent (not O{>en-
ing when ripe), and monosper-
mous (having one seed) ; t he-
egret (c) is sessile and plumose.
The embryo is dycutyledoncvs
and fleshy. At b, is the same pericarp, cut longitudinally and
exposing an inner half of one of the cotyledons.

Cerion, is the fruit of corn and the grasses ; in this genus the
embryo is situated upon the side of the seed.

Carcerula, the characters of this genus are variable: tin
buck-wheat (polygonum) is one example.

Fig. 69.

ORDER 2d. (' . simple

fruits, having capsules which open when
in a mature state.

Capsule. You see here (Fig. 60), a
capsular fruit ; it is the seed of the mar-
Q lily (Li H : " ivpre-

sents the r . . - it appears in ;i

mature state; I the same, cut trans-
•ly, showing the .seeds.

Among the genera in this order, are,

Legume, which is a bivalved pericarp, having its seeds at-

Order Carcerulares— Genera belonging to this order— Genera in the order
Capsulares — Describe the Legume.

GYMNOCARPS.

117

tached to one of its sutures ; as the bean and pea. Fig. 70,

a, represents a legume, the fruit of the genus Astragalus; b

represents the same cut transversely in order to show the cells.

Fig. 70.

Fig. 71.

Silique, a bivalved pericarp, having
its seeds attached to each valve ; as the
pods of cabbage and mustard. Fig. 71,.
a, represents a silique, the fruit of the
SINAPIS alba (white mustard); this is
said to be rostrate, terminating like a
bird's beak ; b represents a globular seed ;
c the same magnified ; d shows the seed
dividing, and the embryo making its ap-
pearance. The sillicula is a variety of
the same genus.

Pyxides (from puxis, a box), having its
capsule open horizontally, like a box ; as the
bachelor's button (GOMPHRENA globosa).
This genus may be illustrated by a fruit of
the genus Lecyihis (Fig. 72, a) ; b represents
the lid of the fruit.

ORDER 3d. Dieresilia (from diaresis, division), contains sim-
ple fruits, which divide into many parts when ripe.

The Silique— The Pyxides— Order Dieresilia.

118

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.

In this order is the genus cremorcarp (from krejnao, to sus-
pend, and karposj fruit), having a pericarp divisible into two
seeds, as the coriander, parsley, &c. The other genera in this
order are,

Regniate (from regma, opening with noise), containing many
seeds, which are enclosed by two valves, opening by an elastic
movement, as euphorbia.

Dieresil, a variable genus, containing such fruits in the or-
der Dieresilia as do not properly come under the two other
divisions, as the nasturtion, geranium, &c.

Fig. 73. You see here

(Fig. 78), a fruit
of the order Die-
I resilia ; it belongs
I to the genus Reg-
mate. It natu-
rally divides into
four seeds ; a rep-
resents the entire fruit, and b the same cut transversely, shew-
ing its four seeds.

ORDER 4th. Etairionnair (from etairoi, associates), con-
taining compound fruits, proceeding from a germ to which the
style adheres ; the genera are,

Double Follicle, as in the milk weed (asclepias), having two
follicles, each formed of one valve, folded lengthwise,

Etairon, having many seeds ranged round the imaginary
axis of the flower, as the ranunculus and anemone.

Fig. 74.

Here is the fruit (Fig. 74) of the Aco-
nitum (monk's hood), which belongs to
this order ; it is composed of three pods
united in one compound fruit ; a shows
>ne of the valves in a dehiscent state ; b
represents a seed cut longitudinally.

ORDER 5th. Cenobionnair, (from koinobion, a community)

Genera in the order Dieresilia — Genus Regmate — Dieresil — Order Etairion-
nair— Genera in the order Etairionnair— Double Follicle — Etairon — Describe
the fruit of the Aconitum— Order Cenobionnair.

GYMNOCARPS.

119

compound fruits without valves or sutures, proceeding from
germs without any styles ; this order contains but one genus,
Flg> 75> Cenobion, which includes

fruit of the labiate plants and
some others. This cut (Fig.
75), represents the pericarp of
the genus Gompliia ; it is com-
posed of five companions (a) as
Mirbel calls each of the one-
celled divisions w^iich stand
around an ovoid germ, desti-
tute of any style ; b represents
one of these divisions cut vertically; it contains one seed.

ORDER 6th. Drupaces, simple, succulent fruits, containing
a nut. This order has but one genus,

Drupe, which varies in form ; the apricot is round, the plum
elliptical. The AMYGDALis_perszca, or peach, (Fig. 76, a), is a
Fig. 76.

succulent drupe, of a roundish form, and furrowed on the side ;
the nut is an ellipsoid, long, one-celled and one seeded ; b rep-
resents the peach deprived of one half of its pulpy exterior,*
and exposing the nut ; c represents the nut divested of one of
its valves and showing the seed (#).

ORDER 7th. Baccati, (from bacca a berry) simple, succu-
lent fruits, containing many separate seeds. The genera in
this order are the following :

Pyridion, (from perideo to lie around) ; this genus has its
fruit crowned with the adhering calyx. The pericarp is
fleshy, and has many cells, each of which contains one or more
seeds ; the embryo has two cotyledons. This genus contains
the apple and pear. The Apple, (Mains communis), (Fig. 77,)

* Called panixtern.

Genus Cenobion — Order Drupaces — Genus Drupe — Order Baccati — Genera
of the order Baccati— Pyridion.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.

Fig. 77.
C

has a round fleshy pericarp, crowned with the calyx; tin
seeds are enclosed in five cells, ranged around in the centre ;
the cells are composed of membranaceous valves. The s
are tunicated or coated ; a represents an entire Pyridion ; b the
same cut vertically ; and c the same cut transversely.*

Pepon (hompepon a melon), having a pulpy interior, contain-
ing many seeds ; the cucumber, melon, &c. belong to this ge-
nus. Here is the fruit (Fig. 78) CUCUMIS anguria, sometimes

Fig. 78.
L A i,

a

called prickly cucumber ; a represents the entire pcpon, which
is spinous, three-celled and many seeded : as is shown by th<>
same fruit cut transversely, as at b ; c represents a seed which
is tunicated and dicotyledonous : d the same cut vertically.

Bacca, containing all the fruits of this order not found in the
other genera. The currant, whortleberry, orange, barberry,
pericarp of the potatoe, grape, &c. are found here. In this

* A singular fact is observable in the fruit of the apple : when cut in slices
transversely, it exhibits in its substance an exact representation of the five pe-
tals which existed in the flower ; I have never in any botanical work met with
a notice of this phenomenon, and know not on what physiological principles
it can be explained.

Pepon— Dacca.

ANGIOCARPS.

121

Fig. 79.

a

cut (Fig. 79), is a
spherical berry, a,
of the genus Ribes;
it is known by the
name of the wild
gooseberry ; the
fruit is many seed-
ed, as may be seen
at b, which repre-
sents it as cut

vertically; c.is the same cut transversely.

CLASS II. ANGIOCARPS.
Fruits which are covered by seme foreign envelope.

This class is divided into five genera, as follows :
1st. Strobilum or cone, a collection of fruits concealed by
scales, whose union forms a globular or conical body, as the
juniper, pine, &c. Here is a representation (Fig. 80) of the

Fig. 80.

fruit of the Pinus (pine) ; a is an entire strobilum ; b is the
same, cut vertically.

2d. Calybion (from Kalubion, a little cabin) ; fruits of this
genus are composed of glandular pericarps, contained in a pe-
culiar kind of bract ; in the oak, it is partly concealed ; in the
beech it is wholly concealed, and also in the yew (Taxus) ; in
the latter are two bracts, one enclosing the other ; the exteri-

Enumerate the orders in the class Gymnocarps, with the genera of each —
Describe the class Angiocarps— Strobilum — Calybion.

122

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.

or one is succulent and of an orange red ; the interior hard
and woody, encloses the fruit.

Here is a representation (Fig. 81) of an acorn, which is the
Fig. 81.

fruit of the oak (QUERCUS rdbur) ; it stands in a hemispherical
cup, formed of imbricated scales. The pericarp, called a
gland, is ellipsoid, coriaceous, one-celled, and one-seeded.
The seed is tunicated ; the embryo is dicotyledonous ; the co-
tyledons are large and fleshy ; a, an entire Calybion ; b, the
cup, (d two abortive glands) ; c the gland cut vertically, show-
ing the embryo near its apex.

Fig. 82.

3d. Sycone (from sucon, a fig). This
genus presents fruits enclosed by a fleshy
involucrum or receptacle ; as the fig.
Fig. 82, a, represents a sycone or a fig,
open at the summit; b the same cut
transversely.

Describe the fruk of the oak— Sycone.

ANGIOCARPS.

123

Fig. 83. 4th. Sorose (from soros, a

collection) ; this genus contains
many fruits united in a spike,
and covered with floral en-
velopes in a manner represent-
ing a berry, as the mulberry.
Fig. 83, a, represents the fruit
of the MORUS rubra (red mul-
berry) which is an example of
the genus soros ; it is of an ob-
long form ; each little drupe is
surrounded by a succulent peri-
carp ; the nut is one-seeded ; b
represents a detached perianth
containing a drupeole (little
drupe) ; c drupeole ; d a nut ;
e the same, cut transversely ; f
the embryo.

Synopsis of MirbeVs artificial classes of orders, and genera of
fruits or pericarps.

CLASS I. Fruits uncovered, or GYMNOCARPS.

ORDER I. CARCELARES, simple fruits, remaining closed.

C 1. Cypsela,
Genera, < 2. Cerion,

{ 3. Carcerula.
ORDER 2. CAPSULARES, simple fruits which open at maturity.

II. Capsule,
2. Legume,
3. Silique and Silicic,
4. Pyxides.

ORDER 3. DIERESILIA, simple fruits, which divide into
many parts when ripe.

C 1. Cremocarp,
Genera, < 2. Regmate,

( 3. Dieresil.

ORDER 4. ETAIRONNAIR, compound fruits, proceeding from
a germ to which the style adheres.

Genera $ L Double Follicle>
m' I 2. Etairon.

ORDER 5. CENOBIONNAIR, compound fruits, proceeding from
a germ not bearing the style.

Genus, <[ 1. Cenobion.

ORDER 6. DRUPACES, simple and succulent fruits, contain-
ed in a nut.

Sorose.

1^4 CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.

Genus, -j 1. Drupe.

ORDER 7. BACCATI, simple, succulent fruits, containing
many separate seeds.

f 1. Pyridion,
Genera, < 2. Pepon,
( 3. Berry.
CLASS II. Fruits uncovered, or ANGIOCARPS.

II. Calybion,
2. Strobilum,
3. Sycone,
4. Sorose.

Linnceus' classification of fruits.

Linnaeus divided pericarps or fruits into the nine following
classes ; Capsule, Silique, Legume, Follicle, Drupe, Nut, Pome,
Berry and 8irobilum.

1st. CAPSULE, signifies a little chest or casket ; this is a hol-
low pericarp, which spontaneously opens by pores, as the pop-
py, or -by scales, as in the mullein. The capsules in opening
divide externally into one or more pieces, called valves; the
internal divisions of the capsule are called cells; these are the
chambers appropriated for the reception of the seeds ; accord-
ing to the number of these cells, the capsule is one-celled, two-
celled, &c. The membranes by which the capsule is divided
into cells are called dissepiments', or partitions ; these partitions
are either parallel to the valves or contrary. The columella
is the central pillar in a capsule, and is the part which connects
the several internal partitions with the seed. It takes its rise
from the receptacle, and has the seed fixed to it all around.*

2d. SILIQUE, or sihqua, is a two-valved pericarp or pod,
with the seeds attached alternately to its opposite edge, as mus-
tard and radish. The proper silique is two-celled, being fur-
nished with a partition which runs the whole length of this
kind of pericarp ; there are some exceptions to this, as in the
celandine. Silicic (silicula, a little pod,) is distinguished by
being shorter than the proper silique ; it is almost round, as in
shepherd's purse. This difference in the form of the Silique
and Silicic is the foundation of the distinction of the orders in
the class Tetradynamia.f

3d. LEGUME, is a pericarp of two valves, with the seeds at-
tached only to one suture or seam ; as the pea. In this cir-
cumstance it differs from the Silique, which has its seeds affixed

* The capsule of Linnaeus corresponds to the order Capsulares of Jussieu's
division.

t See genus Silique, asdesciibed under the order Capsulares of Jussieu.

Linnaeus' division of pericarps — Capsule— Silique— Legume.

ANGIOCARPS. 125

to both sutures. The word pod is used in common language
for both these species of pericarp. Plants which produce the
legume are called leguminous. The greater number of these
plants are in the 16th class, Diadelphia. The tamarind is a
legume filled with pulp, in which the seeds are lodged.*

4th. FOLLICLE, is a one-valved pericarp, which opens longi-
tudinally on one side, having its seed loose within it, that is, not
bound to the suture. We have examples of this in the dog's
bane (Apocynum), which is a double follicle, and in the milk
weed ( Asdepias).^

5th. DRUPE, a stone fruit, is a kind of pericarp which has no
valve, and contains a nut or stone, within which there is a ker-
nel. The Drupe is mostly a moist succulent fruit ; as in the
plum, the cherry, and the peach. The nut or stone, in the
drupe, is a kind of woody cup commonly containing a single
kernel, called the Nucleus ; this hard shell, thus enveloping the
kernel, is called the Putamen ; it may be seen in the stone of a
cherry or peach. J

6th. NUT, is a seed covered with a shell, resembling the cap-
sule in some respects and the drupe in others ; as the walnut,
chesnut, &c.

7th. POME, is a pulpy pericarp without valves, but contain-
ing a'rnembranous capsule, with a number of cells, which con-
tain the seeds. This species of pericarp has no external open-
ing or valve. The apple, pear, quince, the gourd, the cucum-
ber, and the melon, furnish us with examples of this kind of
pericarp. With respect to form, the Pome is oblong, ovate,
globular, &c. the form of fruits being much varied by climate
and soil. You know that apples are not uniform in their size
or figure. With respect to the number of cells also, the apple
is variable. §

8th. BERRY, is a succulent pulpy pericarp, without valves,
and containing naked seeds, or seeds with no other covering
than the pulp which surrounds it; the seeds in the berry are
sometimes dispersed promiscuously through the pulpy substance,
but are more generally placed upon receptacles within the
pulp. A compound berry consists of several single berries,
each containing a seed, united together ; as in the raspberry.
Each of the separate parts is called an 'Acinus, or grain. The
orange and lemon are berries with a thick coat. There are
some kinds of berries, usually so called, that seem scarce enti-

* See Legume, under the order Capsulares of Jussieu.

t See order 4th, in the class Gymnocarps.

t See order 6th, in the class Gymnocarps.

$ See order 7th, genus second of the class Gymnocarps.

follicle— Drupe— Nut —Pome — Berry.
11*

126 SEED.

tied to the name ; for the pulp is not properly a part of the fruit,
but originates from some other organ.*

In the mulberryf and strawberry the calyx becomes colour-
ed and very juicy, surrounded by seeds like a real berry. Some
botanists, in describing the strawberry, say that what is com-
monly called the berry, is but a pulpy receptacle, studded with
naked seeds. In the figj the whole fruit is a juicy calyx, or
common receptacle, containing in its cavity innumerable flo-
rets, each of which has a proper calyx of its own, which be-
comes pulpy, and invests the seed, as in the mulberry. The
paper mulberry of China, which is analogous to it, is an inter-
mediate genus between the two, being, as it might seem, a fig
laid open, but without any pulp in the common receptacle.

9th. STROBILUM, a cone, is a catkin or ament hardened and
enlarged into a seed vessel, as in the pine ; this is called an ag-
gregate, or compound pericarp. In the most perfect examples
of this kind of fruit the seeds are closely enveloped by the scales
as by a capsule. The Strobilum is oblong in the pine, round
in the cypress, very small in the alder and birch. §

The time for examining fruits is after the flowers have pass-
ed away. When you have understood the simple division of
fruits we have now given, you will not be at a loss to which
of these classes to refer them, when you see an apple, a walnut,
a currant, or a pine apple. You may gratify the mental appe-
tite by examining their scientific characters. It would seem
more rational for young persons to examine the number of cells
or seeds in an apple, with a view to a classical arrangement,
than to count the seeds with the foolish idea that there is some
charm in a certain number, which will throw light upon their
future destiny.

LECTURE XV.

The Seed.

WE have now traced the plant, from the root through all its
various organs, until we have arrived at that part, which is a
link in the chain of vegetable existence, connecting the old and
new plant ; if this were destroyed, if the seeds of plants were
no longer perfected, what changes would the whole face of na-
ture present ! The earth in one year would be stripped of the
whole tribe of annual plants; in another the biennial plants

* See genus Bacca, order 7th of the class Gymnocarps.
t See genus Sorose.in the class Angiocarps.
J See genus Sycone, of the class Angiocarps
' } See genus Strobilum, of the class Angiocarps.

Strobilum— Proper time for examining fruits — Appearances which nature
would present if the seed were no longer perfected.

SEED; 127

would vanish, leaving a still more cheerless vacancy ; the pe-
rennial would, year after year, disappear, until (if we could
suppose our own lives to be prolonged in such a strange state of
nature,) we should behold the earth one vast scene of vegeta-
ble ruin ; occasionally here and there a venerable oak or an an-
cient pine would stand in solitary grandeur, the mournful rem-
nants of a once beautiful and fertile vegetable kingdom.

But such a sad spectacle the earth will never present, for we
have the promise of God himself, that " while the earth remain-
eth, seed time and harvest shall not cease."

We have* seen, in the progress of our enquiries, that while the
present plant is diffusing around it beauty and fragrance, ad-
ministering to the necessities and luxuries of man, the watchful
care of that Being who never slumbers nor sleeps, is by a slow,
but certain progress, perfecting that part which is destined to
continue the species, and which is, " the sole end and aim of all
the organs of fructification."*

The seed is that internal part of the fruit which envelopes
the complete rudiment of a new plant, similar to that from
which it received its existence. Seeds are various in their
form ; the mustard is globular ; some species of beans are ob-
long ; the cocoa nut is ovoid ; the buck wheat is angular, &c.
The seed consists of three principal parts, viz. the eye, husk
and kernel.

1st. The eye or hilum is the scar formed by the separation of
the membrane or thread which connected the seed with the peri-
carp, and conveyed to the former the necessary nourishment.
This connecting membrane is usually very short ; but in the
magnolia and some other plants it is several inches in length.
When the seed is fully ripe, the connexion between it and the pe-
ricarp, ceases by the withering and separation of the connecting
membrane, leaving upon the outer surface of the seed, the mark
of its insertion. This eye or scar is very conspicuous in
Fig. 84. the bean, which also exhibits the pore

through which the nourishment was con-
veyed to the internal parts of the seed.
That part of the seed which contains the
eye is called the base ; the part opposite,
is called the apex.

Fig. 84 represents the garden bean ;
it is an oblong, tunicated seed ; between
its two thick cotyledons ; at 0, may be
a seen the hilum.

* Linnaeus.

Seed contains the rudiment of a new plant— Forms of seeds— Parts of the
seed — Eye.

128 SEED.

2d. The Husk, is the outer coat of the seed which, on boil-
ing, becomes separate ; as in peas, beans, Indian corn, &c. ;
this skin is also called the spermoderm from the Greek words,
spsrma, signifying seed, and derma skin. The spermoderm or
skin of the seed consists of three coats, analogous to the three
divisions of the pericarp ; the external skin, called the testa or
cuticle corresponds to the epicarp or outer covering of the peri-
carp ; the cellular tissue called mesosperm, corresponds to the
mesocarp, or middle of the pericarp ; and the internal skin or
endosperm corresponds to the endocarp or inside skin of the
pericarp.*

The husk surrounds the kernel ; it is essential, as the ker-
nel which was originally a fluid, could not have been formed
withoutits presence.

3d. The Kernel, includes all that is contained within the
husk or spermoderm ; it is also called the neuckus or almond
of the seed. The kernel is usually composed of the albumen,
cotyledon and embryo. The Albumen is that part of the kernel
which invests the cotyledons or lobes, and is thought to afford
the same support to the germinating embryo, that the white of
an egg does to a chicken. Both in respect to hardness and
colour, the albumen in many seeds greatly resembles the
white of a boiled egg. It is not considered an essential part
of the seed, because it is sometimes wanting ; but when pre-
sent it supports and defends the embryo, while imprisoned in
the seed, and serves for nutriment when it begins to germinate.
It has no connexion with the embryo, and is always so distinct
as to be easily detached from it. Albumen makes up the
chief part of some seeds, as the grasses, corn, &c. ; in the nut-
meg, which has Very small cotyledons, it is remarkable for
its variegated appearance and aromatic quality. It chiefly
abounds in plants which are furnished with but one cotyledon.
Fig. 85.

Fig. 8 represents the same seed (the
garden bean) as seen at fig. 84 ; it hero
shews the cotyledons as divested of the
husk ; a represents the cotyledons ; b
and c, the embryo ; d shews the petioles
or stems of the cotyledons.

Cotyledons (from a Greek word, kotule,
a cavity), are the thick fleshy lobes of
seeds, which contain the embryo. In
beans they grow out of the ground in

* These three divisions may not always seem distinct, as in some cases, the
mesogperm is scarcely to be separated from the cuticle.

Husk— Spcrmoderm, divisions — Cuticle — Mesosperm — Endosperm— Husk
essential —Kernel, of what composed ?— Albumen —Cotyledons.

SEED. , 129

the form of two large leaves. Cotyledons are the first visible
leaves in all seeds, almost always fleshy and spongy, of a suc-
culent and nourishing substance, which serves for the food of
the embryo at the moment of its germinating. Nature seems
to have provided the cotyledons to nourish the plant in its ten-
der infancy. After seeing their young charge sufficiently
vigorous to sustain life without their assistance, the cotyledons
in most plants wither and die. The number of cotyledons va-
ries in different plants, and there are some plants which have
none.

Acotyledons, are those plants which have no cotyledons in
their seeds ; such as the cryptogamous plants, mosses, &c.

Mono-cotyledons, such as have one cotyledon or lobe in the
seed ; as the grasses, the liliaceous plants, &c.

Di-cotyledons', such plants as have two cotyledons : they in-
clude the greatest proportion of vegetables ; as the leguminous,
the syngenesious, &c.

Poly -cotyledons, those plants the seeds of which have more
than two lobes : the number of these is small ; the hemlock and
the pine are examples.

The number of cotyledons seldom varies in the same family
of plants : it has therefore been assumed by some botanists as
the basis of classification ; but there are difficulties attending
a method wholly dependant on these organs. In order to be
certain as to their number, it is necessary to examine the seed
in a germinating state ; this is often difficult. The natural
method of Jussieu is founded upon the number of cotyledons.

The Embryo, is the most important part of the seed, as it
forms the new plant ; all other parts seem but subservient to
this. The embryo has been called the Corculum, or heart :
it is the point from whence the life and organization of the fu-
ture plant originate. In most dicotyledonous seeds, as the
bean, orange and apple, the embryo may be plainly discover-
ed. Its internal structure, before it begins to vegetate, is very
simple, consisting of a uniform substance, enclosed in its appro-
priate bark or skin. When the vital principle is excited to
action, vessels are formed, and parts developed, which seemed
not previously to have existed. The embryo is usually central
and enclosed by the cotyledons : sometimes it is no more than a
mere point or dot, and in some cases, altogether invisible to the
naked eye. The embryo consists of two parts. »

The Plume, which is the ascending part, unfolding itself in-
to herbage.

What are Acotyledons ?— Monocotyledons ? -Dicotyledons ?— Polycotyle-
dons ?— Number of cotyledons made the basis of classification— Embryo— Di-
visions of the embryo.

130

SEED.

The RadickjOr descending part, which
unfolds itself into roots. At Fig. 86 ap-
pears the embryo in a germinating state;
a represents the radicle, b the plume, c
the cord by which the plant is still con-
nected to the cotyledons, and receives
from them its nourishment.

To use the words of an ancient bota-
nist, " the embryo continues imprisoned
within its seed, and remains in a profound
sleep, until awakened by germination;
it meets the light and air to grow into a
plant, similar to its parent.

u Lo ! on each seed, within its slender rind,
Life's golden threads in endless circles wind :
Maze within maze the lurid webs are roll'd,
And as they burst, the living flame unfold.
The pulpy acom, ere it swells, contains
The oak's vast branches in its milky veins,
Each ravel'd bud, fine film, and fibre-line,
Traced with nice pencil on the small design.
The young Narcissus, in its bulb compressed,
Cradles a second nestling on its breast ;
In whose fine arms a younger embryo lies,
Folds its thin leaves, and shuts its floret-eyes;
Grain within grain successive harvests dwell,
And boundless forests slumber in a shell."*

There are various appendages which may, or may not be
present without injury to the structure of the seed.

Aigrette, or egret , sometimes called pappus, is a kind qf fea-
thery crown with which many of the compound flowers are
furnished, evidently for the purpose of disseminating the seed
to a considerable distance by means of winds ; as the dande-
lion. It includes all that remains on the top of the seed after
the corolla is removed.

Stipe is a thread connecting the egret with the seed. The
egret is said to be sessile when it has no stipe, simple when it
consists of a bundle of hairs without branches, plumose when
each hair has other little hairs arranged along its sides, like

* These lines, which so beautifully set forth the manner in which the embryo
is contained within the seed or bulb, are not entirely philosophical as to the
fact of the future generations lying enfolded, the one within the other; it is
true, that we may in many seeds, by the help of a microscope, discern the form
of the future plant, and even the embryo flower ; but we cannot believe that,
in the seed of that embryo flower, is the miniature image of another plant, which
contains another, and so on through successive generations ; for the fact is
established that a seed does not produce a plant without being fertilized by the
pollen. We may say that a seed contains within itself the elements of future
generations ; but not their images, except that of the immediate plant which is
to issue from the perfected seed.

Appendages to seeds— Egret— Stipe.

SEED. 131

the beards on a feather. In Fig. 87, a represents the capillary,

Fig. 87.

or hair-like egret ; b the plumose, or feathery egret ; c and d
show the style remaining, and forming a train as in the virgin's
bower and geum; e a wing, as may be seen in the fir; and/ a
sessile egret.

Gener-al Remarks upon Seeds.

The number of seeds in different plants is variable ; some
have but one ; some, like the umbelliferous plants, have two ;
some have four, as in the rough leaved plants ; in the order
Gynospermia, of the class Didynamia, there are four lying na-
ked in each calyx. The number varies from these to thou-
sands. A stalk of indian corn is said to have produced, in
one season, two thousand seeds. A sunflower four thousand.
A capsule of the poppy has been found to contain eight thou-
sand seeds. It has been calculated that a single thistle seed
will produce, at the first crop, twenty-four thousand, and at the
second crop, at this rate, five hundred and seventy-six millions.
In the same species of plants the number of seeds is often found
to vary. The apple and many others might be given as ex-
amples.

Seeds, according as they vary in size, have been divided
into four kinds ; large, from the size of a walnut to that of the
cocoa nut ; middle size, neither larger than a hazle nut, nor
smaller than a millet seed ; small, between the size of the seeds
of a poppy and a bell flower ; minute, like dust or powder, as
in the ferns and mosses.

When a pericarp separates itself from the parent plant, or
when the valves of the fruit open, this is not the effect of vital -
activity, but a proof that the fruit has ceased to vegetate. The
fruit, like the leaves at the end of autumn, losing the vital prin-
ciple, is submitted to the laws which govern inorganized matter.

The period in which the seeds arrive at maturity, marks the
period of the life of annual plants, and the suspension of vege-
tation in woody and perennial plants. Nature, in favouring by
various means, the dispersion of these seeds, presents pheno-

N umber of seeds variable — Size variable — Separation of the pericarp from
the plant.

132 SEED.

mena worthy of our admiration, and these means areas varied
as the species of seeds which are spread upon the surface of
the earth.

The air, winds, rivers, seas, and animals, transport seeds
and disperse them in every direction. Seeds provided with
feathery crowns, (egrets,) as the dandelion and thistle ; with
wings, as the maple and ash, are raised into the air and even
carried across the seas. Linnaeus asserted that the ERIGERON
canadense was introduced into Europe from America, by seeds
wafted across the Atlantic Ocean. " The seeds," says Lin-
naeus, " embark upon the rivers which descend from the high-
est mountains of Lapland, and arrive at the middle of the
plains, and the coasts of the seas. The ocean has thrown
even upon the coasts of Norway, the nuts of the mahogany,
and the fruit of the cocoa nut tree, borne on its waves from
the far distant tropical regions ; and this wonderful voyage has
been performed without injury to the vital energy of the
seeds."

Some fruits, endowed with elasticity, throw their seeds to a
considerable distance. In the oat, and hi the greater number
of ferns, this elasticity is in the calyx. In the Impatiens, in
the cucumber, (Cucumis^) and many others, it resides in the
capsule. The pericarp of the IMPATIENS, (sometimes called
touch-me-not, and jewel- weed,) consists of one cell with five
divisions ; each of which, when the seeds are ripe, upon being
touched, suddenly folds itself in a spiral form, leaps from the
stem, and, by means of its elastic property, scatters its seeds
to a great distance.

Animals also perform their part in the diffusion of seeds.
Squirrels and oth^r animals carry seeds and nuts into holes in
the earth. The Indians believed that the squirrels planted all
the timber of the country ; there is no doubt but that they do
much towards diffusing different kinds of nuts and seeds ; as
chesnut, oak, walnut, &c. Animals contribute to the distribu-
tion of seeds by conveying them in their wool, fur, or feathers. .
Although distance, chains of mountains, rivers, and even
seas, do not present obstacles sufficient to prevent the disper-
sion of vegetables, climate fixes an eternal barrier which plants
cannot pass. It is not unlikely that in future times the great-
er part of vegetable tribes which grow between the same par-
allels of latitude, may be common to all countries of that zone ;
this may be the result of the industry of man, aided by the ef-
ficient means which nature takes to promote the same object
in the dissemination of seeds ; but no human power can ever

Dispersion of seeds, how effected ?— Seeds with egrets, and wings— Seeds
carried by water— Elasticity— Agency of animals — Effect of climate upon the
dispersion of seeds.

GERMINATION OF THE SEED. 133

cause to grow within the polar circles, the vegetables of the
tropics, or those of the poles at the equator. Nurture is here
stronger than man. That something may be done by art to
promote the growth of the tropical plants in our climate is true,
but how different are the same plants with us, from what they
are in their own genial climate ; we toil and watch for years
to nurture an orange or lemon tree, which after all is stinted
in its growth, while in its own native home it would have grown
spontaneously in luxuriant beauty.

The diffusion of seeds completes the circle of vegetation, and
closes the scene of vegetable life. The shrubs and trees have
lost their foliage — the withered herbs decompose, and restore
to the earth the elements which they have drawn from its
bosom. The earth, stripped of its beauty, seems sinking into
old age ; but although unseen by us, and unmarked the pro-
cesses of nature by too many among men, innumerable germs
have been formed, which wait but the favorable warmth to dec-
orate with new brilliancy this terrestrial scene.

So fruitful is nature, that a surface a thousand times more ex-
tended than that of our globe, would not be sufficient for the ve-
getables which the seeds of one single year would produce, if all
should be developed ; but the destruction of seeds is very great,
great quantities being eaten by man and beast, and left to per-
ish in unfavourable situations. Those which are preserved, con-
stitute but a small proportion of the whole ; they are either car-
ried into the clefts of rocks, or buried beneath the ruins of ve-
getables ; protected from the cold, they remain inactive during
the winter season, and germinate as soon as the early warmth
of spring is felt. Then the botanist who considers with a curi-
ous eye, the vegetable species with which the earth begins to
be clothed, seeing successively all the types or representations
of past generations of plants, admires the power of the Author
of nature, and the immutability of His laws.

LECTURE XVI.

Physiological Views.

WE have now considered the various organs of plants, we
have traced them through their successive stages of develope-
ment, from the root to the bud, leaf, and flower, and from the
flower to the fruit and seed. We haye seen, in imagination,

Circle of vegetation completed— concluding remarks— Coir .ucement of
Lecture XVI.

12

134 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

the vegetable world, fading under a change of temperature, the
44 sear and yellow leaf," a prey to the autumnal blasts, and even
the fruits themselves, exhibiting a mass of decayed matter ; were
this appearance of decay and death, now presented to us for
the first time, how gloomy would be the prospect. How little
should we expect the return of life, and beauty, and fragrance.
No power short of Omnipotence, can effect tjiis miracle ! But
we are now so accustomed to these changes, that, " seeing, we
perceive not;" we think not of the mighty Being, who produ-
ces them ; we call them the operations of nature ; and
what is nature, or what are the laws of nature, but manifesta-
tions of Almighty power?

The word nature, in its original sense, signifies born or pro-
duced ; let us then look on nature as a created thing, and be-
ware of yielding that homage to the creature which is due to
the Creator. The sceptic, with seeming rapture, may talk of
the beauties of nature, but cold and insensible must be thcit
heart, which from the contemplation of the earth around, and
the heavens above, soars not to Him,

" The mighty Power from whom these wonders are."

How beautifully is the reanimation of the vegetable world,
brought by St. Paul, as an illustration of our resurrection from
the dead! The same power, which from a small, dry, and ap-
parently dead seed, can bring forth a fresh and beautiful plant,
can also, from the ruins of our mortal bodies, produce a new
and glorious body, and unite it to the immortal spirit by ties
never to be separated.

Germination. The process of the shooting forth of the seed
is termed germination. The principle of life contained in the
seed does not usually become active, until the seed is placed in
circumstances favourable to vegetation. When a seed is com-
mitted to the bosom of the earth, its various parts soon begin
to dilate by absorbing moisture. A chemical action then com-
mences ; oxygen from the air unites to the carbon of the seed
and carries it off in the form of carbonic acid gas. As the car-
bon of the cotyledons by the process continues to diminish, and
oxygen is produced in excess, a sweet, sugar-like substance is
formed ; this is conveyed to the embryo, which by its new
nourishment is kindled into active life ; from this period we may
date the existence of the young plant.

Cause of our forgetfulnees of God when beholding his operations — Meaning
of the word nature— Feelings which should be excited by created object* — St.
Paul's illustration of the resurrection— Describe the process of germination.

GERMINATION OF THE SEED.

135

Fig. 88.

Bursting through the
coats which surrounded it,
and which are already
enfeebled by their loss of
carbon, the embryo emer-
iges from its prison, the
\radicle shoots downward,
and the plume rises up-
wards. We say then that
the seed has come up or
sprouted. Fig. 88 repre-
sents a young dicotyle-
donous plant, with its ra-
dicle, a, developed ; its
plume, &, is yet scarcely
perceptible ; its cotyle-
dons, c, appear in the
form of large, succulent
seed-leaves. The radi-
cle, or descending root,
is usually the first to break
through the coats of the seeds; it commences its journey
downwards, to seek in the earth nourishment for the future
plant, and to fix it firmly in the earth. This constitutes the
root, and always takes a downward course, in whatever situa-
tion the seed may have been placed in the ground.

A botanist once planted in a pot, six acorns, with the points
of their embryos upwards. At the end of two months, upon
removing the earth, he found that all the radicles had made an
angle in order to reach downwards. It is supposed that if the
root met with no obstruction in going downwards, it would al-
ways be perfectly straight.

Fig. 89 is the representation of
a germinating seed of the mirabalis
(four o'clock) ; it will be seen that
the radicle, a, has made nearly a
right angle in turning downwards ;
the plume is not developed.

If you put cotton into a tumbler of
water, and place upon it some seeds
of rye or wheat, which soon vege-
tate, you will see all the fibres shooting from the seeds, in a
perpendicular direction, downwards. It is a very simple and

Experiment with acorns— Explanation of Fig. 89— Seeds placed on cotton
in a tumbler.

136 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

interesting experiment. Some ascribe this phenomenon to the
laws of gravitation, by which the root is attracted towards the
centre of the earth ; others say that the radicle, stimulated by
moisture, extends itself in the natural direction from which the
moisture proceeds ; and some imagine that the plant is endow-
ed with a kind of instinct, similar to that which often appears
in animals from their first moments of existence, leading the
little duck to seek the water and birds to attempt to fly ; but
let us call this power by what name we will, or refer it to
whatever secondary laws, we must after all attribute it to the
will and design of Him, who gave the plant a principle of vi-
tality.

After the young root has made some progress, the cotyle-
dons swell, and rising out of the ground form two green leaves,
called seed leaves. You have no doubt noticed their appear-
ance in the garden bean, when it first appears above the ground.
When the plume developes leaves, these seed leaves, being no
longer needed, they 'wither and decay.

You will recollect that the embryo or germ is composed of
two parts, the radicle and the plume. The radicle, we have
just seen, extends itself downwards. Soon after this part of
the germ has begun its downward course, the plume, (so called
from its resembling a little feather,) rises upwards, and soon
becomes a tuft of young leaves, with which the stem, if there
is one, ascends.

" Some rye," says a botanist, " was planted in a good soil,
and at the end of the second day its radicle was discernible.
At the end of twenty-four hours the embryo had escaped from
its integument. On the second day the fibres of the root had
augmented, but the leaves had not appeared. On the fourth
day the first leaf began to4 appear above the ground, at which
time the colour was red. On the fifth day, it had grown to the
length of an inch, and its colour was now green, and on the
sixth day the second leaf had appeared."

Rye, however, belongs to that class of plants whose seeds
have but one cotyledon ; this never rises above the ground to
form a seed leaf. Seeds with but one cotyledon are chiefly
composed of albumen, which performs the same office of nour-
ishing the embryo during its germination, as do the cotyledons
of dicotyledonous plants. In some monocotyledons is perceived
under the albumen or white, a part called Vitellus, or the yolk ;
this, like the albumen, is entirely converted into nourishment
for the young plant ; it may be seen in the seeds of grasses,
and is conspicuous in the Indian corn.

Causes assigned for the downward course of the radicle— Seed leaves —
I lume— Experiment with rye- — Seeds with one cotyledon — Vitellus.

GERMINATION OF THE SEED.

137

Fig. 90

Fig. 90 represents a young mono-
cotyledonous plant ; at a is the cotyle-
don ; at b is the second leaf, which, in
the example just given of the rye, ap-
peared on the sixth day ; at c is the
primordial leaf, which at first envelopes
and conceals the other leaves ;* at d
are the several branches of the root,
bearing their radicles, and at their
base enveloped by a peculiar covering
through which the extremities have
forced their way.f It has been ob-
served, that moisture is essential to the
germination of the seed. Earth,
though not absolutely essential, is use-
ful, as affording to the vegetable egg
a favourable situation, where it may
receive the influence of the various
agents, which are to perform their offi-
ces in the developement of its parts.
,It seems, too, not improbable that some
of the constituent elements of earth
may be absorbed by the germinating
plant, and converted into nourishment.
It is however sufficiently apparent that
plants may vegetate without earth.
The parasite grows upon the bark of
other plants ; many seeds vegetate in
water, and some, if moistened and
placed on cotton, or other supporting
substance.

Air is essential to vegetation ; un-
der an exhausted receiver a seed will
not germinate, although possessing
every other requisite. Seeds that be-
come imbedded deeply in the ground,
do not vegetate, unless accidentally
ploughed up, or exposed to the contact
of the atmosphere. Acorns which are
supposed to have lain for centuries,
have germinated as soon as they were
raised sufficiently near the surface to
receive the influence of air.

* This, the French botanists call the pileole.
t This covering, Mirbel terras the coleorhize.

Explanation of Fig. SO — Earth useful to vegetation — Air essential to vegetation.

12*

138 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS,

You will recollect that in the process of germination, oxygen
gas unites with the carbon of the seed, and carries it off in the
form of carbonic acid. Air furnishes that important agent,
oxygen, which is the first moving principle of vitality.

Carbon constitutes the greater part of the substance of seeds;
and this principle, being in its nature opposed to putrefaction,
prevents seeds from rotting, previous to their being sown.
Some seeds having an abundance of carbon, are capable of be-
in^ preserved forages; while others, in which this element
exists but in a small proportion, require to be sown almost as
soon as ripe ; and such as are still more deficient in carbon,
lose their vital principle, before separating from the pericarp.

You can now understand that oxygen is important to ger-
mination, on account of its agency in removing the carbon
which held the living principle of the seed in bondage.

The absence of light is favourable to the germination of seeds;
for light acts upon plants in such a manner as to take away
oxygen by the decomposition of carbonic acid gas, and to de-
posite carbon ; now this is just the reverse of the process re-
quired in germination, where the carbon must be evolved and
the oxygen in excess.

A certain degree of heat is necessary to germination. Seeds
planted in winter, will remain in a torpid state ; but as soon as
the warmth of spring is felt, the embryo emerges into life. By
increasing IK at, seeds may be hastened in their vegetating pro-
cess ; ' thus the same seed, which with a moderate degree of
heat would germinate in nine hours, may be 1> • this

state in six hours, by an increase of temperature. Too great
heat destroys the vital principle ; thus corn which has been
roasted could never be made to vegetate. The process of malt-
ing consists in submitting grain of a certain kind, (that of bar-
ley is most commonly used,) to a process which causes an in-
cipient stage of germination ; this is done by moistening the
grain and exposing it to a suitable degree of warmth ; as soon
as germination commences, the process is stopped by increas-
ing the heat. The taste of the grain is then found to have be-
come sweetish. The term nialt is given to grain which has
been submitted to this process. When mixed with Welter it
forms a sweet liquor; and the fermentation of this liquor pro-
duces beer.

There is a great difference in plants as to their time of ger-
minating ; some seeds begin to vegetate before they are sepa-
rated from the pericarp.*

* In the month of January, on observing the seeds of a very juicy apple,

Oxygen an important agent— Carbon — The absence of light favourable to the
germination of plants — Heat — Effects of top great heat exemplified in the pro-
cess of malting — Malt — Season of germinating.

SOLIDS AND FLUIDS OF VEGETABLES.

In the greater number of vegetables, however, there is no-
germination until after the opening of the pericarp and the fall
of the seed. The time at which different species of seeds, af-
ter being committed to the earth, begin to vegetate, varies
from one day, to some years. The seeds of grasses, and the
grain like plants, as rye, wheat, corn, &c. germinate within two
days. The cruciform plants, such as radish, and mustard, the
leguminous, as the pea and bean, require a little more time.
The peach, walnut, and peony, remain in the earth a year be-
fore they vegetate.

All kinds of plants germinate sooner if they are sown imme-
diately after being separated from their pericarps.

Most vegetables preserve their vital principle for years :
some lose it as soon as they are detached from their pericarps.
This is said to be the case in the coffee and tea. The seeds of
some of the grasses, as wheat, &c. are said to retain their vital
principle even for centuries. It is asserted that mosses, kept
for near two hundred years in the herbariums of botanists, have
revived by being soaked in water. An American writer* says,
that « seeds, if imbedded in stone or dry earth, and removed
from the influence of air or moisture, might be made to retain
their vegetative quality or principle of life for a thousand years."
But he very rationally adds, " life is a property which we do
not understand ; yet life, however feeble and obscure, is always
life, and between it and death there is a distance as great as
existence and nonexistence."

The subjects upon which, in this lecture, we have been en-
gaged, properly come under the head of vegetable physiology,
a department of botany highly interesting, but too complicated
in its nature to be, except in a very limited degree, presented
to the mind of the youthful investigator. The physician finds
in the vegetable organization striking analogies to the internal
structure of the animal frame ; to him the language of physio-
logical botany is familiar, because it is borrowed from his own
science. On the other hand, the botanical student, in learning
the names and offices of the various internal organs of plants^
is making no inconsiderable improvement in the knowledge of
the animal economy, and will feel his curiosity excited to search
into the mysterious organization of his own material frame.

which had been kept in a warm cellar, I saW that they were swollen, and that
the out ward coat had burst; examining one seed, by removing the tegument and
separating the cotyledons, I saw by the help of a microscope the embryo, as if
in a germinating state : the radicle was like a little beak ; in the upper part or
plume was plainly to be seen the tuft of leaves and the stem.
* B. Barton. '

Time of germinating varies — Vital principle of fruits — Vegetable Physiology
— Its language borrowed from animal physiology .

LECTURE XVII.

Physiological Views.

HAVING considered the organs of the plant, from the root to
the seed, it might seem as if our inquiries into the vegetable
substance were terminated ; but we have yet to investigate
more minutely the internal texture of these various organs.
Before commencing the study of botany, when you looked at
the trunk of a tree, a little herb, or a leaf, you perhaps con-
sidered it as very simple in its structure ; you saw it only as
one mass : but you now perceive that plants, like animals, are
collections of fibres ; that they have parts which are analogous
to our skin, bones, flesh, and blood ; that they are living, or-
ganized beings, composed of solid and fluid parts ; and are, like
animals, the subjects of life and death.

Plants differ from animals in not possessing any of the or-
gans of sense. They can neither see, hear, taste, smell, nor
touch. Some vegetables, however, seem to have a kind of
sensibility like that derived from the organs of touch ; they
tremble and shrink back upon coming in contact with other
substances ; some turn themselves round to the sun, as if en-
joying its rays. There is a mystery in these circumstances
which we cannot penetrate, and it is not yet fully known at
what point in the scale of existence animal life ends, and vege-
table life commences. Some animals, like the sponge and
corals, seem almost destitute of any kind of sensation, and yet
they are ranked in the animal kingdom. On the subject of the
distinctions and analogies between plants and animals, we shall
dwell more fully hereafter.

Solid parts of Vegetables.

At present we have to consider the solid parts of the vegeta-
ble system ; these are all composed of a membranous substance,
which exists in every part of the plant, forming by various mo-
difications, the different textures which the vegetable system
exhibits. This membranous substance appears chiefly under
two elementary forms : viz. 1st, that of tellular texture ; 2d,
vascular texture.

Object of the 17th lecture— Plants analogous to animals— Difficult to deter-
mine where vegetable life commences— Solid parts of plants— Membranous
substance under two forms.

VASCULAR TEXTURE.

Fig. 91.

141

1st. Cellular tex-
ture, (Fig. 91, a,)
according to the opin-
ion of Mirbel, is com-
posed of a mass of
little hexagonal cells,
resembling honey
comb. Another
French botanist*
compares the ap-
pearance of the cel-
lular texture to the
froth of fermenting liquor ; he considers that each cell is dis-
connected with the others ; while Mirbel believes that the
divisions of the membrane which forms these cells, are common
to contiguous cells. The cellular system in animals contains
the fat ; in vegetables it is generally filled with resinous, oily,
or saccharine juices. In some cases the cells contain air only.
They are usually marked by small dots (See 'the dots at a,
Fig. 91) ; these are supposed to be apertures, through which
fluids are transmitted from one cell to another.

The cellular texture composes most of the pith, parenchyma
and cotyledons of almost all vegetables. It is abundant in tu-
berous roots, pulpy and fleshy fruits, and the stems of grasses,
and constitutes the principal parts of mushrooms and other
cryptogamous plants. In the bark of plants, the cellular tex-
ture is situated under the cuticle ; it is filled with a juice which
varies in colour in different species of plants, but is most com-
monly green ; it gives its colour to the bark, as the same tex-
ture under the human cutiele gives colour to the skin. The
green colour of leaves is caused by the cellular texture, which
is inclosed on both sides by the cuticle. In the pith of young
plants, the cells are filled with watery fluids, but in older
plants they are empty or only filled by air.

The petals of flowers owe their beautiful hues to the pres.
ence of cellular texture, filled with juices, which refract and
reflect the rays of light, in a peculiar manner.

Vascular^ texture, consists of tubes which like the vessels of
the animal frame are capable of transmitting fluids. These
tubes are open at both ends, and are protected by a thick coat-
ing of cellular integument ; their sides are thick and little trans-

* Dutrochet.

tThe term vascular is derived from the Latin word vasculum, a little vessel.

Cellular texture — how situated — Cause of the green colour of plants — Beau-
tiful hues of petals — Vascular texture.

142

PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS

parent. * These vessels extend throughout the whole plant,
distributing air and other fluids necessary to vegetation. The
vascular system of plants presents a variety as to form and
with respect to the functions which the different vessels
perform.

Some are entire vessels, or without any perforation (Fig.
91, c) ; these convey the proper juices of the plant, mid are
generally found containing oils and resinous juices.

Porous vessels have their sides pierced with many perfora-
tions (Fig. 91, b) ; they often separate and again unite, chan-
ging at length into cellular integument.

Fi- 92- . Spiral vessels are

so called from their
form, resembling
that of a screw (Fig.
92, a) ; they are
sometimes termed
trachea, from a sup-
posed analogy to the
trachea, or the or-
gans of insects for
breathing. These
vessels are formed
of a thread-like fibre
turned spirally from
right to left.

Annular vessels (so called from annulus, a ring,) have per-
forations which make the tube appear as if composed of rings
(Kg. 92, b).

Moniliform vessels (from monile, beads,) resemble, in exter-
nal appearance, a string of beads (Fig. 92, c) ; these serve to
connect large vessels, and to convey sap from one set to
another.

Mosses, fungi, and lichens have no vascular system ; but
their vessels are all of the cellular kind. The fibres of plants
are all composed of some varieties of the two kinds of vessels
we have now described. Roots and stems are composed of
fibres ; these may easily be split longitudinally, as the vessels
in this case are only separated, and the cellular texture easily
yields ; but in cutting the roots and stems horizontally, greater
resistance is to be overcome, since the tubes are to be divided
or cut across.

Vegetables, like animals, have a system of glands, or internal
vessels, which are by the Author of nature, made subservient

Entire vessels,— Porous vessels — Spiral vessels — Annular — Moniliform — All
the fibres of plants composed of some of these vessels — Glands of vegetables.

FLUID PARTS OF VEGETABLES. 143

to the purpose of producing changes in the fluids of the plants ;
thus the sap is converted into the proper juices, and from the
same soil and nourishment appear plants of very different pro-
perties.

Mirbel, by the aid of the microscope, succeeded in discovering
a system of glands, in the pores of cells, and on the borders of
the spiral vessels. There are external glands which appear
manifest to the naked eye ; as the nectaries of flowers, which
secrete or manufacture honey ; and the stings of plants, which
secrete an acrid substance, that by penetrating the skin causes
a painful sensation.

Fluid parts of Vegetables.

The different fluids which are exhibited in the vegetable
body may be considered under three general divisions : 1st, the
sap, or ascending fluid ; 2d, the cambium, or descending fluid ;
3d, the proper juices.

The sap is a limpid, inodorous liquid, the elements of which
are imbibed from the earth by pores in the radicles of the root.
You know that if the earth around the roots of plants is depriv.
ed of moisture, they soon die. Moisture furnishes to the radi-
cles, water holding in solution various substances ; such as
earths, salts, animal and vegetable matter. The radicles, by
some unknown process, convert this fluid matter into sap, and
then, by means of vessels which form what is called the sap-
wood or alburnum, this sap ascends through the stems to the
branches ; passing through the woody part of the petioles, and
those minute branches of the petiole which form the ribs and
veins of the leaf, it enters into the vessels and cells which ex-
tend throughout its substance.

The ascending sap is always in circulation, but its energy
varies with the season and the age of the plant. Heat has an
important influence upon the ascent of the sap; yet during a
dry and hot season it often appears to ascend but slowly. This
is because the absorption of fluids from the earth is checked by
the dryness of the soil. The plant, by a little stretch of the
imagination, may be considered as thirsty, and thus man may
seem not only provident, but humane, in administering to its
roots refreshing draughts of water. Even the leaves, at such a
period, seem to be too impatient to wait for supplies by means of
the connecting sap vessels ; but if water is sprinkled upon
them, they fail not to use their own power of absorption, and
may, upon such an application, be seen to revive almost in-
stantaneously.

Their use — Mirbel's discoveries — External glands— '1 hree divisions of fluids
— Sap— Sap-wood — Ascent of the sap.

144 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

When the moisture of the earth coincides with elevation of
temperature, the sap ascends with the greatest rapidity ; this
is the case in spring. It is at this period, as you no doubt are
aware, that incisions are made into the wood of maple trees, in
order to procure sap for the manufacture of sugar. The sap
may at this time, be seen flowing almost in a stream. It has
been thought, that the circulation of sap was wholly suspended
during winter; this, however, seems not to be the case; for we
may observe during this season, a gradual developement of some
parts of the plant ; we see many plants preserving the freshness
and verdure of their foliage ; and mosses putting forth their
flowers. We must then believe that the sap is in perpetual mo-
tion, susceptible of being accelerated or retarded by changes of
temperature, and humidity or dryness of the earth. The devel-
opement of buds, must be attributed to the ascension, and re-
dundancy of the sap, which dilates and nourishes their parts.
In spring, when the ascent of the sap is accelerated, the buds
enlarge rapidly, and their complete developement is soon per-
fected.

The vascular texture appears by its tubes and channels to
afford great facilities for the ascension of the sap. In imperfect
plants, such as mushrooms and lichens, which are wholly com-
posed of cellular texture, it is not known that there is any as-
cent of sap, but they seem to be nourished by fluids absorbed from
the air.

The question naturally arises, by what force is the sap made
to ascend, contrary to the laws of gravitation? Some have as-
serted that this phenomenon was owing to the contraction and
dictation of the air, and of the juices of the plant ; others have
referred it to the action oi'heat; these two propositions, howev.
er, amount to the same tiling, since heat is the cause of the con-
traction and dilatation referred to. Some ascribe the ascent of
the sap, to the irritability of the vessels, and the energy of vital
power.

This is but a vague and unsatisfactory explanation, since we
know neither the cause of this irritability, nor in what this vital
|K)wer consists. There is no doubt but the ascent of the sap,
is, in a degree, owing to capillary* attraction, assisted by heat.
You will recollect that the vessels containing this fluid, were
described as very small tubes, no larger than a hair, and, in most

* The terra capillary, is taken from the Latin, capittus, a hair.

What two circumstances cause the rapid ascent of the sap? — Why am in-
cisions made in maple trees in the spring, rather than ar.y other period ? — Per-
petual motion of sap— Cause of developement of buds — Vascular texture unlike
the cellular in affording facilities for the ascension of sap — Explanations of the
causes of the ascent of sap.

FLUID PARTS OF VEGETABLES. 145

cases, much smaller, since few are visible to the naked eye.
You have, in the study of Natural Philosophy, learned that ca-
pillary tubes have the property of raising liquids, against the
laws of gravitation, and with a force proportional to their small-
ness of diameter : this law seems to explain, in some degree,
the phenomenon we are considering. Yet we must realize that
our researches here, as in every other case, terminate in mys-
teries, impenetrable by our limited faculties.

But it is necessary for us now to trace the progress of the
sap, after it has ascended to the leaves and extremities of the
plant ; a considerable portion of it is, by pores in the leaf, exha-
led in the form of almost pure water, while the particles of va-
rious kinds, which the sap held in solution, are deposited with-
in the substance of the leaf. This process is sometimes termed
the perspiration of plants ; it is visible in some grass-like plants,
particularly upon the leaves of Indian corn ; if these are examin-
ed before sunrise, the perspiration appears in the form of a drop
at the extremity of the leaf; the ribs of the leaf unite at this
point, and a minute aperture furnished for the passage of the fluid,
may be discovered.

The sap which remains after the exhalation by means of the
leaves, is supposed to consist of about one third of that origin-
ally absorbed by the root ; this remainder possesses all the nu-
tritive particles, which had before been divided through the
whole of the sap. At this period, an important change in its na-
ture takes place, a change which has its analogy in the animal
economy.

We have compared the sap to the blood of animals, but it is in
reality, more like the animal substance, chyle, which is a milk-
like liquor, separated by digestion from the food taken into the
stomach. A considerable part of this chyle -is converted into
blood, which passing first into the arteries and then into the
veins, are by the latter, conveyed to the heart ; the heart, by
its contractions sends the blood to the lungs. At each inspira-
tion of the breath, the oxygen from the atmospheric air, is ab-
sorbed by the lungs ; here, uniting to the carbon of the blood,
it forms carbonic gas, which is thrown off at every expiration of
the breath. Thus the carbon, which, in the animal system is
accumulated, by feeding on vegetables, and which requires to
be diminished, is carried off; it has been said that a person ex-
hales, inbreathing twenty. four hours, almost one pound of car-
bon, or the ba£is of charcoal !

We will now return to the sap in the leaves of plants, and see
whether a change takes place, analagous to that in the animal

Exhalation of sap— Perspiration — Sap which remains after exhalation by
means of the leaves— Sap compared to chyle— Formation of carbonic gas,

13

146 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

system. We will consider the sap as bearing a resemblance
to the animal chyle, and the leaves to the animal lungs. These
vegetable lungs are furnished with pores, by which they, too, in-
hale gases; but here our comparison fails, since, instead of ox-
ygen, the plant inhales carbonic acid ; this it decomposes ; and
converting to its own use the carbon, which is an important el-
ement of vegetable compounds, it exhales the oxygen necessary
for the support of animal life. Light, however, is necessary for
this process of respiration in the plant ; deprived of this agent,
vegetables absorb instead of giving off oxygen.

The carbon, which is deposited in the sap, seems, in order
to be fitted for the nourishment of the plant, to require the far-
ther agency of oxygen, to convert it into carbonic acid ; this
is done by means of the oxygen, which, during the light, is ab-
sorbed by the leaves. At the appearance of light, carbonic
acid is again decomposed and oxygen evolved. Besides the
oxygen which the plant separates from the carbonic acid in-
haled by its leaves, it is undoubtedly furnished with this gas by
the decomposition of water* and other substances which are ab-
sorbed by the root.

The cambium is the sap elaborated by the chemical process
carried on in the leaves, and rendered fit for the nourishment
of the plant.

In tracing the descent of the cambium or returning sap, wo
shall not find it passing through the same vessels by which it
ascended ; it is chiefly conveyed by a system of vessels be-
tween the liber or inner layer of bark, and the alburnum or
young wood ; here it contributes both to the formation of new
wood and new bark, and extending from the extremity of the
roots, to the upper extremity of the plant, it furnishes materials
for the formation of new buds and radicles.

If a ring is cut through the bark of a tree, the cambium will
be arrested in its course, and accumulating around the upper
edge of the bark, will cause a ridge or an annular^ protube-
rance. This vegetable blood being thus prevented from hav.
ing access to the lower part of the plant, the roots cease to
grow, the sap ascends but feebly, and the tree dies in two or
three years. If the incision is not made too deep, the wound
will soon heal by the union of the disconnected bark, and the "
circulation of the cambium proceeds as before. This experi-

* Water consists of oxygen'm union with hydrogen,
t From the Latin word annulus, a ring.

In what respect does the comparison between the respiration of plants and
animals fail ? — What is needed in order to fit the carbon for the nourishment of
the plant ?— Cambium, or descending sap — How conveyed — Importance of this
fluid— What is the effect of cutting a ring through the bark of a tree ?

BARK. 147

ment proves the importance of this fluid to the existence of the
plant.

The Proper Juices of Vegetables. This division compre-
hends all the fluids furnished by the plant except the sap and
cambium ; as oils, gums, &c. These are the product of the
cambium, as in the animal, tears are secreted from blood.
The secretions, carried on by the vegetable glands from the
cambium, are of two kinds; 1st, such as are destined to remain
in the plant, as milk, resins, gums, essential and fixed oils ;
2d, such as are destined to be conveyed out of the plant, as
useless or incongruous ; these consist chiefly of vapours and
gases exhaled from flowers, and are sometimes called excre-
tions.

LECTURE XVIIL

Bark, Wood and Pith.

WE have exhibited to your view the minute .discoveries made
by the help of the microscope in the solid parts of vegetable
substances ; and we have also noticed those important fluids,
the circulation of which appears to constitute the life, and pro-
duce the growth of plants. We have now to consider the solid
parts already described, as composing the body of the .vegeta-
ble, and collected under three forms of Bark, Wood, and Pith.

Bark. The bark consists of the epidermis, cellular integu-
ment and cortex.

1st. Epidermis is the skin or membrane which extends over
the surface of every vegetable. It is also called the cuticle, a
name which anatomists have given to the external covering of
the animal body. There is a striking analogy between animal
and vegetable cuticle or skin. In the animal it varies in thick-
ness from the delicate film which covers the eye, to the hard
skin of the hand or foot, the coarser covering of the ox, or the
hard shell of the tortoise. In the vegetable it is exquisitely
delicate, as in the covering of a rose leaf, and hard and coarse
in the rugged coats of the elm and oak. In the birch you may
see the cuticle or outer bark peeling off in circular pieces.
This seems not to be endowed with the vital principle, and in
this respect it differs from all other parts of the plant. The
epidermis or cuticle serves for protection from external inju-
ries, and regulates the proportion of absorption and perspira-
tion through its pores. It is transparent as well as porous, so
as to admit to the cellular integument, the free access of light

Proper juices of vegetables — Secretions from the cambium — Of what are the
bark, wood and pith composed ? — Divisions of the bark — Describe the epidermis.

148 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS. ^

and air, while it excludes every substance which would be in.
jurious.

It is to the cuticle of wheat, oats, rye, and some of the grass-
es, that we are indebted for straw and imitation Leghorn hats.
In their manufacture, the straws are scraped, so that nothing
remains but the cuticle. It has been ascertained that the outer
bark of many of the grasses contains silex, or flint ; in the
scouring rush, (Equisetum,) the quantity of silex is such, that
housekeepers find it an excellent substitute for sand, in scour-
ing wood or metals. A singular property of the cuticle is,
that it does not seem to be subject to the same changes as the
other parts of bodies ; it is, of all substances found upon ani-
mal or vegetable matter, the least indestructible. The cuticle
is sometimes like the skin of animals, clothed with wool or
down, and it then becomes an important security against the
effects of heat and cold. The leaf of the, mullein has its cuti-
cle covered with a kind of wool ; the pericarp of the peach
has a downy cuticle.

2d. Cellular Integument, is situated beneath the epidermis or
outer skin of the bark ; it is filled with a resinous substance,
which is usually green in young plants. This cellular layer
possesses glands, which, when submitted to the action of light,
carry on the process of decomposing carbonic acid gas, by re-
taining the carbon and evolving the oxygen gas. The cellular
integument envelopes branches, as well as trunks of trees, and
herbaceous stems; it extends into roots, but there it neither
remains its green colour nor decomposes carbonic acid gas.
It is the seat of colour, and in this respect analogous to the
cutis, or true skin of animals, which is the substance situated
under the cuticle, and is black in the Negro, red in the In-
dian, and pale in the American. In the leaves of vegetables,
the cellular integument occupies the spaces comprised between
the nerves, and is of a green colour ; in flowers and fruits it is
of various colours. The cellular substance of some aquatic
plants is filled with air ; in the pine, sumach, &c. it is filled
with the proper juices of the plant. This herbaceous envelope
of the trunks of trees, after a time dries, appearing on the sur-
face in the form of the cuticle, and often cleaves off. It is re-
newed internally from the cambium.

The petals of flowers are almost entirely composed of cellu-
lar texture, the cells of which are filled with juices fitted to
refract and reflect the rays of light, so as to produce the bril-
liant and delicate tints which constitute so great a portion of

Uses of the epidermis or cuticle — Cellular integument — Glands of the cellu-
lar integument— Cellular integument in roots — The seat of colour — Cellular in-
tegument in leaves, &c. — In aquatic plants — How renewed in the trunks of
trees— Found in the petals of flowers, <fcc.

feARK. 140

their beauty. The fuci, a species of sea weed, and some oth-
er plants, appear to be altogether composed of cellular texture.

3d. Cortex. Immediately under the cellular integument,
we find the true bark, which in plants that are only one year
old, consists of one simple layer ; but in trunks of older trees,
it consists of as many layers as the tree has numbered years.
The cortex is formed of bundles of longitudinal fibres called
cortical vessels.

The peculiar virtues or qualities of plants chiefly reside in
the bark. Here we find the resin of the fir, the astringent
principle of the oak, and the aromatic oil of the cinnamon.

The inner cortical layer is called the liber ; it is here only,
that the essential vital functions are carried on ; this integu-
ment is called liber, from its fine and thin plates, which are
thought to bear some resemblance to the leaves of a book,
which in Latin is liber. This substance, by its developement,
produces new roots, branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. It
is composed of a kind of net work, which has been compared
to cloth ; the elongated fibres representing the warp, and the
cellular texture the filling up. It has been observed that the
cambium descends between the liber and the wood, and that a
layer of new liber is every year made from that liquid ; as
the new layer is formed the old one is pushed outward, and at
length, losing its vital principle, it becomes a lifeless crust.
The natives of Otaheite manufacture garments from the liber
of the paper mulberry. The liber of flax is by a mo re refined
process converted into fine linen. This part of the bark is im-
portant to the life of vegetables ; the outer bark may be peeled
off without injury to them, but the destruction of the liber is
generally fatal.

The operation of girdling trees, which is often practised in
new countries, consists in making, with an axe, one or more
complete circles through the outer bark and the liber of the
trunk. Trees seldom survive this operation,, especially if it
have been performed early in the spring, before the first flow,
of the sap from the root towards the extremities.

During the repose of vegetation, that part of the liber most
recently organized, and which of course retains its vital pow-
er, remains inactive between the wood and the outer layers of
the bark, until the warmth of spring causes the ascent of the
sap. After promoting the developement of buds, and the
growth of new radicles, the liber hardens and becomes lifeless
like that of the preceding year.

Cortex, or true bark—Liber—Annually renewed— Girdling— What ultimate-
ly becomes of the liber?

13*

150 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

Fig. 93.

i n g 0 a e a

Fig. 93, at A, represents a young dicotyledonous stem, cut
transversely ; the inner circle surrounds the pith ; the wood
extends to the bark, which at a appears darkly shaded.

At B is a section of the same stem magnified ; a b, is the
bark ; b i, is the wood, and i k, the pith.

The divisions of the bark may be seen as follows : a c, rep-
resents the cuticle, or the dry, disorganized part ; at c d, is the
cellular integument; at d b, the cortex, the extreme part of
which, as at b, is the liber.

Wood. The wood (lignum) consists of two parts, alburnum
or sap-wood, and perfect wood.

The alburnum is so called from albus, white, on account of
the paleness of its colour. This is the most newly formed wood,
and constitutes the outer part of the woody substance of the
plant. It is at first soft and tender, and in this state appears
to be active with the principle of life. As the liber is formed
annually from the cambium or descending sap, new layers of
alburnum are supposed to have the same origin, and to be
formed during the same intervals of time. Most of the sap
ascends through the alburnum, though some passes through the
perfect wood. The sap which nourishes the buds, passes
through the centre of the stem, and from thence is conveyed
in appropriate vessels to the buds.

The perfect wood, is sometimes called the heart ; its colour
is usually darker than that of the sap wood, and its texture is
firmer and more compact ; it is also more durable for timber.
It is formed by the gradual concentration and hardening of the
alburnum. The wood constitutes the greater part of the bulk

Describe a dicotyledonous or exogenous stem— Wood— Alburnum— Perfect
wood. •

WOOD AND PITH. 151 -

of trees and shrubs ; when cut across, it is found to consist of
numerous concentric layers. It is supposed that one of these
circular layers is formed every year.

To prove that the wood is deposited externally from the
cambium, pieces of metal have been introduced under the
barks of trees that were growing, the wounds carefully bound
up, and after some years on cutting them across, the layers of
new wood have been found on the outside of the metal.

The strength and hardness of wood, is owing to woody fibres
extending longitudinally ; these fibres are chiefly of vascular
texture, and contain sap, and the various secreted juices ; some
contain only air.

For illustration of the formation of wood, see Fig. 93, B,
which represents a section of a woody stem of three years'
growth ; i h, is a layer of the first year's growth, and the
hardest part of the wood ; h g, is a layer of the second year's
growth ; and g 6, of the third ; the latter is the sap wood re-
cently formed from the cambium.

Pith. The pith (see Fig. 93, B, at k andz,) is situated in the
centre of the trunk and branches of plants, and is a soft spongy
substance, analogous to the marrow of animals. It is composed
of cellular texture. The cells, which are very large in the
elder, are filled with fluids when young, but in old branches the
fluids disappear, and the cells are filled with air. In general,
herbs and shrubs have a greater proportion of pith than trees.
It is also more abundant in young than old vegetables ; it ex-
tends from the root to the summit of the trunk or stem of the
plant.

The medullary* rays are lines which diverge from the pith
towards the circumference ; they are fibrous textures interwo-
ven in the wood, the alburnum, and the different layers of the
bark. The netv buds seem to originate from the points at which
they terminate.

The pith has been compared to the spinal marrow in ani-
mals ; it appears to be an important part of the vegetable sub-
stance, though its offices are perhaps less understood than those
of the other parts. The letters e, Fig. 93, represent the me-
dullary rays as proceeding from the pith and terminating in
the cellular integument.

You are not to expect that every stem or branch of a dico-
tyledonous plant will present you with all the various parts

* So called from medulla, marrow, a name often given to the pith.

How has it been proved that wood is deposited externally ? Strength and
hardness of wood — Pith — Medullary rays — Pith, to what compared — Various
parts not always distinct in different plants.

152 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

which we have described as constituting the vegetable body ;
neither when they exist are they always distinct, for as there
is a chain of connexion between them, so they often pass into
each other in such a manner as to leave their boundaries diffi-
cult to define. Many species of plants have no distinct layers
of bark, and in many there is such a similarity between the
alburnum and the perfect wood, as to render a distinction very
difficult.

Growth of a Plant.

Let us now take a rapid view of the growth of a woody plant.
Before germination, the substance of the plume or UM-< •ndini:
part of the embryo, exhibits a delicate and regular cellular
texture ; where the liber and medullary rays are to be formed,
traces of cambium appear.

When the germination commences, the vascular system be-
gins to organize around the pith, and to form the medullary
rays ; the extremities of these rays exhibit cellular texture,
which is soon converted into liber. See /, Fig. 93, which
shows the extremities of the medullary rays, and the points
where the liber is formed. This liber at first expands, then
hardens, and is at length converted into a layer of alburnum ;
the alburnum gradually acquires tenacity ; the cells appear
merged into vessels of a firmer kind, and it is no longer a layer
of alburnum, but of perfect wood. While this change is taking
place, the cambium, which may almost be termed a fluid, cel-
lular texture, flowing between the bark and the wood, repro-
duces a new layer of liber, which in its turn becomes alburn-
um and then perfect wood ; to this succeeds a third and fourth
layer, and thus the growth of the vegetable goes on until death
completes its term of existence.

Each layer of wood is generally the product of one year's
growth ; but it is only near the base of the trunk, that the
number of layers of wood is a criterion of the age of the tree ;
for in trees where one hundred layers-may be counted near the
base, no more than one can be found at the extremity of the
branches. These layers, then, do not extend through the
length of the tree ; but while the base exhibits all the layers
which have been formed, the extremity of the branches con-
tains under the bark only the continuation of an annual layer.

The age of branches may be determined by the number of
layers of wood at the base of each branch.

Appearance of a woody plant before germination, or while in embryo —
Change at the commencement of germination — Process in the formation of
perfect wood— Number of layers of wood a criterion of the age of a tree.

GROWTH OF PLANTS. 153

We will now consider the manner in which the tree increases
in height. A seed germinates ; the plume rises ; the liber, by
the vegetative power is urged upward ; but in developing, it
gradually becomes less capable of extension ; at length, when
it is converted into wood, its growth ceases. The layer of
wood then exhibits the form of an elongated cone ; at the sum-
mit of the cone a bud is formed, from which a new shoot issues ;
a new liber organizes upon the surface of the cone ; this new
liber in turn, becomes a woody cone covering the one first
formed ; and thus the tree goes on increasing in height and hi
diameter. The terminal bud is formed each successive year.
After a hundred years of vegetation a hundred cones might be
found boxed into each other in»the manner first described*; the
spaces comprised between the summits of the cones would
show the succession and elongation of the annual shoots.

As the Wood is formed by the conversion of cambium into
alburnum, so from the same liquid, the inner layers of bark are
formed, to renew the waste occasioned by the destruction of
the epidermis. While the wood is growing externally, that is,
at an increasing distance from the centre, the bark is forming
internally, and the new layers are pressing outward.

The growth of trunks, which we have hitherto considered,
has relation only to woody plants, but there is a marked differ-
ence in the growth of plants, which seems to originate in the
peculiar formation of their seeds.

Between plants which grow from seeds with one cotyledon,
and such as grow from seeds with two cotyledons, there is a
great difference as to the mode of organization.

The first kind of plants are called monocotykdonous ; the
second, dicotyledonous. Their stems, on account of their dif-
ferent modes of growth, have been distinguished into endogenous,
signifying to grow inwardly ; and exogenous, signifying to grow
outwardly. The discovery of the different modes of growth
in these two great divisions of plants, is of recent origin, and
constitutes an important era in vegetable physiology.

The stems of monocotyledons, or endogenous plants have sel-
dom a bark distinct from the other texture ; they have no
liber, or alburnum disposed in concentric layers ; they have no
medullary rays ; and their pith, instead of being confined to
the centre of the stem, extends almost to the circumference.

Advance of the tree in height — Difference in the growth of wood and bark —
Kemarkson the different organization of plants — Monocotyledonous plants —
Why called endogenous — Exogenous plants— Describe the stem of a mono-
cotyledonous plant.

154

PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

Fig. 94. The wood is divided into fibres run-

ning longitudinally through the
stem ; (see 94, where the dots re-
present the fibres ;) each of tin -so
fibres seems to vegetate separate-
ly; they are ranged around a cen-
tral support ; and are so disposed
that tin; oldest are crowded out-
wardly by the xlevelopement of
n« u fibres in the centre of the
stem ; this pressure causes the ex-
ternal layers to be very close and
compact. This mode of increase,
little favourable to growth in diameter, produces long and
straight stems, which are nearly uniform in their size throutrh.
out their whole extent ; as the palms and sugar-canes of the
tropics, and the Indian corn of our climate. Most of these
plants present us with roots of the fibrous kind.

a

Fig. 95, at A, represents a section of the stipe or stem of a
palm tree ; at B is the same magnified ; a b, a part of tho
stipe in which the woody fibres are most dense and hard ; b c,
shews the fibres less numerous, less compact, and less hard ;
c d, the woody fibres, tender and scattered ; we here see tho
orifices of tubes, which have disappeared, at c a. In the part
c dj the cellular tissue occupies a greater space than at c, bt
and much more than at b a, where the woody fibre or vascu-
lar texture predominates. The fibres at e, are of new forma-
tion ; atf they are older, and at g still more ancient ; thus the
developement of the wood proceeds inversely to that of dico-
tyledonous plants.

Formation of epidermis — Deicribe a monocotyledonous or endogenous stem.

GROWTH OF PLANTS. 155

Endogenous plants continue to increase in height, long after
they cease to grow in diameter : the stem is gradually extend-
ed upwards by new terminal shoots, which are formed annu-
ally. The epidermis is formed of the foot stalks of leaves,
which annually sprout from the rim of a new layer of wood ;
the leaves falling in autumn, their foot-stalks become indurated,
and incorporate themselves into the outer surface of the plant.

We have now taken a brief view of the most important facts
and principles which constitute the science of vegetable physi-
ology, including* anatomy. That you may have found the sub-
ject somewhat tedious, need give you no apprehension that
your minds are not fitted for minute investigations. The most
scientific observer of nature, cannot but feel, with yourselves,
that after all his scrutiny, organic life is shrouded in mystery.
Although the vegetable structure is less complicated than the
animal, there are many analogies between them ; and many
parts of the former have been named, and various phenomena
explained, by a reference to names and principles common to
animal anatomy and physiology. You cannot therefore ex-
pect, at the first glance, to comprehend explanations which
presuppose some knowledge of those intricate subjects. By at-
tention to the vegetable structure, you will, doubtless, be in-
duced to think more upon the wonderful mechanism of your
own material frames, and upon the great resemblance, yet in-
finite difference, between yourselves and the trees of the forest,
and the lilies of the field.

You will, in the language of the Psalmist, be led to exclaim,
" Oh Lord, how manifold are thy works, in wisdom hast thou
made them all !" You are nourished by the same elements as
the grass that perisheth ; the flowers have a much more refined
corporeal substance than belongs to you ; and yet hdw much
more precious are you in the sight of the Almighty than the
vegetable creation.

Do you ask, why you are of more value " than the lilies of
the field," or than " many sparrows ?" It is the very princi-
ple within you which enables you to make this inquiry, that
renders you thus precious ; it is your soul that raises you above
the inanimate and brute creation. Your body is sister to the
crawling worm and noxious weed ; but your soul may aspire
to the fellowship of angels, and to be an inhabitant of heaven.
Oh then let me entreat you, suffer not your chief thought to be
given to the decoration of the perishable part, the mere tem-
porary dwelling place of the immortal mind ! but seek to pre-
pare this mind for admission into " the glorious company of
the spirits of the just, now made perfect in heaven."

The wisdom of the Creator manifest in his works — Reflection.

156 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

LECTURE XIX.

Chemical Composition of Plants.

WE have, according to our method of arrangement, con-
sidered the anatomy of the vegetable in connexion with its phy-
siology : that is, when treating upon each particular organ, we
have remarked upon its uses in the life and growth of the whole
plant. We have treated of the germination of the seed, the
minute vessels which constitute the vegetable fabric, with tho
fluids which circulate through these vessels ; we have, as it
were, gathered these vessels together and considered them as
constituting, in various ways, three essential parts of woody
plants, the bark, wood and pith. We have inquired into the
manner in which these separate parts are formed, and observed
the great distinction in the growth of the stems of monocotyle-
donous and dicotyledonous plants.

Yet, although we have seen how plants grow, it is no easy
thing to explain how they live. The great principle which
operates in organic life, appears not to have been laid open to
the eye of man. But by a careful observation of facts, we can
learn all that it is important for us to know in order to culti-
vate plants successfully ; their habits, food, and the causes of
their diseases and death.

The physician who spends a long and laborious life in the
study of the human frame, can give only the result of observa-
tions, made by himself or others. He finds a certain article
efficacious in the relief of a particular disease ; but he knows
not why this should be so ; or if he is able to give some rea-
sons, he is ultimately arrested in his speculations by a barrier,
which he cannot pass. Thus he knows that soda or pearl-ash
correct acidity in the stomach ; ask the reason of this, and he
tells you that these are alkalies, substances which neutralize
acids, and thus render them harmless ; inquire still farther,
why alkalies do thus affect acids, and the physician is as igno.
rant as yourselves.

Before closing our view of the vegetable structure, we shall,
by the aid of chemistry, examine the elements which com-
pose it.

The growth of vegetables, and the increase of their weight,
show that they imbibe some external substances, which are in-
Retrospective view of subjects considered — Difficulty in investigating the
life of plants — How far can a physician enlighten others ?— Examination of the
elements which compose the vegetable structure.

PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES. 157

corporated into their own substance. This constitutes
tion, and distinguishes living substances from dead matter. A
stone does not receive nourishment, although it may increase
by an external accumulation of matter. "Vegetable sub-
stances, analyzed by a chemical process, have been found to
contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes nitrogen, sul-
phur, silex (a flint-like substance), the oxide of iron, soda, mag-
nesia, and chalk."* These different substances are by the
root, stems, and leaves of the plant, derived from the earth,
air, and water.

Proximate Principles.

Vegetation produces chemical combinations, which are dis-
tinguished by the name of proximate principles. Although the
proximate principles of plants are very numerous, but few of
them are well known ; they are the result of the action of the
vital forces of plants, and are, therefore, important subjects of
investigation to those who pursue the study of physiological
botany to any great extent. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen, are the constituent parts of the proximate principles
of plants. These principles may be divided into two classes.

I. Those principles which are composed of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, without any nitrogen.

II. Such as contain, besides the substances belonging to the
other class, some nitrogen. There are few of this class.

The first class of proximate principles is divided into three
orders.

1st. Principles which have more oxygen than sufficient to form
water.

2d. Principles in which oxygen and hydrogen exist in the
exact proportion to form water.

3d. Principles where hydrogen is in excess.

The 1st order includes vegetable acids : as,

Acetic acid, or pure vinegar ; this is generally produced by
fermentation from wine, cider, and some other liquids ; it is
also found in a pure state in the campeachy wood, and the sap
of the elm.

Malic acid may be extracted from green apples and the bar-
berry.

Oxalic acid is found in several species of sorrel, belonging to
the genera OXALIS and RUMEX.

Tartaric acid is obtained from the tamarind and the cran-
berry ; this acid, combined with potash, forms what is com-
monly called cream of tartar.

* Mirbel, " Elemens de Botanique."

Proximate principles — Proximate principles divided into two classes — First
class divided into three orders — First order.

14

158 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

Citric acid is found in the lemon ; it is mixed with the malic
acid in the gooseberry, the cherry and the strawberry.

Quinic acid is obtained from the Peruvian bark (Cinchona).

Gallic acid is obtained from the oak, and the sumach ; it is
highly astringent.

Benzole acid is found in the LAURUS benzoin, and in the Va-
nilla ; this is highly aromatic ; it is thought to give the agreea-
ble odour to balms.

Prussic acid ; this acid gives out a strong odour like bitter
almonds ; it is an active poison ; it is obtained from peach
meats and blossoms, from bitter almonds, &c.

The 2d order includes gums, sugar, &c.

The Gums. Of these there are many kinds ; they have
neither taste nor smell : dissolved in water, they form a muci-
lage more or less thick. The principal gums are,

Gum Arabic, which flows from the plant MIMOSA nilotica ;

Common Gums, such as issue from the peach tree, the cher-
ry tree, and many others.

Sugar is a substance which dissolves in water, and has a
sweet taste , it is obtained from the sugar cane, the sugar ma-
ple, from the stalks of indian corn, pumpkins, beets, and sweet
apples. All vegetables which have a sweet taste may be
made to yield sugar.

The 3d order includes oils, wax, resins, &c.

Oils. These are fluid and combustible substances, which
do not unite with water. They are divided into Fixed and
Volatile. The fixed oils are thick, and have little odour.

The oil of sweet almonds, and olive oil, grow thick and
opaque by being exposed to the air.

The Oil of Flax Seed, called linseed oil, and some other oils,
dry without losing their transparency ; it is this quality which
renders linseed oil so valuable to painters.

The Volatile oils are distinguished from the fixed oils by
their aromatic odours, and their tendency to fly off, from which
circumstance the term volatile is derived. Some of these oils
are those of the orange, lavender, rose, jasmine, peppermint,
and wintergreen. These oils are sometimes greatly reduced
by being mixed with alcohol, and are then called essences.
The volatile oils may be found in a great variety of plants, par-
ticularly those of the Labiate family.

The Aroma, or aromatic property, consists chiefly of the
odours which are exhaled from plants, containing volatile oil ;
it is this oil which throws out the aromatic odour of the ginger
plant, of the myrtle, rose, and other sweet scented plants.

Second order— Third order— What substances besides oils belong to th«
third order of the fir.u class of proximate principles ?

PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES. 159

Aromatic plants are much more common in hot, than cold
countries ; most of our aromatic spices are found in the
equatorial regions.

Wax is found on the surface of the fruit of the bay-berry
(MYRICA cerifera). Beeswax is an animal production, made
by the bees from pollen or farina of plants.

Camphor has much analogy with the volatile oils ; it is an
extract from the LAURUS camphora, or camphor tree of Japan.

RESIN exudes from the pine, and some other trees ; it is dry,
insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and very inflamma-
ble.

The people in new countries often use, as a substitute for
lamps, pine knots, which, abounding in resin, burn with a
bright flame.

The difference between resin and the volatile oils, appears to
consist in the action of oxygen upon the resin ; for the oil in ab-
sorbing oxygen from the air, passes into the resinous state.

Resins mixed with volatile oils form balsams ; thick, odor-
ous, and inflammable substances of this kind are the balsam
copaiva, dragon's blood, which, notwithstanding its terrific
name, is but the simple extract of a plant, (!)RAC(ENA draco ;)
the balsam of Tolu is the extract of the TOLUIFERA balsamum.

These resins are sometimes mixed with gums, they are then
called gum-resins ; of this kind are gamboge, assafoetida, guaia-
cum, aloes, an extract from the ALOE perfoliata. These gum-
resins in flowing from vegetables are sometimes white and liquid
like milk, but they usually become brown and hard by expo-
sure to the air.

Indian rubber* or as it is sometimes called, gum elastic, is
the product of a South American tree, (called the SIPHONIA
elastica,) an East Indian plant, (the URCEOLA elastica,) and
some other trees in the equatorial regions ; by exposure to the
air it hardens, becomes brown, and takes the appearance of
leather ; it can neither be dissolved by water nor alcohol.
The juice of the milk weed is said to be similar to that of the
Siphonia elastica, and that of other plants from which the In-
dian rubber is made.t

The green principle. It is to this principle that all the green-
parts, exposed to light, owe their colour ; it undergoes changes
in the different states of the plant, in autumn becoming brown
or yellow. Davy attributes the change of colour to the form-
ation of some acid ; you know that a drop of sour wine, lemon

* Caoutchouc.

t Mr. H. Eaton, assistant professor at the Rensselaer Institution, prepared a
small quantity of the juice of the milk weed (Asclepias) in such a manner that
it could not be distinguished from the imported Indian rubber, either in external
appearance, or in its properties.

160 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

juice, or any other acid, will turn green to a brown or yellow
colour.

The second class of proximate principles consists of sub-
stances which, like the first class, are formed of carbon, hy-
drogen, and oxygen ; but to these is added nitrogen. In this
class we find,

Opium, a narcotic principle, extracted from the poppy. It
is soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in water.

Hematine; this is the colouring principle, from the cam-
peachy wood.

Indigo, a colouring substance, obtained from several species
of Indigofera, or the indigo plant.

Gluten, is extracted from the cotyledons of the seeds of legu-
minous plants, as peas, beans ; and from the albu tien of wheat,
rye, &c. It is obtained by separating it from the starch ; flour
owes much of its nourishing properties to gluten ; which in
some respects is analogous to animal principles, and like them
is subject to putrefaction.

Jelly p, is the thickened juice of succulent fruits ; as currants,
quinces, and apples ; it is soluble in hot water, though scarcely
so in cold ; when heated, it loses its jelly-like form, which is
that of a coagulated mass, between a liquid and a solid, suscepti-
ble of a tremulous motion ; by long boiling, the juice loses the
property which gives to jelly its peculiar appearance. Many
colouring principles have never been separated from the sub-
stances to which they are united ; as those of saffron, logwood,
&c.

It has already been suggested, that the red colour of fruits
arises from the combination of an acid, with a blue colouring
principle ; you know that the effect of mixing any acid with
an infusion of blue violets, or any vegetable blue, is to give a
red tinge, varying in shade from a purple red to a brilliant
scarlet, in proportion to the quantity of acid.

It has also, upon the same principle, been supposed that the
purple, red, and blue colouring of the petals of flowers is
owing to different proportions of acid ; this may explain the
change of colour which appears in some flowers, which pass
from blue to red , as the changeable hydrangea. This change
may be attributed to increase of acid combining with the blue
colouring principle.* Some red flowers become blue ; they
are in this case supposed to have parted with some portion of
the acid, which was united with their colouring principle.

* Iron is supposed to be combined with the oxygen of the acid.

What new element is found in the second class of proximate principles ? —
What substances are found in this class? — Cause of the red colour of fruit —
Of the various hues of the petals of flowers. • ,• -

PROXIMATE ELEMENTS. 161

Chemical composition of the Sap.

The sap is a transparent, colourless fluid, imbibed by the
vegetable from the earth and air ; or more properly, from the
water existing in them, which holds in solution oxygen, hydro-
gen, carbon, nitrogen, earths, mineral-salts, and animal and
vegetable matter. We might suppose, that being derived from
the same source, the sap in all vegetables would be alike, but
it is never obtained pure ; it is mingled with the proximate
principles, or proper juices, and thus differs in different species
of vegetables ; water, however, constitutes the principal part
in all.

The following result of the analysis of the sap of some
vegetables has been offered by a French chemist.*

Sap of the. elm, (ULMUS campcstris,) water, volatile matter,
acetate of potash, carbonate of lime, vegetable matter, sul-
phate of potash.

Sap of the beech, (FAGTJS sylvatica,) water, acetate of lime,
with excess of acid, acetate of potash, gallic acid, tannin, mu-
cous extract, acetate of alumine.

Sap of the Horse Chesnut, (J&scuLvshippocastanum,) water,
extractive mucous matter, nitre, acetate of potash, and car-
bonate of lime.

These few examples of the decomposition of vegetable prin-
ciples show how wide a field is open to the chemist, in the
study of vegetable elements.

It may seem wonderful, that of so few elementary substan-
ces, such a great variety should exist in the taste, smell, colour,
consistence, medicinal and nutricious qualities of vegetable
combinations ; is it not equally wonderful that, with the nine
digits and the cipher, we may make such varied combinations
of numbers ; or with our twenty -six letters of the alphabet, form
every variety of composition ? Thus, by the various combina-
tions of a few simple principles, are formed all vegetable and
animal productions ; and, although formerly, the presence of
nitrogen was considered as a test of animal substance, and the
want of it of a vegetable substance, it is now ascertained that
animal substances may exist without nitrogen, and that this
principle is contained in several vegetables.

The elements of the compounds being the same, the question
naturally arises, what causes the great diversity in the proper-
ties ? Two causes may be assigned for this ; viz. 1st. The
* Vauqnelin.

Sap— Of the elm— Of the beech— Of the horse chesnut— All vegetable and
animal productions composed of a few simple principles — Illustration — What
two causes assigned for the different properties of compounds formed from
the same elements?

14*

162 PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEWS.

different proportions in which the elements are combined* 2nd.
The various modes of their combination.

In vinegar and sugar, the one substance a liquid, and of a
sour taste, the other solid and sweet, are found the same ele-
ments in different proportions and differently combined. In
gum, starch, and sugar, the elements are the same, the propor-
tions nearly the same, but they are combined differently,

When we know by chemical analysis, the combinations
which exist in inorganized bodies, we can by putting the same
together, often form similar substances ; but we cannot thus
form organized bodies ; for to these belongs a living principle,
which it is not in the^ power of man to bestow. It is said, Rous-
seau declared, that he would not believe in the correctness of
the analysis of vegetable or animal substances, until he should
see a young animal or a thrifty plant spring into existence, from
the retort of a chemist. But the power to create, the Almighty
has not delegated to man ; neither is it to be supposed that any
future discoveries in science will ever confer it upon him. To
study into the compound nature of substances, to classify, ar-
range, and by various combinations to beautify the world of
matter, to cultivate the faculties of mind, until stronger and
brighter, the mental vision sees facts and principles before invi-
sible ; these are the high privileges bestowed on man ; but to
add one new particle to matter, or one new faculty to the mind,
is beyond the power of the whole human race.

Examples— Can organized bodies be produced by the skill of man ?

PART III.

CLASSIFICATION.

Note. As the pupil, in the first part of this volume, is introduced to a know-
ledge of the leading principles of the Linnsean system, some repetition must
necessarily occur in the following part, in which the principles of classifica-
tion are to be more fully considered.

LECTURE XX.

Method of Tournefort. — System of Linnceus. — Method of Jussieu:
Natur'al Method of Linnceus.

LET us now imagine the whole vegetable kingdom, comprising
innumerable millions of individual plants, to be spread out before
a botanist. Could he, in the course of the longest life, number
each blade of grass, each little moss, each shrub, or even each
tree 1 If he could not even count them, much less could he give
each one a separate name and description. But he does not
need to name them separately, for he sees that nature has
arranged them into sorts or kinds.

Were you sent into the fields to gather flowers of a similar
kind, you would need no book to direct you to put into one
parcel, all the red clover blossoms, and into another, the white
clover ; while the dandelions would form another group.
These all constitute different species. Nature would also
teach you that the red and white clover, although differing from
each other in some particulars, yet bear a strong resemblance.
By placing them together you form a genus, and to this genus
you refer all the different kinds or species of clover. When
you see the red, damask, and cinnamon roses, you perceive
they all have such strong marks of resemblance as to entitle
them to be placed together in one genus. But yet you know
that the seed of a damask rose would never produce a red rose.
One species of plants can never produce another species, how-
ever near may be their resemblance.

The whole number of species of plants which have been
named and described, including many which have been recently
discovered in New Holland and about the Cape of Good Hope,
is said to be 56,000.*

* According as recently reported by the Baron Humboldt, to the French Na-
tional Institute.

Nature arranges plants into kinds or sorts — Examples — Number of species
of plants.

164 CLASSIFICATION.

If species of plants were described without any regular
order, we could derive no pleasure, and very little advantage
from the study of practical botany. If we wished to find out
the name of a plant, we should be obliged to turn over the
leaves of a large volume, without any rule to guide us in our
search.

The necessity of some kind of system was so apparent, that
many attempts for the methodical arrangement of plants, were
made, before the time of Linnaeus ; but his system was so
superior to all others, that it was no sooner published to the
world, than it was adopted by the universal consent of all men
of science.

Previous to this time, Tournefort, a native of France, hail
published an ingenious method of arrangement, beautiful by its
simplicity, but imperfect, on account of the vagueness of its
application. The characters of his classes were founded upon
the absence, presence, and form of the corolla. Tournefort
made twenty-two classes ; these he subdivided into sections or
orders.

The first seventeen classes contained herbs and shrubs ; the
remaining/ve contained trees.

The division of the first seventeen classes, or those which
contain herbs and shrubs, was as follows.

The first/bur classes had monopetalous corollas ; they were
Bell-form, Funnel-form, Labiate and Personate.

The seven following classes contained the Cruciform, Rosa-
ceous, Umbelliferous, Caryophyllous, Liliaceous, Papilionaceous,
and the Anomalous.

The three following included the Compoundjlowers.

The three next following, included ;

1st. Plants having Stamens without a corolla.

2d. Such as had no flower.

3d. Such as had neither flower nor fruit.

Next followed the arrangement of large and small trees.

The eighteenth and nineteenth classes were Apetalous, hav-
ing corollas without petals ; and Amentaceous, having flowers
in a catkin ; as the chesnut and willow.

The twentieth class contained such large and small trees as
had monopetalous corollas.

The twenty-first and twenty-second classes contained such
large and small trees as had polypetalous corollas ; Rosaceous,
as the apple and lilac, or papilionaceous, as the locust. ,r

Necessity of order in description — Attempts at arrangement made before the
time of Linnaeus. — Tournefort's classes, on what founded — How many— Men-
tion the divisions of the first seventeen — Eighteenth and nineteenth classes —
Twentieth class — Twenty-first and twenty-second classes.

METHOD OF TOURNEFORT.

165

Synopsis of the method of Tournefort.

simple

I Corollas
1 monopetalous.

Corollas
polypetalous.

HERBS.

»**»{

5 Cruciform.

6 Rosaceous.
Regular. </ 7 Umbelliferous.

8 Caryophyllous.

9 Liliaceous.

«**•««"*
Anomalous.

Flosculus.
Composed. < 13 Semi-Flosculus.
14 Radiated.

Irregular. \
£

Without petals
or apetalous

r 15 Apetalous with stamens.
, I 16 Apetalous without stamens.
1 17 Apetalous without Jlowers
t or fruit.

Flowers

j >o talons.

TREES.

Without (18 Trees apetalous.
petals. {19 Trees amentaceous.
Corollas C 20 Trees with monopetalous flowers.
JU2J"^| 21 Trees with rosaceous flowers.
{. "petdous/'-J 22 Trees with papilionaceous flowers.
After having derived from the corolla the distinctions 'of
classes, Tournefort subdivided them into orders, or as he called
them, sections. These orders were founded upon the obser-
vation of the pistil, calyx, fruit, fyc.

The first step in this classification, or the separation of shrubs
and trees was wrong. The distinction between a small tree
and shrub, cannot be accurately defined ; there are many
plants which we should doubt whether to class among large
shrubs or small trees. Two circumstances were, by Tourne-
fort, relied on as a foundation for this distinction ; viz. that
shrubs do not form buds for the future year ; and secondly, the
difference in the size of trees and shrubs. With respect to the
formation of buds, the distinction is not found to be invariable,
as some shrubs do form buds,, and some trees do not. With
respect to size, the variation, even in the same species, is such,
in different soils and situations, that it cannot be admitted as
a mark of distinction.

Synopsis of Tournefort's method — Orders— Defects in Tournefort's classifi-
cation— Difficulty of determining between buds and shrubs.

166 CLASSIFICATION.

Different species, even in the same genus, sometimes differ
in their stems ; some being woody and others herbaceous.
Neither is the form of the corolla to be depended on ; even in
the most natural families of plants, we find flowers of different
forms, as in different species in the natural order Solaneae,
where the mullein is wheel-form, the tobacco funnel-form, and
the atropa bell-form.

System of Linnaeus.

We shall not now attempt to give a view of the system of
Linnaeus, as we are hereafter to consider it in detail. We in-
troduce it here merely to compare it with other modes of clas-
sification. The removing of plants which are nearly allied in
their natural character, to different classes, by means of any ar-
tificial principle of classification, ought as far as possible to be
avoided ; and although the system of Linnaeus, as you will find,
when we compare it with natural families, is not wholly free
from this confusion, it is much more so than any other which
has been invented.

Although we do not now receive the method of Tournefort,
for practical uses, a knowledge of it may extend your views of
botanical science. When we accustom ourselves to take but
one view of a subject, we are in danger of acquiring a contract-
ed mode of thought. We are not to suppose that the system
of Linnaeus is entirely perfect ; but may well imagine that
men of science will arise, who shall discover principles now
hidden, and look back upon what they will call, the very im-
perfect state of our sciences. We should rejoice that the hu-
man race is thus destined to a degree of improvement beyond
our highest powers of calculation.

" What should we think of a savage, if, in the pride of his
ignorance, he was to conceive his own thoughts and feelings to
be the noblest of which the human intellect is capable ? And
perhaps even the mind of a Newton, is but the mind of such a
savage compared to what man is hereafter to become."*

The system,f of Linnaeus has already in its principal features
been laid before you, in the views of artificial classes and or-

* Brown.

t System differs from method in having but one single primitive character,
and in founding its principal divisions upon the consideration of only one single
organ or principle. Linnaeus founded his system upon the consideration of
the stamens as more or less numerous, upon their proportion, connexion, and
their absence. Newton founded his system of Natural Philosophy upon at-
traction. The vital principle is the foundation of all systems of Physiology.
Method is not confined to the consideration of one character ; it employs all
•uch as are conspicuous and invariable.

System of Linnaeus not entirely perfect — Advantages of taking different
views of a subject — Human mind destined to progressive improvement — Dif-
ference between system and method (see note).

SYSTEM OF LINISMEUS. 167

ders.* This system not only includes within it all known
plants, but is founded on such principles as must comprehend
within it whatever plants may yet be discovered. Its author
believed that no plant was destitute of stamens and pistils : but
at the same time, that there were species in which these or-
gans were so small, so obscure, or of such a singular formation
as to render it difficult, and sometimes impossible to be certain
of their existence, except by the principle of analogy. There-
fore, he made the two grand divisions of plants, Phenogamous,
such as have stamens and pistils visible, and Cryptogamous, sta-
mens and pistils invisible.^

The following comparison has been very properly made by
Botanists, as an illustration of the divisions in the system of
Linnaeus.

Classes are compared to States.
Orders, to Towns.

Genera, to Families.

Species, to Individuals.

You must not forget, while considering this system, that
plants themselves are the only real substances ; species, genus,
order and class, are mere abstract terms, denoting certain dis-
tinctions which would equally have existed, although we had
never observed them, or given them names.

An Individual is an organized being, complete in its parts,
distinct and separate from all other beings. An oak, a rose,
and a moss, are each of them individuals of the vegetable king-
dom.

A Species includes such individuals as agree in certain circum-
stances of the roots, stems, leaves and inflorescence. We have
no reason to suppose that any new species, either of animals or
vegetables, have been produced since the creation. We some-
times see varieties in plants made by cultivation ; the stamens
and pistils, from excess of nourishment, expanding into petals.
Varieties are also occasioned by strewing the pollen from one
species, upon the stigma of another ; but these varieties do not
produce perfect seed, and therefore cannot reproduce them-
selves by their seed. The colour, taste and size, are not con-
sidered as marks of specific difference.

A Genus comprehends one or more species, grouped togeth-
er on account of some resemblance in situation, proportion,
and connexion of the organs which constitute the flower. Any

* See part I, page 29.

t Mirbel believes there are some plants absolutely destitute of stamens and
pistils ; these he calls agamous.

System of Linnaeus provides for the classification of such plants as are yet
to be discovered— Illustrations of its divisions— Plants the only real substances
— Individual — Species —Genus.

168 CLASSIFICATION.

one species of a genus may be regarded as a type or example
of the others ; we may easily refer species which we have not
studied to their proper genus, by a knowledge of any one spe-
cies of that genus. Some genera appear to be distinctly
marked by nature ; the various species of the rose, form a
beautiful genus which is known to all, although every one
might not be able to describe it to others, in such a manner as
to be understood ; it is chiefly distinguished by its urn-shaped
and fringed calyx.

The Generic names of plants 'are derived from various cir-
cumstances ; in some cases from a peculiarity of form or colour
of the corolla or some property of the plant, and some are
named from distinguished persons.

Thus Iris, (flag,) is named from Iris the rain bow, on ac-
count of its various shades of colour.

Digitalis, (fox-glove,^ named from digitus, a finger, on ac-
count of the shape of its corolla, like the finger of a glove.
Convallaria, (lily of the valley,) named from a Latin word
convallis, signifying valley.

Teucrium (germander,) named in honour of Teucer, a Trojan
prince, who is said to have discovered this plant. The Eng-
lish name, germander, is supposed to have originated from the
word Scamander, the name of a river of ancient Troy.

The name of the great Linnaeus is commemorated in a
beautiful and modest flower, called the Linnaa borealis.*

Specific names are generally adjectives ; generic names are
nouns. The specific name sometimes indicates the number of
leaves, as ORCIIJS bifolia, (bifolia, signifies two leaves,) or the
colour of the corolla ; as VIOLA, tri-colour, (three coloured
violet,) or the form of the root ; SOLANUM tuberosum ; (with a
tuberous root ;) specific names are also derived from the names
of persons ; thus a species of Origanum is named tournefortiiy
after its discoverer Tournefort.

Metliod of Jussieu.

The natural method consists in bringing together such plants
as seem by nature to be constituted one family, resembling
each other in general appearances and medicinal qualities ; as
lilies, herbs, trees, mosses and ferns. Some of these natural

• Borealis signifying northern, has reference to the situation of the country
which gave birth to Linnaeus. The Linnsea borealis is not uncommon in New
England, and has been found on an Island, in the Hudson, near Troy.

A knowledge of one species in a genus enables us to recognize all other
species of the same genus — Derivations of generic names — Generic names —
Iris— Digitalis— Teucrium— Lmnaa borealis— Specific names— Natural meth-
od.

SYSTEM OF LINN^US. 169

families show a similarity in form and quality, and are evident,
ly distinct from all others. If the whole vegetable kingdom
could thus be distributed into natural tribes, we should need
no other system than that of nature. But as we proceed on
this plan we soon find difficulties ; for after selecting a few
families which nature seems to have formed with striking
marks of resemblance, we find others more obscure, and we
at length see a vast number of plants which cannot be referred
to any natural families.

We shall consider two natural methods of Classification ;
viz. those of Linnaeus, and Jussieu ; the arrangement of the
latter, is highly valuable in the study of Medicinal Botany.

The characters employed in this method are,

1. The structure of the Seed.

2. Insertion of the Stamens.

3. Absence, presence, and form of the Corolla.

4. Union or separation of Stamens and Pistils.

5. Union or separation of the Anthers.

1. The Seed, considered with respect to Cotyledons.* A
plant without cotyledons is called, A'cotyledonous, with one,
Mono'cotyledonous, and with two, Dicotyledonous.

2. The Stamens are inserted above the germ, under the
germ, or around the germ: the 1st is Epi'gynous, the 2d
Hypo'gynous, the 3d Peri'gynous.

3. A'petalous, having no corolla, Mono'petalous, all of one
piece, or Poly'petalous, many petals.

4. Mono'clinious, Stamens and Pistils on the same corolla,
Di'clinious, Stamens and Pistils on different corollas.

5. Anthers distinct, or anthers joined.

Synopsis of Jussieu* s method.

ACOTYLEDONS, CLASS 1

( Stamens liypogynous, 2

MONOCOTYLEDONS, < " perigynous, 3

I " epigynous, 4

* The Cotyledons are the thick parts of the seed ; an apple seed, an orange
seed, or a bean, may be easily split into two parts ; these are the cotyledons ;
nee and wheat cannot be thus split, they have but one cotyledon.

Many plants cannot be referred to any natural families — Two natural meth-
ods to be considered — What are the characters employed in Jussieu's method?
— How is the structure of the seed considered ? — How the insertion of the
stamens ? — How the corolla ? — How the anthers ? — Give a synopsis of Jussieu's
method.

15

170 CLASSIFICATION.

f Stamens epigynous, 5

apetalous. " perigynous, 6

( « hypogynous, 7

Corolla hypogynous, 8

" perigynous, 9

monopetalous. } f ^^f.1^ IQ

I combined,

l anthers , ,
L distinct,

i Stamens epigynous, 12

polypetalous. " hypogynous, 13

( " perigynous, 14

„ diclinious, 15

These classes are divided into 100 orders ;* but they are
obscure and indefinite in many particulars.

The dicotyledons include the Cryptogamous plants of Lin-
naeus. The monocotyledons consist of three classes ; grasses,
palms, and liliaceous plants. The dicotyledons^ form the 11 re-
maining classes. There are some genera which appear so
ambiguous in their character, as to render it doubtful where
they should be placed.

In the three methods of classification which we have now
examined, the most important characters of the plant have been
presented, under circumstances calculated to give you more
clear-ideas of them, than could have been obtained from a con-
sideration of any one method, alone.

Tournefort makes you acquainted with the different appear-
ances of the corolla.

Linnaeus, of the stamens and pistils.
Jussieu, of the cotyledons and insertions of the stamens.
The method of Tournefort cannot be relied on, because the
forms of corollas vary into each other; that of Jussieu, con-
sidered as a study in itself, is much too abstract ; the number of
cotyledons, generally speaking, is an excellent character, but
you cannot in the beginning appreciate its value ; and as to in-
sertion, botanists themselves are sometimes embarrassed to de-
cide respecting it. This method, although much admired, has
been little used ; on the contrary, the method of Linnaeus has
been for half a century the foundation of all teaching. The

* See Part I, page 39.

t The dicotyledonous division includes also the Polycotyledons, or a few
plants with more than two cotyledons.

How many of Jussieu's orders ?— Acotyledons— Monocotyledons— Dicotyle-
dons— The three methods of classification considered, present the most impor-
tant characters of the plants under different points of view — Comparison of
these methods.

METHOD OF JUSSIEU. 171

new species discovered have been arranged according to its
principles of classification, and most catalogues of plants, and
floras,* have taken this method for their guide.

The characters used in this system are very apparent ; and
as it refers to the number of parts, rather than to their forms
or insertion, it offers to the mind something positive, which is
not found either in the method of Tournefort, or that of Jussieu.
Between a corolla, bell form or funnel form, there are many
intermediate forms, which may be as much like one, as the
other. The insertions over the germ, or under the germ, are
distinct,- but between them, is the insertion around the germ,
which sometimes blends with one, sometimes with the other.
But between one or two stamens, or one or two pistils, there is
no intermediate step, or gradual blending of distinctions, which
leaves you in doubt whether the case before you belongs to the
one, or the other.

The natural orders of Linnseus are 58 ; they are not found-
ed upon any one principle, but upon general marks of resem-
blance. This great man did not view his Natural Orders as
approaching to a perfect classification ; he modestly termed
them "Fragments of a natural method." As every thing left
by him on the subject of botany seems deserving of considera-
tion, his Natural Orders are preserved as a relic, which it
would be almost sacrilege to destroy : there is in them more of
simplicity than in those of Jussieu, and they may be better un-
derstood by the young student.

Linnaeus, in his " Philosophy of Botany," has established
three kinds of characters to be used in descriptions of plants.

1st. Factitious (or made). That which is, by agreement,
taken as a mark of distinction : thus the number of stamens
and pistils is fixed upon for distinguishing some of the classes
and orders. Although nature has formed these organs, the
arrangement of plants by their means, is an invention of man,
or artificial.

2d. Essential Character. That which forms a particular
character of one genus, and distinguishes it from all other
genera.

3d. Natural Character. This is difficult to define, though
it is that which is understood by all ; it is the general aspect
and appearance of the plant which enables all persons to

* The term flora is often used for the title of a book describing plants. The
ancient heathens imagined a goddess called Flora, who, they thought, presided
over flowers.

System of Linneeus offers something positive — Natural orders of Linnaeus —
Three kinds of characters to be used in descriptions of plants — Factitious
character— Essential character — Natural.

172 CLASSIFICATION.

make a kind of arrangement of plants in their own minds,
although they would find it very difficult to convey their ideas
of classification to others.

It is by their natural characters, that persons who have
never, perhaps, heard of such a science as zoology or the clas-
sification of animals, are enabled to distinguish ferocious beasts
from domestic and gentle animals ; they see a sheep or cow
without any terror, although that individual one they may
never have seen before ; for nature teaches them to consider
that, as resembling other sheep and cows, which they know to
be inoffensive.

This natural character teaches savages to distinguish among
the many plants of the forest, those which may administer to
their wants and those which would be injurious.

Even the lower grades of animals have this faculty of se-
lecting by natural characters, nutritious substances, and avoid-
ing noxious ones ; thus we see the apparently unconscious
brutes luxuriating in the rich pastures prepared for them by a
benevolent Creator, and cautiously passing by the poisonous
weed, directed by the curious instinct given them by this same
Almighty Benefactor.

LECTURE XXI.

Characters used in clatsifaation.

A natural family is composed of several genera of plants
which have some common marks of resemblance, and its name
is usually founded upon this general character; as Labiate
and Cruciform, which are derived from the form of the co-
rollas ; Umbellate and Corymbiferous, from the inflorescence ;
Leguminous from the nature of the fruit.

Families resemble artificial orders in being composed of
genera, but the principles on which the genera are brought
together, differ widely in the two cases.

In natural families, the classification is such as persons who
have never studied botany, might make ; thus, dill, fennel,
caraway, &c. belong to the Umbellate family, on account of
the form in which the little stalks, bearing the flower, and
afterwards the seed, branch out from one common centre, like
the sticks of an umbrella ; this general resemblance is observ-
ed by all, and it seems very natyral to class such plants to-
gether.

Animals capable of discerning these natural characters — Families of plants
— In what respect do families resemble artificial orders ? How do they differ ?
— Persons might form natural families without a knowledge of botany >

CHARACTERS USED IN CLASSIFICATION. 173

But in the artificial orders, genera which may be very un-
like in other respects, are brought together, from the single
circumstance of their having the same number of stamens
and pistils. Thus, in the first order of the 8th class we have
the tulip and the bulrush, the lily of the valley and the sweet
flag. In the second order of the 5th class we have the beet
and the elm. You will at once perceive the striking disparity
between these plants, and that an arrangement, which thus
brings them together, is properly called an artificial method.

Many families of plants possess a marked resemblance in
form and qualities, and appear evidently as distinct tribes. If
the whole of the vegetable kingdom could thus be distributed
into natural classes, the study of botany would be much sim-
plified ; but it has already been remarked that there are many
plants which cannot be thus arranged, and no principle has yet
been discovered for systematic arrangement which bears any
comparison to the Artificial System. This system is compar-
ed to a dictionary ; though by its use we do not at first find
the word for which we seek, and then learn its definition, as
we do in dictionaries of terms ; but we first learn some of the
characters of a plant, and by these as our guide, we proceed
to find the name. We are not however to rest after finding
the botanical name ; but having ascertained this, we can easily
find to what natural family a plant belongs, and thus ascertain
its habits, medicinal use, and other important particulars. Th$
natural method may then be considered as the grammar of
botany ; between this and the artificial systenij the same rela-
tion exists, as between the grammar and dictionary of a lan-
guage ; both are necessary to science.

As the subject of classification is so important to a knowledge
of botanical science, we will now consider the general princi-
ples on which it depends.

Rules.

1st. All botanical classification results from an examination
and comparison of plants.

2d. Every organic distinction which establishes between indi-
viduals any resemblance, or any difference, is a character ; that
is, a sign, by which they may be known and distinguished.

3d. The presence of an organ, its different modification and
its absence, are so many characters.

4th. The presence of an organ furnishes positive characters,
its absence negative characters.

Genera in the artificial orders brought together by having the same number
of stamens and pistils — Artificial system of arrangement compared to a dic-
tionary— First learn the characters, then the name — The natural method con-
sidered as the grammar of botany — Mention the first four rules which are
given for classification.

15*

174 CLASSIFICATION.

Positive characters offering means of comparison, shew the
resemblances and differences which exist between individuals ;
those plants in which these characters present but slight differ-
ences, should be collected in groups; those in which these
characters differ more sensibly, should be separated ; here we
follow strictly the laws of the mind. But negative characters,
as they allow no comparison, can only be employed to separate
individuals, and never to bring them together.

When we say that plants have seeds with one or two cotyle-
dons ; that they have monopetalous or polypetalous flowers,
and are provided with stamens and pistils, we point out particu-
lars, where visible and striking resemblances may be observ-
ed ; these characters, then, are positive, since they are founded
on something real.

When we say that some plants are destitute of cotyledon,
corolla, stamens or pistils, we do not establish any real basis
for the foundation of a comparison. If we wish to separate
plants with monopetalous corollas, from such as have polypeta-
lous corollas, this single character establishes at once, the
difference which exists between the two groups, and the resem-
blance, which exists between the individuals of each group.
Thus positive characters possess a great advantage over nega-
tive ones ; the latter should never be employed when the former
can be used ; and in proportion, as positive characters can be
substituted for negative, the science of botany will be per-
fected.

Positive characters can only be founded upon evident facts,
and never upon a presumption of the existence of facts, derived
from analogy. For it is contrary to true philosophy, to suffer
hypothetical reasoning to usurp the place of direct observation
of facts.

5th. Positive characters are constant or inconstant. All
seeds produced by plants of the same species have the same
structure ; all plants which grow from these seeds, produce
other seeds, similar to those from which they have had their
origin : of course the characters derived from the structure
of these seeds are constant. But among these plants some are
large and others small ; some may have white corollas, some,
red, or blue ; some are more fragrant than others ; of course,
size, colour and odour offer inconstant characters.

6th. All real science in botany must rest upon constant char-
acters; therefore, these characters are much more important
than the others.

Positive and negative characters — Give illustrations of these characters, with
their uses — Advantage of positive characters over negative — Founded only
upon evident facts— What is the fifth rule ?— The sixth F

CHARACTERS USED IN CLASSIFICATION. 175

7th. Constant characters may be isolated or coexistent. The
petals of the RANUNCULUS acris (butter-cup) have a nectary in
the form of a scale ; this character, although constant, is iso-
lated, for it is not necessarily connected with any other char-
acteristic trait. The calyx of the campanula rotundifolia^
(blue-bell,) adheres to the germ ; the germ must of necessity
be simple, or without divisions, and the corolla and stamens
attached to the interior of the calyx. The character of the
adherence of the calyx to the germ, brings in its train several
other characteristics ; it is then coexistent; and is more impor-
tant than the isolated character.

8th. Two orders of characters are derived from the two great
divisions of vegetable organs ; those of vegetation and repro-
duction. The characters of vegetation are few, and mostly
isolated • the characters of reproduction are numerous and often
coexistent ; one character serving as an index to many others.

It is seldom that plants which resemble each other in their
characters of reproduction, differ much in their characters of
vegetation. For example, all plants which have four didyna-
mous* stamens, attached -to a mo uopetalous labiate corolla, and
four seeds lying uncovered in a monophyllous calyx, have an
angular stem and opposite leaves. On the contrary it frequent-
ly happens, that plants which resemble each other by the
characters of vegetation, differ by those of fructification.
Labiate and caryophyllous plants agree in having their leaves
opposite, and yet there is no resemblance in their flowers.
This consideration alone, would seem sufficient for establishing
the superior importance of the characters of reproduction
over those of vegetation. The seed unites in itself the char-
acters both of reproduction and vegetation. The embryo is
the commencement of the new plant, and it offers us the first
characters of vegetation ; but its situation in the fruit, the
number, form and consistence of its envelope, are characters
which belong to fructification.

As far as possible, in separating or bringing together plants,
we should make use of prominent characters which the eye
can see, without the help of the microscope ; but if experience
teaches us that the characters most constant and proper for the
explanation of physiological phenomena can only be discover-
ed by such aid, it is necessary to resort to this instrument, in
order to establish the natural relations of plants.f

* That is, two long and two short stamens.

t The foregoing rules and observations respecting characters for classifica-
tion, are translated from Mirbel's " Elemens de Botanique."

The seventh ? — The eighth ? — Characters of reproduction more important
than those of vegetation — In what cases should we make use of characters
invisible to the naked eye?

176 CLASSIFICATION.

Having considered the meaning of individual, species, genus
&Di<\fanu/y, and of the characteristics by which these are group-
ed together, let us take a general view of this subject.'

It is evident by the formation of species, genera and families,
that every species should offer the essential characters of the
family and genus to which it belongs ; while the marks which
distinguish this species from another species of its genus, will
be such as do not belong to the whole genus or family. The
different genera in families are also distinguished by characters
which do not belong to the whole family; every individual,
then will possess its specific character, its generic character,
,and its family character.

The specific character is less important than the generic, as
it is mostly founded on the characters of the organs of vegeta-
tion, which we have seen are isolated and less important than
the coexistent characters. We often find in the analysis of
plants, a great difficulty in determining their species, from the
want of more definite marks of distinction.

Generic characters are mostly of the coexistent kind, and
are more valuable than the specific characters. The distinc-
tions of genera are usually much more apparent than those of
species ; as a rose can be more easily distinguished Jrom a pink,
than one species of rose from another species. Families are
grouped together by marks of resemblance found in genera.
These family characters are of all the most important.

In the artificial classes and orders we depend on what we
have before termed factitious characters.

In species, genera and families, the essential characters are
also natural characters.

LECTURE XXII.

* Natural Families.

We will now consider the vegetable kingdom as divided into
natural families. We first find the general division, Acotyle-
donous plants ; these are the lowest in the scale of vegetable
life, resembling, in many respects, the lower orders of animals ;
like them, simple and almost homogeneous in structure, and
chiefly composed of cellular texture.

General view of the subject of classification — Which is the more important,
the specific or generic character?— Why are generic characters most valu-
able ? - How are families grouped together ? — Artificial classes and orders —
First general division of plants.

NATURAL FAMILIES. 177

Acotyledons.*
CLASS 1.

Embryo destitute of cotyledons, and a separate albumen.

These are the plants which are contained in the class Cryp-
togamia of the artificial system.

Fungi, or mushrooms ; these are either parasitical, or spring
from the ground naked or enclosed in a volva. The substance
of mushrooms is, in some species, like cork or leather ; in oth-
ers, soft, fleshy and juicy. They are round or flat ; some have
a head called a pileus (signifying hat). They have neither
leaves or flowers. Instead of anthers they have a Scattered,
external or internal powder. Instead of pistils they have or-
gans, which resemble thin plates, wrinkles, pores, tubes, &c.
In these organs, exists a substance analogous to seeds, which
germinates and reproduces the species. The different species
of fungi are known by the common names of toad-stool, puff-
ball, &c.

Mosses, instead of anthers, have collections of tubes which
evolve a substance analogous to pollen. The pistillate flowers
are collections of many in one group ; their germ, instead of a
corolla, is covered wiflh a membrane called a calyptra (veil),
whose summit admits the polJen. The fruit is a capsule, open-
ing by a lid, having a margin either naked or fringed, with a
certain number of teeth either in a single or double row. The
seeds of mosses are very minute. The mosses are herbaceous,
leafy and mostly branched ; their roots are fibrous ; some are
annual, others perennial.

Ferns exhibit no other fructification than capsules which
grow on the back or edges of leaves. The leaves are called
fronds; the stems are called stipes. Lichens, sea-weeds, &c.
which belong to this class, will be considered under the artifi-
cial class, Cryptogamia.

The second grand division of the vegetable kindom contains
the 2d, 3d, and 4th classes of Jussieu's method.

Monocotyledons.

CLASS 2.

Stamens hypogynous (below the germ). Embryo with one
cotyledon. The characters of this class are ; stamens inferior,
calyx inferior when present ; stamens seldom indefinite ; leave?
mostly alternate and sheathing.

* See Jussieu's classes, page 169.

Characters of class 1st — Fungi — Mosses — Ferns — Second grand division
—Characters of class 2d.

178 CLASSIFICATION.

This class contains more than twenty families. Aroides
constitute a family, of which the genus arum (wild turnip) is
an important member, and from which the name is derived ;
aides, is derived from the Greek, and signifies resemblance ;
thus aroides denotes plants resembling arum. This family
have that kind of inflorescence called a spadix, surrounded by
that form of calyx called a spatha. Their leaves are sheath-
ing, alternate, and radical.

Gramma, or grasses, constitute an important family ; they
have generally three stamens and one germ. The embryo is
small and attached to a farinaceous albumen. In germinating,
the cotyledon remains attached to the albumen and nourishes
the plume.* The roots are fibrous, and capillary. The culms
are cylindrical ; and either hollow, or pithy. The flower and
calyx are scales, called glumes. The chaffy fower, single
seed, mealy albumen, situation of tlie embryo, and method of
germination distinguish, in a peculiar manner, this family.

CLASS 3.

Stamens perigynous (around the germ). Fruit with three
cells. Embryo small, with a large albumen.

Palms. In this class we find the family of the palms
(Palmce), which have a corolla deeply parted into 6 segments,
the 3 outer ones being the smallest. The stamens and pistils
are on separate plants ; the number of stamens is usually 6 ;
the filaments are often united at their base. The germ is su-
perior, or above the calyx. The fruit is a berry or fibrous
drupe, the albumen of which is at first tender and eatable, and
at last becomes hard.

The stems of palms are usually undivided, lofty, and round:
they are not composed of concentric circles, being endogenous,
or growing internally ; they are scaly from the remains of the
indurated foot stalks of leaves ; in treating of endogenous stems
this peculiarity was observed. The leaves of palms appear in
a terminal tuft, alternate and sheathing.

* See Fig. 90.

Aroides — Gramina— Characters of class 3d — Palms.

NATURAL FAMILIES.

Fig. 96.

179

96 rep.
young

Fig.

resents a
palm tree (Cha-
marops humilis);
at a is the fibrous
root ; b c, repre-
sents the oldest
part of the stipe,
shewing by the
lines and dots the
place of insertion
of the first leaves;
c b, represents the
upper part of the
stipe, still covered
with the sheathing
bases of the peti-
oles ; d represents
the crowning, ter-
minal leaves —
these are petioled,
fan-shaped, plait-
ed when young ; .
the petioles are
armed with prick-
les. Palms live to
a great age ; they
are the product of tropical regions, and afford valuable food.

Liliaceous plants (Liliaca), consist of six petals, spreading
gradually from the base, and exhibiting a kind of bell-form ap-
pearance, but differing from the bell-form flowers in being po-
lypetalous. The number of stamens in these plants is generally
6, sometimes but 3 ; they are usually alternate with the petals.
The germ of the liliaceous plants is always of a triangular
form, and contains 3 cells ; the roots are mostly bulbous. The
lily has a scaly bulb ; the tulip has a root, which seems almost
solid and tuberous.

The calyx is mostly wanting in the liliaceous plants, the
stems are simple, without branches, the leaves entire, and ner-
ved. To this family belong the tulip, lily, crown-imperial,
dog-tooth violet, &c. Plants of this natural family usually be-
long to the artificial class Hexandria ; the crocus, having three
stamens, belongs to the class Triandria.

Asparagi. We find here, closely connected with the Lilia-

Describe Fig. 96— Liliaceous plants— Asparagi.

180 CLASSIFICATION.

ceous plants, some other families, among which is the asparagi,
from asparagus, one of its most important genera. The family
asparagi, is distinguished by monopetalous corollas, divided in-
to 6 segments. The fruit is mostly pulpy and contains 3 cells.
This family contains the genus Convallaria (lily of the valley),
Trillium, <fyc.

Narcissi. The family Narcissi contains the genus Narcis-
sus, Amaryllis, Hypoxis, Pontederia, <Sfc. Their 6 stamens
are inserted into the tube of the corolla. Their roots are
mostly bulbous.

Irides. This family is so named from Iris, one of the most
important genera. The leaves in this family are alternate,
sheathing, and sword-shaped (ensiform). Tfce flowers are
often attended by sheaths of two valves. We find here the
Ixia and Sysirinchium.

CLASS 4.

Stamens cpigynous (above the germ). OBCIIIS PLANTS (Or-
chides). This family is distinguished by having, in place of
stamens, glutinous masses of pollen, sometimes sessile, and
sometimes supported by short filaments. The root has usually
two knobs.* In this family are the ORCHIS genus, from which
it takes its name ; the genus Cypripedium, or lady's slipper,
which takes its name from its large nectary resembling a shoe ;
the Cymbidium, or blue eyed grass, &c.

Dicotyledons.

The third general division of the vegetable tribes includes
the last eleven classes of Jussieu's method.

CLASS 5.

Apetalous ; stamens epigynous, (above the germ). The
characters of this class are a calyx superior, and of one leaf;
corolla wanting. It contains but one family, Aristolochia.

CLASS 6.

Apetalous ; stamens perigynous (around the germ).

We have in this class, the family PROTEJS ; these flowers,
being variable in their characteristics, received their name from
Proteus, a 'fabulous deity, remarkable for his transformations.
We find here the family Lauri, which contains the genus
LAURUS. The family Polygonece is chiefly important as con-
taining the genus Polygonum ; the name of this genus is deri-

* See Fig. 90, c.

Narcissi — Irides — Characteristics of Class 4th — Families most distinguished
in this class— Third general division— Characters of class 5th, &c.— Of class
6th, &c.

NATURAL FAMILIES. 181

ved from the Greek polus, many, added to gonu, knot, signify-
ing many knots, in allusion to its knotted stems.

CLASS 7.

Apetalous, stamens hypogynous (beneath the germ).

The most important characters of this class are a calyx in-
ferior ; scarcely any corolla, though some have scales resem-
bling petals, which bear, the stamens and are alternate with
them. In this class we find the family Amaranthi, deriving
its name from the genus amaranthus, which has its flowers
growing in a spike.

CLASS 8.

Corollas monopctalous, hypogynous (below the germ).

The calyx is monophyllous ; corolla regular or irregular,
bearing the stamens, which generally alternate with its seg-
ments, when of equal number : germ superior.

The labiate flowers (Labiata), are found here ; they are
monopetalous, consisting of one piece; they. are irregular in
their outline and appearance. The term Labiate is derived
from the Latin word labia, lips ; the flower appearing to be
divided at the top into two parts, resembling the lips of an ani-
mal. This natural family is subdivided into ringent or gaping,
where the entrance into the corolla is open ; and personate or
masked, where the corolla seems closed by a prominent throat
or palate.

Botanists have made some confusion in the use of these terms.
Linnaeus called them all ringent, and then subdivided them into
labiate, having lips ; and personate, closed lips : most other
botanists, following him, have made the same division. You
can easily see, that to take for a general term, a word which
signifies having a gaping mouth or lips, and then to separate
the class thus formed into those which have lips, and those
which have lips closed, is inconsistent. Thus instead of follow-
ing a rule with regard to definitions, that as we proceed in
more minute divisions, each branch is to contain all the quali-
ties of the whole, or of the generic term, and some property
added to mark a specific difference ; in this case, the specific
term labiate has a more general signification than the generic
term ringent.

We shall consider Labiate as the general term, and divide
this tribe of plants into ringent, those that have lips gaping ;
and personate, such as have the lips closed or muffled.*

* See Eaton's Botanical Grammar, for the same distinction ; also Thornton's
Botany.

Characters of class 7th— Amaranthi— Of class 8th— Family Labitse— Two
divisions, ringent and personate.

16

182 CLASSIFICATION.

The labiate flowers have mostly four stamens of unequal
length, standing in pairs, beneath an arch in the upper lip of
the corolla. On account of this circumstance, they are ranked
in the class Didynamia.

A few of the labiate plants have but two stamens, and on
that account, are placed in the class Diandria, as the sage and
mountain mint (Monarda). Here again the artificial system
separates a tribe which nature has made strikingly similar.
Those of the labiate flowers which have but two stamens, ex-
hibit two other imperfect ones ; as if it had been the original
1 design of nature to have given them four stamens. Linnaeus
remarks that the insects which seem most fond of frequenting
these species, have also but two wings ; but that by -a careful
observation, the rudiments of two other wings may be found,
concealed under a little membrane. Who shall explain these
secret sympathies of nature 1 and yet we observe them on
every side !

If you examine a labiate flower, as balm or catmint, you will
see that the arched upper lip of the petals covers the stamens,
and that the lower lip hangs down, so that you can see the in-
side of the corolla. If you pull out the corolla you will take
the stamens along with it, the filaments being attached to it, as
they usually are to monopetalous corollas. The corolla has a
circular opening at the bottom, through which the pistil grew
from the receptacle.

• The labiate plants inhabit hills, and plains exposed to the
sun. The aroma which escapes from their flowers, denotes
their stimulating medicinal properties. Their action upon the
animal economy differs according to the quantity of essential
oil and of bitter principle which they contain ; when the former
prevails (as in mint), they are aromatic and stimulating ; when
the bitter principle is in excess (as in germander, teucrium),
they act as tonics and strengthen the digestive organs.

The ringent flowers generally grow in whorls or circles, and
at the upper part of an angular stem, the leaves standing oppo-
site. These plants are never poisonous. Among them we
find many aromatic plants, the peppermint, lavender, savory,
marjorum, thyme, &c. ; also many herbs which are useful in
sickness, as pennyroyal, catmint, horehound, &c. ; the scullcap
(Scutellaria), which has been said to be a remedy for the hy-
drophobia, the modest Isanthus (blue gentian), and a little7
flower of a most beautiful blue colour called Truhostcma (blue
curls).

The personate division affords some very splendid flowers,

Describe the labiate flowers — Medicinal properties of the labiate plants —
Plants with ringent flowers — Personate flowers.

NATURAL FAMILIES. 1&3

as the Painted-cup (Bartsia), the beautiful Gerardia, American
fox-glove, and the magnificent Bignonia (Trumpet flower).
The plants of this family seem to be somewhat allied to those
of the class Pentandria ; in many of these, as in the snapdragon
(Antirrhinum), the Penstemon, ,&c., there exist the rudiments
of a fifth stamen, in accordance with the five divisions of the
calyx and corolla. Some plants of this division of the Labiate
family are poisonous, as the Foxglove and Snapdragon. The
pericarp of the Labiate plants is of the genus Cenobion.*

CLASS 9.

Corolla monopetalous, perigynous (around the germ). The.
calyx is of one leaf, and supports the corolla.

In this class we meet with the family Campanulas ; its
principal genus is CAMPANULA, a term derived from the Latin,
signifying a little bell. The bell-form corollas have mostly a
calyx above the germ ; regular corolla, inserted into the top
of the calyx ; stamens 5, inserted into the same part, under
the corolla, alternating with its divisions ; style one ; stigma
from three to five cleft ; capsule usually 3 celled, bursting
laterally.

CLASS 10.

Corolla montipetafous, epigynous (above the germ). Anthers
united.

This class contains several families which may all be incliv
ded under the general term compound flowers. This great
division of the vegetable world, includes an immense number
of important and valuable genera. The term compound, re-
lates to the arrangement of the flowers, which are so closely
connected, as to have the appearance of one single flower.
From the union of their stamens, these flowers are also called
Syngenesious. The compound flowers have, by botanists, been
distinguished under the three heads, of semi-flosculous (having
ligulate florets) ; flosculous (having tubular florets) ; and radi-
ated, having tubular florets in the centre, and ligulate at the
circumference, the latter resembling rays.

The semi-flosculous division contains a milky juice, which is
bitter and of a narcotic quality ; as the lettuce (Lactuca), and
dandelion; their florets are all of one colour.

The flosculous division usually exhibit in their leaves and
roots, a predominance of the bitter principle, as the burdock
(arctium) ; their florets are also of one colour.

* See Mirbel's classification of fruits, order 5 of the class Gyranocarps.

Characters of class 9th — Campanulacse — Characters of class tenth — Com-
pound flowers— How divided— Semi-flosculous— Flosculous.

184 CLASSIFICATION.

The radiated division is mostly composed of plants called
Corymbiferous (from corymb andfero, to bear), because their
flowers are corymbs, as the Chrysanthemum, Aster, &c. This
division includes many beautiful flowers, with splendid colours ;
and also affords many medicinal plants, as tansy and bone-set
(Eupatorium). The colour of the florets in the disk and ray
is often very different in these flowers.

The compound flowers begin to blossom in the latter part of
summer, and are found bordering upon the verge of winter.
The dandelion is among the earliest flowers of spring, and one
of the latest of autumn. The daisy is found in almost every
spot which exhibits any marks of fertility.

The dandelion is not a single flower, like a violet or rose,
but a crowded cluster of little flowers. The sun-flower is so
large, and conspicuous as doubtless to have frequently attracted
your notice. If you would examine one carefully you would
find it to' be composed of more than a hundred florets or little
flowers, each as perfect in its kind as a lily, having its cotolla,
stamens, pistil and seed.

We distinguish the Sun-flower into two parts, — the disk,
which is the middle of the* flower, and supposed to have resem-
blance to the middle or body of the sun ; the ray is the border
of the flower, or those florets which spread out from the disk,
as rays of light diverge from the sun. The florets in this, as
in other compound flowers, do not all begin to expand at the
same time, they usually begin at the disk and proceed inwards
towards the centre.

If you examine with a microscope, one of the florets of the
disk, you will perceive it to be tubular, containing one pistil
surrounded by five stamens, which are separate, but the five
anthers grow together, forming a tube around the pistil.

It is this union of anthers which gives to this kind of com-
pound flowers a place in the class Syngenesia, which name
signifies anthers growing together. The florets of the ray are
called neutral, having neither stamens nor pistils : the circum-
stance of neutral florets in the ray, places the sun-flower in
the order Frustranea, of the 17th class.

Although the term compound is confined to the flowers of
the class Syngenesia, the real circumstance on which the class
is founded is not the compound character of the flower, but the
union of the anthers. A Clover blossom in one sense, may be
said to be compound, as it is a collection of many little flowers
compounded or united into one ; but each little floret of the
clover has its own calyx ; there is no general calyx enclosing
the whole, as in most of the Syngenesious plants, but the florets

Radiated— Dandelion—Sunflower.

NATURAL FAMILIES.

185

are arranged in such a manner as to form a head ; the anthers
are separate, the filaments are connected at their sides, and this
latter circumstance, together with the papilionaceous form of
the corolla, places the clover in the class Diadelphia.

Most of the Syngenesious flowers are composed of two
sorts of florets, either tubular, with a toothed margin ; or strap
shaped (ligulate), appearing flat like a strap, but being also
toothed at the edge ; the latter are sometimes called Semi-flo.
rets, or half flowers.

Analysis of the daisy.
Fig. 97.

We have, at Fig.
97, a representation of
the mountain daisy ;
we will, in regular or-
der, consider the ap-
pearance of its differ-
ent parts.

1. The Root, a : yxm
will observe this an-
swers to the general
description of fibrous,
the small thread-like
parts issuing from the
main root, or radix:
from these fibres, some-
times spring out little
tubercles, it is then said
to be.fibrous tubercled.

2. The Leaves, b,
you observe) spring
from the root, and are
hence called radical; .
being undivided, they
are called simple. In
form they are some-

•what oval, with the
narrow end towards
the stem; this form is called obovate. The leaves are said to
be crenate, on account of the notches upon their margin.

3. The Stem, c, is called a scape ,- because it springs directly
from the root, and bears no leaves ; it is said to be naked,
having no kind of appendages.

Why is the clover not compound ?— Describe the root, leaves and stem pf
the Daisy.

16*

186

CLASSIFICATION.

4. The Calyx, d, is said to be hemispherical, or a half sphere ;
it is common, that is enclosing many florets ; the leafets of the
calyx, sometimes called scales, are equal, or of the same size.

5. The Corolla, e, is compound, having many florets on one
receptacle, radiate, having rays ; the florets of the disk are

Fig. 98. tubular (Fig. 98, a,) ; they have

.both stamens and pistils; tkey
are funnel shaped, and five tooth-
ed ; the florets of the ray, b, are
flat, and have pistils without sta-
mens.

t/^ 6. The Stamens, c, are jive, uni-

0 itfl> t^ at tne summits by their anthers,

-y forming a tube.
A ^JMp ?• Tne ptettj in the disk florets,
a *** i| d Passes UP through the tube formed
IV by the anthers, d ; the stigma is
A parted into two divisions, which
P are reflexed (bent back) ; the
pistil in the ray florets passes up through the tube of the floret.

8. The plant has no pericarp, or seed vessel, the seeds
grow upon the receptacle, e, they are single and shaped some-
what like an egg ; they are also naked, that is, destitute of
the downy plume called egret, which is seen upon the dande-
lion, and many other of the syngenesious plants.

9. The receptacle is conical, or in shape resembles a sugar
loaf; it is dotted with little holes : these are the places in which
the seeds were fixed ; the appearance of the receptacle,
whether naked or chaffy, is very important to be observed in
the syngenesious plants ; it sometimes constitutes a distinction
between genera. The seed belongs to the genus of fruits,
Cypsela.*

The botanical name of the daisy is BELLIS perennis. It be-
longs to the class 17th, Syngenesia, because the anthers arc
united ; order 2d, Superflua, because the pistils in the ray are
superfluous, having no stamens. The generic name Bellis, is
from an ancient Latin word, belles, handsome ; from which
comes also the French word bel; the specific name, perennis,
signifies that it is a porennial plant, or one whose roots live
several years.

The common name, daisy, is derived from a property,
which many of the syngenesious plants possess, of folding up

* See Mirbel's Classification of fruits, order 1 of the class Gymnocarps.

Describe the Calyx of the Daisy — The Corolla — The Stamens — The pistil —
The Pericarp — The receptacle — Botanical name, class and order of the daisy
— ^Derivation of the botanical name— The common name.

NATURAL FAMILIES. 187

their petals at the setting of the sun, and expanding them with
its rising. The poet Chaucer, who lived in the fourteenth
century, is said to have first noticed this circumstance, and to
have called the flower Day's-eye. The French name for the
daisy is La belle Margarite.

CLASS 11.

Corolla monopetalous, epigynous (above the germ). Anthers
distinct.

The most important family in this class is the Rubiacea, in
which we find the Peruvian bark, (Cinchona,) a native of
South America ; it was discovered by the Jesuits, and by them,
introduced into France towards the middle of the eighteenth
century. It was at first called Jesuit's bark. Some of the
French chemists have recently discovered in this bark two
alkaline principles, which they call quinine and cinchonine ;
these alkalies united to sulphuric acid, forming sulphates, are
found to be of great use in medicine.

The family Rubiacece contains some other valuable medi-
cinal plants';' and some which are of great use in dyeing, as
the Rubia tinctoria, which gives to wool a fine red colour.
This family contains a genus very common in our fields, the
Galium, and some other important genera, not distinguished
by striking peculiarities of natural character.
CLASS 12.

Corolla polypetalousj stamens epigynous (above the germ).

This class presents us with one important family, the Umbel-
late ( Umbelliferce).

The plants of this natural family are found in the artificial
class Pentandria ; they derive their name from the Latin word
umbella, an umbrella, on account of the manner in which the
peduncles or flower stalks extend from the main stem.

The umbellate plants are mostly herbaceous ; those which
grow on dry ground are aromatic, as dill, fennel, and caraway ;
those which grow in wet places, or the aquatic species, are
among the most deadly poisons, as water-hemlock, &c. Plants
of this family are not, in general, so beautiful to the sight, or
so interesting, as objects of botanical analysis, as many
others.*

* " Botanists in general shrink from the study of the Umbelliferse ; nor have
these plants much beauty in the eyes of amateurs ; but they will repay th«
trouble of a careful observation. The late M. Cusson, of Montpelier, bestow-
ed more pains upon them than any other botanist has ever done ; but the world

Characters of Class 11 — Rubiacea? — Peruvian bark — What two alkaline
principles obtained from it ? — What term is given to these alkalies when
united with sulphuric acid ? — Other genera in the family Rubiaeese — Charac-
ters of Claas 12—Umbellifer8e.

188 CLASSIFICATION.

The corolla is superior, or over the germ ; it consists of fire
petals, usually with a stamen standing between each petal.
From the centre of the flower, arise two styles, which often
remain permanent upon the fruit. The general figure of the
fruit is oblong or oval ; it separates perpendicularly into two
seeds, as may be seen in the fennel or dill. The figure, mar-
gin, and angles of the seeds are considered as affording proper
characters for the distinction of genera ; as in the parsnip,
they are flat, in the carrot, bristly, in the hemlock, marked
with ridges. Among the plants of this family which are used
as articles of food, are the carrot, parsnip, celery, and parsley ;
the aromatics are dill, fennel, sweet cicely, caraway, and co-
riander ; among the poisonous plants, are the conium (]x>ison
hemlock), water-parsnip, and the cicuta (water-hemlock).
The seed of umbilleferous plants belong to the genus of fruits,
Cremocarp.

CLASS 13.

Corolla polypetolov-s, stamens hypogynous (under the germ).

In this class the principal family is the Cruciform (Crucife-
r<z). In these plants we find such flowers as have a calyx
consisting of four leaves, and a corolla composed of four pe-
tals ; each petal is fastened to the receptacle or bottom of the
calyx by a narrow part called a claw ; the whole exhibiting
the form of a cross ; hence the term cruciform, from crux, a
cross. In the centre of the flower is a single pistil, long and
cylindrical; the stigma is oblong and divided into two parts,
which are reflexed or bent back on each side. Each petal is
placed between two leaves of the calyx ; this alternate position
is always seen in flowers where the number of petals equals
the number of leaves of the calyx. ,

The cruciform flowers have six stamens, two of which stand-
ing opposite to each, other are shorter than the remaining four,
which always stand in pairs. This inequality in their length
determines them to be in the class Tetradynamia. The germ
soon becomes a long pod called a silique, or a short thick one,
called silicula; this difference in the length of the two pods
constitutes the distinction of the two orders of the class in
which they are placed.

The plants belonging to this class are herbaceous ; the leaves
are alternate ; the cabbage, the mustard, radish, and stock-
has, as yet been favoured with only a part of his remarks. His labours met
with a most ungrateful check, in the unkindness, and still more mortifying
stupidity of his wife, who, in his absence from home, is recorded to have de-
•troyed his whole herbarium, scraping off the dried specimens for the sake of
the paper on which they were pasted !" — Sir James Edward Smith's Botany.

Characters of Class 13 — Describe the cruciform plants.

NATURAL FAMILIES.

189

gilly-flower belong to this family. They are found, on a
chemical analysis, to contain some sulphur.
Fig. 99.

B

Fig. 99, A, represents a flower of the cruciform family ; at
B, a, may be seen the stamens arranged in two sets, four being
longer than the two at b ; at c, are two glands between the
short stamens and the germ ; at C, is a petal, consisting of a,
the border, and 3, the claw ; at Z>, is the pod or silicle ; a repre-
sents the valves, 3, the seeds as alternately attached to the
edges of the partition or dissepiment which divides this kind of
pericarp into two cells.

CLASS 14.

Corolla polypetalousj stamens perigynous (around the germ).

In this class we find the family rosacece, having rosaceous
corollas ; a calyx mostly urn-form ; petals usually 5, inserted
into the top of the calyx ; stamens indefinite, generally over
10. The structure of the fruit varies in the apple (Pyrus ma-
ins), the fruit is below the top of the calyx and contains many
cells ; embryo without albumen. The pericarp of the apple
is classed by Mirbel in the order Bacca or berry, and the genus
Pyridion. The rose belongs to the same natural family as the
apple, and gives name to the whole group described under the
name Rosaceous.

Examine an apple blossom and a wild rose, and you will
perceive the former to be a miniature representation of the lat-
ter ; their fruits, too, which at first thought might seem to-you

Explain Fig., 99— Characters of Class 14— Describe the rosacese— Compar-
ison between the apple and rose.

190 CLASSIFICATION.

to be very different, are yet similar ; both are crowned with
the adhering calyx, and contain many seeds in a pericarp
formed by the swelling of the calyx. But in their real value
the fruit of the rose bears but a poor comparison with that of
the apple, although its blossom is far more splendid ; thus it
often is, that beauty seems destined to prove less valuable than
more humble qualities.

In the class of plants we are now considering, is found a
very large and important family, called Leguminosa (legumi-
nous), from the nature of the fruit, which is of that kind called
a legume; the flowers of this family are also called pni>Ulona-
ceottSy from a Latin word papilio, a butterfly, on account of the
supposed resemblance between them and that insect ; they are
generally flowers with brilliant colouring, and of showy ap-
pearance. The sweet pea may be given as an example ; this
unites to delicacy of colour and beauty of form, a highly fra.
grant perfume.

Fig. 100.

Fig. 100 represents the sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratas) ; at
a, is the five toothed calyx ; at b, is the upper petal, called the
banner ; at c, are the wings, or two side petals ; at d, is the
keel, formed of two petals united by their edges ; at e, are the
ten stamens, nine united and one separate ; at jft is the pistil,
the base of which, in process of time, becomes the pod or- le-
gume.

The flowers belonging to the family Leguminosse, are so
peculiar in appearance as to make them easily recognized.

Legununoiee.

NATURAL FAMILIES. 191

The rose, the pink, and the bell-flower, are regular in their
form ; that is, there is a symmetry and equality in their parts.
In a regular corolla, if we suppose the point of a compass
placed upon its centre, and a circle traced around the edge of
the flower, each one of its divisions will just touch the circle.
There may, however, be slight inequalities in regular corollas,
as in the lily we sometimes see some petals a little longer than
the others ; this is an exception to the general rule.

You must learn to distinguish between rules and exceptions ;
it is often owing to a want of this discrimination, that young
persons find difficulties in understanding a science ; they con-
found the rules and exceptions, thinking, very erroneously, that
the knowledge of the one is as important as that of the other.
If a clear conception of general rules be established in the mind,
the exceptions or variations will be gradually learned as you
apply the rules to particular cases. But if you attempt, at the
commencement of the study of any science, to learn all the ex-
ceptions as well as rules, you will never obtain clear ideas up.'
on the subject.

You will recollect the general rules with respect to regular
corollas. Irregular corollas differ so widely from these general
rules, that you will be in little danger of mistaking them for ex-
ceptions; they constitute, indeed, a different natural family,
though according to the artificial method of classification, they
may often be placed near to regular corollas. Irregular corol-
las are various in their forms ; the papilionaceous, which we
are now considering, seem, as they stand upon their stem, to
consist of an upper and under part. In examining a natural
flower of this kind, a pea for example, you should first observe
the calyx ; this is monophyllous, that is, consisting of one entire
leaf, ending in five distinct leafy points (See Fig. 100, a); the
two upper ones wider than the three under ones. The calyx
bends towards the lower part, as also does the peduncle, or lit-
tle stalk which supports it. The peduncle is very small and
flexible (See Fig. 100,g) ; so that the flower readily avoids a
current of air, and turns its back to the wind and rain.

In examining the corolla you will see that it is polypetalous.
The first piece, or large petal, covering the others and occupy-
ing the upper part of the corolla, is called the standard or ban-
ner. This petal is, evidently, designed to protect the stamens
and other parts of the flower, from injuries by the weather.
Upon taking off the banner you will find that it is inserted by
a little process, or projecting part into the side pieces, so that

Regular corollas — Important to distinguish between rules and exceptions —
—- juar corollas — Manner of examining a natural flower of the papilionaceous

1Q2 CLASSIFICATION.

it cannot be easily separated by winds. The banner being
taken off, the two side pieces, or wings, are exposed to view ;
they are strongly inserted into tJ* <iumg part of the co-

rolla, and their use appears to be, lirat of protecting the sides of
the flower. Upon taking off the win£s, you will discover the
last piece of the corolla, called, on account of its form, the keel
or boat. This covers and protects the stamens and pistils.
Upon drawing the keel downwards, you will find the ten sta-
mens, double in number to the petals ; these stamens are joined
together by the sides of their filaments, apj>earing like a cylin-
der surrounding the pistil. One of the stamens, however, does
not adhere to the rest ; but as the flower fades and the fruit
increases, it separates and leaves an opening at the upper side,
through which the germ can extend itself by gradually opening
the cylinder. In the early stage of the flower, this stamen will
seem not to be separated ; but by carefully moving it with a
pin or needle, its filament will be found unconnected with the
•ther nine.

The germ of the papilionaceous plant extends itself into that
kind of pod called a legume. It is distinguished from the Si-
lique of the cruciform family, by having no partition in the le-
gume. Besides, the seeds grow to one side only, being alter-
nately attached to the edges of the two valves; but in the
silique pod they are alternately attached to both edges of the
partition. The legume also opens lengthwise and rolls back-
wards ; in the silique, the valves separate and stand out from
the base upwards.

The seeds of this family, as you have been already inform-
ed, have a marked scar, black spot, or line, called the hilum,
by which they adhere to the pod. Near this scar there is a
minute opening into the body of the seed, through which mois-
ture is imbibed, at the period of its first growth or germination.
The proper germ, or that part of the seed which is to be the
future plant, continues to swell, and at length bursts through
the coats of the seed, presenting between the divided halves
the first true leaves, and the root, which commences its jour-
ney downwards. These divided halves of the seed are the co-
tyledons or seed leaves, which furnish sustenance to the plant
until it is sufficiently mature to seek its own support, and then
they gradually decay.

In this family we find the fine table vegetables, beans and
peas ; the useful medicinal plant, liquorice ; the fine colouring
indigo ; the fragrant clover, so grateful as food to many of the
domestic animals ; the splendid locust tree ; the elegant lupine,
and the delicate and odoriferous sweet pea.

Distinction between legume and silique.

NATURAL FAMILIES.

193

CLASS 15.

Stamens dicUnious, that is, in a different flower from the pistils.
Having followed Jussieu in his leading principles of arrange-
ment, we have now arrived at that class of plants which we
term imperfect, as the stamens and pistils are no longer united
in the same flower. We here find a large family called Cu-
curbitacece, from curvus, curved; this contains the genera of
the squash, gourd, cucumber, &c. which have Monoecious, and
sometimes Dioecious flowers.

The Amentacea are also found in Jussieu's 15th class. This
family has its staminate flowers arranged with scales, in that
form of inflorescence, called an ament. The stems of these
plants are woody and exogenous ; you will recollect that such
stems increase in diameter, by new wood being formed around
the old, and that this new wood is formed from the cambium
Fig. 101. which flows downwards between the wood
and bark : any thing which interrupts the
course of this cambium would naturally cause
a protuberance in the trunk, at the spot where
the obstruction should take place. Fig. 101,
shews a portion of the trunk of an oak surround-
ed by the twining stem of a wild vine ; the
pressure causing an accumulation of cambium,
produced the protuberances which appear
above the vine. Walking canes are often
made of young stems which are thus knotted.
The last family in this claes, and the hun-
dredth or last order of Jussieu contains the Co-
nifera or cone-bearing plants ; their staminate
flowers grow in aments, each flower being fur-
nished with a scale which performs the office
of a calyx in supporting the stamens.

The pistillate flowers form cones or strobi-
lums. To this family belong the cedar (Juni-
perus), pine, cypress, &c. ; most of them con.
tain a resinous juice, which is valuable in medi-
cine. Turpentine is obtained from the pine ; one species of
the Juniperus has been supposed to have furnished the incense
offered to the heathen deities.

Class 15th— Cucurbitacese— Amentaceae— Explain Fig. 101— Coniferae.

17

194 BOTANICAL NAMES.

LECTURE XXIII.

Use of Botanical Names. — Artificial classes and orders consider-
ed in groups. — Classes 1st and 2d.

HAVING briefly noticed some of the most conspicuous natu-
ral families of plants, according to the arrangement of Jussieu,
we will now proceed to investigate in detail the Artificial or
Linnaan System.

From what has been already observed, you have no doubt
come to the conclusion, that this is the best method yet disco-
vered, of finding out new plants, and of ascertaining the bo-
tanical names of those which are already known by their com-
mon names. If, in all countries, the common names were alike,
there would be no need of any other; but the names of plants
vary, in different languages, as much as other terms. We
call that pen which, in France, is called plume, so we call that
oak, which is there called chene.* Even in the same coun-
tries, and often in the same neighbourhoods, the common names
of plants are different, but botanical names are the same, in all
ages and countries ; without this uniformity no permanent im-
provement could be made in the science. Suppose a botanist
in France should send a description of la chene (the common
name for oak), to his friend in America; if the latter knew
something of French, he might mistake the word chene for chien,
which signifies a dog,rnd thus he might fall into the grotesque
mistake of supposing that his friend had described a wonderful
species of dogs. But let the French botanist use the term quer-
cus, and on the supposition that the American understood bota-
ny, he would at once know the meaning of the term as plainly
as if it had been written oak. All botanical names are in Latin,
because this is the language most universally studied ; and for
this reason all books on botany v/cre fora long time written in
that language.-)- And although it is well for the; Ic-irm-d thus
to communicate with each other, by one common language, it
would be unjust to deprive all who are not versed in that lan-
guage, of the pleasure and advantage to be derived from this
delightful science. But the learned are not only intent upon
making discoveries ; they also desire to impart them to others ;
and the fountains of botanical knowledge have, by the exer-
tions of men of genius and learning, been made accessible to all.

* Pronounced shane. *

t All the botanical works of Linnaeus were written in Latin.

Use of botanical name*.

ARTIFICIAL CLASSES. 195

In the view we are now to take of the classes and orders of
Linnaeus, our attention will not, as in the Natural Method, be
given to families of plants, but to genera. We shall consider
each class separately, with the orders it contains, and the most
remarkable genera under each order ; we shall, in some cases,
refer these genera to their 'natural families; but it has been
before remarked, that the artificial system in some cases sepa-
rates these families.

The Classes in the artificial system are 21.

Groups of Classes.

1st. The first ten classes are founded upon the number of stamens.

2d. Eleventh and Twelfth upon the number and insertion of stamens.

3d. Thirteenth and Fourteenth, upon number and length of stamens. '

4th. Fifteenth, Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth, upon connexion of
stamens.

5th. Nineteenih&n& Twentieth, upon position of stamens.

The Twenty-first class includes all plants which either have not stamens and
pistils, or in which these organs are too minute to be seen, without the help of
of a microscope.

The orders are founded,

1st. Upon the number of Pistils.

2d. Upon the seeds being covered, or lying uncovered in the calyx.
3d. The relative length of the pods.

4th. The comparison between the disk and ray florets of compound flowers.
5th. Number of stamens.

6th. The orders of the class Cryptogamia are distinguished by natural family
characters.

NAMES OP THE ARTIFICIAL CLASSES.

1. MONANDRIA, one stamen.

2. DIANDRIA, two stamens.

3. TRIANDRIA, three stamens.

4. TETRANDRIA, four stamens.

5. PENTANDRIA, five stamens.

6. HEXA-NDRIA, six stamens.

7. HEPTANDRIA, seven stamens.

8. OCTANDRIA, eight stamens.

9. ENNEANDRIA, nine stamens.

10. DECANDRIA, ten stamens,

11. ICOSANDRIA, over ten slamens, situated on the calyx.

12. POLYANDRIA, over ten stamens situated on the receptacle.

13. DIDYNAMIA, four stamens, two long and two short, flowers labiate.

14. TETRADYNAMIA, six stamens, four long and two short, flowers cruciform.

15. MONADELPHI A, stamens united by their filaments into one set.

16. DIADELPHIA, stamens united by their filaments into two sets, flowers
papilionaceous.

17. SYNGENESIA, five stamens united by their anthers, flowers compound.

18. GYNANDRIA, stamens growing on the pistil.

19. MoN(EciA, stamens and pistils on different flowers of the same plant.

20. DIGECIA, stamens and pistils on different flowers of different plants.

21. CRYPTOGAMIA, stamens and pistils invisible.

Artificial classes considered in groirps — Circumstances on which the orders
are founded — Names of the artificial classes. %•

196 CLASS MONANDRIA.

CLASS I. — MONANDRIA. Containing two Orders.
Order Monoaynia.

In this country we have very few

Fig. 102.

examples of plants of this class : the
Hippuris, an aquatic plant, is some-
times found in stagnant water ; it is
the most simple of all perfect* flowers,
having neither calyx nor corolla, and
but 1 stamen, 1 pistil, and 1 seed.
The germ in maturing, hardens into a
naked seed without any kind of appen-
dages. The genus Hippuris contains
but one species, the wlgaris. It be-
longs to the natural order Inundatse,
signifying growing in water.
Fig. 102, o, represents the Hippuris ; the stem is erect, and
simple ; the leaves are linear, acute, and arranged in whorls.
At b, is the flower of the Hippuris, showing an egg-shaped
germ ; a short filament crowned with a large anther composed
of two lobes ; the style is long and awl-shaped, the stigma is
acute and undivided; the germ is crowned by a border which
gives the appearance of a calyx.

The Salicornia or Samphire is found in salt marshes near the
sea coast ; it grows also at the Onondaga salt springs. In
Europe it is collected in large quantities, dried in the sun and
then burnt ; the ashes are collected and used in the manufac-
ture of soda. Shakspeare speaks of this plant in describing
the precipice of Dover, which overhangs the sea.

"How fearful,
And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low !

Half way down,
Hangs one that gathers Samphire : dreadful trade !"

Although the plants of this class are so very limited in north-
ern countries, some of the most valuable vegetable productions
of the tropical regions are found here ; as the Arrow root, so
useful to the sick as a nutritious substance ; the Turmeric, re-
markable for the peculiar yellow colour of its bark ; here also is
found the Ginger, which grows wild in some parts of Asia, and
is cultivated in the East and West Indies. The flowers of the
Ginger are beautiful and fragrant ; the root only is used in
commerce. The Ginger (Ammomum), belongs to the natural
family Scitaminea, which embraces several genera of aromatic

* Although so destitute of other organs, it is callad perfect because it has
stamens and pistils.

Class Monandria — Order Monogynia — Hippuris — Salicornia.

CLASS DIANDRIA.

197

Fig. 103.

plants. The distinguishing marks of this natural family are an
herbaceous stem, very broad leaves, a germ with three cor-
ners, and a liliaceous corolla.

The red valerian (VALERIANA rubra), has but one stamen,
and might seem properly placed in this class, but other species
of this plant having three stamens, this one goes with the ma-
jority into the class Triandria. It is however not common for
different species of one genus to differ in their number of
stamens.

Order Digynia,

Contains an American plant, BLITUM, which is destitute of a
corolla. At fig. 102, c, is a flower of this genus ; its calyx is
deeply three parted ; it has no. corolla ; the germ resembles a
berry, and is crowned by two styles, which give the plant its
place in the order Digynia. - »

CLASS II. — DIANDRIA. Containing three Orders.
Order Monogynia.

This, though more extensive than
the class Monandria, is somewhat lim-
ited. We can however, without diffi-
culty, find examples for its illustration.
The Lilac (Syringa), is cultivated in
all parts of our country, and is ex-
ceeded in beauty by few ornamental
shrubs, in fragrance, perhaps by none.
The Corolla is salver form, or with a
'tube which spreads out into a flat, four
parted border. You might, at first
view, suppose the corolla to consist
of several petals, but if you attempt
to pull them out, they will all come off together, and you will
plainly perceive there is but one piece, or that it is monopeta-
lous. In flowers of one petal, the stamens are generally fas-
tened to the corolla ; where there are several petals, the
stamens are mostly attached to the receptacle ; this affords a
good mark of distinction between the two kinds of corollas.
You will perceive in the lilac, the two stamens standing oppo-
site to each other, and fastened to the corolla. The form in
which the blossoms are crowded together, forming a large
bunch, is termed a thyrse, which differs from a panicle, only in
having the spikes which compose it more densely crowded.

Fig. 103, a, represents a flower of the lilac ; at 6, is the same
cut lengthwise, to show the two stamens.

Diandria — Lilac.

17*

198 CLASS DIANDRIA.

The lilac, although so common with us, is an exotic ; the
species most cultivated are the vulgaris, or common, which has
heart-shaped leaves ; and the persica, or Persian, with narrow
leaves.

The Jasmine, of which twenty-eight species are said to have
been discovered, is an exotic of this class. The prim (Linus-
trum) is found growing wild n some parts of New England ;
though in general it .is seen but little in the United States,
except when cultivate}. In England, it is planted for fences ;
as it grows rapidly, it soon becomes useful for this purpose, and
with its green leaves and white flowers, it also gives to the
farms an air of neatness and taste.

The Sage (Salvia), on account of the form of its corolla be-
longs to the natural family of the labiate flowers^; these are,
mostly, placed in the class Didynamia, having four stamens, two
long and two short : but in some cases the labiate flowers have
but two stamens ; this circumstance, according to the rules of
classification^ separates them from their natural family, and
brings them under the class we are now considering. You may
understand this hotter, if we compare it to taking a person from
his relations, to put him among strangers. But this evil1 must
sometimes be borne for the sake of some attendant good ; we
are also obliged to submit to the necessity of occasionally sepa-
rating the flowers from their natural relations, because we can-
not turn aside from our rules of classification to accommodate
a few plants, which unfortunately possess those properties
which bring them under two sets of laws. The sage seems to
have made an effort to escape this misfortune, for it seems al-
most to have attained four, by doubling its filaments, but two
of these having no anthers cannot be considered as stamens ;
therefore the plant falls back into the second class, and is pla-
ced by the side of the lilac, to which it has no kind of resem-
blance, except in its two stamens. This plant, however, is not
the only one of the labiate flowers, which is removed from its
natural family in the 13th class ; for the rosemary and the
mountain mint accompany it into the second class ; but these
have not the two imperfect filaments which wer6 remarked in
the Sage.

The genus Salvia contains one hundred and fourteen spe-
cies ; the one most commonly cultivated with us is the officina-
lis, a shrub-like perennial plant ; to this we give more particu-
larly the name of sage. Another species of the same genus is
the sclary, called Clarry, this has larger and broader leaves
than the common sage ; it is cultivated for its medicinal pro-
perties.

ORDER DIGYNIA. 199

A very small plant called Enchanter's Night-shade (Circ&a),
may be found growing wild in shady places ; it is a very harm-
less, modest looking plant, notwithstanding its ominous name.
It has a small white blossom, in the parts of which, great uni-
formity as to number may be observed ; having two stamens,
a corolla with two petals, a calyx with two leaves, capsule with
two cells, each of which contains two seeds.

The symmetry of structure, observable in the plant just
described, is seen in many flowers ; as those of two stamens
often have the number two prevail in the other parts of the
flower ; tljis number is frequently doubled, as in the Lilac,
which has two stamens, and the corolla four parted. In a
plant with three stamens, the number three or six usually pre-
vails in the divisions of the calyx, corolla, capsule, &c. A
knowledge of this fact will assist you in determining the class
of a plant ; for example, if you have a flower Whose calyx has
five or ten divisions, and the corolla the same number, you may
expect, if the flower is a perfect one, to find either five, or ten
stamens ; or if the divisions of the flower be two, there will
generally be two, or four stamens ; if three, either three, or
six stamens ; if four, either four or eight stamens. The num-
ber five/as divisions of the calyx, corolla and capsule, is gen-
erally united to five or ten stamens, and found in the 5th and
10th classes.

Another native plant of the second class, is the Veronica.
Of the seventy species which this genus is said to contain, no
more than six or eight are common to North America. The
Veronica and the Circsea both turn black when dried ; although
they do not add to the beauty of an herbarium, they are desira-
ble in a collection of plants, as our country contains few spe-
cimens to illustrate the second class. At Fig. 103, c, is a
representation of a flower of the Veronica ; at d, is the Cir-
caa.

Among the exotics of this order we find a singular plant
peculiar to the East Indies, the NYCTANTHES arbor tristis, or
sorrowful tree ; it droops its boughs during the day, but through
the night they are erect and appear fresh and flourishing.

The Olive (Olea) is common on the rocks of Palestine, and
may now, according to the accounts of travellers be found
upon the same spot which was called, eleven centuries before
the Christian era, the mount of Olives, or mount Olivet.

Order Digynia.

In the second order of this class is the sweet scented spring-
Enchanter's night shade — Remaining plants in the order Monogynia — Order
Dygynia.

200 CLASS TRIANDRIA.

grass (ANTHOXANTIITTM odoratum), which is found in blossom
in May ; to this the pleasant smell of new made hay is chiefly
owing ; its odour is like that of clover. This plant is separa-
ted from the other grasses on account of its having but two
stamens. This is the kind of grass which is used in this coun-
try as a substitute for the Leghorn grass, in the manufacture
of hats. The first hat of the kind was made a few years
.since by an ingenious female in the town of Wethersfield,
Connecticut ; since which time, many hats, not inferior to the
best Leghorn, have been made from the same material.

The Catalpa, an elegant tree with flat, cordate, or heart-
shaped leaves, is indigenous to the Southern United States ; its
white flowers, striped with purple, grow in panicles similar to
the Horse-chesnut. Only one species is found in North
America.

Order Trigynia,

Contains the genus Piper. One species of which, the nigrum,
is the common black pepper. The cayenne pepper belongs
to the genus CAPSICUM, which is found in the eighth class.
The Piper genus has neither calyx or corolla.

We have in the course of this lecture remarked upon the
use of botanical terms, with the necessity of their being in one
common language ; we have considered the few groups into
which the classes of Linnaeus may be arranged with the names
of all the classes, and the characters of each; and lastly, have
given a sketch of the two first classes, with some examples
under each of their orders. In doing this, we have been
obliged to pass by many plants which had an equal claim to
notice, but as knowledge must be gained by the observation of
particular cases, we have thus selected some, in order that you
may be prepared to examine the others, with pleasure and
advantage.

LECTURE XXIV.

Classes 3d and 4th.

CLASS III — TRIANDRIA.

Order Mcmogynia.

IN the first order of this class we find among our common
exotics, the Crocus, which is particularly interesting as being

Catalpa — Order Trigynia— Recapitulation— First order of the third class —
Different species of Crocus.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 201

one of the earliest flowers of our gardens, not unfrequently
blossoming in the neighbourhood of a snow bank. It has a
bulbous root, long and narrow leaves, a spatha kind of calyx,
and six petals. Besides the CROCUS vernus or spring crocus,
which often appears even in our own climate as early as
March, there is, of this genus a very distinct species, the CRO-
CUS officinalis, or the true saffron, which appears among the
late flowers of autumn. The following beautiful lines, respect,
ing these flowers, are from the pen of the interesting Henry
Kirke White, whose untimely death, in the spring time of his
existence, has been deeply regretted, but his early and fervent
piety, marked him as a fit inhabitant for a purer sphere ; a
Christian, and philosopher, he could see an invisible hand di-
recting the operations of nature.

" Say, what impels amid surrounding snow
Congealed, the Crocus' flamy bud to grow ?
Say, what retards, amid the summer's blaze,
The autumnal bulb, till pale declining days ?
The GOD OF SEASONS, whose pervading power
Controls the Sun, or sheds the fleecy shower :
He bids each flower his quickening word obey ;
Or to each lingering bloom, enjoins delay."

The Iris, or Fleur-de-lis, (pronounced by a corruption of the
French, Flower de luce,) is the national flower of France, as
the Rose is of England. You will find on attentive examina-
tion that this is a very curious flower. It has no proper calyx,
but a spatha ; its corolla consists of six parts, alternately re-
flected, or bent back : the pistil has three stigmas, which ap-
pear at first view like petals. The Iris is so named from Iris,
the rainbow, on account of the various colours which it reflects,
varying from different shades of purple, into blue, orange,
yellow, and white. We have several native species of Iris,
one of which, the common Blue flag, is found in wet places.
The flowers are purple, streaked with yellow ; this is sometimes
called Poison flag. The Crocus and Iris are found in the
natural family of Jussieu called Iridea ; this family is in the
class of monocotyledons, having stamens around the germ, or
perigynous. Linnaeus calls the same plants, Ensatce from the
Latin word ensis, a sword, on account of the shape of their
leaves, being long, narrow and pointed.

In what family is the Iris found ? *

202 CLASS TRIANDRIA.

Fig. 104.

Fig. 104, represents the Ixia (black
berry-lily) ; a, is an entire flower; b>
is the corolla cut lengthwise, to shew
the three stamens. The Ixia belongs
to the same family as the Iris and Cro-
cus. At c, is the flower of the mat-
grass (Nardus) ; having but one pistil,
it is separated from the grass family,
the greater part of which, we shall
meet with in the next order of this
class.

Order Digynia. — The Grasses.

The 2d Order of the third class contains the family of the
grasses (Gramina) ; they are distinguished by a strait, hollow,
and jointed stem, or culm ; the long and linear leaves are pla-
ced at each joint of the stalk in alternate order, enclosing it
like a sheath. The flowers of the grasses are found in what
is called the ear, or head, and consist of two green husks,
called a glume ; within this glume calyx is the blossom, con-
sisting of a husk of two valves. These husks constitute the
chaff", which is separated from the seed by an operation called
threshing.

These little flowers, which are also furnished with a nectary,
are green, like the rest of the plant, and you will need a mi-
croscope to view them accurately ; they are best observed in
a mature stage of the plant, when their husks, expanded, dis-
cover their three filaments, containing each a large double an-
ther ; their two pistils have a kind of reflected, feathered stig-
ma. They have no seed vessel ; each seed is contained within
the husks, which gradually open ; and unless the seed is gath-
ered in season, it falls to the ground. This facility for the
distribution of the seed is one cause of the very general diffu-
sion of grasses.

The roots of grasses are fibrous, and increase in proportion
as the leaves are trodden down, or consumed ; and the stalks
which support the flower are seldom eaten by cattle, so that
the seeds are suffered to ripen. Some grasses which grow on
very high mountains where the heat is not sufficient to ripen
the seed, are propagated by suckers or shoots, which rise from
the root, spread along the ground, and then take root them-
selves ; grasses of this kind are called stoloniferous, which

Explain Fig. 104— What family is found in the order Digynia ?— Roots of
the grasses.

ORDER DIGYNIA. 203

means bearing shoots. Some others are propagated in a man-
ner not less wonderful ; for the seeds begin to grow while in
the flower itself, and new plants are there formed, with little
leaves and roots ; they then fall to the ground, where they
take root. , Such grasses are called vivip'-arous, which signifies
producing their offspring alive, either by bulbs instead of seeds,
or by seeds germinating on the plant. The seeds of the
grasses have but one lobe, or are not naturally divided into
parts, like the apple seed and the bean ; therefore these are
said to have but one cotyledon.

The stems of gramineous plants, like those of all the mono-
cotyledons, are of that kind which grow internally, or from the
centre outward, and are therefore called endogenous.

With regard to the duration of the grass-like plants, some are
annual; as, wheat, rye, and oats, whose roots die after the
grain or seed is matured. The meadow grasses are perennial ;
their herbage dying in autumn, and the roots sending out new
leaves in the spring. The family of grasses is one of the most
numerous, the most important and the most natural of all the
vegetable tribes ; the plants which compose it, seem, at the first
glance, to be so similar that it would appear impossible to sepa-
rate them into species, much less into genera ; but scientific re-
search, and close observation present us with differences, suffi-
cient to form a basis, for the establishment of a great number of
genera.

The essential character of the oat (Avena), consists in the
jointed, twisted awn or beard which grows from the back of the
blossom ; the oat is also remarkable for its graceful pannicle, or
the manner in wnich its flowers grow upon their stalks.

The rye (Secale), has two flowers within the same husk.
The wheat ( Triticwn), has three flowers within the same husk ;
the interior valve of the corolla of the wheat is usually beard-
ed. The filaments in the rye and wheat are exsert, that is,
they hang out beyond the corolla ; from which circumstance,
these grains are more exposed to injury from heavy rains than
those whose filaments are shorter.

Perhaps, in the whole of the vegetable kingdom, although
there are many plants of much greater brilliancy of appear-
ance, there are none which are so important to man as the
grass family. Linnaeus, who was distinguished for the liveli-
ness of his fancy, no less than the clearness of his reasoning
powers, seemed to delight in tracing analogies between plants
and mankind ; establishing among the former a kind of aris-
tocracy ; he called grasses the plebeians of the vegetable king-
dom. To them, indeed, belong neither brilliancy of appear-

Comparison of Linnaeus.

204 ORDER DIGYNIA.

/

ance nor delicacy of constitution ; numerous, humble and rus-
tic, and and at the same time, giving to man and beast the sus-
tenance necessary to preserve life, the grasses may well bo
compared to the unassuming farmer and mechanic, to whom
society is indebted far more than to the statesman and orator
for its existence and prosperity.

The grasses are supposed to include nearly one sixth part of
the whole vegetable world ; they cover the earth as with a
green carpet, and furnish food for man and beast. Some of
the grasses most valuable as furnishing food for cattle, are
herds-grass (Phleum pralense) ; and meadow grass (Poo) ;
orchard grass (dactylis) ; and oats. Those which are used in
various ways as food for man, are wheat, rye, barley, and in-
dian corn ; this latter, botanically called ZEA mays, although of
the natural family of the grasses, having a culm-like stalk and
other distinguishing characteristics of grass-like plants, is placed
in the class Monoecia, because the stamens and pistils are sepa-
rated in different flowers, growing from the same root. The
styles, long, slender, and exserted, form what is called the silk :
they are thus favourably situated for receiving the fertilizing
pollen which is showered down from the staminate flowers.

The fruit of corn, wheat, rye, &c. is called grain. Grain,
then, consists of the seed with its pericarp ; these are not
easily distinguished from each other till the grain is ground in.
to flour ; the pericarp separating from the seed then forms
what is called the bran; and the seed, thejfawr or meal.

The sugar cane (SACCHARUM officinarum), is of the grass
family ; it is supposed to have been brought from the South of
Europe to the West Indies. The stem or culm, which some-
times grows to the height of twenty feet, affords the juice from
which the sugar is made.

The Bamboo (ARUNDO bambos), of the East Indies, a spe-
cies of reed which is said to attain, in some situations, the height
of sixty feet, is also of this class.

The Sedge (Carex), is a gramineous plant, but it bears stami-
nate and pistillate flowers, and is therefore placed in the class
Moncecia. The carexes* constitute a very numerous family
of plants.

* The plural of carer, according to the Latin termination, is carices.

Grasses used as food for cattle and man — Zea mays — Sugar cane — Bamboo
—Carex.

Fig. 105.

ORDER DIGYNIA. 205

Fig. 105 repre-
sents two magnified
flowers of the orchard
grass (Dactylis glo-
merata*) ; at «, is a

/ f '1 d calyx't composed of

J\ \ip two valves ; these are

compressed, keeled^
acute; one valve is
shorter than the parts
of the flowers, the
other longer ; this calyx is common to the two flowers : b shews
the valves or parts of the corollas ; they are oblong and acute :
c represents the stamens, which are three in each flower ; the
filaments are of the length of the corolla ; the anthers are two
forked or bifid : d is the pistil, having an egg-shaped germ, and
two spreading and feathery styles : at e, is the seed, not hav-
ing any proper pericarp, but enclosed by the two scales of the
corolla ; it is single and naked.

Fig. 106.

* Glomerata signifies a cluster, alluding to the crowded panicles of flowers.

t The parts of the calyx, and also of the corolla, are called glumes ; they are
all much alike in appearance, being merely a set of sheaths, for the purpose of
protecting the stamens ; they are not distinguished by any difference in colour
from the leaves or stem. The anthers, which are usually yellow, are the only
part of the blossom of the grasses which is coloured.

t Resembling the keel of a boat.

18

206

CLASS TETRANDRIA.

Fig. 106 shews the same plant in its natural size ; a, is the
stem, which is a cylindric and jointed culm. At b, is the leaf,
which is long, narrow, pointed, simpk, and entire. At c, are
the flowers, which are thick, panicled and terminal.

The orchard grass is very common in the New England
and Middle States.

Of all the grasses, the darnel (Lolium), only, is poisonous;
this seemed to have been avoided in the days of Virgil, who,
in his " Pastorals," represents the shepherds us speaking of the
lolium as destructive to their flocks.

Fig. 107.

CLASS IV. — TETHANDRIA.

The same number of stamens are
found in the plants of this class, as jn
those of the 13th class, Didynamia.
In the fourth class the stamens are of
equal length, but in the thirteenth they
grow in t wo pairs of unequal length.

Order Monogyitiu.

As an example of this order, may be mentioned the Hous-
TONIA ccerulea, which is known by different common names ;
in some sections of the country it is called Innocence, in others
Venus1 Pride, and in some Blue Houstonia. It is a very deli-
cate little flower, appearing early in the spring, in grassy fields
and meadows ; the colour varies from sky blue (which gives
its specific name ccerulea) to a pure white. The flower has a
small calyx, with four divisions; a monopetalous corolla of four
divisions, which gives it something the appearance\of a cruci-
form plant.

The common Plantain (Plantago), (See Fig. 107, a) is found
here ; it is a plant by no means useless, although it exhibits
nothing interesting to gratify the sight. The leaves are some-
times used in external applications for medicinal purposes ; they
are also, when young and tender, boiled and used for food in
some parts of the United States. The flowers of the plantain
grow on a spike ; they are very small, but each one has a ca-
lyx and corolla ; these are both four-parted ; the filaments are

Analysis of the orchard grass— How does the fourth class agree with, and
how differ from the thirteenth class —Houstonia— Plantain.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 207

very long, and the pericarp is ovate with two cells. Canary
birds are very fond of the seeds of the plantain.

Aggregate flowers. We find in this class the aggregate
flowers (aggregate), or such as have many flowers on the same
receptacle ; they have a general resemblance to the compound
flowers of the class Syngenesia, but differ from them in having
but four stamens with anthers separate, while the Syngenesious
plants have five united anthers. The aggregate flowers are
not often yellow, like many of the compound flowers, but are
usually either blue, white, red, or purple. The Button bush
(Cephalanthus), of about five feet in height, affords a good ex-
ample of the natural order aggregate. The inflorescence is
white, appearing in heads of a globular form, each consisting of
many little perfect florets ; each head has its own 4 cleft calyx,
but there is no general calyx, or involucrum for the whole.
Only one species of this genus, the occidentalism is known, and
this is entirely confined to North America. The Teasel (Dip-
sacus), belongs to the aggregate flowers; its inflorescence is in
heads of the form of a cone ; it is furnished with narrow, stiff
leaves in the wild Teasel ; in the species which is cultivated
these bristly leaves are hooked ; on this account they are used
by clothiers to raise a nap or furze on woollen cloth. The
Cornus, so called from a Latin word corww, a horn, on account
of the hardness of the wood, is a genus composed mostly of
shrub-like plants, with flowers growing in flat clusters or cymes,
like the elder. Thejlorida, a species of Cornus, often called
Box-wood, sometimes Dog- wood tree, is a beautiful ornament
of our woods. It may be considered either a large shrub or a
small tree ; it grows from the height of fifteen to thirty feet.
Its real corollas are very small, and are clustered together in
the manner which is called, in botany, an aggregate. This
aggregate of flowers is surrounded by that kind of calyx called
an involucrum, which, in this plant, consists of four very large
leaves, usually white, but sometimes of a pale rose colour ; to
the latter circumstance is owing its specific name florida, or
florid. You would, no doubt, on the first sight of this plant,
mistake the large leaves of the involucrum for the petals. At
Fig. 107, b, is the representation of the cornus; the style is
about the same length as the petals ; these are four in number,
oblong and equal.

At c, Fig. 107, is the Cissus,-\ or false grape; its calyx is

* From ocddens, the west, being found on the western continent.

t Mirbel gives this name to the plant whose flower is here described, and
places it in the class Tetrandria. Eaton, on good authority, names it Ampelop-
sis, and puts it in the class Pentandria ; although it may occasionally be found

Aggregate flowers— Cornus.

208 CLASS TETRANDRIA.

very small (not. seen in the cut) ; the petals are spreading and
reflexed ; the filaments are shorter than the petals, and crowned
with large heart-shaped anthers.

Another very common genus of the class Tetrandria, is the
Bed-straw (Galium), an herbaceous plant, with very small
white flowers ; the leaves grow in whorls ; in different species,
the leaves thus clustered together stand around the stem in
fours, fives, sixes and eights. Some species exhibit a peculiar
roughness upon the stems and leaves. This genus, with many
others of the class, belongs to the natural order Stellate* or
starry plants ; the leaves radiating from the stem as rays of
light from a star.

Among the exotics of this class, are the SANTALUM, which
produces the sandalwood, and the Madder (RusiA tinctoria),
the root of which produces a beautiful scarlet colour. The
latter plant is said to have the singular property of tinging,
with its red colour, the bones of the animals that feed upon it.
This is one of the starry plants, belonging to the family Stellatac
of Linnaeus ; Jussieu has arranged this, and some of the plants
whose leaves grow in whorls, under his 57th order, Rubiacese.
The Silver tree(PnoTEA argentea), has soft leaves, resembling
satin, of a silver colour. Another species of Protea, the aurea,
has gold coloured leaves, which are edged with scarlet. Both
these trees are natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and havo
never been found in any other locality.

Order Tetragynia.

We find here the holly (Hex) ; this is an evergreen, with a
smooth, greyish bark, shining, thorny leaves, whitish flowers,
and scarlet berries ; this plant is very common in England for
fences ; its verdure is not impaired by the most severe winter.

with five stamens, its four petals and the four divisions of its calyx, seem to in-
dicate that the fifth stamen is but an accidental circumstance ; this seems to
have been the opinion of Mirbel and some others.
* From >•/»//,/, a star.

Bed-straw— Madder— Protea— Hex.

ORDER MONOGYNIA.

209

Fig. 108y

LECTURE XXV.

CLASS V. — PENTANDRIA.

THE class which we are about to
examine, is said to comprehend more
than one tenth part of all known spe-
cies of plants. It differs from the class
Syngenesia in having its jive stamens
separate, while the Syngenesious
plants have the same number of sta-
mens united by means of their an-
thers. Plants with five stamens,
including those which have anthers
united, are said to constitute one fourth
part of the vegetable kingdom.

Order Monogynia.

There are six orders in the class Pentandria, the first of
which, Monogynia, is large and important. Here we find the
41st natural order of Linnseus, the AsperifoUa, a name derived
from two Latin words, asper, rough, onAjolium, leaf, signifying
rough leaved plants. These have monopetalous corollas, with
five stamens and five naked seeds. The seeds are dicotyledons ;
this natural family is found in the 8th class of Jussieu, and by
him is called boraginece, from the genus Borago. " The change
in the corolla of these plants, in general, from a bright red to a
vivid blue as the flower expands, apparently caused by the
sudden loss of some acid principle, is a very curious phe-
nomenon."*

The Cynoglossum is perhaps as common as any of the asperi-
folice or rough leaved plants. Its common name is hound's
tongue, so called from its soft oval leaves, which are thought
to resemble the tongue of a dog. Although the Cynoglossum
is classed with the rough leaved plants, its leaves are remarka-
bly soft, appearing to the touch like velvet ; it is about two feet
high, the flowers are of a reddish purple, growing in panicles. f
The Lungwort (Pulmonaria), which also belongs to this natural

* Smith.

t It is said that the leaves of this plant, if strewed about apartments infested
with rats and mice, will expel these vermin.

Class Pentandria— How different from the class Syngenesia — Order Mono-
gynia— Describe the characters of the family Asperifolise — Mention the prin-
cipal genera in this family.

18*

210 CLASS PENTANDRIA.

family, has two species in North America with smooth leaves.
The Mouse-ear (Myosotis), is valued for its medicinal proper-
ties ; a species, the arvernis or Forget-me-not, is an interesting
little blue flower. The Gromwell (Lithospermum), is a rough
plant with white flowers ; the bark of the plant contains so much
silex or flinty matter, as to injure the sickles of the reapers,
when it grows in the field with the grain. The name Litho-
spermum, is from the Greek lithos, a stone, and sperma, a seed,
in allusion to the hardness of the seeds. The Borago, which
gives its name to Jussieu's Natural family, including rough
leaved plants, is an exotic, very common to our gardens. The
corolla is wheel-shaped, of a beautiful blue Colour, having its
throat closed with five small protuberances ; the same is obser-
vable in the cynoglossum and some others of this class ; the
stamens are attached to the tube of the corolla ; you must take
off" the corolla carefully and you will see both the little scales
which choked up the throat of the corolla, and the manner in
which the five stamens grow to it.

The Lurida, from lurid, signifying pale or livid, are in the
28th natural order of Linnaeus ; this order is by Jussieu inclu-
ded under his 41st, the Solaneae. The general characters of
these plants are, monopetalous corollas, of a lurid or pale ap-
pearance ; five stamens attached to the base of the corolla, and
alternating with its divisions ; the leaves are alternate. The
common Potatoe (SOLANUM tuberosvm), is of this natural fa-
mily ; the flowers of this plant are large and the organs very
plain for analysis. There is a peculiarity in the appearance of
the anthers which it is well to notice ; they are of an oblong
form, thick and partly united at the top, forming a cone, and
instead of opening at the side, as anthers usually do, they open
at the top by two pores. The potatoe was not known in
Europe, until after the discovery of America. In the year
1597 Sir Walter Raleigh on his return from this country, dis-
tributed a number of potatoes in Ireland, where they became
numerous, and the cultivation of them soon extended into Eng-
land. It is said that the root of the potatoe is white or red
according to the colour of the flower. The little green balls,
upon the stalks of the potatoe, are the pericarps, and contain
the seed ; but this plant is usually produced from the root.
The little knobs or eyes which you may notice upon the pota-
toes, are each one a kind of germ or bud ; and in planting
potatoes the whole root is not put into the ground, but cut into
as many pieces as there are eyes, each one of which, produces

Luridee or Lurid plants — Potatoe.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 211

a plant.* In the same genus with the potatoe, is found the
Tomato and the Egg plant. In this natural family is the DA-
TURA stramonium, a large, ill looking, nauseous scented weed,
with a funnel form, plaited corolla, either white or purple, with
broad, dark green leaves ; when the corolla falls off and the
germ matures, it then becomes a large ovate, thorny pericarp,
often called Thorn-apple ; it continues to blossom during the
summer, is found by the sides of roads, around old buildings
and waste grounds. Yet even this disagreeable plant has an
important use ; it is, on account of its narcotic, and other ac-
tive properties, highly valuable in medicine.

In the 'group of plants we are now considering, is the To-
bacco (NICOTIANA tdbacum). This is a native of America ; it
was imported into Europe about the middle of the 16th century.
It was presented to Catharine de Medicis, Queen of France,
as a plant from the New World possessing extraordinary vir-
tues. The generic name, Nicotiana, is derived from Nicot?
the name of the person who carried it to France. King James
I. of England, had such a dislike to the fumes of this plant, that
he wrote a pamphlet, which he called a " Counter blast to To-
bacco." It is highly narcotic, the excessive use of it produ-
cing sleep like opium. The oil of tobacco, when applied to a
wound, is said to be equally fatal as the poison of a viper.

The Mandrake (ATROPA mandagora) was much used by the
ancients as an opiate ; they had many absurd notions respect-
ing this plant ; they fancied in its roots, which are very large
and of a peculiar appearance, a resemblance to the human form,
and thought that some judgment would follow those who took
them out of the ground. This superstition is not unlike that
which is sometimes discovered even in the present day by those
who are afraid to sow fennel, because they say it is " sowing
sorrow." Perhaps those very persons who would thus fear to
perform acts so innocent as to take a root from the ground, or
to put seeds into it, would have no hesitation in violating a
command of God, or neglecting to perform their known duties.
The Atropa mandagora must be distinguished from the
American mandrake ; the latter bears a fruit which is pleasant
to the taste and perfectly inoffensive ; its botanical name is
Podophyllum ; it is found in the class Polyandria. You can
see in this instance the importance of botanical names being
given in a language which shall be the same in all countries.

"This is more properly a continuation of the plant than a reproduction ,• it
is observed that the vegetable thus continued appears in process of time to be-
come degenerated, and it is necessary to renew the race by reproducing it from
seed.

Tobacco — Mandrake — American mandrake.

212 CLASS PENTANDRIA.

The common name, mandrake, has been given to two plants
essentially different ; but by a uniformity in the scientific
names, there is no danger of one being taken for the other by
those who know any thing of botany.

Along with the Potatoe, the Stramonium, and the Atropa,
we find the Mullein ( Verbascum), which you must have seen
too often to need any description of its general appearance ;*
but though its natural characters may have so far attracted
your attention that you know a mullein from every other plant,
you may not have examined its different parts with a view to
scientific arrangement : it has, like all the Luridae, a five-parted
calyx, wheel-shaped corolla, with five unequal divisions. The
stamens are declined, or turned downwards, bearded, or hairy.
The capsule is two-celled and many -seeded. The leaves are
oblong, acuminate and decurrent or with their bases extending
downwards around the stem ; they are downy on both sides.
The flowers are arranged along their stem, in such a manner
as to constitute what is called a spike. The botanical name of
the common mullein is VERBASCUM thapsus ; a species smaller
and more delicate than the common mullein, is often found in
woods ; this is the VERBASCUM hlattaria. This genus is less
active in its medicinal properties than most others of the lurid
family ; it is said to possess anodyne properties, and to be
intoxicating to fish.f We cannot at present enumerate all the
plants of this extensive natural family (the Luridae) ; as you
proceed in your analysis of plants, you will do well to refer
them to their natural orders, and thus you will in time become
familiar with the natural, as well as artificial classes.

Having remarked upon the genera found in the natural fami-
lies AsperifoHcB and Lurida, we proceed to consider some other
genera of the class Pentandria.

In the family Lysimachi, are several genera with wheel-form
corollas ; the most important genus in this family is the Lysi-
machia or Loose-strife (See Fig. 108, a), this is an herbaceous
plant, very common in June and July ; several species of it may
be found along the banks of little brooks, and low meadow
grounds. The racemosa, or cluster-flowered loose-strife is
from one to two feet in height ; it bears a profusion of fine
yellow blossoms, in a lax or limber raceme. It sometimes bears
bulbs in the axils of the leaves, and small branches. Theso
bulbs, like the roots of the crocus and onion, contain the rudi-

* By general appearance, we mean, what the French botanists call thsport of
the plant,
t Smith.

Mention the botanical characters of the mullein— Different species — Ly-
simachi.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 213

ments of a plant. The St. John's wort, Hypericum, a very
common and numerous genus, is in the family Lysimachi.

In this comprehensive order of the class Pentandria, we find
the morning glory (Convolvulus), and the genus Ribes, which
contains the currant and gooseberry. The coffee (Coffea Ara-
bica) is also in this class and order. This plant is a native of
Arabia ; it is said to be used to a great extent by the Turks
and Arabs, to counteract the narcotic effects of opium, which
they use in large quantities. It is remarked by a physician,
that the question is often asked, which is the least detrimental
to health, tea or coffee ; he says, the Turks, who drink great
quantities of coffee, and the Chinese, who make equally as free
use of tea, do not exhibit such peculiar effects as render it easy
to decide, whether they are, in reality, deleterious to the hu-
man system.

The trumpet-honeysuckle (honicera), belongs to this part of
the artificial system (Fig. 108, b) ; it has a very minute, five-
cleft calyx, which is superior or above the germ ; the corolla is
of one petal, and tubular ; the tube is oblong ; the limb of the
corolla is deeply divided into five revolute segments, one of which
seems separated from the others ; the filaments are exserted ;
the anthers are oblong.

Before closing our remarks upon this order, we will remind
you that the wine grape is found here. The general character
of the grape (Vitis), is a calyx five toothed ; petals connected
at the top ; a five seeded, round pericarp. The stamens and
pistils are, in some genera, dio3cious, or on separate plants ; this,
according to our principles of classification, would carry the
genus into the class Dio3cia ; but as some species of the genus
have perfect flowers, containing five stamens and one pistil, and
as it is never permitted to separate the different species of a
genus, we take the dioecious species, which are less numerous
than the pentandrous, into the fifth class.

The regions which produce the wine grape have a mean
annual temperature* of 50 degrees on the northern border, and
59 degrees on the southern. Lines of temperature have been
described by Humboldt, by remarking the peculiar vegetables
in different countries. He has traced the northern limit of the
wine grape, where the mean annual temperature is about 50°

* By mean annual temperature, is meant a medium between the extremes of
heat and cold. In a climate where the thermometer in summer would rise to
100 degrees, and in winter sink to zero or 0, the medium would be 50 degrees ;
this is probably not far from the mean annual temperature of our climate. The
mean annual temperature at the equator is reckoned to be about 84 degrees.

Coffee — Trumpet-honeysuckle — Vitis — Temperature of the regions which
produce the wine grape — What do you understand by mean annual tempera-
ture l—(See Note.)

214 CLASS PENTANDRIA.

near the latitude of Albany, across the United States to the Pa-
cific ocean ; not however in a straight line, for climate, although
chiefly dependent on latitude, is yet much modified by other
circumstances ; and on the western coast of America we find
in latitude 50°, a similar climate to the 43d degree of latitude
on the eastern coast. Thus the wine grape may grow in 50°
of latitude, near the lakes, the Mississippi, and Pacific ocean ;
while, in the eastern part of New York and New England,
it would not thrive beyond the 43d degree of latitude.

We find, on the other side of the Atlantic, the region of
the wine grape, including Fjsmce, and the southern countries
of Europe, extending as high as latitude 50°;

The southern limit of the wine grape where the mean an-
nual temperature is about 59°, is traced from Raleigh, in the
United States, in latitude 35°, to Europe, where it passes be-
tween Rome and Florence, in latitude 44° ; this line is the
boundary between the grape region and that of the olive and
fig, which you know, require a higher temperature than the
grape.

The banks of the Rhine produce excellent grapes, which
are brought down the river in great quantities to the seaports.
The festival of the Vintage, or the gathering of the grapes,
which, like our Thanksgiving season, is intended as a mani-
festation of gratitude forjhe fruits of the earth, was celebra-
ted with much joy by the ancient Romans, and is still observ-
ed by t^he people of Italy ; it occurs with them about the be-
ginning of September ; in France and the south of Germany,
it is later.

The Fallemian wine was the most celebrated among the
Romans ; some of the Latin poets spoke of it oftener than we
should expect from those, whose intellectual taste might seem
to elevate them above any very great attention to the gratifi-
cation of the external senses. The number of wines in use,
in the days of Virgil, was such, that he said he might as well
attempt to count the sand on the shore, or the billows of the
ocean in a storm, as to make a catalogue of them.

The vines of Italy, are often trained upon trees, particular,
ly upon the lofty elm. In France, the vineyards have short
poles, about the length of bean poles. The appearance ex-
hibited by a luxuriant vineyard is truly rich and beautiful ; of
those of France and Italy, it may well be said,

" The vine her curling tendrils shoots,
Hangs out her clusters, glowing to the south,
And scarcely wishes for a wanner sky."

Which ia the natural limit of the wine grape ? — How does the climate of the
western coast of America correspond to that of the eastern coast ? — Crossing
the Atlantic, where do we find the northern and southern limits of the wino
^ ?— Vintage— 4Vines— Vineyards.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 215

It is said, the Persian vine-dressers endeavour to make the
vine run up the wall, and curl over on the other side, which
they do, by tying stones to the extremity of the tendrils. A
writer remarking upon this, thinks it may illustrate a passage
in Genesis. " Joseph is a fruitful bough ; even a fruitful bough
by a well; whose branches run over the wall." " The vine,
particularly in Turkey and Greece, is frequently made to en-
twine on trellises around a well, where, in the heat of the day,
whole families collect themselves and sit under their shade."

In this class and order is the violet (viola), a genus which
contains.many native species. The garden violet is the viola
tricolour. It has a variety of common names, as pansy, hearts-
ease, &c. Pansy is a corruption of the French pense'e, a
thought ; thus Shakspeare, in the character of Ophelia, says,

" There's rosemary, that's for remembrance ;

And these are pansies ;
' That's for thought."

Shakspeare also calls the same flower Love in idleness. You
will find the blue violet (viola ccerulia), among the first flowers
of spring ; our meadows present a great variety of beautiful
and fragrant violets.

Poets are very fond of the Primrose (Primula), so called
from primus, first, on account of its early appearance in the
spring. . But the primrose of the poets is not a native plant
with us. The cinnamon-rose is frequently, though improper-
ly called primrose. The English cowslip is a species of Pri-
mula, having the segments of its corolla spotted with a rich
yellow colour, which Shakspeare seemed to suppose contained
the fragrance of the flower. Thus in the Midsummer Night's
Dream ; the Fairy says,

" I serve the fairy queen,
To dew her orbs upon the green :
The cowslips tall her pensioners be ;
In their gold coats spots you see ;
Those be rubies, fairy favours,
In those freckles live their savours ;
I must go seek some dew drops here,
And hang a pearl in every cowslip's ear."

The American cowslip belongs to the genus Caltlia, which
is in the class Polyandria.

Violet— Primrose— Cowslip. *

216 CLASS PENTANDRIA.

LECTURE XXVI.

CLASS PENTANDRIA — continued.
Order Digynia.

IN this order of the fifth class is the family Gentiana, which
affords some delicate flowers, as well as medicinal plants. The
fringed gentian is a beautiful plant with a blue flower. This
genus sometimes presents an irregularity in the number of sta-
mens. The pigweed (Chenopodium), notwithstanding the
low esteem in which it is usually held, you will see, is dignifi-
ed with a long and high sounding name. Shakspeare says,
" A rose, by any other name, would smell as sweet ;" so, not-
withstanding its great name, the pigweed is a very uninterest-
ing plant ; it is grouped by natural characters with the beet
and dock, flowers which are destitute of beauty.

The Umbellate plants which belong to the order and class
we are now considering, have already been described under
the 12th class of Jussieu's arrangement. Parsley, fennel, &c.
belong to this natural family. The water cow-bane (CICUTA
virosa), grows in ponds and marshes, and is a deadly poison.
Cows are often killed in the spring by eating it ; but as the
summer advances, the smell becomes stronger, and they care-
fully avoid it. Linnaeus relates, that in a tour made into Lap-
land for scientific purposes, he was told of a disease among
the cattle of Torneo, which killed a great many of them in
the spring, when they first began to feed in the pastures. The
inhabitants were unable to account for this circumstance ; but
the Swedish botanist, examining the pastures, discovered a
marsh where the CICUTA virosa grew in abundance ; he ac-
quainted the people with the poisonous qualities of the plant,
and thus enabled them to provide against the danger, by fencing
in the marsh.

Among the Umbellate plants is the Poison- Hemlock (CONI-
UM maculalum), which has a peculiarly unpleasant, nauseous
smell ; its stalk is large and spotted, from whence its specific
name maculatum, which signifies spotted. This plant is suppo-
sed to be the poison so fatally administered by the Athenians,
to Socrates and Phocion.

Before we leave the Umbellate plants, as they are not so
simple of analysis as many others, we will present you with a

Gentianae— Pigweed— Umbellate planU— Water Cowbane— Poison Hem
lock.

ORDER TRIGYNIA.

217

drawing, which may assist you in understanding their general
character.

We have here a sketch of the Coriander : —
Fig. 109.

1. CALYX (a), this is of that kind called an involucrum ; the leaves which
you see at the foot of the universal umbel, form what is called the general invo-
lucrum ; the leaves, which are at the foot of the partial umbel, form a partial
involucrum. Both of these involucrums are pinnatifid or have the leaves
divided.

2. COROLLA (6), this is represented as magnified; you can see that it has five
petals, inflected or bent inwards.

3. STAMENS, five, anthers somewhat divided.

4. PISTILS, two, reflected or bent back, as may beseen on the seed (c), where
the stigmas are permanent.

5. PERICARP, is wanting, as in all umbellate plants.

6. SEED (c),is round, with its two styles at the summit.

7. STEM (d), is herbaceous, branched.

8. LEAVES (e), narrow, pinnatifid.

9. FLOWERS, terminal, umbelled.*

The umbellate plants, although in some cases poisonous,
supply us with valuable vegetables for food ; as the parsnip,
carrot, and celery. The roots and stalks of the Angelica, in
Greenland, where they have but a scanty supply of food, are
eaten and considered as a great delicacy. Dill, fennel, cori-
ander and carraway, are used in confectionary, and are also
made subservient to many valuable medicinal purposes.

* The description of this plant is given on the authority of Nuttall, who calls
it the American coriander, which he says is found in the neighbourhood of the
Red River. The cultivated coriander has but a one leafed involucrum.

Analysis of Coriander—Uses of the Umbellate plants.
19

218 CLASS PENTANDRIA.

The milk-weed (ascJepias) is by many writers placed here ;
but as its five stamens seem evidently situated upon the pistil,
the genus is properly placed in the fifth order of the class
Gynandria.

Trigynia.

This order contains the elder (Sanibucus), a shrub, which,
with its clusters of delicate white flowers, ornaments the fields
during the summer. From the appearance of the blossom you
might suppose it to be umbelliferous ; the stalks do at first ra-
diate from one common centre, but afterwards they are une-
qually subdivided ; this arrangajpnt of flowers is called a cyme.
The dark rich purple berries of tin- rider, and the peculiarity
of its pithy stem, are among its distinguishing natural charac-
ters.

The snow-ball (Viburnum); has a natural affinity with the
elder : the flowers in its cymes are more thickly clustered to-
gether. Both are distinguished by their flat corollas ; which
, are somewhat like a flat, round piece of paper, with five divi-
sions notched on the border. The only generic difference be-
tween the snow-ball and the elder is, that the former has a
berry, or pericarp, with one seed, the latter with three.

Tetragynia.

Here we find the grass of Parnassus (Parnassia). This is
an interesting flower in its appearance ; its leaves are white,
and beautifully veined with yellow; the stem produces but one
flower ; the nectaries are remarkable for their beauty and sin-
gular appearance ; they are five in number, heart-form, and
hollow, surrounded with thirteen little threads, each one ter-
minated with a round, glandular substance. The name is said,
by an English Botanist,* to have arisen from the plant being a
native of Mount Parnassus, in Greece, anciently considered as
the dwelling of the muses. It is found in North America.

Pentaprynicu

In the fifth order, we find the flax (Linum), so called from
a Celtic word tin, a thread. The flax has a showy, blue
flower, with an erect stem ; a field of it in blossom presents a
very beautiful appearance. The cultivated species is said to
be an exotic, of Egyptian origin. It is from the liber, or inner
bark of the stem of this plant, that all linen cloths, the finest
lawn and cambric, are manufactured. We owe to it in one
sense our literature ; for the paper of which our books are
made, is primarily derived from flax. The fibres of the stem

* Thornton.

Elder— Snow-ball— Grass of Parnassus— Flax.

CLASS HEXANDRIA. 219

are not only thus important to the comfort of man, by contribu-
ting to his clothing, and to his intellectual improvement, in fur-
nishing a method of disseminating knowledge, but the seeds are
highly valuable for their oil, called lin-seed oil. This is used
in, medicine ; and the delightful porformances of the artist are
executed by means of colours, prepared with oil from the seed
of the flax, laid upon the canvass made from the fibres of its
stems.

Polygynia.

The thirteenth order occurs next to the fifth ; there being no
plants in the class Pentandria with six, seven, and eight pistils,
&c. until we come tpjthe yellow root (Zanthoriza), which is a
native of the Southern States. It has 5 stamens, 13 pistils, no
calyx, 5 petals, 5 nectaries, cap'sules 5 seeded ; the flowers are
purple, growing in panicles. It is a low shrub, with a yellow
root, sometimes used by dyers.

Our investigations into the class Pentandria have necessari-
ly been somewhat tedious, on account of the number and im-
portance of the plants which it contains. We do not, how-
ever, expect to make you practical botanists by introducing
to your notice a few interesting plants ; this can only be done
by gathering flowers, and examining them according to those
rules of analysis which we have endeavoured to explain in a
simple manner. If you study flowers, you will read remarks
upon them with pleasure and profit ; if not, definitions or in-
struction will be read with little interest and little improve-
ment. Sciences may be unfolded, every facility which books
and teaching can give, may be placed before the youthful
mind ; but that mind must itself be active, or the seeds of
knowledge will no more take root .and expand," than the seeds
of plants would vegetate if thrown upon the bare surface of
a rock.

LECTURE XXVII.
CLASS VI. — HEXANDRIA, AND CLASS VII. — HEPTANDRIA.

OF all the artificial classes, none presents us with so great
a number of splendid genera as Hexandria; most of them
are distinguished by bulbous roots, monocotyledonous seeds, and
endogenous stems ; the palms and some other plants of this
class have fibrous roots in connection with the last two char-

Zanthoriza— Importance of the class Hexandria— Three important natural
characters which distinguish many plants of this class.

220 CLASS HEXANDRIA.

acters ; these are inseparable ; the nature of the stem,-or the
manner of its growth depending on the structure of the seed.
The extensive family Liliaca, including the lily, tulip,
Crown-imperial, &c. is one which presents itself first in con-
sidering this class.

You have already been made ac-
quainted with the lily, as it was one of
the first flowers you were taught to
, analyze; and, in a brief view of the
liliaceous flowers, you have been pre-
sented with the most striking charac-
ters belonging to this family, which we
might, following the example of great
names, call an " illustrious" race.
Pliny says, the " lily is next in nobility to the rose."*
naeus called the liliaceous flowers " Nobles of the vege
kingdom ;" he also called the palm trees " Princes of India."
In the class Hexandria, the symmetrical ratio between the
number of stamens and the division of the other parts of the
flower, is generally to be found. In the spiderswort, (Trade-
scantia), which has 6 stamens, we find the corolla 3 petalled,
calyx 3 leaved, and capsules 3 celled. In the third class,
which has 3 stamens, the divisions are often 6.

In the lily, which has 6 stamens, there are 6 petals ; 3 of
these are exterior, 3 interior ; the capsule is 3 sided, with 3
cells, and 3 valves ; the seeds are arranged in 6 rows. This
proportion of numbers seems to forbid the idea that this plant
grew up without the agency of any designing mind. We are
not always to expect the same symmetry in plants as has been
here remarked. It is in the natural, as in the moral world,
that, although every^ where around us, we see such proofs of
order and system, as manifest the superintending care of one
Almighty Being ; yet there are irregularities which we can-
not comprehend : but although we may admire the order, we
are not to say that even what seems disorder is formed with-
out a plan.

* " Lilium nobilitate proximum est." A French poet, in the following lines,
gives the lily a rank above the rose.

" Noble fils du soleil, le lys majestueux,
Vers 1'astre paternal dont il brave les feui
Eleve avec orgueil sa tete souveraine ;
II est roi des fleurs dont la rose est la reine."
The white lily is here meant ; this is particularly admired by the French.

Ialiace»— Symmetry of parts in the flowers of this class.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 221

*' Shall little haughty ignorance pronounce
His works unwise, of which the smallest part
Exceeds the narrow visions of his mind ?"

The tulip has no style, but its three parted stigma is attach-
ed to a three cornered germ. The corolla of the tulip is more
expanded at the base than that of the lily. The stem of the
tulip is never more than one flowered, while that of the lily
usually has a number of flowers. Some native species, of the
tulip are found in North America, but those which you see in
gardens are exotics. In no plant is the variation made by
culture greater than in this ; it is said, that of one single spe-
cies, Tulipa gesneriana, one thousand and one hundred varie-
ties are cultivated in Holland. About the middle of the seven-
teenth century, the rage for tulips was so great, that some
Vere sold for four thousand dollars, and one variety, called the
ice-roi, for ten thousand dollars ; but this extraordinary
traffic was checked by the law that no tulip or' other flower
should be sold for a sum exceeding one hundred and seventy-
five dollars.

The amateurs of this flower may truly be said to have had
the tulip mania, to have rendered such a law necessary. The
Crown-imperial is truly a majestic flower, and presents, in the
regularity of its parts, the curious appearance of its nectaries,
and the liquid secretion which takes place in them, facts of
great interest both to the departments of botanical classifica-
tion and physiology. But we find in the foetid odour of this
splendid flower, a circumstance which leads us to prefer, as an
ornament for our parlours, or as a gift to a friend, the humble
mignionette or the lowly violet.

Besides the liliaceous plants, which include much of the
beauty of our gardens, we find in the first order of the 6th
class, several genera which belong to the natural family Ensa-
tee, having sword-form leaves ; as the spiders wort, a beautiful
flower whose symmetry we have already remarked. Many
tenderly cherished exotics have less elegance than this neg-
lected American plant. The snow-drop, which is one of the
earliest flowers of spring, is of the same family.

It may excite your astonishment to know, that in the class
and order with so many splendid and beautiful flowers are the
onion (Allium), and the bulrush (Juncus). But you must re-
collect that in this artificial system, if a flower has six separate
stamens and one pistil, it is entitled to a place in the 6th class
and 1st order, even though this should place a very humble
plant by the side of the most gaudy flower.

The onion belongs to a family of monocotyledonous plants,

Tulip — Ensatee— Plants of different appearances found in the same classes.

19*

222 CLASS HEXANDRIA.

which Jussieu calls Asphodeli (from asphodel, a spear). The
Asphodel which gives name to the family, was among the an-
cients a funereal plant ; it was made to grow around the tombs ;
and a belief prevailed that the manes of the departed were
nourished by its roots. An inscription upon a very ancient
tomb, commences thus, " / am nourished by the Asphodel."
This plant was supposed to grow in abundance, upon the bor-
ders of the infernal regions of the ancient poets. Fig. 110,
represents a flower of the Asphodel family (Eucomis).

The genus Scilla is an exotic, containing the squill, a medi-
cinal plant, and the hare-bell of English poets ; the latter is
SCILLA nutansy or nodding ; it abounds in the woods and glens
of Scotland, and has a soft and elastic scape. Thus Scott
says of the Lady of the Lake ;

" A foot more light, a step more true,
Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew ;
E'en the slight hare-bell raised its head
Elastic, from her airy tread."

The flower which we term the hare-bell is the Campanula
rotundifolia ; this is very common near water-falls, and upon
rocks in other situations. The barberry (Berberis), is found
common in New England ; its stamens possess an unusual de-
gree of irritability ; they recline upon the petals, but upon
touching the base of the filaments by any substance, they in-
stantly spring towards the pistil.

You may have observed that although we have remarked
upon the beauty of some flowers to be found in this class,
nothing has been said of their utility ; the truth is, that their
beauty, as is too often the case with external beauty, constitutes
their chief merit. When we compare the advantages which
the world derives from the costly race of showy tulips with
the utility of the humble flax, we feel that though we may ad-
mire the one, reason would teach us to prefer the other. You
may from this, derive a moral lesson, which may suggest to
your minds some truths, applicable to human beings as well as
flowers.

The genus Convallaria presents many delicate and interest-
ing species. The flowers of some are funnel-shaped, and such
are usually called Solomon's seal. The garden Solomon's
seal is very common. This name is supposed to have been
taken from certain marks on its roots, resembling the impres-
sions made by a seal. It has been much celebrated for medi-
cinal properties.* The lily of the valley belongs to the genus
Convallaria ; its corolla is bell-form.

* Gerard, a very ancient botanist, has the following curious passage. "The

Asphodeli— Scilla- Hare-bell— Barberry— Flowers of this class more re-
markable for beauty than utility —Convallaria.

CLASS HEPTANDRIA. 223

In the first order of the sixth class are the Aloes and the Fan-
palm, the fronds of which are of immense ,size.

We shall close this lecture by a few examples of the re-
maining orders of the class Hexandria, and a view of the
very small class Heptandria.

Digynia.

We here find but one genus, Rice (Oryza) ; this belongs
to the family o£ grasses, which are mostly found in the class
Triandria, but having six Stamens, this plant is separated by
the artificial system from those to which it is allied by natural
characters. No plant in the world appears of such general
utility as an article of food as this. It is the prevailing grain
of Asia, Africa, the southern parts of America, and is exported
into every part of Europe.

Trigynia.

. Here we find the genus Rumex, which contains the dock
and sorrel ; they have no corolla, but the six stamens and
three pistils are surrounded by a six leaved calyx.

CLASS VII. — HEPTANDRIA.

Monog-ynia.

The first order of this class contains the chick-winter-green
(Trientalis) ; this plant has a calyx with 7 leaves, corolla 7
parted. One species of it is said to defend its stamens against
injury from rain, by closing its petals and hanging down its
head in wet weather.

The Horse-chesnut (^Escu-
lus), (Fig. Ill), is a native of
the northern part of Asia, and
was introduced into Europe
about the year 1500 ; it was not
probably brought to America
until sometime after the settle-
ment of this country by Euro-
peans. It is a small tree which
produces white flowers, variega-
ted with red, crowded together in the form of a pannicle ; the
whole resembling a pyramid. In appearance it is very showy,

root of Solomon's seal stamped, while it is fresh and greene, and applied, taketh
'away in one night, or two at the most, any bruse, black or blew spots gotten by
fals,or women's wilfulness, in stumbling upon their hasty husband's fists, or
such like."

Aloes and Fan-palm — Order Digynia — Trigynia — Trientalis — Horse chesnut.

224 CLASS HEPTANDRIA,

the more agreeable to us as we have so few trees whose flowers
are conspicuous. The blossom is very irregular in its parts,
that is, its number of other divisions do not correspond with
the usual number of stamens ; the stamens, however, vary as
to number. The seeds in form have a resemblance to ches-
nuts, but their taste is bitter. A very large species, the pallida,
having pale flowers, is a native of the southern and western
states. The horse-chesnut exhibits in its buds, in a very con-
spicuous manner, the woolly envelope which surrounds the
young flowers, the scales which cover this envelope, and the
varnish which covers the whole. The wood of this tree
affords a good subject for studying the formation and growth
of woody or exogenous stems.

Tetragynia.

There is but one plant with four pistils known in the class
Heptandria ; this alone constitutes the fourth order ; its com-
mon name is lizard's tail (Saururus)-, it has arrow shaped leaves,
flowers destitute of a corolla, and growing upon a spike ; it is
to be found in stagnant waters.

Heptagynia.

The septas, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, is considered
as the most perfect plant in this class ; it has 7 stamens, 7 pis-
tils, 7 petals, a calyx 7 parted, and 7 germs (one to each pistil),
which germs become 7 capsules, or seed vessels.

Heptandria is the smallest of all the classes ; we do not find
here, as in most of the other classes, any natural families of
plants ; but the few genera which it contains not only differ in
natural characters from other plants, but seem to have no
general points of resemblance among themselves.

Tetragynia— Order Heptagynia— Remarks upon the class Heptandria.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 225

LECTURE XXVIII.

CLASS VIII. — OCTANDRIA. CLASS IX. — ENNEANDRIA.

Monoffynia.

Fig. 112. The eighth class, although not large, contains
some beautiful and useful plants. One of the first
which we meet with in this class, is the scabish
(CEnotJiera), sometimes called evening primrose.
Many species of this are common to our country ;
I some grow to the height of five feet. The flow-
ers are generally of a pale yellow, and in some
species they remain closed during the greater
part of the day, and open as the sun is near setting.
This process of their opening is very curious, the
calyx suddenly springs out and turns itself back
quite to the stem, and the petals being thus re-
leased from the confinement in which they had
been held by the calyx, immediately expand ; there are few
flowers which thus hail the setting sun, though many salute
it at its rising. The flowers of the (Enothera are thickly
clustered on a spike, and it is said that " each one after ex-
panding once, fades, and never again blossoms."* This sin-
gular flower has been observed in dark nights to throw out a
light resembling that of phosphorus. The regularity of the
parts of this flower renders it a good example of the eighth
class ; the different parts of its corolla preserve in their divi-
sions the number four, or half the number of stamens. It has
4 large yellow petals, the stigma is 4 cleft, capsule 4 celled, 4
valved, the seeds are affixed to a 4 sided receptacle.

The evening primrose belongs to a family of dicotyledonous
plants called Onagrse ;f the characters of which are four pe-
tals above the calyx ; stamens inserted in the same manner,
and equal or double the number of petals ; the fruit a capsule
or berry.

To the same natural family as the (Enothera belongs the
willow herb (Epilobium), a very branching plant with red
flowers, and feathery seeds.

The cranberry (Oxycoccus), also belongs to the same family,
but having ten stamens, is in the class Decandria ; in this case,
a natural affinity is made to yield to the artificial system. The
fruit of the cranberry consists of large scarlet berries, which

* W. Barton.

t The common name for the evening primrose is, in French, onagref.

Evening Primrose— Willow herb— Cranberry.

226 CLASS OCTANDRIA.

contain an agreeable acid. The flowers are white, having a
4 toothed calyx, and corolla 4 parted. It is found in swamps
in various parts of North America.

The Ladies'-ear-drop (Fuschsia), (See Fig. 112), is a beau-
tiful exotic. It has a funnel-form calyx, of a brilliant red
colour ; the petals are almost concealed by the calyx ; they are
purple, and rolled round the stamens, which are long, extend-
ing themselves beyond the coloured calyx. This plant is a
native of tyexico and South America, except one species
brought from the Island of New Zealand. Ten species are said
by horticulturists to be cultivated, but some of them are pro-
bably rather varieties than distinct species.

The heath* (Erica), which contains many hundred species,
is not known to be indigenous to this country ; fifty species are
said to have been introduced. The common heath has bell-
form flowers, small and delicate, with the colour pink or vary-
ing into other colours ; the flowers intermixed with the delicate
green of its leaves produce a fine effect. The kind of soil
necessary to the growth of the heath, is peat earth ; this is
very common in Engjahd and Scotland, in which countries this
plant abounds. The branches are used in England for heating
ovens and making brooms. In the Highlands of Scotland, the
poor make use of it to thatch the roofs of their cottages, and
their beds are also made of it. The field in which this plant
grows is termed a heath or heather.

" The Erica here,

That o'er the Caledonian hills sublime,
Spreads its dark mantle, where the Bees delight
To seek their purest Honey, flourishes ;
Sometimes with bells like Amethysts, and then
Paler, and shaded, like the maiden's cheek
With gradual blushes ; other while, as white
As frost that hangs upon the wintry spray."

The Daphne is a rare plant ; one species is called the Lace-
bark tree, from the resemblance of its inner bark or liber to
net-work or lace. This bark is very beautiful, consisting of
layers which may be pulled out into fine white web, three or
four feet wide ; this is sometimes used for ladies' dresses and
may even be washed without injury. Charles I. of England,
was presented by the governor of Jamaica with a cravat made
of this web. The plant is a native of the West Indies.

The Nasturtion (TropO3olum), is a very commonly cultiva-
ted exotic. It has not a regularity of parts ; the divisions of
the corolla and calyx are not four or eight, which we might

* The term heath is said to have originated from an old Saxon word, alluding
to the heat which the plant affords as fuel.

Ladies' Ear drop— Heath— Lace bark tree— Nasturtion.

CLASS ENNEANDRIA. 227

expect from its eight stamens, but consistsiof five petals. The
fruit consists of three seeds ; these are used for pickles. " The
generic name (Tropoeolum), signifies a trophy plant; this al-
ludes to its use for decorating bowers, and the resemblance of
its peltate leaves to shields, as well as of its flowers to golden
helmets, pierced through and stained with blood."*

The Second Order of the 8th class has few plants of im-
portance.

The Third Order contains the Buckwheat (Polygonum),
which is classed in the same natural order as the dock, pig-
weed, &c. " having flowers destitute of beauty and gay colour-
ing." The genus is extensive, containing many plants which
are considered as common weeds ; the species, fagopyrum, is
the true Buckwheat, the use of which as an article Of food, is
too well known to need a remark. This plant is variable in
its number of stamens ; the fruit is one angular seed.

In the Fourth Order of this class is a very rare plant called
Paris. It is said to have been named after Paris, a prince of
ancient Troy, who was remarkable for his beauty. In every
part of the flower there is the most perfect regularity ; the
numbers four and eight prevailing in every division. It has 8
stamens, 4 pistils, 4 petals, a 4 leaved calyx, a 4 sided and 4
celled pericarp, which contains 8 seeds, and 4 large spreading
leaves, at a little distance below the flower. The colour of the
whole is green.

CLASS IX. — ENNEANDRIA.

Monogynia.

Fig. 113. This is also a very small class. In

the First Order we find the genus lau-
rus, which includes the cinnamon, bay,
sassafras, camphor, spice bush, &c.
The bay (laurus nobilis), is a native of
Italy ; the Romans considered it a fa-
vourite of the Muses. The emperor
Tiberius wore it not only as a trium.
phal crown, but as a protector against
thunder ; as it was thought that Jupiter
had a particular regard for the plant.
The laurel as well as the olive was
considered as an emblem of peace ; it
was sometimes called laurus pacifera, the peace-making laurel,

* Sir J. E. Smith.

Second Order— Third Order— Fourth Order— Class Enneandria— Different
species of the genus Laurus, as the bay, camphor, cinnamon, sassafras, &c.

228 CLASS ENNEANDRIA.

If its branches were carried among contending armies it was
a signal for the cessation of arms. Poets crowned with laurel
were called laureates. Camphor is the produce of the laurus
camphora, a large tree which grows in Japan : it is said that a
species of this plant has been discovered in Georgia. " The
LAURUS cinnamomum is a tree which grows to the height of
twenty feet ; it sends out numerous branches which are crown-
ed with a smooth bark. The leaves are of a bright green,
standing in opposite pairs. The petals are six, of a greenish
white colour. The fruit is a pulpy pericarp enclosing a nut.
This tree is a native of Ceylon, where it grows very common
in the woods and hedges. The imported cinnamon is the inner
bark (liber) of the tree ; it is remarkable that the leaves, fruit
and root all yield oil of very different qualities. That produ-
ced from the leaves is called the oil of cloves ; that obtained
from the fruit is of a thick consistence, very fragrant, and is
made into candles for the use of the king ; the bark of the roots
affords an aromatic oil called the oil of camphor. " The Sas-
safras tree (laurus sassafras) is a native American plant ; when
first introduced into Europe, it sold for a great price, the oil
being highly valued for medicinal uses. It grows on the bor-
ders of streams and in woods ; it is often no larger than a
shrub ; its flowers are yellow, its fruit blue berries. The LAU-
BUS benzoin has scarlet berries, and is an aromatic plant."*

Fig. 113, a, represents a flower of the Butomus (flowering
rush), which belongs to the class and order we are now con-
sidering.

The Second Order contains no remarkable plants.

Trigynia.

The Third Order presents us with but one genus, which of
itself renders the order important ; it is the Rhubarb (Rheum) :
in one species the RHEUM tartaricum; the leaves are acid, and
on this account, when young, are used for making pies ; this is
a native of Tartary, but now common in our gardens. The
RHEUM palmatum is the plant which produces the medicinal
rhubarb ; this is obtained from the roots, which are thick, fleshy
and yellow. This plant is cultivated in England, and is remark-
able for the rapidity of its growth. An English writer* asserts
that its stem has been known to grow more than eleven feet in
three months ; that some of its leaves were five feet in circum-
ference ; that the root also grows to a great size ; and that some
had been carried to England which weighed more than seventy
pounds.

* Woodville.

Order Trigynia— Different species of Rhubarb.

CLASS DECANDRIA. 229

At Fig. 113, J, is a flower of the genus Rheum; Mirbel
represents it with six styles, as seen in the cut ; this would carry
the plant into the order Hexagynia, but as most botanists place
it in the order Trigynia, we have described it here.

We have now closed our consideration of the ninth class.
You will recollect that our lecture commenced with the eighth
class, which we found, though not large, to be an interesting
one. The ninth, with the exception of two genera, laurus and
rheum, presented few considerations of importance ; the ninth,
the seventh, and first, are among the smallest of the artificial
classes.

We have dwelt somewhat at length upon exotics, because
they are seldom described in botanical works in common use.
If you become interested in the study of plants, you will natu-
rally wish to know something about those which you are in
the habit of using for food or medicine, or to which, as in the
laurel of the ancients, allusions are often made in the books
which you read.

It is important, however, for you to seek for a practical
knowledge of botany from the actual observation of our own
native plants ; to find them in their own homes, in the clefts of
rocks, by the side of the brooks, and in the shady woods ; it is
there you will find nature in her unvitiated simplicity. We do
not go to the crowded city to find men exhibiting, without dis-
guise, the feelings of the heart. The flower transplanted from
its rural abodes, though not a moral agent, and, therefore, in-
capable of moral transformation ; yet exhibits, in the splendid
green house, a physical metamorphosis not less remarkable than
the moral change which luxury too often produces upon the
character of man.

LECTURE XXIX.

CLASS X. — DECANDRIA.

PLANTS of this class have ten stamens, but this circumstance
alone would not distinguish them from some of the other classes ;
the number of stamens must not only be ten, but these must be
distinct from each other ; that is, neither united together by
their filaments below, nor by their anthers above. Some of
the classes which are to follow, viz. Monadelphia, Diadelphia,
Gynandria, and the two classes with stamens and pistils on
separate flowers, may also have ten stamens; but circum-

Remarks upon some of the classes —Knowledge of exotics desirable — Flowers
in their native situations— Class Decandria.

20

230 CLASS DECANDRIA.

stances respecting the situation of these organs distinguish
these classes from each other.

Fig. 114. Monogynia.

In the first order of the tenth class
we find some plants with papilionace-
ous or butterfly shaped corollas ; these,
because their filaments are not united,
are separated from the natural family
to which they belong, and which arc
mostly in the class Diadelphia. Among
those which are thus removed from the
class where, from their general ap-
pearance, they might have been looked
for, is the wild indigo (Baptisia), a

handsome plant wiih yellow flowers,

two or three feet in height, and very branching ; the stem and
leaves are of a blueish green. This is found in dry sandy
woods ; it has been used as a substitute for indigo.

The wild pea (Cassia) is another genus of the papilionace-
ous tribe. It has several species, one of which is called the
American senna (CASSIA marylandica) on account of its medi-
cinal qualities. Another species is CASSIA -nictitatis, with very
small yellow flowers, s-nd beautiful pinnate leaves, which re-
main folded at night; it shrinks back from the touch, for which
' reason it is called the American sensitive plant.

A plant, called by the Indians Red-bud (CKHCIS canadensis],
belongs to the same natural family. It is a large tree, appear-
ing as early as April, loaded with clusters of fine crimson
flowers ; the leaves, which are large and heart-shaped, do not
appear as early as the blossoms. The beautiful aspect of the
tree attracts to it many insects, particularly humble-bees. A
botanist* says, " 1 have often observed hundreds of the common
humble-bees lying dead under these trees while in flower."
This is not the only example of fatal consequences resulting
from trusting too much to external appearances ! This tree is
not improperly called Judas' tree, a name by which it is often
known.

The three genera of plants which we have now noticed, bear
fruit in that kind of pod called a legume ; this is the case, in
general, with the papilionaceous flowers.

The rue (Ruta) is an exotic, which gives name to a family
called RutacetB ; these plants have a monophyllous calyx ; five
petals alternating with the lobes of the calyx ; the germ is large
and superior (See Fig. 114, a). •
* W. P. C. Barton.
Order Monoirynia — Wild Indigo- Cassia — Cercis.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 231

At b, Fig. 114, is a representation of a flower of the Saxi-
fraga, a very extensive genus ; one species of which, an exotic,
sometimes vulgarly called beef-steak, is much cultivated as a
green house plant ; it is very hardy ; its leaves are roundish
and hairy : it sends forth creeping shoots.

In shady woods, whe*re the soil is loose and rich, we find in
June and July, the winter-green (Gaultheria), a perennial plant
which grows to the height of eight or ten inches ; the pleasant
taste of the leaves of this plant, and the still finer flavour of ite
fruit, are well known ; the drooping blossom is also very deli-
cate and beautiful, consisting of a bell-form corolla, (not unlike
the lily of the valley,) the colour of which is white, tinged with
pink. Though you may have often enjoyed eating the fruit
and leaves of the winter-green, you will experience a delight
which this mere pleasure of sense could not have afforded,
when in your botanical rambles in the woods, you chance
to meet with this plant in blossom, with its little flowers just
peeping out from a bed of dry leaves : you may then enjoy
the pleasure of a beautiful object of sight, with the higher en-
joyment of intellectual gratification, by tracing in it, not only
intrinsic beauty, but those characters which give it a definite
place in scientific arrangement.

In the same natural family with the winter-green are two
genera, Pyrola and Chimaphila, which by some botanists have
been included under one ; but they appear to be sufficiently
distinct from each other to constitute a separate genus. These
plants belong to the natural order Bicornes, or two horns ;
alluding to the two protuberances like straight horns, which
appear on their anthers. The heath in the 8th class is of the
same natural family, as also the whortleberry (Vaccinium),
which contains a great many species ; the Europeans place
this genus in the class Octandria, but an American botanist*
says, " that of twenty-five species in our country, not one is
found with eight stamens, and in Europe only three species
are known with that number." He very properly inquires,
whether all our American species ought to be misplaced on
account of those few European species. The cranberry (Oxy-
coccus), which was formerly considered a species of the same
genus as the whortleberry, as it has but eight stamens, is
removed into the eighth class. Among the different species of
the whortleberry is one with blue berries, another with very
black berries, and the bilberry, which is a large shrub from
five to eight feet high.

* Eaton.

Winter-green and other plants of the family Bicornes— Genus Vacciniurn.

232 CLASS DECANDRIA.

A great proportion of the plants in the first order of the
tenth class are to be found in shady woods in June and July.
We can here enumerate but few of them ; in the description
of the genera of plants which we have provided, you will be
able to find the most common ones.

We will not, however, omit to mention the Monotropa, a
most curious little plant ; several stems of a few inches in
height, usually grow up in a cluster, each stem supporting a
single flower, which, in form, resembles a tobacco pipe. The
stems have scales upon them but no leaves ; the whole plant is
perfectly white and looks as if made of wax ; it is sometimes
called Indian pipe. You must look for this in shady woods
near the roots of old trees, in June or July.

Rhododendron, or as it is sometimes called, mountain laurel
or rose bay, an evergreen with large and beautiful oval leaves,
is found growing on the sides of mountains, or in wet swamps
of cedar ; it flourishes beneath the shade of the trees ; the
pink and white flowers appear in large showy clusters and
continue in bloom for a long period ; they have a 5 toothed
calyx, a 5 cleft funnel-form, somewhat irregular corolla, sta-
mens 10, sometimes half the number, capsule 5 celled, 5
valved.

At Fig. 114, c, is a flower of the genus Ledum, which is
found in the same family as the Rhododendron ; it has a very
small calyx, and a flat, five-parted corolla.

Connected by natural relations to the two genera above men-
tioned, is the American laurel (Kalmia), a splendid shrub, some-
times, found ten or thirteen feet high. On the Catskill moun-
tains, it is said to have been seen twenty feet in height ; the
flowers grow in that kind of cluster called a corymb ; they are
either white or red ; but this fair and beautiful shrub is of a
poisonous nature, particularly fatal to sheep who are attracted
towards it ; one species of the Kalmfa is on this account called
sheep laurel.

Among the plants which have a place in this part of the
artificial system, is the DIONJSA muscipula, or Venus' fly -trap.
This is a native of North Carolina ; the leaves spring from the
roots, each leaf has at its extremity a kind of appendage, like
a small leaf doubled ; this is bordered on its edges by glands,
resembling little hairs, containing a liquid that attracts insects;
but no sooner does the unfortunate insect alight upon the leaf>
than with a sudden spring, it closes itself, and the little prisoner
is crushed to death in the midst of the sweets it had impru-
dently attempted to seize ; after the insect, overcome by the

Monotropa or Indian pipe — Mountain laurel — Kalmia or sheep laurel —
Dioneea.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. '233

closeness of the grasp, has expired, the leaf again unfolds itself.
These movements are accounted for, by attributing to the
plant a power of irritability, which is excited by the touch of
any object. Although we account for the phenomenon by
attributing it to the irritability of the plant, we have only re-
moved the difficulty by adducing a cause which itself remains
to be explained. We shall in a future lecture make some
remarks upon the irritability, or as it is sometimes called, sen-
sibility of plants ; many curious and interesting facts, respect-
ing this singular property of vegetables, may be collected ;
many plausible theories to account for it have been given ;
but the efficient cause is too deep for man to penetrate ; his
feeble faculties cannot comprehened the designs and opera-
tions of Almighty Power.

The Second Order of the tenth class contains the Hydran-
gea, an elegant East Indian exotic ; a species of this plant, a
shrub with white flowers, is said to have been found on the
banks of the Schuylkill river.

The Pink (Dianthus) belongs to an extensive natural order,
Caryophyllete, which is distinguished by having five petals in-
serted with claws. One native species of the genus Dianthus,
called armeria, or Wild Pink, has been found in New Jersey
and New England.

The Third Order, or Trigynia, contains some plants which
belong to the same natural order as the pink.

The Fourth Order, Tetragynia, is not important.

The Fifth Order, Pentagynia, produces a plant, Agrotfemma,
known by the name of Cockle ; this is very common in fields ;
although troublesome, and regarded but as a weed, it is a
handsome pink-like plant, bearing a deep red or purple blos-
som ; in its genuine character it differs little from the genus
which contains the pink, except in having five pistils instead
of two, on which account it is placed in the fifth order.

Here is also found the Sorrel (Oxalis), which produces the
oxalic acid, similar in its properties to the juice of lemons ;
though poisonous, this acid is useful in taking the stains from
linen.

In the Tenth Order is the Poke-weed (Phytolacca), a very
common plant ; the fruit of which consists of large, dark ber-
ries, often used by children for the purpose of colouring purple.
The young shoots are tender, and are sometimes eaten as a
substitute for asparagus. The flower of this plant presents us
with 10 stamens, 10 styles, a calyx with 5 white leaves resem-
bling petals, a berry superior (above the germ), with 10 cells
and 10 seeds.

Hydrangea— Pink— Cockle— Sorrel— Poke-weed.
20*

234

CLASS ICOSANDRIA.

We have now finished a review of the first ten classes, or
the first group of classes, those which depend upon the siii»;l«'
circumstance of the number of separate stamens ; in our next
lecture we shall consider the two classes which depend on tlie
number and insertion of the stamens.

LECTURE XXX.

CLASS XI. — ICOSANDRIA.

Fig. 115.

In the class now before us, the num.
ber of stamens is not the characteristic
mark of distinction ; this consists in the
manner of the insertion of these or-
gans. In the analysis of the rose,
you have already become acquainted
>vith the leading features of this class,
and will, therefore, the less need a
minute detail of these elementary dis-
tinctions.

Had we followed the classification,
which has, until recently, been admitted
by writers on botany,we should liavehad
another class to examine before we came to Icosandria ; this was
called Dodecandria, from Dodeka, 12, and andria, stamen ; it
was not, as you might infer from the name, confined to 12 sta-
mens, but contained from 10 to 20, without anyxegard to their
insertion, as standing either upon the calyx or receptacle.
This class produced confusion in the science of botany, for it
is found that plants having more than ten stamens, frequently
vary as to their number ; and there being no difficulty in dis-
tributing all plants of this class into the two next, it has been
by consent of most botanists left out of the classification ; and
the plants which it contained, arranged under Icosandria, if the
stamens were on the calyx, and Polyandria, if the stamens were
inserted upon the receptacle. The manner of insertion is al-
ways the same, and therefore there can be no confusion with
respect to determining the classes upon this principle.

You will observe that this omission of one class changes the
numbers of the remaining classes ; as Icosandria, which was
formerly the twelfth, is now the eleventh, and so on with the
other classes. It is on account of these changes that we wish

Class Icosandria — Omitted class — Names of classes expressive of their
character.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 235

you to learn the classes by their appropriate names, as Monan-
dria, Diandria, rather than to confine yourselves merely to the
numbers, as 1st, 2nd, &c. Besides, the name of each class is
generally expressive of its character ; and will, when you un-
derstand its derivation, convey to you the idea of this character,
which, by the number alone, could not be done ; for example,
the term eleventh class, conveys no distinction but that of mere
number ; but the classical name Icosandria (from Eikosi, 20,
and andria, stamen), means 20 stamens ; this then reminds
you of the circumstance on which the class is founded.

The name Icosandria, seems not, however, exactly well
chosen to represent the eleventh class, which is not confined to
twenty stamens, having sometimes as few as ten, and in some
cases nearly a hundred stamens. An American botanist* has
proposed to call the class Calycandria, from calyxf and an-
dria, as the insertion of the stamens on the calyx is the essen-
tial circumstance on which the class depends ; this change
has been approved, but the old name is still used. Thus with
respect to the name given to the great American Continent, all
allow it should have been Columbia, after Columbus, its dis-
coverer ; but when once custom has sanctioned a name, it be-
comes very difficult to overcome this authority by arguments
drawn from reason. We shall, therefore, in compliance with
the use of botanists, call the class Icosandria.

Monogynia.

The first genus which we meet with in this class is CACTUS ;
it contains many species ; a very splendid one is the Night-
blooming Cereus (CACTUS grandijiorus\ having flowers nearly
a foot in diameter, with the calyx yellow, and the petals white;
they begin to open soon after the setting of the sun, and close
before its rising, never again to blossom. Another species
(speciossissimus), with flowers of the colour of crimson-velvet ;
it is said to be still more superb than the grandiflorus ; this
genus belongs to a natural order, Succulenta, or juicy plants ;
they are in general destitute of leaves, but the stems often
appear like a series of thick, fleshy leaves, one growing from
the top of another. The different species of this genus are
distinguished by a diversity of common names ; when they
are of a round form, they are called Melon thistles ; when
more cylindrical and erect, Torch thistles; when creeping
with lateral roots, Cereuses ; and when composed of a stem
resembling flattened leaves, Prickly pears.

* Darlington. t Calyx, genitive in Latin Calycis.

Calycandria — Genus Cactus — Different species distinguished by a diversity
of common names.

236 C'LASS 1COSANDRIA.

PRCHVUS is the genus which contains the various kinds of
the plum, cherry and sloe : this genus, according to ancient
writers, was brought from Syria into Greece, and from thence
into Italy. The Roman poets often notice its fruit. We have
several native species of it.

The pomegranate (PIMCA), is a shrubby tree, which is a
native of Spain, Italy, and tfarbary, and flowers from June
till September. The Greek writers were acquainted with it,
and we are told by Pliny, that its fruit was sold in the neigh-
bourhoo^ of Carthage. It is cultivated in England and in the
United States; not on account of its fruit, which does not come
to perfection so far .to the north, but as its large and beautiful
scarlet flowers render it an ornamental plant.

At Fig. 115, a, is the flower of the pomegranate (Punica
pranatum) ; b, represents the stamens of the same, as adhering
to the calyx.

The genus AMYGDALUS contains the peach and the almond.
The latter is a native of warm countries, and seems to have
been known in the remotest times of antiquity.

Di-pentagyniu.

The four orders in the class Icosandria, which follow the
first, are included under one, called Di-pentagynia, signifying
two and five pistils. We find in this order the hawthorn (Cra-
taBgus), a shrub with deep green foliage, white flowers and
scarlet berries, and with very large and strong thorns.

The genus Pyrus which contains the apple and pear, belongs
to the natural order Pomaceae.* The varieties of these fruits
are the effect of cultivation, not the produce of different spe-
cies. By means of grafting or inoculation, which consists in
inserting the bud of one tree into another, good fruit may be
produced upon a tree which before produced a poorer kind.

Linnceus' natural order, Pomacca, is included by Jussieu in
his family Rosacece, having rosaceous corollas. This family is
divided into sections; as the Pomacea, having its fruit fleshy
like the apple and pear ; the Rosa, having urn form calyxes ;
Amygdala, having drupe like fruits, &c.

Pdyfrynia.

In the 13th order we find the Rose ; this, in its natural state,
contains but five petals ; it is remarkable for the change of its
stamens to petals by cultivation. Several species of the Rose

* So called from Pomum, on apple.

Prunus— Pomegranate— Amygdalus— Order Di-pentagynia— Pyrufl. varieties
by grafting— Family Rosace® divided into sections— Order Polygynia— Rose.

ORDER POLYGYNIA. 237

are indigenous to North America ; as the small wild rose, the
sweet briar, and swamp rose. Red and white roses are re-
markable in English history as emblems of the houses of York
and Lancaster ; for when those families contended for the
crown, in the reign of Henry the sixth, the white rose distin-
guished the partizans of the house of York, and the red those
of Lancaster. Among the nations of the east, particularly in
Persia, the rose flourishes in great beauty and is highly valued*
The Persians poetically imagine a peculiar sympathy between
the rose and the nightingale.

The Blackberry (Rubus), has a flower resembling the rose
in general aspect ; there are several species of the Rubus, one
which produces the common blackberry, another the red rasp-
berry, another the black raspberry, and another the dewberry.
One species, the odoratus, produces large and beautiful red
flowers, the fruit of which, is dry and not eatable.

. The Strawberry belongs to the same natural and artificial
order as the Rose. The gathering of strawberries in the
fields, is among the rural enjoyments of children, which are
in after life, recollected with pleasure, not unfrequently mingled
with melancholy reflections, upon the contrast of that happy
season, with the sorrows, with which maturer years are
shaded. The fruit of the strawberry, as was remarked in the
classification of fruits, is not really a berry, but a collection of
seeds, imbedded in a fleshy receptacle,

Icosandria furnishes us with a great variety of fine fruits,
more perhaps than any other of the artificial classes. A
great proportion of the genera to be found in this class, are
natives of the United States.

Blackberry— Strawberry.

238

CLASS POLYANDRIA.

LECTURE XXXI.

CLASS XII. POLYANDRIA.

IN this class we find the stamens
separate from the calyx, and attached
to the receptacle or top of the flower
stem. The number of stamens in this
class varies from twenty to some him-
dreds. This class does not, like the
one we have last examined, contain a
great many delicious fruits, but rather
abounds in poisonous and active vege-
tables. The mode of insertion of the
stamens is to be regarded in consider,
ing the wholesome qualities of plants ;
it is asserted that no plant with the

stamens on the calyx is poisonous ; we know that very many

with the stamens upon the receptacle are so.

In the analysis of the Poppy we have already examined the

peculiar characteristics of this class.

Monogynia.

We find in the first order some flowers of a curious appear-
ance, as the Mandrake (Podophyllum) ; the distinction be-
tween this and the mandrake of the ancients, was remarked
under the class Pentandria. This plant is very common in
moist, shady places, where you may often see great quantities
of it growing together ; each stem supports a large, white
flower and two large, peltate, palmate leaves ; its yellow
fruit is eaten by many as a delicacy.

The Side-saddle flower (Sarracenia), is a very curious and
elegant plant » it has large leaves proceeding directly from the
root. These leaves form a kind of cup, capable of containing
a gill or more of water, with which liquid they are usually
filled. The stem is of that kind called a scape, growing to
the height of one or two feet, bearing a single large purple
flower. This plant is found in swamps ; its common name,
Side-saddle flower, is given in reference to the form of its
leaf. It is sometimes called Adam's cup, in reference also to
the shape of the leaf. The name of the genus SARRACENIA,
is derived from an imaginary resemblance of the flower, to
the head of a Saracen or Turk enveloped in his crimson tur-
ban. No foreign plant as an object of curiosity, can exceed

Class Polyandria— Order Monogynia— Podophyllura— Sarracenia.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 239

this native of our own swamps ; it is well worth the trouble
of cultivation by those who are fond of collecting rare plants.
The White Pond Lily (Nymphsea*), is a splendid American
plant, very fragrant and with a larger leaf than almost any
other northern plant. This flower closes at evening and sinks
tinder the water ; at the return of day its blossoms expand
and rise above the surface.

The Yellow Pond Lily (Nuphar), though less showy, is
equally curious in its structure.

In this artificial class and order is the Tea tree (THEA) ; of
this plant there are two species, the bohea tea (bohea), and the
green tea (viridis). It is a small ever green tree or shrub,
much branched and covered with a rough, dark coloured bark.
The flowers are white, the leaves are lanceolate and veined,
the capsule or seed vessel is three celled, opening ; the seeds
are three, oblong and brown. This shrub is a native of China
and Japan. Some suppose, that all the teas are taken from the
same botanical species, and that the different flavour and ap-
pearance of them depend upon the nature of the soil, and cul-
ture, and the method of preparing the leaves.

On account of the secret and jealous policy of the Chinese,
the natural history of the Tea plant is less known than might
be expected from its very general use. The Chinese begin
in February to gather the tea leaves, when they are young
and yet unexpanded. The second collection is made in April,
and the third in June. The first gathering, which consists
only of the young and tender leaves, is the Imperial tea; the
other two kinds are less odorous; the last collected is the
coarest and cheapest kind. Tea was introduced into Europe,
by the Dutch East India Company, in the year 1666, when it
sold for sixty shillings a pound, and for many years its great
price limited its use to the most wealthy. In considering the
effects of tea upon the human system, medical writers differ
in opinion, and a doubt seems to remain whether the use of it
is on the whole beneficial or injurious to the health of mankind.
If it is not injurious to health, the use of it no doubt promotes
the happiness of society, as it is exhilarating, and adds to the
enjoyment of social intercourse.

The Poppy (Papaver) was one of the flowers early given
you for analysis. Its numerous stamens standing upon the re-
ceptacle around the base of the germ, and its large stigma, with

* An extensive locality of this plant exists upon the Saratoga lake, I have
seen its surface for a quarter of a mile whitened by these lilies, occasionally
intermixed with the yellow lilies, and the rich blue of the Pontederia, another
beautiful aquatic plant.

Pond lilies— Tea tree— Poppy.

240 CLASS POLYANDRIA.

its two leaved caducous calyx, must be well remembered.
Single poppies have but four petals ; but the change of sta-
mens to petals is very common in this flower, and most of the
cultivated poppies are double. From the papaver somniferum
is obtained the opium of commerce. The juice which issues
from incisions in the green capsules, is dried in the sun and
usually made into cakes. Six hundred thousand pounds of this
drug are said to be annually exported from the banks of the
Ganges. The narcotic property of opium renders it highly
valuable as a medicine.

Why it is that certain substances, acting upon the human
system, have power to affect the mind, no physiologist has yet
been able to explain. But in the power of fermented liquors
to produce changes in the mind, or of opium to lull its faculties
into temporary oblivion, there is nothing more wonderful, than
that the presence of light should produce vision, or the vibra-
tions of the air sound. All are equally beyond our knowledge ;
we may trace a series of organic changes, but the last link of
the chain, that which connects body and soul, is concealed from
our observation. Thus why it is we know not, but the fact is
evident, that narcotics can for a time,

" Raze out the written troubles of the brain,
And with a sweet oblivious antidote,
Cleanse the full bosom of that perilous stuff
Which weighs upon the heart.

Yet but for a time does this effect remain ; and they who would
drown sorrow by artificial means, whether of the intoxicating
bowl or the stupefying opium, find their sensibilities return with
aggravated terrors. When properly used to allay bodily an-
guish, the product of the poppy may be considered one of our
greatest blessings ; but like all our blessings it may, by our
own misconduct, be made a curse.

The genus Citrus, which contains the orange and lemon, is
found here. Jussieu places this in his 70th order, Auranlia,
or golden fruits. The fruit is a berry with a thick coat. It
furnishes citric acid.

Few valuable fruits, with the exception of this genus, are
found in the class Polyandria.

Di-pentagynia.

The four orders following Monogynia, are, as in the prece-
ding class, united into one, called as before, Di-pentagynia,
having from two to five styles.

We find here some plants of a poisonous nature, as the Lark-
spur, Monk's hood, and the Columbine ; these belong to a natu-

Opium — Power of opium and fermented liquors to affect the mind — Genus
Cilrui — Order Di-pentagynia.

ORDER MONOGYNIA. 241

ral order called Multisiliquce, or many pods, there being many
pod-form capsules to each flower.

In the same order we find the Peony (Pseonia), a showy
flower which, when in its native state, has a 5 leaved calyx, a
corolla with 5 petals, and '2 or 3 germs, each crowned by a
stigma ; the capsules the same in number as the germs ; each
contains several seeds ; this flower is particularly remarkable
for its change by cultivation.

Polygynia.

The Thirteenth Order is divided into two sections. 1st, flowers
with no calyx or perianth. 2d, with a perianth. In the first sec-
tion we find several interesting native plants. The Clematis
or Virgin's bower, is a beautiful climbing plant, which supports
itself by winding its petioles, or leaf-bearing stems, around oth-
er plants : the flowers are white and clustered in corymbs ; the
seed has a long silk-like fringe, which gives it a fine appear-
ance after the blossoms have faded. This plant contains many
species, and is cultivated both in this country and in Europe.

At fig. 116, #, is a flower of the Clematis ; b represents its
receptacle with numerous styles proceeding from it, and the
petal and stamens separated, shewing that the former were in-
serted upon the receptacle.

The ANEMONE is a beautiful native flower; by cultivation
its petals multiply, as in the Rose.

The RANUNCULUS contains many species ; it belongs to the
same natural family as the Anemone ; but as you will find these
plants very common, and are now able to analyze them, we
will not at this time devote attention to them.

The HELLEBORE (Helleborus) is an exotic much spoken of
by classical writers. Hippocrates, one of the most ancient phy-
sicians, remarks upon its qualities : it grew about Mount Olym-
pus, and was regarded as a very poisonous plant.

The Magnolia* and Tulip tree are among the most splendid
trees of North America ; they are said also to be common to
China. The Magnolia grandiflora extends from South. Caro-
lina to the isthmus of Darien. In some cases these trees rise
to the height of 90 feet before sending off any considerable
branches ; the spreading top is then clothed with deep green,
oblong, oval leaves, like a laurel ; these are at most seasons
enlivened by large and fragrant white flowers.

The class Polyandria, though not important for its fruits, con-
tains some valuable medicinal plants, besides opium and tea,
which we have noticed.

*• Named in honour of Magnol, a distinguished botanist

Natural order Multisiliquse — Peony — Order Polygynia — Clematis — Anemone
—Ranunculus — Hellebore — Magnolia.

21

242

CLASS DIDYXAMIA.

LECTURE XXXII.

CLASS XIII — DIDYNAMIA, AND XIV — TETRADYNAMIA.

THE two classes which are to afford subjects for our present
observations, are founded upon the number and relative length
of the stamens.

In distinguishing their orders, the number of styles is not re-
garded, but new circumstances of distinction are introduced,
viz. the seeds" being enclosed in a capsule, or destitute of any
such covering"; and the comparative length of pods.
Class Didijnamia.

Fig. 117.

This class has flowers with four sta-
mens, two of which are longer than
the other two ; plants of this class are
in general easily distinguished; the
stamens stand in pairs ; the outer pair
being longer, the inner pair shorter,
and converging.

The class contains two orders, Gym-
nospermia (naked seeds), and Angio-
sperinia (seeds covered).

Gymnospermia.

In the 1st order, which contains plants with^bwr naked seeds,
the flowers grow in whorls or rings, having a square or angled
stem, and leaves opposite. The corollas are labiate, having
divisions resembling lips, and they are also called ringent, or
gaping, because the lips appear to be open. The calyx is
either in five equal parts, or consists of two lips.

At Fig. 117, a, is a flower of the genus Teucrium (german-
der) ; the corolla is ringent ; the upper lip is two-cleft ; the
lower lip is three-cleft; the stamens and pistils are incurved;
the stamens are expert through the cleavage on the upper side ;
b, shews the pistil with its four uncovered or gymnospermous
seeds.

The plants of this order are mostly aromatic ; very few are
poisonous. We find here the Mint, Lavender, Penny-royal,
Balm, and others of a similar nature. They are included un-
der the natural family Labiata. For more particular remarks

Classes 13th and 14th, on what founded — Their orders — Class Didynnmia —
Order Gymnospermia.

CLASS TETRADYNAMIA.

243

upon these plants, you can consult remarks on the Labiate
flowers. i

Angiospermia.

The 2d order contains those plants which have their seed
covered, or in a capsule ; the seeds are numerous. Plants of
this order appear to have an affinity with some families of the
class Pentandria. Many have, in addition to the four stamens,
a fifth filament, which appears to be the rudiment of another
stamen ; sometimes the irregular corolla varies into a regular
form with five divisions. Among those which exhibit the im-
perfect fifth stamen, are the Trumpet-flower, Foxglove, and
Penstemon.

In this order the personate corollas are to be found, or such
labiate flowers as have closed lips. Fig. 117, c, represents a
flower of this kind; at d, is the pistil, shewing the capsule, or
that the seeds are angiospermous. It should be observed that
not all the flowers of this order are labiate ; some few may be
found with bell-form, and funnel-form corollas. Plants of this
order differ much in their natural characters, from those of the
order Gymnospermia. None of them are used in preparations
for food, as are the Thyme and Savory of the first order, but
many of them possess powerful medicinal properties, as the fox-
glove (Digitalis), and the cancer root (Epiphegus). They are
in general a beautiful collection of plants ; few flowers are
more splendid than the Gerardia and the Trumpet flower.
These flowers are found in the natural order Personate, of
Linnseus.

As plants of this class are numerous in every part of the
United States, you will have no difficulty in procuring them
for analysis ; they are not usually found in blossom until the
middle of summer.

CLASS XIV TETRADYNAMIA.

Fig. 118.

In this class we find the cruciform
plants, or such as have four petals in
the form of a cross ; the stamens are
six, four of which are longer than the
remaining two ; the calyx has four
leaves. The orders in this class are
two, depending on the comparative
length of the pods ; this distinction is
not so definite as that which marks the
orders of the class Didynamia. Plants
of this class are not poisonous ; many
of them furnish us with useful food.

Order Angiospermia— Class Tetradynamia— General Character.

244 CLASS MONADELPIIIA.

SUiculosa.

The First Order contains plants which produce a short and
round pod called a sillicula ; a distinction in this order is made
between such plants as have pods with a notch at the top, and
such as have none, or are entire.

The pepper grass (Lepidium), and the shepherd's purse
(Thlaspi), afford examples of this order. At Fig. 118, d, is
a representation of the sillicula or pod of the Thlaspi. The
plants found here, belong to the natural family Siliquosa, the
properties of which are nutritious and medicinal.

tSiliquosa.

The Second Order contains such plants as have long and
narrow pods ; as the radish and mustard. The cabbage (Bras-
sica), is an exotic ; the turnip is a species of the same genus.
These belong to the same natural family as the plants of the
first order. The whole are included under the 63d order of
of Jussieu, the Crucifera. This order is in Jussieu's 13th
class, having seeds dicotyledonous, corollas polypetalous, and
Stamens hypogynous.

At Fig. 118, fl, is the wall-flower (Cheiranthus) ; the calyx
consists of four oblong leaves ; the petals are obovate, spread-
ing, with claws as long as the calyx. At £, appear the six
Stamens divested of the petals ; the germ is cylindrical, as long
as the stamens ; c, shews the silique or pod ; the valves are
concave and a thin membranous partition divides the silique
into two parts.

In this lecture we have pointed out to you the most important
characters of the two classes, which depend upon considera-
tions derived from the number and comparative length of the
stamens ; the one class having four and the other six stamens
of varying lengths. Both classes we found to have two or-
ders, not as in the preceding classes, depending upon the styles ;
but in the one class, on the situation of the seed as lying in the
calyx, or enclosed in a seed vessel ; in the other class, from
the comparative length of the pericarp or pod.

LECTURE XXXIII.

CLASS XV MONADELPHIA.

WE are now to consider the brotherhoods, as the names of
the 15th and 16th classes signify; Monadelphia meaning one,

Order SUiculosa — Order Siliquosa — Recapitulation — The Brotherhoods.

ORDER PENTANDRIA.

245

and Diadelphia two brotherhoods, in allusion to the manner in
which the filaments are connected in one or two sets. The
orders in these classes are arranged acpording to the number
of stamens ; a character which distinguishes the first ten
classes : bat no confusion arises from taking the same charac-
ter in these classes to distinguish the orders, since in the classes
themselves the number of stamens is not reckoned as a mark
of distinction.

In the class Monadelphia we include
all such plants as have their filaments
united in one set, forming a tube at the
bottom of the corolla. - In this union
of stamens, this class differs from all
the preceding ones ; for in those we
found the stamens entirely separate ;
in this, you will observe thai the
anthers xare separate, although the
filaments are joined. We cannot in
this class, as in the two preceding ones,
point out any prevailing form of the
corolla ; the mark of distinction here
is hi some cases rather doubtful, the filaments being sometimes
broad at their base, and yet, not entirely connected.

You will recollect that the orders here, depend upon the
number of stamens. We have no first order here, for the
character o£ the class is united filaments, and one filament or
stamen coulcf;not possess this requisite of union.

The Third Order is the first which occurs ; this is called
Triandrid, which you know is the name of the third class, and
signifies three stamens. But here are three stamens united by
their filaments into a tube. -We find in this order a handsome
plant, called blue-eyed grass (Sisyrincliium) ; the three fila-
ments have the appearance of being but one ; the corolla is
tubular and 6 cleft, style 1, capsule 3 celled ; it belongs to the
family of sword-leaved plants, Ensatse. This order contains
the tamarind.

Pentandria.

The Fifth Order, or five stamens, next occurs^ ; this presents
us with the passion-flower (Passiflora), a climbing plant, pecu-
liar to the warm countries of America. " Its immensely long,
and often woody branches, attain the summits of the loftiest
trees, or trail upon the ground adorned with perennially green,
or falling leaves, sometimes palmate, or lobed like fingers, at

Monadelphia— Orders— Order Triandria— Passion flower.

21*

246 CLASS MONADELPHIA.

others appearing like the laurel. They sustain themselves by
means of undivided tendrils ; and send out a succession of the
most curious and splendid flowers, of which.no other part of
the world offers any counterpart."* Of this genus a number
of species produce fruits of great excellence ; this fruit in
South America is called Purchas. Sixty species of this genus
are collected at the Linnocan garden near New York.f The
generic characters of the passion-flower are a 5 parted, co-
loured calyx, 5 petals inserted upon the calyx, 5 stamens and
3 pistils, the nectary, a triple crown of filaments. The very
singular appearance of this flower in the arrangement of its
stamens in the form of a cross, and its triple crown, has sug-
gested the idea of its being emblematic of the passion or suffer-
ing of our Saviour ; this idea is supposed to have given rise to
its name.

This plant was at one time placed in the class Gynandria,
upon the supposition that its stamens stood upon the pistil. An
English botanist^ thinks it should be placed in the class Pen-
tandria, and order Trigynia. Its situation in the class and
order under which we have described it, is, however, that
generally assigned it by American botanists.

In this order is also placed the stork's bill geranium (Erodi-
um), it is an exotic, and belongs to the natural family Gerania.

Heptandria.

The Seventh Order contains the genus Pelargonium ; this
belongs to the family Geranise ; this genus includes the greater
number of green-house Geraniums ; it is taken from the tenth
order and placed 'here, because, although its flowers have 10
filaments, but 7 of them bear anthers, or they have but 7
perfect stamens. The flower of this genus is somewhat
irregular. Among the varieties of the Pelargonium now
cultivated in the United States, are,

The Fairy queen geranium, with striped flowers, large and handsome leaves.

The Fiery flowered, with cordate leaves, and black and scarlet flowers.

The Balm scented, with leaves deeply five lobed, the flowers dark red and
black.

The Grandiflorum, has an erect stem, little branched, with smooth leaves
from five to seven lobed ; as its name implies, the flowers are large.

The Large bracted, has an erect stem ; lea\ PS cordate or heart-shaped, flowers
large and white, with some streaks of purple.

Frequent flowering, or fish, a shrubby, brown stem, with flat, cordate, five
lobed leaves, and red flowers, with spots of black and deep rod.

Peppermint scented, or Velvet leaved, a shrubby stem, much branched ; leaves
cordate, five lobed, soft to the touch like velvet, flowers small, white, and
purple.

*Nuttall. t See Prince's Horticulture. | Smith.

Different species — Generic character and name — Stork' s-bill geranium — Pe-
largonium— Different geraniums.

ORDER POLYANDRIA. 247

Nutmeg scented or fragrant, an erect stem much branched, leaves email,
cordate and three lobed, flowers small and pale, tinged with blue.

Royal purple, stem branched; flat cordate leaves, five lobed ; flowers large
and of a bright purple.

Another genus of the Geranium family is called the Hparea — this contains
several varieties, differing chiefly from the Pelargonium, in having a tuberous
root, with radical leaves ; most of the species are yellow. The plants of the
natural family Geraniag are mostly natives of the Cape of Good Hope, a region
to which we are indebted for many of our finest exotics.*

Decandria.

The Tenth Order contains the genus Geranium, which differs
from the Pelargonium, in having a regular calyx and corolla,
and also in producing 10 perfect stamens, which vary in length,
every alternate one being longer ; 5 glands adhere to the base
of the five long filaments. We have some native species of
this genus ; the .common Crane's bill (GERANIUM maculatum),
with large, showy, purple flowers, is often found in meadows
during the first summer months.

At Fig. 119, a, is a flower of the genus Geranium.

The three families Erodium, Pelargonium, and Geranium,
were formerly all united in one genus ; but the difference in
the number of stamens seems decidedly to separate them.

Polyandria.

The Thirteenth Order, (many stamens) is made up entirely
of a group of genera which compose the natural order COLUM-
NIFER^E, of Linnseus ; the stamens are united in the form of a
column ; (see Fig. 119, J.) by Jussieu they have been collect-
ed into an order, under the name of Malvaceae, so called from
the genus Malva. The peculiar characteristics of the whole
group are, a calyx often double, 5 regular petals, stamens
numerous, united by their filaments into a tube, and rising
like a column in the centre of the flower ; in the centre of this
tube are the styles, forming an inner bundle ; the number of
these is various, though often found to be eight. The number
of seed vessels, each of which contains one seed, equals the
number of styles ; the seeds stand round in a circle.

Among the plants which compose this family, are the holly,
hock, the mallows, and the cotton, (Gossypium.) The CAMEL-
LIA japonica, or Japan rose, a very splendid flower, equal in
size to the largest rose, is found here. Its beauty of form and
richness of colouring have a fine appearance, when contrast-
ed with its dark green leaves.

Most of the native species of the class Monadelphia may, in

* Prince's Horticulture.

-*c "'• • ' • • — '••"••

Order Decandria— Order Polyandria-— Columnifera3— Plants which compose
this family.

248

CLASS DIADELPIIIA.

the season of flowers, be easily procured for analysis. The
hollyhock is in almost every garden, the common mallows
grows wild about dwellings ; both are good examples of the
class Monadelphia.

The plants of this class vary in size from the low mallows
to some of the largest trees that have yet been discovered ;
" the Silk cotton tree, (BOMBAX pentandrum,) is so large, and
spreads its branches so widely that twenty thousand persons
might stand under its branches. This tree is a native of Af-
rica and South America. The Adansonia, a native of Sene- ,
gal in Africa, is said to grow to the size of seventy feet in cir-
cumference ; this tree also attains great age. In 1749, the
learned Adanson saw two of these trees in the neighborhood
of Gorrea, upon one of which was inscribed the date of the
fourteenth, and upon the other that of the fifteenth century !
yet there were good reasons to suppose that the trees were not
young when the dates were cut. It may be conjectured that
they have sometimes attained to the age of eight or nine hun-
dred years ! an immense period of time for the existence of
any species of organized bodies."*

Having now considered the class Monadelphia in its most
important particulars, we will pass to the next class, which in
common with this, is founded upon the union of the filaments.

LECTURE XXXIV.

CLASS XVI — UIADELPHIA.

Fig. 120.

THIS is the class of two brother-
hoods, the stamens being united by
their filaments ink) two sets. The
flowers of this class have already been
described under the head of Papiliona-
ceous, which you will recollect means
butterfly shaped ; this peculiar form
of their corollas is an important mark
t)f distinction in this class.

There are, however, two circum-
stances to be noted here, in order to
prevent you from falling into error
with respect to this class.
1st. There are some plants here which have their filaments

* B. S. Barton.

Plants of this character variable in size — Adansonia.— Class Diadelphia— Two
circumstances to be noted.

ORDER DECANDRIA. 249

united in one set ; where a flower is papilionaceous, it is still
kept in this class, although there may be no apparent division
in the brotherhood or set.

2nd. Although the flower be papilionaceous, if it has ten sepa-
rate stamens, it is placed in the 10th class ; this is the case with
the cassia and wild indigo. This circumstance was remarked
under the tenth class.

The distinction of the filaments into sets is often somewhat
difficult to be ascertained ; in the pea, for example, it is neces-
sary to take a pin, and separate the filament which is alone, in
order to perceive that it is not united to the other nine filaments.
When they are separated, it is mostly with nine filaments to-
gether, and one which seems disconnected : there are but few
examples of stamens being arranged in equal sets of five each.

The nature of the fruit in the papilionaceous plants is legu-
minous, or bearing a pod, like the bean and pea, called a le-
gume.

The orders in this, as in the preceding class, are founded up-
on the number of stamens, the class not having appropriated
to itself a character drawn from the same circumstance.

Pent-Octandria.

We could not expect from the character of the class, "sta-
mens united into two sets," to find any plants with but one sta-
men ; therefore there is no order until we find some plants
which answer the classic character. Those with five or eight
stamens are all placed in one order called Pent-octandria (five
and eight stamens) ; here we find Corydalis and Fumaria, be-
longing to a natural order Corydales, which includes such plants
as are -spurred, or are anomalous ; the latter term signifying
that their corolla is not such as can be described by any thing
else. The Corydalis is an elegant plant with bulbous roots ;
the corolla is rather ringent than papilionaceous. In some ca-
ses the stamens have very broad bases, and scarcely seem
united.

We find here POLYGALA, one species of which is called
Seneca snake-root ; this not only produces a beautiful flower,
but is valuable as a medicine. We have many species of this
genus, and you will no doubt be able to find specimens of it
in the woods and meadows.

Decandria.

The Tenth Order is wholly composed of plants with legu-
minous pods ; the general character of these plants is a calyx

Flowers Papilionaceous— Fruit leguminous— Order Pent-Octandria— Natu-
ral order Corydales— Polygala— Order Decandria.

250 CLASS DIADELPHIA.

often 5 parted, corolla 5 petalled, inserted on the calyx, con-
sisting of a banner, two wings and a keel ; stamens generally
10, mostly united into two sets, 9 and 1 ; germ free ; style 1 ;
legume generally '2 valved, 1 celled, sometimes transversely
divided into many cells, seeds affixed to the edge on one side.

At Fig. 120, 0, is a flower of this kind ; b% shews the sta-
mens divested of their petals ; c, shews the pistil, the germ
already exhibiting the form and appearance of the legume.

In this large family of plants with leguminous pods are many
of great importance in the vegetable kingdom ; but when we
are able to give some general natural characters, there seems
to be less need of particularizing each genus. This circum-
stance of being able in description, to include the general
characters of the plants of a large order in this class, shows it
to be composed of a natural assemblage. The singular form
of the corolla and the nature of the fruit, with few exceptions,
settle the character of this class.

We have here many important plants which serve for food
to man. The most savage nations usually pay some attention
to Diadelphous plants. When Ferdinand de Soto marched
his army into Florida, before the middle of the 16th century,
he found the granaries of the natives well stored with Indian
corn and certain " leguminous seeds ;" which were probably
the Lima bean (Dolichos), or some species of that genus ; for
the natives still continue to cultivate them.

This class furnishes valuable medicinal articles ; as the li-
quorice and snake-root. It also furnishes us with plants for
dyeing ; as the Indigo (!NDIGOFERA tinctoria), this is to be dis-
tinguished from the Wild Indigo (Baptisia), which during tho
revolutionary war was used for colouring. Some plants of
this class seem to possess active properties ; the seeds of the
Lupine are said to be poisonous. A traveller states, that tho
inhabitants of the banks of the Nile, are often visited in the
night by the hippopotamus or river horse, a large animal
which does great damage to the gardens and fields ; and that
they destroy the animal by placing a quantity of the Lupine
seeds near where he is expected ; these he devours greedily ;
they soon swell in his stomach and distend it so much as to
cause death.

The Furze (ULEX Eurojxms), is a very common plant in
Europe, though not found so far north as Sweden. It is a
flower of beautiful appearance ; so much so, that Linnaeus, as
is said, when he first beheld it, fell upon his knees, in a trans-

- General character of the order — What circumstance shows this order to be
composed of a natural assemblage ?— These plants useful for food— For Medi-
cine, &c.— Furze.

ORDER DECANDRIA. 251

port of gratitude, and thanked the Author of Nature for thus
beautifying the earth.

A class called Polydelphia, or many brotherhoods, having
stamens united in more than two sets, was formerly admitted,
but it was thought to be unnecessary, and the genera which it
contained have been transferred to the class Polyandria ; the
St. John's wort (Hypericum), is among the plants whioh were
in the rejected class ; this Has its numerous stamens in three
clusters, not united by their filaments ; but even all the species
of the Hypericum are not thus divided into separate parcels
of stamens. This distinction, as the character of a class, is
very properly laid aside ; and the plants which were in the
former 18th class Polydelphia (many brotherhoods), are now
placed in the 12th class Polyandria (many stamens}.

In the last two lectures, you will recollect we have treated
of two classes distinguished by the union of their filaments.
In one class, Monadelphia, the general character was that of
filaments united in one set forming a tube ; the orders of this
class were founded on the number of stamens, and bore the
same names as those classes which are founded on a similar
circumstance in respect to the stamens. In this class, no par-
ticular form of the corolla was found to be general, unless we
except the last order, in which the hollyhock flowers may serve
as an example ; having a double calyx of an unequal number
of divisions, a corolla of five heart-shaped petals, united into
one piece around the column, formed by the united filaments.

In the other class, Diadelphia, we found the marks of dis-
tinction to be,

1st. The union of the filaments into two sets,

2d. The butterfly-shaped corolla ; and,

3d. The nature of the fruits"; consisting of that kind of pod
called a legume, and thus forming one great natural family of
Leguminous plants, which furnish many of the most delicious
table vegetables ; such as peas, beans, &c.

The orders of this class are founded on the same circumstance
in respect to the stamens, which distinguishes those of the
preceding class.

We make these recapitulations because it is always impor-
tant in the consideration of a subject, to have a few clear ideas
before you leave it ; this is better than a great many imperfect
or confused ones. It would, therefore, be well in all your
studies, when you have read upon a subject, to ask yourselves
what are the main points to be remembered ; and you will

Class Polydelphia, why rejected — Recapitulation — Uses of recapitula-
tions.

252

CLASS SYNGENESIA.

find that the less important facts or ideas, by the natural
suggestions of the mind, will readily cluster around the prin-
cipal ones.

LECTURE XXXV.

CLASS XVII. — SYNGENESIA.

Fig. 121.

WE have now arrived at a class
which contains a large portion of the
vegetable tribes, particularly of those
plants which blossom in the last sum-
;mer months, and in autumn.

The term Syngenesia signifies a
union of antliers; this circumstance,
you can readily conceive, forms a dif-
ference between this class, and those
which are distinguished by a union of
filaments ; hi the one case, the tops of
the stamens, or the anthers, are united,
while the lower parts are separate ;
in the other case, the' tops are separate while the filaments, or
lower parts of the stamens are united.

The number of stamens in plants of this class is mostly 5,
distinguished from the fifth class, not only by the union of the
anthers, but by the compound character of the flowers ; the
latter circumstance is indeed the essential character of the
class. In some cases, plants with five stamens have their an-
thers united, but having no other resemblance to those of the
class Syngenesia, they are retained in the fifth class : the
violet and impatiens are examples of this irregularity. This
is an instance in which the artificial arrangement is made to
bend to natural resemblances.

The general characters of the compound flowers have al-
ready been exhibited to you, in connexion with some of the
most important and distinct natural families. The analysis of
the daisy, which was illustrated by a dissected plant, must
have impressed upon your minds the peculiarities which distin-
guish this from all other classes.

You will recollect that a compound flower is a collection of
little flowers or florets, placed upon the same receptacle, and
within one common calyx ; add to this description the five

Class Syngenesia— What case is mentioned in which the artificial arrange-
ment is made to bend to natural resemblances ?

ORDER SUPERFLUA. 253

stamens, with their anthers united, forming a little tube, and
you have an idea of a syngenesious flower.

The orders of the class Syngenesia are distinguished by
different circumstances than are noticed in any other class ;
they are founded on the situation of the several kinds of florets.
We will, however, before explaining the orders, remind you of
the distinction made in these florets.

1. Perfect, such as have both stamens and pistils.

2. Barren, or staminate, having only stamens.

3. Fertile, or pistillate, having only pistils.

4. Neutral, destitute of either stamens or pistils.

They are also distinguished into ligulate, having a flat strap,
shaped corolla, and tubular, having a tubular corolla.

The five orders in this class, depend on the various situations
of these different kinds of florets.

JEqualis.

The First Order contains those compound flowers which
have all the florets perfect ; this order is divided into sections.

1st. Containing such as have ligulate florets ; as the dande-
lion, lettuce, and vegetable-oyster.

2d. Florets tubulous, with flowers in a head ; as the thistle,
and false saffron (Carthamus).

3d. Florets tubulous, without rays ; as, bone-set, or thorough,
wort (Eupatorium).

You will find no difficulty in procuring for analysis, either
dandelions or thistles ; bone-set is also abundant ; therefore,
for farther investigation of this order we will refer you to the
plants themselves, aided by the generic and specific descriptions
provided to assist you in analyzing plants.

Superflua.

The Second order presents us with such compound flowers
as have the florets of the disk perfect, and those of the ray
only pistillate, each pistil producing a perfect seed. The term
superflua is used, because the pistils in the ray, being unaccom.
panied with stamens, are said to be unnecessary or superfluous.

This order is divided into two sections.

1st. Flowers without rays, or the ray florets indistinct ; here
we find the tansey, and the life everlasting; of the latter there
are many species.

The ARTEMISIA, a genus which includes the wormwood and
southern. wood, both exotics, has but few native species. The
name Artemisia is often improperly given to an ornamental

Orders, how distinguished ?— Different kinds of florets— Order
divided into three sections—Order Superflua— Two Sections— Artemisia.

22

254 CLASS SYNGENESIA.

plant, which belongs to the genus Chrysanthemum. " The
genus Artemisia, was named in honour of Artemis, the wife of
Mausolus, whose monument was one of the wonders of the
world (hence our word Mausoleum). Pliny observes that wo-
men have had, also, the glory of giving names to plants."*

The 3d section of the order Superflua, includes sucli flowers
as have flat or ligulate petals, arranged around the middle or
disk of the flower ; these are called rays. The receptacles in
this section are naked, that is, the top of the stem is found, on
removing the different parts of the blossom, to be smooth, with-
out any hairs or down, such as you may see on the dandelion
after the petals have fallen off. We here find the star flower
(ASTER), a genus in which 120 species have already been dis-
covered, more than '60 of which are natives of the U. States.
These are not often seen in blossoVn until June and July ; they
appear in flower until the approach of winter. Many of these
flowers are highly beautiful ; the different species present a
great variety of rich and delicate colouring, from the dark blue,
purple, and red, to a pale blue, a light violet and pink, and in
many cases, a pure white. In some, the yellow prevails ;
sometimes they are variegated, and often the disk and ray are
of different colours. After having once become familiar with
the Aster genus, you will seldom fail to distinguish it ; but it is
often difficult to determine the species. If you meet with ob-
stacles in this, you are not to consider your time as lost ; com-
parison and research strengthen the mind, and the greater
difficulties you overcome, the greater will be the advantage,
in thus accustoming yourselves to nice comparisons, and close
investigations.

The golden rod (SOLIDAGO) is a numerous genus ; the dif-
ferent species are mostly yellow ; in one section of these plants
the flowers are arranged in one-sided racemes, in another they
form small and irregular clusters. This genus will also afford
an opportunity of strengthening the mental faculties by over-
coming difficulties ; for its numerous species are in most cases
so faintly distinguished, as to require some patience and appli-
cation to trace out the specific differences.

The genus CHRYSANTHEMUM contains the common daisy,
sometimes called ox-eye ; it also includes many splendid foreign
plants, mostly of Chinese origin. The mountain daisy (Bellis)
is the flower which you were taught to analyze under the head
of compound flowers.

• Thornton's British Flora.

Aster — Advantages of overcoming difficulties in the analysis of plants —
Golden rod — Chrysanthemum.

CLASS SYNGENESIA. 255

Frustranea.

The Third Order has the disk florets perfect ; those of the
ray are neutral, having neither stamens nor styles, though an
imperfect seed is sometimes seen at the base of the florets ; the
name Frustranea alludes to this imperfect seed. We find here
the SUN -flower (HELIANTHUS) ; this is a very good plant to
examine, as the organs are large, and develope very clearly the
peculiar character of the class Syngenesia.

fig. 121, a, represents the flower of the Coreopsis; b a floret
of the disk, with its bifid stigma above the tube, formed by the
united anthers ; c shows a ray floret, which is neutral.

In this order is the CENTAUREA benedicta, or blessed thistle, a
native of Spain, which received its name on account of some
extraordinary virtues which it was thought to possess, such as
being a remedy for the plague, with which warm countries are
often afflicted ; at present this plant is, not much valued.

Necessaria.

The Fourth Order includes plants in which the rays only
are fertile or pistillate, and the disk florets are barren or sta-
minate. We find here the marygold (CALENDULA).

Segregata.

The Fifth Order contains a few genera, with each floret hav-
ing a calyx proper to itself, besides a common calyx including
the whole of the florets which make up the flower ; this may
be called a doubly compound flower. The only plant of this
order yet discovered in the United States is the elephant's-foot
(ELEPHANTOPUS), a low, hairy leaved plant ; with purple, ligu-
late florets.

We have now completed a survey of the orders of the class
Syngenesia ; the plants which it contains are almost wholly
referred to the natural order Compositse or compound flowers ;
by Jussieu, they are subdivided into three orders.

Divisions of Compound Flowers by Jussieu.

1st, with florets all ligulate and perfect, leaves alternate, hav-
ing milky juice, corollas mostly yellow ,• this includes the dan-
delion and lettuce.

2d order includes all compound flowers with tubular corollas,
with receptacles fleshy and chaffy, egret stiff and bristly, leaves
often with fwvrsh prickles, flowers in a head ; this includes the
thistle, burdock, and false saffron.

3d order includes such compound flowers as have their inflo-

Order Frustranea— Sun-flower- Explain Fig. 120— Blessed thistle— Order
Necessaria— Order Segregate, Elephant's foot— Order Composite— Jussieu's
division of compound flowers.

256 CLASS SYNGENESIA.

rescence clustered in a corymb ; as the life-ever-lasting, bone-
set, and aster.

The plants of the class Syngenesia, are in general, easily
recognized at the first glance ; there is something about them
besides their compound character which distinguishes them from
all other plants. One botanist observes, that they have a kind
of " weed-like appearance, notwithstanding the beauty of their
colouring ; the stems and leaves are often rough, and they
seem to have been less completely reclaimed from their savage
state, than most other plants, with the exception of the Cryp-
togamous class."*

Not many of the plants of this class are poisonous ; it is
remarked that milky plants are generally so, but those of this
class are exceptions. The lettuce, however, contains a nar-
cotic principle, and opium may be made from it. The dande-
lion, the eupatorium, the chamomile, and wormwood, with
many other plants of this class are valued for medicinal
properties.

The Syngenesious plants are particularly abundant in our
own country, and you will never find difficulty in procuring
specimens. If you commence botanical studies with the flow,
era of spring, nature gradually presents you with those that are
more difficult to investigate. This class, it has been before re-
marked, are chiefly in blossom in the latter part of the season.
Being previously prepared by a knowledge of the general prin-
ciples of classification, and observations of plants, you will no
doubt derive pleasure from the study of the class Syngenesia ;
though were you to commence a course of botany with these
plants, you would feel as if thrown amidst a chaos of facts,
without any clue to their classification.

* Barton.

Plants of this class easily recognized — Many are valued for medicinal pro-
perties—Found in the latter part of the season.

CLASS GYNANDRIA. 257

LECTURE XXXVI.

CLASS XVIII. — GYNANDRIA.

Fig. 122. WE shall now examine a class, in

which an entirely new circumstance
from any yet considered, is regarded
as forming its essential character. This
circumstance is the situation of the sta-
mens upon the pistil, or the stamens
appearing to grow out of that organ.
In some cases the stamens appear to
proceed from the gerrn, in others, from
the style. There is sometimes diffi-
culty in deciding as to the number of
stamens, for they are not here, as in the other classes, dis-
tinct-organs, but in some cases mere collections of glutinous
pollen.

Monandria

The orders in this class, as in Monadelphia and Diadelphia,
depend on the number of stamens, or of those singular collec-
tions of pollen which are called stamens. The first order of the
18th class contains such plants as have butane stamen, oc two
masses of glutinous pollen, equal to one stamen ; this order is
divided into sections, which relate to the manner in which the
anther is attached to the style ; as, whether it is easily separa-
ted, whether the anther grows upon the top of the stigma, and
to the shape of the masses of pollen, which are called the anther.
The Orchis plants form an important part of the class Gynan-
dria ; most of these are perennial, and grow in moist and shady
places ; some of them are parasites, adhering to the bark of
trees by their fleshy fibrous roots. The roots sometimes con-
sist of two solid bulbs, in other cases, they are o'blong, fleshy
substances, tapering towards the ends, like the fingers of the
hand. These plants are in the family ORCHIDE.E, so called
from Orchis, a name derived from a Greek word, signifying
an olive-berry, on account of the root being round, like that
fruit. The Orchis family is not, however, confined to this one
genus, but includes the ARETHUSA and several other genera.
The distinguishing characters of this natural family are a co-
roll^ above the germ, 5 petals, 3 external and 2 internal.
There is also in each corolla a petal-like organ, called the, lip,
which varies in form and direction, anthers always 1 or 2, and

Class Gynandria — Orders— Orchiclese — -Distinguishing characters of this
family.

22*

258 ORDER PENTANDRIA.

from 1 to 4 celled, sessile, or sitting upon the side or apex of
the style ; the pollen is easily removed from the cells in glutin-
ous masses ; the styles are simple, with viscous stigmas of va-
rious forms and positions. The capsules are 1 celled, 3 valved,
3 keeled ; seeds are numerous and dust-like, clasping the stem
like the leaves of grasses. The stems or scapes are simple,
undivided, and the flowers are arranged in spikes or racemes.

The family Orchidese is in the 4th class of Jussieu's method,
having monocotyledonous seeds, and stamens epigynous, or above
the germ. The flowers of this family are remarkable for their
irregular, picturesque, and we might add, grotesque appear-
ance ; some present the figure of a fly, others of a spider, a
bird, and even of the human figure. It would seem too, that
the freaks of these vegetable beings are not designed for our
observation, for they are as curious in their choice of habita-
tions as in their external forms ; preferring wildness, barren-
ness and desolation to the fostering care of man, or the most
luxuriant soil. It is in forests of the equatorial regions, that
these plants appear in the greatest perfection. The aromatic
vanilla is obtained from the fruit of a climbing orchis of those
regions.

The Orchis genus has a nectary in the shape of a horn ; its
corolla is somewhat ringent, the upper petal vaulted, the lip is
spreading, the 2 masses of pollen are concealed at the sides, by
little sacs, or hooded hollows of the stigma.

Fig. 122 represents a flower of this genus ; a, shews the two
masses of pollen, brought out from the cells of the anther which
is attached to the pistil.

Diandria.

The 2d order contains the ladies' slipper (CYPRIPEDIUM) ;
the nectary or lip is large, inflated, and resembles a slipper.
We have several species of this curious plant, some of which
are yellow, some white, and others purple.
« Pentandria.

The 5th order contains the milk-weed (ASCLEPIAS), which
by some has been placed in the fifth class, on the supposition
that the stamens did not proceed from the pistil. In order to
assist you to understand these flowers, we will present you with
a very plain and simple description, from a manuscript belong-
ing to an American botanist,* who has devoted many years in
attention to scientific pursuits, and has particularly examined
into the character of the plants we are now considering. He
says, " I select the milk- weed for exercising you in the Gram-

* Professor Eaton.

Orchis — Ladies' slipper — Order Pentandria.

^ ORDER PENTANDRIA. 259

mar of Fructification, because it will lead you into a very nice
investigation of that kind of flower whose anthers produce glu-
tinous pollen ; and I now apprize you, that the stamens are
generally obscure, and difficult to ascertain correctly in such
cases, particularly in the flowers of the Orchis tribe.

" Take one of those heads of flowers from the milk-weed
(ASCLEPIAS), which are so common in the months of June and
July ; you will perceive that each flower grows upon a little
stalk, and that all these stalks proceed from the same centre,
like the braces of an umbrella ; which answers to the definition
given of an umbel inflorescence.

" The most conspicuous parts of a single flower, are five up-
right substances, and five petals reflexed and lying down close'
to the stem ; lift up those petals, and you will find a calyx con-
sisting of five small narrow leaves.

" You will now have ascertained that the inflorescence is an
umbel, that the calyx consists of five leaves, and the corolla of
five reflexed petals.

" As the five upright substances, with a little horn in the cen-
tre of each, have not the appearance of stamens, although they
are next in course to the petals, you may at first be at a loss
what to call them ; but I will here give you Linnreus' name
for every thing, whether inside or outside of the corolla, if it
be neither "-alyx, stamen, nor pistil, of whatever form and size
it may be ; he, having found that such parts generally secrete
a sweet liquid, calls them all by the general name nectaries ;
such as the shoe part of the ladies' slipper, the spur of the nas-
turtion, &c. Now pull off all the nectaries, and examine the
part which they encircled. You will observe five shelly pro-
jections between where the nectaries stood ; between these are
seeds lying very close, which you must peel off carefully with
a sharp pointed knife, so as not to disturb what is under them.
You will probably find some difficulty in effecting this at the
first trial, but you cannot proceed in your examination until it
be accomplished.

" Next, examine what is left with your magnifying glass,
though you may see the parts without a glass ; you will dis-
cover a lobe hanging down from each side of the five shelly
projections, resembling bees' wax in appearance ; these are the
anthers with glutinous pollen ; as the two lobes hang to the
branches of a single stamen, though very unlike stamens in
other cases, they are properly the double anther of a single
stamen. The thick substance from which the stamens proceed,
is the stigma, consequently, the milk-weed is placed in this
class, GYNANDRIA ; the orders in this class are distinguished

Eaton's description of the milk-weed.

260 CLASS GYNANDRIA.

like the preceding classes, consequently, the five stamens place
it in the order PENTANDRIA. The large thick stigma has the
appearance of a germ or pericarp ; but if you pull off the stig-
ma, you will discover two pericarps under it, of a different
structure from that of the stigma ; perhaps you will never meet
with a stigma in any other flower, so large in proportion to its
other parts as in the milk-weed. The anthers are pressed
close to the side of the stigma by the valves or scales, and the
glutinous pollen probably is absorbed by it ; by which means
the seed is fertilized, as in cases where the pollen is a dry pow-
der. The manner in which either kind of pollen operates upon
the stigma, is totally inexplicable ; we know nothing more of
the subject, than that no seed is ever perfected without it, in
any species of vegetables."

No farther remarks on the character of this plant could be
of use, after the clear and plain description just given ; you will
have no difficulty in procuring specimens of this plant for analy-
sis ; a variety of species are in flower in June and July.

The Apocynum or dogsbane, with some other genera which
were formerly placed in the 5th class, are now classed here.
Hexandria.

The 6th order contains the Virginia snake-root (ARISTOLO-
CHIA serpentaria)fO. perennial plant, with brown fibrous roots ;
it is found in shady woods, from New England to Florida : the
root is highly valued in medicine ; it possesses an aromatic
smell, somewhat similar to spruce. It is said to have been
found, by a chemical analysis, to contain "pure camphor, a re-
sin, a bitter extractive, and a strong essential oil."* It was
used by the Indians as a remedy for 'the bite of a snake ; from
this circumstance is derived its name. This plant has medical
properties unlike the POLYGALA senega, or Seneca snake-root,
and the mistaking one for the other might, in critical stages of
disease, be attended with fatal consequences. f
Decandria.

In the 10th Older we find the wild ginger (ASARUM) ; this is
a native plant, so low that its flowers are almost concealed in

* Rafinesque's Medical Flora.

t A physician prescribed for an infant the Seneca snake-root (POLYGALA
senega), as a medicine in a case of extreme sickness ; an ignorant apothecary
sent in answer to the prescription, the Virginia snake-root (ARISTOLOCHIA
serpentaria). The physician had fortunately remained to inspect the medicine
•which he had ordered, and the mistake was seasonably discovered ; this in-
stance shows the importance of botanical knowledge, particularly in those
who attempt to deal in medicine ? had the mother of the child understood
botany, the mistake would have been discovered although the physician had
not been present.

Order Hexandria — Virginia snake-root — Seneca snake-root — Wild ginger.

CLASS MONCECIA. 261

the ground ; the roots are creeping and aromatic, having the
taste and smell of the snake-root (Aristolochia).

We have now finished a review of the class Gynandria ; al-
though many species of it are native to this country, you will
not so readily procure specimens of this as of most other native
plants. The ladies' slipper, milk-weed, and dogsbane, you
can often find, but many of the plants of this family, particu-
larly the Orchis tribe, opposing all attempts at cultivation, are
to be found only in the depths of the forest, or places little fre-
quented by man ; we may, in this respect, compare them to the
aboriginal inhabitants of America, who seem to prefer their
own native wilds to the refinements and luxuries of a civilized
life.

LECTURE XXXVII.
CLASS XIX. — MONCECTA, AND XX. — DICECIA.

IN all the classes hitherto examined, we have found perfect
flowers, that is, those which presented the two important or-
gans on which the artificial system is founded. In the first
ten classes, we had only to count the stamens to determine the
class, and the pistils to ascertain the order.

In the two next classes, we observed whether the stamens
grew upon the calyx or the receptacle, and as before, counted
the styles to ascertain the order.

In the two next classes, each having two orders, we were
guided by the comparative length of the stamens, and certain
appearances of the seeds, in one class, and of the seed vessel
in the other.

We next found two classes, where connexion of stamens by
means of filaments was the essential character, and whose or-
ders depended upon the number of stamens.

In the great class of compound flowers, we regarded chiefly
the circumstance of united anthers ; the orders being founded
upon certain circumstances relative to the little flowers (florets),
which compose the whole flower.

The class which was the subject of our last lecture, present-
ed us with the stamens in a new situation ; viz. growing out
from the pistil, and the orders were reckoned according to the
number of these strange looking stamens, each one of which in
general is formed of two masses of glutinous pollen.

Our present inquiry is to be directed to two classes, in which

Concluding remarks— Recapitulation— Two classes now to be considered.

262

CLASS MONCECIA.

the flowers are imperfect, or both stamen and pistil are not found
in the same individual flower. The stamens are infertile, and
disappear without any fruit; the pistils contain the germ, and
when fertilized by the pollen, produce the fruit.

Class MoncBcia.

Fig. 123.

The class Monoecia (one house),
contains plants where, upon the same
root, we find some flowers containing
only stamens, others only pistils. The
orders in this class are determined by
the number of styles or pistils.

Monandria.

In the first order is the Bread-fruit tree ( ATROCARFUS), which
grows to the height of forty feet, having fruit of an enormous
size, hanging from its boughs like apples ; it is a native of the
East Indies, and much valued for food.

This plant belongs to the third class of Jussieu's method.

Triandria.

In the third order we find a very common plant, called cat-
tail (TYPHA), this grows in swampy meadows, and in stagnant
waters, often to the height of four or five feet. The long,
brown and hard spike which grows at the summit of the stem
(giving rise from its peculiar appearance to the name Cat-
tail), is the catkin; it contains in the upper part, the staminate
flowers, having neither calyx nor corolla, the 3 stamens arising
from a chaffy or hairy receptacle. The pistillate flowers form-
ing the lower part of the spike, produce each a seed supported
in a kind of bristle. This plant is sometimes used by the
poorer class of people for beds, but is considered by physicians
as unhealthful on account of the properties inherent in its
substance.

The sedge or CAREX, is a numerous genus, of which nearly
100 species have been discovered in North America. It is a
grass-like plant, but separated from the family of grasses,
which are mostly of the 3d class, on account of the monoecious

Class Monoecia, orders— Bread-fruit— Order Triandria— Cat-tail— Sedge or
Corei.

ORDER PENTANDRIA. 263

character of its flowers. The study of this genus alone, might
occupy years ; a treatise upon it, called Cartography,* has
been lately published by an American botanist. *f

The Indian corn (ZEA mays), is found in tfiis order. The
top or pannicle, consists of staminate flowers only, a'nd of
course never produces corn; the pistillate flowers grow in
a spike, enclosed in a husk ; each pistil produces a seed
called corn ; the pistils are very long, forming what is called
silk.

Tetrandria.

The 4th order contains the Mulberry-tree (MoRus), of the
same natural order as the nettle, having leaves rough, and
flowers destitute of beauty.

Pentandria.

The 5th order contains the genus AMARANTHUS, in which is
a very common weed, seeming to have some analogy to the
pig- weed, not only in natural properties, but in being dignified
with a name which forms' a striking contrast with its mean ap-
pearance.

This genus, however, contains some elegant, foreign species, ;
one of which, AMARANTHUS melancholicus, has received the
whimsical name of Love-lies-bleeding; probably from the
circumstance of its long, spiral, red flower-stalks, bending over,
often reclining upon the ground. Another species called
Prince's feather, is always erect. The Cock's-comb is a well
known plant of this genus.

The Amaranth, whether from its being a good word to fall
in with poetical measure, or from some fancied intrinsic beauty,
has ever been a favourite with poets. Milton says of the
angels, assembled before 'the Almighty;

•" To the ground,

With solemn admiration, down they cast

Their crowns, inwove with Amaranth and gold ;

Immortal Amaranth, a flower which once

In Paradise, fast by the tree of life,

Began to bloom, but soon for man's offence,

To Heaven removed.

With flow'rs that never fade, the spirits elect

Bind their resplendent locks, enwreathed with beams."

In Portugal and other warm countries, the Globe Amaranth
is said to be used for adorning the churches in the winter.

*From Carex, caricis. t Professor Dewey.

Indian corn — Mulberry — Amaranthus — Different species of the Amaranthus.

264 CLASS MON(ECIA.

•%•-•' >

Polyandria.

This order contains many of the most useful and beautiful
of our forest trees, forming a group or family called Amentacea ;
this was described under the 15th class of Jussieu's method.
Fig. 123, represents a branch of the Corylus (Hazel-nut) ; at
a, is the aments or catkins formed wholly of staminatc flowers;
at £, is a bract or scale of the ament with adhering stamens ;
at c, are the pistillate flowers surrounded with scales ; at d, is
a pistillate flower, having two styles.

The oak, beech, walnut, chesnut, birch, &c. bear their
staminate flowers in nodding aments ; their pistillate flowers
are surrounded with scales for calyxes. These trees are dis-
tinguished by woody, exogenous stems, and perennial, branch-
ing roots.

This order contains the genus CALLA, of which we have
some native species, and which includes the elegant exotic,
CALLA etJtiopica, or Egyptian Lily. In this genus, the flowers
having neither calyx nor corolla, grow upon that kind of recep-
tacle which is called a spadix ; the staminate and pistillate
flowers are intermixed, the anthers have no filaments, but are
sessile or fixed upon the receptacle ; the berries are one celled,
many seeded, and crowned with a short style. This spadix
thus covered with the fructification, stands erect, surrounded
by a spreading, ovate spatha ; this, in the Egyptian Lily, is of
a pure white, presenting a very showy appearance. Without
attention to the structure of the plant, you would probably sup.
pose the spatha to be the corolla ; the leaves are sagittate or
arrow form.

Fig. 124.

J

The CALLA palusirisf a
very common American plant,
is represented at Fig. 124 ; at
a, is the spatlia, which is ovate,
cuspidate and spreading ; at bt
is the spadix covered with the
fructification, the staminate and
pistillate flowers being inter-
mixed and uncovered ; at c, is
a pistil magnified, showing the
c style to be very short and the
stigma obtuse ; at d, is a stamen
bearing two anthers.

* From poZiwter, signifying swampy, or growing in marshy places.

Order Polyandria— Amentace«— Genus Calla— Calla ethiopica— Calla pe-
lustris.

ORDER MONADELPHIA. 265

The Wild-turnip (Arum), is nearly allied to the Calla ; they
belong to the family Aroides, which are distinguished by pecu-
liar characteristics ; such as their mode of inflorescence,
fleshy and tuberous roots, and large, sword-shaped or arrow-
shaped leaves.

The arrow-head (Sagittaria), is unlike most of the Monoe-
cious plants in general appearance ; it has a three leaved calyx
and three white petals, and is not unlike the Spider's-wort in
the form of its flowers. Many species of this very delicate
looking plant may be found in autumn, in ditches and stagnant
waters.

Monadelphia.

The 15th order, in which the filaments are united in a
column, presents us with the Cucumber tribe (Cucurlitacecz) ;
these include not only the proper CUCUMIS, which is an exotic,
but some native genera, of similar plants ; we find here the
gourd, squash, watermelon, and pumpkin. These plants have
mostly a yellow, 5 cleft corolla, calyx 5 parted, 3 filaments
united into a tube, a large berry-like fruit, called a Pepo ; this,
in the melon, is ribbed, and in the cucumber uneven and warty.
We find in the same artificial order a very different family of
plants, called Coniferous, or cone bearing plants ; these have
the staminate flowers in aments, each furnished with a scale or
perianth supporting the stamens ; the pistillate flowers are in
strobilums, each furnished with a hard scale. The stems are
woody, the leaves evergreen, and the juice resinous. To this
natural family belong the pine and cypress.

The character of trees may be studied to advantage at four
different seasons : in winter, when the forms of the ramification
can be seen in the naked boughs, and the leaf and flower buds
examined in their inert state ; in spring, when in blossom ; in
summer, when the foliage is in perfection ; and in autumn,
when, during the first stages of decay, the mellowness and
variety of tints afford beautiful subjects for the pencil of the
painter, and the investigation of those who love the study of
nature under all her forms.

Aroides — Arrow-head— Order Monadelphia — Cucumber tribe — General cha-
raeter — Cone-bearing plants — Best periods for studying trees.

23

266

Fig. 125.

CLASS DIGECIA.

Class Diacia.

The class Dicecia (two houses), has
staminate and pistillate flowers on separate
plants. The distinction with regard to
the orders, as in the preceding class, is
derived from the number of stamens.

There are no plants of the first order.

Diandria.

The 2d Order contains the willow (SALIX), which has long
and slender aments, both of staminate and pistillate flowers,
the two kinds being on separate trees.

The order TRIANDRIA contains the fig (Ficus), remarkable
for containing the flower within the fruit, which is botanically
considered as a juicy receptacle, within which are concealed
the minute flowers and seeds. The fig is peculiar to warm
countries.

TETRANDRIA contains a parasite plant, the Misletoe ; but
one species is indigenous to this country. The Druids* consid-
ered this plant as sacred to the sylvan deities. Tradition re-
lates, that, where Druidism prevailed, the houses were decked
with this plant, that the sylvan spirits might repair to them.

The order PENTANDRIA contains the hemp, hop, &c. Fig.
125, represents the pistillate and staminate flowers of the hemp
(Cannabis sativa) ; at a, is the barren or staminate flower, con-
taining five stamens, and having its calyx deeply five parted ;
the corolla is wanting. At £, is a fertile or pistillate flower
with its calyx opening laterally ; c, shows the same flqwer
divested of its calyx ; the seed is a nut, which is crowned
with two styles. The hemp belongs to a family called Urtices
(from Urtica a nettle) ; the fibres of its stems are manufac-
tured into cloth, cordage and thread. The hop produces its
fertile flowers in large cones formed of membranous, imbrica-

* The Druids, it is supposed, derived their name from drus, a Greek word
signifying oak, as it was in groves of this tree that the priests celebrated their
mysterious rites, and sacrificed human victims to their sanguinary deities.

Claaa Dioecia— Willow— Misletoe— Hemp— Hop.

ORDER OCTANDRIA.

267

ted scales ; these flowers have a peculiar odour, which is said
to produce a narcotic effect upon the brain. The use of the
flowers of the hop in beer are well known. This plant con-
tains a small portion of the nitrate of potash (saltpetre).

HEXANDRIA, contains the honey-locust and green briar.

OCTANDRIA, has the poplar, (POPULUS), similar in natural
character to the willow. Several intermediate orders occur
before we arrive at the 15th order MONADELPHIA ; here we
find the red cedar and the yew, which belong to the cone
bearing family, with the pine and cypress.

We have now completed our remarks upon two classes which
have imperfect flowers. Our review of these has been brief,
when compared to the many interesting facts which presented
themselves in association, with the various important plants
which we have passed in rapid succession ; but this very mass
of matter has compelled us to dwell less upon particular facts.
We have now but one more class to investigate, in order to
complete our view of the Linnaean system.

LECTURE XXXVIII.
CLASS XXI. — CRYPTOGAMIA.

Fig. 126.

THE twenty preceding classes in-
elude the Phenogamous plants; we
are now to consider the Cryptogamous
class ; we here find the stamens and
pistils either wholly concealed frcyn
observation, or manifest only upon the
strictest scrutiny. These plants con-
stitute the first class of Jussieu, called
acotyledonous ; their seed being desti-
tute of any cotyledon.

As we enter upon this last of the Linnasan classes, we shall
find all our former principles of arrangement to fail us, and it
might almost seem as if we had entered upon a new science.
The class Cryptogamia includes all plants which do not find a
place in some of the other classes.

Ferns, mosses, lichens and mushrooms constitute the princi-
pal part of this class. At Fig. 126, a, is a fern, of the genus

Order Hexandria — Octandria — Monadelphia — Cryptogamia.

268

CLASS CRYPTOGAMIA.

Asplenium, which bears its fruit on the back of the leaves or
fronds ; at b, is a moss of the genus Hypnum, showing two of
its flowers borne on slender pedicels or stems ; at c, is a genus
of the Lichen family ; at d, is the Agaricus, one of the most
common of the mushrooms.

Some writer has said, that Linnaeus, having arranged the
plants which would admit of classification, took the remainder
and cast them all into a heap together, which he called Cryp-
togamous ; he did not, however, rest satisfied in thus throwing
together the refuse of the vegetable world ; but subdivided this
miscellaneous collection into orders ; or we might more properly
say, that he gave names to those divisions already marked out
by nature.

Of these orders, which are natural families brought together
on account of general resemblances and analogies, without re-
ference to any one principle, there are six.

Filices, or FERNS.

The 1st order contains the Ferns ; their plume-like leaves
are called fronds. The fruit, mostly disposed in dots or lines,
grows on the back, summit, or near the base of the leaf or
frond. You may here see (Fig. 127) a delineation of some of

Fig. 127.

the various modes in which the fructification of ferns appears ;
(a) genus POLYPODIUM or polypody, with capsules in roundish
spots on the back of the frond ; (b) ASPLENIUM, capsules in.
lines nearly parallel, diverging from the centre of the frond ;

Orders marked out by nature — Ferns — Modes of the fructification of ferns.

ORDER MUSCI. 269

(c) BLECHNUM, capsules in uninterrupted lines running parallel
to the midrib of the frond on both sides ; (d) PTBRIS or brake?
capsules forming lines on the edge of the leaf.

Some ferns bear their fruit in a peculiar appendage, as a
spike or protuberance in the axils, or at the base of the leaves ;
no appearance of flowers is ever presented. When the brown
or white dust-like spots are examined with a microscope, they
are found to consist of clusters of very small capsules, at first
entire, but afterwards bursting elastically and irregularly.
Besides attention to the situation and form of the capsules, it is
necessary to observe the membrane which envelopes them ;
this is called their involucrum. The seed is as minute as the
finest powder, and so light as to be wafted by the air to any
distance or height ; we thus often see ferns growing high on
the trunks of trees, or on the summits of old buildings. Some
ferns grow to a great height in southern latitudes, almost like
trees. At the southern extremity of Van Diemen's Land, a
species has been found, whose trunks attained to the height of
twelve or sixteen feet. One species in our country, ONOCLEA
sensibiiis, called the sensitive fern, is said to wither on being
touched by the human hand, though the touch of other sub-
stances does not produce any similar appearances.

The number of species of ferns which are already known,
amounts to about seven hundred. They generally abound in
moist and shady situations, but are sometimes found on rocks
and dry places and on the trunks and branches of old trees.
The frond or leaf of the fern is often pinnate, or divided like a
feather ; sometimes it is undivided and resembles a palm-leaf.

The EQUISETUM hyemale is known to housekeepers under
the name of scouring rushes. The quantity 'of silex contained
in the cuticle renders it a good substitute for scouring sand.

Musci, or MOSSES.

The 2nd order contains the mosses, which are little herbs
with distinct leaves, and often a distinct stem ; their conical,
membranous corolla is called a calyptra or veil, its summit
being the stigma ; this veil clothes the capsules, which, before
the seed ripens, is elevated on a fruit stalk. The capsule is
of one cell, and one valve, opening by a vertical lid ; the seeds
are very numerous and minute. In some genera the veil is
wanting, which serves as a distinction in the order. The bar-
ren flower of mosses consists of a number of nearly cylindrical,
almost sessile anthers ; the fertile flowers of one pistil, seldom
more, accompanied by several barren pistils. Both stamens

Sensitive fern— Number of species-AVhere they generally
ing rushes — Mosses.

33*

270

CLASS CRYPTOGAMIA.

and pistils are intermixed with numerous succulent threads.

You may here observe (Fig. 128) the different parts of mosses ;

Fig. 128.

a, represents the capsule ; 6, the pedicel or stem ; e, the sheath,
which, before the pedicel grew up, served as a kind of calyx,
to protect the embryo fruit ; d, the operculum or lid, which,
before the capsule is ripe, is covered by the calyptra ; e, the
calyptra, or veil ; f, the fringe or teeth, which, when the cap-
sule is ripe, and has thrown off its other parts, often appear
around its edge^ g, the barren or staminate flower of a moss.

The mosses are generally perennial and evergreen, and
capable of growing in colder climates than most other vegeta-
bles. In Spitzbergen, the rocks which rise from the surround-
ing ice, are thickly clothed with moss. A botanist who tra-
yelled in Greenland, counted more than twenty different spe-
cies without rising from a rock where he was seated.

The parts of the mosses which have been described are not
seen without the assistance of a good microscope. It is not to
be expected that young botanists will be fond of this depart-
ment of the science, although those who become acquainted
with it, discover much enthusiasm in its pursuit. The follow-
ing interesting remarks on Cryptogamous plants are taken
from an English writer.

« Mosses and Ferns, by the inconsiderate mind, are deemed
an useless or insignificant part of the creation. That they are
not, is evident from this, that He who made them has formed
nothing in vain, but on the contrary has pronounced all his cre-
ation to be good. Many of their uses- we know ; that they
have many more which we know not, is unquestionable, since
there is probably no one thing in the universe, of which we
can dare to assert, that we know all its uses. Thus much we
are certain of, with respect to mosses, that as they flourish

Explain Fig. 128 — Mosses capable of enduring cold — Microscope necessary
in examining moss es— Remarks of an English writer.

ORDER HEPATIC^. 271

%

most in winter, and at that time cover the ground with a beau-
tiful green carpet, in many places which would otherwise be
naked, and when little verdure is elsewhere to be seen ; so at
the same time they shelter and preserve the seeds, roots, germs,
and embryo plants of many vegetables, which would otherwise
perish. They furnish materials for birds to build their nests
with, they afford a warm winter's retreat for some quadrupeds,
such as bears, dormice and the like, and for numberless insects
which are the food of birds and fishes, and these again the food
or delight of men. Many of them grow on rocks and barren
places, and by rotting away, afford the first principles of vege-
tation to other plants, which never else could have taken root
there. Others grow in bogs and marshes, and by continual
increase and decay, fill up and convert them into fertile pas-
tures or into peat bogs, the source of inexhaustible fuel |to the
polar regions.

" They are applicable also to many domestic purposes. The
Lycopodiums are some of them used in the dyeing of yarn, and
in medicine ; the Sphagnum (peat moss), and Polytriclium fur-
nish convenient beds for the Laplanders, and the Hypnums
are used in the tiling of houses, stopping crevices in walls,
packing brittle wares, and the roots of plants for distant con-
veyance.

" To which may be added, that all in general contribute
entertainment and agreeable instruction to the contemplative
mind of the naturalist, at a season when few other plants offer
themselves to his view.

" The Fungi have been suspected by some to be, like spon-
ges and corals, the habitations of some unknown living beings^
and being alkaline, have been classed in the animal kingdom ;
but they are known to produce seeds, from which perfect plants
have been raised ; and the celebrated Hedwig, by great dex-
terity of dissection, and by using microscopes of very highly
magnifying powers, assures us that he has discovered both
stamens and pistils, not only in this order of plants, but in the
other orders of the Cryptogamous family."*

Hepaticce, or LIVERWORTS.

The 3d order contains the Liverworts, which are more suc-
culent or juicy than the mosses ; they have^four valved cap-
sules, which circumstance, and that of tbe capsule not opening
with a lid, distinguish them from the mosses. Their name,
Hepaticse, signifies liver ; but it is not yet known whether
* Thornton's Botany.

Various uses of the mosses— Fungi— Liverworts—Derivation of the name

J72 CLASS CRYPTOGAMIA.

they received that name on account of some supposed virtue
in curing diseases of the liver, or whether it was because they
were thought to resemble the lobes or divisions of the liver.
One of the most common genera of this order is the Junger-
mannia ; you may here see (Fig. 129) a species of this, the
tomplanata, with its parts as represented under a magnifier.

Fig. 129.

(a) A plant of natural size in fruit. (6) The fruit magnified,
showing the sheath, the peduncle rising from it, and the cap-
sule at top not yet burst, (c) The capsule splitting and dis-
charging the seeds, (d) The capsule empty, showing its four
valves.

AlgCB, Or SEA WEEDS.

The 4th order includes the sea weeds and frog spittle ; these
have leathery fronds, with fine dust-like seed, enclosed in in-
flated portions of the frond. They are almost always aquatics,
generally green or reddish. One genus of this family is the
Fucus (in the plural Fad) ; these plants with some others of
this order, swim on the waters of the ocean. The FUCUS na-
t&nsy sometimes called the gulf- weed, is very abundant in the
Gulf of Florida >; and is found in various parts of the ocean,
forming masses or floating fields, many miles in extent. The
plant seems to possess no distinct root, though it perhaps origin-
ally vegetated on some sea-beaten shore, from whence it was
by accident thrown upon the ocean's wave.

The Fucus giganteus is said to have a frond of immense
length ; from whence its specific name, signifying gigantic.

Sea weeds— Fuel— Gulf weed.

ORDER LICHENES.

273

You are here presented (Fig. 130) with a delineation of three
kinds of Fuci. (a) Fucus nodosus (knobbed fucus), this has

Fig. 130.

forked fronds. The knobs which appear in the fronds, are air-
bladders, which render it peculiarly buoyant upon the water.
This is often more than six feet long, (b) Fucus vesiculosus
(bladder fucus) ; here the air-bladders are mostly axillary, and
at the sides of the mid-rib. It varies in length from one to
four feet. On account of its mucilaginous property it forms a
good manure ; and in some of the countries of Lapland it is
boiled with meal, and given for food to cattle, (c) Fucus ser-
ratus has a beautiful, serrate or notched frond.

The Fuci, on burning, afford an impure soda called Jeefy.

Lichenes, or LICHENS.

The 5th order contains the LICHENS ; these are various in
texture, form and colour; they are leathery, woody, leaf-like,
white, yellow, green and tilack. When wet, they often appear
like green herbage ; some appear on stones or old fences and
buildings ; others with strong green filaments, are suspended
from branches of trees and improperly called mosses. The
fruit of the lichen consists of tubercles, or saucer-like bodies,
in which the seeds are contained ; this may be seen in the

Delineation of three kinds of Fuci— Kelp— Lichens— Of what the fruit
consists.

274 CLASS CRYPTOGAMIA.

following delineation. Fig. 131, a, represents, a lichen of a
Fig. 131.

leaf-like appearance ; here the saucer-like bodies in which the
leaves are imbedded are very apparent. b, is a lichen resem-
bling a drinking glass, c, is the rein-deer moss, furnishing
almost the sole food of that useful animal, so important to the
existence of the Laplander. In the middle of Europe it grows
only to the height of two or three inches ; but in Lapland it
sometimes attains to the height of one foot and a half.

Many of the lichens are useful on account of their colouring
matter. Litmus, which is so common as a chemical test for
acids and alkalies, is obtained from a species of white lichen,
called Orchal or Archil, this is also used for giving a crimson
colour to wool and silk ; and the powder called cudbear, used
for dyeing purple, is obtained from lichen. The order Lichen
has sometimes been included under one genus called lichen,
and placed in the order Alga.

Fungi, or MUSHHOOMS.

The 6th order contains the Mushrooms, or fungus plants ;
these never exhibit any appearance of green herbage ; they aro
generally corky, fleshy, or mould-like, varying much in form
and colour. The fruit of some is external, of others internal.
They are often of very quick growth and short duration, henco
the expression which is often ironically made, " a character of
mushroom growth," when a person has suddenly acquired
consequence. The genus Agaricus, which contains the com-
mon eatable mushroom, has a convex, scaly, white head, called
a pileus ; this is supported on a stalk called a stipe. On the
under surface of the pileus or cup, are seen many flesh-colour-
ed membranes called gills. These gills in the young state of
the mushroom, are concealed by a wrapper called a volva,

Explain Fig. 131— Uses of the lichens— Order Mushrooms.

ORDER FUNGI. 275

which is considered as a kind of calyx. As the mushroom be-
comes older, the volva bursts and remains upon the stipe, while
the pileus, released from its confinement, extends upwards, and
exhibits an uneven appearance upon its edge, caused by its
Fig. 132. separation from the

volva. Fig. 132
represents the most
important parts of
the mushroom ; a,
the gills running
from the stipe to the
circumference, un-
der the pileus. ft, a
young mushroom,
with the pileus of a
globular form, and
not separated from the volva. c, the volva or wrapper, burst-
ing and separating from the pileus so as to exhibit the gills
beneath, d, part of the volva remaining upon the stipe in a
circular form, and called annulus or ring.

" If the mushroom be left for a time on a plate of glass, a
powder will be found deposited ; this is the seed or organic
germ. That these are capable of germination is evident tti
cultivators, who now form mushroom beds, by strewing the
decayed plants on prepared beds of manure."*

A species of the genus Agaricus, is common in Italy, and
much valued for food ; it is of a fine red and orange colour ;
the ancient Romans esteemed it as a great luxury. The genus
Boletus contains the touchwood or spunk, which is sometimes
used as tinder. The LYCOPERDON contains the puff-balL

It is not to be expected that you will go into a minute inves-
tigation of the Cryptogamous plants ; they are probably the
least understood of all the visible works of nature. Philoso-
phers have asserted that some of this race do not belong to the
vegetable, but to the animal kingdom ; having discovered in-
sects in mushrooms, they say that like the sponge and the co-
rals, these should be classed among animal productions. Few,
however, at present, entertain this belief; and the fact of their
having been raised from seed sprinkled on the earth, proves
them to be of vegetable growth. A curious field of inquiry
presents itself in the consideration of the difference between
animal and vegetable life. This we shall hereafter partially

*NuttaU.

Explain Fig. 132— Mushrooms capable of germination — Different genera —
Opinions of some philosophers respecting the Cryptogamous plants.

276 CLASS CRYPTOGAMIA,

examine ; not, however, expecting to decide upon subjects which
lie hidden from the researches of finite beings ; but the rather
to show you, that the " ways of the Almighty are unsearcha-
ble, and past finding out !"

After what has been remarked upon the difficulty of analy-
zing the plants belonging to the Crytogamous class, you will
not need to be discouraged, should you be baffled in your at-
tempts to investigate them. It is well for mankind that there
are philosophers, whom the enthusiasm of scientific pursuits
will lead to spend years, even a whole life, in searching into
the fructification of a moss or mushroom ; or in examining
into the natural history of an ant or a spider ;* as thus, dis-
coveries are continually brought forward, which add to the
general stock of knowledge. This is a kind of martyrdom in
the cause of science to which but few seem called, by the
powerful impulses of their own minds. Females, in particu-
lar, are not expected to enter into the recesses of the temple
of science ; it is but of late, that they have been encouraged
to approach even to its portals, and to dare to glance upon the
mysteries within.

S We have now completed our view of the vegetable world,
according to the order in which the different tribes of plants
have presented themselves. As we followed in the train of
classification, we have endeavoured to notice the most con-
spicuous, and to trace their natural relations, as well as their
artificial arrangement.

In many cases, departing from the plan of general remarks,
we have traced the natural history of some one genus, believing
this method more likely to make a permanent impression, than
merely general views. When we read the history of nations,
we often feel less interested in the fate of a whole people, than
in that of some prominent individual : if the imagination is
presented with general ideas only, it has no opportunity of
fixing itself upon any single circumstance in order to create a
lively picture in the mind. The same remark may apply to
natural history. When you now look back upon the view just
taken of the vegetable world, and examine what impressions
are most lively in your minds, you will probably find them to
be respecting some peculiarities of individual plants. Of this
tendency of the mind we should avail ourselves, by connecting
these particular impressions with facts which lead to general

M have been gravely assured by a naturalist of distinction, that the study
of spiders is one of the moat elegant and delightful of all pursuits.

Enthusiasm of sonic naturalists— View of Classification completed — General
ideas make little impression on the mind — Tendency of the mind to generalize.

CLASS CRYPTOGAMIA. 277

principles. Narrow indeed, would be our mental vision, were
it to be confined to single unconnected observations, laid up
indiscriminately in the storehouse of thought ; but our minds,
not by our own will, but by a faculty received directly from
our Creator, instinctively generalize and arrange their mass of
single observations ; and we almost without an effort, perform
that operation in the world of thought within us, which the
great Linna3us effected in the vegetable kingdom.

PART IV.

LECTURE XXXIX.

THE FLOWERING SEASON OF PLANTS.
Vernal and Summer Flowers.

ON entering the fourth division of our course, we find before
us an open field, freed, in a great measure, from the technicali-
ties of science, and presenting a smooth and delightful path.
Hitherto, we have been clearing our way through difficulties,
and overcoming obstacles ; first, we were obliged to learn to
analyze plants according to the strict rules of botanical science ;
next to examine the organs of plants, with their anatomy and
physiology ; we then investigated the principles of classifica-
tion, as exhibited both in the natural and artificial methods,
and followed the arrangements of plants as presented in these
different methods.

The language of botany is now familiar to you, and you
may enjoy the pleasant reflection, that by your own industry
and application, you have elevated your mind to that state, in
which it may with little farther effort enjoy the pleasant views
of the vegetalle kingdom which now present themselves.
Thus the traveller, having toiled to gain some acclivity, looks
complacently around, enjoying the beautiful view before him,
in proportion as he has made efforts to attain it.

We will now suppose the dreary season of winter, yielding
to the gentle influences of spring, and organized nature
awaking to new life and beauty ; for animals, no less than
plants, seem vivified and quickened by the returning warmth
of this delightful season. How many, wandering through
life " with brute, unconscious gaze," have never made the
inquiry, " what causes Spring ?" With the greater part of
mankind the ordinary phenomena of nature excite no interest ;
it is only when something unexpected occurs, that they think,
either of first or second causes. But it is the main object of
your education to teach you to reflect, to seek the connexion

Remarks introductory to the fourth part— What causes spring ?

VERNAL FLOWERS. 279*

between causes and effects ; and especially to look through
second causes, to the Great Being who is the First Cause of
all ; " himself, uncaused."

But to return to the question, " what causes Spring ?" or to
state it in another form, by what means does the Almighty
produce the changes which this season presents ? To answer
this, we must refer to astronomical geography, which, pointing
out the course of the sun, shows us that having journeyed to
his utmost southern boundary, he returns, crosses the equator,
and with rapid strides advances towards the northern hemis-
phere, beaming more directly upon us, and increasing the tem-
perature of the atmosphere ; to chemistry we owe our know-
ledge of the effects of caloric on bodies ; physiological botany
shows us the sap or vegetable blood expanding by the influence
of caloric, and every exhaling and inhaling organ of the plant
commencing operations under the same powerful influence.
The earth, released from the icy bonds of frost, turns kindly
to the mute, but living children of its bosom, and imparts the
maternal nourishment, which, rushing through every fibre of
the vegetable being, invigorates it with health and strength.

From the first appearance of vegetation in the spring, until
the commencement of winter, nature presents an ever varying
scene. The phenomenon of the flowering of plants,* is in
many respects, similar to that of the putting forth of leaves ;f
in both, the same causes either hasten or retard this period.
The putting forth of leaves, and the blossoming of flowers,
differ however in one circumstance ; the leaves begin by the
upper leaf buds ; the flowers by the lower flower buds ; stipes,
panicles, and thyrses begin to blossom gradually from the base
to the summit. Cymes and umbels blossom from the outside to
the centre.

In plants of the north, transported to the south, the period
of the putting forth of leaves and blossoming is hastened ; in
those of the south, carried to the north, it is retarded. Even
in their native soil, this period varies in some degree in differ-
ent seasons. With greater warmth of temperature, we have
an earlier appearance of vegetation ; yet in general, this vari-
ation is so slight, that botanists are able by observation, to fix
with a sufficient degree of accuracy, the time of the flowering
of plants in particular latitudes and climates.

The progress of vegetation varying little from Latitude 40°
to 43° north, the remarks that we make on this subject, may

* This is called florescentia. . t Foliation.

Changes in vegetation— Putting forth of leaves and blossoming of flowers
agree in some respects, differ in others— Plants of the north transported to the
south, and the reverse— Remarks on the progress of vegetation ; to what extent
of country applying.

280 FLOWERING OF PLANTS.

apply to that region of country extending south to the mouth
of the Hudson, north to the mouth of the Mohawk, eastward
to the Atlantic, and westward to the Pacific Ocean.

In Ohio, and the western part of New York, the climate, on
account of the influence of the lakes, and the cold, eastern
winds from the Atlantic being broken by ranges of mountains,
is milder, and vegetation is somewhat earlier than in New
England in the same latitude.

In some cases, a plant puts forth leaves and blossoms at the
same time ; but usually, the leaves appear before the flowers,
probably having a greater force to draw up the sap than the
flowers, in which it rises by slow degrees. We see little ap-
pearance of vegetable life as early as March ; sometimes
snow covers the ground nearly or quite through the month ;
but if we examine the trees and shrubs, even then, we may
perceive that they have already felt the vivifying influence of
heat, by the swelling of their buds, and that a little increase
of temperature will cause the embryo flower, or leaf, to burst
its prison and come forth.

Vernal Flowers.

In April, the leaves of trees and shrubs begin to put forth ;
a few flowers show themselves, amid the damp chilly atmos-
phere with which they are surrounded ; among the most inter-
esting of these harbingers of spring is the HEPATICA triloba,
or liver-leaf; a lowly, modest flower, of a pale blue colour,
with beautifully formed three-lobed leaves.

The low anemone (ANEMONE nemorosa*), with its pale blos-
soms, is now found in shady woods and damp pastures.

Among the blossoms now to be seen are most species of the
poplar, a plant in the class Monaxia, having stamens and pistils
on separate plants. The salix, or willow, is of the same class :
this genus includes the weeping willow, or SALIX tristis^
sometimes called Salix Babylonica, in allusion to a beautiful
passage in the psalms, which represents the children of Israel
when carried into captivity, as sitting down by the waters of
Babylon to weep, and hanging their harps on " willow trees
that withered there."

Among the forest trees now in blossom, are the maple and
the elm ; in the meadows and moist grounds, the yellow cow-

*Thi8 little flower I have seen raising its head amid surrounding snows, on
the banks of the Poesten kiln, a romantic little stream which flows into the
Hudson, near Troy.

t Tristis (Latin) signifies pensive or sad.

Vegetation in March— Flowers of April.

VERNAL FLOWERS. 281

slip (CALTIIA palustris^ a fine example of the class Polyan-
dria ; and the adder's tongue (ERYTHRONIUM dens-canis^
having a beautiful liliaceous flower, which affords a good ex-
ample of the class Hexandria.

In woods, and by the sides of brooks, is to be seen the San.
guinaria or blood- root ; which bears a white blossom, more
elegant and ornamental for a garden, than many flowers which
are brought from foreign countries, and affording from its root
a highly valuable medicine.

The CLAYTONIA, or as it is often called, spring beauty, is
also to be found at this season ; the dandelion too, you well
know is found among the earliest flowers of spring. The
garden violet, which is an exotic, appears also at this time ;
the VIOLA rotundifolia, or yellow violet, with roundish leaves
lying close to the ground, is found in the fields. Besides these,
are found several species of Carex, a coarse kind of grass ;
the trailing arbutus, EPIGEA repens, and the TRILLIUM, which
we remarked under the class Hexandria, as a flower exhibiting
great uniformity in its divisions.

In May, many species of the Viola appear ; there is some-
times a difficulty in determining between these species ; the
distinctive marks seem often to be blended ; we are in such
cases obliged to place our plant' under that species, to which in
our judgment, it seems to have most resemblance.

One of the most interesting flowers of this season, found in
woods and meadows, is a species of ANEMONE, the Windflower
(virginiana), a name, given as some say, because the flower
expands only jn windy weather ; its petals are large and
usually white, the stem grows to the height of two or three
f6et, and contains one terminal flower. Several other species
of the Anemone are in blossom about this time.

The Xylosteum, or fly-honey-suckle, may be found by the
side of brooks, a shrub with blossoms growing in pairs ; also
the UVULARIA, a plant of the lily family having a yellow
blossom ; and the strawberry, with its numerous stamens
growing on the calyx ; it has also many styles, each one bear-
ing a seed.

The ARONIA, is an early flower, a species of which, the
shad-blossom, is not unfrequently found in April ; this is a
shrub, often growing upon the banks of brooks, with white
petals, clustering together in the form of a raceme.

Many of the mosses are now in blossom ; these, we trust,
you have learned to consider as presenting much that is inter-
esting, to those who understand their structure ; but you will

Dandelion, &c.— Flowers of May— Viola— Anemone, &c.— Mosses now in
bloom.

24*

282 FLOWERING OF PLANTS.

not be called on to examine the mosses in the commencement
of your botanical studies, neither will they be likely to force
themselves upon your notice. You no doubt were surprised to
learn that they have flowers, and are considered as of any
importance ; but you must recollect that they are the work-
manship of His hand, who is no less wise in the formation of a
moss, than in the creation of a world. It is to be hoped you
have learned to look upon every work of God as important,
and to feel that our ignorance of the uses of many natural
productions, is not a proof that the Creator has formed aught
in vain, but of our own blindness.

The ARUM, or wild-turnip, is now in blossom ; it is a curious
plant, with the stamens and pistils growing on a spadix, a club-
shaped organ surrounded by a spatha ; it is found in shady
places. The root is valuable in medicine. The CALLA pa-
lustris, or water arum, which is placed in the same class, is
now in bloom ; this is of the same genus as the Egyptian lily.

The AQUILEGIA, or wild columbine, with its horned necta-
ries, is found hanging in rich clusters from the clefts of rocks.

Flowers of Summer.

The plants which are now in blossom are so numerous, that
we can mention only a few of the most common, or most
striking.

A well known shrub, the elder (SAMBUCUS), is now found
along the sides of hedges, or on the margin of brooks, and in
the meadows ; the RUBUS, or raspberry, the RANUNCULUS, or
butter-cup, the CYNOGLOSSUM, or hound's-tongue, and the
TRIFOLIUM, or clover. It is recorded in history, that when
Saint Patrick went as a missionary, to preach the Gospel to
the pagan Irish, " he illustrated the doctrine of the Trinity, by
showing them a trifolium, or three-leaved-grass with one stalk ;
this, operating to their conviction, the Shamrock, which is a
bundle of this grass, was ever afterwards worn upon this Saint's
anniversary, to commemorate this event."

In the meadows is seen at this time the GERANIUM macula-
turn^ a showy flower, and almost the only American Geranium ;
in the woods, the splendid ladies'-slipper (CYPRIPEDIUM), and
the wild mandrake (PODOPHYLLUM), a flower of curious ap-
pearance.

The genus CONVALLARIA, of which the Solomon's-seal is an
example, may now be found ; it is usually white, of a funnel-
form corolla. Some other species, as the lily of the valley,

Wild turnip, &c.— Flowers of June— Elder, &c.— St. Patrick's use of the
Clover — Geranium, &c. — Trees in perfection.

AUTUMNAL FLOWERS. 283

have a bell-form corolla. The various species of VACCINITJM,
of which the whortleberry is an example, are now in blossom ;
the woods are ornamented by the snowy white cornus, or dog-
wood flowers.

In the early part of June the foliage of the trees usually
appears in perfection ; among the earliest are the willow,
poplar, and alder ; next are the bass-wood ; horse-chesnut, the
oak, beech, ash, walnut and mulberry, which are not all usually
in full leaf before the middle of June.

At the summer solstice,* a new race of blossoms appears ;
as the roses, pinks, and lilies, with many other exotics. The
Iris is found in stagnant waters and in gardens. Among na-
tive plants we now find the ASCLEPIAS, or milk-weed, afford-
ing a good example of the class Gynandria. The little bell-
flower (CAMPANULA), may be seen nodding over the brows of
the rocks.

The brilliant laurel (KALMIA), is now in bloom, also the
mullein, affording a good illustration of the class Pentandria.
The climbing virgin's-bower (CLEMATIS), hangs in graceful
clusters of white flowers from the boughs of shrubs and trees.
The curious side-saddle-flower (SARRACENIA), which was de-
scribed under the class Polyandria, is now to be found in
swamps and wet grounds.

More flowers are in blossom about the time of the summer
solstice, than during any period of the year, until the blossom-
ing of the autumnal plants. The hot breath of summer seems
to wither the expanded flowers, the earlier ones fade away,
and the late ones do not immediately come forward ; it would
seem as if the earth, having poured forth for so long a time in
rapid succession, innumerable treasures, now required a sus-
pension of her efforts ; but with recovered energy, she soon
begins to spread forth new beauties in great profusion and
brilliancy.

LECTURE XL.

Autumnal Flowers. — Evergreens. — Ancient Superstition re-
specting Plants. — Various Phenomena of Plants.

THE autumnal flowers, are, mostly, in appearance, unlike
those which we find in the earlier part of the season. Few

* When the sun is at the tropic of Cancer.

Blossoms appearing at the summer solstice — What effect does the heat of
summer have upon flowers — Autumnal flowers.

284 FLOWERING OF PLANTS.

examples' of the compound flowers occur, until the latter part
of July and beginning of August ; this is fortunate for stu-
dents just commencing the analysis of plants ; were they to
find only the compound flowers at first, they would be discour.
aged in the commencement of the study ; but nature seems
kindly to lead them on step by step, reserving the more difficult
plants until they have had an opportunity of becoming familiar
with the easier classes.

There is little difficulty in learning to distinguish the differ-
ent families of compound flowers ; as an aster from a solidago,
or a helianthus. But some of these families contain many
species ; and the chief difficulty consists not in finding the
genus, but in determining the species with accuracy. Indeed
it is not to be concealed that there is in this part of botanical
science some confusion among writers ; and we must not be
surprised if we are not always able to bring our plant exactly
under any species described.

Among the fine flowers which autumn presents, are the
scarlet LOBKLIA, or cardinal flower; the yellow GERARDIA
(false fox-glove), and the noble sun-flower (HcliarTthus). The
modest LINN.EA borealis, so named from the great founder of
our present artificial system of Botany, is found in September;
at this time the white pond lily (NYMPILEA), one of the most
splendid of American flowers, is seen whitening the surface
of the lakes and ponds, sometimes alternating with yellow
water lily (NUPIIAR), a flower of less striking elegance than
the former, but perhaps not less curious in its form.

Another aquatic plant, which, although it blossoms in sum-
mer, continues in flower until late in the autumn, istheS.viaT-
TARIA, or arrow-head, with a three-leaved calyx, having white
petals, staminate and pistillate flowers on the same root ; it be-
longs to the class Moncecia. The Eupatorium, or thorough-
wort which blossoms in autumn, has no external beauty to re-
commend it, but as a remedy in diseases,, perhaps no plant is
more useful.

In remarking the few flowers which linger until the ap-
proach of winter, we see the hardy dandelion, which, although
one of the earliest, is also among the latest of the vegetable
tribes. We see among the last blossoms of the season, some
compound flowers which seem for a time to bear the autumnal
blasts, but "which gradually give way to the reign of winter,
leaving the desolate 'fields and meadows to present but a
gloomy contrast to their former verdant and glowing appear-
ance.

Are they proper for first lessons in analysis — Which is most difficult to as-
certain, the genus or species 1 — Various flowers of autumn — Last flowers of
the season.

ANCIENT SUPERSTITIONS. 285

Evergreens.

During the season of winter in our climate, no flowers ap-
pear, except on such plants as are shielded from the inclem-
ency of the weather ; even the green house plants can scarcely
be made to blossom.

The leaves of the trees, and the stems of all annual plants,
are also decayed ; some hardy evergreens yet retain their
cheerful verdure. At Christmas, v the foliage of the pine,
spruce, and the beautiful running or ground pine (LYCOPODIUM),
belonging to the family of Ferns, are found in perfection, ready
to welcome the anniversary of our Saviour's birth.

The custom of decorating churches with evergreens, is of
very ancient date. On this subject an English writer observes,
" The evergreens, with which the churches are usually orna-
mented at Christmas, are a proper emblem of that time when,
as God says by the Prophet Isaiah, ' / will plant in the wilder-
ness the cedar, and the myrtle, and the olive tree ; I will set in
the desert the fir tree and pine tree, and the box tree together.'
And in another place, l The glory of Lebanon shall come unto
thee ; the fir tree and the pine tree, and box together, to beautify
tJie place of my sanctuary ; and I will make the place of my feet
glorious.' '

In the Romish church, which abounds in external observan-
ces of religion, it is customary to bear palm boughs in proces-
sion on the anniversary of the day when Christ went into Je-
rusalem, and the children strewed branches of palm trees be-
fore him. In more northern latitudes, box, pine, olive, and
willows are used as a substitute for real palms, which do not
grow as in Judea, by the way sides. The day on which this
ceremony is performed is called Palm Sunday.

Superstitions with regard to the blossoming of plants.

In the Romish church, many superstitions exist with regard
to certain plants which happen to blossom about the time of
some Saint's days. In Italy and other countries in the south
of Europe, where these superstitions first originated, the dead-
nettle being in blossom about the time of St. Vincent's day, a
martyr who suffered for Christianity under the Emperor Dio-
desian, in the year 304, the flower is consecrated to him.

The winter hellebore is usually in blossom about the time of
the conversion of St. Paul, supposed to be in commemoration
of that event.

What flowers appear in winter — Decorating churches with evergreens —
Palm Sunday — Superstitions in the Romish church with regard to the blos-
toming of certain plants.

286 FLOWERING OF PLANTS.

The Crocus was dedicated to St. Valentine, as it appears
about the period of that Saint's day, which is regarded as pecu-
liarly sacred to affection ; St. Valentine is recorded to have
been eminent for love and charity. One species of daisy ap-
pears about the time of St. Margaret's day ; this is called in
France, La Belle Marguerite, and in England, Herb Margaret.

The Crown Imperial blossoms in England about the 18th of
March, the day of St. Edward, King of the West Saxons ;
nature thus, as was' imagined, honouring the day with a royal
flower.

The Cardamine, or our Lady's flower, distinguished for its
pure white, is dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

The Mary-gold, so called from a fancied resemblance of the
florets of its disk to rays of glory, is also consecrated to the
Virgin.

On the day of St. George, the patron saint of England,
the 'blue bells, there called field hyacinth, tinge the meadows
and pastures with their deep blue colour ; they are thought to
afford an emblem of the empire of the ocean, over which Eng-
land assumes the rule.

The St. John's- wort blossoms near that saint's day. The
scarlet Lychnis, called the great candlestick, or candle ( CAN-
DELABRUM ingens), was supposed to be lighted up for St. John
the Baptist, who was a burning and a shining light. The
white lily expands about the time of the annunciation, afford-
ing another coincidence of the blossoming of white flowers at
the festivals consecrated to the mother of Christ. The roses
of summer are said to fade about the period of St. Mary Mag-
dalen's day.

The passion flower is said to blossom about Holy Rood day.
Allusions tcr this day being frequently found among writers of
former days, it may be well to in form you that according to the
legends of the Romish church, the cross on which our Saviour
was crucified was discovered in the year 326, by Helena, the
mother of Constantino, who is said to have built a church on
the spot where it lay. The word Rood signifies the Cross ;
thus this day is the day of the Holy Cross.

It was during the middle ages, when the minds of men were
influenced by the blindest superstition, that they thus imagined
every operation of nature to be emblematical of something
connected with their religious faith. Although these supersti-
tions are trifling and absurd, they are interesting as connected
with the annals of the human mind, and as showing us the ori-
, gin of many names of plants. Had the superstitious monks

During the middle ages men imagined the operations of nature connected
with their peculiar religious tenets — Ignorance of the monks and nuns.

PHENOMENA OF PLANTS. 287

and nuns, who were the authors of these conceits, and at that
time the most learned part of the community, been possessed
of as much knowledge as most children in our country, they
would have known that plants bloom earlier or later, accord-
ing to various circumstances of climate ; and that a flower
which in Italy blossoms as early as February might not ap-
pear in England before April ; while the day of the Saint
which the flower was supposed to commemorate, would occur
at the same time in both places.

Phenomena of Plants, arising from changes in the atmosphere.

Plants exhibit some phenomena which are supposed to
arise from the state of the atmosphere ; accurate observers of
nature have made remarks upon these changes in plants, as
preceding certain changes of weather. Lord Bacon, who
was remarkably attentive to all the appearances and changes
of natural objects, is the author of the following observations.

" Chickweed (Anagallis). When the flower expands boldly
and fully, no rain will happen for four hours or upwards : if it
continues in that open state, no rain will disturb the summer's
day ; when it half conceals its miniature flower, the day is
generally showery ; but if it entirely shuts up or veils the
white flower with its green mantle, let the traveller put on his
great coat, and the ploughman, with his beasts of draught,
expect rest from their labour.

" Siberian Sowthistle (Sonchus). If the flowers of this plant
keep open all night, rain will certainly fall the next day.

" Trefoil (Hedysarum). The different species of trefoil
always contract their leaves at the approach of a storm : hence
these plants have been termed the Husbandman's Barometer.

" African Mary-gold. If this plant opens not its flowers in
the morning about seven o'clock, you may be sure it will rain
that day unless it thunders.

" White tliorns and dog-rose bushes. Wet summers are
generally attended with an uncommon quantity of seed on
these shrubs, whence their unusual fruitfulness is a sign of se-
vere winter."

Beside the above, there are several plants, especially those
with compound, yellow flowers, which during the whole day,
turn their flowers Cowards the sun, viz. to the East in the morn-
ing, to the South at noon, and to the West towards evening.
This is very observable in the sowthistle, Sonchus arvensis ;
and it is a well known fact, that a great part of the plants in

Various phenomena of plants — Lord Bacon's observations — Changes of
flowers indicating changes of weather — Plants which turn towards the sun.

288 PHENOMENA OF PLANTS.

a serene sky, expand their flowers, and as it were with cheer-
ful looks behold the light of the sun ; but before rain, they shut
them up, as the tulip.

The flowers of the chick-wintergreen (Trientulis) droop
in the night, lest rain or moisture should injure the fertilizing
pollen.

One species of woodsorrel, shuts up or doubles its leaves be-
fore storms and tempests, but in a serene sky expands or unfolds
them, so that husbandmen can foretel tempests from it. It is
also well known that the sensitive plants, and cassia, observe
the same rule.

Besides affording prognostics of weather, many plants fold
themselves up at particular hours, with such regularity as to
have acquired names from this property. The following arc
among the more remarkable plants of this description.

Goatsleard. The flowers of both species of Tragopogon,
open in the morning at the approach of the sun, and without
regard to the state of the weather, regularly shut about noon.
Hence it is generally known by the name of go-to-bed-at-noon.

The Princesses' leaf, or four o'clock flower (Mirabilis), in
the Malay Islands, is an elegant shrub, so called by the natives,
because their ladies are fond of the grateful odour of its whito
leaves. It opens its flowers at four in the evening, and does not
close them till the same hour returns in the morning. Many
people transplant them from the woods into their gardens, and
use them as a dial or clock, especially in cloudy weather.

The Evening Primrose (CEnothera), is well known from its
remarkable properties of regularly shutting with a loud popping
noise, about sunrise, and opening at sunset. After six o'clock,
these flowers regularly report the approach of night.

The tamarind tree, the water lily (Nymph&a), the mary-
gold, the false sensitive plant, and several others of the Dia-
delphia class, in serene weather expand their leaves in the day
time, and contract them during the night. According to some
botanists, the tamarind tree enfolds within its leaves, the flowers
or fruit every night, in order to guard them from cold or rain.

The flower of the garden lettuce, which is in a vertical
plane, opens at seven o'clock, and shuts at ten.

" A species of serpentine aloes, without prickles, whose large
and beautiful flower exhales a strong odour of the Vanilla dur-
ing the time of its expansion, which is very short, is cultivated
in the imperial garden of Paris. It does not blossom until to-
wards the month of July, and about five o'clock in the evening,
at which time it gradually opens its petals, expands them,

Plants which hang their heads at night and in storms — The Go-to-bed-at>>
noon — The four o'clock — Evening Primrose.

HABITS OF PLANTS. 289

droops and dies. By ten o'clock the same night, it is totally
withered, to the great astonishment of the spectators, who flock
in crowds to see it.

" The cereus, a native of Jamaica and Vera Cruz, expands
an exquisitely beautiful flower, and emits a highly fragrant
odour, for a few hours in the night, and then closes to open no
more. The flower is nearly a foot in diameter, the inside of
the calyx of a splendid yellow, and the numerous petals are
of a pure white. It begins to open about seven or eight
o'clock in the evening, and closes before sunrise in the
morning.

" The flower of the dandelion possesses very peculiar means
of sheltering itself from the heat of the sun, as it closes entirely
whenever the heat becomes excessive. It has been observed
to open in summer at half an hour after five in the morning,
and to collect its petals towards the centre about nine o'clock."*

Linnaeus has enumerated forty-six flowers which possess this
kind of sensibility : he divides them into three classes.

1. Meteoric flowers, which less accurately observe the hour of
folding, but are expanded sooner or later, according to the
cloudiness, moisture, or pressure of the atmosphere.

2. Tropical flowers, that open in the morning, and close before
evening every day, but the hour of their expanding becomes
earlier or later, as the length of the day increases or de-
creases.

3. Equinoctial flowers, which open at a certain and exact hour
of the day, and for the most part close at another determi-
nate hour.

LECTURE XLI.

Habits of plants. — Agents 'which affect their growth. — Their
habitations, and geographical situations. — Elevation corres-
ponding to latitude.

THE constitution of plants and that of animals seems to fit
them for particular climates, and for digesting food of a certain
kind. The plant cannot, like the animal, rove about in search
of food best suited to its nature, but, fixed in one spot, must
receive the nourishment that there offers, itself. If this nou-

* Bacon.

Night- blooming Cereus, &c. — Meteoric flowers — Tropical — Equinoctial —
The constitution of plants fitted for particular climates.

25

290 HABITS OP" PLANTS.

rishment is too abundant, the vessels becoming loaded with
excess, cease to perform their accustomed functions, and the
plant dies of surfeit ; if on the other hand the food offered is
too little, or not sufficiently nourishing, the plant dies of star-,
vation.

Yet plants may be brought to live in climates, and on food
not naturally suited to their constitutions ; or in other words
their habits may be changed. Although we may suppose that
many things now necessary to our comfort and even our lives,
are rendered so by nature ; yet if we reflect a moment we shall
see that very many of our own wants are the result of habit.
Did you never see the children of poor parents running about
in the snow with bare feet, and apparently much more healthy
than the little master or miss whom a servant must carry to
school, for fear the winds of heaven may visit them too roughly ?
Why does this difference exist between individuals of the same
species ? It is owing to habit. Thus we may see lingering
almost upon the verge of a northern winter, the nasturtion ; but
the same temperature which it bears without injury, would at
once destroy those of the same species which have flourished
only beneath a tropical sun.

In changing the habit of a plant, or, as it is frequently termed,
naturalizing it, the temperature is the principal thing to be
considered ; although the soil and the quantity of moisture
should be rendered as similar as possible, to those of its native
habitation.

Plants from warm climates are gradually accustomed to a
lower temperature by placing them in hot-houses, then in
green houses, and lastly in the open air. While the plant is
going through with this* kind of disci pline, an opportunity is
afforded of observing the kind of soil most favourable to its
growth, the quantity of moisture which it requires, the degree
of light which seems necessary, and the kind of exposure as to
wind which appears most favourable.

Plants vary much in their susceptibility of naturalization.
The horse-chesnut, which is now common in the middle and
northern United States, was originally brought from the tro-
pical regions. In these regions, however, it usually grows in
grounds somewhat ahove the level of the sea, and therefore its
habit, as to temperature, renders it in some degree fitted for
more northern countries. Orange and lemon trees cannot
be brought to bear the roughness of our climate, without some
protection.

Remarks on their habits — Temperature considered in the naturalization of
plants — Observations necessary in the process — Plants vary in susceptibility
•f naturalization.

HABITS OF PLANTS. 291

In many cases perennial plants, by this change of climate,
are converted into annual ones ; that is, as if fearing the in.
clemencies of a cold winter, they pass through their successive
stages of existence with rapidity, and accomplish in one summer
what they had been accustomed to require years to perform.
The nasturtion was originally a shrub, flourishing without cul-
tivation on the banks of the Peruvian streams ; yet transferred
to this country it is an annual plant, which completes its term
of existence in a few months.

The habits of some plants are with difficulty subdued ; and
it is by slow removals that they can be made to grow in foreign
situations. Rice by a slow progress has advanced from Caro-
lina to Virginia, and it is now cultivated in New Jersey. The
habits of Indian corn, aided by climate and culture, have suf-
fered a still more remarkable change. After having been for
several years raised in Canada, it arrives to perfection in a
few weeks, and on that account is employed by us as an early
corn ; but that which has been long cultivated in Virginia, will
not ripen in a New England summer ; yet, originally, the early
corn of Canada and that of Virginia were the same, both in
habit and other properties.

Agents which affect the growth of plants.

Of the various substances by which vegetables are nourish-
ed, water is thought the most important. Some plants grow
and mature, with their roots immersed in water, without any
soil ; most of the marine plants are of this description.

Atmospheric air is necessary to the health and vigour of
plants ; if a plant is placed under a glass into which no air can
enter, it withers and dies.

Most plants are found by analysis to contain a certain por-
tion of salts, such as nitre, and muriate of soda,* or common
salt. It appears that the root absorbs them from the soil, by
which it is nourished.

No plants can grow without some degree of heat, though
some require a greater portion of it than others.

Plants may be made to grow without light, but they will not
exhibit the verdure, or any of the properties of health. The
atmosphere, which is contaminated by the respiration of ani-
mals, is restored to purity by the vegetation of plants ; but se-
cluded from light, vegetables are no longer capable of convert-
ing a portion of the fixed air to their use, or of supplying the
atmosphere with the oxygen, on which its importance in sup-

* According to modern chemistry, chloride of sodium.

Some plants change from perennial to annual — Of rice and Indian corn —
A gents which affect the growth of plants— Water — Atmospheric air— Salts —
Heat— Light.

292 HABITATIONS OF PLANTS.

porting animal life chiefly depends. By the action of light,
the carbon of the fixed air is interwoven with the texture of
the plants. The aromatic plants, the clovej cinnamon, and the
Peruvian bark, all owe their chief excellencies to the intense
light of the equatorial regions.

Habitations of Plants.

Plants are not thrown by chance over the surface of the
globe, but we perceive that the Creator has regulated their dis-
tribution according to certain fixed principles ; we find not only
a wonderful adaptation of plants to the physical necessities of
animals in general, but that they are also varied to correspond
to the peculiar wants of animals in different climates.

First, we would notice the herbs which cover the surface of
the earth ; had their stems been hard and woody, the greater
part of the earth would have been inaccessible to the foot of
man, until the vegetation was first destroyed by fire, or by some
other means. Shall we suppose that the grass and herbs which
now afford a soft carpet for our feet, came by chance to grow
thus, rather than hard and woody like the trees ? Shall we sup-
pose, too, that by chance, the prevailing colour of vegetation is
green, that colour upon which, above all, the eye rests with the
most agreeable sensations ? Suppose the grass and herbs to
have been red or yellow, and with our present organs of sight,
how painful would be the sensations excited by these bright
colours ! Instead of beholding nature with delight, we should
turn from it, and vainly seek some object on which the eye
might repose.

Woody shrubs occasionally alternate with herbs, but they are
so placed as not to offer obstructions to the foot of man ; they
often grow out of the clefts of rocks, affording a means of
climbing almost perpendicular precipices. Large trees are not
usually placed so near together as to prevent a passage be-
tween them ; their lowest branches are mostly at a height suf-
ficient to admit men and beasts under them, and thus, few fo-
rests are impenetrable.

In cold countries, whether occasioned by distance from the
equator, or elevation by means of mountains and table lands,
we find the pine, fir, and cedar, and other resinous plants, which
furnish man, during the dreary season of winter, with light and
fuel. The leaves of these trees are mostly filiform, or long
and narrow, thus fitted for reverberating the heat, like the hair
of animals, and for resisting the impetuosity of winds, which
often prevail in those regions.

In warm countries, trees present in their foliage a resource

Habitations of Plants — Herbs— Woody shrubs — Trees— Trees of cold
countries — Of warm countries.

HABITATIONS OF PLANTS. 293

from the scorching rays of the sun ; their leaves serving as fans
and umbrellas. The leaf of the banana is broad and long, like
an apron ; it has acquired the name of Adam's fig leaf. The
leaves of the cocoa tree are said to be from twelve to fifteen
feet long, and from seven to eight broad. Those of the talipot
tree are equal in size. A traveller remarks respecting the
leaves of the talipot tree, that one is capable of covering from
fifteen to twenty persons. The soldiers, he says, use it for a
covering to their tents. He remarks, that it seems an inesti-
mable blessing of Providence in a country burnt up by the sun,
and inundated by rains for six months of the year. In our
climate* during the warm season, Providence bestows upon us
a rariety of juicy and acid fruits, cherries, peaches, plums, me-
lons and berries ; nuts and many fruits are fitted for preserva-
tion during the winter, so that we are never destitute of these
bounties.

A remarkable instance of the care of Providence in provi-
ding for the wants of man, appears in what is related of a plant
found amidst the burning deserts of Africa ; the leaf of which
is said to be in the form of a pitcher, and to possess the property
of secreting moisture to such a degree as to form a quantity of
water sufficient for a draught to a thirsty person ;* the end of
the leaf is folded over the throat, as if to prevent the evapora-
tion of the fluid. f Various plants and trees, in hot regions,
furnish refreshing draughts to the thirsty traveller.

These remarks might be pursued to an extent as great as the
vastness of the vegetable kingdom, and wants of man ; we have
merely glanced at the subject of the adaptation of plants to the
wants of animal life, hoping that these few suggestions may lead
you to trace, from your own observation of the works of na-
ture, the great designing mind, which rules and governs all
with infinite wisdom and benevolence.

The earth, then, we .find to be covered with a multitude of
species of plants, differing not more by their externa-1 forms,
than by their internal structure, each endowed with peculiar
habits and instincts.

Some species seem adapted to the mountains, some to the
valleys, and others to the plains ; some require an argillaceous
or clayey soil, others a calcareous soil, or one impregnated with
lime ; others a quartzose or sandy soil, and some will only
grow where the earth contains soda or marine salts. Many

* This plant, from the general description of the leaf, would seem to be the
Sarracenia ; this, however, only grows in marshes,
t See Part I.

A plant found in the deserts of Africa— Reflection — Plants adapted to vari-
ous soils, &c.

25*

294 GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION.

plants will grow only in water ; we find here such as are pe-
culiar to the marsh, the lake, the river, and the sea. Many
plants require a very elevated temperature, some will grow
only in mild and temperate climates, and others only in the
midst of frosts and snows.

Thus every country where man is to be found has its vege-
tation. Some species, of plants, with respect to localities, are
confined to narrow limits.

A species of ORIGANUM (the tournefortii)j was discovered by
Tburnefort, in 1700, upon one single rock in the little island of
Amorgos, in the Greek Archipelago ; eighty years afterwards
the plant was found in the same island, and upon the same rock,
and has never been discovered in any other situation. Some
plants confine themselves within certain longitudes, scarcely
varying from the right to the left. The MENZIESIA pallifolia,
a species of heath confined between ten and fifteen degrees of
west longitude, is found in Portugal, Spain, and Ireland. Lati-
tude and elevation, by reason of mountains and table lands,
produce a greater variety in the appearance of vegetation than
almost any other causes.

Few plants are found to endure extreme cold. Botanists
have estimated, that at Spitsbergen1, in north latitude about 80°,
there are but about 30 species of plants ; in Lapland, in 70°,
there are 539 species ; at Madagascar, at the, tropic of Capri-
corn, there are 5000 ; and at the equator a much greater num-
ber. These estimates fall very far short of the number of
species now known, but they may give some idea of the differ-
ence in the vegetation of cold and warm climates.

Geographical situation of Plants.

Every country exhibits a botanical character peculiar to
itself. Linnaeus, in his bold and graphic language, said,* " A
practical botanist can usually at the first glance, distinguish
the plants of Africa, Asia, America and the Alps ; but it is not
easy to tell how he is able to do this. There is a certain cha-
racter of sullenness, gloom and obscurity, in the plants of Af-
rica ; something proud and elevated in those of Asia ; joyful
arid smiling in those of America ; while those of the Alps seem
hardened and ungrateful !"

In investigating the geographical situation of the vegetable

* Primo intuitu distinguit saepius exercitatus botanicus plantas Africa?, Asiee,
Americas, Alpiumque, sed non facile dicerit ipse ex qua nota. Nescis quse
facies torva, sicca, obscuris Afris ; qua? superba, exaltata Asiaticus ; qua? laota,
glabra Americanus ; qua? coarctata, indurata Alpiuis !

Some have a confined locality — Few endure extreme cW— Every couatr y
haw its own botanical character.

GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION. 295

kingdom, we see the powerful effects of light and heat. Feeble
in the polar regions, vegetation acquires strength as we approach
towards the equator, where the light of the sun is vivid, and its
heat, permanent and intense.

The centre of the frigid zone is entirely destitute of vegeta-
tion. After passing the arctic circle, we find on the borders
of the temperate zone, a few species of plants, chiefly lichens,
mosses, and ferns, also a'^ew shrubs and berries. In the heat
of a polar summer, the growth of plants is rapid ; Lapland is
the only country within this zone where any kind of grain can
be raised.

The productions of the temperate zone gradually alter in
character as we approach the tropics. Humboldt has divided
the temperate zone, with respect to productions, into three
regions ; the cold, the temperate, and warm regions. In the
cold region, grain may be raised to advantage, and berries
grow in abundance. In the temperate region, the wine grape ,
grainf and fruits of many kinds, are cultivated in their greatest
perfection. The warm region produces olives, jigs oranges
and lemons.

The variety of plants in the torrid zone is very great. Trees
are more numerous in proportion to other plants, than in the
temperate zones ; the same tribes which are there slender and
humble plants, here spread into lofty trees, many of which are
adorned by large and beautiful flowers. The richest fruits and
spices, and the most valuable medicinal plants are found here.
In ascending the mountains of the torrid zone, as the tempera-
ture varies, each section has its own distinct plants, and we find
in succession, the production of every region from the equator
to the poles.*

As the mountains of the torrid zone afford every ^variety of
climate between their base and their summit, so they are capa-
ble of producing all the vegetables of every climate ; but as
the temperature diminishes, as the latitude increases, so, gene-
rally speaking, the productions, as we proceed from the tropic
northward or southward, correspond with the elevation at
which the same plants will grow upon a mountain within the
tropics. Every plant requires other circumstances alike ; the
same mean annual temperature,f for example. The magnifi-
cent plantain tree and valuable sugar cane require a mean
animal heat of from 82 to 73 degrees ; but 73 degrees of mean

t JH? explanation of mean annual temperature, see note under vines, Lec-

ture 22.

Plants of the frigid zone— Temperate rone— Torrid zone— Production of
every region found in ascending mountains of the torrid zone.

296 , CULTIVATION OF PLANTS.

annual heat is not found beyond the 27th degree of latitude ;
consequently the plantain and sugar cane will not ripen in the
open air in a higher latitude ; and this Baron Humboldt has
found to correspond with the height of 3000 feet under the
equator. The cotton plant will not flourish without 68 degrees
of heat, which is not found beyond 34 degrees of latitude,
which corresponds with about 3600 feet of elevation at the
equator. The same reasoning applies to all other plants, with
the exceptions arising from warm v allies, moisture of air, and
richness of soil.

See Plate L

Feet.

The highest spot on which man ever trod, • ID, 400

The highest limit of the lichen plant, - 18,225

The lowest limit of perpetual snow under the equator, - - 15,730

The highest limit of pines under the equator, - 12,801

The highest limit of trees under the equator, - 1 1, 125

The highest limit of oaks under the equator, • • 10,500

The highest limit of the Peruvian bark tree, - '.', .">(><)

The lowest limit of pines under the equator, • 5,685

The highest limit of palms and bananas, 3,280

LECTURE XLII.

Plants as affected by cultivation, tyc.

You may recollect that we have before remarked upon the
permanence of species, and have observed that although they
may in some respects be varied by cultivation, yet their dis-
tinctive characters will not be wholly lost. The differences
which exist in species are expressed by the terms races, vari-
eties, and variations.

Races are those differences in a species which are of a striking
kind, and continued from the parent plant to its offspring, by
being propagated by the seed. They are produced by strewing
pollen of one species upon the pistils of another ; the seed thus
formed will produce a plant resembling both.

Varieties are a less important distinction than races ; they
are not continued by means of the seed, but produced by graft-
ing or continuation of the plant under some new circumstances.

Variations denote the slightest kinds of difference ; they
are occasioned by peculiarities of climate, soil, moisture, dry-

Elevation produces similar effects on vegetation, as distance from the equa-
tor— Permanence of species — Races — Varieties — Variations.

DEGENERATION OF ORGANS. 297

ness &c. All these terms, races, varieties and variations, are
often used indiscriminately for each other.

Degeneration or change of the organs of plants.

The organs of plants, owing to peculiar causes, often experi-
ence a metamorphosis, and instead of their usual appearance
exhibit anomalies of vegetable deformities.

We use here the term deformity, as signifying any variation
from the ordinary course of nature. The causes which pro-
duce these changes are,

1st. The adhesion of parts usually separate ; thus we often
see flowers, leaves and fruits united, and appearing double.

Some writers, among whom is the celebrated French bota-
nist, De Candolle, assert that the single petal which forms the
corolla of many flowers, as the stramonium or the blue bell, is
in reality composed of several petals which become soldered,
or cohere together before the flower expands. The same
writers consider a monophyllous calyx, to be composed of sev-
eral little leaves thus united before their developement.

2d. Changes are occasioned by a want of vigour in the
plant to bring all the parts to maturity. Some of the seeds
thus often fail for want of nourishment ; many plants which in
one flower produce several seeds, often ripen no more than
one. The horse-chesnut has six seeds, but seldom matures
more than two ; in the blossom of the oak where six seeds are
produced, but one acorn is perfected.

3d. In some cases organs appear from certain changes to be
incapable of performing their original offices, and thus exhibit
deformities ; as where a bud is formed, which for want of suffi-
cient nourishment, or some other cause, does not develppe itself
into a leaf, but forms a permanent protuberance or swelling
upon the stem. The prickly pear exhibits a thick and ex-
panded stem, which is formed of leaves imperfectly developed.
4th. The stamens and pistils through excess of nourishment,
swell out, and become petals ; all double flowers are formed
in this manner. The poppy in its natural state has many
stamens, and but fotir petals ; but you often see double poppies,
with scarcely the vestige of a stamen left ; the same change
may be observed in the rose, which naturally has but five
petals and many stamens and pistils, but in a very full, double
rose, scarcely any appearance of either stamen or pistil is to
be seen. The stamens more frequently than the pistils meet

Changes of the organs of plants— Deformities— 1st cause for the changes of
plants— 2d cause of change— 3d case in which changes appear— 4th. Double
flowers, how caused.

298 DISEASES OF PLANTS.

with this metamorphosis ; as they appear to be more intimate-
ly connected with the petals than the pistils.

5th. The petioles or foot stalks often change to leaves.
This may be seen in an Arabian plant ACACIA zilotica, which
furnishes the gum arabic. This tree at first exhibits upon one
petiole six or eight pair of leaves ; this number every year
becomes less, until all the leaves disappear ; the petiole then
retaining all the nourishment which before was distributed to
the leaves, flattens and expands, and appears in the form of a
thick leaf. The trees which we call Acacia are not of this
genus, but of the genus Robinia.

6th. The peduncles and petioles, sometimes change into
tendrils, as in the vine ; this plant at first throws out many
large leaves and clusters of flowers ; but the food not being
sufficient to support such a profuse vegetation, the new leaves
and clusters of flowers appear smaller ; the nourishment be-
coming still more scanty, at length neither flower or leaf is
developed, and the peduncle and petiole become tendrils, which
by attaching themselves to some firm bodies, serve to sustain
the rich fruit which is perfected on the flower parts of the
branch,

7th. The last change we shall notice is the transformation
of buds into thorns. When a plant forms more buds than it
can nourish, some of them do not develope branches and leaves,
but becoming hardened by the accumulation of sap, which is
insufficient for their full perfection, they exhibit the short
indurated process called a thorn. It is said that wild plants by
rich cultivation, do in time become divested of their thorns,
which change into what they seemed originally destined for,
viz. leaves and branches.

Prickles, such as may be seen upon the rose, gooseberry
and other plants, do not change by cultivation, for these are a
natural appendage, originating from the bark ; while the thorn
may be found connected with the wood, of which it seems to
make a part.

Diseases of Plants.*

The diseases of plants, for these organized beings are, like
animals, subject to disease and death, may in many cases arise
from causes within the knowledge of the attentive naturalist.

1st. We notice constitutional diseases. Of this class are

* This constitutes a department of Botany called pathology ; a term derived
from two Greek words, pathos, disease, and logos, account.

5th. Changes in petioles — 6th. Peduncles and petioles become vines — 7th.
Buds, how transformed— Prickles— Diseases of plants— 1st. Constitutional.

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 299

the varied colours of some leaves, such as the box and holly ;
this is supposed to be owing to certain juices which by changing
their elements, vary the colour of the leaf.

2d. Plants seem diseased by being subjected to too great or
too scanty a supply of food, as light, heat, water, air and soil.
Excess of light causes an escape of oxygen, and a too rapid
deposit of carbon ; the sap, incapable of sustaining so great a
degree of action, becomes exhausted, the plant withers, and
the leaves fall off. In this situation the food should be either
increased by watering or the vegetation retarded by diminish,
ing the light. Excess of heat absorbs the juices of the plant ;
deficiency of heat produces dropsy and the plant losing its
leaves ultimately decomposes. More water is evaporated by a
plant than is retained for its nourishment ; therefore the more
that is absorbed by the roots, the more should be evaporated
by the leaves.

3d. External injuries often affect the health of plants.
Rains injure the wood by penetrating through apertures in the
bark. The bark seems from its nature better fitted to bear
the action of the weather. Winds when violent are mechan-
ically destructive to vegetables ; when moderate, the agitation
which they produce is thought to be advantageous, by favouring
the descent of the cambium, and promoting a more free circu-
lation of the other juices.

Smoke is injurious to plants, it being composed of particles,
which although invisible to our sight, are yet too gross to be
absorbed by the minute pores of the leaves ; it serves there-
fore, to obstruct the pores, and prevent their exhaling the
oxygen gas which is necessary for the decomposition of the
carbonic acid and the consequent deposition of carbon.

4th. Plants sustain injuries from animals which produce
diseases. Insects in particular make their way into the bark
and external coats of the plant and deposit their eggs ; these
eggs when hatched produce larva?, which often, by their pecu-
liar juices, rot the wood. These insects are called cynips.
One kind produces the hard protuberances on trees of different
kinds, which are called gall-nuts, or nut-galls ; others which
are softer and more spongy are called apple-galls or berry,
galls. Another kind of insect, called cochineal, attaches itself
to the bark of trees, and preys upon the juices. One species
of the cochineal is of a brilliant scarlet colour and much valued
for its use in dyeing ; this species feeds on the Cactus opuntia,
a Mexican plant.

5th. Diseases are produced by plants preying upon each

2d. Light and heat — 3d. External injuries — Rains — Winds — Smoke— 4th.
Animals.

300 LONGEVITY OF PLANTS.

other, either by fastening, themselves upon their surfaces, or
by so near a location as to deprive others of their necessary
food. Parasites fasten themselves upon the surfaces of other
plants ; they are distinguished into two kinds, the false and
true parasites ; the former adheres to the plant without feeding
on its juices, as mosses and lichens. These derive their nour-
ishment from the atmosphere, but they injure the tree by har-
boring insects, and attracting moisture, which often rots the
part of the stem on which they grow. The misletoe is a true
parasite whose root, piercing the bark of trees, plants itself in
the alburnum, and absorbs food from it, in the same manner as
if it were fixed in the soil. The Pterospora is a very curious
parasite which is sometimes found upon the leaves of shrubs,*
but more frequently upon the branches and leaves of trees.
Mushrooms are of the class of false parasites. Smut is a black
fungus, which fastens itself upon the ears of oats and other grain.
The rot is a fungus excrescence which preys upon the seed ; if
seeds which have this disease fastened upon them are sown, the
rot will be propagated also. Ergot is a disease mostly confined
to rye. Rust is chiefly confined to the grasses ; both are of the
fungi family.

6th. Diseases resulting from age. Plants differ from animals
in one important circumstance ; the latter develope their organs
at once, these organs in progress of time become indurated
and obstructed, until they at length decay from old age. Plants,
on the contrary, renew themselves every year ; that is, they
form new vessels to convey the juices, new leaves to elaborate
them and new buds to produce flowers and fruits. Plants do
not, then, like animals, seem destined to die with old age; or
there does not seem to be in perennial plants any prescribed
term of existence. The producing of fruit appears to exhaust
the vital energy of the plant, in annuals in one year, in bien-
nials in two, in perennials, in a longer or shorter period ac-
cording to their natural constitution, and the quantity of fruit
which they produce. Apple trees which bear heavy loads of
fruit, are very short lived in comparison with the oak, which
perfects from each flower, but one of six seeds, and this fruit is
but a small acorn.

There are some trees now known to exist, which are supposed
to be of great age ; in the Island of Teneriffe is the DRACAENA
draco, which according to many circumstances may seem to

* A species of this genus was found in the woods east of Troy, upon the leaf
of the Vaccinium. The colour of the whole plant, consisting of two flowera,
and a kind of leaf, was that of a red rose.

5th. Parasites — 6th. Diseases resulting from old age— Aged tree*.

PARTICULAR USES OF PLANTS. 301

have some thousand years of age. In England, at Blenheim
Park, it is said, may be seen trunks of trees which shaded the
bower of fair Rosamond, and which it is supposed are not less
than a thousand years old.

At Hartford, in Connecticut, is the Charter-oak, which was a
hollow-tree in the days of James II. 143 years ago. In the
hollow of this tree was concealed the charter of the state when
the King of England, through his agents attempted to deprive
the colonists of that guarantee of their civil rights. This oak
must, at that period, have been an aged tree.

Useful Plants.

We perceive among the various species of vegetable beings,
some which seem destined only to beautify and enliven the earth ;
others, with little or no beauty, are valuable only for their
utility ; and in some instances we find utility and beauty united ;
roses, lilies, tulips, carnations, and most of the green-house and-
garden plants belong to the first mentioned class. Trees are
not only beautiful, but many of them are highly useful ; aiford-
ing fuel, shelter and shade, nuts, berries and other fruits ; their
bark is used for tanning, for medicine and spices ; and their
sap and secretions furnish sugar and various medicinal extracts.

Trees with respect to their wood, may naturally be divided,
1st, into such as have hard wood, as the oak, elm, apple, &c.
2d, such as have soft wood, as the poplar and willow. 3d,
such as have resinous wood, as the pine and fir. 4th, such as
are evergreens but not resinous, as the evergreen oak of the
south of Europe.

Hard wood is considered best for fuel ; as it contains the
greatest quantity of carbon it causes a more intense and perma-
nen,t heat ; resinous wood, containing more hydrogen, burns
with a more brilliant flame.

The fermented juice of the grape produces wine. Grain of
different kinds produces gin, whiskey, &c. Apples by their
fermentation produce cider ; this liquor, concentrated by dis-
tillation, produces brandy and alcohol. The vineyards of
Italy and France, and of some of the Atlantic islands are the
most celebrated for their wine. In America, the vine does not
flourish in the same luxuriance as upon the eastern continent.

Grasses are the palms of cold climates ; they are of the class
of monocotyledons, and have endogenous stems. . Some are
perennial, some annual ; the meadow grasses are of the former
kind. The grains, Indian corn and rice are annual. There

i ______ .

Charter-oak — Plants which are chiefly valuable for beauty — For utility —
'' Division of trees with respect to wood — Liquors produced from plants — Grasses.

26

302 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

are certain grasses which are called artificial, because they do
not spring up without cultivation ; of this kind is clover, a
leguminous plant, of the artificial class diadelphia ; Saintfoin
and Lucerne are of the same natural and artificial class.
Gramineous plants, although very important as furnishing
from their leaves food for cattle, are yet more especially use-
ful for their seeds which furnish food for man.

Some plants furnish oils, which are of important uses in
various wavs. Of the fixed and volatile oils we have already
spoken. The fixed oils are extracted from plants called
oleaginous ; they may be considered under three heads, 1st,
olive oil produced from the olive in warm countries ; 2d, nut
oil of temperate climates, as obtained from walnuts, &c. ; 3d,
oil obtained from the seed of oleaginous or oily plants, as the
flax.

Tuberous roots afford the turnip, potatoe, carrot, beet, pars-
nip, &c. which are all important articles of food.

Asparagus when young is esteemed a luxury ; the rhubarb
plant is used in making pies ; celery, onions, and even garlic,
are esteemed valuable for food and seasoning. Many of the
labiate plants, as thyme, sage, &c. are used in cookery. The
Cruciform family presents us with the cabbage, cauliflower,
turnips, &c. The Leguminous family affords beans, peas, &c.

The Cucurbitacece furnishes us with melons, squashes and
cucumbers. Umbelliferous plants present us with the aroma-
tics, caraway, coriander, &c. which are useful in medicine
and confectionary.

LECTURE XLIII.

History of Botany from the Creation of the World> to the Revival
of Letters in the reign of Charlemagne, A. D. 770.

WE propose to give an account of the progress of botanical
knowledge ; and this being closely connected with other scien-
ces, you may consider it as a general view of the progress of
natural science.

After becoming familiar with a science, the mind very natu-
rally seeks for information respecting its origin, and the pro-
gress by which it advanced from the first rude conceptions
which might have been formed, to its gradual developement
and comparative perfection.

Oleaginous plants — Tuberous roots — Asparagus, &c. — Cruciform, &c. —
Melons — Umbelliferous plants — History of botanical science — After becoming
familiar \vith a science we wish to know its history.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 303

The history of the progress of a science makes a part of
the science itself; we are interested in the various efforts of
philosophers, their experience and observations, and the trains
of reasoning by which they have arrived at those conclusions
which are the basis of science.

In botany as in the other sciences, physical wants were the
first guides ; man at first sought to find in vegetables, food,
then remedies for diseases, and lastly amusement and instruc-
tion. x

The first account of plants may be traced to the history of
the creation, by Moses. It was on the third day of this great
work that God said, « Let the earth bring forth grass, the
herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his
kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth : and it was so ; and
the earth brought forth grass, and the herb yielding seed after
his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself
after his kind ; and God saw that it was good." After this, it
is recorded that God gave to Adam every herb and every tree
bearing fruit ; the latter was for him exclusively, but to the
beasts of the earth, and the fowls of the air, and to every
thing wherein there is life, he also gave the green herb for
meat.

It is recorded that Adam gave names to all the beasts of the
field and the fowls of the air ; and Milton imagines that to
Eve was assigned the pleasant task of giving names to flowers,
and numbering the tribes of plants. When our first parents,
after* their wicked disobedience of the Divine command, are
about to leave their" delightful Eden, Eve, in the language of
the Poet, with bitter regret exclaims :

" Must I thus leave th.ee, Paradise ? thus leave

Thee, native soil, these happy walks and shades,

Fit haunt of Gods, where I had hope to spend,

Quiet, though sad, the respite of that day,

That must be mortal to us both ? Oh flowers

That never will in other climate grow,

My early visitation, and my last

At even ; which I bred up with tender hand,

From the first opening bud, and gave ye names ;

Who now shall rear ye to the sun, or rank

Your tribes, and water from the ambrosial fount ?"

The Bible, and the poems of Homer, afford us the only
vestiges of the botanical knowledge of the earliest ages of the
world.

Great advantages were afforded to the Jews for obtaining a
knowledge of plants, in their long wanderings over the face

First account of plants traced to the history of the creation — Milton ima-
gines that Eve gave names to the plants and numbered their tribes — The
Bible and the poems of Homer afford the only botanical facts known in the
earliest ages of the world.

304 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

of the earth, before they settled in Judea. When in possession
of this fertile country, they extended their intercourse with
foreign nations ; the vessels of Solomon frequented the shores
of the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the East Indian Islands.
In the Book of Kings it is said, " God gave Solomon wisdom
and understanding above all the children of the East country,
and all the wisdom of Egypt, for he was wiser than all men.
He spake proverbs and songs; he also spake of trees, from
the cedar tree that is in- Lebanon even unto the hyssop, that
springeth out of the wall ; and people from all countries came
to hear his wisdom."

The Magi, or " wise men of the east," cultivated the scien-
ces to a great extent ; but they kept their discoveries in mys-
terious concealment, in order the better to tyrannize over the
minds of the people. Their researches were in a great mea-
sure lost to the world. Greece, however, received from Asia
and Egypt the first elements of knowledge.

The philosophers of Greece, too eager to learn nature at
one glance, were not satisfied with the slow process of observ-
ation and experiment, and to ascend from particular facts to
general principles ; but they believed themselves able, by the
force of their own genius, to build up systems that would ex-
plain all phenomena ; supposing that man had in his mind, pre-
conceived ideas of what nature ought to be. This error in the
philosophy of the ancients, for a long time obstructed the pro-
gress of all science ; and it was not until laying aside this false
notion, and admittirig that the only sure method of learning
nature was to study her works, that the labours of philoso-
phers began to be followed by important discoveries.

The greater part of the ancient Greek philosophers assert-
ed, that plants were organized like animals, that they possessed
sensible and rational souls, capable of desires and fears, plea-
sure and pain. Pythagoras of Samos, who travelled in Egypt,
and was there instructed by the priests of the goddess Isis, is
said by Pliny to have been the first of the Greek writers who
composed a treatise on the properties of plants.

Seven men of the name of Hippocrates, wrote upon the
medicinal properties of plants ; but their descriptions, being
destitute of system, are vague and cannot be applied to plants
with any degree of certainty.

Aristotle, perceiving that the course taken by preceding
philosophers had not conducted them to the true knowledge of
things, partially renounced their false ideas, and rested more
upon observation and experience. In his researches he was

Solomon is said to have spoken of trees and other plants—The Magi — Phi-
losophers of Greece— Pythagoras— Hippocrates— Aristotle.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 305

favoured by Alexander, of whom he had been the preceptor.
That conqueror, in the midst of pride and the fury of passion,
still possessed the love of true glory, and a desire that his
conquests might serve to promote the improvement of the
human mind ; he allowed to Aristotle, in the prosecution of
his scientific investigations, every facility that wealth and
power could bestow.

Aristotle beiieved, that in nature there was a regular pro-
gress, from inorganized matter upwards to man, and from man
upwards to the Deity ; that beings were connected together by
certain affinities, composing an immense chain, of which the
links were all connected. Thompson seems to have had this
idea in his mind when he wrote thus :

" And lives the man whose universal eye

Has swept at once the unbounded scheme of things ?

Has any seen

The mighty chain of beings, lessening down
From infinite perfection to the brink
Of dreary nothing, desolate abyss !"

This idea of a regular chain of beings, presenting itself
with such grandeur and simplicity, has had many admirers ;
but facts do not always seem to correspond with this theory.
In the vegetable kingdom we should find it impossible to trace
a regular gradation from the oak to a moss (if we were to
make these the extremes of the chain of vegetable substances),
and say exactly in what part of the scale each family of plants
should be placed ; it would rather seem in many cases, as if
the links of the chain had been broken or disunited.

Aristotle considered plants as intermediate between inor-
ganized matter and animals. Plants, he said, are not distin-
guished from animals in being destitute of the seat of life, the
heart ; because of this, the reptiles and inferior order of ani-
mals are also destitute. Plants have no consciousness of them-
selves, or organs of sense to know what is out of themselves ;
animals possess these faculties, therefore Aristotle says they
are different. We think it would have been difficult for him
to have discovered any evidence of consciousness in the sponge,
or any marks by which it might appear that this animal sub-
stance (for such it is thought to be), has any knowledge of any
thing external to itself. However great may be the venera-
tion entertained for the opinions of Arislotle, we believe his
distinction between plants and animals will at this time find no
supporters. This philosopher published his works on natural
history about 384 years before Christ.
. Theophrastus, the friend and pupil of Aristotle, published a

Theophrastus.

26*

306 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

great number of learned works ; among others " A History of
Plants," and " The Causes of Vegetation." He treated sepa-
rately of aquatic plants, of parasites, of culinary herbs, and of
flowering plants ; he remarked upon the uses of each plant,
the place where it grew, and whether it was woody or herbace-
ous. He had no idea of genera or species ; his names were
merely local, and his descriptions generally indefinite. His
views upon the physiology of plants, were superior to his de-
scriptions of them ; he remarked upon their different external
organs ; distinguished the seed lobes (Cotyledons), from the
leaves ; gave just ideas upon their functions, and upon the offi-
ces of the root. He explained their anatomy, as well as pos-
sible, without the assistance of the microscope, which (as the
science of optics was then unknown), had not been invented.
Theophrastus seemed too much inclined to compare the struc-
ture of vegetables to that of animals ; imagining that he found
in plants, bones, veins and arteries.

Diosco rides, a physician, of Greek extraction, about the com-
mencement of the Christian era, travelled over Greece, Asia
Minor and Italy, in order to observe the plants of those coun-
tries ; his works were written in Greek ; he divided plants into
four classes, viz ; 1st, aromatic, 2d, vinous, 3d, medicinal, and
4th, alimentary or nutritious. The labours of this botanist
were of little value, in after times, on account of want of method
in his descriptions. He gave the nann-s ami properties of 600
plants, but having no idea of species or genera, his work was
but a chaos of facts, which were so imperfectly expressed as to
render it impossible to apply them to use.

The elder Pliny, who lived in the reign of Nero, treated of
the history of plants, but he neglected nature, and derived his
science from the works of his predecessors. False systems of
philosophy seemed to fetter the noblest minds, and prevent their
pursuing those methods of investigation which would have led
to a true knowledge of nature. The genius of Pliny was vast
and active ; he consecrated to scientific researches and literary
works, the leisure which public duties left him. His " History,
of the World," which was a compilation of all the knowledge
of the ancients, upon the subject of natural history, the only
one of his writings which has escaped the ravages of time and
barbarians, is but a small portion of his labours. He is con-
sidered faulty in recording both truths and errors, often
transmitting them without observation or criticism, and some-
times favouring absurd traditions ; but his work is justly ad-
mired for the greatness of its plan, which embraced the whole
of nature, for the elegance of its style, for the wonderful art

Dioscorides — Pliny.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 307

with which the highest considerations of practical philosophy
are associated with natural history.

In the year 79 after Christ, Pliny fell a sacrifice to his desire
of knowledge ; in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, wishing to
contemplate as near as possible so sublime a spectacle, he
perished, suffocated by the sulphureous exhalations.

Galen, in the 2nd century, wrote upon the medicinal quali-
ties of plants, but gave no descriptions. The love of the sciences
seemed, in the prosperous days of Rome, to be extinguished ;
the " Mistress of the world," corrupted by victories, and by
tyrants, had abandoned herself to luxury. The false philoso-
phy of the vanquished Greeks reigned in the schools of victo-
rious Rome, chasing away every trace of true knowledge.
Religious fanaticism had also its influence ; Christians and
Pagans destroyed libraries, and the monuments of literature,
sacred and profane.

At this time the barbarians of the north and west, precipita-
ted themselves upon a country weakened by effeminacy. Italy,
ravaged by the Huns and the Vandals, became successively
the prey of the Heruli, of the Goths and Vandals. These
people, nursed in war, abhorred the sciences and arts, believing
they enervated courage, and they allowed not their children
to cultivate them.

The Latin ceased to be the common language, but a corrupt
mixture of barbarous languages took its place ; the population
was. greatly diminished ; the country, formerly fertile and cul-
tivated, became sickly marshes and overgrown forests, inhabited
by wild beasts.

In this dark period botany shared the fate of the other scien-
ces. The monks, strangers to the first elements of literature,
and yet passing for the lights of their age, spoke in a barbarous
language of the plants of Theophrastus and Pliny, commented
upon writings they were incapable of comprehending, and
mingled with their errors respecting facts, the most shameful
superstitions.

LECTURE XLIV.

History of Botany, from the eighth century to the discovery of
America.

THE state of science was thus gloomy in the empire of the
West, when Charlemagne, a monarch endowed with a genius

Galen — The false philosophy of the Greeks received at Rome— Barbarians
ravage Italy — Language corrupted — Botany shared the fate of other sciences.
— Charlemagne.

308 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

for learning and civilization in a barbarous age, vainly endea-
voured to re-light the torch of human knowledge.

The renown of Charlemagne extended to Asia ; he entered
into a correspondence with the famous Caliph of the Saracens,
Haroun Alraschid, a man who greatly contributed towards
polishing and enlightening the Arabians, and who preferred the
friendship of the king of France to that of all the princes of
Europe ; for none like Charlemagne possessed a desire for in-
tellectual greatness.

After the death of Charlemagne, which took place in the
year 814, Europe became involved in still greater mental
darkness than before.

On the separation of the Roman Empire into the Eastern and
Western Empires, and the latter, weakened by luxury and
effeminacy, had fallen an easy prey into the hands of barbari-
ans, the Empire of the East, though feeble, yet preserved the
precious deposits of ancient literature ; but the greater part of
the learned, occupied with the subtleties of scholastic theology,
made no effort to enlarge the boundaries of natural science.
Religious intolerance drove from the empire many enlightened
men, who, banished by the emperor Theodosius, carried among
the Arabs the taste for Greek and Latin literature, and founded
schools upon the shores of the Euphrates, where they taught
rhetoric, languages and medicine.

The Arabs, fond of mysteries, and led by their genius and
ardent imaginations, to the cultivation of poetry and works of
fiction, seemed to have little taste for sciences which required
assiduous application and patient investigation. Under Maho-
met, urged on by fanaticism, they were the conquerors and
scourges of the civilized world. Alexandria experienced their
ruthless violence. This city, by turns the asylum and the
tomb of letters, had witnessed, under the first of the Caesars, the
destruction of the library collected by the Ptolemies ; under
Aurelian, that founded by Augustus ; under Theodosius, that
which Antony had given to Cleopatra; and for the fourth time
in possession of an immense collection of books, acquired
through her love for philosophy, this city saw her magnificent
library reduced to ashes by the victorious Saracens.

This barbarous but noble race at length became imbued with
the love of science ; a succession of caliphs, (among whom
was Haroun Alraschid, already spoken of as the friend of
Charlemagne,) by their devotion to learning, rendered Bagdad
the most enlightened city of the earth. Their learned men
began to construct maps of conquered countries, and to de-
Separation of the Roman Empire : its effects upon literature — the Arabs —
Haroun Alraschid.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 309

scribe objects of natural history ; distant voyages extended
and multiplied their commercial relations ; and mathematics,
medicine, and natural history, were cultivated with ardour.

When the Arabs had conquered Spain, they carried thither
letters and arts, and their schools became celebrated through-
out the world. In the llth century the French, Italians, Ger-
mans and English, went to them to learn the elements of sci-
ence. The Arabians preserved their superiority in the scien-
ces, at least, if not in literature, until towards the close of the
15th century. But when this people, divested gradually of
their European conquests, were at last driven from Spain into
Africa, they seemed, as if by instinct, to replunge into the sav-
age ignorance from which they had been drawn by the efforts
of a few great minds.

The Arabs had considered plants more as physicians and
agriculturists, than as botanists ; but although their descriptions
of plants were imperfect, their labours were not useless to
botanical science. They discovered many plants of Persia,
India, and China, which were unknown to the ancients. They,
however, fell into the error of dwelling more upon the works
of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, than of ob-
serving nature : almost believing nature herself must be wrong,
when she deviated from those celebrated philosophers.

The Crusades, commencing at the close of the 1 1th century,
and continuing until towards the middle of the 13th, prove the
barbarity of the times ; yet we cannot doubt that these distant
and romantic expeditions were suggested by the desire of
change, and the vague wish to see and to know new things ;
and hastened the awakening of the human mind from its long
sleep of ages.

The 12th and 13th centuries, witnessed in Italy the revival
of a taste for letters and the fine arts. The commerce of that
country was flourishing, the people made long voyages by sea,
and in the relations which they published, spoke of the vegeta-
ble productions of the countries they had visited, in such a man-
ner as excited the curiosity of the nations of Europe.

About this period, it is supposed, herbariums, or collections
of dried plants, began to be prepared. This was an important
era in botanical science ; for nature is ever true, and incapa-
ble of leading into error, while descriptions, or even drawings,
may often give false views of natural objects.

The science of botany, was not enriched by a single work of
any merit, from the fall of the Roman Empire, a period which
marked the decay of literature, until the 1 5th century. Those,

Schools of Arabs in Spain— Their labours of some use to botanical science-
Crusades— Revival of literature— Herbariums composed.

310 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

in the dark ages, who pretended to any knowledge of plants,
only quoted from the Greek and Roman writers, but they were
ignorant even of the principles of tin- lan^un^i-s in which their
works were written. In the 15th century Italy was governed
by wise princes, who were influenced by a desire to promote
knowledge among their people. They invited to their country
learned men from Greece, from whom they might learn the
language of Homer and Aristotle.

At this time the Turks threatened Constantinople, and that
capital of the empire of the East at length fell into their hands.
The literature of Greece now took refuge in Italy ; the ancient
languages were revived, and at this time translations of ancient
writers, with learned commentaries, were given. But these
labours, although exercising an important influence upon litera-
ture, were not equally fortunate with respect to the progress of
natural history. The learned writings of antiquity were accu-
rately studied, but blinded by the brilliancy of great names,
men of learning looked not upon nature ; they had yet to learn,
that without examining and comparing real objects, there can
be no solid foundation in natural history.

At the period of which we are now speaking, a physician of
Germany published some indifferent descriptions of plants, ac-
companied by a few engravings. This connexion of drawing
and botany, although the whole was badly executed, \v as con-
sidered as an important improvement in the science.

While Italy was thus a second time enriched with the litera-
ry treasures of Greece, Spain and Portugal were heeominir en-
lightened by intercourse with foreign nations. The Portuguese
extended their voyages to the western coasts of Africa, and the
Cape do Verd islands; the Cape of Good Hope was at length
discovered, and Vasco, de Gama, sailing around this cape,
• reached the East Indies. It was at this period that Christopher
Columbus discovered the NEW WORLD.

This event, so important to the old world, is to us who in-
habit this pleasant and favoured country, one of deep interest.
Ages upon ages passed on after the world was created, and
America remained, with regard to the Eastern continent, as
though she existed not. The lofty Andes raised their snowy
heads to the clouds, the majestic Amazon rolled onwards to the
Atlantic, our lakes spread out their vast expanse of waters, our
own Hudson and Connecticut received their tributary streams,
and bore them to the ocean; but to what people were these
grandeurs presented, and what had been the changes in the

Constantinople taken by the Turks, and the literature of Greece transferred
to Italy — New World discovered — What was the history of America before
this period ?

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 311

moral world, while nature had moved on in her unchanging
course ? History is silent ! But while in the old world em-
pires had heen rising, continuing for centuries stationary, and
then decaying ; succeeded and succeeded by others pursuing
the same track : were no changes going on in the American
continent? Had no mighty nations ever existed here? Had
no arts or letters been cultivated ? Had the savage Indian for
thousands of years been sole lord of one half of the world 1
And when, and how, did the first inhabitants of this continent
come from Asia, where man was placed at -his creation?
These are inquiries which naturally arise, on tracing the his-
toric page through so long a period of time, until suddenly this
new world bursts upon our vision ! But, although many specu-
lations have from time to time appeared, respecting the proba-
ble history of America, all, until its discovery by Columbus,
remains a sealed book.

LECTURE XLY.

History of Botany, from the beginning of the sixteenth century
to the time of Linnaus.

WE have now traced the progress of botanical knowledge
from the earliest periods of the world to the discovery of
America. About this time Botanic gardens began to be culti-
vated : these afforded new opportunities for investigation, by
comprehending the vegetables of all countries within such
limits as enabled the botanist to compare them ; and to watch
their growth and different stages of developement.

From the days of Theophrastus until the beginning of the
16th century, botany, instead of becoming more perfect, had
been rendered more obscure. This was not owing to want of
attention or labour, but to the false rules of philosophy which
had so long prevailed.

At length the cause of the evil seemed to be discovered.
Many writers protested against the erroneous opinions of their
times; they said, "our blind respect for the ancients is an in-
surmountable obstacle to the progress of botany. We expect
to find every where the plants of Theophrastus, Dioscorides,
and Pliny ; whereas they did not know one hundredth part of
the plants which cover the globe. The first of them never
went out of Greece ; the second left only unconnected notes,

Botanic gardens first cultivated — Botanists began to discover obstacles to
the progress of the science.

312 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

treating without order upon the medicinal qualities of plants ;
and Pliny copied these notes without comment or criticism.
We cannot apply to the plants of Germany or France, the
names under which the ancients described those of Italy,
Greece, and Asia : before studying the plants of foreign coun.
tries, we ought to know those of our own. Of what use are
disputes about the nature and qualities of species, when we are
not able to distinguish one from another. The true method of
doing this is to explore the plains, valleys and mountains, to
examine and compare the plants of our own and foreign coun-
tries. Libraries alone are insufficient to make botanists."

These reflections led to a happy revolution, not only in this
science, but in all others ; it may be called the era of true
philosophy.* Yet the principles, which were now discovered,
were not much applied to science until the time of Bacon,
Newton, Linnoeus and Locke ; and it remained for the late
Thomas Brown, of Edinburgh, to show that the human mind
itself, is subject to the same general laws of inquiry which now
regulate investigations in the physical sciences.

Up to the period of which we are now speaking, plants had
only been described in alphabetical order; about this time
some German botanists attempted a collection of individual
plants into species ; this improvement was received with much
approbation.

These species were arranged according to certain general
resemblances, or natural relations ; thus we see that natural
methods were prior to any attempts at an artificial system.

In the beginning of the 16th century, we find the names
of many who were engaged in investigating the vegetable king,
dom. Some are commemorated by the names of plants;
Leonard Fusch of Germany, by the plant Fuschsia ; Lobel,
physician to James I. by the Lobelia ; and Lonicer by the
Lonicera.

Lobel distinguished the cotyledons of seeds, and divided
monocotyledonous, from dicotyledonous plants, and attempted
to form families by grouping species according to their natural

* Lord Bacon is generally considered as having first taught the proper meth-
od of studying the sciences, viz : by ascending from facts to principles ; this is
called the method of induction. It has recently been asserted by an able
writer in one of our first American periodicals, that Bacon was not the author
of the inductive philosophy, but that he borrowed his rules of philosophizing
from Aristotle, whose real principles had for ages been misunderstood. It is to
be hoped that men of talents will not so far depart from the true rules of philo-
sophizing, as to devote that time in contending about their author, which might
be profitably applied in the application of these rules to the investigation of
truth and nature.

Era of true philosophy — Improvements of German botanists— Botanists of
the 16th century.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 313

relations. Zaluzian of Bohemia laboured to perfect the natu-
ral groups of former botanists ; he is the first of the moderns
who positively affirmed the existence of stamens and pistils in
all species of plants, and suggested the necessity of these
organs.

But, notwithstanding the labours of many learned men, little
real improvement would have been made in the science of
botany, had there not, at that time, existed some minds of su-
perior genius, who turned their attention to tracing some proper
method of classification. These were Gesner, Clusius, Ca3sal-
pinus, and Bauhin ; of the latter name were two brothers,
"both of whom are deservedly celebrated.

Gesner, a native of Switzerland, born in 1516, was of an
obscure and humble origin, but possessed of a powerful and
penetrating mind. He attempted to make a general collection
of the objects of Natural History ; he explored the Alps, and
discovered many plants until then unknown. He is distin-
guished from those who had gone before him, in his sugges-
tions that there existed in the vegetable kingdom groups or
genera, each one composed of many species, united by similar
characters of the flower and fruit. Soon after the publication
of this opinion, botanists began to understand that the different
families of plants have among themselves natural relations,
founded upon resemblances and affinities, and that the most
obvious are not always the most important. These are fun-
damental truths ; and the distinction of species, the establishment
of genera, and of natural families, seemed to follow of course
after these principles were once established.

Clusius was born in 1526 ; his parents had destined him for
the profession of law, but his decided taste for botany induced
him to abandon this profession. He was learned in the ancient
and modern languages, but his enthusiasm for natural history
induced him to lay aside every other pursuit. He travelled
over almost all the west of Europe, in order to make discove-
ries in the vegetable kingdom ; and soon excelled all the bota-
nists of the age in the knowledge both of native plants and
exotics. He had the direction of the imperial garden at Vi-
enna, and afterwards was a public professor of botany at Ley-
den. His passion for the study of plants was not enfeebled by
age or infirmities ; his enthusiasm in this science terminated
only with his life. Before his time, the art of describing
plants with precision and accuracy was unknown ; but unlike
the descriptions of his predecessors, his were neither faulty

Gesner — How distinguished from his predecessors — Clusius — the first who
proposed to divide plants into classes.

27

314 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

from superfluous terms, nor from the omission of important
circumstances.

Caesalpinus, a native of Florence, who was contemporary
with Clusius, proposed to form species into classes. The char-
acters which he employed for this purpose, were, the duration
and size of plants ; presence or absence of jloicers; the number
of cotyledons ; the situation of the seed as erect or pendant ;
the adherence of the pericarp to the seeds ; the number of
cells in the pericarp, and the number of seeds which they con-
tained ; the adherence of the calyx to the germ ; and the na-
ture of the root, whether bulbous or fibrous. This method was
too imperfect to be followed, having neither the simplicity or
the unity to render its application useful.

John Bauhin, though younger than Gesner, was his friend
and pupil ; he composed a general history of plants ; this was
a work evincing great learning and accurate investigation.
Gaspard Bauhin, the younger brother, no less active and
learned, and endowed with a still more penetrating genius,
conceived the design of a work which should contain a history
of all known plants, together with the different names which
other writers had applied to the same plant. Clusius and the
elder Bauhin had imagined something like a genus of plants,
formed by the' grouping of similar species, but Gaspard Bauhin
expressed this more decidedly in remarks upon generic distinc-
tions ; his work, the result of forty years' labour, was of great
assistance to Linnaeus, in perfecting our present system of
botany.

We find in looking back upon the labours of botanists during
the 16th century, that more had been accomplished than during
any former period ; the character of novelty and originally
exhibited in these researches, is highly creditable to those who
thus led the way in the march of improvement.

The 17th century, in its commencement, was not favourable
to the sciences. Europe was agitated by continual wars, and
the arts of peace were neglected ; but in the last part of that
age, a taste for natural history revived ; men of highly gifted
minds applied themselves to the study of botany, and many
undertook long voyages with the sole design of examining
foreign plants. Botanists were astonished at the great number
of interesting plants discovered by travellers, in the region of
South Africa, around the Cape of Good Hope, and in the East
India Islands.

At this period the plants of our own country began to excitf

Ceesalpinus — Characters employed by him in the formation of classes — The
Bauhins — Retrospect of the 16th century — Commencement of the 17th cen-
tury—Last part of that age.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 315

the curiosity of scientific Europeans. Among the number of
voyagers to America, was a Roman Catholic Priest, Plumier,
celebrated for his mathematical and botanical knowledge ; he
made three voyages, and gave drawings and descriptions of
more American species than any other traveller had done.

We now find many who were distinguished by their efforts
in the cause of science, but a notice of each individual would
carry us beyond our limits, and prevent that clear conception of
the state of the science, which attention to a few conspicuous
facts may produce.

Botanists now began to observe the stamens and pistils of
plants ; it was suggested that the science would remain imper-
fect as long as species and genera were undefined. Orders
and classes also were recommended. Natural resemblances
and affinities were studied. A work was written upon the
umbelliferous plants ;* it was the first attempt at describing in
one mass, any single group of plants by characters peculiar
to the whole. This was followed by several attempts to form
a natural method of classification ; among the most approved
of these methods was that of Ray, who published a work
called " A General History of Plants ;" in this he divided all
plants into 33 classes, 27 of which were composed of herbs,
the rest of trees.

The first botanist who thought of classing plants without
any reference to their being either herbs or trees, was a Ger-
man, of the name of Rivinius, who proposed to consider as
the foundation of classification, the absence or presence of flow-
ers ; tJie manner in which they were situated, or their inflores-
cence ; the number of petals ; the regular or irregular form of
the corolla ; the adherence or non-adherence of the calyx to the
germ ; the nature of the pericarp ; the number of seeds ; and
of cotyledons.

A botanist of the name of Magnol, at this time was honour-
ed by having his name given to the splendid Magnolia, an
American plant, which then began to be known in Europe.

Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, was born in 1656. While
very young, he discovered an enthusiastic fondness for botani-
cal pursuits ; he had been destined, by his friends, for a pro-
fession ; but his genius seemed so strongly bent upon the study
of nature, that he was at length permitted ,to indulge without
restraint in his favourite pursuits. He ranged over the Alps

* The author of this was Robert Morrison, a Scotchman. These monogra-
phies or descriptions of single families, are now of great value ; no botanist
can thoroughly investigate the whole vegetable kingdom, but by close attention
to one department, important discoveries may be made.

Various improvements in botany—Ray— Rivinius— Magnol— Tournefort,

316 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

and Pyrenees, and many provinces of France, collecting the
flowery treasures offered by those fertile regions; often in
peril from banditti, and exposing his life to hazards in climbing
terrific precipices, or amidst the glaciers of the mountains.

The method of Tournefort,* which was founded upon the
form of the corolla, although imperfect, greatly assisted the
progress of that botanist who stands unrivalled in this depart-
ment of Natural History. You do not need to be told, that
we here refer to Linnaeus.

You will observe that the attempts of botanists, until this
time, had been chiefly directed towards the attainment of some
proper method for the arrangement of plants ; the attention
of some investigating minds was now turned towards their
Anatomy and Physiology. Since the days of the first Greek
naturalists, these departments of botanical science had lain
neglected ; but the confused opinions of the ancients now
served to suggest experiments, which resulted in new observa-
tions and solid discoveries.

The invention of the microscope threw light upon the myste-
ries of nature, which, without this instrument, must ever have
remained in obscurity ; by its assistance botanists studied the
internal structure of vegetables ; they described the heart,
woody and pith; they perceived the newly formed bud, yet in-
visible to the naked eye ; the future plant existing in the bulbous
roots, and even in the seed; pores were discovered, which
were found to be the organs of the expiration and inspiration
of gasses, thrown out as noxious, or inhaled as nutritious.-)-
The importance of the stamens and pistils as essential to the
perfection of the seed of vegetables began to be suspected.

As yet, however, the science of botany lay in scattered
fragments of various imperfect and contending systems : much
labour had been bestowed, and great improvements made, but
there seemed to be no central point around which these im-
provements might be collected ; the learned world were sensi-
ble of the deficiency ; but it required genius, great observa-
tion of nature, and courage to stem the tide of popular preju-
dices, in him who should come forward to attempt the work of
reform.

Charles Linnaeus, an inhabitant of Sweden, suddenly emer-
ging from obscurity, offered to the world a system of botany,
so far superior to all others, as to leave no room for dispute as

* See part III.

t Leuwenhoek, Grew, Malpigh, and Camerarius, are among the first of tno
moderns who investigated the internal structure of vegetables.

Attention of botanists turned towards anatomy and physiology— Microscope
—Science of botany yet imperfect— Linnaeus,

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 317

to its comparative merit. All preceding systems were immedi-
ately laid aside, and the classification of Linnaeus was receiv-
ed with scarcely a dissenting voice. What this system was,
you have not now to learn, since it has been the basis of your
botanical studies. Linnaeus extended the principles of his
classification to the animal and mineral kingdoms ; in the lan-
guage of an eminent botanist,* " His magic pen turned the
wilds of Lapland into fairy fields, and the animals of Sweden
came to be classed by him as they went to Adam in the garden
of Eden to receive each his particular name."

LECTURE XLVI.

History of Botany from the time of Linnaus to the present.

was born in 1707 ; his father was a clergyman,
and had designed his son for the same sacred office ; but
seeing him leave his studies to gather flowers, he inferred
that he possessed a weak and trifling mind, unfit for close in-
vestigation ; and was about to put him to a mechanical em-
ployment, when some discerning persons perceiving in his
devotion to the works of nature, the germ of a great and
lofty mind, placed him in a situation favourable to the de- .
velopement of his peculiar talents, where he .was allowed
without restraint, to study the book of nature, " This elder
Scripture, writ by God's own hand."

Linnaeus formed anew the language of botanical science ;
every organ of the plant he defined with precision, and gave
it an appropriate name ; every important modification was de-
signated by a particular term. Thus comparisons became
easy, and confusion was avoided. The characters of plants
appeared in a new light. Each species took, besides the
name of the genus to which it belonged^ a specific name
which recalled some peculiarity distinctive of the species.
Before that time the species, instead of being thus designated,
required in some cases a whole sentence to express the name.

But what most tended to render the works of Linnaeus
popular, was his artificial system, in which he had made the
stamens and pistils subservient to a most simple and clear
arrangement ; he remarked the different insertion of the
stamens; their union by means of their filaments had been

* Sir James E. Smith.

Birth of Linnaeus, &c.— What were the improvements made by Linnaeus ?-—
What most rendered his works popular ?
27*

318 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

before observed, but he employed tliem in a manner entirely
original.

This " Northern Light" as he has sometimes been termed,
contributed to the progress of physiology both by his own
discoveries, and by improving upon the suggestions of those
who had gone before him. In the details of science, he was
no less accurate, than bold and comprehensive in his general
views. The world knew not which to admire the most, the
multiplicity, the novelty, or the profound views of this modern
Aristotle. His school became the resort of men of science
from all Europe ; and he seemed to have acquired that influ-
ence over the human mind, which had been peculiar to the
ancient philosophers of Greece.

The defects of this great man, for human nature is never
without its imperfections, were that he sometimes carried too
far a favourite idea ; endowed with a brilliant imagination, he
was at times somewhat blinded by the beauty of his own con-
ceptions, and strove to reconcile nature to the visions of his
own fancy.

We have in our investigations of the artificial system, occa-
sionally pointed out in it some imperfections, particularly in?
the separation of natural families ; but no means of remedying
these have yet been found, and we still, after the lapse of near
a century, with the exception of a few alterations, receive this
system as left by its author.

Linnaeus died in 1778 ; he is honoured among the scientific,
by a title far more proud than any hereditary distinctions ; he
is termed " Prince of Naturalists." Ten years after his death,
a society distinguished by his name, was founded in London ;
tjiis society is now in possession of his library, herbariums, col-
lec>k>ns of insects and shells, with numerous manuscripts. Sir
James Edward Smith was the founder of this society, and its
first and only president until his death, which has recently ol-
curred. He translated the writings of Linnaeus, (which were
originally in Latin,) and illustrated them by his own comments :
no one, perhaps, has done more towards rendering botanical
science accessible to all classes of people than this elegant
writer.

The study of plants, after the discoveries and classifications
of Linnaeus, became, in a degree, general. The knowledge
of vegetable physiology began to be usefully applied to agri-
culture. Duhamel of France very successfully laboured to
exhibit the connexion between the science of botany and the

How did he contribute to the progress of physiology, &c.?— His defects-
Death of Linnaeus— Linnsean society in London— Botany after the death of
Linnaeus.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 819

cultivation of plants. Bossuet of Geneva proved by experi-
ments that the vascular system of plants is tubular and tran-
sparent; and that leaves perform the office of respiration.

Grew of England ascertained the existence of the cambium,
and Duhamel afterwards proved that it was distinct from the
sap and proper juices. The latter opposed the idea, till then
entertained, that earth and water were the only food of plants ;
he proved that the various solids and fluids diffused in the soil
and atmosphere, are all important to vegetation.

The observations of Priestly, Saussure, and others, aided
by the discoveries made in pneumatic chemistry, of the exis-
tence of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid gases, formed a
new era in the history of vegetable physiology. It was proved
that vegetables do ultimately consist of oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbon, and sometimes of a small quantity of nitrogen, com-
bined with mineral salts, and often some silex, sulphur, and
iron, which seem important to vegetable life. These elemen-
tary substances were found to be diffused through air and wa-
ter, and the animal and vegetable substances which the latter
holds in solution ; the green parts of vegetables were observed
to exhale oxygen in the light, and carbonic acid gas in the
dark ; and the carbon left by the decomposition ofthe carbonic
acid, was shown to be incorporated into the vegetable sub-
stance, giving to the wood its strength and hardness.

The only naturalist who can bear any comparison with Lin-
naeus, is Bernard de Jussieu. He was remarkable for the ex-
tent of his knowledge, the penetration of his genius, and the
solidity of his judgment. He is said to have been unambitious.
The love of truth and science were with him sufficient excite-
ments to the most severe labour. " Many of our contempora-
ries," says Mirbel, " knew this sage ; they say that never have
they seen so much knowledge combined with so high a degree
of candour and modesty." To this botanist we are indebted
for the natural method of classification, with which you have
been made acquainted.*

Jussieu proposed a method of classing plants according to
certain distinctions in the seed, which were found to be univer-
sal ; this method was perfected and published by his nephew,
Antoinc- Laurent de Jussieu, and is now universally received
as the best mode of natural classification which has yet been
discovered. We call this method natural, because it aims to
bring into groups such genera of plants as resemble each other
in medicinal and other properties, while the system of Linnreus

* See Parts I. and III.

Grew and Duhamel — Priestly, &c. — Character of Jossieu.

320 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

is called artificial, because by a certain rule, plants which have
no such resemblance in their properties are brought together.
We therefore find in one of the Linna?an classes, the poisonous
flag and th* nutritious grass, the grain which supports life, and
the darnel which destroys it ; in another the healthful potatoe
and the poison mandrake, the deadly hemlock and the grateful
coriander. We might thus go through this system and con-
stantly meet with similar contrasts in the qualities of the plants
which are here collected into the same classes. Nor are their
external appearances less unlike ; for here the oleander and
pigweed, the tulip and the dock meet in the same classes. This
system, it should always be remembered, is not the whole
science of botany ; but is the key to the natural method, by
which, alone, we should find great difficulty in ascertaining the
names of plants ; it is, as it were, a stepping stone by which
we must ascend to the valuable knowledge which cannot well
be reached in any other way. The more practical a botanist
becomes, the less need he has for this assistance ; the eye
becomes tyiick to seize on natural characters without reference
to the dictionary, as the artificial system is aptly termed. Thus
a pupil in studying a language may in time be able in a de-
gree to dispense with his dictionary ; but he could never have
proceeded thus far without its assistance. For more particular
explanations of Jussieu's method, you are referred to the com-
parison of that with the method of Linnaeus and Tournefort in
the remarks on classification.

Adanson, previous to the time of the younger Jussieu, had
published a system of classification, in which he arranged
plants according to the resemblance observed in all their or-
gans. In one class, all which had similar roots were placed ;
in another, all which had similar stems ; a third was arranged
by resemblance of leaves, in their forms and situations ; but the
most important distinctions he considered as founded upon the
organs of fructification.

Among other botanists we would notice L. C. Richard, who
wrote in French an interesting account of the Orchideae of
Europe, and assisted in compiling from ancient works a very
useful botanical dictionary.

Des Fontaines first showed that the stems of monocotyledo-
nous and of dicotyledonous plants differ from each other in
their structure, and modes of growth ; he divided them into
endogenous, growing inwardly, as the palms ; and exogenous,
growing outwardly, as the oak.

France is distinguished for the number and accuracy of its
naturalists. Mirbel, a distinguished professor of botany in

French Naturalists.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 321

Paris, has pursued his inquiries into the anatomical structure,
and the physical operations of plants, to an extent not exceeded
by any other naturalist ; his " Elemens de Botanique" is a
splendid work, which forms a very important and valuable ad-
dition to a botanical library.

The Baron Humboldt spent five years in investigating the
vegetable productions of the equatorial regions in America,
and his remarks on vegetables, as a criterion of climate, are
original and interesting.

Josephine, the first wife of Napoleon, was distinguished for
her fondness for this study ; other ladies of distinction, stimula-
ted by her example, cultivated plants with reference to scien-
tific observations.

In England, Mrs. Wakefield, and the industrious and talent-
ed Mrs. Marcet (author of Conversations on Natural Philosophy,
Chemistry, &c.), have distinguished themselves as the authors
of useful treatises on Botany.

De Candolle's " Elementary Theory of Botany," is highly
valued as a scientific and able performance ; but it is useful,
rather for those who have already attained a knowledge of the
elements of botany, than for the beginner in the science.

In turning from Europe to the United States, we find the
state of literature flourishing, and a taste for the natural sci-
ences becoming extensively diffused. The names of many of
our naturalists stand high in Europe, as well as in their own
country.

Among these are Silliman, who established the first scienti-
fic journal,* and encouraged others to pursue the course of in-
vestigation which he himself has followed so successfully. Ea-
ton has, indefatigably laboured to bring science within the reach
of every inquirer, by divesting it of ttfe dress of foreign lan-
guages, and the parade of learning ; not only rendering the
labours of others of more general utility, but adding to the
common stock, the result of years of inquiry and observation.

To go back to the infancy of science in the United States,
we find the name of Bartram stands recorded in history, as that
of the first native of our country who was conspicuous for bo-
tanical researches.

Houston investigated the region of Canada, and described
many of its plants ; in honour of him is named the little flower
HOUSTONIA coeruka.

* Except the Mineralogical Journal of Bruce, which ceased after the appear-
ance of a few numbers.

Females who have interested themselves in the study of botany — Natural^
Jets of the United States.

322 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

Clayton made a list of Virginian plants, and is commemorated
in the beautiful CLAYTONIA virginica.

Kalm, a pupil of Linnaeus, whose name is given to the KAL-
MIA (American laurel), spent three years in America, and re-
turned to Europe laden with botanical treasures ; the sight of
the American plants brought by his pupil, many of which were
entirely new to him, is said to have produced such an effect
upon Linnaeus, that although lying ill of the gout, and unable
to move, his spirits were rekindled, and in the delight of his
mind he forgot his bodily anguish, and recovered from his
disease.

Among the earliest botanists of North America, were Col-
den, Michaux, and Muhlenberg ; Pursh was the first who fur-
nished a system of North American plants, so arranged as to
be useful to the student. Some of the first teachers of the
science were" Barton, Hosack and Mitchell. The first lecturer
on Botany in the interor of North America, was Professor
Amos Eaton. Dr. Bigelow gave a course of lectures in Bos-
ton, in the year 1813, and soon after published his Boston
Flora.

Professor Ives and Dr. Tully did much in New England
towards awakening a zeal for the science, in the years 1815
and 1616 ; and at a later period, Dr. Sumner has pursued and
illustrated the study with much ardor and success.

Wan* of books was a great impediment to the progress of
the science when Eaton published his Botanical Dictionary
and Manual of Botany ; this book gave a new impulse to the
progress of the science ; its familiar method and simple stylo
induced many to commence the study. This was followed by
many other works describing plants, and several elementary
works ; of the former* class were Nuttall's Genera, Elliott's
Southern Plants, Barton's Flora of Philadelphia, Darlington's,
Torrey's, and Bigelow's Floras ; these furnished descriptions
of most American Plants, not included in the works of Pursh.
Among Elementary books are " Barton's Elements," a large
work containing much that is interesting in the physiology of
plants ; " Lock's Botany," a small book, but exhibiting a plan
of arrangement simple and methodical ; " Sumner's Compen-
dium of Botany," written in a beautiful and pure style; and
more recently, " Nuttall's Elementary Work," which gives,
in popular language, more facts with regard to plants, than
almost any other work of the kind. In all the books which
we have enumerated, none have been designed as a full and
connected course of botanical study. The publication of our
present course of instruction, may, perhaps, remove some ob-

American botanists — American works on botany.

VIEW OF NATURE. 323

stacles which have hitherto impeded the progress of botanical
information, particularly in schools, and among our own sex.
From some examples in our own class, we see that even chil-
dren may become botanists, and lay aside their toys to divert
themselves by distinguishing the organs of plants and tracing
out their classification. A few years since, the science of
Botany was confined almost wholly to those of the medical
profession, now it is within the reach of all who can read the
English language, and few indeed are the natives of our re-
public who are destitute of this qualification.

Of all sciences, perhaps no one is settled on a firmer foun-
dation than that of botany ; the improvements of future years,
we are not able to anticipate ; but it is probable that as dis-
coveries and improvements are made, they will cluster around
the principles already established ; each taking its proper
place in the various departments now arranged for the recep-
tion of scientific truths.

The spirit of our government is highly favourable to the
promotion and dissemination of knowledge ; an^l although
Europe may boast of many stars which irradiate her firmament
of letters, shining with brilliant lustre amidst the surrounding
darkness of ignorance ; may we not justly feel a national pride
in that more general diffusion of intellectual light, which is ra-
diating from every part, and to every part of the American
republic !

LECTURE XLVII.

GENERAL VIEW OF NATURE.

Organized and Inorganized Bodies. — Classification of
Animals.

HAVING considered the vegetable kingdom under its various
aspects, it may be proper, before closing our course of botan-
ical study, to take a general view of that external world of
matter, of which the part we have examined, extended and
diversified as it is, constitutes but a very small portion. The
science you have been investigating, with some others, con-
stitutes a general branch of knowledge, termed Natural sci-
ence. The study of nature presents in a lively and forcible
manner, the power and wisdom of the Creator ; and offers to
the enlightened mind a never failing source of the most pure

Study of botany within the reach of all.— This science firmly settled— Dif-
ference between the state of science in Europe and America.— Natural science.

324 VIEW OF NATURE.

and refined enjoyment. Those who know nothing of this
source of happiness, cannot appreciate its value ; they may in-
quire the use of studying into the nature of objects, without any
reference to the enjoyment of the senses, to personal gain, or
honour. A celebrated naturalist* observes ; " The rich and
the great imagine, that every one is miserable, and out of the
world, who does not live as they do ; but they are the persons
who, living far from nature and from God, live out of the
world. Misled by the prejudices of a faulty education, I have
pursued a vain felicity amid the false glories of arms, the fa-
vour of the great, and sometimes in frivolous and dangerous
pleasures. 1 have never been happy but when I trusted in
God ; opposed to THEE, the AUTHOR of all things ! power is
weakness ! supported by THEE, weakness becomes strength !
When the rude Northern blasts have ravaged the earth,
THOU callest forth the feeblest of winds ; at the sound of THY
voice, the zephyr breathes, the verdure revives, the gentle
cowslip and the humble violet cover the bosom of the bleak
earth with a mantle of gold and purple."

To the pious reflections of this French writer we will add
the following quotation from an English author,^ the energies
of whose rich and cultivated intellect were devoted to the cause
of religion ; who viewed nature as a philosopher, but what is
far better, as a Christian. Happy indeed, are those in whom
philosophy and Christianity are blended, and delightful is the
intercourse even in this world between minds thus enlightened
and purified !

" There is peculiar sweetness in the recollection of those
hours which we have spent with friends of a kindred spirit,
amidst the beauties of created nature. The Christian can
alone find that congeniality in associates, who not only possess
a lively and cultivated sense of the high beauty which land-
scape scenery presents to the eye, but who can also see crea-
tion's God in every feature of the prospect. The painter can
imitate, the poet describe, and the tourist talk with ecstacy of
the sublime and beautiful objects which constitute the scene
before him. But he can only be said to enjoy them aright,
whose talents, taste, and affections are consecrated to the glory
of Him by whom « all things were made, and without whom
was not any thing made that was made.' When the pencil
that traces the rich and animated landscape of mountains,
lakes and trees, is guided by a grateful heart as well as by a

* St. Pierre.

t Rev. Legh Richmond.

Reflections on the study of natural science.

VIEW OF NATURE. 325

skilful hand, then the picture becomes no less an acceptable
offering to God, than it is a source of well directed pleasure to
the mind of man. And when the poet, in harmonious numbers,
makes hill and dale responsive to his song, happy is it if his
soul be in unison with the harp of David, and if he can call on
all created nature to join in one universal chorus of gratitude
and praise. The Christian traveller best enjoys scenes like
these. In every wonder he sees the hand that made it — in
every landscape, the beauty that adorns it — in rivers, fields
and forests, the Providence that ministers to the wants of man
— in every surrounding object he sees an emblem of his own
spiritual condition, himself a stranger and a pilgrim, journeying
on through a country of wonders and beauties ; alternately
investigating, admiring, and praising the works of his Maker,
and anticipating a holy and happy eternity to he spent in the
Paradise of God, where the prospects are ever new, and the

landscapes never fade from the sight !"

\

" O ! for the expanded mind that soars on high,
Ranging afar with Meditation's eye !
That climbs the heights of yonder starry road,
Rising through nature up to nature's God.

O ! for a soul to trace a Saviour's power,

In each sweet form that decks the blooming flower :

And as we wander such fair scenes among,

To make the Rose of Sharon all our song."

Naturalists, to the great discredit of science, have formerly
shewn an unhappy tendency to scepticism ; enabled to compre-
hend some of the great operations of nature, they presumed to
set up their own reason against the revelation of God, and im-
piously refused to believe any thing which could not be ex-
plained according to the principles of human science. Search-
ing into the elements which compose the human body ; and
observing the dispersion of the same, and their incorporation
into other substances, they affirmed that it was " a thing im-
possible for God to raise the dead." Well might we, in ad-
dressing such a philosopher, say, with the Apostle, " Thou
fool !" Cannot He who formed all things of nothing, reani-
mate the sleeping dust, and recal the spirit to its own body ?
Happily this melancholy perversion of human learning seems
to have passed away, and we now see many of the most en-
lightened investigators of the principles of science among the
most humble disciples of Jesus.*

* In the character of Dr. Mason Good, as exhibited in his biography, writ-
ten by Olinthus Gregory, we find this union of science with deep and fervent
piety most happily exemplified.

Naturalists formerly inclined to scepticism.

28

326 HEAVENLY BODIES.

By the word Nature, derived from a term signifying lorn,
or produced, in a general sense we mean all the works of God.
Using a figure of speech called Metonomy, we often put the
effect for the cause ; as, when we speak of the " works of na-
ture," meaning what the Almighty has brought forth, or we
often mean by nature the Deity himself: as when we say that
" nature produces plants and animals."

With respect to the heavenly bodies, which manifest them-
selves to us with so much magnificence, we know them to be
matter, because we observe them to be subject to the laws which
govern matter ; and we have been able, by the discoveries of
astronomers, to understand their various revolutions : we have
in general, clearer ideas of their motions than even of our own
planet ; it is more easy for us to imagine them as moving, than
that our firm earth is whirling with inconceivable velocity.
Were it possible for us to conceive the quantity of matter which
even one world as large as" our sun contains, the thought would
be overwhelming ; and of all the worlds which we behold at
one view in a serene night, what finite being could imagine
their united extent ? They are suspended over our heads, each
one pursuing its destined course : why do we not fear that some
one may be precipitated upon our little world, and crush' it to
atoms ? It is because we know that they are all upheld by that
Power which "created the heavens and the earth," ,and who
governs the universe by regular laws. This universe is infinite
as the God who formed it ; our sun, with all its systems, is but
a point lost in immensity. Astronomers have proved that the
fixed stars are at such an immense distance from us, that moving
at the rate of 500 miles an hour, we should not reach the near-
est of them in 700,000 years, a distance of more than 200,000
times greater than that of the sun from the earth. The same
space probably separates all the fixed stars. Around those
stars revolve millions of opaque globes, as our earth revolves
around the sun, which is also one of the fixed stars. The
satellites describe around the primary planets almost circular
orbits ; they are carried with their primaries around the sun in
their annual motion ; the sun himself, with all his numerous
train of primary planets, each with its satellites, revolves
around the common centre of gravity of the fixed stars, of
which himself constitutes a part ; and these are supposed to
revolve around the centre of the universe. Here may be the
throne of the Almighty Creator and Director of all these stu-
pendous objects.

Yet we need not fear that we shall be forgotten in the im-
mensity of creation ; the same Being who created and rules

Definition of Nature— The heavenly bodies.

VIEW OF NATURE. 327

the host of heaven, made the little moss and the lilies of the
field, which are so beautifully arrayed. If God condescends
to care for them, he will not neglect us who are made in his
own image, and destined to an immortal existence.

Turning our thoughts from the heavenly host to our own
little globe, and considering the matter which exists upon it,
we find two great classes of substances : 1st, inorganized, and
2d, organized.

The 1st class of substances, viz : such as are inorganized,
comprehends all matter destitute of a living principle ; such as
fluids, gases, and minerals. The particles which compose
them are entirely subject to chemical and mechanical laws.

The 2d class, viz : organized substances, includes animals
and vegetables ; the particles constituting them are in a per-
petual state of motion. They are supported by air and food,
endowed with life, and subject to death ; the active power or
life which operates in them we call the vital principle. This
vital principle eludes the researches of man ; all that we know
of it is in its effects, enabling the organized body to resist pu-
trefaction, and, to a certain degree, to maintain a temperature
different from surrounding bodies. Deprived of this vital prin-
ciple,.both animals and vegetables become subject to chemical
decomposition ; their solid parts are dissolved, and they return
to the earth from whence they were taken.

If you dig up a stone, and remove it from one place to
another, it will suffer no alteration ; if you dig a plant it will
wither and die. If you break a mineral to pieces, every
fragment will be a perfect specimen of its kind ; it will only
be altered in shape and size ; but if you tear off a branch
from a plant, or if a limb is taken from an animal, they will
both immediately begin to decay ; the vital principle being
extinguished, putrefaction and dissolution follow.

We should never have been able to predict, from the ap-
pearances of the stone, the plant, and animal, that they were
thus differently constituted ; by observations we find, that the
production and mode of growth, has been under different
circumstances. We find that the stone has grown by a grad-
ual accumulation of particles, independent of each other, and
can only be destroyed by chemical or mechanical force ; the
plant and animal, have on the contrary, grown by nourish-
ment, been possessed of parts mutually dependent, and con-
tributing to the existence of each other.

So far, our observation teaches us the distinction between
organized and inorganized beings; though it does not teach

Substances divided into two classes — 1st class of substances — 2d class of
substances— Vital principle — Difference between a stone and a plant.

328

VIEW OF NATURE.

us in what this internal power, or life consists. God permits
us to know much, in order to lead us to industry in the attain-
ment of knowledge ; but he places boundaries beyond which
we may not pass, that we may be humble.

Comparison of the Organic and Inorganic Kingdoms.

INORGANIC BODIES.

ORGANIC BODIES.

Structure.

Their parts always analo-
gous to, and not depending on
each other ; thus a fragment
of stone, is as much a stone
as the block or rock to which
it belonged.

Their parts are mutually
dependent; thus a stetn, leaf,
flower, &c. do not constitute
a vegetable being, except as
they are united ; it is the same
with the different parts of an
animal.

Origin.

Molecular attraction, mod-
ified by time and space, or
by the art of man (as in
chemistry) ; they are made.

Owe their existence to be-
ings similar to themselves,
produced either from eggs, or
brought into existence in a
living state ; they are hatched
or born.

Developement.

They grow by the addition
of new particles; they are
hence said to increase by
juxtaposition or accretion.

They develope by assimila-
ting to their nature, or con-
verting to their sustenance,
foreign substances which they
absorb, or receive internally ;
they increase by nourishment.

Termination.

They have a determinate
form, and duration ; their ex-
istence terminates either by
old age, or disease ; they die.

They are limited to no par-
ticular form (except in the
case of crystals), they have
no life, and are not subject to
death ; they decompose.

Having considered the distinction between inorganic and
organic substances, we will proceed to a division which may

Structure of inorganic bodies — Of organic bodies— Origin of inorganic
bodies — Of organic bodies — Developement of inorganic bodies — Of organic
bodies — Termination of inorganic bodies — Of organic bodies.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 329

be more familiar to you ; that by which the matter upon our
globe is ranged under three kingdoms ; the ANIMAL, VEGE-
TABLE, and MINERAL.

We find it somewhat difficult to draw a line of distinction
between the different kinds of organized beings, viz. animals
and vegetables ; the lines of distinction often seem to fade so
gradually, that we cannot well decide where the animal
ends, and the vegetable begins.

This difficulty may seem at first somewhat strange, as you
may perhaps never have been at a loss to tell an animal from
a vegetable ; you would certainly know how to distinguish
between a nightingale and a rose, or between an ox and an
oak ; but these are animals and vegetables in a comparatively
perfect state.

The animal you see has the power to move about, to seek
the nourishment most agreeable ; you perceive it uttering
audible sounds, possessing sensation and apparent conscious,
ness. The plant on the contrary is confined to a particular
spot, having no other nourishment than substances which them-
selves come in contact with it ; exhibiting no consciousness,
nor to common observation any sensation. It is only, when
we examine with close attention, the various phenomena in the
vegetable and animal kingdoms, that we learn to doubt, as to
the exact boundaries by which they are separated.

The division of nature into three kingdoms, animal, vegeta-
ble and mineral, is very ancient, and appears at first to be
clear and precise.

Minerals destitute of life increase by the accumulation of
new particles.

Vegetables grow, produce seeds which contain the elements
of future plants like themselves, and then die.

Animals unite to the properties of vegetables, the feeling of
their own existence ; or as Linnaaus has said, " Stones grow,
vegetables grow and live, animals grow, live, and feel." Al-
though this simple view of the works of creation is pleasing,
it is not satisfactory ; because we are not able to decide where
in the vast series of organized beings, sensation ceases.

That you may the better understand what is meant by the
gradations in animal life, we will present' you with a sketch of
the classification of animals. The study of this department
of nature you have already been told is termed Zoology.

A very general and simple classification of animals is as
follows : —

Three kingdoms of nature— Distinction between the different kinds of or-
ganized beings— Minerals— Vegetables — Animals — Zoology — Division of ani-
mals into two classes.

28*

330 VIEW OF NATURE.

" Vertebral, animals fiaving backbones.
Avertebral, animals destitute of backbones.
VERTEBRAL animals are divided into,

1. Quadrupeds. The science of which has no popular
name. It includes four-footed animals ; as ox, dog, mouse.

2. Birds. The science of which is called ornithology. It
includes the feathered tribe ; as pigeon, goose, wren.

3. Amphibious Animals. The science of which is called
amphibiology. It includes those cold-blooded animals which
are capable of living on dry land, or in the water ; as tortoise,
lizard, serpent, frog.

4. Fishes. The science of which is called itchthyology. It
includes all aquatic animals which have gills and fins ; as
shad, trout, sturgeon, eel.

AVERTEBRAL animals are divided into,

5. Insects. The science of which is called entomology. It
includes all animals with jointed bodies, which have jointed
limbs ; as flies, spiders, lobsters.

6. Vermes. The science of which is called herminthology.
It includes all soft animals of the avertebral division, which
have no jointed limbs, with or without hard coverings ; as
angle worms, snails, oysters, polypi, and infusory animals."*

The system of Zoology most approved, is the one taught by
Linnaeus, with some improvements made by the great French
naturalist, Cuvier ; according to this mode of classification,
the animal kingdom is divided into four grand divisions, viz : —

VERTEBRAL, MOLLUSCOUS, ARTICULATED, and RADIATED.
These are subdivided into classes and orders.

First Grand Division — Vertebral Animals.

CLASS i. Mammalia, or such as at first are nourished by
milk. This class have lungs, and peculiar organs for imbibing
their food, during their first stage of existence.

The First Order is called Bi-mani (from bis two, mani
hands) ; this order includes man only ; we find here no generic
or specific differences, but the following varieties.

1st. Caucasian race, anciently inhabiting the country about
the Caspian and Black Seas, from whom we are descended.

2d. The Mongolian, the ancient inhabitants about the Pacific
Ocean, from whom the Chinese are descended.

3d. The Ethiopian, or Negro race.

The second order contains the quadru-mani, from quatuor

* Eaton's Zoology.

How many classes of Vertebral animals ? — How are Avertebral animals di-
vided ?— Cuvier' s four grand divisions — 1st class of vertebral animals — Order
bi-mani— Varieties in this order— Order quadru-mani.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 331

four, and mani hands. These have thumbs, or toes, separate,
on each of the four feet. We here find Orang-outang (some-
times called the wild-man), and the Monkey.

The Third Order contains Carnivorous animals, or flesh-
feedersj having no separate thumbs, or great toes without
nails ; as the Dog and Cat. i

The Fourth Order contains the Gnawers, having no canine
teeth (those which are called eye-teeth), feeding almost wholly
on vegetable substances ; as the Rat and Squirrel.

The Fifth Order is Edentata, or animals wanting teeth ; as
the Sloth and Armadillo.

The Sixth Order, Pachy derma, thick skin animals with
hoofs ; as the Elephant, Horse and Hog.

The Seventh Order contains the Ruminating animals, such
as chew the cud, having front teeth (incisors) below only, and
feet with hoofs cloven, or divided ; as the Ox, Sheep and Camel.

The Eighth Order, Cete, contains aquatic animals (such as
live in water), having no kind of feet, or whose feet are fin-
like-limbs ; as the Whale and Dolphin.

We have enumerated all the orders of the class Mammalia,
as it is the one in which man is placed ; we shall now notice
the remaining classes of animals, without going into so minute
a detail of their orders.

CLASS n, Contains Birds (Aves), which are distinguished by
having the body covered with feathers and down, long naked
jaws, two wings formed for flight, and bi-ped (from bis, two,
and pedes, feet). The orders in this class, are chiefly dis-
tinguished from each other by the peculiar make of the bill
and feet.

CLASS in? Amphibia, contains amphibious animals, includ-
ing what are commonly called reptiles. It is divided into four
orders :

1st. With shells over their back, and four feet ; as the tor-
toise and turtle.

2d. Covered with scales, and having four feet ; as the cro-
codile and lizard.

3d. Body naked, destitute of feet ; as serpents and snakes.

4th. The body naked, and having two, or four feet ; as the
frog and toad.

CLASS iv, Contains Fishes (Pisces), natives of the water,
unable to exist for any length of time out of it ; swift in their
motions, and voracious in their appetites ; breathing by means
of gills, which are generally united in a long arch ; swimming
by means of radiate fins, and mostly covered with scales.

Third order — Fourth order -Fifth order — Sixth order — Seventh Order —
Eighth order— Class 2d— Class 3d— Class 4th.

332 VIEW OF NATURE.

Second Grand Division.

CLASS v, Mollusca, bodies soft, without bones, but their
muscles attached to a skin which forms a calcareous covering
called a shell, and is, in many cases, produced from their skin.
These animals possess no organs of sense but those of taste
and sight, and these are often wanting ; the nautilus and cut-
tie fish are of the highest order of Molluscous animals.

One order contains animals without heads, having a shell
usually of two pieces ; these are called bi'valves ; as the oys-
ter, clam, and snail.

Third Grand Division.

We proceed next to those animals called Articulated; these
have jointed trunks, and mostly jointed limbs. They possess
the faculty of locomotion, or changing place ; some have feet,
and others are destitute of them ; the latter move by trailing
along their bodies.

CLASS vi, Annelida, contains such animals as have red
blood, without a bony skeleton ; bodies soft and long, the cov-
ering divided into transverse rings ; they live mostly in water ;
some of them secrete calcareous matter which forms a hard
covering, or shell ; as the earth or angle worm, and leech.

CLASS vn, Crustacea, contains animals without blood, with
jointed limbs fastened to a calcareous crust ; they breathe by
a kind of gills.

CLASS vni, Archnida, contains spider-like animals without
blood, jointed limbs, without horns ; they breathe by little open-
ings, which lead to organs resembling lungs, or by little pipes
distributed over the whole body ; these do not pass through
any important change of state, as insects do ; they have mostly
six or eight eyes, and eight feet, and feed chiefly on living ani-
mals ; examples of this class are the spider and scorpion.

CLASS ix, Insecta, or insects, without blood, having jointed
limbs and horns ; they breathe by two pipes, running parallel
to each other, through the whole body ; they have two horns ;
they are mostly winged, having one or two pairs ; a few are
without wings ; mostly with six feet. They possess all the
senses which belong to any class of animals, except that of
hearing.

The winged insects pass through several changes or 'meta-
morphoses. The Butterfly is first an egg; this when hatched
is long and cylindrical, and divided into numerous rings, hav-
ing many short legs, jaws, and several small eyes ; this is the

Second grand division, what class does it contain ? — What order in this
class is mentioned ? — Articulated animals — Class 6th— Class 7th — Class 8th —
Class 9th — Metamorphoses of insects.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 333

larva, or caterpillar. At length it casts off its skin and appears
in another form without limbs. It neither takes nourishment,
moves, nor gives any signs of life ; this is called chrys'alis.
In process of time, by examining it closely, the imperfect form
of the butterfly may be seen through the envelope ; this, it
soon bursts, and a perfect butterfly appears. When about to
pass into the chrys'alis state, of- which they appear to have
warning, the insect selects some place where it may repose
safely during its temporary death.* The silk worm spins its
silken web to wrap itself in, and this web is that from which
all our silks are made.

Fourth Grand Division. — Radiated Animals.
Fig. 133.

CLASS x. Zo'ophites, or animal plants. Here we find the
lowest beings in the animal kingdom. Some of the orders of
this class contain animals which have neither -heart, brains,
nerves, nor any apparent means of breathing. These are
sometimes called animal plants ; many of them, as the corals,
are fixed to rocks, and never change place. The term coral
includes under it many species ; the red coral used for orna-
ments, is the most beautiful. The substance of coral, when
subjected to chemical analysis, is found to consist chiefly of
carbonate of lime ; the hard crust which envelopes the animal
substance, is an excretion formed by it in the same way as the

* May not this be considered as a lesson to man to anticipate and provide for
the change in his existence, which his bodily infirmities, and his daily observa-
tion, teach him is to be his own lot ?

Class 10th— Description of Zoophites— Corals.

334 VIEW OF NATURE.

shells of the oyster and lobster are produced, or as nails grow
upon the fingers and toes of the human body. The quantity
of this carbonate of lime elaborated by the little coral animal
is truly wonderful ; islands are formed, and harbours blocked
up by it. Fig. 133, a, represents a branching coral ; the dots
show the apertures by which the animal receives its nourish-
ment. Some of the zoophites are fixed by a kind of root, to
the bottom of the sea ; some, as the sea-nettle, which appears
like the segment of a circle, are carried about by the motion
of the waters, without any voluntary motion, as, are also the
sea-daisy, sea-marygold, and the sea-carnation, so named from
an apparent resemblance to those plants. We find here the
sea-fan, the sea-pen, and the madrepore, the latter of which
are often thrown together in vast quantities.

The sponge also belongs to this class of strange animal sub-
stances ; it consists of a fibrous mass, containing a jelly-like sub-
stance, which, when touched, discovers a slight sensation, the
only sign of life manifested by it. There are many species of
sponge ; those most valued in the arts are found in the Medi-
terranean sea and Indian ocean. Some grow upon rocks, and
are found covering the interior of submarine caves. The
Spongia parasitica is seen growing upon the back and legs of
a species of crab ; sometimes as many as forty individual
sponges extend themselves over the crab, impeding the motion
of its joints, spreading like a cloak over its back, or forming
for its head grotesque and towering ornaments, from which
the poor crab vainly attempts to disencumber itself.

Some species of the sponge grow to a very large size ; one
has been found in the East Indies in the form of a cup, capable
of containing ten gallons of water. The fibrous part of the
sponge is the skeleton of the animal ; the large apertures (see
Fig. 133, &,) serve to carry out fluids from within ; while the
water by which the animal is nourished, is imbibed by minute
pores ; this continual circulation of water is one of the most
important functions of the living sponge.

These animals resemble plants in their manner of producing
others ; they form a species of germ, like the bud growing
upon the stalk ; this foils off from the stem, and becomes a per-
fect animal. If a part of one of those animals is separated
from the rest, it will itself be as perfect a living animal as
was the whole before. A polypus can be divided into as
many animals as it contains atoms ; some of this order are very
properly called hydras (many headjed). Besides these, there
is another order of animal substances, infusoria, which appear

Various kinds of zoophites— Sponge — manner in which these animals are
reproduced.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 335

like a homogeneous mass, having no appearance of any limbs
whatever ; these are either angular, oval, or globular.

LECTURE XLVIII.

Man at the Jiead of the Kingdoms of Nature. — Comparison
between Animals and Plants. — Conclusion.

IN our last lecture, after a glance upward to the heavenly
bodies, we returned to our globe, and considered its various
substances ; here we found two classes of bodies, inorganized
and organized substances ; the former including minerals, the
latter embracing the animal and vegetable kingdoms. We
then took a brief view of the animal creation.

At the head 6f the animal kingdom, we found man, suffi-
ciently resembling brute animals in his material frame, to con-
stitute part of an extensive class, embracing the ape, elephant,
and dog ; yet between the lowest degree of intelligence in the
human race, and the highest faculties of brutes, there is a line
of distinction marked by the hand of the Almighty, in charac-
ters too obvious for doubt. God said, " let us make man in
our own image, and he breathed into him the breath of life,
and man became a living soul."

Some writers have attempted to show that man differs only
from the inferior order of animals in possessing a greater va-
riety of instincts. But however wonderful may appear the
instinctive perceptions of brutes, they are destitute of reason ;
and incapable of being the subjects of moral government ; we'
must, therefore, both from our own observation and the decla-
rations of scripture, infer, that the faculties of man differ, not
in degree only, but distinctly in their nature, from those of all
other beings upon our globe.

" Man (says Buffon), by his form and the perfection of his
organs, and as the only being on earth endowed with reason,
seems properly placed at the head of the kingdoms of nature.
All in him announces the lord of the earth ; his form marks
his superiority over all living beings ; he stands erect, in the
attitude of command, he can gaze* upon the heavens ; on his
face is imprinted the character of dignity ; the image of his
soul is painted upon his features, and the excellence of his na-
ture penetrates through his material organs, and animates the
expression ofhis countenance."

Man at the head of the animal kingdom — How resembling inferior animals
—How differing from them— Buffon's description of man.

336 VIEW OF NATURE.

In the orders of animals next to man, we find the senses of
sight, touch, taste and smell equally perfect as those possessed
by him, and in some cases, they are even more acute ; but as
we proceed downwards through the gradations of animal exist-
ence, we perceive the number and acuteness of the senses to
diminish — we find some beings with but four senses, some with
three, others with two, and lastly, in the Zoophites, we find
only the sense of touch, and that so faintly exhibited as almost
to lead us to doubt its existence.

Let us, after these observations, return to the distinction
between animals and vegetables. You now perceive that al-
though you would find no difficulty with regard to a nightin-
gale and a rose, to discover to which of the kingdoms of nature
they belong ; yet with respect to a sponge or coral, and a
mushroom or a lichen, it would be somewhat difficult, without
a previous knowledge of their classification, to say which is
called animal, and which vegetable, or to give the distinctions
between them. We have seen among the zoophites, that the
polypus may be increased by cutting shoots and engrafting
them upon other animals, in the same manner as vegetables
may be increased.

With respect to sensation, some plants discover this, appa-
rently even in a greater degree than some of the last orders of
animals ; the sensitive plant shrinks from the touch ; the Dio-
nea suddenly closes its leaves upon the insect which touches
them ; the leaves of plants follow the direction of light, in
order to present their upper surfaces to its influence ; this you
can observe in flower pots placed by a window. The seed of
a plant, in whatever situation it may be placed in the earth,
always sends its root downwards, and its stem upwards ; in
these cases, does there not seem as much appearance of sensa-
tion and instinct, and even more than in the lower orders of
animals ?

We find then, that the possession, or want of instinct, does
not constitute a mark of distinction between animals and
plants. ,

Some have attempted to draw a line of distinction, by con-
sidering, that locomotion, or the power of changing place, be-
longs to animals only ; but this criterion seems to fail, since we
find animals fixed io the bottom of the sea, or growing upon
rocks, and plants moving upon the surface of the water.

Another mark of distinction has been given, in the supposed
presence of nitrogen in animals, detected by a peculiar odour

Senses of the orders of animals inferior to man — Sensation seems to be pos-
sessed by some plants Instinct not peculiar to animals Locomotion

Nitrogen.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 337

when animal substances are burning, similar to what we per-
ceive in the combustion of bones ; but nitrogen having been
discovered in some vegetables, this proof is no longer consider-
ed infallible.

It appears then from a comparison between . animals and
vegetables, that these beings are closely connected by the
essential characters of organization ; that it seems impossible
to distinguish them by any trait that belongs exclusively to
either ; that the connexion between them appears the most
striking in the least perfect species of both kingdoms ; and that
as we recede from this point, the differences become more nu-
merous and more marked.

We may illustrate this view, by imagining two ascending
chains, rising from one common point, each side of the chain
becoming more and more unlike in proportion to the interven-
ing distance from the centre. From this same central point,
also proceeds the chain of inorganized substances ; some im-
perfect animals resembling plants in their outward form, some,
both of animals and plants, resembling minerals in their hard
and calcareous coverings and shapeless forms.

Having thus learned Jihe almost imperceptible gradations,
by which the animal and vegetable kingdoms are blended, we
must, in stating the important differences which exist between
animals and plants, consider the imperfect species of both
kinds, as exceptions to any general rule, and confine ourselves
to perfect animals and plants.

1st. Plants differ from animals with respect to the elements
which compose them ; carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, form the
base of vegetable substances ; animals exhibit the same elements
with this i?nportant distinction, that carbon prevails in plants,
and nitrogen in animals.

2d. They differ in their food; plants are nourished with in-
organized matter, absorbed with water, the various substances
which this liquid holds in solution ; animals are mostly nourished
either by vegetables or other animals.

3d. Plants throw off oxygen gas, and inhale carbonic acid ;
animals in respiration inhale oxygen gas, and throw off carbonic
acid.

4th. Although plants and animals both possess a principle of
life, it is in the one case much more limited than in the other ; ex-
hibiting itself in plants by a feeble power of contraction or irri-
tability ; in animals appearing in sensation, muscular movement
and voluntary motion.

We see then, many important differences between perfect

Result of the comparison between animals and vegetables — Chains of beings
proceeding from one point — Differences between animals and plants.
29

338 VIEW OF NATURE.

animals and perfect plants. We have, in numerous instances,
pointed out striking analogies between the two great divisions
of organized bodies ; this subject might be greatly enlarged,
but every human effort has its limitation ; and we have already,
amid the multitude of interesting facts arid reflections present-
ed by the vegetable creation, far exceeded the bounds originally
prescribed. A few remarks upon the inorganized matter con-
nected with our globe, must close our present course.

Inorganic bodies form the solid base of the globe. Minerals
are spread upon the face of the earth or lie buried beneath its
surface. They form vast masses of rocks, chains of moun-
tains, and the ground upon which we tread. The Water oc-
cupies a still greater surface of the earth than the land ; it is
filled with life and animation ; the treasures and wonders of
the deep seem almost unbounded. The Air, lighter than
earth and water, extending on all sides about forty miles in
height, surrounds the whole globe, separating us from the un-
known elements which exist beyond it. Among the inorgani-
zed substances upon our globe, is Heat or Caloric, a subtle fluid
wlu'ch pervades all matter, in an increasing proportion from
solids to fluids, and from fluids to gases ; and Light, which re-
flects its hues from terrestrial objects, producing by the de-
comi>osition of its rays, all the beautiful variety of colouring.
The laws which govern these two substances, so extended in
their existence, and so various in their operations, are explain-
ed in the sciences of Chemistry and Optics.

Wherever we turn our eyes, we behold wonders ; " if we
go up to Heaven, God is there ;" " the firmament showeth
forth his handy work ;" if we contemplate the earth on which
we are placed, and all its varied tribes of beings, with the in-
organized substances formed for their comfort and subsistence,
we realize, that " even the hairs of our head are all number-
ed," and that it is indeed GOD, " who maketh the grass to
grow upon the mountains, and herbs for the use of man."

Different kinds of inorganic matter — The Deity manifested in his work.

;

CONCLUSION.

THE Universe, how vast ! exceeding far,
The bounds of human thought ; millions of suns
With their attendant worlds, moving around ;
Some common centre,. gravitation strange !
Beyond the thought ot finite minds to scan.
Can HE, who in the highest heav'n sublime,
Enthron'd in glory, guides these mighty orbs,
Can HE behold this little spot of earth,
Lost midst the grandeur of the heav'nly host?
Can GOD bestow one thought on fall'n man ?

Turn, child of ignorance and narrow views,
Thy wilder'd sight, from off these dazzling scenes ;
Turn to thy earth and trace the wonders there.
Who pencils, with variegated shade,
The lowly flower, that decks the rippling stream,
Or gorgeously attires the lily race?
Who, with attentive care, each year provides,
A germ to renovate the fading plant,
And gives soft show'rs, and vivifying warmth ;
Kindling within the embryo inert,
The little spark of life, unseen by all,
Save him who gave it, and with care preserved ?
Who teaches, when this principle of life
Thus animated, swells the germ within,
And bursts its tomb, rising to light and air ;
Who teaches root and stem to find their place,
Each one to seek its proper element ?

Wh° gilds the insect's wings and leads it forth
To feast on sweets, and bask in sunny ray ?
None could the life of plant or insect give ;
Save GOD alone, HE rules and watches all ;
»Scorns not the least of all His works j much less
Man, made in his image, destin'd to exist,
When e'en yon brilliant worlds shall cease to be.
Then how should man rejoicing in his GOD,
Delight in His perfections, shadow'd forth
In every little flow'r, and blade of grass !
Each opening bud, and care perfected seed,
Is as a page, where we may read of GOD.

NOTE.

THE following description of genera and species is intended
to furnish exercises for the student in practical botany. It is
designed to include the most common indigenous and exotic
plants ; such as teachers can most readily procure for their
classes, .and such as pupils are most likely to meet with in
their botanical excursions. Those who expect to go beyond
the elements of the science, will find in the Manual of Profes-
sor Eaton a complete list of American plants.

Botanical Districts.

Eaton considers North America as divided into two botanical
districts , northern and southern. The dividing line to be drawn
from the mouth of Delaware river (N. Lat. 39°, W. Lon.
75°), to the south end of Lake Michigan (N. Lat. 41° 31') ;
leaving in the northern district all Pennsylvania, and the north
part of Delaware, Maryland and Ohio. The division line thus
rises as we go towards the west, because southern plants ex-
tend to higher latitudes on the western side of the Allegany
range, than on the eastern side.

The northern district is divided into eastern and western, by
a line drawn from the intersection of the Allegany range and
the Potomac river, in the direction of Cayuga lake. The
Allegany mountain is the dividing line in the southern district.

Explanation of figures, Letters and characters, used in the
Generic and Specific descriptions.

Numbers.

The first number following the generic description, is the
number of the natural order of Linnaeus, the second number
is that of Jussieu.

Letters*

E and W are used to denote that the plant is found in the
eastern or western division of either of the districts.

S, at the end of a description, shows that the plant grows in
the southern as well as northern district.

NOTE. 341

j

O (omnibus locis*), indicates that the plant is common to
the whole district.

A (alpine), indicates that the plant is most common on
mountains, or elevated places.

L (littoribus-\), indicates that the plant is most common at
or near shores.

Colours of Corollas.
r. red — p. purple — y. yellow — w. white — b. blue — g. green.

^ Time of Flowering.

Ap. April — M. May — J. June — Ju. July — Au. August —
S. September — Oc. October.

Duration, fyc.
© annual — $ biennial — ^perennial — J? woody.

Accent and quantity.

The marks over the generic and specific names, have re-
ference, not only to the syllable which is to be accented, but to
the quantity of the voivel in the accented syllable, as either
long or short.

Those syllables over which the single mark is placed, have
the vowel pronounced long, as in Fra-ga' -ri-a : those over
which the double mark is placed, have the vowel pronounced
short, as in lie-pat" -i-ca; in the latter case the stress of voice
seems thrown upon the consonant ; the two marks may, there-
fore, be considered as indicating that the consonant, as well
as vowel is accented.

The general rule respecting words of two syllables is sim-
ple, and renders it unnecessary to prefix to such words the
marks for accent and quantity.

Words of two syllables always have the accent on the fast ;
if the syllable end with a vowel it is long, as in Cro'-cus ; if it
end with a consonant it is short, as in Cac"-tus.

* Literally translated, in all places. t By shores.

29*

jr

GENERA OF PLANTS.

The following descriptions of genera and species, are mostly quoted from
Eaton's Manual ; a few however, have been selected from Pursh, and Torrey's
Botany, Withering's, and some others.

CLASS I. MONANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYNIA.

SALICOR"NIA. Calyx inflated, entire, 3 or 4-sided, obconic : corolla 0; style
2-cleft : seed 1, enclosed in the calyx. 12. 29— (samphire). S.

HIPPU'RIS. Calyx superior, obsolete, with a 2-lobed margin; corolla 0;
seed 1 : stigma simple : style in the groove of the anther. 15. 88— (marestail).

ORDER II. DIGYNIA.

BLI'TUM. Calyx 3-cleft, or 3-parted, berry-like : corolla 0 : seed 1, immersed
in the calyi* 12. 29— (blite).

CLASS II. DIANDRIA.

ORDER I. MOftOGYNIA.

A- Corolla l-petalled, inferior, Regular : seeds in a drupe or nut.

LIGUS"TRUM. Calyx 4-toothed : corolla with 4 ovate divisions : berry 1 or
2-celled, 2 or 4-seeded. 44. 37— (prim).

CHIONAN"THUS. Calyx 4-parted ; corolla 4-parted, with very long divi-
sions ; nucleus of the drupe, striate-fibrous. 44. 37— (fringe-tree).

Exotics.

JAS"MINUM. Corolla salver-form, 5 to 8 cleft : berry 2-seeded, each seed
solitary, arilled. 44. 37 — (jasmine).

SYRIN"GA. Corolla salver-form : capsule 2-celled. 44. 37 — (lilac).
B. Corolla l-petalled, inferior, irregular; seeds in capsules.

VERON"ICA. Calyx 4-parted : corolla cleft into 4 lobes, lower division
smaller -. capsule obcordate, few-seeded, 2-celled. 40. 35— (speedwell). S.

LEPTAN"DRA. Calyx 5-parted, segments acuminate : corol tubular cam-
panulate, border 4-lobed, a little ringent, lower segment narrower : stamens
and at length the pistils much exserted : capsule ovate, acuminate, opening at
the top. 40. 35— (culver's physic). S.

GRA'TIOLA. Calyx 5-parted, often with 2 bracts at the base: corol irregu-
lar, resupinate, 2-lipped, upper lip 2-lobed, lower one equally 3-cleft : stigma
2-lipped ; capsule 2-celled, 2 valved. 40. 40 — (hedge-hyssop.) S.

LINDER"NIA. Calyx 4-parted : corol resupinate, tubular, 2-lipped ; upper
lip short, reflexed, emarginate ; lower one trifid, unequal : filaments 4, the 2
longer ones forked and barren : capsule 2-celled, 2-valved, the dissepiment
parallel to the valves. 40. 40. S.

CATAL"PA. Corolla 4 or 5-cleft, somewhat inflated, bell-form : calyx 2-part-
ed or 2. leaved : stigma 2-lipped : capsule cylindric, 2-celled. 40. 45— (catalpa
tree.) S.

C. Corolla l-petalled, inferior, irregular ; seeds naked.

MONAR"DA. Calyx cylindric, striated, 5-toothed : corolla ringent, tubular,
tipper lip lance-linear, involving the filaments, lower lip reflexed, 3-lobed. 42.
39 — (Oswego tea, mountain-mint). S.

LYCO'PUS. Calyx tubular, 5-cleft or 5-toothed : corol tubular, 4-cleft, near-
ly equal : upper division broader and emarginate : stamens distant : seeds 4,
retuse. 42. 39— (water horehound). 5.

344 CLASS III. ORDER II.

SAL"VIA. Calyx tubular, striated, 2 lipped, under lip 2 to 3-toothed,
lower lip 2-cleft: corolla ringent, upper lip concave, lower lip broad, three -
lobed, the middle lobe the largest, notched ; stamens with two spreading
branches, one of which bears a one-celled anther ; germ four cleft ; stylo
thread-shaped, curved ; seeds 4, in the bottom of the calyx. 42. 39 — (sage). X.

COLLINSO'NIA. Calyx tubular, 2-lipped, upper lip 3-loothed : corolla funnel-
form, unequal, under lip many-cleft, capillary : one perfect seed. 42. 3U —
(horse-balm). S.

Exotic.

ROSMARI'NUS. Corolla ringent, upper lip 2-parted : filaments long, curved,
simple, with a tooth. 42. 3U — (rosemary).

D. Corolla superior.

CIRC^E'A. Calyx 2-leaved or 2-parted ; corolla 2-petalled : capsule hispid,
2-celled, not gaping ; cells 1 or 2 seeded, seed* oblong. 48. 88— (enchanter's
nightshade). >'.

ORDER II. DYOTNIA.

ANTHOXAN"THUM. Calyx of two egg-shaped, pointed, concave, chaffy
scales ; 1 flowered ; corolla of two equal husks, shorter than the calyx, awned
on the back ; an internal corolla or nectary, consisting of two egg-shaped
minute scales ; stamens longer than the corolla ; anther oblong, forked at both
ends ; germ superior ; seed, one. 4. 10— (sweet vernal grass). S.

CLASS III. TRIANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYNIA.

A. Flowers superior.

I'RIB. Calyx spatha 2 or 3-valved : corolla 6-parted, divisions alternately
reflexed : stigmas 3, petal-like : style short : capsule 3-celled. 6. 18— (flower-
de-luce, iris or flag). S.

Exotic.

CRO'CUB. Spatha radical : corolla funnel form, with a long slender tube :
stigma deep-gashed, crested. 6. 18 — (saffron).
Southern.

IX"IA. Spatha 2 or 3-valved, ovate, short ; corolla 6-parted or 6-petalled ;
sometimes tubular : stamens strait or incurved ; stigmas sub-filiform (black
berry-lily). 6. 18.

B. Flowers inftrinr.

COMMELI'NA. Spatha cordate ; perianth 3-leaved : corolla 3-petalled sub-
equal : 3 barren filaments — sonic-times the whole 6 filaments bear anthers ;
stigma simple : nectaries 3, cross-form, inserted on peculiar filaments : capsule
sub-globose, 3-oelled, cells ^-seeded or empty. 6. 13 — (day-flower). S.

XY'RIS. Calyx a cartilaginous glume, 2 or 3-valved, in a head : corolla 3-
petnlled, equal, crenate : capsule 3-valved, many -seeded. 6. 13— (yellow-eyed-
grasa). <S\

ORDER. II. DYGYM.V.
A. Spiketets \-fiovered : corolla* without iifioitire rudiments of flowers at the ba»e.

(C" ' n different in texture).

LEER"SIA. Calyx 0 ; corol 2-valved, closed ; valves compressed, boat
shaped : nectary obovale, entire, collateral : stamens varying in number. 4.
10— (cut-grass). S.

Ezotir.

SAC"CHARUM. Calyx involucred with long wool at the base, 2-valved : co-
rolla 1 or 2-valved : stamens 1 to 3. 4. 10 — (sugar-cane).

(Cf.lt/r and Curoi'u m similar texture — -fioicersin spreading panicles).
AGROS"TIS. Calyx herbaceous, 2-valved, 1-flowered, valves acute : a little
less llian the corolla : corolla 2-valved, membranaceous, often hairy at the
base : stigmas longitudinally hispid or plumose, florets spreading : nectary
lateral : seed coated. 4. 10 -(redtop). S.

ARDN"DO. Calyx 2-valved, unequal, membranaceous, surrounded with hair
at the base ; lower valve niucronate or slightly awned. Sometimes these is a
pencil-form rudimentat the base of the upper valve. 4. 10 — (reed).
(Ca/yor and corolla of similar texture — -Jiwcers in compact panicles, often »pikar

furm\
Calyx hard, &valved, equal, sessile, linear, truncate, bieuspidate .

CLASS IV. ORDER I. 345

corolla enclosed in the calyx, 2-valved, awnless, truncate. 4. 10 — (timothy-
grass). S.
B. Spikelets 1 flowered ; corolla with 1 or 2 abortive rudiments of flowers at th*

base.

(Calyx and corolla of similar texture).

PHALA'RIS. Calyx membranaceous, 2-valved, valves keeled, nerved, equal
in length, including the 2-valyed pilose corolla. The corolla is shorter than
the calyx and coriaceous : rudiments opposite, sessile, resembling valves : nec-
tary lateral. 4. 10 — (ribbon-grass, canary-grass). -S.
C. Spikelets many-flowered.
(Flowers in panicles ; corolla unarmed).

BRI'ZA. Spikelets heart-ovate, many-flowered : calyx chaffy, shorter than
the 2-ranked florets : corolla ventricose : lower valve cordate, upper one orbi-
cular, short. 4. 10 — (quake-grass). S.

PO'A. Spikelets oblong or linear, compressed, many-flowered : calyx short-
er than the florets : corolla herbaceous, awnless, often arachnoid at the base ;
lower valve scarious at the margin. 4. 10. — (spear-grass). S.

Exotic.

SORG"HUM. Florets in pairs, one perfect, with a 3-valved corolla, and ses-
sile ; the other staminate or neutral, and pedicelled. 4. 10— (broom-corn).

(Flowers in panicles ; corol armedtor mucronate.)

DAC"TYLIS. Spikelets aggregated in unilateral heads, many-flowered : ca-
lyx shorter than the florets, with one large glume, keeled, pointed •. corolla
with the lower valve keeled, emarginate, mucronate ; upper valve sub-condu-
plicate. 4. 10— (orchard-grass.) S.

AVE'NA. Calyx 2-valved ; 2, 3, or many flowered : corolla, valves mostly
bearded at the base, lower one torn, with a twisted awn on the back : glumes
membranaceous, and somewhat follicle-like : seed coated. 4. 10 — (oats). S.

D. Flowers in spikes.

LO'LIUM. Calyx 1 -leafed, permanent, many flowered ; florets in many flow-
ered 2-rowed simple sessile spikelets on a rachis : lower valve of the corolla
herbaceous-membranaceous, mucronate, or bristled at the tip. 4. 10 — (darnel-
grass.)

TRI'TICUM. Calyx 2-valved, about 3-flowered ; florets sessile on the teeth
of the rachis, obtusish and pointed ; glumes beardless, or interruptedly bearded.
4. 10. — (wheat).

SECA'LE. Calyx 2-valved, 2 or 3-flowered : spikelets sessile on the teeth of
the rachis, with the terminal floret abortive : calyx 2-valved ; glumes subulate,
opposite, shorter than the florets : corolla with the lower varre long-awned.
4. lO-(rye).

E. Flowers polygamous.

(in panicles').

PAN"ICUM. Calyx 2-valved, 2-flowered ; the lower glume generally very
small ; the lower floret abortive, 1 or 2-valved ; the lower valve resembling
the calyx, the upper one membranaceous : perfect floret with cartilaginous
valves, unarmed. 4. 10— (cockfoot-grass, panic-grass). -S.

(In spikes).

HOR"DEUM. Spikelets 3 at each joint of the rachis, 1 or 2-flowered, all per-
fect, or the lateral ones abortive : glume lateral, subulate : perfect flower with
a 2-valved corolla ; lower valve ending in a bristle : seed coated. 4. 10—
(barley).

ORDER III. TRIGYNJA.

MOLLU'GO. Calyx 5-leaved, coloured within : corol 0 : capsule 3-celled, 3-
valred. 22. 82— (carpet-weed). S.

CLASS IV. TETRANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYNIA.
A. Flowers superior.

(1-petalled).

CEPHALAN"THUS. Inflorescence in a head : general calyx none ; proper ca-
lyx superior, minute, angular, 4-cleft : corolla funnel-form ; receptacle globu-
lar, hairy: capsules 2 to 4-partible : seed solitary, oblong. 48. 56— (buttou-
bush). S.

346 CLASS V. ORDER I.

DIP"SACUS. Flowers in an ovate or roundish capitulum ; common calyx
(involucre) polyphyllous, foliaceous ; proper calyx monophyllous, superior :
corol tubular, 4-cleft : seed solitary, with a wine-glass -form egret : receptacle,
conic, paleaceous. 48. 56 — ;, tassel).

GA'LIUM. Calyx 4-toothed : corolla flat, 4-cleft: fruit dry : seeds 2, round-
ish : (leaves stellate). 47 — 57 — ^bedstrawj. A'.

HOCSTO'NIA. Calyx half superior, 4-toothed : corolla salver-form, 4-cleft ;
capsule 2-celled, many-.-- ' -d, opening transversely. 47. 57) — (Venus'
pride). S. .

MITCHEL"I.A. Car j. t,> : corols 2 on each gorm, funnel-form ; tab*
cylindric ; limit ' \f'~r. lose on the inside: stamens scarcely

exsert; stiginii 1-, , . s. cdcd. 4*. 57— partridge-berry ).$.

LIN.N./E'A. Calyx doubV; nwtof the fruit 2-leaved, inferior ; that of the
flower 5-parted : corolla bell-form, 5-lobed ; stamens somewhat didynamous ;
stigma globose : berry 3-celled, dry, generally producing a perfect seed in but
one cell. 48. 58— vtwin-flower).

Southern.

RU'BIA. Calyx 4-toothed i corolla 4 or 5-cleft, bell-form : berries 2, one-
seeded, (stamens 4-5 ; leaves stellate). 47.57 — (madder).
(\-petu //"/.)

COR"NUS. Calyx 4-toothed : drupe with a 2-celled nut. Some species have
a 4-leaved involucrum. 45. 58— (dogwood, false box). S.

LUDWE'GIA. Calyx 4 parted, persistent : corol sometimes 0 : capsule quad-
rangular, 4-ceiled, inferior, many-seeded. 17. 88.— 5.
B. Plotters inferior,
(l-pe tolled).

PLANTA'GO. Calyx 4-cleft r corolla 4-cleft, reflexed : capsule 2-celled, open-
ing ^transversely : stamens exsert, very long. 54. 31— (plantain, ribwort). <S.

ECUI"UM. Calyx 5-parted ; segments subulate, erect : corol sub-campanu-
late; tube very short ; border unequally 5-lobed, the lower segment acute and
reflexed ; orifice naked : stigma bifid ; seeds tuberculate, not perforated at the
base. 41. 42.

Southern.

LY'CIDM. Corolla tubular, having the throat closed by the beards of the
filamejits : stamens often 5 : berry 2-celled ; many-seeded. 28. 41 — (matri-
mony).

(Apetalous\

ICTO'DES. , General calyx a spatha ; spadix simple, covered with flowers ;
perianth corolla-like, deeply 4-parted, permanent, becoming thick and spongy :
style pymmid-form, 4-sided ; stigma simple, minute ; berries globose, 2-seeded,
inclosed in the spongy spadix receptacle: 2. 7 — (skunk-cabbage).

ORDER II. DIGYSIA.

HAMAME'LIS. Involucrum 3-leaved : perianth 4-leaved or 4-rleft : petals 4,
very long, linear : nut 2-celled, 2-horned. 54. 78— (witch-hazel). Flowers
in autumn, and perfects its seed the following spring. S.

ORDER IV. TETRAGYNIA.

ILEX. Calyx minute, 4 or 5-toothed : corolla 4-parted, wheel-form : style
0 : stigmas 4; berry 4-celled, cells 1-seeded. 43. 95— (holly).

CLASS V. PENTANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYNIA.

A. Flowers l-petalled, inferior ; seeds naked in the bottom of the calyx.

ROUGH-LEAVED PLANTS.

MYOSO'TIS. Calyx half 5-cleft or 5-cleft ; corolla salver-form, curved, 5-
cleft, vaulted, the lobes slightly emarginate ; throat closed with 5 convex con-
verging scales : seeds smooth or echinate. 41 42 — (scorpion grass). S.

CYNOGLOS"SUM. Calyx 5-parted : corolla short, funnel-form, vaulted ;
throat closed by 5 converging convex processes; seeds depressed, affixed lat-
erally to the style. 41. 42- (hound-tongue). S.
Exotic.

BORA'GO. Corolla wheel-form, the throat closed with rays. 41. 42— (borage).

ANCHU'SA. Calyx 5-parted ; corolla funnel-form, vaulted ; throat closed ;

CLASS V. ORDER I. 347

seeds marked at the base, and their surface generally veined. 41. 42 — (bug-
loss).

SYM"PHYTUM. Limb, or upper part of the corolla, tubular-swelling ; the
throat closed with subulate rays, 41. 42 — (comfrey).

Southern.

HELIOTRO'PIUM. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed; corolla salver-form, 5-cleft,
with teeth or folds between the divisions ; throat open. (Spikes recurved, in-
volute). 41.42 — (turnsol).

B. Flowers l-petalled, inferior; seeds covered.

{Capsule 1 celled).

ANAGAL/'LIS. Calyx 5 parted ; corolla wheel-form, deeply 5-lobed ; cap-
sule opening transversely, globose, many-seeded ; stamens hairy. 20. 34—
(scarlet pimpernel;. S.

LYSIMACH"IA. Calyx 5-cleft; corolla wheel-form, 5-cleft ; capsule 1-celled,
globular, 5 or 10-valved, mucronate : stigma obtuse. (In some species the
filaments are united at the base;. 20.34 — (.loose-strife). &.

PRI'MULA. Umbellets inyolucred : calyx tubular, 5-toothed ; corolla salver-
form, 5-lobed ; tube cylindric ; throat open ; divisions of corolla emarginate ;
capsule 1-celled with a 10-cleft mouth : stigma globular. 21. 34 — (primrose
cowslip).

(Capsule 2-celled — rarely 3-celled).

VERBAS"CUM. Calyx 5-parted ; corolla wheel-form, 5 lobed, somewhat iis
regular ; stamens declined, hairy ; capsules 2-celled, 2-valved ; valves inflex-
ed when ripened, many-seeded. 28.41 — (mullein). S.

NICOTIA'NA. Calyx urceolate, sub-tubular, 5-cleft; corolla funnel-form,
5-cleft, limb plaited : stigma notched, capitate ; stamens inclined ; capsules
2-celled, 2 to4-valved. 28.41 — ^tobacco).

CONVOL/'VULUS. Calyx 5-parted, with or without 2 bracts ; corolla funnel-
form, plaited ; stigma 2-cleft or double ; cells of the capsule 2 or 3 ; each one
or 2 seeded. 29. 43— (bind-weed). S.

IPOM^E'A. Calyx 5-cleft ; naked ; corolla funnel or bell-form, with 5 folds ;
stigma globe-headed, papillose ; capsule 2 or 3-celled, many seeded. 29. 43 —
(cypress vine, morning glory). S.

(Capsule 3 to 5 celled).

PHILOX. Calyx prismatic, 5-cleft ; segments converging : corolla salver-
form, 5-lobed, with a tube somewhat curved ; filaments unequal in length, at-
tached to the inside of the tube of the corolla ; stigmas 3-cleft ; cells 1 seeded,
seeds oblong, concave. 20. 44 — (lichnedia). S.

DATU'RA. Calyx tubular, angled, caducous, with a permanent orbicular
base ; corolla funnel-form, plaited ; capsule 4-valved, 2-celled, and each cell
half divided; generally thorny. 28.41 — (thorn-apple). S.

AZA'LEA. Calyx 5-parted ; corolla tubular, half 5-cleft, somewhat oblique ;
stamens on the receptacle, declined ; stigma declined, obtuse, usually ending
with 5 short papillae ; capsule 5-celled, 5-valved, opening at the top. 18. 50—
(wild honeysuckle). S.

VIN"C A. Corolla salver-form, twisted, border 5-cleft, with oblique divisions ;
throat 5-angled ; seed naked, oblong ; follicle-like capsules 2, erect, terete,
narrow. 30. 47.

(Seed in a berry).

SOLA'NUM. Calyx 5 to 10-parted, permanent ; corolla bell or wheel-form,
5-lobed, plaited ; anthers thickened, partly united, with two pores at the top ;
berry containing many seeds, 2 to 6-celled. 28. 41 — (potatoe, nightshade, bit-
ter-sweet). (S.

Exotic.

CAP"SICUM. Corolla wheel-form ; berry juiceless, inflated ; anthers con-
verging ; calyx angular. 28.41 — ;red pepper).

C. floirers 1-petaUed, superior.

(Seeds in a capsule.)

CAMPANULA. Calyx mostly 5-cleft ; corolla bell-form, closed at the bottom
by valves bearing the flattened stamens ; stigma 3 to 5-cleft ; capsules 3 to
5-celled, opening by lateral pores. 29. 52 --^bell-flower). &.

LOBE'LIA Calyx 5-cleft ; corolla irregular, often irregularly slitted ; an-
thers cohering, and somewhat curved ; stigma 2-lobed ; capsule 2 or 3-celled.
29. 52 — (cardinal flower, wild tobacco). S.

348 CLASS V. ORDER IL

DIERVIL"LA. Calyx oblong, 5-cleft, with 2 bracts ; corolla 5-cleft, twice as
long as the calyx, funnel-form ; border 5-cleft, spreading ; stigma capitate ;
capsule oblong, 4-celled, naked, many-seeded. 48 58 — (bush honeysuckle. 5.
(Heeds in a^terry.)

LO.VICE'RA. CAPIFO'LIUM. Calyx 5-toothed ; cbrolla tubular, long, 5-cleft,
unequal ; stamens exsert ; stigmas globose ; berry 2 or 3-celled, distinct ; seeds
many. 48. 58. — (trumpet honey suckle). S.

XYLOS"TEUM. Calyx 5-toothed, with 2 connate bracts ; corolla tubular ;
border 5-parted, nearly equal ; berries in pairs, united at their bases, or com-
bined in one ; 2-celled. 48. 58 — (fly honeysuckle, twin-berry).

Exotic.

MIRA'BILIS. Corolla funnel-form, coarctate (compressed or narrowed) be-
low ; calyx inferior ; germ between the calyx and corolla ; stigma globular.
64. 32— (four-o'clock).

D. Flowers 5-petatted, inferior.

(Seed in a capsule.)

IMPA'T IENS. Calyx 2-leaved, deciduous ; corolla irregular, spurred ; anthers
cohering at the top ; capsule 5-valved, bursting elastically when ripe. 24. 73—
(touch-me-not, jewel weed). S.

VI'OLA. Calyx 5-leaved or deeply 5-cleft, corolla irregular, with a horn be-
hind (sometimes the horn is wanting or a mere prominence) ; anthers attached
by a membranous tip, or slightly cohering ; capsule 1 -celled, 3 valved. 29. 80.
— (violet). S.

CLAYTO'NIA. Calyx 2-leaved or 2-parted, the leaves valve-like : corolla 3-
petalled, emarginate : stigma 3-cleft : capsule 1-celled, 3-valved, 3 to 5-seeded.
13. 86— (spring beauty). <S'.

CEAN'OTHOS. Petals scale-like, vaulted : claws long, standing in the 5-cleft,
cup-form calyx ; stigma 3 berry or capsule dry, 3-grained, 3-celled, 3-seeded,
3-parted, opening on the inner side. 43. 95 — (New Jersey tea) S.

CELAS"TRUS. Calyx 5-lobed, flat : corolla spreading : capsule obtusely 3-
angled, 3-celled, berry-like : valves bearing the partitions on their centres ;
cells 1 or 2-seeded : stamens standing around a glandular 5-toothetl disk : style
thick : stigma 3-cleft : seeds calyptred or arilled. 43. 95— (staff tree, fake
bittersweet).

Exotic.

GOMPHRE"NA. Calyx 5-leaved, coloured ; exterior one 3-leaved ; 2 leafets
converging, keeled ; petals 5, villose, (or rather no corolla ;) nectary cylindric,
5-toothed: capsule opening transversely, 1-seeded : style semi-bifid. 55.30 —
(bachelor's button).

(Seed in a berry.)

VI'TIS. Calyx 5-toothed, minute : petals cohering at the tip, hood-like,
withering : style 0 : stigma obtuse, capitate : berry 5-seeded, globular, often
dioecious ; seeds sub-cordate. 46. 72— (grape vine). S.

AMPELOP"SIS. Cissus, calyx, minute, 4-5-toothed : petals 4-5, unconnected
above, deciduous : germ surrounded with aglandulous disk : berry 2-4 seeded

E. Flowers 5-petalled, inferior.

RI'BTCS. Calyx bell-form, 5-cleft, (sometimes flat) : corolla and stamens in-
serted on the calyx: style 2-cleft : berry many-seeded 36. 85 -(currant,
gooseberry). S.

Exotic. +,

HKD"ERA. Petals oblong : berry 5-seeded, surrounded by the calyx : style
simple. 46.58 — (European ivy).

ORDER II. DIGTNIA.

A. Corolla l-petalled, inferior.

GEPTTIA'NA. Calyx 4 or 5-cleft : corolla with a tubular base, bell-form, with-
out pores, 4 or 5-cleft : stigmas 2, sub-sessile : copsule 1-celled oblong : colu-
mellas 2, longitudinal : stamens but 4, when the divisions of corolla are 4. 47.
46 — (gentian).

CUS"CUTA. Calyx 4 or 5-cleft, corolla 4 or 5-cleft, sub-campanulate, wither-

CLASS V. ORDER. H. 349

ing : capsule 2-celled, dividing transversely at the base ; seeds binate. 29. 43
—(dodder).

B. Corolla 5-petalled.

PA'NAX. Polygamous. Umbelled. Involucrum many-leaved : calyx 5-
toothed in the perfect flower, superior : berry heart-form, 2 or 3-seeded : calyx
in the staminate flower, entire. 46. 59— (ginseng).

C. Corolla wanting.

CHENOPO'DIUM. Calyx 5-parted, obtusely 5-angled, inferior : style deeply 2-
cleft : seed 1, lens-like, horizontal, invested by the calyx. 12. 29 — (pigweed,
oak of Jerusalem). S.

UL"MUS. Calyx bell-form, withering ; border 4 or 5-cleft : seed ], enclosed
in a flat membranaceous samara. (Stamens vary from 4 to 8). 53. 99—
(elm). S.

Exotic.

BE'TA. Calyx 5-leaved : seed kidney-form within the fleshy substance of
the base of the calyx. 12. 29— (beet).

D. Plants umbelliferous : flowers 5-petalled, superior : seeds 2.
(Seeds prickly or hispid.)

SANIC"ULA. Seeds with hooked prickles, oblong, solid : umbels nearly sim-
ple, capitate : flowers polygamous :t involucre few-flowered: calyx 3-parted,
permanent. 45. 60. <S.

DA'UCUS. Seeds striate on their joining sides : outer sides convex, having
hispid ribs : involucrum pinnatifid : flowers sub-radiated, abortive in the disk.
45. 60— (carrot). S.

URASPER"MUM. SCANDIX. MYRRHIS. CHAEROPHYLLUM. Seeds sub-
linear, solid, acute-angled, not striate ; ribs 5-acute ; angles a little furrowed,
hispid; the joining sides furrowed, and attached to a 2-cleft columella-like re-
ceptacle : style subulate, permanent, rendering the seed caudate : involucrum
none or few-leaved. Fruit stiped, oblanceolate, polished, part of it hispid. 45.
GO — (sweet cicely).

(Seeds with wing-like ribs.')

ANGELICA. Seeds with three ribs on their backs, and winged margins :
intervals between the ribs grooved : germ oval, corticate ; general involucrum
none. 45. 60 — (angelica).

PASTINA'CA. Seeds emarginate at the apex, somewhat winged : ribs 3 be-
sides the wings : intervals striate ; joining sides 2-striate : germ oval, com-
pressed, perianth-calyx entire : petals entire, incurved, sub-equal involucrum
none. 45. 60— (parsnip).

Exotic.

ANE'THUM. Seeds flat or convex, 5-ribbed : germ lenticular, compressed :
calyx and petals entire : involucrums none. 45. 60 — (fennel, dill).
(Seeds with 3 ribs, nearly equal.)
Exotic.

CA'RUM. Seeds oblong-ovate, striate : petals carinate, emarginate, inflexed ;
involucrum about 1-leaved. 45. 60— (caraway).

(Seeds with 5 ribs, nearly equal.)

CO'NIUM. Seeds 5-ribbed ; ribs at first crenate with flat intervals between
them ; germ ovate, gibbous ; perianth entire ; petals unequal, cordate, inflexed ;
general involucrum about three to 5-leaved : partial ones mostly 3-leaved, uni-
lateral. 45. 60 — (poison hemlock).

CICU'TA. Seeds gibbous-convex; ribs 5, obtuse, converging, with interve-
ning tuberculate grooves and prominences ; joining sides flat ; germ sub-glo-
bose, corticate, compressed laterally ; calyx obsolete, 5-toothed ; petals cordate
inflexed ; partial involucrums 5 or 6-leaved, or wanting. 45. 60 — (water
hemlock). -S.

Exotic.

A'PIUM. Seeds convex externally ; ribs 5, small, a little prominent ; germ
sub-globose ; perianth entire ; petals equal, roundish, inflexed at the apex ; invo-
lucrum 1 to 3-leaved or wanting. 45. 60 — (celery, parsley).

CORIAN"DRUM. Seeds sub-spherical ; germ spherical ; perianth 5-toothed ;
petals cordate inflexed, outer ones largest ; involucrum 1-leaved, or wanting
45. 60 -(coriander).

30

350 CLASS VI. ORDER I.

Southern.

ARETHU'SA. Fruit ovate, sub-solid, having bark ; ribs acute and turgid, in-
tervals acute-angled ; joining sides flat, striate ; involucrum 1-sided, or none.
45. 60— (fools' parsley).

ORDER III. TRIGVNIA.

A. Flowers superior.

VIBUR"NUM. Calyx 5-parted or 5-toothed, small ; corolla bell-form, 5-cleft,
with spreading or reflexed lobes ; stigmas almost sessile : berry or drupe 1-
eeeded. 43. 58— (snowball, sheep-berry, high cranberry). S.

SAMBU'CUS. Calyx 5-parted or 5-cleft, small ; corolla sub-urceolate, 5-cleft ;
stigma minute, sessile : berry globose, 1-celled, 3-seeded. 43. 58— (elder). A*.

B. Flowers inferior.

RHUS. Calyx 5-parted, ; petals 5 ; berry 1-seeded, small, sub-globular. 43.
94— (sumach, poison-ivy), o.

STAPHYLE'A. Calyx 5-parted, coloured ; petals 5 on the margin of a glan-
dular 5-angled disk ; capsules inflated, connate ; nuts globular, having a cica-
trice, 1 or 2 remaining in each capsule, though several appear a* rudiments
while in bloom. 23. 95— (bladder nut). S.

ORDER IV. TETRAGYMA.

PARNAS"SIA. Calyx inferior, permanent, 5-parted ; corolla 5-petalled ; nec-
taries 5-fringed, with stamen-like divisions ; globular tips ; stigmas sessile ; cajv-
«ule 4-valved, 1 or 2-celled ; seed membranaceous margined. 14. 64 — (par-
nassus grass, flowering plantain). S.

ORDER V. PEXTAOYMA.

ARA'LIA. Umbellets involucred ; perianth 5-toothed, superior ; petals 5 ;
stigmas sessile, sub-globose ; berry crowned, 5-celled ; cells 1-seeded. 46. J9
—(spikenard, wild sarsaparilla). S.

LI'NUM. Calyx 5-leaved or 5-parted, permanent ; corolla 5-petalled, inferi-
or, with claws ; capsule 5 or 10-valved, 10 celled ; seeds solitary, ovate, com-
pressed ; filaments spreading or united at the base- 14. 73— (flax). S.

OKDCR VI. HF.XAKYNIA.

DROS"ERA. Calyx inferior, deeply "•-< 1. ft, permanent ; petals 5, marcescent ;
anthers ad nate ; styles 6, or one deeply divided ; capsule round, 1 or 3-<-flli'd,
muny seeded; valves equalling th«- number of stigmas. 20. 68 — (sundew .
The leaves of all the species are beset with glandular hairs resembling dew. N.

OXDKR XIII. I'tJl Yl.Y.MA.

ZANTHORHI'ZA. Calyx 0 ; petals 5 ; nectaries 5, pedicelled ; capsule half
2-valved, 1-seeded, about 5 in number. 26. 61— (yellow root;. .S.

CLASS VI. HEXANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGVNIA.

A. Flowers having a perianth and corolla, without a spalha.

TRADESCAN"TIA. Calyx inferior, 3-1. nv( d ; corolla 3-petallod ; filament*
with jointed beards ; capsules 3-celled, many seeded. 6. 13 — (.spider-unit . N.

BER"BKRIS. MAHONIA. Calyx inferior, 6-leaved ; petals C, fnthSclaodf
at the claw of each ; style 0 ; berry 1-celled, 2 or 4-seeded (stigma umbilicate ;
Btaiiu-ns spring up on being irritated). 54. 78— (barberry.'* S.

CLEO'ME. Calyx 4-leaved, inferior ; petals 4, ascending to one side ; glands
3, one at each sinuate division of the calyx except the lowest ; stamens from
6 to 20, or more ; capsule stiped or sessile, silique-like, often 1-celled, 2-valved.
Does not belong to the class Tetradynamia by its natural or artificial charac-
ters. It has no sttuiue, though the capsule appears like a silique, until it is
opened. 25. 64— (false mustard).

B. Flowers having a spatha or glume, without aperiantlt.

AMARYL"MS. Corolla superior, 6-petalled, unequal ; filaments unequal in
proportion or direction, declined, inserted in the throat of the tube. 9. 17 —
(atamask lily). «S.

AL"L,IUM. Spatha many -flowered ; corolla inferior, G^arted, very deeply

CLASS VI. ORDER I. 351

divided; divisions ovate, spreading; capsule 3-celled, 3-valved, many-seeded
(flowers inclose umbels or heads). 9. 16- (leek, garlic, onion, cives). S.

HYPOX''IS. Glume-like spatha, 2-valved ; corolla superior, 6-parted, perma-
nent ; capsule elongated, narrow at the base, 3-celled, many -seeded ; seed
roundish. 10. 17 — (star-grass). S.

PONTEDE'RIA. Corolla inferior, 6-cleft, 2-lipped, with 3 longitudinal per-
forations below ; capsule with utricles, fleshy, 3-celled, many-seeded ; 3 sta-
mens commonly inserted on the tip, and 3 on the tube of the corolla. 6. 17—
(pickerel weed). 5.

Exotic.

GALAN"THUS. Petals 3, concave, superior ; nectaries (or inner petals) 3
small, emarginate ; stigma simple. 6. '17 — (snowdrop).

NARCIS"SUS. Corolla bell-form, spreading, 6-parted or six petalled, equal,
superior ; nectary bell-form, 1-leafed, enclosing the stamens. 9. 17 — (jonquil,
daffodil).

C. Flowers having no calyx.

HEMEROCAL"LIS. Corolla 6-parted, tubular, funnel-form ; stamens declined ;
stigma small, simple, somewhat villose. 10. 16— (day-lilyj.

ORNITHOG"ALUM. Corolla 6-petalled, inferior, erect, permanent, spreading
above the middle ; filaments dilated, or subulate, at the base ; capsule round-
ish, angled, 3 celled ; seed roundish, naked. 10. 16 — (star of Bethlehem). •$>.

LI'LIUM. Corolla liliaceous, inferior, 6-petalled ; petals with a longitudinal
line from the middle to the base ; stamens shorter than the style ; stigma undi-
vided ; capsule sub-triangular, with the valves connected by hairs crossing
as in a seive. 10. 14 — (lily). S.

ERYTHRO'NIUM. Corolla liliaceous, inferior, 6-petalled ; petals reflexed,
having two pores and two tubercle-form nectaries at the base of the three in-
ner alternate petals ; capsule somewhat stiped ; seeds ovate. 11. 14 — (dog-
tooth violet, or adder tongue). .S.

UVULA'RIA. Corolla inferior, 6-petalled, with a nectariferous hollow at the
base of each petal ; filaments very short, growing to the anthers ; stigmas re-
flex ; capsule 3-cornered, 3-celled, 3-valved ; with transverse partitions ; seeds
many, sub-globose, arilled at the hilum. 1 1, 14 — (bell-wort). S.

CONVALLA'RIA. SMILACI'NA. POLYGONA'TUM. DRAC^'NA. Corolla in-
ferior, 6-cleft ; berry globose, 3-celled, spotted before ripening. 11. 12 — (solo-
mon seal). /S.

ASPAR'AGUS. Corplla inferior, 6-parted, erect ; the three inner divisions re-
flexed at the apex : style very short ; stigmas 3 ; berry 3-celled, cells 2-seeded.
11. 12 — (asparagus).

Exotic.

POLYAN'THES. Corolla funnel-form, incurved ; filaments inserted in the
throat : stigma 3-cleft : germ within the bottom of the corolla. 10. 17 — (tu-
berose).

HYACIN"THUS. Corolla roundish or bell-form, equal, 6-cleft ; three necta-
riferous pores at the top of the germ : stamens inserted in the middle of the
corolla; cells somewhat 2-seeded. 10. 16— (hyacinth).

TU'LIPA. Corolla 6-petalled, liliaceous, style 0; stigma thick ; capsule ob-
long, 3-sided. 10. 14— (tulip).

ASPHO'DELUS. Corolla 6-parted, spreading ; nectary covering the germ
with 6 valves. 10. 16— (king's spear, or asphodel).
Southern.

FRITTILLA'RIA. Corolla inferior, 6-petalled, bell-form, with a nectariferous
cavity above the claw of each ; stamens of the length of the corolla ; seeds
flat. 10. 14 — (crown imperial).

SCIL/'LA. Corolla 6-petalled, spreading, caducous ; filaments thread-form,
attached to the base of the petals. 10. 14— (squills).

1). Flowers incomplete ; having perianth-like calyx or corolla ; but neither in
perfection

AC"ORUS. Receptacle spadix-like, cylindric, covered with florets ; calyx 6-
parted, naked ; corolla 0 (or calyx none, corolla 6-parted or 6-petalled) : style
none : stigma a mere point ; capsule 3-celled, 3-seeded. 2. 13— (sweet flag). S.

JUN"CUS. Glume or outer calyx, 2-valved ; perianth inferior, 6-leaved,
glume-like, permanent ; stigmas 3: capsules 1 or 2- celled, 3-valved, many seed-
ed ; seeds attached to a partition in the middle of each valve. 5. 13— (rush-
grass, bulrush). -S.

352 CLASS VH. CLASS V1IL

ORDER II. DIGTNIA.

Exotic.

ORY'ZA. Calyi, glume 2-valved, 1-flowered ; coroUa 2-vaIved, adhering to
the seed. 4. 10— (nee).

ORDER III. TRIGYMA.

VERA'TRUM. Polygamous. Calyx 0 ; corolla 6-parted, expanding ; seg-
ments sessile, without glands ; stamens inserted upon the receptacle ; capsules
3 united, many-seeded. 10. 13. IS.

TRIL"LIUM. Calyx 3-leaved, inferior, spreading ; corolla 3-petalled ; styles
0 ; stigmas 3 ; berry 3-celled, many seeded. 11. 12 — (false wake robin). S.

RU'MEX. Calyx 3-leayed ; petals 3, valve-like, converging, (or calyx 6-leav-
ed and corolla none) ; stigmas many cleft; seed 1, naked. 3-sided. 12. 28 —
(dock, field sorrel). S.

Southern.

CHAM^E'ROPS. Flowers polygamous ; spatha compressed ; spadix branch-
ed ; perianth 3-parted ; corolla 3-petalled ; filaments partly united ; dnlpe 3-
celled, 2 of them often empty. The utaminate flowers grow on distinct plants.
1. 11— (fan palm).

ORDF.R POI.YOYXIA.

ALIS"MA. Calyx 3-leaved ; petals 3 ; capsules numerous, 1-seeded. not
opening. 5. 13. S.

CLASS VII. HEPTANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYMA.

TRIENTA'LIS. Calyx 7-leaved ; corolla 7-parted, equal, flat ; berry juice-
leas, 1-celled, many seeded ; number of stamens variable. 20. 34 — (chick-
wintergreen).

^Es'cuLUS. Calyx inflated, 4 or 5-toothed ; corolla 4 or 5-petalled, inserted
on the calyx, unequal, pubescent ; capsule 3-celled ; seeds large, solitary, ches-
nut-form. 23. 66— (horse-chesnut). S.

OBDKRIV. TETHAGTNIA.

SAURU'RUS. Calyx in an ament or spike, with 1-flowcred scales ; corolla 0 ;
anthers adnate to the filaments ; germs 4 ; berries or capsules 4, 1-seeded ; sta-
mens 6, 7, 8, or more. 2. 6— (lizard tail). S.

CLASS. Vin. OCTANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYMA.

A. Flowers superior.

OENO'THERA. Calyx 4-cleft, tubular, caducous, divisions deflected ; petals
4, inserted on the calyx ; stigma 4-cleft ; capsule 4-celled, 4-valved ; seeds not
feathered, affixed to a central 4-sided columella. 17. 88— (scabish, or evening
primrose). 5.

EPILO'BIUM. Calyx 4-cleft, tubular ; corolla 1-petalled ; capsule oblong and
of great length ; seeds feathered. 17. 88— (willow-herb). S.

OXYLCOC"CUS. Calyx superior, 4-toothed ; corolla 4-parted, the divisions
•ub-linear, revolute ; filaments converging ; anthers tubular, 2-parted, berry
many seeded. 18. 51— (cranberry). S.

Exotic.

FUCH"SIA. Calyx funnel-form, coloured, superior, caducous : petals (or
nectaries) 4, sitting in the throat of the calyx, alternating with its divisions :
stigma 4-sided capitate : berry oblong, 4-celled : seeds numerous. 17. 88 —
(ear-drop).

B. Flowers inferior.

A'CER. Polygamous. Sometimes hexandrous. Calyx 5-cleft; corolla 4 or
5-petalled, or wanting ; samaras 2, united at the base, 1-seeded, often one rudi-
ment of a seed. 23. 66— (maple). 5.

Exotic.

ERI'CA. Calyx 4-leaved, permanent ; corolla 4-cleft, permanent ; filaments
inserted on the receptacle ; anthers bifid ; capsules membranaceous, 4 to 8-
celled, the partitions form the margins of the valves : seeds many in each c«!L
18. 51— (heath).

CLASS IX. CLASS X. 353

DAPH"NE. Calyx 0 ; corolla 4-cleft, withering, including the stamens ; drupe
1-seeded. 31. 25 — (mezereon).

TROP.E'OLUM. Calyx 4 or 5-cleft, coloured, spurred ; petals 4 or 5, unequal ;
nuts leathery, sulcate. 23. 73 — (nasturtion).

ORDER II. DIGVNIA.

CHRYSOSPLE'NIUM. Calyx superior, 4 or 5-cleft, coloured ; corolla 0 ; cap-
sule 2-beaked, 1-celled, many seeded. (The terminal flowers in the European
specimens are decandrous, but the plant is always octandrous in America.)
13. 84 — (golden saxifrage, water-carpet). S.

ORDER III. TR1GYMA.

POLYG"ONUM. Calyx inferior, 5-parted, coloured : corolla 0 ; seed 1, angu-
lar, covered with the calyx. Stamens and pistils vary in number. The calyx
in some species might be taken for a corolla. 12. 28 — (knot-grass, water-pep-
per, buckwheat, heart's-ease). S.

CLASS IX. ENNEANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYMA.

LAU'RUS. Calyx 4 to 6-parted ; corolla 0 ; nectaries 3, each a 2-bristled or
2-l<fbed gland, surrounding the germ : drupe 1-seeded. Stamens vary from 3
to 14, but they are generally in two senss of 6 each, with 3 of the inner series
barren — often dioecious. The calyx may be taken for a corolla. 12. 27 — (sas-
safras, spice-bush). *S.

ORDER II. TRIGYNIA.

Exotic.

RHE'UM. Calyx 0 ; corolla 6-cleit, permanent ; seed 1, 3-sided. 12. 28 —
(rhubarb).

CLASS X. DECANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYNIA.

A. Flowers polypetalous, irregular, (mostly papilionaceous.}

CAS"SIA. Calyx 5-leaved ; corolla 5-petalled : anthers 3, lower ones beaked,
and on longer incurved filaments : legume membranaceous.- 33. 93— (cassia). S.

BAPTI'SIA. PODALYR"IA. Calyx 4 or 5-cleft half-way (sometimes 4-tooth-
ed) somewhat 2-lipped ; corolla papilionaceous ; wings of the length of the
reflexed banner ; stamens caducous : legume inflated, smooth, many-seeded.
32. 93 — (wild indigo). S.

CER"CIS. Calyx 5-toothed, gibbous below ; corolla papilionaceous, wings
longer than the banner ; keel 2-petalled ; legume compressed ; seed-bearing
suture margined ; seeds obovate. 33. 93 — ( Judas-tree j. S.
B. F'owers polype'alrnts, regular,

PY'ROLA. Calyx 5-parted ; petals 5 ; styles longer than the stamens ; an-
thers with 2 pores at the base before, and the top after, the opening of the
flower ; capsule 5-celled, dehiscent at the angles near the base. 18. 51 —
(shin-leaf). -S'.

CHIMAFH"ILA. Calyx 5-parted ; petals 5 ; anthers beaked, with 2 pores at
the base before, and at the top after, the opening of the flower ; style immer-
sed ; stigma thick, orbiculate ; capsule 5-celled, dehiscent at the angles near
the summit. 18. 51 — (prince's pine, pipsissiwa). S.

LEIOPIIYL"LUM. Calyx 5-parted ; corolla flat, 5-parted or 5-petalled ; sta-
mens longer than the corolla, with lateral anthers opening longitudinally on
their insides ; capsule 5-celled, dehiscent at the top, 5-valved ; valves ovate
with margins inflexed, remote, straight ; columella sub-ovate, terete, rugose ;
seeds small, not winged (leaves always glabrous). 18- 50— (sleek leaf). 5.

CLETH"RA. Calyx 5-parted, permanent ; corolla 5-petalled ; style perma-
nent ; stigma short, 3:cleft ; capsule 3-celled, 3-vaIved, enclosed by the calyx.
(Spiked). 18. 51— (sweet pepper-bush). S.

Expti((.

vJRu'TA. Calyx 5-parted ; petals concave ; receptacle surrounded by 10
nectariferous dots ; capsule lobed. (Petals sometimes 4, and stamens 8). 26,
81— (rue).

354 CLASS X. ORDER III.

Southern.

DIONJE'A. Calyx 5-parted or 5-leaved ; petals 5 ; stigma fringed ; capsule
roundish, gibbous, 1 -celled, many-seeded. Petals sometimes 6. 20. 68—
(Venus' fly-trap).

C. Flowers monopetaloug.

ARBU'TUS. Calyx inferior, 5-parted, minute ; corolla ovate, pellucid at the
base; border small, 5-cleft, revolute ; filaments hairy; berry 5-celled. 18. 51
—(bear berry).

EpiGyE'A. Calyx double, outer 3-leaved, inner 5-parted ; (or calyx 5-parted,
with 3 bracts) ; corolla salver-form ; border 5-parted, spreading ; tube villose
within ; capsule 5-celled, many -seeded ; receptacle 5-parted. 18. 51 —
(trailing arbutus). N.

GAULTHE'RIA. Calyx inferior, double ; outer 2-leaved, inner 5-cleft : (or
calyx 5-cleft, with 2 bracts) ; corolla ovate ; border small, 5-cleft, revolute ;
filaments hairy : receptacle 10-toothed ; (or with a 10-pointed nectary) ; cap-
sule 5-celled, invested with the inner berry -like calyx. 18. 51 — (spicy win;i-r-
green). <S.

VACCI'NIUM. Calyx superior, 5-toothed or 5-parted ; corolla bell or pitcher-
form, 5-cleft, the divisions reflected ; filaments inserted on the germ with the
corolla ; berry 4 or 5-celled, many-seeded. (The foreign species are sometimes
octandrous). 18. 51 — (whortleberry). 5.

ANDROM"EDA. LYONIA. Calyx 5-parted or 5-toothed, inferior; corolla
ovate, roundish, or sub-cylindiic, with a 5-cleft reflexed mouth ; capsule 5-
celled, 5-valved, with partitions contrary. (Stamens sometimes 8). 18. 51 —
(white bush, leather-leaf). S.

KAL/'MIA. Calyx 5-parted; corolla wheel-sal ver-form, with 10 horns be-
neath and 10 cavities within, containing the anthers until the pollen is mature;
capsule 5-celled, many-seeded. 18 51V— (laurel). N.

RHODODEN"DRON. Calyx 5-parted ; corolla 5-cleft, somewhat funnel-form
and oblique; stamens declining; varying from 5 to 10; anthers opening by 2
terminal pores ; capsules 5-celled, 5-valved, opening at the top. 18. 50 — (rose-
bay). S.
D. Flowerg without a calyx : (or with a coloured petal like one), whole plant

destitute of green herbage.

1 MONOT"ROPA. Corolla confusedly polypetalous, permanent ; petals about
5, with nectariferous hollows at their bases ; anthers reniform, subpeltate,
1-celled, giving out pollen by 2 holes near the middle ; stigma orbicular, not
bearded : capsule 5-celled, 5-valved. 18. 51 — (bird's nest). 5.

PTEROS"PORA. Corolla 5-parted ; nectary ovate, with a 5-toothed reflexed
margin, enclosing the stamens ; anthers 2-celled, 2-bristled, subpeltate; fila-
ments flat; style short ; stigma capitate; capsule sub-globose, 5-celled. The
nectary is considered as a corolla, and the corolla as a calyx, by some. But
these three genera should be united in one, by altering two or three words in
the definition. 18. 51 — (albany beach-drops).

ORDER II. DIGYNIA.

HYDRAN"GEA. Calyx 5-toothed, superior: corolla 5-petalled ; capsule 2-
celled, 2-beaked, dehiscent between tho beaks. 13. 84— (hydrangea). Vid.
Hortensia. S.

SAXIFRA'GA. Calyx 5-parted, mostly half superior ; corolla 5-petalled ;
capsule 2-celled, 2-beaked, opening between the beaks ; many-seeded. 13.
84— (saxifrage). 5.

MITEL"LA. Calyx 5-cleft, permanent ; petals 5-pinnatifid, inserted into the
calyx ; capsule 4-ceIled, 2-valved ; valves equal. 13. 84.

SAPONA'RIA. Calyx inferior, 1-leafed, tubular, 5-toothed, without scales ;
petals 5, with claws ; capsule oblong, 1-celled. 22. 82 — (soap-wort). <S.

DIAN"THUS. Calyx inferior, cylindrical, 1-leafed, with 4 or 8 scales at the
base ; petals 5, with claws ; capsule cylindrical, 1-celled, dehiscent at the top.
22. 82— -(pink, sweet-william).

ORDER III. TRIGYNIA.

SILE'NE. Calyx 1-leaved, tubular or conic, 5-toothed ; petals 5, with claws,
generally crowned at the orifice ; capsule 3-celled, 6-toothed, many-seeded.
22. 82.

CLASS XL ORDER L 355

ARENA'RIA. Calyx inferior, spreading, 5-leaved ; petals 5, entire ; capsule
1-celled, many-seeded. 22. 82— (sand wort). S.

Exotic,

HORTEN"SIA. Flowers deformed ; florets solitary : calyx 5-toothed, mi-
nute ; corolla 5-petalled ; the gay flowers composing the cyme have a large,
coloured, permanent, petal-like, 5-leaved calyx, and a minute, caducous, 4 or
5-petalled corolla ; stamens 8, 10 or 11. 13. 84 — (changeable hydrangea).

ORDER. V. PENTAGYNIA.

SPER"GULA. Calyx 5-leaved ; petals 5, undivided ; capsule ovate, 5-celled,
5-valved. 22.82. S.

CERAS"TIUM. Calyx 5-leaved ; petals 5, 2-cleft, or emarginate ; capsule
1-celled, dehiscent at top, 10-toothed. 22.82 — (mouse-ear, chick-weed). -S.

AGROSTEM"MA. Calyx 5-cleft, prismatic or tubular ; coriaceous ; petals 5,
with claws ; border obtuse, entire ; capsule 1-celled, many-seeded, opening
with 5 teeth. 22. 82— (cockle). S.

OXA"LIS. Calyx permanent, 5-parted or 5-leaved, inferior ; petals 5, co-
hering by the claws ; capsule 5-celled, 5-cornered, dehiscent at the corners ;
seeds 2 or more in a cell, covered with an elastic aril ; stamens with 5 shorter,
outer ones adhering at their bases. This genus and the Linum might be re-
moved to the class Monadelphia. 14. 73— (wood sorrel). S.

PENTHO'RUM. Calyx 5 to 10-cleft; petals 5 or 0 ; capsule 5-cuspidate, 5-
celled ; cells divided transversely, many-seeded. 13. 83 — (virginian orpine). S.

SE'DUM. Calyx inferior, 5-cleft ; 5 petals ; 5 nectariferous scales at the base
of the germ ; capsule 5. 13. 83 — (live-forever, or orpine, stone-crop).

Exotic.

LYCH"NIS. Calyx 1-leaved, oblong, 5-toothed ; petals 5, with claws ; the
limb somewhat 2-cleft ; capsule 1 or 5-celled, with a 5-toothed opening. 22.
82 — (campion).

ORDER X. DECAGYNIA.

PHYTOLAC"CA. Calyx 0 ; corolla 5-petalled or 5-cleft, calyx-like, inferior;
berry 10-cell, 10-seeded. By some authors the calyx is called a corolla. 54.
29— (poke-weed). S.

CLASS XI.

ORDER I. MONOGYNIA.

CAC"TUS. Calyx superior, many cleft, imbricate ; petals numerous, in many
series, the inner ones larger ; stigma many-cleft ; berry 1-celled, many-seeded,
umbilicate. 13. 85 — (prickly-pear). S.

PRU'NUS. Calyx-cle'ft, inferior, bell-form ; corolla 5-petalled : nut of the
drupe smooth with prominent seams at the sutures. 36. 92 — (cherry, plum). S.

CU'PHEA. Calyx tubular-ventricose, 6 to 12-toothed, unequal ; petals 6,
mostly unequal, inserted on the calyx : capsule 1-celle.d, dehiscent, longitu-
dinally with the calyx, follicle-like, 3-sided ; seeds lenticular. 54. 91 — (wax-
bush). 5.

Exotic.

MYR"TUS. Calyx superior, 5-cleft ; petals 5 ; berry 2 or 3-celled, many-
seeded. 19. R9— (myrtle).

AMYG"DALUS. Calyx 5-cleft inferior ; petals 5 ; drupe with a nut, perfora-
ted with pores ; flowers sessile. 36.92 — (peach).

ARM^NI'ACA. Flowers sessile ; calyx 5-cleft, inferior ; petals 5 ; drupe
fleshy, pubescent; nut with one margin acute and the other obtuse, furrowed
both sides. 36. 92— (apricot).

PU'NICA. Calyx 5-cleft, superior ; petals 5 ; pome or berry many celled,
many-seeded ; receptacle parietal ; seed berried. 36. 92 — (pomegranate).
Southern.

PniLADEL"piius. Calyx 4-5-parted, superior, top-form ; corolla 4 or 5-
petalled ; style 4-cleft ; capsule 4-5-celled, many-seeded; seed arilled. 19.89
— (false syringa, or mock orange).

* Darlington proposes CALYCANDRIA as a substitute ; and to extend tho
class to all stamens bearing calyxes.

356 CJ.A6S XII. ORDER I.

ORDER II. niGYXTA, TO ORDKR V. PENTAGYNIA ; OR DI-PENTAGYNIA.

AGRIMO'NIA. Calyx inferior, 5-cleft or 5-toothed, invested with an outer
lobed one ; petals 5 ; stamens 12 ; seeds 2, in the bottom of the calyx. 35.
92 — (agrimony). S.

CRATJE'GUS. Calyx superior, 5-cleft ; pptals 5 ; styles 1 to 5 ; berry mealy ;
seeds 2 to 5, hony. 36. 92— (thorn-bush). S.

AKO'MA. Calyx superior, 5-toothed ; petals 5 ; fruit pomaceoiis ; berry 5 or
10-cellod; cells 1 or 2-seeded ; seeds cartilaginous 36. 92— (shad -flower,
choak berry). .S".

PYRUS. Calyx 5-cleft, superior ; corolla 5-petalled ; pome 5-celled, many-
seeded ; seed compressed-ovate. 36. 92— (pear, apple, quince). <S.

SPIRAEA. Calyx 5-cleft, inferior, spreading ; corolla 5-petalled ; petals equal,
roundish ; stamens numerous, exsert ; capsules 3 to 12, 2-valved within, each 1
to 3-seeded. 36. 92— (steeple-bush, hard-hack). S.

Exotic.

MESEMBRYAN'THEMUM. Calyx superior, 5-oleft; petals numerous, linear,
cohering at the base ; capsule fleshy, many-seeded, turbinate. 13. 87 — (ice-
plant).

ORDKR XIII. POLVGYNIA.

RO'SA. Calyx urn-form, inferior, 5-cleft, fleshy ; contracted towards the
top ; petals 5 ; seeds numerous, bristly, fixed to the sides of the calyx within.
A genus remarkable for the multiplication of its petals, by rich culture. 35.
92— (rose). f>.

RU'BUS. Calyx 5-cleft, inferior ; corolla 5-potalled ; pistils numerous ; berry
composed of many juicy, 1-seeded acines, on a dry receptacle. 35. 92 — (rasp-
berry, blackberry) 5.

UALIBAR'DA. Calyx 5-cleft, (8-cleft?) inferior; corolla 5-petalled; styles
long, cad uc.,t»t 5 to 8; berry composed of dry graqulations. 35. 92— (dry
strawberry). <S.

GE'UM. Calyx inferior, 10-cleft, 5 alternate divisions smaller; corolla 5-
petalled ; seeds with a bent awn ; receptacle columnar, villous. 35. 92—
(avens, or herb bennet). S.

POTENTIL'LA. Calyx flat, inferior, 10-cleft; 5 alternate divisions smaller ;
corolla 5-petalled ; petals roundish or obovate ; seeds awnless, roundish, ru-
gose, fixed to a dry, small receptacle. 35. 92— (five-finger, cinquefoil). »S*.

FRAUA'RIA. Calyx inferior, lo-d-ft: 5 alternate divisions smaller; corolla
5-petalled ; receptacle ovate, berry-like ; acines naked, immersed in the recep-
tacle, caducous. 35. 92— (strawberry). S.

CLASS XII. POLYANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONOGYNIA.

TI'LIA. Calyx 5 or 6-parted, inferior, caducous ; corolla 5 or 6-pctaIled ;
capsule 5 or 6-ceJled, globular, coriaceous, dehiscent at the base; !->• •
Often 4 of the colls nre empty. 37. 79— (bass-wood. ) S.

PORTULAC"CA. Calyx 2-cl»ft, inferior ; corolla 5-petalled ; capsule 1-celhd,
opening trail- vcrsly ; eolumella .">, filiform. 13. 86 — (purslane). N.

CHELIDO'VIITM. Calyx 2-leavcd, Caducous ; corolla 4-petallc,l : siliijnp-lik«-,
capsule 1-celled, 2-valved, linear; seeds crested, many. 27. 62— (celan-
dine). N.

SAVGUI VA'RIA Calyx caducous, 2-leavod ; corolla about 8-petnllrd • stigma
sossil<-, t\vinnocJ, 2-groov •<! : capsnlo pod-like, ovate, 1-celled, vJ-vnlvcd, awnic
at ear-h end; valves caducous; columella 2, permanent. 27. 62 — (blood-
root). N.

l'onopHYi."LrM Calyx 3-leaved, minuto ; corolla about 9-prtallr-d : sfiirun
large, cronafo, srs^ilr : l>erry l-ce!led, crownod with the stigma, lanre, n.
seeded; columella one-sided. 27.61 — (\\ildmandrade) <S

ACT .«'A Calyx 4-leaved, deciduous ; petals 4, often wanting: stigma ses«il«\
capitate; berry superior, l-coll.-d, many-seeded ; seeds hemisplierical. 26.61
—(Necklace weed or hanoborry). S.

MACROTIS. Calyx about 4-leaved, becoming coloured before expanding, cn-
ducous; corolla many minuto petals very caducous, or wanting; stigma sim-
ple, sessile, curving towards the gibbous side of the germ ; capsule 2-valved.

CLASS XII ORDER I 357

dehiscent at its strait suture. 26. 61 — (cohosh, black snake root, bug
bane). S.

SARRACE'NIA. Calyx double, permanent, 3 and 5-leaved ; corolla fl-petalled,
caducous ; stigma peltate, permanent, very large, covering the stamens ; cap-
sule 5-celled, 5-valved, many seeded. 54. 62— (side saddle flower). S.

NUPHAH. Calyx 5 or 6-leaved, petals many, minute, inserted on the recepta-
cle with the stamens, nectariferous on their backs ; stigma with a broad disk,
and radiate furrows, sessile ; pericarp berry-like, many celled, many seeded.
13. 62— (water lily, or yellow pond lily). S.

NYMPHAE'A. Calyx 4 to 7-leaved ; corolla many petalled, petals about equalling
the length of the calyx leaves, attached to the germ beneath the stamens ; stig-
ma a broad disk, marked with radiated lines ; pericarp berry- like, many celled,
many seeded. 13. 62— (pond-lily).

Exotic.

PAPA'VER. Calyx 2-leaved, caducous; corolla 4-petalled; stigma a broad
disk, with radiating lines ; capsule 1-celled, dehiscent by pores under the per-
manent stigma. 27. 62 — (poppy).

THE'A. Calyx 5 or 6-leaved ; corolla 6 or 9-petalled ; capsule 3-seeded. 54.
71— (tea).

CIT"RUS. Calyx 5-cleft ; petals 5, oblong ; filaments dilated at the base, in
several parcels ; berry 9 to 1 8-celled ; Polyadelphous. 1 8. 70— (orange, lemon).

ORDER II. D1GYNIA, TO ORDER V. PENTAGYN1A, OR DI-PENTAGYNIA.

DELPHI'NUJM. Calyx 0 ; corolla 5-petalled, unequal ; nectary 2-cleft, horned
behind : capsules 1 or 3, pod-like. By some the corolla is considered as a co-
loured calyx. 26. 61 — (larkspur). S.

Acom'ruM. Calyx 0 ; petals 5, upper one valved ; nectaries 2, hooded, pe-
duncled, recurved : capsule 3 or 5, pod-like. By some the corolla is considered
as a coloured calyx. 26. 61 — (monk's hood). S.

AQBILE'GIA. Calyx 0 ; petals 5, caducous; nectaries 5, alternating with the
petals, and terminating downwards in a spur-like nectary ; capsules 5, erect ;
acuminated with the permanent styles, many seeded. By some the nectaries
are considered as petals and the corolla as a coloured calyx. 26. 61 — (colum-
bine). 5.

H YPER"ic!JM. Calyx 5-parted ; divisions equal, sub-ovate ; corolla 5-petalled ;
filaments often united at the base in 3 or 5 sets ; styles 2 to 5 ; capsules mem-
branaceous, roundish, with a number of cells equal to the number of styles.
The bases of the filaments are often in groups, when they are not united. 20.
61— (St. John's wort). S.

Exotic.

P^O'NIA. Calyx 5-leaved ; petals 5 ; styles 0 ; stigmas 2 or 3 ; capsules
pod-like, many seeded. Remarkable for the multiplication of petals by rich
culture. 26. 61— (peony).

ORDER XIII. POLYGYNIA.

A. Perianth none.

CLEM"ATIS. Petals 3, 4, 5, or 6 ; seeds compressed ; styles permanent, be-
coming long plumose tails. (Some species are dioecious.) 26. 61 — (virgin's
bower). By some the corolla is considered a coloured calyx. S.

THALIC"TRUM. Petals 4 or 5; filaments very long; seeds without tails,
striate, terete. (Some species are dioecious.) 26.61 — (meadow rue). The co-
rolla is considered a coloured calyx by some. S.

ANEMO'NE. Petals 5 to 9 ; seeds numerous, naked. 26. 61— (wind-flower,
rue anemone). The corolla is considered a calyx by some. S.

COP"TIS. Petals 5 or 6, caducous ; nectaries small, 5 or 6, cowled ; capsules
oblong, 5 to 8, stiped, stellate, beaked, many seeded. 26. 61— (gold thread).
By some the nectaries are mistaken for corollas, and the corollas for calyxes.

CAL"THA. Petals 5 to 9, orbicular; capsules numerous (5 to 10), many
seeded, compressed ; 1-celied, spreading ; nectaries 0. (Pistils variable in num-
ber.) 26. 61 — (American cowslip). S. By some the corolla is mistaken for a
coloured calyx.

Exotic.

HELLEB"ORUS. Petals 5 or more; nectary 2-lipped, tubular; capsules 5 or
6 ; many seeded, erectish, compressed. 26. 61— (hellebore).

358 CLASS XIII. ORDER I.

B. Having a perianth.

MAGNO'LIA. Calyx 3-leaved ; corolla b to 9-petalled ; capsules numerous,
imbricate on a strobile-like spike, 2-valved ; seeds arilled, pendulous or long
cords ; berry-like. 52. 75 — (magnolia, or beaver tree). S.

LIRIODEN"DRON. Calyx 3-leaved ; corolla 6 or 9-petalled, liliaceous ; seeds
in a sub-lnnceolate samara, imbricate on a strobile-like spike. 52. 75— (tulip
tree, or wh ite wood ) . S.

HEPAT"ICA. Calyx 3-leaved, a little distance below the corolla, entire ; pe-
tals 6 to 9 ; seeds without tails. 26. 61— (liverleaf). flT.-"

RANCN"CULUS. Calyx 5-leaved; petals 5, with claws, and a nectariferous
pore or scale on the inside of each ; seeds without tails, naked, numerous. 2(5.
61 — (crow-foot). Some mistake an extra tegument for a capsule. N.

Exotic.

SKMPERVI'VUM. Calyx 9 to 12-parted ; petals 8 to 12, capsules 12, many
seeded. (Stamens 16 or 20.) 13. 83— (house-leek).

ADO'MS. Calyx 4-5-leaved ; petals 5 or more, without nectariferous pores ;
seeds awnless. 26. 61 — (pheasant's eye).

CLASS XIII. DIDYNAMIA.

ORDER I. GTMNOSPERMIA.

A. Calyx 5-cleft, with the divisions, or teeth, nearly equal.
TEU'CRIUM. Corolla deep cleft on the upper side, and without an upper lip,
lower lip 3-cleft, the middle division rounded, stamens and pistils incurved ;
stamens exsert through the cleavage on the upper side of the corolla. 42. 39 —
(wood sage, wild germander). S.

MEN"THA. Corolla nearly equal, 4-lobed ; broadest division emarginate
stamens erect, distant. 42. 39 — (spearmint, peppermint). .V.

ISAN"THUS. Calyx somewhat bell-form ; corolla 5-parted ; tube* straight,
narrow; divisions ovate, equal ; stamens neatly equal; stigma linear, recurved.
42. 39 — (blue gentian).

HEDEO'MA. Calyx 2-lipped, gibbose at the base ; upper lip with 3 lanreo-
Inte teeth ; lower lip wilh two subulate ones ; corolla ringcnt ; 2 short stamens
barren. 42. 39 — (pennyroyal). S.

NEP'ETA. Calyx dry, Mriate; corolla with a longish tube; under lip with
the middle division crenate, throat with a reflected margin; stamens approxi-
mate. 42.39— (catmint). S.

LA'MIUM. Upper lip of the corol vaulted, entire ; lower lip 2-lobed, toothed
on each side. 42 39. S.

STV<MI"VS. Calyx with its divisions awned : corolla with the upper lip
vaulted ; the lower lip 3-lobed ; the middle divisions largest, emarginate ; the
lateral divisions reflexed ; stamens reflexed towards the sides after discharging
the pollen. 42. 39. — (wound-wort, hedge nettle). S.

LEOXIT'RUS. Calyx 5-anglpd, 5-toothed ; corolla with thn upper lip erect,
villose, flat, entire ; lower lip 3-parted ; middle division; undivided lobes of the
anthers parallel, having shining dots. 42.39 — (mother- wort). N.

VERBE'XA. Calyx with one'of the teeth truncate ; corolla funnel-form, with

n mfved tube ; border o-cleft, nearly equal ; seeds 2 or four, with an extra

vanishing tegument; sometimes 2 stamens are barren. 42. 39— (vervain). N.

MARRU'BIDM. Calyx salver-form, rigid, marked with 10 lines; corolla with

the upper lip deleft, linear, straight. 42. 39 — (horehound). N.

UI.ECHO'MA. Calyx .r-cleft ; corolla double the length of the calyx; upper
Iip2-cleft; lower lip 3-cleft, with the middle segment emarginate; each pair of
anthers approaching so af to exhibit the form of a cross. 42. 39 — (ground ivy.
gill-overground).

PYC\AN"THKMKM. Involucrum bract-like, mnny leaved : under small heads
of flowers; calyx tubular, striato; corolla with the upper lip sub-entire ; lower
lip 3-cleft; middle segment longer; stamens distant, nearly equal ; cells of the
anthers parallel. 42. 39 — (mountain mint). /S.

Exotic.

LAVAN"DULA. Calyx ovate, sub-dentate : bracts under studded ; corolla re-
supinate ; stamens in the tube. 42. 39 — (lavender).

SATURE'JA. Calyx tubular, striate ; corolla with divisions nearly equal ;
stamens distant. 42. 39 — (savory).

CLASS XIII. ORDER II. 359

MOLUCCEL"LA. Calyx bell-forra, much larger than the corol, spinose. 42
39— (shell-flower).

B. Calyx 2-lipped.

ORI'GANUM. Calyxes collected into a 4-sided strobile-like cone, with broad
intervening bracts ; corolla with the upper lip erect, flat, straight, emarginate ;
under lip 3-parted, divisions nearly equal. 42. 39 — (marjoram).

PRUNEL"LA. Calyx with the upper lip dilated ; filaments 2-forked, with an
anther on one of the points ; stigma 2-cleft. 42. 39 — (self-heal, or heal-all). S.

SCUTELLA'RIA. Calyx with an entire mouth, which is closed with a helmet-
form lid after the corolla falls out; tube of the corolla bent. 42. 39 — (scull-
cap). £.

TRICHOSTE'MA. Calyx resupinate ; corolla with the upper lip falcate ; and
the under lip 3-parted, with the middle division small, oblong ; filaments very
long-exsert, incurved or coiled. 42. 39 — (blue curls). S.

Exotic.

THY"MUS. Calyx sub-campanulate, with the throat closed with hairs ; co-
rolla with the upper lip flat, emarginate ; lower lip longer. 42. 39 — (thyme).

MELIS"SA. Calyx dry, flattish above, with the uppei^lip sub-fastigiate ; co-
rolla with the upper lip somewhat vaulted, 3-cleft ; lower lip with the middle
lobe cordate. 42. 39 — (balm).

ORDER II. ANGIOSPERMIA.

A. Calyx 2-cleft or 2-leuved.

OBOLA'RIA. Calyx bract-like ; corolla 4-cleft, bell-form; capsule 1 -celled,
2-valved, many seeded; stamens from the divisions of the corolla nearly equal;
stigma 2-cleft or emarginate. 40. 35 — (penny-wort). S.

B. Calyx deleft.

EUCHRO'MA. Calyx inflated, 2 or 4-cleft ; corolla 2-lipped ; upper lip long,
linear, embracing the style and stamens ; anthers linear, with unequal lobes,
cohering so as to iorm an oblong disk ; capsule ovate, compressed, 2-celled ;
seeds numerous, surrounded with an inflated membrane. 40. 40. S.

BAR"TSIA. Euchroma? Calyx lobed, emarginate, coloured ; corolla less
than calyx ; upper lip longest, concave, entire ; lower lip 3-cleit and reflexed ;
anthers with equal lobes, not cohering ; capsule 2-celled ; seed angled. 40. 35
— painted cup)

MELAM"PYRUM. Corolla with the upper lip compressed, the margin folded
back ; lower lip grooved, 3-cleft, sub-equal ; capsule 2-celled, oblique, dehis-
cent on one side ; seeds 2, cyliudric, gibbous, cartilaginous and smooth. 40.
35 — (co w- wheat) . /S.

Southern.

EUPHRA'SIA. Calyx cylindric ; corolla 2-lipped ; the upper lip 2-cleft ; lower
lip 3-lobed, with the divisions 2-cleft ; lower anthers lobed, spinose. 40. 35 —
(eye-bright).

C. Calyx 4 or 5-cleft, or 5-toothed; plant without green herbage.
OROBAN"CHE. Corol ringent, capsule ovate, acute, 1-celled ; seeds nume-
rous : a gland beneath the base of the germ.' 40. 35. S.

EPIPH"EGUS. Polygamous. Calyx abbreviated, 5-toothed ; corolla of the
barren flowers ringent, compressed, 4-cleft ; lower lip flat ; of the fertile flowers
minute, 4-toothed, caducous ; capsule truncate, oblique, 1-celled, imperfectly
2-valved, opening on one side. 40- 35 — (beech drops, cancer root).
D. Calyx 5-leaved or 5-cleft; plant with green herbage.

SCROPHUI.A'KIA. Corol sub-globose, resupinate, shortly bi-labiate, with an
internal intermediate scale ; capsule 2-celled. 40. 40. S.

BIGNO'NIA Calyx 5-toothed, cup-form, sub-coriaceous; corolla bell-form,
5-lobed, ventricose beneath ; capsule silique-like, 2-celled ; seed-membrane
winged. 40. 4Q— (trumpet flower). S.

BUCHM./KA. Calyx 5-toothed ; corolla with a slender tube, and the limb in 5
equal divisions, the lobes cordate ; capsule 2-celled. 40.35 — (blue hearts). S.
ANTIRHHI'NUM. Calyx 5-leaved or deeply 5-parted ; the two lower divisions
remote; corolla personate or ringent, spurred, or with a prominent base; the
throat closed with a prominent palate ; capsule ovate, 2-valved, dehiscent at the
apex, with reflexed teeth. 40.40 — (snap-dragon, toad-flax). S. \

GhRAH"niA. Calyx 5-cleft or 5-toothed ; corolla sub-campanulate, unequally
5-lobed ; segments mostly rounded ; capsule 2-celled, dehiscent at the top. 40.
40— (false foxglove). /S.

360 CLASS XIV. ORDER I.

PEDICULA'HIS. Calyx ventricose, 5-cleft or obliquely truncate ; corolla rin-
gent ; upper lip arched, emarginate and compressed ; capsule 2-celled, mucro-
nate, oblique ; seeds numerous, angular, coated. (Leaves many cleft.) 40. 35
— (louse wort, high heal-all). S.

MI'MULUS. Calyx prismatic, 5-toothed ; corolla ringent; upper lip folded
back upon its sides, lower lip with a prominent palate ; stigma thick, 2-cleft ;
capsule 2-celled, many seeded ; seeds minute. 40.40 — (monkey -flower). S.

CHF.LO'NI:. Calyx 5-cleft or 5-leaved, 3-bracted ; corolla ringent, inflated ;
the upper lip emarginate-obtuse, under lip slightly 3-cleft ; the rudiment of a
smooth filament between, and shorter than the two tallest stamens ; anthers
woolly ; capsule 2-celled, 2-valved ; seeds with membranous margins. 40. 45
— (snake-head). 5.

PENTSTE'MON. Calyx 5-cleft or 5-leaved ; corolla ringent, inflated ; the ru-
diment of a bearded filament between, and longer than the two tallest stamens ;
anthers smooth ; capsule 2-celled, 2-valved, ovate ; seeds numerous, angular.
(Taken from the last genus). 40.45 — (beard tongue). S.

Exotic.

DIGITA'LIS. Calyx 5-parted ; corolla bell-form, ventricose, 5-cleft ; stigma
simple or bilamellate ; capsule ovate, 2-celled.— (Flowers racemed). 40. 40—
(foxglove)-

CLASS XIV. TETRADYNAMIA.

ORDER I. SII.ICULOSA.

THLAS"PI. Calyx spreading, equal at the base ; filaments distinct, without
teeth; silicle compressed, emarginate, obcord ate, many-seeded; valves resem-
ble two boats with the keels outward. 39. 63 — (shepherd's purse). S.

LEPID"IWM. Calyx spread ing ; corolla regular; silicle emarginate, cordate
or oval ; cells 1-seeded ; valves carinate, dehiscent ; partition contrary- Co-
tyledons incumbent. 39. 6'^ — (pepper- grass). S.

COCHLEA'RIA. Silicle thick, rugose, many-seed, 2-valved ; valves gibbous,
obtuse : partition nearly parallel to the valves. 39. 63 — (horse-radish, water-
radish).

Exotic.

LUWA'RIA. Silicle entire, oval, flat-compressed, pedicelled ; valves equal-
ling the partition, parallel, flat ; calyx consists of coloured sack-like leafets.
39. 63— (honesty, or satin-flower).

ORDER II. BILIQU08A.

DENTA'RIA. Silique lanceolate ; valves flat, nerveless, often opening elas-
tically : receptacles not winged : funicule dilated : seeds in a single series,
ovate, not margined ; cotyledons accumbent 39. 63 — (trickle-root.) S.

CARDAMINE. Calyx leaves spreading but little : stigma entire : a single
gland between each of the short stamens and the calyx ; silique with Truncate
margins, linear, long, bursting elastically with revolute valves, narrower, but
equalling the length of the partitions ; seed with a slender funicule, not mar-
gined. 39. 63 — (American water-cress). -S.

AR"ABIS Glands 4, one within each leafet of the erect calyx, of the size of
the reflected scale ; silique compressed, torulose, sub- divaricate; valves flat,
1-nerved : seeds arranged in a single series. Cotyledons accumbent. 39. 63
— (wall-cress). 5

ERYS"IMUM. Nasturtium. Calyx and corolla spreading : silique bursting,
not elastically ; beak short and terete valves nerveless, not keeled, straitish,
concave. Cotyledons accumbent. 39. 63 — (English water-cress, water-
radish). S

CHKIRAN'THUS. Calyx closed, two of the leafets gibbous at the base ; petals
dilated ; silique, when young with a glandular tooth each side ; stigma 2-
lobed ; seed flat, sometimes margined. 39. 63 — (stock-july-flower, wall-
flower). &

SINA'PIS- Calyx spreading ; corolla with strnit claws ; glands between the
short stamens and the pistil, and between the long stamens and the calyx ;
partition extending beyond the valves of the silique, ensiform ; seeds in a sin-
gle series. Cotyledons conduplicate. 39. 63 — (mustard).

RAPHA'NUS. Calyx closed, setose ; silique torose, terete, not opening by
valves, 1 or 2-celled ; glands between the short stamens and pistil, and be-
\

CLASS XV. ORDER X. 361

tween the long stamens and the calyx. Cotyledons conduplicate. 39. 63 —
(radish).

Exotic.

BRAS"SICA. Calyx erect, converging; partition extending beyondf the
valves of the silique ; seed globose ; glands between the short stamens and
pistil, and between the long stamens and calyx. 39. 63 — (cabbage, turnip).

CLASS XV. MONADELPHIA.

ORDER III. TRIANDRIA.

SISIRYN"CHIUM. Spatha 2-leaved ; perianth 0 ; corolla superior, 6-cleft or
6-petalled, tubular ; style 1 ; stigma 3-cleft ; capsule 3-celled. 6. 18 — (blue-
eyed grass). /S.

ORDER V. PENTANDRIA.

PASSIFLO'RA.' Calyx 5-parted, coloured ; corolla 5-petalled, on the calyx ;
nectary, a triple filamentous crown within the petals : gourd-like berry, pedi-
celled. 34. 98— (passion-flower). S.

Exotic.

ERO'DIUM. Calyx 5-leaved ; corolla 5-petalled ; nectariferous scales 5,
alternating with the filaments ; arils 5, 1-seeded, awned ; beaked at the base
of the receptacle ; awn spiral, bearded within. (Taken from geranium). 14.
33— (stork's bill).

ORDER VII. HEPTANDRIA.

Exotic.

PELARGO'NIUM. Calyx 5-parted, upper division broader, ending in a capil-
lary nectariferous tube ; corolla 5-petalled, irregular ; the two upper petals
usually broader, with coloured veins ; filaments 10, 3 of them usually without
anthers ; arils f>, each 1-seeded, awned ; some of the awns spiral. 14. 73 —
(stork geranium).

ORDER X. DECANDRIA.

GERA'NIUM. Calyx 5-leaved ; corolla 5-petalled, regular ; nectariferous
glands 5, adhering to the base of the 5 alternating long filaments ; arils 5, 1-
seeded, awned, beaked at the elongated top of the receptacle ; awn naked or
smooth within, straight. 14. 73— (cranebill, false crowfoot, herb-robert). S.
Southern.

ACA'CIA. MIMOSA. Polygamous. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed ; petals 5 ;
stamens 5 to 10, exsert ; pod 1-celled, 2-valved. 33. 93.

ORDER XII. POLYANDRIA.

SI'DA. Calyx simple, angular, 5-cleft ; style many-parted ; capsules many,
arranged circularly, 1-celled, 1 or 3-seeded. (Pedicel articulated under the
apex). 37. 74 — (indian mallow?). S.

ALTH^'A. Calyx double, outer one 6 or 9-cleft ; capsules many, arranged
circularly, 1-seeded. 37. 74 — (Hollyhock).

MAL"VA. Calyx double, outer one 3-leaved, inner one 5-cleft ; capsules
many, arranged circularly, I-celled, 1-seeded. 37. 74— (mallows). S.

HIBIS"CUS. Calax double, outer one many-leaved; inner one about
5-cleft ; stigmas 5 ; capsule 5 or 10-celled, many seeded. 37. 74 — (marsh
mallows.) S.

Exotic.

GOSSYP"IUM. Calyx double, outer one 3-cleft ; capsule 4-celled ; seeds in-
volved in wool. 37. 74— (cotton).

CLASS XVI. DIADELPHIA,

OKDEB 5. PENTANDRIA, TO ORDFR VIII. OCTANDRIA, OR PENT-OCTANDRIA.

CORYDA'LIS. DICLYTRA. Calyx 2-leaved ; corolla ringent, 1 or 2-spurred
at the base : filaments 2, membranaceous, each with 3 anthers; capsules
silique-like, 2-valved, compressed, many-seeded. In some species the stamens
are separate, with broad membranaceous bases. 24. 62 — (colic-weed). <S.

FUMA'RIA. Calyx 2-leaved, caducous : corolla irregular : spurred or gib-

31

362 CLASS XVI. ORDER X.

boils at the base of one petal ; filament* 2, each with three anthers ; capsule
or silicle drupe-like, 1-celled, 1-seeded, not opening by valves: seeds affixed
to the side of the cell. 24. 62— (fumitory). 5.

POLYGA'LA. Calyx 5-leaved, peimanent, unequal, 2 of the leafets wing-like,
larger, coloured ; corolla irregular (or rather, calyx 3-leaved, corolla imperfect-
ly papilionaceous) : capsule obcordate, 2-celled, 2-valved. Keel of the corolla
sometimes appendaged : seeds hairy. 33. 3i>— (snake root, milk-wort, low
centaury, mountain flax). S.

ORDER X. DECANDRIA.

A. Legume without transverse divisions or partitions ; seeds numerous.
(Stigma pubescent.)

PI'SOM. Calyx with the divisions leaf-like, about equal : banner protruding
2 folds : style compressed, cahnate, villose above : legume without down at
the suture 32. 93— (pea).

LA'THYRUS. Calyx with the two upper divisions shorter : «tyle flat, villose
above, broader towards the top. (Stems mostly winged, leafets 2 or more,
terminated by a divided tendril). 82 93 — (sweet pea). -S.

VJC'IA. Calyx emarginate above, 2-toothed ; 3 straight long teeth below;
banner emarginate ; style bearded transversely on the lower side beneath the
stigma. 32. 93— (vetch). S.

(Stigma notpube -cut.)

PHASE'OLUS. Keel, stamens and style spirally twisted together : legume
compressed, falcate; seeds sub-compressed, renifrom 32. 93— -(bean). •$.

STROPIIOSTY'LKS. GLYCINK. Keel, stamens and style spirally twisted to-
gether : legume terete, with a longitudinal half-breadth partition, attached to
one edge: seed reniform,sub-cylindric. 32 93 — (wild bean). S.

A'PIOS. GLYCI'NE. Calyx somewhat 2-lipped, truncate, 1-toothed : keel of
the corolla falcate, bending back the apex of the banner : germ sheathed at the
base: legume coriaceous, many -seeded 32.93— (ground-nut). S.

AMPHJCAR"PA. Calyx bell-form, 4-toothed, obtuse and naked at the base :
petals oblong, banner broader, close-pressed upon other petals, sub-sessile :
fctigma capitate: legume flat, stiped ; seeds 2 to 4. 32. 93 -(wild bean-
vine). <S.

ROBI'NIA. Calyx small, bell-form, 4-cleft, upper division 2-parted : banner
large, reflexed, roundish : legume compressed, elongated, many-seeded : seeds
compressed, small. 32. 93 — (locust tree). -S.

Exotic.

COLU'TEA. Calyx 5-cleft with the keel obtuse: style bearded on its back
through its whole length : legume inflated, opening on the upper suture at the
base. 32. 93 - (bladder senna, bush locust).
Southern.

INDIGOK"ERA. Calyx spreading: keel with a subulate spur both sides ; le-
gume linear, small, terete or quadrangular. 22. 9£— (indigo).

B. Legume without transverse divisions or partitions ; sttdsfew or single.

MELILO'TUS. Flowers recemed: calyx tubular, 5-toothed ; keel simple,
shorter than the wings and banner : legume rugose, longer than the calyx, or
about as long. (Taken from the trifolium). 32. 93— (melilot clover). 5.

TRIFO'LIDM. Flowers sub-capitate : legume included in the ealyx, not
opening by valves, 1 to 4-seeded. (Leaves always ternate). 32. 93— (clover). &
C. Fruit or lament in several joints, or in a single-seeded piece.

HEDYS"ARUM. Calyx 5-cleft : keel of corolla transversely obtuse ; loment
many-jointed; joints 1 -seeded, truncate, compressed, generally hispid. Plant.-
mostly with ternate leaves. 32. 93 — (bush clover). S.

Exotic. »

CORONIL'LA. Calyx 2-lipped : petals withplaws: loment teretish, jointed :
flowers in umbels ; seeds generally cylindric. 32. 93 — (coronilla).
D. Stamens united in one set.

AMOR"PHA. Calyx somewhat bell-form, 4 or 5-cleft : banner ovate, con-
cave : wings and keel 0 ; legume 1 or 2-seeded, falcate. 32. 93 — (false in-
digo). S.

LUPI'NUS. Calyx 2-lipped : anthers, 5 oblong and 5 roundish ; legume co-
riaceous, torulose. 32. 93 — (lupine). S.

CROTALA'RIA. Corolla with the banner cordate, large keel acuminate, the

CLASS XVII. ORDER II. 363

membrane formed by the united filament, has a fissure on the back : style
curved ; legume pedicelled, turgid. 32. 93— (rattle box). S.

CLASS XVII. SYNGENESIA.

ORDER. I- POLYGAMIA

A. Florets ligulate.

CICHO'RIUM. Calyx calycled ; egret plumose, sessile, unequal (Torrey) ;
many-leaved, chaffy (Persoon) ; receptacle somewhat chaffy. 49. 53—
'succory or endive).

LEON'TODON. Calyx double, imbricate, with flexible leafets ; receptacle
naked; egret stiped. 49. 53— (dandelion). S.

PRENAN"THES. Florets from 5 to 20, in a simple series (or in one circular
row) ; calyx calycled ; receptacle naked ; egret simple, sub-sessile. 49. 53—
f white lettuce). S.

LACTU'CA. Calyx imbricate, cylindric, with the margin of the scales mem-
branaceous ; receptacle naked ; egret simple, stiped ; seed smooth. 49, ^3—
'lettuce). "<S.

HIERAC"IUM. Calyx imbricate, ovate ; egret simple, sessile ; receptacle
naked, punctate, or sub-pilose. (From white becoming yellowish). 49.53—
(hawk -weed;. S.

Exotic.

TRACOPO'GON. Calyx simple, many -leaved : receptacle naked ; egret plu-
mose and stiped. 49. 53— (goats-beard, vegetable oyster) .

B. Flowers tubulous : flower capitate. •

ARC"TIUM. Calyx globose, with scales hooked at the apex : egret-chaff-
bristly : receptacle chaffy. 49. 54 — (burdock). S.

CNI'CUS. Calyx swelling, imbricate, with prickly scales ; receptacle vil-
lose ; egret caducous, plumose. 49. 54 — (thistle.) <S.

CAR"DUUS. Calyx ovate, imbricate with prickly scales ; receptacle Villose ;
egret pilose. 49. 54 — (comb-tooth thistle).

Exotic.

CAR"THAMUS. Calyx ovate, imbricate with scales, pvatish leafy at the
apex ; egret chaff hairy or none ; receptacle chaff bristly. 49. 54 — (false
saffron).

CYN"ARA. Receptacle bristly ; calyx dilated, imbricate', scales with fleshy
bases, emarginate and pointed ; egret plumose, sessile. 49. 54 — (garden ar-
tichoke).

C. Florets tubulous ; flower discoid.

EUPATO'RIUM. Calyx imbricated (rarely simple) oblong ; style long cloven
half way down : egret pilose, scabrous, or rough papillose ; receptacle naked ;
seed smooth and glandular, 5 striate. 49. 55 — (boneset, thoroughwort, joe-
pye). .S'.

MIKA'NIA. Calyx 4-6 leaved, 4-6 flowered ; receptacle naked ; egret pilose.
49. 55. S.

ORDER II. POI.YGAMIA SFPERFLUA.

A. Flowers discoid ; the ray-florets being obsolete.

TANACE'TUM. Calyx imbricate, hemispheric ; scales acuminate ; rays obso-
lete, 3 cleft ; egret somewhat marginal ; receptacle naked. (Flowers corymbed.)
19 55— (tansey).

ARTEMI'SIA. Calyx imbricate, ovate, with scales rounded, converging;
ray florets subulate ; egret 0 ; receptacle somewhat villose, or nakedish.
'Flowers mostly rounded). 49.55 — (wormwood, southern-wood). <S.

GNAPHA'LIUM. Calyx imbricate with the marginal scales rounded, scafious,
shortish, glossy, coloured ; receptacle naked ; egret pilose or plumose, scabrous;
florets of the ray subulate, of the disk entire. Sometimes all the florets are
perfect. 49. 55 — (life everlasting). S.

B. Flowers radiate : the ligulate ray florets very manifest.
(Receptacle naked.)

ERI'GERON. Calyx imbricate, sub-hemispherical ; florets of the ray very
numerous and narrow : receptacle naked ; egret double : outer minute ; inner
hairy, of few rays. 49.55 — S.

IN"ULA. Calyx imbricate, generally squarrose ; egret simple, scabrous,
sometimes a minute, exterior, chaffy one ; anthers ending in 2 bristles at the

364 CLASS XVIII. ORDER I.

base ; ray florets numerous. Ray florets always yellow. 49. 55 — (elecam-
pane). *%

AS"TER. Calyx imbricate, the inferior scales generally spA-Mng ; egret
simple, pilose; receptacle often deep pitted. Florets of the ray iBGre than 10,
except in solidagonoides, and a few other species ; colour purple or white,
never yellow. 49. 55 — (star-flower). S.

SOLIDA'GO. Calyx oblong or sub-cylindric, with oblong, narrow, pointed
straight scales, imbricate, closed upon the flower ; ray florets about 5, and
fewer than 10, lanceolate, 2 toothed, equal to, or shorter than the culyx ; fila-
ments capillary, very short ; style thread form, equalling the length of the
stamens, stigma cleft, spreading ; egret simple, pilose, scabrous ; receptacle
furrowed with dots or punctures ; seeds oblong ovate, (yellow.) 49. 55 —
(golden rod). S.

TUSSILA'GO. Calyx simple, swelling ; scales equal, and equalling the disk,,
sub-membranous ; pistillate florets ligulate or without teeth ; egret simple,
sessile. 49. 55 — (Sometimes polygamous;. — (coltsfoot).

GH&VSAN"THEMUM. .Calyx hemispherical, imbricate, with the scales mem-
branous at the margin ; egret none, or a narrow margin. 49. 55 — (ox-eyed
daisy, fever-few). &

Exotic. '

BEL"LIS. Calyx hemispherical ; scales equal ; egret 0 ; receptacle conical ;
seed obovate. 49. 45— (garden daisy).

TAGE'TES. Calyx simple, 1 leafed, 5 toothed, tubular : florets of the ray
about 5, permanent ; egret 5 erect awns. 49. 55. — (marygold).
(Receptacle chaffy or hairy.)

AN"THEMIS. Calyx hemispherical; scales with scarious margins, nearly
equal ; egret 0, or a membranous margin : florets of the ray more than 5 ; re-
ceptacle chaffs flat, with a rigid acuminate apex ; need crowned with a mem-
branous border or egret. 49. 55 — (may- weed, chamomile). <S.

ACHILLE'A. Calyx imbricate, ovate unequal ; egret 0 ; florets of the ray 5
to 10, roundish, dilated (Flowers corymbed). 49.55 — (yarrow). S.

HELIOP"SIS. Calyx imbricate, with ovate linear lined scales ; ray florets
linear, large ; receptacle diaffy, conic ; the chaffs lanceolate ; seeds 4 sided ;
egret 0. 49, 55— (sun-ray). S.

HELE'NIUM. Calyx 1 leafed, many parted ; egret 5 awned, chaffy leaves ;
receptacle globose, naked in the disk, and chaffy in the ray only ; florets of
the ray half 3 cleft ; seed villose. (J^aves decurrent). 49. 55— (false sun-
flower). 5.

ORDER III. POLYGAMIA FRU8TRANEA.

HELIAN"THDS. Calyx imbricate, sub-squarrose, leafy; receptacle flat,
.chaffy ; egret 2 leaved, chaff like, caducous 49. 55— (sunflower, Jerusalem
artichoke). S.

RUDBECK"IA. Calyx consisting of a double order of leafcts or scales ; re-
ceptacle chaffy, conic ; egret a 4 toothed margin, or 0. 49. 55 — (cone
flower). S.

Exotic.

CENTAU"REA. Calyx various, mostly imbricate, roundish ; egret simple,
various : receptacle bristly ; corollas of the ray, funnel shape, longer, irregular.
49. 54— '(blue bottle, blessed thistle).

ORDER IV. POLYGAMIA NECESSARIA.

Exotic.

CALEN"DULA. Calyx many leaved, equal ; receptacle naked ; egret none ;
seeds of the disk membranaceous. 49. 55 — (pot marygold).

ORDER. V. POLYGAMIA SEGREGATA.

ELEPHAN"TOPUS. Partial calyx 4 flowered ; florets 5 cleft, ligulate, perfect ;
receptacle naked ; down setaceous. 49. 55 — (elephant- foot). S.

CLASS XVIII. GYNANDRIA.

ORDER I. MONANDRIA.

A. Anther adnate, sub-terminal, not caducous ; tnasses of pollen affixed by the

base, and made up of angular particles.

OR"CHIS. Corolla ringent like, upper petal vaulted ; lip dilated, spurred be-
neath : masses of pollen 2, adnate, terminal, 7, 21 — (orchis). S.

/ CLASS XIX. ORDER III. 365

HABEN A'RIA. Corolla ringent ; lip spurred at the base beneath ; glands of
the stalks off ^e masses of pollen naked and distinct ; cells of the stalks adnate,
or separated. 7. 21 — S.

B. Anther parallel with the stigma, not caducous ; masses of pollen affixed to the

summit^ the stigma, and made up of farinaceous or angular particles.

GooDYE'iST Corolla ringent like, the 5 lower petals placed under the gib-
bous lip, which is undivided above ; style free ; constituent particles of the
masses of pollen angular. 7. 21 — (rattlesnake-leaf, scrophula weed). <S.

NEOT"TIA. Corol ringent ; the 2 lower petals placed beneath the lip whidi
is beardless ; interior petals converging ; style wingless ; pollen farinaceous.
7. 21—5.

C. Anther inserted, terminal, not caducous ; masses of pollen farinaceous or

angular.

POGO'NIA. Petals 5, distinct, without glands ; lip sessile, cowled, crested
internally ; pollen farinaceous. 7. 21 — (snake-mouth). S.

CYMBID"IUM. Petals 5, distinct ; lip behind (or inverted), unguiculate : the
lamina bearded ; style free : pollen angular. 7. 21 — (grass pink). S.

ARETIIUSA. Petals 5, connate at the base : lip below, growing to the style,
cowled above, crested within ; pollen angular. 7. 21 — (arethusa). S.

ORDER II. DIANDRIA.

CYPRIPE'DIUM. Calyx coloured, 4 leaved, spreading ; corolla 0 (by some
the calyx is called a corolla ) ; nectary large, hollow, inflated ; style with a ter-
minal lobe, and petal-like appendage on the upper side. 7. 21 — (ladies' slip-
per). S.

ORDER V. PENTANDRIA.

Plants bearing seeds in follicles ; and pollen in masses called poUinia.

ASCLE'PIAS. Petal 5, reflexed ; nectaries. 5, concave, erect, containing lit-
tle horns; each stamen with a pair of pendulous masses of pollen, suspended
from the top of the stigma ; follicles smooth. 30. 47 — (milk-weed, silk-
weed). S.

AFOC'YNTJM. Corolla bell form ; stamens with converging anthers, pro-
ceeding from the middle of the stigma and alternating with 5 nectaries ; stig-
ma thick, almost sessile ; follicles in pairs, long-linear. 30. 47 — (dogbane, In-
dian hemp). S,

ORDER VI. HEXANDRIA

ARISTOLO'CHIA. Calyx 0; corolla superior, 1 petalled; ligulate, inflated at
the base; capsule 6 celled, many seeded, ll. 23— (birthwort;. 5.

ORDER POLYANDRIA.

AS"ARUM. Calyx subcampanulate, 3-4 cleft ; corol 0 ; anthers adnate to the
middle of the filaments ; capsule inferior, 6 celled, crowned with the calyx.
11. 23— (wild ginger). S.

CLASS XIX. MONGECIA.

ORDER III. TRIANDRIA.

TY'PHA. Ament cylindric, dense flowered. Staminate flowers — cafyx obso-
lete, 3 leaved : corolla 0 ; stamens 3 together, on a chaffy or hairy receptacle,
united below into one. Pistillate flowers — below the staminate ; calyx 0 ; co-
rolla 0 ; seed 1, pedicelled ; the pedicels surrounded at the base with long hairs
resembling egret. 3. 8 — (cat-tail, or reed mace). S.

CA'REX. Aments imbricate (usually in cylindric spikes). Staminate flowers
— calyx scales single ; corolla 0. Pistillate flowers — calyx scale single ;" corolla
inflated, monopetalous, 2 toothed at the apex ; stigmas 2 or 3 ; nut 3 sided, en-
closed in the inflated, permanent corolla, which becomes an utriculus-like per-
manent aril. Sometimes dioecious. 3.9 — (sedge). 5.

COMPTO'NIA. Staminate flowers — ament cylindric, with calyx scales I flow-
ered ; corolla 2 petalled or none ; filaments 2 forked. Pistillate flowers — spike
or ament ovate ; corolla 6 petalled (the corolla may be called a calyx) ; styles
2 ; nnt oval, 1 celled. 50. 99— (sweet fern). S.

Exotic.

Colx. Staminate flowers in remote spikes ; calyx glume 2 flowered, awn-
less ; corolla glume awnless. Pistillate flowers — calyx glume 2 flowered ; co-
rolla glume awnless~ ; style 2 parted ; seed covered with the bone like calyx.
4. 10~(job's tear).

31*

366 CLASS XIX. ORDER XII.

* Southern.

ZE'A. Staminate flowers— calyx glume 2 flowered, awnless ; corolla ghmro
awnless. Pistillate flowers — calyx glume 2 valved (number of valves increased
by cultivation) ; style I , very long, filiform, pendulous ; seed solitary, immer-
sed in an oblong receptacle. 4. 10 — (Indian corn).

ORDER IV. TL-TRANDRIA.

Ax"vus. Staminate flowers — ament composed of wedge form, truncate 3
flowered receptacles ; calyx a scale, 3 lobed ; corolla 4 parted. Pistillate flow-
ers—calyx 2 flowered scales, somewhat 3 cleft ; corolla 0 ; seed compressed
ovate, wingless. 50. 99 — (alder). S.

UR"TICA. Staminate flowers — calyx 4 leaved ; corolla 0 ; nectary central,
cyathiform. Pistillate flowers — calyx 2 leaved (2 valved) ; corolla 0: seed 1,
glossy. 53. 98— (nettle). S.

MO'RUS. Staminate flowers — calyx 4 parted; corolla 0; Pistillate flowers
—calyx 4 leaved ; corolla 0 ; styles 2, calyx becoming berry-like ; seed 1. 53.
98— (mulberry). 5.

ORDER V. PKNTANDRIA.

AMARAN"THUS. Staminate flowers — calyx 3 or 5 leaved ; corolla 0 ; sta-
mens 3 or 5. Pistillate flowers — calyx and corolla as the Staminate ; styles 3;
capsule 1 celled, opening transversely ; seed 1. 54.- 30 — (amaranth, red
cockscomb). S.

AMBRO'SIA. Staminate flowers — common calyx 1 leaved ; anthers in con-
tact but not united ; corolla 1 petalled, '> cleft, funnel form ; receptacle naked.
Pistillate flowers — calyx 1 leaved, entire, the swelling part 5 toothed, 1
flowered; corolla 0 ; nut from the indurated calyx 1 seeded. 54. 98 — (hog-
weed). 5.

ORDER XII. POLTANDRIA.

A. Stems not tcoody.

SAGITTA'RIA. Staminate flowers — calyx 3 leaved ; corolla 3 petalled ;
filaments mostly 24. Pistillate flowers — calyx and corolla as in the sta-
minate ; germs many ; capsules aggregate, 1 seeded, not opening. 5. 13 —
(arrow-head). S.

AR"CM. Spatha cucullate, 1 leaved ; spadix not entirely covered with the
fructification ; being more or less naked above, with pistillate flowers be-
neath, and Staminate 'in the middle (sometimes a few are Staminate beneath ;
berry mostly 1 seeded, generally cirrose glandular beneath). 2. 7 — (Indian
turnip, wake-robin). S.

CAL"LA. Spatha ovate, becoming expanded ; spadix covered with the fruc-
tification ; stamens intermixed. Staminate flowers — calyx and corolla 0 ; an-
thers sessile. Pistillate flowers — calyx and corolla 0 ; berries 1 celled many
seeded, crowned with the short style. 2. 7 — (water arum).

EUPHOR"BIA. Involucrum perianth like, inflated, with alternating petal like
segments. Staminate florets 12 or more, at the base of the stipe of the pistil-
late flower, each consisting of an anther united to a pedicel by a filament. Pis-
tillate flower central, single, stiped ; with three 2 cleft styles ; capsule 3 lobed.
38. 96— (caper, spurge). S.

Exotic.

POTF.'RIUM. Staminate flowers— calyx 4 leaved ; corolla 4 parted ; stamens
30 to 50. Pistillate flowers— calyx and corolla like the Staminate ; pistils 2 ;
berry from the indurated tube of the corolla. 54. 92 — (burnet).
B. Stems woody.

QUKR"CUS. Staminate flowers — ament loose ; calyx sub 5 clefl ; corolla 0 ;
ttamens 5 to 10. Pistillate flowers — calyx 1 leafed, entire, scabrous, being a
woody cup ; style 1, stigma 2 to 5 ; nut or acorn 1 celled, 1 seeded, coriaceous,
surrounded at the base by the permanent calyx. 50. 99— (oak). <S.

COR"YLUS. Staminate flowers — ament cylindric, imbricate ; calyx a 3 cleft
fccale ; pericarp none ; stamens about 8. Pistillate flowers — calyx 2 parted, la-
cerated ; stigmas 2 ; nut ovate, surrounded by and included in the permanent
leaf. like calyx. 50. 99— (hazlenut). £.

FA'GUS. Staminate flowers — ament roundish : calyx 5 or 6 cleft, bell-form :
stamens 5 to 12. Pistillate flowers — calyx 4 toothed, setose : germs 2: nuts
2, inclosed in the calyx, becoming coriaceous echinate. 50. 99— (beech). N.

CASTA'NKA. Polygamous. Staminate flowers — ament naked, linear : coroi-

CLASS XX. ORDER III. 367

la (or calyx) 1 leaved, 5 or 6 parted ; stamens 10 to 20. Pistillate flowers —
calyx 5 or 6 leaved, (or 5 or 6 lobed) muricate ; germs ? ; stigma pencil-form ;
nuts 3, with coriaceous putamen, enclosed in the calyx, becoming echinate.
50. 99— (chesnut). S.

BE"TULA. Staminate flowers — ament cylindric, imbricate, scales peltate,
3 flowered ; stamens 10 to 12 Pistillate flowers— calyx a 2 or 3 flowered
scale : seed 1, winged. 50. 99— (birch). S.

PLAT"ANUS. Ament globose. Staminate flowers— corolla none or scarce-
ly apparent, anthers growing around the filaments. Pistillate flowers — calyx
many leaved ; style with a recurved stigma ; seed roundish, crowned with the
mucronate style, with egret-like hairs at the base. 50. 99 — (button-wood, false
sycamore). S.

JUG"JLANS. Staminate flowers — ament imbricate ; calyx a scale, generally
5 parted ; corolla 4 or 5 parted ; stamens 18 to 36. Pistillate flowers — calyx 4
cleft, superior ; corolla 4 cleft or 4 parted ; styles 1 or 2 ; drupe partly spongy ;
nut rugose and irregularly furrowed. 50 94— (butternut, black walnut). S.

CAR"YA. Staminate flowers — ament imbricate ; calyx, 3 parted scales ;
corolla 0 ; stamens 4 to 6. Pistillate flowers — calyx 4 cleft, superior ; corolla
0 : styles 0 ; stigma disk-like, 4 lobed ; pericarp 4 valved ; nut sub-quadrangu-
lar, oven. 50. 94— (hickory, walnut). S

ORDER XV. MONADELPHIA.

A. Stems not woody.

MOWOR';DICA. Staminate flowers— calyx 5 or 6 cleft ; corolla 5 or 6 parted ;
filaments 3. Pistillate flowers — style 3 cleft ; berry gourd-like and bursting
elastically ; seeds compressed. 34. 97 — (balsam apple, wild cucumber).

Exotic.

CUC^UMIS. Staminate flowers — calyx 5 toothed ; corolla 5 parted ; fila-
ments 3. Pistillate flowers — calyx and corolla like the Staminate ; stigmas 3,
thick, 2 parted; berry with sharpish seeds. 34. 97 — (cucumber, musk-melon).

CUCUR'BITA. Staminate flowers— calyx 5 toothed ; corolla 5 cleft ; fila-
ments 3. Pistillate flowers — calyx and corolla like, the Staminate ; pistil 3
cleft ; pomaceous berry large, 3 to 5 celled ; seeds thickened at the margin.
34. 97 — (gourd, squash, pumpkin, water-melon).

RICI'NUS. Staminate flowers — calyx 5 parted ; stamens numerous. Pistil-
late flowers— calyx 3 parted ; styles 3, 2 cleft ; capsules echinate, 3 celled, 3
seeded. 38. 96 — (palma christi, or castor oil plant).
B. Stems woody.

PI'NUS. Staminate flowers — calyx 4 leaved, peltate ; corolla 0 ; stamens
many ; anthers naked, 2, sessile, 1 celled. Pistillate flowers — calyx in strobiles
or cones, scales closely imbricate, 2 flowered ; pistil 1 ; nut with a membrana-
ceous wing. (Perhaps more properly a samara). 51. 100— (pine). S.

CUPRES"SUS. Staminate flowers — ament ovate, imbricate ; calyx a peltate
scale; corolla 0; anthers 4, sessile. Pistillate flowers — ament strobilaceous ;
calyx a 1 flowered peltate scale ; corolla 0 ; germs 4 to 8, under each scale of
the calyx ; nuts angular, compressed. 51. 100— (white cedar). S.

CLASS XX. DIGGCIA.

ORDER II. DIANDRIA.

SA'LIX. Staminate flowers — ament cylindric ; calyx a 1 floAvered scale,
with a nectariferous gland at the base : stamens 1 to 6. Pistillate flowers —
ament and calyx like the staminate ; stigmas 2 ; generally 2 cleft ; capsule 1
celled ; 2 valved ; seeds many, with egret-like down. 50.99 — (willow). <S.

FRAX"INUS. Polygamous. Perfect flowers — calyx 0, or 3 or 4 parted ; co-
rolla 0, or 4petalled ; pistil 1 ; samara 1 seeded, with a lanceolate wing,. Pis-
tillate flowers — calyx, corolla, and pistils same as perfect. 44. 37 — (ash). -S.

ORDER III. TRIANDRIA.

Exotic.

Fi'cus. Common receptacle fleshy (becoming the fruit), enclosing the ape-
talous florets ; both staminate and pistillate, either in the same, or in distinct
individuals. Staminate flowers — calyx 3 parted. Pistillate flowers — calyx 5
parted ; pistil 1, lateral ; seed 1, covered with the closed, permanent, some-
what fleshy calyx. 53. 98— (fig-tree).

368 CLASS XXI. ORDER I.

ORDER IV. TETRAHDRIA.

VIS"CUM. Staminate flowers — calyx 4 parted ; corolla 0 ; anthers sessile,
adhering to the calyx. Pistillate flowers — calyx 4 leaved, superior ; corolla 0 ;
style 0 ; berry 1 seeded, globose ; seed cordate; (parasitic, adhering to trees).
43. 58— ^misletoe). S.

ORDER V. PINTANDRIA.

ZAKTHOX"YLUM. Staminate flowers— calyx 5 parted ; corolla 0 ; stamens 3
to 6. Pistillate flowers— pistils 3 to 5 ; capsules equal to the number of pistils,

1 seeded. 46. $4— (prickly ash, or tooth-ache tree). S.

HuM"uLU9. Staminate flowers — calyx 5 leaved ; corolla 0 ; anthers with

2 pores at the extremity. Pistillate flowers— calyx 1 leaved, entire, oblique,
spreading ; styles 2 ; seed 1, within the leaf-like calyx ; inflorescence strobile-
form. 53.98— ( hop). S.

Exotic.

CAN".V\BIS. Staminate flowers — calyx 5 parted. Pistillate flowers— calyx
5 leaved, entire, gaping laterally ; styles 2; nut 2 valved, within the closed
calyx. 53. 98— (hemp).

SPINA'CIA. Staminate flowers — calyx 5 parted ; corolla 0. Pistillate flow-
ert— styles 4 ; seed 1, within the indurated calyx. 12. 29 — (spinach).

ORDER VI. HEXANDRIA.

SMI'LAX. Staminate flowers — calyx 6 leaved ; cprol 0 ; anthers adnate to
the filaments. Pistillate flowers — style minute: stigmas 3; berry- 3 celled,
superior, 1—3 seeded. 11. 12. S.

ORDER VIII. OCTANDRIA.

PO'PULUS. Staminate flowers — ament cylindric, calyx a torn scale ; corolla
tnrbinate, oblique, entire, supporting 8 to 30 stamens. Pistillate flowers —
ament, calyx and corolla like the Staminate ; stigma 4 or 6 lobed : capsule 2
celled, 2 valved, many seeded ; seed with egret-like hairs. (Leaves having
a tremulous motion;. 50. 99— (poplar, balm of Gilead). 5.

ORDER XII. POLTANDRIA.

MENISPER"MUM. Staminate flowers.— Calyx 2 bracted, about 6 leaved, ca-
ducous ; petals 6—9, glandular, minute, retuse ; stamens 16—24 ; anthers ad-
nate to the filaments, 4 lobed, 2 celled. Pistillate flowers.- Germs and styles.
3—6 ; drupes mostly solitary, 1 seeded ; nut lunate, compressed. 11. 77. 5.

CLASS XXI. CRYPTOGAMIA.

ORDER I. FIUCE3.

A. Capsule having an elastic ring at right angles with its opening.

POLYPO'DIUM. Capsules disposed in round scattered fruit dots (or clusters
of capsules), on various parts of the lower surface of the frond : irivolucrum
none. 55. 5— fpolypod). -S.

ASPID"IUM. Capsules in scattered roundish fruit-dots on various parts of
the whole lower surface of the frond ; involucrum a kidney-form or round
membrane, fastened to the frond in or near th,e centre of the fruit-dot, and
opening on all sides, or to one side of the fruit-dot, and opening on the other.
('The involucrum, when a little opened, is often peltate). 55. 5 — (shield-
fern). AV.

PTER"IS Capsules arranged in a continued line along the very margin of
the frond ; involucres opening inwards, being formed of the inflexed margins
of the fronds. (When the leaves are extremely small, the rows of capsules on
opposite sides meet and cover the lower surface). 55. 5 — (brake). 5.

ADIAN"TUM. Capsules disposed in oblong fruit-dots, arranged along the
margin of the frond ; involucrum is formed by turning back the margin of the
frond over the capsules, and it opens inwards. (The lines of oblong spot* are
generally along that margin, which may be considered the end of the leaf, or
of the segments of the leaf . 55. 5— (maidenhair). S.

OINOCLE'A. Fruit-dots indeterminate, presenting a berry-like appearance ;
capsnles covering the whole lower surface of the frond ; involucrum formed
by turning in or rolling hack the margin of the leaf, which opens inwards, in
maturity, towards the midrib, or remains closed. The fertile leaves are con-
tracted and narrower than the barren ones. 55. 5— (sensitive polypod). S.

CLASS XXL ORDER IV. 369

B. Capsule without a ring — being cellular-reticulate, pellucid, sub-striate, radiate
at the tip.

OSMUN"DA. Capsules globose, pedicelled, radiate-striate or wrinkled, having
a hinge at the joining of the two valves, which resembles part of the jointed
ring of annulated ferns : the capsules either occupy the whole frond, to a lim-
ited extent, or a pannicled raceme. (The parts of the frond occupied by the
fruit are always more contracted than the barren parts). 55. 5-— (flowering
fern). S.

D. Sub-order, APTERES — without pinnate, pinnatifid, or other winged leaves.

LYCOPO'DIUM. Capsules mostly kidney-form, or roundish, 2 or 4 valved,
opening elastically ; they are placed under separate scales in a spike, or some-
times in the axils of the leaves. Leafy, their stems being generally covered
with 2, 3, or 4 rows of narrow, simple, entire leaves. 55. 5 — (ground-pine). iS.

EQUISE'TUM. Fruit placed under peltate polygons, being pileus-like bodies,
which are arranged in whorls, forming a spike-form raceme ; 4 to 7 spiral fila-
ments surround the seed (probably), which resemble green globules. (Fertile
plants mostly leafless ; the stems of all are jointed with toothed sheaths at
every joint, and usually longitudinally striated and hollow. 55. 5 — (scouring
rush, horsetail). S.

ORDER II. MUSCI.*

FUNA'RIA. Teeth of the outer peristome 16, cohering together at the apex,
and twisted obliquely ; the inner peristome consists of 16 membranaceous
cilia, opposite to the teeth, lying flatly. 56. 4.

POLYTRI'CHUM. Peristome very short ; teeth 16 , 32, or 64 ; mouth of the
germ covered by a dry membrane, which is connected to it by the teeth of the
peristome ; calyptre very small, with a large villose or hairy covering. 56. 4.

ORDER III. HEPATIC.E. ,

MARCHAN"TIA. Receptacles pedicelled, radiate-lobed, disk-like or bell-
form, with the inside downwards, to which the globose 4 valved capsules are
attached, with their apexes downwards. The umbrella-like receptacle is eleva-
ted one or two inches by a stipe attached to the centre of its lower side, among
the capsules and many pilose appendages. The frond is leafy, reticulate, fur-
nished with a midrib, and beset with villose roots on the under side, which
attach themselves to the stones in brooks, to damp earth, &c. 57. 3.

JUNGERMAN"NIA. Capsules 4 valved, globose, elevated by peduncles or
stipes from within a bell-form calyx. The fronds are made up of finer leaves
than those of theMarchantia, and are often mistaken for mosses, among which
they generally grow. 57. 3.

ORDER IV. ALGJE.

A. The section FUCOIDE^E comprises those sea-weeds of the old genus Fucus,
whose fronds are cartilaginous or leathery, and of an olive or copper colour, be-
coming brown or black. They are composed of interwoven longitudinal jib-res.
The floating vesicles appear like portions of the frond blown up in bubbles.
Fu'cus. Receptacles tubercled ; tubercles perforated, nourishing aggrega-
ted capsules within, intermixed with articulated fibres. 57. 2.

B. The section FLORIDE^E comprises these sea-weeds of the old genus Fucus,
whose fronds are leathery, membranous or gelatinous, and of a purple or rose
colour.

HALYME'NIA. Frond membranaceous, leathery, nerveless, punctate; seed
immersed throughout the whole frond, disposed in spots. 57. 2.

C. The section ULVOIDE^E comprises the plants of the old genus Ulva. Fronds
membranaceous (broad, or in narrow slips), thin, of a grass-green colour.
Their mibstance consists of cells, with the fruit immersed in the frond. They
grow on rocks, stones, shells, &c. in the sea ; also in ditches, stagnant wa-
ters, damp woods, &c. 57. 2.

UL"VA. Seeds in fours, immersed in every part of the membranaceous
frond. 57. 2.

* Mosses may be gathered whenever the capsules have arrived to their usual
size ; but they must be put in a closet, until the lids of the capsule become
reddish-brown, before they are examined ; then the lids may be removed, and
the teeth examined.

370 CLASS XXI. ORDER VI.

D. The section CONFERVOIDE^E comprises the plants of the eld genus Conferva.
Fruit capsular or naked granulations. Fronds Jiliform and geniculate, con-
taining the fruit immersed in them, generally strung on Uireads ; mostly of
a grass-green or greenish colour, sometimes purple. They grow in freah
water streams, springs, ditches, and stagnant waters ; sometimes in damp
woods, and some in the sea.

CONFER"VA. Filaments articulated, uniform, simple or branched ; contain-
ing the seed within them. No external fruit. 57. 2.

E. The section TREMELLINJE comprises the old genus TremeUa. Plants of this
section are all gelatinous, hyaline, and covered with a membrane. They art-
globose, palmate, or filiform ; and contain conferva-like Jilaments within.
Colour green or purplish. They resemble Conferooidea in habit and place of
growth.

NOS"TOO. Filaments monili-form, constituted from coadunate globules.
Fronds bul late, vesicular (at length becoming flattened), crowded with simple
monili-fonn, curve-criaped filaments. 57. 2.

ORDER V. LICHENEB.

GYROPH"OIU. Frond foliaceous, coriaceous-cartilaginous, peltate, mono-
phyllous, (when luxuriant, polyphyllous) free beneath ; receptacles (buttons)
somewhat shield-form, sessile-aanate, clothed with a dark membmnacoons car-
tilage, including a somewhat solid parenchymous substance ; disk warty or
circinal, plicate and margined. 57. 2.

PARME'LIA Frond coriaceous, sub-membranaceous, flat, expanded, close-
pressed, orbicular, stellate and lobed, or multifid-laciniate, having fibres be-
neath : receptacle shield-form, sub-membranaceous, formed under-side from
the frond, free, with a central puncture by which it is affixed ; seed-bearing
lamina forming the disk, concave, coloured, covering the whole receptacle
above, within similar, sub-cellular and striate, cut round, indexed with a frond-
like margin. 57. 2

CETRA'RIA. Frond cartilaginous or membranaceous, ascending or expand-
ed ; lobe laciniatc, smooth and naked both sides : receptacle* (targets) shield
like obliquely attached to the margin of the frond, the lower free, being sepa-
rate! from it, the upper one sessile ; seed bearing lamina forming the disk,
coloured, piano concave, within similar or cellular striate, surrounded with a
frond like indexed margin. 57. 2.

CENOMY'CE Frond crusty or cartilaginous, foliaceous, laciniate, sub-imbri-
cate free (ran ly adnate) : bearing sub-hstulous peduncles (podetin\ both bar-
ren and fertile : receptacles (knobs) orbicular, without margins, at length con-
vox and capitate, inflated or empty beneath, terminal attached to the peduncles
by their peripheries : seed bearing lamina forming the receptable above thick-
ish, coloured, similar within, convex, reflexed and attached at the periphery,
invested beneath with the woolly integument of the frond. 57. 2.

B^EMV'CES. Frond crustaceous, flat, expanded, adnate : bearing soft, solid,
fertile peduncles (podetia) : receptacles (knobs) capitate, without margins,
solid, terminal, sessile on the peduncles ; seed bearing lamina covering the
whole receptacle and adnate to it, convex reflexed, thickish, coloured, similar
within. 57. 2.

I"S".VE A. Frond sub-crustaceous, teretish, branched, mostly pendulous : cen-
tral part hyaline, elastic composed of fascicles of tubes : receptacles orbicular,
terminal, peltate, formed wholly from the frond, covered all over with its cor-
rieal substance, similar, nearly of an uniform colour ; its periphery destitute of
margin, but often surrounded by a ciliate edging. 57. 2.

ORDER VI. FUNGI.

LYCOPER"DON. "Receptacle somewhat caulescent, at length bursting at tho
top. with scaly warts or priekles scattered over its surface, especially when
young. Seminal dust green. 58. 1.

MU'COR. Receptacle membranaceous, globose, stiped, at first watery and
pellucid, then opake ; seeds naked, sub-cohering. Very minute and fuga-
cious. 58. 1.

TRE'DO. Receptacle 0 ; seminal dust under the cuticle of leaves and stems,
When raptured it is easily brushed off; the little masses of seeds uniform,
mostly globose. 58. 1.

CLASS XXI. ORDER VI. 371

AGAR"ICUS. Destitute of a volva at the base of the stipe, with or without
the ring ; lamellae either entire or with shorter ones intermixed, rarely simple
ramose. Never veiny. A vast genus. Persoon describes 447 species, which
occupy one third of his work on Fungi. 58. 1.

BOLE'TUS. Pileus various : tubes and pores terete, entire, A large genus.
Persoon describes 83 species. 58. 1.

SPECIES OF PLANTS.

The first number on the left of the generic name is that of the artificial class ;
the second, of the artificial order to which the plant belongs.

The first number on the right of the generic name is that of the natural order
of Linnaeus, the second, that of Jussieu.

A number at the end of a specific description denotes the average height
of the plant in the wild state— in feet with f., in inches with i.

A.

8—1. ACER. 23. 66.

rub'rum (red maple, soft maple, O. r. Ap. * ). leaves palmate, 5 lobed, cordate
at the base, unequally gash toothed, glaucous beneath, dividing incisions
between the lobes acute : flowers in fives in sessile umbels, with long pedi-
cels ; germs glabrous. 50 f. S.

tacchari'num (sugar maple, rock maple, hard maple, O. r-y. M. >). leaves pal-
mate 5 lobed, at the base sub-cordate, acuminate, obtusely sinuate, sinuate
toothed, glaucous beneath : peduncles in a nodding corymb. Large tree.
50 f. S.

ttria'tum (striped maple, false dogwood, moose wood. O. g. M. > ). lower
leaves roundish, upper ones 3 cuspidate acuminate, sharply serrate, gla-
brous : racemes simple, pendant. Small tree, with a greenish striped
bark. 15 f. -S.

17—2. ACHILLEA. 49. 55.

millefc/lium (yarrow, milfoil, O. w. J. 4). leaves 2 pinnatifid, downy : the
divisions linear, toothed, mucronate : calyx and stem furrowed. 15 i. -S.

12—5. ACON1TUM. 26»61.

uncina'tum (monk's hood. b. J. 4). stem flexuose ; leaves palmate, 3 to 5 part-
ed ; divisions rhomb lanceolate, gash toothed ; upper lip of the corolla
lengthened, convex, beaked. Cultivated. 2 f. S.

Exotic.

xapel"lus (wolfs bane. b. J. 4). leaves shining, 5 parted ; the divisions 3 part-
ed by gashed incisions, sub-divisions linear . upper lip of the corolla lanceo-
late, ascending, 2 cleft ; spur strait, obtuse. 2 f.

6—1. ACORUS. 2. 13.

fal"amu8 (sweet flag, calamus. O. g-y. J. 4). spike protruding from the side
of a sword form leaf like scape. Water or wet. Root strongly aromatic.
2. f. N.

12—1. ACT7EA. 26. 61.

america'na (bane berry. 6. w. 4). leaves twice and trice ternate ; racemes
ovate ; petals shorter than the stamens ; berries ovate oblong. Var. 1. alba,
petals truncate ; pedicels of the fruit thicker than the peduncle ; berries
white, Var. 2. rubra, petals acute, pedicels of the fruit slender, berries red.
2ft.

21—1. ADIANTHUM. 55. 5.

peda'tum (maiden hair. O. J. 4). frond pedate, with pinnate branches ; lenfeU
halved, upper margin gashed— barren segments toothed, fertile ones entire ;
stipe capillary, very glabrous. Woods. 1 f. S.

12—13. ADONIS. 26. 61.

Exotic.

autumnc/lis (pheasant's eye. Au. ©). flowers 5 to 8 petalled ; fruit sub-cylin-
dric ; petals erose, or emarginate.

jESCULUS, AMARYLLIS. 373

7—1. jESCULUS. 23. 66.

Exotic.

hippocas"tanum (horse chesnut, w. J. ^). leaves digitate, with about 7 divi-
sions : corolla 5 petalled, spreading : flowers in a panicled pyramid. 15 f.
5—2. jETHUSA. 45. 60

Southern.

divarica'ta (E. w. ©). stem erect, slender : leaves biternate : segments narrow
linear : umbels terminal, without involucres ; partial umbels 3 to 5 flowered ;
fruit hispid.

21—6- AGARICUS. 38. 12.

campes"tris, pileus fleshy, flattish, having dark yellow scales : lamellse becom-
ing yellowish red : stipe short : the ring volva rather incomplete. This is
the common eatable mushroom.

11—2. AGRIMONIA. 35. 92.

eupato'ria (agrimony. O. y. Ju. 4). cauline leaves interruptedly pinnate, the
terminal leafet petioled ; leafets obovate, gash toothed, almost glabrous :
flowers sub-sessile ; petals twice as long as the calyx : fruit hispid. 2 f. S.

10—5. AGROSTEMMA. 22. 82.

githa'go (cockle. O. r. J. ©). hirsute : calyx longer than the corolla : petals
entire. &.

3—2. AGROSTIS. 4. 10.

vulga'ris (red-top. O. J.4). panicle with smoothish branches, spreading in ma-
turity : outer valve of the corolla 3 nerved : stipule short, truncate. 18 i-
al'ba (white top, bonnet grass. O. J. 4). panicle with hispid, spreading, lax
branches : outer valVe of the corolla 5 nerved : stipule oblong. 18 i. Var.
decumbens (florin grass), stem decumbent. This variety is considered as a
distinct species by some, and called stolonifera. S.

6—13. ALISMA. 5. 13.

planta'go (water plantain. 6. w. Ju. 4). leaves ovate cordate, acute or obtuse,
9 nerved : flowers in a compound verticillate panicle : fruit obtusely trian-
gular. Var. parviflora, flowers very small : leaves oval, 5—7 nerved,
acuminate.

6—1. ALLIUM. 9. 16.

Exotic.
ce'pa (garden onion. Ju. 4). scape naked, swelling towards the base, longer

than the terete leaves.

schcenopra'sum (cives. Ju. 4). scape naked, equalling the leaves which are te-
rete filiform.

19—4. ALNUS. 50. 99.

serrula'ta (alder. O. r.-g. Ap. ^). leaves obovate, acuminate ; veins and their
axils hairy beneath ; stipules oval, obtuse. 9 f. S.

15—13. ALTHAEA. 37. 74.

ojfirina'lis (marsh mallows. 4). leaves downy, oblong ovate; obsoletely 3
lobed, toothed.

Exotic.

ros"ea (hollyhock. 3 .) stem erect ; leaves rough, heart form, 5 to 7 angled :
crenate.

19—5. AMARANTHUS. 54. 80.

al"bus (white coxcomb, g-w. Ju. ©). glomerules axillary, triandrous ; leaves
obovate, retuse ; stem 4 cornered, simple. Common garden weed.

Exotic.

mela.nchol"icus (love-lies-bleeding, r ©). glomerules axillary, peduncled, round-
ish ; leaves lance ovate, coloured.

6—1. AMARYLLIS. 9. 17.

atamas"co (atamasco lily. w. & r. J. 4). spatha 2 cleft, acute : flower pedicel-
led : corolla bell form, sub-equal, erect : stamens declined.
Exotic.

farmosis"sima (jacobea. 4). spatha 1 flowered : corolla ringent like : petals
declined.

32

874 AMBROSIA, ANGELICA.

19—5. AMBROSIA. 54 98.

ela'tior (hogweed. O. S. ©). leaves doubly pinnatifid, smoothish : petioles
long, ciliated : racemes terminal, panicled : stem wand like. S.

16—10 AMORPHA. 32. 93.

frutico'sa (E. Ju >)• smooth, sub-arborescent ; leaves petioled, emarginate :
spikes aggregated, long : calyx hoary, pedicelled, one of the teeth acuminate,
the rest obtuse; legume few seeded. 6'.

5—1. AMPELOPSIS. 46. 72.

quinquefo'lia * (O. g — to Ju. 4). stem climbing and rooting leaves quinate dig-
itate, smooth ; leafets petlolate, oblong, acuminate, toothed ; racemes dichoi-
omous. Var. hirsuta, leaves pubescent on both sides ; leafets ovate, coarse-
ly toothed.

16—10. AMPHICARPA. 32 93

mono'ica (wild bean-vine, O. b. & w. Ju. ©). stem slender, twining, hairy back-
wards ; leaves ternate, ovate nearly, smooth ; stipules ovate, striate. Var.
comosa, has hirsute leaves. Twining. 4 f.

I I— 1. AMGYDALUS. 36. 92.

Exotic.
per"sim (peach, r. M. * ). cerratures of the leaves all acute, flowers sessile,

solitary. 15 f.

na'na (flowering almond. ^ ). leaves ovate, tapering to the base, sharply ser-
rate. 3 f.

5—1. ANAGALLIS. 20. 34.

arven"six (red chickweed, scarlet pimpernel, r. J. 0). stem spreading, naked,
procumbent ; petals entire, flat, w ith hairs at the margin. -V.
5—1. ANCHUSA. 41. 42.

Exotic.

ojficina'lis (bugloss. y. 4). leaves lanceolate ; spikes imbricate, one sided ;
bracts ovate.

10—1. ANDROMEDA. 18. 51.

calyculit"a (leather leaf. O. w. M. ^). leaves lanceolate-oblong, obsoletely
serrulate, sub-revolute, with scaly dots, rust coloured beneath : raceme* ter-
minal, leafy, turned one way : pedicels short, solitary, axillary : calyx acute,
2 bracted at the base : bracts broad-ovate, acuminate : corolla oblong-cyhn-
dric. Wet. 2. f S.

12—13. ANEMONE. 26. 61.

virginia'na (wind-flower. O.g-w. Ju 4). stem dichotomous; leaves in threes,
ternate, upper ones opposite ; leafets gash-lobate and serrate-acute ; pedun-
cles solitary, 1 flowered, elongated ; seed oblong, woolly, mucronate, in
heads. IS.i.S.

nemaro'sa (low anemone. O. r-w. M. 4). stem 1 flowered : cauline leaves in
threes, ternate : leafets wedge-form, gash-lobed, toothed, acute : corolla ,V6
retailed ; seeds ovate, with a short style, hooked. A variety, quinquefolia,
has lateral leafets deeply 2 cleft. 6. i. S.

thalictro'ides (rue anemone. O. w. M. 4). umbels involucred : radical leaves
twice ternate, leafets sub-cordate, 3 toothed : involucrum 6 leaved ; leafets
petioled, uniform : umbel few-flowered : seed naked, striate : root tuberous.
A variety, uniflora, has a 1 flowered involucrum 6. i. S.

Exotic.

horten"sia (garden anemone), radical leaves digitate: divisions 3 cleft ; cau-
line ones ternate, lanceolate, connate, subdivided : seed woolly.
5—2. ANETHUM. 45. 60.

, Exutir.

grave'olenx (dill), fruit compressed : plant annual.

fceni'culum (fennel), fruit ovate: plant perennial.

5—2. ANGELICA. 45. 60.

atropurpu'rea (angelica. O.g-w J. 4). stem smooth, coloured : leaves lenwtr,
partitions sub-quinate ; leafets ovate, acute, gash-serrate, sub-lobed ; 3 ter-
minal ones confluent : petioles very large, inflated. Wet meadows. Root
purplish. This is the true aromatic angelica. 4. f. S.

* Cissus hederacea of Mirbel.

ANTHEMIS, ARBUTUS. 375

Exotic.
archangel"ica (archangel. S ). leaves with the odd terminal leafet lobed.

17—2. ANTHEMIS. 49. 55.

cof'ula (mayweed. O. w. J. ©). receptacle conic, chaff bristly, seed naked :
leaves 2 pinnate, leafets subulate, 3 parted. 10 i. S.

Ezotic.

no'bilis (chamomile. w. Au. 4). leaves 2 pinnate ; leafets 3 parted; linear-sub-
ulate, sub-villous : stem branching at the base. Fragrant. 4 i.

2—2. ANTHOXANTHUM. 4. 10.

odora'tum (sweet vernal grass. O. M. 4). spike oblong-ovate; florets sub-
pcdunclec), shorter than the awn. An American variety, altissimum, is larger
and of a dark green. An elegant substitute for the Leghorn grass. 10 —
18 i. 5.

13—2. ANTIRRHINUM. 40. 40.

lina'ria (snap-dragon, y. Ju. 4.'. erect, glabrous : leaves scattered, lanceolate-
linear, crowded together : spikes terminal, dense-flowered : calyx glabrous,
shorter than the spur Flowers large — (toad-flax). Naturalized. 12 — 18 i.

16—10. APIOS. 32. 93.

tubero'sa (ground-nut. O. dark p. Ju. 4). stem twining : leaves pinnate, with
7 lance-ovate leafets : racemes shorter than the leaves : root tuberous
farinaceous, in taste resembling the cocoa-nut, and highly nutricious. This
plant should be cultivated in moist rich soil, for food.
5—2. APIUM. 45. 60.

Exotic.

petroseli'num (parsley. Ju. <?). cauline leaves linear: involucrum minute.
grave'okns (celery. Ju $ ). stem channelled : cauline leaves wedge-form.

18—5. APOCYNUM. 30. 47.
androscemifo'lium (dog-bane. O. r-w. J. 4). stem erect and branching; leaves

ovate : cymes lateral and terminal : tube of the corolla longer than the

calyx, with a spreading limb. 3f. S.
cannab"inum (O. g-y. J. 4). leaves lanceolate, acute, at each end, smooth on

both sides : cymes paniculate : calyx as long as the tube of the corol.

12—5. AQUILEGIA. 26. 61.
canaden'sis (wild columbine. O. r. & y. Ap. 4). horns straight : stamens ex-

sert, leaves decompound. Growing frequently in crevices of rocks. 15 i.

Exotic.
vu1ga'ri.s (garden columbine. J. 4). horns incurved : leafy : stem and leaves

glabrous ; leaves decompound. The nectariferous horns become numerous

by culture; one hollow7 horn within another. 15 i.

14—2. ARABIS. 39. 63.
lyra'ta (w. A. 5). stem and upper leaves smooth and glaucous : radical leaves

lyrate-pinnatifid, often pilose : stem branched at the base ; pedicels much

longer than the calyx. 10 i.
canaden"sis (O. w. J. 4). stem leaves sessile, oblong-lanceolate, narrow at the

base, pubescent : pedicels pubescent, reflexed in the fruit : siliq.ues penda-

lous, sub-falcate, nerved. 2 f. S.
rhomWidea (spring cress. O. w. M. 4). leaves glabrous, rhomboidal, repand

toothed, the lower ones nearly round, on long petioles ; root tuberous. *15 i.

Wet. <S.

5—5. ARALIA. 46. 59.

racemo'sa (spikenard. O. w. J. 4). spreading branches: petioles 3 parted, the

partitions 3 — 5 leaved ; leafets often heart-form ; branchlets axillary, leafy :

umbels many, sub-pariiclod, leafless above. Damp. 4f.
nudicaii'lis (O. g-w. J. 4). stem hardly a caulis : leaf solitary, terquinate : scape

shorter than the leaf : umbels few. S.

10—1. ARBUTUS. 18. 51.
UW-UT"SI (bear-berry, kinnikinnick. O. w-r. M. > ). stem procumbent : leaves

w'edge-obovate, entire ; berry 5 seeded. Dry, barren sand plains, &c. Very

abundant about the great lakes.

376 ARCTIUM, ASCLEPIAS.

17—1. ARCTIUM. 49. 54.

lapf'pa (burdock. O. r. Au. 4). cauline leaves heart-form, petioled, toothed
flowers panicled, globose : calyx smooth.

10—3. ARENARIA. 22. 82.

1« Leaves oblong.

laterifior"a (sand-wort. O. w. J. 4). stem filiform, simple: leaves ovate, obtuse,
Bub-triple-nerved : peduncles lateral, solitary, elongated, 2 cleft; oneped.»cel
middle-bracted ; corolla longer than the calyx. 6—10 i.

18—1. ARETHUSA. 7. 21.

bulbo'sa (arethusa. O. r. J. 4) leafless : root globose; scape sheathed, 1 flow-
ered ; calyx with the superior divisions incurved ; lip sub-crenulate, Flowers
large, sweet-scented. Damp.

18—6. ARISTOLOCHIA. 11. 23.

serpenta'ria (O. p. J. 4). leaves heart-form, oblong, acuminate ; stem zigzag,
ascending ; peduncles radical ; lips of the corolla lanceolate. (The Virginia
snake-root). There is a variety with very long, narrow leaves.
11—1. ARMENIACA. 36. 92.

J-}.r»tic.

vulga'ris (apricot > ). leaves sub-cordate ; stipules palmate. Var.precox (early
apricot), fruit small, yellow. Var. persicoides (peach apricot), fruit sub-
compressed.

11—5. ARONIA. 36. 92.

botri/a'pium (shad-bush, june-berry. O. w. Ap. ^ ). leaves oblong-oval, cuspi-
date, glabrous when mature (when first expanded lanceolate and downy) ;
flowers racemed ; petals linear ; germs pubescent ; segments of the calyx
glabrous.

17—2. ARTEMISIA. 49. 55.

Exotic.

pon"tica (roman artemisia). leaves downy beneath ; cauline ones bipinnate ;
leafets linear ; branches simple ; flowers roundish, pedunclcd, nodding.

absynth"ium (wormwood. 4). stem branching, panicled ; leaves hoary ; radical
ones triply pinnatifid ; divisions lanceolate, toothed, obtuse ; cauline ones 2
pinnatifid or pinnatifid ; divisions lanceolate, acutish ; floral ones undivi-
ded, lanceolate. Naturalized in the most mountain districts of New Ki in-
land.

abrota'nttm (southern-wood. 4. & * ). stem straight ; lower leaves bipinnate ;
upper ones hair form, pinnate ; calyx pubescent, hemispheric
19-12. ARUM. 2. 7.

triphyl"lum (indian turnip, wild turnip, wake robin. O. p. g. & w. M. 4). sub-
caulescent; leaves ternate ; leafets ovate, acuminate, spadix club-form;
spatha ovate, acuminate, peduncled with the lamina as long as the spadix.
One variety, virens, has a green spatha ; another, atropurpureum, has a dark-
purple spatha ; another, album, has a white spatha. 1 — 3 f.

3—2. ARUNDO. 4. 10.

canaden"sif (E. Au. 4). panicle oblong, loose ; glumes scabrous, pubescent, as
long as the corolla ; corolla awned on the back ; hairs at the base e<j nai-
ling the valves : culm and leaves smooth. 3—4 f

18—12. ASARUM. 11. 23.

canaden"se (white snake-root, wild ginger. O. g-p. M. 4), leaves broad-reniform,
in pairs ; calyx woolly, deeply 3 parted ; the segments sub-lanceolate,
reflexed. S.

18—5. ASCLEPIAS. 30. 47.

1. Leaves apposite.

xyri'aca (common milkweed, O. w-p. Ju. 4), stem very simple ; leaves lanceo-
late-oblong, gradually acute, downy beneath ; umbels sub-nodding, downy,
3 to five feet high ; flowers in large, close clusters, sweet-scented — pollinia
are fly-traps. 3—5 f. S.

incama'ta (O. r. Ju 4), stem erect, branching above, downy ; leaves lanceolate,
sub-downy both sides ; umbels mostly double at their origin ; the little horn
of the nectary exsert. A variety pulrhra is more hairy. Var. glabra, almost
glabrous. Var. alba, has white flowers. Damp. 3f S,

ASPARAGUS, ASTER.

quadrifo'lia (O. w. p-w. M. 4), stem erect, simple, glabrous ; leaves ovate,-
acuminate, petioled ; those in the middle of the stem are largest, and in
fours; umbels 2, terminal, lax-flowered ; pedicels filiform. About 18 inches
high ; flowers small and sweet-scented. S.

2. Leaves nut opposite.

verticilla'ta (dwarf milkweed. O. g-y. w. Ju. 4), stem erect, very simple, mark-
ed with lines, and small pubescence ; leaves very narrow-linear, straight,
glabrous, whorled, scattered ; horn in the nectary exsert. 2 f. /S.
6—1. ASPARAGUS. 11. 12.

Exotic. %

ojjlcina'lis (asparagus. Ju. 4), stem herbaceous, unarmed, sub-erect, terete ;
leaves bristle-form, soft ; stipules sub-solitary JNaturalized in the northern
and southern districts, if.

6—1. ASPHODELUS. 10. 16.

Hxotic.
lu'teus (asphodel, king's spear. 4), stem leafy ; leaves 3 sided, striate.

21—1. ASPIDIUM. 55. 5.

margina'le (O. Ju. 4), front doubly-pinnate; lesser leafets oblong, obtuse, de-
current, crenate : more deeply crenate at the base ; fruit dots marginal :
stipe chaffy. 2— 3 f. S.

17—2. ASTER. 49. 55.

1. Leaves entire.

rig"idus (p. y. Au. 4), leaves linear, mucronate, sub-carinate, rigid ; margin
rough-ciiiate ; the cauline leaves reflexed ; the branch ones spreading, sub-
ulate ; stem erect, somewhat branched above ; branchlets 1 flowered, co-
rymbed ; calyx imbricate, twice as short as the disk ; scales obtusish, cari-
nate ; rays about 10 flowered, reflexed. Hardly a foot high. <S.

linariifo'lius (O. p y. Au. 4), leaves thick-set, nerveless, linear, mucronate,
dotted, carinate, rough, stiff, those on the branches recurved ; stem sub-
decumbent ; branches level-topped, 1 flowered ; calyx imbricate, of the
length of the disk ; stem rough, purplish S.

multijlo'rus (O. w-y. Au. to Nov. 4;, leaves linear, smoothish ; stem very
branching, diffuse, pubescent ; branchlets one-way ; calyx imbricate ; scales
oblong, scurvy, acute. S.

flexuosus (L. O. y. w-p. Au. 4), very glabrous : leaves subulate linear, some-
what fleshy, sub-reflexed stem slander, very branching : branches and
branchlets spreading, bristle-form, 1 flowered : scales of the peduncles diva-
ricate, subulate ; calyx imbricate, scales close-pressed, acute. Salt marsh*
es. S. . •

comifo'lius (O. w. Au. 4), glabrous; leaves oblong-ovate, acuminate, short-
petioled ; margin rough ; stem glabrous ; panicle few-flowered ; branches
2 flowered ; calyx sub-imbricate.

amygdali'nus (O. w. S. 4;), leaves lanceolate, tapering to the base, acuminate :
margin rough ; stem simple, level-top-corymbed at the top : calyx lax-imbri-
cate ; scales lanceolate, obtuse. Rays large. S.

nova-ang'lice (O. b-p. Au. 4), leaves linear-lanceolate, pilose, clasping, auricled
at the base ; stem sub-simple, pilose, straight and stiff; flowers sub-sessile,
terminal, crowded ; scales of the calyx lax, coloured, lanceolate, longer than
the disk. In rich soil it grows 10 feet high ; flowers large. S.

cya'neus (O. b-p. Au. 4), leaves linear-lanceolate, clasping, smooth ; stem
wand-like-pani cled, very glabrous ; branches racemed ; scales of the calyx
lax, lanceolate, equalling the disk, inner ones coloured at the apex. 3—4 f.
Flowers many and large. This is the handsomest of all asters. S.
2. Leaves more or less cordate and ovate, serrate, or toothed.

diversifo'lius (E. y. p. S. 4), leaves nearly entire, undulate, pubescent, sub-
scabrous ; lower ones cordate, ovate, with winged petioles ; upper ones
lance oblong ; panicle loose, the branches slender, racemose. 3 f. S.

panicula'tus (O. b-p. Au. to Nov. 4), leaves ovate lanceolate, sub-serrate, petio-
led, glabrous ; radical ones ovate heart form, serrate, rough, petioled ; pe-
tioles naked ; stem very branching, glabrous ; branchlets pilose ; calyx lax,
sub-imbricate. 2—4 f. Flowers smallish, numerous. S.

tordifo'lius (O. w. S. 4), leaves heart form, pilose beneath, sharp serrate, petio-

32*

378 AVENA, BARTSIA.

led ; petioles winged ; stem panicled, smoothish ; panicles divaricate ; calyx
lax, sub-imbricate. Flowers small.

corymbo'sus (O. w. Au. 4), leaves ovate, sharp serrate, acuminate, smoothish ;
lower ones heart form, petioled ; petioles naked ; stem glabrous, level top
corymbed above ; branches pilose ; calyx oblong, imbricate ; scales obtuse,
very close pressed. 12 — 14 1. Flowers rather large.

3. Leaves lanceolate and ovate, lower ones gerrate.

amplexica'ulig (O. b. S. 4), leaves ovate oblong, acute, clasping, heart form,
gerrate, glabrous ; stem panicled, glabrous ; branchlets 1-2 flowered ; scales
of the calyx lanceolate, closely imbricate. Flowers middle sized.

vertic"olor (y-w. Au. 4), leaves sub-clasping, broad lanceolate, sub-serrate,
glabrous ; radical ones serrate in the middle; stem very branching, glabrous ;
scales of the calyx lanceolate, lax, shorter than the disk. Flowers many and
large, elegant. S.

tardifto'rus (b. Oc. 4), leaves sessile, serrate, glabrous, spatulate lanceolate,
tapering to the base, deflected at the margin and both sides ; branches diva-
ricate ; calyx lax, the leafets lanceolate linear, sub-equal, glabrous. Flowers
not middle size.

conyzo'ides (O. w. Ju. 4), leaves oblong, 3 nerved, narrow and acute at the
base ; upper ones sessile, sub-entire ; lower ones petioled, serrate ; stem
simple, corymbed at the top ; calyx cylindric, scurfy ; rays 5, very short.
About 12 inches high ; flowers small.

Exotic.

ckinen"sis (china aster. ©), leaves ovate, thickly toothed, petioled ; canline
, ones sessile, at the base wedge form ; floral ones lanceolate, entire ; stem
hispid ; branches 1 flowered ; calyx foliaceous. A variety has very full
flowers, various coloured, and very short rays. Cultivated.
3—2. AVENA. 4. 10.
Exotic.

sati'ya (oate J. ©), panicled ; 2 seeded ; seeds smooth, one of them awned.
First discovered in the island of Juan Fernandez. A variety is awnlesa,
and has black seeds.

5—1. AZALEA. 18. 50.

nudiflo'ra (early honeysuckle, pinxter blomachee. O. r. M. > ), sub-naked flow-
ered ; leaves lanceolate oblong, or oval, smooth or pubescent, uniform-col-
oured ; nerves on the upper side downy, and beneath bristly ; margin cili-
ate ; flowers abundant, not viscous ; their tubes longer than their divisions ;
teeth of the calyx short, oval, sub-rounded ; stamens very much exsert. A
variety, coccinea, has scarlet flowers and lanceolate leaves : another, rutilant,
has deep red flowers, and minute calyx ; another, carnea, has pale red flow-
ers, with red bases and leafy calyx ; another, oZZw, has white flowers, with .1
middling calyx ; another, papilionacea, has red flowers, with the lower
divisions white, calyx Isafy ; another,/>arttVfl, has flesh coloured flowers, 5
parted to the base ; another, polyandria, has rose coloured flowers, with from
10 to 20 stamens. Woods. 2—6 f.

21—5. B^OMYCES. 57. 2.

ro*"eou$, crust uniform, warty, white; peduncle (podetia) short, cylindrici;
receptacle sub-globose, pale red. On the earth.

10—1. BAPTISIA. 32. 93.

fincto'ria (wild indigo, O. y. Ju. 4), very glabrous and branching : leaves ter-
nate, sub-sessile ; leafets wedge obovate, round obtuse (becoming black in
drying) ; stipules obsolete, oblong, acute, much shorter than the petioles :
racemes terminal : legumes ovate, long stiped. 2 — 3f.
Southern.

aV'ba (O. w. J. 4), branches spreading ; leaves ternate, petioled ; leafets lanceo-
late, wedge form at the base, obtuse, mucronate, glabrous ; stipules subulate,
shorter than the petioles ; racemes terminal. 2. f.

13—2. BARTSIA. 40. 35.

pal"lida (white painted cup. A. w-y. Au. 4), leaves alternate, linear, undivided ;
upper ones lanceolate ; floral ones sub-oval, sub-toothed at the summit ; all
are 3 nerved ; teeth of the calyx acute.

BELLIS, CAMPANULA. 379-

17—2. BELLIS. 49. 55.

Exotic.

peren"ni$ (daisy, w. & p. Ap. 4), leaves obovate, crenate ; scape naked, 1
flowered. Grows wild in cultivated fields in Pittsfield, Mass.

6—1. BERBERIS. 54. 78.

vulga'ris (barberry, y. M. > ), (branches punctate ; prickles mostly in threes ,-
leaves obovate, remotely serrate ; flowers racemed.
5—2. BETA. 12. 29.

Exotic,
vulga'ris (beet. g. Au. <J), flowers heaped together; lower leaves ovate.

19—12. BETULA. 50. 99.

populifo'lia (white birch, poplar birch. Ju. > ), leaves deltoid, long acuminate,,
unequally serrate, very glabrous ; scales of the strobile with rounded lateral
lobes ; petioles glabrous. 30—40 f.

13—2. BIGNONIA. 40. 45.

radi'cans (trumpet flower. O. r. & y. Ju. * ), leaves pinnate ; leafets ovate,
toothed, acuminate ; corymb terminal ; tube of the corolla thrice as long as
the calyx ; stem rooting. Most beautiful climbing shrub. One variety,
fiammea, has yellow scarlet flowers ; another variety, coccinea, has bright
'scarlet flowers- Cultivated. S.

1—2. BLITUM. 12. 29.

capita'tum (strawberry blite. O. r. J. ©), heads in a terminal spike, not inter-
mixed with leaves ; leaves triangular, toothed. 15 i. S.

21—6. BOLETUS. 58. 1.

ignia'rius, dilated, smooth, cuticle in ridges ; pileus hard, becoming dark at
the base, at the margin cinnamon colour, beneath yellowish white. Grows
on trunks. General form like a horse's hoof. It is called touch-wood.

5—1. BORAGO. 41. 42.

ojficina'lis (borage, b. Ju. ©), leaves alternate ; calyx spreading.
14—2. BRASSICA. 39. 63.

Exotic.

ra'pa (turnip. 3 ), root caulescent, orbicular, depressed, fleshy ; radical leaves
rough ; cauline ones very entire, smooth. Var. ruta-baga, has a turbinate,
sub-fusiform root.

olera'cea (common cabbage, including all the varieties caused by culture. $ ),
root caulescent, terete, fleshy ; leaves smooth, glaucous, repand lobate.

3—2. BRIZA. 4. 10.

me'dia (quaking grass, rattle-snake grass ? E. J. 4), panicle erect ; spikelets
heart ovate, about 7 flowered ; calyx smaller than the flowers. 1 f. Proba-
bly introduced.

13—2. BUCHNERA. 40. 34.

america'na (blue-hearts. O. b. Au. 4)j stem simple-; leaves lanceolate, sub-den-
tate, rough, 3 nerved ; flowers remote, spiked. In the herbarium this plant
becomes black. 1 f. &•.

11—1. CACTUS. 13. 85.

opun"tia (prickly pear. E. y. J. 4), proliferous ; articulations compressed, ovate ;
bristles fascicular. The plant appears like a series of thick succulent leaves,
one growing from the top of another. S.

17_4. CALENDULA. 49. 55.

Exotic,
o/wina'lis (potmarygold. y. ©), seed keeled, muricate, incurved.

19—12. CALLA. 2. 7.

jvdu'stris (water arum. O. w. J. 4), leaves sub-roundish, heart form, acute ;
spatha ovate, cuspidate, spreading when mature. Grows in wet places.

12—13. CALTHA. 26. 61.

palu'stris (O. y. Ap. 4), stem erect ; leaves cordate, sub-orbicular, acute cre-
nate. 12—18 i.

5—1. CAMPANULA. 29. 52.

rotundifo'lia (flax, bell-flower, hair-bell. O. b. J. 4), glabrous ; radical leaves
heart reniform, crenate ; cauline ones linear, entire ; panicle lax, few flower-
ered; flowers nodding.

380 CANNABIS, CASTANF.A.

american'a (E b. Au. 4), leaves ovate lanceolate, long acuminate ; lower ones
sub-cordate, with the petioles ciliate ; flowers axillary, nearly sessile, in a
terminal leafy raceme ; corolla sub-rotate ; style exsert. Cultivated. 2. f.
20-5. CANNABIS. 53. 98.

Exotic.

fati'va (hemp. G. Au. <3), stem pilose ; leaves petioled, digitate ; leafets lance-
olate, serrate, pilose ; staminate flowers solitary, axillary ; pistillate one*
spiked. 4—10 f.

5—1. CAPSICUM. 28. 41.

Exotic.

an"nuum (guinea pepper, red pepper, cayenne pepper, y-g. w. Au. G), item
herbaceous ; peduncles solitary. From South America. 10 — 18 i.

14—2. CARDAMINE. 39. 63.

pennsylva'nica (American water cress. O. w. M. 4), glabrous, branching ;
leaves pinnate ; leafets roundish oblong, obtuse, tooth angled ; silique nar-
row, erect. S.

17—1. CARDUUS. 49. 54.

pectina'ttu (E. p. 4 ), unarmed ; leaves decunrent, lanceolate, pectinately pinna-
tifid ; peduncles almost leafless, terminal, very long, about 1 flowered ;
flowers nodding, often discharging the pollen ; scales of the calyx linear
spreading.

19—3. CAREX. 3. 9.

tter"ilis (barren sedge. O. M. 4), spikelets in fives, sessile, approximate ; fruit
ovate, acuminate or somewhat beaked, 2 cleft, 3 sided compressed, scabrous
at the margin ; equalling the ovate acutish scale. 8 i. Wet. N.
retrqfl,ex"a (O. M. 4), apikelets about in fours, alternate, ovate sub-approximate,
sessile, bracted ; fruit ovate acutish, 2 toothed, margin glabrous or scabrous,
reflex spreading, about equal to the ovate acute scale. 1 f. Woods. >'.
17—1. CARTHAMUS. 49. 54.

Exotic.

tincto'rius (false saffron, safflower. y. J. ©), leaves ovate, entire, serrate
aculeate.

5—2. CARUM. 45. 60.

Exotic.

cu'riti (caraway, w. S ), stem branching ; leaves with ventricose sheaths ; par-
tial involucrum none. \
19—12. CARYA. 50. 94.

al"ba (shag walnut, shag bark hickory, O. M. V ), Icafets about?, long petioled,
lance oblong, acuminate, sharply serrate, villose beneath ; the terminal leafet
•essile ; araent filiform, glabrous ; fruit globose, a little depressed ; nut com-
pressed, oblique. 5.

10—1. CASSIA. 33. 93.

mariland"ica (wild senna, O. y. Au. 4), somewhat glabrous ; leaves in 8 pairs,
lance oblong, mucronate ; flowers in axillary racemes, and in terminal
panicles ; legumes linear, curved. An excellent mild cathartic. B. River
alluvion. 2 — 4 f.

chatruKcrisfa (cassia, partridge pea. E. y. Au. ©), somewhat glabrous ; leaves
linear, in many pairs, the glands on the petioles sub-pedlcelled ; two of the
petals spotted : legumes pubescent. A most elegant plant. 8 — 16i. Dry
sand, &c. £.

nic"titoris (E. y. Ju. ^ ), spreading, pubescent ; leaves in many pairs, linear ;
glands of the petioles pedicelled ; peduncles short, supra-axillary, 2 or 3
flowered ; flowers pentandrous. The leaves of this species, and of the cha-
maecristi, possess a considerable degree of irritability. 12 i.
Exotic.

tenn"a (Egyptian senna. Q), leaves in 6 pairs : petioles glandless ; legume
reniform.

19—12. CASTANEA. 50. 99.

america'na (chesnut. O. g. J. *? ), leaves lance-oblong, sinuate serrate, with the
»erratures mucronate, glabrous both sides. Large tree. S.

CATALPA, CHELONE. 381

2—1. CATALPA. 40. 45.

cordifo'lia (M. w. & y. > ), leaves simple, cordate, entire, by threes ; flowers in
panicles. 40—50 f. S.

5—1. CEANOTHUS. 43. 95.

america'nus (New Jersey tea. O. w^ J. > ), leaves ovate, acuminate, serrate
3 nerved, pubescent beneath ; panicles axillary, long peduncled, sub-
corymbed. S.

5—1. CELASTRUS. 43. 95.

scan"dens (false bittersweet, staff-tree. O. y-w. J. > ), stem twining ; leaves ob-
long, acuminate, serrate ; racemes terminal. Retains its scarlet berries
through the winter.

21-5. CENOMYCE. 57.2.

pyxada'ta, frond foliaceous ; divisions crenulate, ascending ; peduncles all tur-
binate, cup-form, glabrous, at length warty-granulate, scabrous, greenish-
grey ; cups regular ; afterwards the margin is extended and proliferous ; re-
ceptacles tawny.

coccife'ra, frond foliaceous, minute ; divisions round, crenate, naked benedth ;
peduncles long-turbinate, naked, warty-scabrous, pale-yellowish, cinereous
and green; all bearing eups, which are wine-glass form ; margin extended,
fertile ; receptacles rather large, at length roundish, scarlet.
17—3. CENTAUREA. 49.54.

Exotic.

cya'nus (blue bottle, b. w. r. J. ©), scales of the calyx serrate ; leaves linear*
entire ; lower ones toothed. Naturalized.

4—1. CEPHALANTUS. 48. 56.

occidentalis (button bush, O. w. Ju. ^ ), leaves opposite and in threes, oval, acu-
minate. Inflorescence a round head. Swamps. Var, pubescens, has the
leaves and branchlets pubescent. 4 — 5 f. S.

10—5. CERASTIUM. 22. 82.

vulga'tum (mouse-ear, chick weed. O. w. Ap. ©), hirsute, viscid, cespitose ;
leaves ovate ; petals oblong, about equal to the calyx ; flowers longer than
the peduncle. 6 — 10 i. /S.

10—1. CERCIS. 33. 93.

canaden"sis (red-bud, judas tree. r. M. > ), leaves round-heart-form, acuminate,
villose at the axils of the nerves; stipules minute; legumes short stiped.
Var. pubescens, has loundish acute leaves, pubescent beneath. 15 — 30 f.

21—5. CETRARIA. 57. 2.

islan"dica (the Iceland lichen, Iceland moss, C. Y.), frond olive-chesnut-brown,
at the base reddish-white, white beneath ; divisions erectish, sub-linear, ma-
ny cleft, channelled, tooth ciliate; the fertile ones dilated ; receptacles close-
pressed, flat, one-coloured ; margin frond-like, elevated, entire. On sandy
plains, as on the barren plains near Beaver-ponds, in New Haven, where it
covers the earth very densely in many places.

6—3. CHAMAEROPS. 1. 11.

Southern.

serrula'ta (E. Ju. * ), caudex creeping ; stipes sharply serrate ; fronds plated
palmate. Fronds 2 f.

14—2. CHEIRANTHUS. 39. 63.

Exotic,
chei'ri (wall flower. J. 4), leaves lanceolate, acute, glabrous ; branches angled ;

stem somewhat of a woody texture.

an"nuus (stock July-flower. Ju. ©), leaves lanceolate, sub-dentate, obtuse, hoary;
silique cylindric, with an acute apex.

12—1. CHELIDONIUM. 27.62.

Exotic.

ma'jus (celandine, y. M. 4), umbels axillary, peduncled ; leaves alternate, pin-
nate, lobed. Naturalized.

13-2. CHELONE. 40.45.

glalra (snake-head. O. w. & r. Ju. 4), leaves opposite, lance-oblong, acumi-
nate, serrate ; spikes terminal, dense-flowered. Var. alba, leaves sub-sessile ;

382 CHENOPODIUM, CLAYTON! A.

flowers white. Var. purpurea, leaves short-petioled ; flowers purple. Var.
lanceolata, leaves lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, sessile, pubescent beneath ;
segments of the calyx oblong. Damp.

5—2. CHENOPODIUM. 12. 29.

album (O. g. Ju. ©), leaves rhomboid-ovate, erose, entire behind, the upp<T
ones oblong, entire, seed smooth. Var. viride, leaves lance-rhomboid, sinuate-
toothed ; racemes ramose, sub-foliaceous ; stem very green. 2 — 4 f.

Wtrys (oak-of-Jerusalem. O. g. J. »), leaves oblong, sinuate ; racemes naked,
many cleft. Sweet scented. 12 i. S.

10—1. CHIMAPHILA. 18. 51.

macvla'ta (spotted winter-green. O, w. Ju. 4), leaves lanceolate, rounded otthe
base, remotely serrate, marked with long spots : scape 2 or 3 flowered ; fila-
ments woolly.

umbella'ta (prince's pine, bitter winter-green. O. r. w. Ju. 4), leaves serrate,
uniformly green, wedge-lanceolate, with an acute base ; scape corymbed ;
filaments glabrous.

2—1. CHIONANTHUS. 44. 37.

virpin"ica (fringe tree. w. M. V ), panicle terminal, trifid ; peduncles 3 flower-
ed ; leaves acute. Var. mtmtanus, leaves oval lanceolate, coriaceous, gla-
brous ; panicle dense ; drupe oval. Var. maritimtts, leaves obovate-lanceo-
late, membranaceous, pubescent ; panicle very lax ; drupe elliptic. Berries
purplish-blue. S.

17—2. CHRYSANTHEMUM. 49.55.

leucan"themum (ox-eyed daisy. O. J. 4), leaves clasping, lanceolate, serrate,
cut-tootbod at the base ; stem erect, branching. 12 — 20 i. S.
Exotic.

parthe'nium. (feverfew), leaves petioled, compound, flat ; leafets ovate, gashed ;
peduncles branching, corymbed ; stem erect.

corona'rium (garden crysanthemum. Au <"), leaves bipinnatifid, acute, broader
outwards ; stem branching.

8—2. CHRYSOSPLENIUM. 13. 84.

oppontifpflium (golden saxifrage, water-carpet. O. y-r M. 4), leaves opposite,
roundish, slightly crenate, tapering for a little distance to the petiole. In
rivulets, springs, &c.

17—1. CICHORIUM. 49. 53.

in"fyfnu (succory or endive. O. b. Ju. 4), flowers axillary, in pairs, sessile ;
leaves runcinate.

Exotic.

endiv"ia 'garden endive, b. & ), peduncles axillary, in pairs ; one long, 1 flower-
ed, the other short, about 4 flowered ; leaves oblong, denticulate. Var. crit-
//«y/i, has fringed leaves and solitary flowers.

5—2. CICUTA. 45. 60.

macuUi'ta (O. w. Ju. 4), si-rratures of the leaves mucronate ; petioles memhra-
naceous, 2 lobed at the apex. Damp. 3—6 f.

Exotic.

viro'sa (water hemlock 4), umbels opposite to the leaves; petioles margined,
obtuse; leafets ternate, acutely serrate. Root containing a yellow juice.

—1. CIRCLE A. 48. 88.

lutetia'na (O. Aug r— w. 4) stem erect; leaves ovate, remotely toothed,
opaque, nearly smooth. 1—2 f. S.

12—1. CITRUS. 18. 70.

Exotic.

rne'dica 'lemon tree. w. J. >), leaves ovate, acuminate, with linear, wingless
petiole. Var. limon (lime tree) bears smaller fruit, which is almost round.
4— 10 f.

auTtm"tium '• orange tree. w. ^ ), leaves oval, acuminate, with the petioles wing-
ed or margined.

5—1. CLAYTONIA. 13. 86.

virfrin"ica (O. w. r. A. 4), leaves linear-lanceolate ; petals obovate, retuse ;
leaves of the calyx somewhat acute ; root tuberous. Var. latifolia, leaves
ovate-lanceolate ; leaves of the calyx obtuse. 6 — 12 i.

CLEMATIS, CONVALLARIA. 383

12—13. CLEMATIS. 26. 61.

virgin"ica (virgin's bower. O. w. Ju. > ), climbing; leaves ternate; leaflets
ovate, sub-cordate, gash-toothed and lobate ; flowers panicled, dioecious.
15_20 f. S.

Exotic.

flam"mula (sweet virgin's bower. > ), lower leaves laciniate ; upper ones simple,
entire, lanceolate,

6—1. CLEOME. 25. 64.

dodecan"dra (O. r-w. Ju. ©), viscid-pubescent ; leaves ternate ; leafets elliptical
oblong ; flowers generally dodecandrous. 1 f.

10—1. CLETHRA. 18. 51.

alnifo'lia (E. w. Au. * ), leaves wedge-obovate, acute, coarse-serrate, glabrous,
both sides one colour ; racemes spiked, simple, bracted, hoary-tomentose.
4— Sf.

17—1. CNICUS. 49. 54.

lanceola'tus (common thistle O. p. J. $), leaves decurrent, hispid, pinnatifid ;
divisions 2 lobed, divaricate, spinose ; calyx ovate, with spider-web-like
pubescence ; scales lanceolate, spinose, spreading. 2 — 4 f S.
arven"sis (Canada thistle. O. p. J.4), leaves sessile, pinnatifid, ciliate, spinose ;
stem panicled ; calyx ovate, mucronate ; scales broad -lanceolate, close-
pressed ; margin woolly. 2 — 3 f.

14_1. COCHLEARIA. 39. 63.

Exotic.

armora'cia (horse-radish, w. J. 4), radical leaves lanceolate, crenate ; cauline
ones gashed. Naturalized.

19—3. COIX. 4. 10.

lach"ryma (job's tear. Ju. ©), culm semi-terete above ; flowers naked ; fruit
ovate.

2—1. COLLINSONIA. 42. 39.

canaden"sis (O. y. Au. 4), leaves broad -cor date, ovate, glabrous : teeth of the
calyx short, subulate : panicle terminal, compound. <S.
16—10. COLUTEA. 32. 93.

vesica'ria (senna herb.y. Ju), leaves pinnate ; leafets ovate : stem herbaceous,
decumbent, villose : legumes orbicular, inflated.

3_1. COMMELINA. 6. 13.

angustifolia <day-flower. E. b. Ju. 4), assurgent, weak, somewhat glabrous :
leaves lance-linear, very acute, flat, glabrous : sheathes subciliate : bracts
(or involucra) peduncled, solitary, short-cordate. 12 i. £.

19—3. COMPTONIA. 50. 99.

asplenifo'lia (sweet fern. O. g. Ap. ^), leaves long-linear, alternately crenate-
pinnatifid. 18— 48 i. S.

21_4. CONFERVA. 57. 2.

ru'fa, threads ramose, capillary, straight, obsoletely geniculate ; branches and
branchlets opposite, remotish ; length of the joints equalling the diameter.
In the sea. Reddish yellow, shining, in fascicles ; threads of the thickness
of human hair, 2 inches and longer, flaccid, soft.

5_2. CONIUM. 45. 60.

rnacula'tum (poison hemlock. O. w. Ju. 4), stem very branching, spotted ;
lt«ives very compound ; seed striate. Var. crispatulum, leaves crisped '; ulti-
mate divisions acuminate, or terminated in a bristle. 2 — 4 f.
6—1. CONVALLARIA. 11. 12.

1. CoroZ deeply 4 parted, spreading : stamens 4 : berry 2 celled. (Flowers in a

terminal raceme).

bifoflia (6. w. M. J. 4), stem 2 leaved ; leaves or short petioles cordate-oblong,
very smooth on both sides ; racemes simple, terminal ; flowers tetrandrous.
4 — 6 i.

2. Corolla 6 parted, spreading : filaments divergent, attached to the base of the

segments. (Flowers in a terminal raceme.)

stetta'ta (O. w. M. 4), stem with alternate, clasping, oval-lanceolate leaves ;
raceme simple, terminal. 8 — 18 i.

384 CONVOLVULUS, CRAT^EGUS.

trifo'Ua (O. w. 3. 4), stem about 3 leaved ; leaves alternate, ovate-lanreolate,
contracted at the base ; raceme simple, terminal, few-flowered. 6 — 10. i.

racemo'sa (spiked solomon see. O. y-w. M. 4), stem with alternate leaves ;
sessile, oblong-oval, acuminate, nerved, pubescent ; flowers in a terminal
raceme-panicle. 18— 24 i.

Southern.

maja'tis (lily of the valley. A. w. J. 4), scape naked, smooth ; leaves oval-
ovate.

5—1. CONVOLVULUS. 29. 43.

re'pens (field bind-weed. O. w. & r. J 4), twining ; leaves sagittate, with the
apex acute and the lobes truncate, entire (some obtuse) ; bracts acute, longer
than the calyx, and shorter than the middle of the corolla : peduncle angled,
exceeding the petiole. N.

pandura'tus (mecnoacan. w. & r. Ju. 4), twining, pubescent : leaves broad-
cordate, entire or lobed, guitar-form : peduncles long ; flowers fascicled :
calyx glabrous, awnless ; corolla tubular-bell-form. Resembles rhubarb in
its effects.

Exotic.

bata'tus (sweet potato, Carolina potato, w-r. Ju. 4), creeping, tuberous ; leaves
cordate, hastate, angular-lobed, 5 nerved, smoothish ; peduncles long ; flow-
ers fascicled ; corolla sub-campanulate. Cultivated.

purpu'reus (common morning glory, b. p. J. Q), pubescent ; leaves cordate,
entire ; peduncles 2 to 5 flowered ; pedicels nodding, thickened ; divisions
of the calyx lanceolate ; capsules glabrous. Cultivated.
12—13. COPTIS. 26. 61.

trifu'lia (gold thread. O. w. M. 4), scape 1 flowered ; leaves ternate. Roots
long, filiform, golden-yellow. Tonic bitter. B. 2 — 4 i. S.

5—2. CORIANDRIUM. 45. 60.

Exotic,
sati'mun (coriander, w. J. ©), fruit globose ; calyx and style permanent.

4—1. CORNUS. 45. 58.
canaden"si* (dogweed, low cornel. O. w. M. 4), herbaceous ; leaves at the top,

whorled, veiny ; involucre ovate, acuminate ; fruit globose. 4 — 8 i. S.
flo'rida (false box, dogwood tree. w-y. M. ^ ), leaves ovate, acuminate : involu-
cre 4, very large, somewhat obcordate : fruit ovate. 15—30 f. S
circina'ta (O. w. J. > ), branches warly ; leaves broad-oval, acuminate, white-
downy beneath ; cymes depressed. 6 — 8 £ 5.

16—10. CORONILLA. 32. 93.

em"erus (coronilla. y. 4), stem angled, woody ; peduncles about 3 flowered ;
claws of the petals about thrice as long as the calyx.

16—5. CORYDALIS. 24. 62.

cucutta'ria (colic weed. O. y. & w. M. 4), corolla 2 spurred ; scape naked ;
raceme simple, 1 sided ; nectaries divaricate, of the length of the corolla ;
style enclosed. 8—12 i. S.

19—12. CORYLUS. 50. 99.

america'na (hazle nut. O. Ap. > ), leaves roundish, cordate, acuminate ; calyx
roundish-campanulate, larger than the sub-globose nut ; border dilated,
coarsely serrate. 3—5 f. S.

11—5. CRAT^GUS. 36. 92.

cocrtnea (thorn-bush. O. w. M. > ), thorny ; leaves long-petioled, ovate, acute-
ly-lobed, serrate, glabrous ; petioles and pubescent calyx glandular ; flowers
pentagynous. Var. viridis, has lance-ovate leaves, subtrilobate ; stem un-
armed.

puncta'ta (common thorn-tree. O. w. M. > ), thorny or unarmed ; leaves wedge-
obovate, sub-plicate, glabrous, serrate ; calyx villose ; divisions subulate,
entire. S.

Exotic.

oxycanttha (quickset, w. M. > ), leaves obtuse, somewhat 3 cleft, serrate, gla-
brous ; peduncles and calyx somewhat glabrous ; segments of the calyx
lanceolate, acute ; styles 2. Naturalized.

CROCUS, CYPRIPEDIUM. 385

3—1. CROCUS. 6. 18.

officina'lis (saffron, y. 4), leaves linear, with reyolute margins ; stigma exsert,
with long-linear segments. Var. sativus, having violet corollas .

sagitta'lis (rattle-box. E. y. Ju. ©), hirsute, erect, branching ; leaves simple,
lance-oblong ; stipules lanceolate, acuminate, clecurrent ; racemes opposite
to the leaves, about 3 flowered ; corolla less than the calyx. S.
16—10. CROTALLARIA. 32. 93.

sagitta'lis (rattle-box, y. Ju. ©), hairy, erect, branching ; leaves simple, ovate-
lanceolate : stipules lanceolate, acuminate, decurrent ; racemes opposite, the
leaves about 3 flowered : corolla smaller than the calyx. 12 i. S.
19—16. CUCUMIS. 34. 97.

\ Exotic.

angu'ria (prickly cucumber), leaves palmate-sinuate ; fruit globose, echinate.

meflo (muskmelon. y. Ju. ©), angles of the leaves rounded ; pome oblong, toru-
lose. Sweet scented.

sati'vus (cucumber, y. Ju. ©), angles of the leaves straight ; pomaceous berry
oblong, scabrous. Brought from Asia.

19—16. CUCURBITA. 34. 97.
Exotic.

ovif'era (egg-squash. ©), leaves cordate, angled, 5 lobed, denticulate, pubes-
cent ; pomaceous berry with fillet-like stripes lengthwise.

pep"o (pumpkin, y. Ju. ©), leaves cordate obtuse, sub 5 lobed, denticulate :
pomaceous berry roundish or oblong, smooth. Var. potiro, has the fruit
more or less flattened. From Asia.

dtntV'lus watermelon, y. Au. ©), leaves 5 lobed ; the lobes sinuate-pinnatifid,
obtuse : pomaceous berry oval, smooth. Fruit watery, often striped. From
Africa and the south of Asia.

lagena'ria (gourd, calabash, w. Au. ©), leaves cordate, round-obtuse, pubes-
cent, denticulate, with 2 glands at the base on the under side: pomaceous
berry clavate, somewhat woody.

11—1. CUPHEA. 54. 91.

viscosis"sima (wax-bush. E. p. J. >), viscous ; leaves opposite, petioled ovate-
oblong ; flowers with 12 stamens, lateral, solitary ; peduncles very short. S.
19—15. CUPRESSUS. 51. 100.

thyai'des (white cedar. O. M. 5 ), branchlets compressed ; leaves imbricate four
ways, ovate, tubercled at the base ; strobile globular. S.

5—2. CUSCUTA. 29. 43.

amerioa'na (dodder. O. w. Au. ©), flowers peduncled, umbelled, 5 cleft ; stig-
ma capitate. A bright yellow leafless vine, twining round other weeds in
damp places.

europe'a (E. w. Au. ©), flowers sub-sessile ; stigma acute ; stamens 4 or 5.

pulcheV'lum (grass pink. O. r. Ju. 4), radical leaves ensiform, nerved ; scape
few flowered ; lip erect, slender at the base ; lamina spread ; disk concave,
bearded. Var. graminifolia, leaves 1—2 lines broad ; bracted ones acumin-
ate. 12—18 i. S.

17—1. CYNARA. 49. 54.

Exotic.

scol"ymus (garden artichoke. 4), leaves sub-spinose, pinnate ; scales of the
calyx ovate. Naturalized.

5—1. CYNOGLOSSUM. 41. 42.

officina'le (hound-tongue. O. p. Ju. 3), very soft-pubescent; leaves broad-
lanceolate, sessile ; panicled racemes.

18—2. CYPRIPEDIUM. 7. 21.

pubes»cens (yellow ladies' slipper, y. M. 4), stem leafy; lobe of the style
triangular-oblong, obtuse ; outer petals oblong-ovate, acuminate ; inner ones
very long, linear, contorted ; lip compressed, shorter than the petals. S.

specta'bile (gay ladies' slipper. O. w. & p. J. 4), stem leafy ; lobe of the style
oval-cordate, obtuse; outer petals broad-oval, obtuse ; lip longer than the pe-
tals, split before. S.

ncau'lc (low ladies' slipper. O. w. & p.M. 4), scape leafless, 1 flowered ; radical
33

386 DACTYLIS, DROSERA.

% '".

leaves 2, oblong, obtuse ; lobe of the style round ish-rhomboidal, acuminate,
deflexed ; petals lanceolate : lip shorter than the petals, cleft before. 1 f. S.

3—2. DACTYLIS. 4. 10.
glamera'ta (E. J. 4)f panicle glomerate; leaves carinate. 2 — 3 f. S.

11—13. DALIBARDA. 35. 92.

fragardides (dry straw-berry. E. y. M. 4), leaves ternate ; leafets wedge-form,
gash-serrate, ciliate ; peduncles many-flowered ; tube of the calyx obconic.

8—1. DAPHNE. 31. 25.

Exotic.

meze'reum (mezereon). M. >), flowers sessile, oauline, in threes; leaves lance-
olate.

5—1. DATURA. 28. 41.

stramonium (thorn apple. O. w-b. Au. ©), pericarps spinose, erect, ovate ; leaves
ovate, glabrous, angular-dentate. S.

5— 2.— DAUCUS. 45. 60.

cardta (carrot, w. J. S ), seeds hispid ; petioles nerved underside ; divisions of
the leafets narrow-linear, acute. 2 — 3 f.

12—2. DELPHINIUM. 26.61.

Exotic.

con*d"idum (larkspur, b. Ju. ©), nectaries 1 leaved ; stem subdivided. Natu-
ralized.

14—2. DENTARIA. 39. 63.

diphyMa f tooth-root. O. y. M. 4), stem 2 leaved ; leafets ternate, sub-ovate,
unequally and incisely dentate ; root toothed. 6—8 i. S.

10—2. DIANTHUS. 22.82.

armefria (pink. r. Ju. C), flowers aggregate, fascicled ; scales of the calyx lan-
ceolate, villose, equalling the tube. 1 f.
Exotic,
barba'tus (sweet-william, r. & w. Ju. 4), flowers fascicled ; scales of the calyx

ovate-subulate, equalling the tube ; leaves lanceolate.

caryophyVlus (carnation or pink. r. & w. 4), flowers solitary ; scales ofthe calyx
sub-rhomboid, very short; petals crenate, beardless ; Iravcn linear-subulate,
channelled. By rich culture the stamens mostly change to petals.
chineri'si* (china pink. Ju. &), flowers solitary ; scales of the calyx subulate,

spreading, leafy, equalling the tube ; petals crenate ; leaves lanceolate.
pluma'rius (single pink. r. & w. 4), flowers solitary; scales of the calyx sub-
ovate, very short and obtuse, awnless ; corolla many cleft, with the throat
hairy.

5-1. DIERVILLA. . 48. 58.

canadcn"sis (bush honey-suckle. O. y. Ju. > ), peduncles axillary and terminal,
dichotoraous, 3 flowered ; leaves ovate, serrate, acuminate. 2 — 3 f. S.
13—2. DIGITALIS. 40.40.

Exotic.

purpu'rea (foxglove, p. Ju. 3 ), leafets ofthe calyx ovate, acute ; corolla obtuse ;
upper lip entire ; leaves lance-ovate, rugose.

10—1. DION.EA. 20.68.

Southern.

muscip"ula (Venus' fly-trap. E. w. Ju. 4), radical leaves, with terminal ciliate
appendages, somewhat resembling a rat-trap ; this is suddenly closed on being
irritated.

4—1. DIPSACUS. 18. 56.

sylves"tris (wild teasel. O. w-b. Ju. <J ), leaves rarely connate, opposite ; scales
of the receptacle straight; in volucrum curved upward. 3— 4 f. S.

5—1. DROSERA. 20. 68.

rotundifo'lia (sundew. O. y-w. Au. 4), scape simple ; leoves nearly orbicular,
narrowed at the base ; petioles long, downy. Wet or damp. 4—8 i. S.

5—1. ECHIUM. 41. 42.

vulga're (blue thistle, b. M. <S), stem tuberculate-hispid ; leaves lance-linear,
hispid ; spikes lateral ; stamens longer than the corolla. 2—3 f. S.

ELEPHANTOPUS, EUPATORIUM. 387

17—5. ELEPHANTOPUS. 49. 55.

carolinia'nus (elephant-foot r. Au. 4), radical and cauline leaves oblong, nar-
rowed at the base, pilose on both sides ; stem erect, pilose, leafy. 2 f. S.

10—1. EPIG^EA. 18. 51.

re'pens (trailing arbutus. O. r. & w. Ap. ^ ), stem creeping; branches and peti-
oles very hirsute ; leaves cordate-ovate, entire ; corolla cylindric.

8—1. EPILOBIUM. 17. 88.

spica'tum (willow herb. O. p. Ju. 4), leaves scattered, lance-linear, veiny, gla-
brous ; flowers unequal ; stamens declined. 4 — 6 £

13—2. EPIPHEGUS. 40. 35.

virginia'nus (beech drops, cancer root. O. y. p. Ju. 4), stem very branching ;
flowers alternate, distant ; calyx short, cup-form, shorter than the capsule.
The whole plant is yellowish- white and of a naked appearance. 8 — 12 i. S.
Astringent.

21—1. EQUISETUM. 55.5.

hyema'le (scouring rush. E, Ju. 4), stems erect, very scabrous, bearing spikes at
the apex ; sheaths 2 coloured, withering at the base and apex ; teeth with ca-
ducous awns. 2 — 3 f. S.

8—1. ERICA. 18. 51.

Exotic

pubes"cens (downy heath, r. M.) corolla linear, pubescent, with the limb erect;
capsule glabrous ; leaves fringed.

17—2. ERIGERON. 49.55.

belUdifo'lium (O. w-p. M 4), hairy, gray ; radical leaves obovate, sub-serrate ;
stem leaves remote, oblong-ovate, araplexicaul, entire ; stem 3-5 flowered ;
rays nearly twice as long as the hemispherical calyx. 12 — 18 i. S.
phiktdel"phicum (O, w-p. J. 4), pubescent; leaves wedge-oblong, sub-serrate;
cauline ones half-clasping ; ray florets capillary, as long as the disk ; stem
branched above, many flowered, 2 — 3 f. <S.

15—5. ERODIUM. 14. 73.

Exotic,
cico'nmm (stork-bill geranium. ©), peduncled many flowered ; leaves pinnate ;

leafets pinnatifid, toothed; petals oblong, obtuse; stem ascending.
cicuta'rium (hemlock geranium, p. Ap. ©), peduncles many flowered; leaves
pinnate ; leafets sessile, pinnatifid, gashed ; corolla larger than the calyx ;
stem prostrate, hirsute.

moscha'tum (musk geranium. ©), peduncles many flowered; leaves pinnate;
leafets sub-petioled, oblong, gash-toothed ; petals equalling the calyx ; stem
procumbent.

14—2. ERYSIMUM. 39. 63.

ampWium (water radish. O. y. J. 4), silique (or rather sillicle) oblong ovate,
declined ; leaves lance oblong, pinnatifid or serrate , petals longer than the
calyx. Wet. 1—2 f. S.

palus"tre (y. Ju. ©), leaves lyrate pinnatifid; lobes confluent, unequally dentate,
smooth ; petals as long as the calyx ; siliques short turgid ; root spindle-
torm. 18i. S.

6—1. ERYTHRONIUM. 11. 14.

america'num* (dog tooth violet, adder's tongue. O. y. Ap. 4), leaves lance ova*1,
punctate ; petals oblong lanceolate, obtuse at the point ; inner ones 2 dentate
near the base; style clavate ; stigma entire, (stigmas 3.) 6 — 8 i.

13—2. EUCHROMA. 40. 40.

cocci nea (painted cup. O. y. & r. J. $ ), leaves alternate, linear, gash pinnatifid :
'divisions linear ; bracts dilated, generally 3 cleft, longer than the flowers ;
calyx 2 cleft, about equal to the corolla ; divisions retuse, emarginate.
Mowers yellow, with scarlet bracts. One variety, pollens, has yellow
bracts. 10 — 16 i. S.

17—1. EUPATORIUM. 49. 55.

Calyxes more than 5 flowered,
purpu'reum (purple thorough-wort, joe-pye. O. p. Au. 4), leaves in fours or

* Called by some writers dens cam's.

388 EUPHRASIA, GALIUM.

fives, petioled, lance ovate, serrate, rugose veined, roughish ; stem hollow.
4— 6f. S.

perfolia'tum (boneset, thorough- wort. O w. Au. 4), leaves connate perfoliate,
oblong serrate, rugose, downy beneath ; stem villose, 2 f. S.

13—2. EUPHRASIA. 40. 35.

officina'lis (eyebright. w. Ju. C), leaves ovate, obtusely toothed ; lower divi-
sions of the lip emarginate.

19—12. FAGUS. 50. 99.

ferrugin"ea (red beech. O. y-w. M. > ), leaves ovate oblong, acuminate, pu^
bescent beneath, coarsely toothed, at the base obtuse, sub-cordate oblique ;
' nuts ovate, acutely 3 sided.

23—3. FICUS. 53. 98.

Exotic.

ca'rica (fig tree. g. Ju. >), leaves cordate, 3 or 5 lobed, repand toothed ; lobes
obtuse, scabrous above, pubescent beneath. 5 — 8 f.

11—13. FRAG ARIA. 35. 92.

virginia'na (wild strawberry. O. w. M. 4), calyx of the fruit spreading ; hairs
on the petioles erect, on the peduncles close pressed ; leaves somewhat gla-
brous above.

Exotic.

ve*"ca (English strawberry, w. m. 4), calyx of the fruit reflexed ; hairs on the
petioles spreading, on the peduncles close pressed.

20—2. FRAXINUS. 44. 37.

acumina'ta (white ash. O. w-g. M. >), leafets petioled, oblong, shining,
acuminate, very entire, or slightly toothed, glaucous beneath ; flowers
calycled. S.

6—1. FRITILLARIA. M). 14.

Exotic.

imperia'lis (crown imperial, r. & y. M. 4), flowers under a leafy crown, nod-
ding ; leaves lance linear, entire. From Persia.

malea'gru (fritillary, guinea-hen flower, p. & y. M. 4), leaves alternate, linear,
channelled ; stem 1 flowered ; nectary linear. Flower checkered.
3—1. FUCHSIA. 17. 88.

Exotic.

magcUa'nica (ear-drop, r.), peduncles axillary, 1 flowered ; leaves opposite or
in threes, very entire. Flowers pendulous.

21—4. FUCUS. 57. 2.

lo'rens, stem very short, dilated into a cup, sending out a fusiform, dichotoraous
receptacle. In the ocean.

16-6. FUMARIA. 24. 62.

Exotic.

officina'lis (fumitory, r. J. ©), stem branching, spread ; leaves more than de-
compound ; leafets wedge lanceolate, gashed. Naturalized. 6—10 i.

21—2. FUN ARIA. 56. 4.

hygromeVrica (hygrometer moss), leaves ovate, acute, concave, entire, inflected ;
capsules swelling, drooping, pear form ; pedicles very long, twisting spirally
when dry.

6—1. GALANTHUS. 6. 17.

nivaTis (snow drop. w. Ap. 4), leaves linear, keeled, acute, radical ; scape 1
flowered.

4—1. GALIUM. 47. 57.
Fruit glabrous.

trif'idum (bed straw. E. w. Ju 4), stem procumbent, scabrous backwards ;
cauline leaves in fives ; branch leaves in fours, linear, obtuse, scabrous at
the margin and on the nerves ; fascicle terminal, few flowered ; pedicels
short ; corollas mostly 3 cleft. S.

asprel"lum (rough bed-straw. O. w. Ju. 4), stem diffuse, very branching,
prickly backwards ; leaves in fives and sixes, lanceolate, acuminate ; mar-
gins and nerves prickly ; pedicles short. 18— -24 i, &

GAULTHERIA, GOODYERA. 389

10—1. GAULTHERIA. 18. 51.

procum'bens (spicy wintergreen. O. w. J. 4. or '.O, stem procumbent ;
branches erect ; leaves obovate, acute at the base ; flowers few, nodding.
Berries red, consisting in part of the permanent calyx ; a little mealy, plea-
sant tasted. S.

5—2. GENTIANA. 47. 46.

crini'ta (fringed gentian. O. b. S. 4), stem terete; branches long, 1 flowered;
leaves lanceolate, acute ; corolla 4 cleft ; divisions obovate, gash ciliate.
18 i. -S.

sapona'ria (O. b. Oct. 4), leaves ovate ; lanceolate, acute, 3 nerved ; flowers
whirl capitate, sessile ; corol ventricose, closed, 10 cleft ; interior segments
unequally 3 cleft, as long as the exterior ones ; segments of the calyx ovate,
shorter than the tube. 18 i. /S.

15—10. GERANIUM .* 14. 73.

macula'tum (crow foot geranium. O. r. &b. J. 4), erect ; pubescence reversed ;
stem dichotomous ; leaves opposite, 3 or 5 parted, gashed ; upper ones ses-
sile ; peduncles 2 flowered ; petals obovate. 1 — 2 f. £.
Exotic.

sanguin"eum (bloody geranium. 4), peduncle 1 flowered ; leaves 5 parted, 3
cleft, orbicular ; capsule bristly at the top.

13—2. GERARDIA. 40. 40.

1. Flowers purple. *

tenuifo'lia (O. Au — Sept. $), very branching ; leaves linear, acute, scabrous ;
peduncles axillary, longer than the flowers ; teeth of the calyx acute.
6—10 i. S.

2. Flowers yellow.

fla'va (false foxglove. O. y. Ju. 4), pubescent ; stem nearly simple; leaves
sub-sessile, lanceolate, entire or toothed ; lower ones sub-pinnatifid, gashed ;
flowered axillary, opposite, sub-sessile. 2—3 f. <S.
11—13. GEUM. 35. 92.

riw'k (purple veins, O. p. J. 4), pubescent ; stem simple ; radical leaves
interruptedly pinnate ; canline ones 3 cleft ; flowers nodding ; petals as
long as the calyx ; awns plumose, nearly naked at the top, minutely
uncinate. 18 in.

virginia'num, (evens. O. w. Ju. 4), "pubescent ; radicle and lower cauline
leaves ternate, upper ones lanceolate ; stipules ovate, sub-entire ; flowers
erect ; petals shorter than the calyx ; awns hooked, naked ; at the apex
twisted, hairy. Var. trilobum, has the radical leaves 3 lobed or ternate.
2f. -S.

13—1. GLECHOMA. 42. 39.

hedera'cea (ground ivy, gill-overground. O. b. & r. M 4), leaves reniform cre-
nate ; stem root ing. Var. cordata, leaves cordate. &

17—2. GNAPHALIUM. 49. 55.

margarita'ceum (large flowered life-everlasting. O. y. & w. Ju. 4). leaves
linear lanceolate, gradually narrowing, acute ; stem branching above ; co-
rymb fastigiate ; flowers pedicelled. Flowers with white pearly rays and
yellow disks. 1—2 f. S.

poly ceph" alum (sweet scented life-everlasting. O. y-w. Ju. ©), leaves lance-
linear, acute, glabrous above, downy beneath ; stem panicled, downy ; eo-
rymbs terminal. 1 — 2 f. S.

5—1. GOMPHRENA. 54. 30.

Exotic.

globo'sa (globe amaranth, bachelor's button, r. Au. ©), stem erect ; leaves
lance ovate, heads solitary ; peduncles 2 leaved.

18—1. GOODYERA. 7. 21.

pubesf'cens (rattle-snake leaf, scrophula-weed. O. y. w. Ju. 4), leaves radical,
ovate, petioled, veins coloured, reticulate ; scape sheathed ; scape and flow-
er pubescent ; lip ovate acuminate ; petals ovate. 10—15 i. S.

* See Erodium and Pelargonium.
33*

390 GOSSYPIU3I, HELIANTHUS,

15—13. GOSSYPIUM. 37. 74.

Exotic.

herba'ceum (cotton. Au. f ), leaves 5 lobed, mncronate, one gland beneath ;
stem herbaceous, smooth. 5 f.

2—1. GRATIOLA. 40. 40.

virffin"ica (creeping hedge hyssop. O. w. & y. 4), sfm pubescent, assur-
gent, terete; leaves smooth, lanceolate, sparingly dentate, serrate, altenuUt
and connate at the base ; loaves of the cajyi equal ; sterile filaments nunc.
6-8 in. S.

21—5. GYROPHORA. 57. 2.

pensiflvz'nica, frond tawny olive ; under side rough granulate ; receptacles
marginated. On rocks and mountains.

18—1. HABENARIA. 7. 21.

phyco'des (O. g-w. Ju. 4), lip 3 parted ; segments finely divided ; petals ob-
tuse ; horn filiform clavate, ascending, longer than the germ.

viridojlo'rum (g. & p. Au. 4J, stem erect, branched, scabrous ; leaves teruatc,
ovate, obtuse, scabrous above, villous and very soft beneath ; paniele termi-
nal, very long, naked ; joints of the lowest triangular. 3 f. •§.

nitundifo'lium (O. p. Au. 4 , stem prostrate, hairy ; leaves ternate, suborbicu-
lar, hairy ; stipules cordate, reflexed ; racemes axillary, paniculate ; joints of
the loinent sub-rhomboidal. 2 — 3 f. S.

acumina'tum (O. p. Ju. 4), erect, simple, pubescent ; leaves ternate, ovat«-,
conspicuously acuminate, a little hairy ; panicle terminal, on a very long
naked peduncle ; joints of the loment roundish. 1 — 2 f. IS.
21—4. HALUMENIA. 57. 2.

palma'ta, frond flat, sub-palmate ; divisions oblong, sub-simple ; colour reddi.sh
purple ; substance at first thin atiJ membranaceous, at length passing into a
soft leathery substance. In the sea.

4—2. HAMAMELIS. 54. 78.

M'/x'/V'ica (witch hazle. O. y. Oc. > ), leaves, obovate acute, toothed, cordate,
with a small sinus. Var. parvifoHa, leaves oblong ovate, upper part undu-
late coarse crenatc, pubescent and somewhat hirsute beneath ; division.-, ol
the calyx oblong ; flowers in the fall, and perfects the fruit the next summer.

13—1. HEDEOMA. 42. 39.

pulegio'ides (penny-royal. O. b. J. ©), pubescent; leaves oblong, serrate ; pe-
duncles axillary, whorled. 6 — 8 i. 5.

5—1. HEDERA. 46. 58.,

he'lix ^English ivy g.w. S. > ), leaves 3 or 5 lobed ; floral ones ovate; umbel
erect.

16—10. HEDYSARUM. 32. 96.

canaden"se (bush trefoil. O. r. Ju. 4), erect, smoothish*, leaves ternate, lance
oblong ; stipules filiform ; flowers racemed ; bracts lance ovate, acuminate,
ciliate ; joints of the loment obtusely triangled, hispid. 3 f. <S.

17—2. HELENIUM. 49. 55.

aulumna'le (false sunflower. O y. Au. 4), leaves lanceolate, serrate, subdeour-
rent ; stem corymbed above ; disk florets 5 cleft ; rays flat, reflexed. Var.
pubescent, leaves pubescent. 3 — 5 f. S.

17—3. HELIANTHUS. 49. 55.

1. Leaves opjwite.

tracheUfo'lius (y. Au. 4), leaves ovate lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, triply-
n«rred, very scabrous on both sides; scales of the calyx lance linear, ciliate;
outer ones longest. 3 — 4 f. S.

2. Upper leaves alternate.

Exotic.

lubero'sus (Jerusalem artichoke, y. S. 4), leaves 3 nerved, scabrous ; lower
ones heart ovate, upper ones ovate acuminate ; petioles ciliate. Root tu-
berous. Naturalized. 4—8 i.

an"nuiis (common sunflower, y. & w. Ju. 4), leaves all cordate, 3 nerved ; pe-
duncles thickening upwards ; flowers nodding. 6—10 f.

HELIOPSIS, HOUSTONIA. 391

17—2. HELIOPSIS. 49. 55.

l&'vis (ox-eye. O. Ju. 4), stem glabrous ; leaves opposite, ovate, serrate, 3
nerved, smooth. 3 — 5. f. S.'

5—1. HELIOTROPIUM. 41. 42.

Southern.

in''dicum (turnsole. E. b. Ju. ©), leaves heart ovate, acute, roughish ; spikes
solitary; fruit bifid. 8— 12 i.

12—13. HELLEBORUS. 26. 61.

ft^tidus (hellebore), stem many-flowered, leafy ; leaves pedate, remotely ser-
rate, coriaceous ; corolla somewhat converging.

6—1. HEMEROCALLIS. 10. 16.

Exotic. f

Jla'va (yellow day-lily, y. Ju. 4), leaves broad-linear, keeled ; petals flat, acute ;
nerves of the petals undivided.

12—13.- HEPATICA. 26. 61.

acutiV'oba (heart-liverleaf. O. w. & b. Ap. 4), leaves cordate, 3 to 5 lobed :
lobes entire, acute ; leaves of the calyx acute. Grows in woods, preferring
the north side of hills and mountains. This is the Var. acuta of the triloba,
of Wildenow. 5 i.

america'na (kidney-liverleaf. O. w. & b. Ap. 4), leaves heart-reniform, 3'lobed ;
lobes entire, round-obtuse : leaves of the calyx obtuse. Grows chiefly in
woods, preferring the south side of hills and mountains. This has been
mistaken for the triloba of W. 5 i.

16—13. HIBISCUS. 37. 74.

Exotic.

phceni'cius (phenicean mallows, r. Ju. 4), leaves ovate, acuminate, serrate and
crenate, lower ones 3 cuspidate : peduncles jointed : seeds woolly. 6 — 8 f.

st/r'iacus (syrian mallows, w. &p. Au. ^), leaves wedge-ovate, 3 lobed, tooth-
ed : outer calyx about 8 leaved, of the length of the inner. 5 — 10 f.

tsculen"tus (okra. y. Ju. @), leaves heart 5 lobed, obtusish, toothed : petiole
longer than the flower : outer calyx about 5 leaved, caducous, bursting
lengthwise. 3 f.

17—1. HIERACIUM. 49. 53.

veno"swn (vein-leaf hiawkweed. O. y. Ju. 4), scape naked, corymb-panicled
glabrous: leaves lance-obovate with thin hairs above and naked beneath,
margin ciliate, glandular- toothed, veins coloured : calyx glabrous. 1 — 2
f. <S.

auranti'acum (orange hawkweed. y. 4), scape leafy, hispid : flowers corymbed :
peduncle's glomerate : leaves oblong, acutish, pilose-hispid.

kai"mii(O y. Au. 4), stem erect, sub-villose : leaves sessile, lanceolate, acu-
minate, sharply and divaricately toothed : panicle sub-corymbose : pedicels
downy. 2 f.

1—1. HI?PURIS. 15. 88.

•vulga'ris (mares tail. y-g. M. 4), leaves linear, and lance-linear, verticillate. S.

3—2. HORDEUM. 4. 10.

juba'tum (O. J. $}, lateral florets abortive, neuter: awns of the calyx and
corolla 6 times as long as the flowers. 2 f. S.

Exotic,
vtdga're (barley. Ju. ©), florets all perfect, awned, in two erect rows.

10—3. HORTENSIA. 13. 84.

Exotic.

specidsa (changeable hydrangea, r. & w. J. ^), leaves broadly ovate, serrate,
acuminate ; flowers corymbed. From the East Indies. This is the common
flower pot shrub, usually called hyderindia.

4—1. HOUSTONIA. 47. 57.

cccru'lca (venus' pride, forget-me-not. O. b. & w. M. 4), stem erect, setaceous,
dichotomou.s : radical leaves spatulate ; cauline ones oblanceolate, opposite :
peduncles 1 flowered, elongated. 4 — 6 i. 5.

392 HUMULUS, IPOMEA.

20—5. HUMULUS. 53. 98.

lu'pulus (hop. O. g-y. Au. 4), stem twining with the sun : leaves lobed. One
of the best of tonics.

fr— 1. HYACINTHUS. 10. 16.

Exotic,
orienta'lis (garden hyacinth, r. Ap. 4), corolla funnel- form, half 6 cleft, ven-

tricose at the base.

mus"cari (musk hyacinth, b. Ap. 4), corollas ovate, all equal.
botryafidmt (grape hyacinth, b Ap. 4), corollas globose, unHbrm : leaves cylin-
dric, channelled, straight.

10—2. HYDRANGEA. 13. 84.

wdga'ris (hydrangea. E. w. Au. V), leaves oblong-ovate, obtuse at the base,
acuminate, glabrous beneath : cymes naked. 5 f. S.
Hydrangea. See HORTENSIA.
12—13. HYDRASTIS. 26. 61.

canaAen"sis (orange root. O. w-r. Ap. 4), stem with two opposite leaves above
leaves petioled, emarginate at the base, palmate, serrate, gashed : peduncle
terminal, solitary, 1 flowered. Roots yellow. S.

12—5. HYPERICUM. 20. 68.

perfora'tum (O. y. J. 4), erect, branching ; stem 2 edged ; leaves oblong, ob-
tuse, transparently punctate ; panicle terminal, brachiate, leafy : petals twice
as long as the acute, lanceolate calyx. This is the common St. John's wort,
so troublesome to farmers. 1 — 3 f. N.

virpin"icum (O. p. Au. 4), flowers with 9 or 12 stamens, distinctly arranged
in three parcels, and separated by nectaries : leaves oval, obtuse, clasping :
stem compressed. 1 — 2 £ S.

6—1. HYPOXIS. 10. 17.

erec"ta (star-grass. O. y . Ju. 4), pilose : scape 2 or 3 flowered : leaves lance-
linear : divisions of the corolla lance-oblong. Var.graminea, has longer and
narrower loaves ; more flowers, longer lance-linear divisions to the corolla —
and altogether a more grassy appearance.

4—1. ICTODES. 2. 7.

fotftida (skunk cabbage, fetid hellebore. O. p. Ap. 4), stemless leaves radical,
heart-ovate, very large spadix supporting the flowers in a sub-globose head
Odour resembles that of the skunk. S.

4—4. ILEX. 43. 95.

opa'ca (evergreen holly. E. g-w. M. > ), leaves evergreen, ovate, acute, spinose
glabrous, flat : flowers scattered at the base of the shoots of the preceding
year. A middle sized tree. S.

5—1. IMPATIENS. 24. 73.

pal"lida (jewel- weed, touch-me-not. O. y. Ju. ©), peduncles solitary, 2 & 4
flowered : nectary obtusely conic, dilated, shorter than the petals : spur re-
curved, very short ; flowers sparingly punctate ; leaves rhombovate, mu-
cronate-toothed. 2 — 4 f. 5.

16—10. INDIGOFERA. 32. 93.

Exotic.

tincto'ria (indigo. > ), leaves pinnate, oblong, glabrous, in four pairs ; racemes
shorter than the leaves ; legume terete, somewhat arched. From the East
Indies.

17—2. INULA. 49. 55.

Exotic. -

hdefnium (elecampane, y. Au. 4), leaves clasping, ovate, rugose, tomentose be-
neath : scales of the calyx ovate. Naturalized. 3—5 f.

5—1. IPOMEA. 29. 43.
nil (morning glory. E. b Ju. ©), hirsute : leaves cordate, 3 lobed : peduncles

short, 1—3 flowered : calyx very villose, long acuminate. S.
bananox (E. w. Ju ©), very glabrous : leaves cordate, entire or angled : pe-
duncle 1 to 3 flowered : calyx avvned : corolla undivided, tube long.

IRIS, LATHYRUS. 393

3—1. IRIS. 6. 18.

versic"olor (O. b. J. 4), leaves ensiform : stem acute on one side : capsules ob-
long, 3 sided with obtuse angles. 2 — 3f. <S.

prismaf'ica (boston iris. E. b. y. J. 4), flowers beardless : leaves linear : stem
round, many-flowered ; germs triangular, twice grooved on the sides. 1 — 2 f.

Exotic,
plica'ta (garden iris. p. w. M. 4), bearded ; stem many flowered, higher than

the leaves ; petals undulate-plicate, erect ones broadest. 18 — 24 i.
pu'mUa (dwarf-flower-de-luce, b. M. 4), bearded ; scape 1 flowered : leaves
ensiform, glabrous ; tube of the corolla exsert ; petals oblong, obtuse.
6— 10 i.

ochrole'uca (yellow iris. y. M ) beardless ; leaves ensiform, depressed, striate ;
scape sub-terete ; germ 6 cornered.

13—1. ISANTHUS. 42. 39.

cceru'leus (blue gentian, false pennyroyal O. b. Ju. ©), viscid-hairy ; leaves,
lance-oval, acute at both ends, 3 nerved ; peduncles 1 or 2 flowered.

3—1. IXIA. 6. 18.

chinen"sis (blackberry lily. y. r. J. 4), corolla about 6 petalled ; stem flexuoae ;
leaves ensiform.

2—1. JASMINUM. 44. 37.

fruV'icans (jasmine, y. ^ ), leaves alternate, ternate, simple ; leafets obovate,
wedge-form, obtuse ; branches angled.
officwa'le (jasmine w. ** ), leaves pinnate, opposite ; leafets acuminate.

19—12. JUGLANS. 50. 94.

cine'rea (butternut. O. M. >), leafets numerous, lanceolate, serrate, rounded at
the base, soft-pubescent beneath ; petioles villose ; fruit oblong-ovate, viscid,
long-peduncled ; not roughly sculptured.

6—1. JUNCUS. 5. 13.

efu'sus (E. 4), scape minutely striate (soft) ; panicle loose, very branching ;
spreading ; leafets of the calyx lanceolate, acuminate, rather longer than the
obovate, obtuse capsule. 2 — 3 f.

21—3. JUNGERMANNIA. 57. 3.

complana'ta, stem branched, creeping ; leaves roundish, very entire ; ears sub-
ovate, flattish. On smooth bark ; very rarely on rocks.

palma'ta, frond short, somewhat ascending, digitate-palmate, nerveless. Dark
green. Rotten wood, in wet places. Remark. Most of the Junger-mannias
are in fruit late in the spring ; some, however, in the winter.

10—1. KALMIA. 18. 50.
latifo'lia (laurel. E. w. & r. Ju. > ), leaves long-petioled, scattered, and in threes,

oval, smooth both sides ; corymbs terminal, with viscid hairs. 3 — 20 £
angustifo'lia (sheep laurel. O. J. ^), leaves in threes, petioled, oblong, obtuse,
sometimes rusty beneath ; corymbs lateral ; bracts linear ; peduncles and
calyx with glandular hairs. Var. ovata, taller ; leaves broader, sub-ovate.
2— 3f.

17—1. LACTUCA. 49. 53.

elonga'ta (wild lettuce. O. y. Ju. $ or 4), leaves smooth ; lower ones runci-
nate, amplexicaul ; upper ones lanceolate, sessile ; flowers panicled .
4—6 f. S.

Exotic.

sati'va (lettuce, y. Ju. ©), leaves roundish ; cauline ones cordate ; stem co-
rymbed. Var. romana, has oblong, straight leaves, narrowed at the base.
Var. crisp/, has sinuate-crenate leaves, toothed, undulated, crispid ; radical
ones hairy on the keel. Var. laciniata, has the lower leaves pinnatifid, and
the upper ones runcinate.

13—1. LAMIUM. 42. 39.

umplexicaule (dead-nettle. O. r. Nov. ©), floral leaves broadly cordate, sessile,
amplexicaul, crenate ; radical leaves petioled. 6 — 10 in. S.
16—10. LATHYRUS. 32. 93.

Exotic.

odora'tus (sweet pea. J. ©), peduncles 2 flowered ; tendril with 2 ovate ob-
long leafets ; legumes hirsute.

394 LAURUS, LINN.EA.

latifo'lius (everlasting pea. Au. 4), peduncles many flowered ; tendril with 2
lance-ovate leaves ; membranaceous between joints.
9—1. LAURUS. 12. 27.

ben"zain (spice bush, fever bush. O. g. y. Ap. >), leaves wedge-obovate, whi-
tish sub-pubescent beneath ; flowers in clustered umbels ; buds and pedicels
glabrous. 4—10 f

sas"safras (sassafras tree. O. y. M. * ), leaves entire and lobed on the same
plant ; flowers mostly dioecious. 10 — 25 f.

Exotic.

campkora'tus (camphor tree. > ), leaves about 3 nerved, lance-ovate ; panicle
spreading. From Japan.

13—1. LAVANDULA. 42. 39.

Exotic.

spi'ca (lavender. Au. 4), leaves sessile, lance-linear, with rcvolute margins ;
spike interruptedly naked.

3—2. LEERSIA. 4. 10.

virgin"ica (white-grass. Ju. y. 4), panicle simple ; the lower branches diffuse ;
flowers oppressed, monandrous, sparingly ciliate on the keel. 2 — 4 ft. <S.

10—1. LEIOPHYLLUM. 18 50.

buxifo'lium (sand myrtle. E. w. > ), leaves small, lance-oval, entire, glabrous,
lucid, re volute at the margin ; corymbs terminal 6—18 i.

17—1. LEONTODON. 49. 53.

tarax'acum (dandelion. O. y. Ap. 4), outer calyx reflexed ; acape 1 flowered,
leaves runcinate, with toothed divisions. Introduced.
13—1. LEONURUS. 42.39.

Exotic.

cardi'aca (raotherwort. w-r. Ju. 4), leaves 3 lobed, toothed, bases wedge form ;
calyx prickly, less than the corolla. Naturalized. 2—4 f.
14—1. LEPIDIUM. 39.63.

Exotic,
suli'vum (peppergraas. w. Ju. ©), leaves oblong, many cleft.

2—1. LEPTANDRA. 40.40.

virgin"ica (O. w. Ju.— -Aug. 4), leaves* verticillate, in fours or fives, lanceo-
late, serrate, petioled. 3— 4 f. S.

2—1. LIGUSTRUM. 44. 37.

vvlea're (prim. E. w. J. * ), leaves lanceolate, acutish ; panicle compact
Perhaps introduced.

6—1. LILIUM. 10. 14.
philadd"phicum (red lily. O. r. y. J. 4), leaves whorled, lance linear ; corolla

erect, bell form, spreading ; petals lanceolate, having claws. 1 — 3 f.
cahaden"se (nodding lily. O. y. r. Ju. 4), leaves remotely whorled, lanceolate ;
peduncles terminal, elongated, mostly in threes ; corolla nodding ; petals
spreading. 2—3 f.

supfr"bum (superb lily. E. y. p. Ju. 4), leaves lance linear, 3 nerved, glabrous ;
lower ones whorled ; upper ones scattered ; flowers in a pyramid-raceme', re-
curved ; petals revolute. 3 — 6 f.

Exotic.
can"didum (white lily. w. J. 4), leaves lanceolate, scattered, tapering to the

base ; corolla bell form, glabrous within.

bulb"iferum (orange lily. y. J. 4), leaves scattered, 3 nerved ; corolla campanu-
late, erect, scabrous within.

2—1. LINDERNIA. 40. 40.

attenua'ta (false hedge hyssop, w-p. Ju. ©), , leaves lanceolate and obovate, nar-
rowed at the base ; peduncle shorter than the leaves, erect. S.

4—1. LINN^EA. 48. 58.

borea'lis (twin-flower. O. w.r. J. 4), stem prostrate ; branches erect, each bear-
ing 2 flowers ; leaves roundish, crenate. Woods.

LINUM, LYCOPODIUM. 395

5—5. LINUM. 14. 82.

Exotic.

Hsitatis"simum (flax, b Ju. ©), leafets of the calyx ovate, acute, 3 nerved ; pe-
tals crenate ; leaves lanceolate, alternate ; stem sub-solitary.

12—13. LIRIODENDRON. 52. 75,

tuLipif'era (white wood, tulip tree. O. y. r. J. > ), leaves truncate at the end,
with 2 side lobes. A beautiful flowering tree. 90-150 f. S.

5—1. LOBELIA. 29. 52.

cardina'Us (cardinal flower. O. r. Ju. 4), erect, simple, pubescent ; leaves lance
ovate, acuminate, denticulate ; racemes somewhat one sided, many flowered ;
stamens longer than corollas. Damp. 1—2 f.
injla'ta (wild tobacco. O. b. Ju. ©), erect, branching, very hirsute ; leaves

ovate, serrate ; racemes leafy ; capsules inflated. 12 — 18 i.
kal"mii (O. b. Ju. ©), slender, erect, sub-simple ; radical leaves spatulate ; cau-
line ones linear, delicately toothed ; flowers racemed, alternate, remote, pe-
dicelled. 6—24 i. S.

3—2. LOLIUM. 4. 10.

peren"ne (E.M. 4), florets much longer than the calyx, unarmed, linear oblong,
compressed. Introduced. 18 i.

5—1. LONICERA. 48. 58.

xemper"virens (E. r. y. M. > ), spikes with distant, nakedish whorls ; corollas
sub-equal ; tube ventricose above ; leaves ovate and obovate, glaucous be-
neath ; upper ones connate perfoliate. Leaves perennial. S.

Exotic,
caprifo'lium (honeysuckle. ^), corollas ringent like, terminal ; sessile leaves

connate perfoliate at the top-

periclym"enum (woodbine. J. > ), flowers in ovate, imbricate, terminal heads ;
leaves all distinct. Var. quercifolia, leaves sinuate.

4—1. LUDWIGIA. 17. 88.

pilo'sa (O. y. Ju. 4), stem erect, branched, hairy ; leaves alternate, oblong, ses-
sile ; peduncles 1 flowered, axillary ; capsule globose, quadrangular.
Swamps. S.

14—1. LUNARIA. 39. 63.

Exotic.
an"nua (honesty, p. 2 ), leaves obtusely toothed ; silicles oval, obtuse at both

ends. Naturalized.

redivi'va (satin flower, b-p. 4), leaves with mucronate teeth; silicles tapering
to both ends. Flowers odorous.

17—10. LUPINUS. 32. 93.

peren"nis (wild lupine. O. b. M. 4), stem and leaves smoothish ; leaves digi-
tate, with about 8 to 10 leafets, which are oblanceolate, obtusish ; calyxes
alternate, not appendaged ; banner emarginate, keel entire. 12 — 18 i. -S.

Exotic.

hirsu'tus (garden lupine, b. ©), calyxes appendaged, alternate; banner 2 parted ;
keel 3 toothed.

10—5. LYCHNIS. 22. 82.

Exotic.

chalcedon"ica (scarlet lichnis. r. J. 4), flowers fascicled, level top, or convex.
floscuc"uli (ragged robin. 4), petals torn; capsule 1 celled, roundish.
4—1. LYCIUM. 28. 41.

Exotic.

f>arba"rum (matrimony vine. J. r. y. ^ ), stem angled ; branches erect; leaves
lanceolate, tapering to both ends ; calyx mostly 3 cleft.

21—6. LYCOPERDON. 58. i.

bovis"ta (common puff ball. O.), at first white and obconic, becoming black and
spherical ; outer coat downy, which, pealing off, leaves the leathery inner
coat ; seeds black, lighter than air, and appearing like smoke. In meadows.

21—1. LYCOPODIUM. 55. 5.

complana'tum (ground pine. E. g-y. Ju. 4), creeping, erectish ; branches alter-
nate, dichotomous ; leaves bifareous, connate, spreading at the tips ; spikes
in pairs, peduncled. Woods. S.

396 LYCOPUS, MENISPERMl M.

2—1. LYCOPUS. 42. 39.

europe'us (water horehound. w. Au. ©), smooth ; stem acutely 4 cornered ;
leaves narrow lanceolate, with large acute teeth ; lower ones somewhat
pinnatifid ; segments of the calyx acuminate, terminating in short spines.
1— 2f. S.

5—1. LYSIMACHIA. 20. 34.

stric"ta (loose strife. O. y. Ju. 4), raceme terminal, very long, lax ; leaves op-
posite, lanceolate, sessile ; petals lanceolate, spreading. 1 — 2 f. S.
cilta'ta (O. y. J. 4), sub-pubescent ; leaves opposite, long petioled, sub-
cordate oval ; petioles cUiate ; pedicels somewhat in pairs ; flowers nod-
ding. 2 — 1 f. S.

quadrifo'lia ^4), branching; stem smooth ; leaves sessile, opposite, very long
linear ; peduncles in fours, sub-terminal, 1 flowered. 2— 3r. S.

13—1. MACROTYS. 26. 61.

racemo'sa (bug-bane, black snake-root, cohosh. O. w. Ju. 4), leaves decom-
pound ; leafets oblong ovate, gash toothed ; racemes in wand like spikes ;
capsules ovate. Wooda. 3—9 f. S.

12—13. MAGNOLIA. 52. 75.

Southern.

graTidiJlo'ra (big laurel, magnolia. O. w. M. >), leaves evergreen, oval,
thick, leathery ; petals broad obovate, abruptly narrowed into a claw.
60— 80 f.

15-M3. MALVA. 37. 74.

rotundifo'lia (low mallows. O. r. w. J. 4), leaves heart obicular, obsoletely 5
lobed ; peduncles bearing the fruit [declined ; stem prostrate. Probably
introduced.

Exotic.
sylves"tn» (mallows, r-b. J. <*. and 4), stem erect ; leaves about? lobed, acu-

tish ; peduncles and petioles hairy.

criaf'pa (curled mallows. Au. ©), stem erect ; leaves angular, crisped ; flowers
axillary, glomerate.

21—3. MARCHANTIA. 57. 3.

polymor'pha (brook liverwort. O. g-y. Ju. 4), pistillate receptacles radiated ;
titaminate ones peduncled, peltate ; fronds crowded together, lobed, nerved,
and covered with small decussate veins. Pistillate peduncles very long .
nerves of the frond generally brown. On earth and stones in wet or damp
places.

13—1. MARRUBIUM. 42. 39.

vtdgn're (horehound. O. w. Ju. 4), leaves round ovate, toothed, rugose
veined ; calyx toothed, setaceous, uncinate. Introduced. .V

14—2. MELAMPYRUM. 40. 35.

eanerica'num (cow-wheat O. y. Ju. ®), slender ; lower leaves linear, entire ;
floral ones lanceolate, toothed behind ; flowers axillary, distinct. Var. lati-
fdlium, has very broad leaves. Woods. S.

16—10. MELILOTUS. 32. 93.

al"ba (white melilot clover, w. J. ©), stem erect; leafets variable (oval, ovate,
obovate, and oblanceolate) -mucronately serrulate : banner longer* than the
wings ; racemes axillary, panicled ; the longest raceme 6 to 10 times as long
as the longest leafet at its base ; legumes oval. 3 to 6 f. Probably intro-
duced ; but now very common and growing wild. <S.
13—1. MELISSA. 42. 39.

Exotic.

ojficma'lis (balm. w. b. Ju. 4), flowers w horled half way round, sub-sessile ;
bracts oblong, pedicelled ; leaves ovate, acute, serrate. Naturalized.

20—13. MENISPERMUM. 11. 77.

canaden"se (moonseed. O. y. Ju. 4), leaves peltate, cordate, round angular ;
racemes compound ; petals 8. S.

* 'Suggested by H. H. E.

MENTHA, MYOSOTIS. 397

13-1. MENTHA. 42. 39.

Exotic.

mperi'ta (peppermint, p. Au. 4), spikes obtuse, interrupted below ; leaves sub-
ovate, somewhat glabrous, petioled ; stem glabrous at the base. Naturali-

wr"ictis (spear mint. p. Au.), leaves lanceolate, sessile ; spikes elongated, inter-
rupted ; stamens long. 1—2 f.

11—5. MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. 13. 87.

Exotic.

crystalli"num (ice plant, w. Au. ©), branching ; leaves alternate, ovate, papil-
lose ; flowers sessile ; calyx broad ovate, acute, retuse.

17—1. MIKANIA. 49. 55.

pubes"cens (w-p. S. 4), stem climbing, pubescent ; leaves cordate, acuminate,
angularly dentate, pubescent on both sides ; divaricate, equal. 5.

13—2. MIMULUS. 40. 40.

rin"gens (monkey-flower. O. b, Ju. 4), erect, glabrous ; leaves sessile, lanceo-
late, acuminate, serrate ; peduncles axillary, opposite, longer than the flower ;
teeth of the calyx acuminate. 1 — 2 f. S.

5—1. MIRABILIS. 54. 32.

Exotic.
jal"apa (four o'clock, r. y. Ju. 4), flowers heaped, peduncled ; leaves glabrous.

4—1. MITCHELLA. 48. 57.

re'pens (O. w. Ju. 4), stem creeping, branched ; leaves smooth, roundish, oppo-
site. Woods. S.

10—2. MITELLA. 13. 84.

diphyl"la (O. w. M. 4), leaves somewhat lobed ; lobes acute, dentate ; stem
erect, with 2 opposite leaves above the middle. 12 — 18 i.
13—1. MOLLUCCELLA. 42. 39.

Exotic.

Ice'vis (molucca balm, shell flower, w-g. Ju. ©), calyx campanulate, 5 toothed ;
teeth equal, awnless ; leaves petioled, round ovate, toothed.

3—3. MOLLUGO. 22. 82.

verticilla'ta (carpet weed. O. w. Ju. ©), leaves verticillate, wedge form, acute ;
stem branched, depressed ; peduncles 1 flowered. -S.

19—15. MOMORDICA. 34. 97.

echina'ta (O. w. Au. ©), pomaceous ; berry 4 seeded, roundish, setose echinate ;
leaves cordate, 5 lobe angled, acuminate, entire. Calyx 6 cleft ; corolla 6
parted.

2—1. MONARDA. 42—39.

did"yme (mountain mint. O. r. J. 4), leaves ovate, acuminate, sub-cordate,
somewhat hairy ; flowers in simple or proliferous heads ; outer bracts large,
coloured, lanceolate. Var. angustifolia, leaves lance ovate, acuminate, pu-
bescent ; stem pubescent. 18 — 24 i. S.

10—1. MONOTROPA. 18. 51.

uniflo'ra (bird's nest, Indian pipe. O. w. J. 4), stem 1 flowered ; flower nod-
ding at first, at length erect ; scales of the stem approximate. Whole plant
ivory white at first. 4 — 8 i.

19—4. MORUS. 53. 98.

Exotic.

al"ba (white mulberry. M. > (, leaves heart form, with oblique bases, ovate or
lobed, unequally serrate, smoothish. From China and Persia. Naturalized.
15-20 f.

21—6. MUCOR. 58. 1.

aspergil"lus (mould), stipe filiform, dichotomous ; little heads terminal, sub-
conjugate, oblong when mature. On putrid fungi in autumn.

5—1. MYOSOTIS. 41. 42.

(forget-me-not. E. w-b. J. ©), seeds smooth ; calyx leaves oval, acu-
minate, very hirsute, longer than the tube of the corolla; stem very branch-
ing ; racemes conjugate ; leaves lance oblong, hirsute. 4—8 i. S.
34

398 MYRTUS, ORCHIS.

Southern.

na'na (b. & y 4), leaves oblong, villose ; racemes few flowered ; seeds
smoothish ; marginate serrulate.

11—1. MYRTUS. 19. 39.

Exotic.

commu'nis (myrtle, w. Ju. > ), flowers solitary ; involucrum 2 leaved ; leaves
ovate.

6—1. NARCISSUS. 9. 17.

Exotic.
pseudo4narci8"sus (daffodil. M. 4), spatha 1 flowered ; nectary bell form, erect,

crisped, equalling the ovate petals.

tazef'ta (polyanthos. M. 4), spatha many flowered ; nectary bell form, plicate,

truncate, thrice as short as the petals ; petals alternately broader ; leaves flat.

jonquil"la (jonquil. M. 4), spatha many flowered ; nectary bell form, short ;

leaves subulate.

poeficus (poets' narcissus. 4), spatha 1 flowered ; nectary wheel form, very
short, s carious (red), crcnulate ; leaves inflexed at the margin.

19—1. NEOTTIA. 7. 21.

tor"tilis (summer ladies'-tresses. O. w. Ju. 4), radical leaves linear ; scape
sheathed ; flowers spirally secund ; lip somewhat 3 lobed ; middle lobe lar-
ger, crenulate. 12 i. «S. Var. gracilis, radical leaves ovate, caducous,
membranaceous.

13— i. NEPETA. 42. 39.

cata'ria (cat mint, catnep. O. b-w. 4), hoary pubescent ; flowers in whorled
•pikes ; leaves petioled, cordate, tooth serrate.

5—1. NICOTIAN A. 28— 41.

Exotic.

taba'cum (Virginian tobacco, w-r. Ju. ©), leaves lance ovate, sessile, decurrent ;
flowers acute. Naturalized.

21—4. NOSTOC. 57. 2.

conimu'ne, on the earth ; frond plated lootd, ventricose, gelatinous. On the
earth after a storm, an inch or two in extent, olive green.

12—1. NUPHAR. 13. 62.

kalmia'na (O. Ju. 4), leaves cordate, lobes near each other ; calyx 5 leaved ;
stigma gashed, with 8 to 12 radiated lines. — Flowers small. Water.

12—1. NYMPILEA. '13. 62.

odora'ta (pond lily. O. w. Ju. 4), leaves round cordate, entire, sub-emarginate ;
lobes spreading asunder, acuminate, obtuse ; petals equalling the 4 leaved
calyx. S.

13—2. OBOLARIA. 40. 35.

mrein"ica (penny-wort. E. r. Ap. 4), stem simple ; leaves oblong, truncate,
fleshy, purple beneath ; flowers axillary, solitary, sessile. 3 — 4 i. S.
8—1. (ENOTHERA. 17. 88.

Cap/rules elongated, sessile.

bien"nis (scabish, tree-primrose. O. y. J. £ ), stem villose, scabrous ; leaves
| lance ovate, flat, toothed ; flowers sub-spiked, sessile ; stamens shorter than

the corolla. 3— 5. f.

parv'iflo'ra (E. y. Ju. £), stem smooth, sub-villose ; leaves lance ovate, flat;
stamens longer than the corolla.

21—1. ONOCLEA. 55. 5.

sensib"ilis (sensitive fern. O. J. ^i), barren frond pinnate ; fertile one doubly
pinnate ; stem glabrous. The leafets slowly approach each other, on squeez-
ing the stem in the hand. /S.

18—1. ORCHIS. 7. 21.

Roots ovalt or palmate.

specta'bilis (O. r. M. 4), lip obovate, undivided, crenate, retuse ; petals straight ;
lateral ones longest ; spur clavate, shorter than the germ ; bracts longer than
the flowers ; stem leafless. 3 — G i. <S.

ORIGANUM, PASTINACA. 399

13—1. ORIGANUM. 42—39.

vtdga're (wild marjoram. O. r. Ju. 4), spikes round panicled, heaped ; bracts
ovate, longer than the calyx. 1 — 2 f. S.

Exotic.

majora'na (sweet marjoram. > ), spikes roundish, ternate, compact, peduncled ;
leaves petioled, oval, obtuse, smoothish. 6 — 12 i.

6—1. ORNITHOGALUM. 10. 16.

umbella'tum (star of Bethlehem. M. 4), flowers corymbed, peduncles longer
than the bracts ; filaments subulate. Naturalized. 6 — 8 i.

13—2. OROBANCHE. 40. 35.

uniflo'ra (cancer-root. O. b-w. M. 4), stem very short : peduncles 2, elongated,
scape-form, 1 flowered, naked : scales smooth, concave : lobes of the corolla
oblong-oval, with a pubescent, coloured margin. 4 — 6 i. 5.

6—2. ORYZA. 4. 10.
mti'va (rice. ©), culm jointed : leaves clasping : panicle terminal.

21—1. OSMUNDA. 55. 5.

cinnamo'mea (flowering fern. O. y. J. 4), barren frond doubly pinnatifid ; seg-
ments oval, entire : fertile fronds with opposite racemes, woolly. 3 — 6 f. <S.

10—5. OXALIS. 14. 73.

acetosel"la (wood-sorrel. O. w. r. M. 4), stemless : scape 1 flowered, longer
than the leaves : leaves ternate, broad obcordate, with rounded lobes : styles
as long as the inner stamens : root dentate.

8—1. OXYCOCCUS. 18. 51.

macrocar"pus (cranberry. O. r. J. >), creeping: stem ascending; leaves ob-
long, flattish, obtuse, becoming white beneath ; pedicels elongated ; divis-
ions of the corolla lance-linear. Wet.

12—3. P^ONIA. 36.61.

officina'lis (peony, r. J. 4), leaves decompound ; leafets lobed, lobes broad-
lanceolate ; capsules downy.

5—2. PANAX. 46. 59.

quinquefo'lia (ginseng. O. w. M. 4), root fusiform ; leaves ternate, quinate ;
leafets oval, acuminate, petioled serrate. Larger than the last. 1 — 2 f. S.

3—2. PANICUM. 4. 10.

crus-gal"li (barn grass. O. Au. ©), racemes alternate and in pairs, compound
rachis 5 angled ; glumes terminating in hispid bristles ; sheath glabrous.
2 — 4 f. S.

12—1. PAPAVER. 27. 62.

Exotic.

somniferum (opium poppy. J. ©), calyx and capsule glabrous ; leaves clasp-
ing, gashed, glaucous.

21—5. PARMELIA. 57. 2.

, , margin

incurved, entire, at length pulverulent. On old timber, &c.

5—4. PARNASSIA. 14. 64.

amerlca'na (flowering plantain, w. y. p. Ju. 4), leaves radical (often a leaf on
the scape), heart-orbicular, 5 to 9 nerved ; nectaries five, each divided into 3
filaments terminated by little spherical heads. Damp or wet. 6—18 i.
15—5. PASSIFLORA. 34. 97.

E.rot/C.

ccp.ru'lea (blue passion-flower, b. Ju. *> ), leaves palmate, 5 parted, entire ; pe-
tioles glandular ; involucrum 3 leaved, entire ; threads of the crown shorter
than the corolla.

5—2. PASTINACA. 45. 60.

E.rotic.

sati'va (parsnip, y. Au. S ), leaves simply pinnate ; leafets glabrous. Var. ar-
rensis, leafets sub-pubescent. This variety is often found in situations which
almost prove it to be indigenous.

400 PEDICULARIS, PHLOX.

13—2. PEDICULARIS. 40. 35.

canaden"sis (louse- wort. O. y-p. M. 4), stem simple; leaves pinnatifid, c.
toothed ; heads leafy at the base, hirsute ; corolla with a setaceous, 2 tooth-
ed wpper lip ; calyx obliquely truncate. 6 — 12 i. S.

15—7. PELARGONIUM. 14. 73.

Exotic.

I. Nearly stemless : root tuberous.
trif"te (mourning geranium), umbel simple ; leaves rough-haired, pinnate ; leaf-

ets bipinnatifid ; divisions oblong-acute. Flowers dark green.
daucifo'lium (carrot geranium. 4), scape very simple ; leaves thrice pinnate,
hirsute ; leafets lance-linear.

2. Leaves simple, not angled.

<>tloratis"simum (sweet-scented geranium. > ), peduncles sub 5 flowered -. leave*
round cordate very soft.

3. Leaves simple, more or less angled, orldbed.

zona'le (horse-shoe geranium. > ), umbels many flowered : leaves heart-orbicu-
lar, obsoletely lobed, toothed, with a coloured zone or band around near the
margin.
in"quinans (scarlet geranium. ^ ), umbels many-flowered : leaves round reni-

tiirm, hardly divided, crenate, viscid-downy.
acerifo'lium (lemon or maple leaf geranium. ^ ), umbels about 5 flowered ; leaves

5 lobe-palmate, serrate ; below wedge-form, undivided.
capita'tum (rose-scented geranium. > ), flowers capitate : leaves cordate, lobed,

waved, soft : stem diffuse.

quercifo'lium (oak-leaf geranium. >), umbels sub-many-flowered : leaves cor-
date, pinnatifid, crenate : sinuses rounded : filaments ascending at the apex.
grave'olens (sweet-rose geranium. >), umbels many-flowered, sub-capitate:
leaves palmate 7 lobed ; divisions oblong, obtuse ; margins revolute.

10—5. PENTHORUM. 13. 83.

sedo'ides (Virginian orpine. O. g-y. Ju. 4), stem branching, angled ; leaves
lanceolate, sub-sessile, unequally and densely serrate ; spikes secund, ter-
minal, panicled, alternate and cymed ; seeds pitted. 12 — 18 i. S.

13—2. PENTSTEMON. 40. 45.

pvJbes"cens (beard-tongue. O. w-p. J. 4), stem hairy ; leaves serrulate, lance-
oblong, sessile ; flowere panicled ; the barren filament bearded from the
apex to below the middle. Var. latifolia, has broad smooth leaves. Vao.
angustifoliat has narrow, hairy, obscurely denticulate leaves. 1 — 2 f. S.

3—2. PHALARIS. 4. 10.

america'na (ribbon grass, wild canary grass. E. Ju. 4), panicle oblong, spiked ;
glumes of the calyx boat-shaped, serrulate ; corolla unequal : rudiments
hairy. Var. ;/icta, leaves variously striped. This variety is the ribbon gras«
of the gardens. 2— 5 f. 5.

16—10. PHASEOLUS. 32. 93.

Exotic.
Juna'tus (Carolina bean, lima bean. g-w. Ju. ©), twining ; legumes scymitar-

form, sub-lunate, smooth ; seeds compressed.

vulga'ris (common-pale-bean, p. w. Ju. ©), stem twining ; racemes solitary,
snorter than the leaves ; peduncles in pairs ; bracts smaller than the calyx,
spreading ; legumes pendulous. From the East Indies.

na'nus (bush bean, six weeks bean. @), stem erect, smooth : bracts larger than
the calyx ; legumes pendulous, compressed, rugose. Seeds variously
coloured.

11—1. PHILADELPHUS. 19. 89.

Exotic.

corona'rius (mock orange, false syringa.w. J. >), styles distinct; leaves ovato,
sub-dentate.

3—2. PHLEUM. 4. 10.

praten"se (timothy grass. O. J. 4 and 3 ), spike cylindric, calyx mucronate-
.awned ; keel ciliate ; awn shorter than the calyx ; culm erect. Introduced.
2— 3f. S.

5—1. PHLOX. 20. 44.
panicula'ta (smooth-stem lichnidia. r. w. Ju. 4), glabrous, erect : leaves lanceo-

PHYTOLACC A, POGONIA. 401

late, narrowing gradually, flat ; margins rough ; corymbs panicled : divis-
ions of the corolla rounded : calyx awned. Cultivated. 2 — 3 f. 5.

subula'ta (mountain pink. O. r. M. 4), caespitose, white pubescent : leaves li-
near, pungent, ciliate : corymbs few flowered : pedicels 3 cleft : divisions of
the corolla wedge-form, emarginate ; teeth of the calyx subulate, scarcely
shorter than the tube of the corolla. Cultivated. 3— 6 i. S.
10—10. PHYTOLAPCA. 54. 29.

decan"dra (poke-weed. O. w. Ju. 4), leaves ovate, acute at both ends : flowers
racemed : berries ilattened at the ends. 3 — 6 f. <S.
19—16. PINUS. 51. 100.

1. Leaves solitary, with separate bases. ABIES.

canaden"sis (hemlock tree. O. M. V ), leaves flat, denticulate, 2 ranked : stro-
biles ovate, terminal, scarcely longer than the leaves. The bark is used in
tanning leather. S.

2. Leaves many, sheathed at the base. PINUS.

(Leaves in pairs.)

resino'sa (yellow pine, norway pine, red pine. O. M, ^ ), leaves and sheaths
elongated = strobiles ovate-conic, rounded at the base, sub-solitary, about
half as long as the leaves : scales dilated in the middle, unarmed. Bark of
a reddish colour, and much smoother than the rigida and strobus. Often
grows very tall and straight. S.

(Leaves in threes.)

rig"ida (pitch pine. O. M. > ), leaves with abbreviated sheaths ; staminate
aments erect-incumbent : strobiles ovate, scattered or aggregated : spines of
the scale reflexed. Though very common, it grows the most plentifully on
barren sandy plains. -S.

3. Leaves many, in a fascicle. LARJX.

pen"dula (black larch, tamarack, hack-matack. O. M. > ), leaves deciduous :
strobiles oblong : margins of the scales inflexed : bract guitar-form, with a
slender point.

16—10. PISUM. 32. 93. '

Exotic.

sati'vum (pea. p. w. J. ©), petioles terete : stipules round and crenate at the
base : peduncles many-flowered. Var. umbellatum (boquet pea), has the
stipules 4 cleft, acute. Var. quadratum (quadrate pea), fruit ash-colour, 4
sided. Var. humile (dwarf pea), stem erect, not climbing : leafets roundish.

4—1. PLANTAGO. 54. 31.

ma'jor (plantain. O. w. J. 4), leaves ovate, sub-dentate, sub-glabrous : scape
terete : spike oblong, imbricate. 6 — 24 i. S.

20—13. PLATANUS. 50. 99.

ocddenta"lis (button wood, american plane-tree, false sycamore. O. J. S),
leaves quinquangular, obsoletely lobed, toothed, pubescent beneath : stem
and branches becoming white. Grows to a greater size than any other tree
in America'.

3—2. POA. 4. 10.

Eaton observes, " the word poa is pure Greek, and signifies pasture or fodder.
Linnaeus applied the name to this genus, because it includes the most common
pasture grass and meadow grass. The poa pratensis, aided by the agrostic
vulgaris, constitutes most of those beautiful carpets which cover our fields,
lawns, and road-sides."

an"nua(Aip. ©), panicle sub-secund, divaricate : spikelets ovate-oblong, 5 flow-
ered : florets free : culm oblique, compressed : root fibrous. 6 — 8 i. S.
praten"sis (O. J. 4), panicle diffuse : upper leaves much shorter than the smooth
sheaths : florets acute, 5 nerved, webbed at the base : stipule short truncate :
• root creeping. 2—3 f. S.

12—1. PODOPHYLLUM. 27. 61.

pelta'tum (wild mandrake, may-apple. O. w. M. 4), stem terminated with 2
peltate palmate leaves : flower single, inserted in the fork, formed by the pe-
tioles of the leaves. Sometimes the plant is 3 leaved, and sometimes the
flower is inserted on the side of one of the petioles. 1—2 f. S,

18—1. POGONIA. 7. 21.

ophwgksso'ides (snake mouth arethusa. O. r. Ju. 4), root fibrous : scape
34*

402 POLYANTHES, POTENTILLA.

with 2 distant leaves, 1 or 2 flowered : leaves, lance-oval : lip fringed.
8—12 i. S.

6—1. POLYANTHES. 10. 17.

Exotir.

tubero'sa '(tuberose. 4), flowers alternate, in pairs : rootlets tuberous : scape
scaly: leaves linear, long. Sweet scented.

16—6. POLYGALA. 33. 35.

paucifo'lia (flowering wintergreen. O. r. M. 4), small, large-flowered : stem
simple, erect, naked below : leaves ovate, acute, glabrous, noar the top of
the stem : flowers crested, terminal, about in threes. 3 — 4 i. 5.
stn"ega (seneca snake root, mountain flax. O. r. or w. J. > ), stem erect, simple,
l«aty: leaves alternate, lanceolate: spike terminal filiform: flowers alter-
nate, not crested. Var. albida, leaves lanceolate or oval : spike somewhat
crowded : flowers white, sub-sessile. 8 — 14 i. S.

polyg"ama rubella of Wildenow (ground flower. O. p. J. 4), stems numerous :
leaves linear-oblong, alternate downwards : racemes terminal and lateral,
elongated ; flo\\ ors sessile : radical racemes procumbent, with apterous
flowers. 4 — 8 in.

8—3. POLYGONUM. 12. 28.

amcula're (knot-grass. O. w. M. 4), stamens 8, styles 3 : leaves lanceolate,
scabrous at the margin : stipules short, lacerate : stem procumbent : flowers
sub-sessile, axillary, minute. 6 — 12 i. S.
Exotic.

fagop"yrum (buck-wheat, r-w. Ju. ©), stamens 8; styles 3 ; racemes pani-
cled ; leaves heart sagittate ; stem erectish, unarmed ; angles of the seeds
equal. 1—2 f.

21—1. POLYPODIUM. 55. 5.

vulga're (polypod. O. Ju. 4), frond deeply pinnatifid ; divisions lance linear,
obtuse, crenulate, approximate, upper ones gradually smaller ; fruit dots
solitary ; root chaffy. 8 — 12 i. N.

21—2. POLYTRICHUM. 56. 4.

juniperi'num (hair-cap moss. O. M. 4), stem generally simple ; leaves lance
linear, entire, flattish, somewhat spreading ; the apophysis depressed. In
dry woods, &c.

6—1. PONTEDERIA. 6. 17.

corda'ta (pickerel weed. O. b. Ju. 4), leaves heart oblong, obtuse ; spike many
flowered, compact ; divisions of the corolla oblong. Var. angustifolia, leaves
elongated triangular, truncate and sub-cordate at the base. 1 — 2 f.

20—8. POPULUS. 50. 99.

trt,mulo'i(les, (white poplar, American aspen. E. Ap. ^ ), leaves heart roundish,
abruptly acuminate ; tooth serrulate, glabrous, a little pubescent at the mar-
gin, with two glands at the base on the upper side ; petioles compressed, in
the young state silky. 20—30 f.

Exotic.

dilata'ta (lombardy poplar, italian poplar, Ap. > ), leaves glabrous both sides,
acuminate, serrate, deltoid, the breadth equal to or exceeding the length ;
branches erect, close to the stem. It is said no pistillate plant of this species
has been brought to America. Consequently no seeds are obtained from it,
and it has not been reproduced here from seed. 40 — 80 f.
12—1. PORTULACCA. 54. 86.

dfra'cea (purslane. O. y. J. ®), leaves wedge form ; flowers sessile. .5.
11—13. POTENTILLA. 35. 92.
Leaves digitate in fives, rarely in sevens.

canaden"sis (common five-finger. O. y. 31 4.), procumbent, sub-ramose, whitish
silky ; stipules ovate, gashed ; leaves wedge obovate, gash toothed ; stem
ascending, and creeping, hirsute ; peduncles solitary, elongated ; divisions
of the calyx lance linear ; petals orbicular, sub-entire, of the length of the
calyx. This plant is so long in flower, and assumes so many forms and sizes,
that students in botany often make several species of it. 2—18 i. S.
argen"tea (silver five-finger. O. w-y. Ju. 4), stem prostrate and ascending,
rarely sub-erect, branching, white downy ; stipules ovate acute ; leaves

POTERIUM, PUNICA. 403

wedge-form, gash toothed, silvery white down beneath ; petals retuse,
scarcely longer than the calyx. 4 — 10 i. S.

Leaves more or less pinnate.

anseri'na (tansey cinquefoil. O. y. J. 4), creeping ; leaves interruptedly pin-
nate, numerous, gash serrate, silky, white downy beneath ; peduncles soli-
tary, 1 flowered-

19—13. POTERIUM. 54. 92.

Exotic.

sanguisor"ba (burnet. J. 4), stem somewhat angled, unarmed ; leaves pinnate ;
leafets serrate ; flowers in heads.

17—1. PRENANTHES. 49. 53.

al"ba (white lettuce. O. w. p. Au. 4), radical leaves angled, hastate, toothed,
somewhat lobed ; cauline ones round ovate, toothed, petioled ; upper ones
most lanceolate ; panicle lax ; the terminal fascicle nodding ; calyx 8 cleft,
9 or 10 flowered. Var. nana, Bw. low ; leaves 3 parted, hastate, ovate and
lanceolate, sometimes all simple ; racemes panicled or simple. 1 — 3 f. S.
5—1. PRIMULA. 21. 34.

Exotic.
aca'uLis (primrose. 4), leaves rugose, toothed, hirsute beneath ; scape 1

flowered.

auric"tda (auricula primrose. 4), leaves serrate, fleshy, obovate ; scape many
flowered ; calyx mealy.

14—1. PRUNELLA. 42. 39.

vulga'ris, var.pennsylvanica (heal-all, self-heal. O.,J. 4), leaves petioled, oblong
ovate, toothed at the base; lips of the calyx unequal 5 upper one truncate,
awned ; stem ascending. 6 — 12. i. S.

12—1. PRUNUS. 36. 92.

Flowers in racemes.

virginia'na (wild cherry, rum cherry, cabinet cherry. O. w. M. > ), racemes
erect, elongated ; leaves oval oblong, acuminate, unequally serrate, glabrous
both sides; petioles generally bearing 4 glands. In open fields the limbs
of this tree spread out into an elegant oval top ; but in dense forests it grows
to a very great height, with a few contracted branches. •$.
scroli'na (choke-berry. O. w. J. > ), flowers in lax racemes ; leaves oval short
acuminate, opake, doubly and acutely serrate ; midrib bearded on each side
towards the base ; petiole with 2 glands. This and the* preceding species
have been confounded by many botanists. S.

canaden"sis (O. w. ^ ), flowers in racemes ; leaves glandless, broad lanceolate,
rugose, sharply serrate, pubescent both sides, tapering into the petiole. S.

Exotic.
spino'sa (english sloe. > ), peduncles solitary ; leaves lance oval, pubescent

beneath ; fruit straight ; branches thorny.
cer"asus (garden cherry, w. r. ^ ), umbel sub-peduncled ; leaves lance ovate,

glabrous, conduplicate.

domes"tica (plumb, w. M. ^), peduncles sub-solitary; leaves lance ovate, con-
volute ; branches thornless. Var. Juliana (damson plum), fruit oblong, blue.
Var. daudiana (sweet plum, horse plum), fruit round, at first green, becoming
yellowish. Var. enucleata (stoneless plum) the putamen obsolete.

21—1. PTERIS. 55. 5.

aquili'na (common brake. O. Ju. 4), frond pinnate, 3 parted ; barren branches
'doubly pinnate, with leafets lance linear, obtuse pinnatifid, toothed ; fertile
branches pinnate, with leafets pinnatifid ; divisions acutish, all ciliate. -S.

10—1. PTEROSPORA. 18. 51.

androm"eda (albany beech-drops. E. r-y. Ju. ©), scape purple, very tall, bearing
a many flowered raceme ; flowers lateral and terminal, nodding ; peduncles
filiform, longer than the flowers ; lanceolate scales below, none above. 1 — 2 f.
11—1. PUNICA. 36 92.

Exotic,
grana'tum (pomegranate. > ), leaves lanceolate ; stem woody.

404 PYCN ANTHEM 1TM, RHODODENDRON.

13—1. PYCNANTHEMUM. 42. 39.

Stamens exsert.

ln"canum (wild basil, mountain mint. O. w. r. Ju. 4), leaves oblong ovate,
acute, sub-serrate, white downy ; flowers in compound heads, lateral ones pe-
duncled ; bracts setaceous. 1—5 f. S.

10—1. PYROLA. 18. 51.

rotundifo'lia shin-leaf, pear-lrat, \\iut. rgreen. O. w. J. 4), style declined ;
leaves rounded, or broad oval obsolelely serrulate, sub-coriaceous, shining ;
petiole about as long as the lamina ; acape many flowered. 6 — 12 i.
ettip'tica ^O. g-w. Ju. 4), leaves membranaceous, elliptical ovate, serrulate,
rather acute, lamina longer than the petiolo ; scape nearly naked ; bracts
subulate ; calyx 5 toothed ; style declinate, scape 10 in.

11—5. PYRUS. 36. 92.

corona'ria (crab apple. O. w-r. 31. > ), leaves broad oval, at the base rounded,
sub-angled or sub-lobed, serrate, smooth ; peduncles corymbed. Flowers
sweet scented. 5.

Exotic,
commu'nis (pear. E. w-r. M. * ), leaves ovate, serrate (rarely entire) ; peduncles

corymbed.

ma'lus (apple. E. w-r. M. > ), flowers in sessile umbels ; leaves ovate oblong,
acuminate, serrate, glabrous ; claws of the petals shorter than the calyx ;
styles glabrous. Var. sylvestris (wild apple), leaves ovate serrate ; fruit
small, austere.

cy'donia (quince. E. w. J. > ), flowers solitary ; fruit tomentose ; leaves ovate,
entire.

Remark. — The varieties into which the above species have been extended
by culture, are very numerous.

19—2. QUERCUS. 59. 99.

alba (white oak. O. M. > ), leaves oblong, sinuata pinnatifid, pubescent beneath ;
lobes obtuse, entire, narrowed at their bases, particularly on full grown trees ;
fruit peduncled ; calyx somewhat bowl form, tubercled flattened at the base ;
acorn ovate. The most useful timber tree in America. 70—80 f. S.
12—13. RANUNCULUS. 26. 61.

Leaves divided.

aborti'vus (O. y. M. 4), glabrous ; stems striate, naked below ; radical leaves
heart reniform, obtusely crenate ; cauline ones petioled, ternate, angled ;
upper ones sessile ; branches about three flowered. 9 — 15 i. S.
re'pens (O. y 31. 4), pubescent ; leaves ternate, 3 cleft, gashed ; creeping
shoots sent off in the summer ; peduncles furrowed ; calyx spreading.
Damp.

a'cri* (crowfoot, butter cup. O y. M 4), hairs close pressed, leaves 3 parted,

many cleft ; upper ones linear ; peduncles terete ; calyx spreading. 1 — 2 f.

14—2. REPHANUS. 39. 63.

Exotic.

sati'vus (garden radish, w. J. ©), leaves lyrate; silique terete, torose, 2 celled.
There are several varieties of this species — one has a fusiform, another a
globose, another a black root.

9—3. RHEUM. 12. 28.

Exotic.

palma'tum (rhubarb. J. 4), leaves palmate, acuminate. From China.
rhapon"ticum (pie rhubarb, w. J. 4), leaves heart ovate, obtuse and acute
smooth ; veins sub-pilose beneath, the sinus at the base dilated ; petioles
furrowed on the upper side, rounded at the edge. Radical leaves very
large. 2— 4 f.

10—1. RHODODENDRON. 18. 50.

max"imum (wild rosebay. E. r. Ju. > ), leaves oblong, glabrous, paler beneath ;
umbels terminal, dense ; corollas somewhat bell-form. 4 — 20 f.

Exotic.

pon"ticum (rose bay. p. > ), leaves oblong, glabrous, both sides coloured alike ;
corymbs terminal ; corolla bell wheel form ; petals lanceolate.

RHUS, ROSA. 405

5—3. RHUS. 43. 94.

gla'brum (sleek sumach. O. g. r. Ju. ^ ), branches, petioles and leaves glabrous ;
leaves pinnate, many paired ; leafets lance oblong, serrate, whitish beneath ;
fruit silky. The leaves of both the species are used for tanning morocco
leather. Berries red and sour. 6 — 12 f.

ver"nix (poison sumach, y-g. J— Ju. <• ), very smooth ; leaves pinnate ; leafets
in many pairs, oval, abruptly acuminate, entire ; panicle loose ; flowers dioe-
cious. A small tree. S.

toxicoden"dron (O. g-y. J— Ju. > ), stem erect ; leaves ternate ; leafets broad
oval, entire or sinuate dentate, sub-pubescent beneath ; flowers dioecious in
sessile axillary racemes. 1 — 3 f. Var. radicans (poison ivy), stem climbing.
Exotic.

cof'inus (false fringe-tree, Aaron's beard, p-g. Ju. >), leaves simple, obovate
and ovate ; panicle racemes plumose. A small tree, with very minute flow-
ers supported on capillary, downy, or hairy peduncles. Indigenous to Sibe-
beria, Austria and Lombardy.

5—1. RIBES. 36. 85.
Currant like. Flowers racemed.

flo'ridum (wild black currant. O. M. ^ ), unarmed ; leaves punctate both
sides ; racemes pendant; calyx cylindric ; bracts longer than the pedicels.
3—4 f. S.

Gooseberry like. Peduncles mostly few flowered, rarely sub-racemed.

trifio'rum (wild gooseberry. A. g. M. > ), spine sub-axillary ; leaves glabrous,
3 — 5 lobed,gash toothed ; peduncles sub 3 flowered ; with the pedicels elon-
gated ; bracts very short ; petals spatulate, undulate; style hirsute, half 2 or
3 cleft, exsert ; berry glabrous. Berries pale red. 3—4 f. S.
Exotic.

ru'brum (currant, g. M. > ), unarmed ; racemes glabrous, nodding ; corolla
flat ; petals obcordate ; leaves obtusely 5 lobed ; stem erect. Berries red.
2— 4f.

ni'grufn (black currant, g. M. ^ ), unarmed ; leaves punctate beneath ;v ra-
cemes lax ; flowers bell form ; bracts shorter than the pedicels. Berries
black. 5— 3f.

grossula'ria (English gooseberry, g. M. ^ ), branches prickly ; petioles hairy ;
bracts 2 leaved ; berry glabrous or hirsute. 2—4 f.
19—15. RICINUS. 38. 96.
Exotic.

commu'nis (castor oil plant, palma christi. ©), leaves peltate, palmate ; lobes
lanceolate, serrate ; stem with hoary mealiness. 4 — 6 f.
16—10. ROBINIA. 32. 93.

pseudo-aca'cia (locust-tree, false acacia. A. w. M. $ ), leaves pinnate, with a
terminal leafet ; stipules thorny, or a thorn ; racemes pendant ; teeth of the
calyx unawned ; legumes smooth. 30—40 f. S.

11—13. ROSA. 35. 93.

parvi'Jlora (wild rose. O. r. w. ^ ), germs depressed globose ; germs and pedun-
cles hispid ; petioles pubescent, sub-aculeate ; stem glabrous ; prickles stipu-
lar, straight ; leafets lance oval, simply serrate, glabrous ; flowers somewhat
in pairs. Very variable. 1 — 3 f. S.

rubigino'sa (sweet briar. E. r. J. >), germ ovate; peduncles and petioles glan-
dular hispid ; petioles somewhat prickly ; stem glabrous ; prickles scattered,
hooked, slender ; leafets (5 or 7), ovate, serrate, sub-glandular beneath. 3
— 4 f. S.

Exotic.

cam'na. (dog rose. > ), germs ovate ; germs and peduncles glabrous ; stem and
petioles prickly ; leaves ovate, glabrous.

•raVlica (french rose, common rose. r. J. 5 ), germs ovate ; germs and pedun-
cles hispid ; stem and petioles hispid-prickly. Sometimes the colours are
variegated.

damasce'na (damask rose. w. r. J. ^>), calyx half pinnate; germ ovate, turgid
(thickened near its top), bristly ; stem and petioles prickly ; leafets ovate,
pointed, downy beneath.

musco'sa (moss rose. r. Au. ^ ), germs ovate ; calyx, peduncles, petioles and

406 ROSMARINUS, RUMEX.

branches hispid, glandular viscid (moss like) ; spines of the branches scat-

tered, straight.
moscha'ta (musk rose. > ), germs ovate; germs and peduncles villose; stem and

petioles prickly ; leafets oblong, acuminate, glabrous ; panicle many How

ered.
bur^und'ui'ca (burgundy rose. > ), germs sub-globose ; germs and peduncles his-

pid ; leafets ovate, pubescent beneath ; corolla small, full, fleshy white ; disk

obscure. Var. provincialis, has scattered reflexed prickles on the branches,

and glandular serratures.
semerflo'rens (monthly rose. ^ ), germs ovate oblong, tapering to both ends ;

germs and peduncles hispid; stem prickly; flowers in erect corymbs. Re-

sembles damascena.
dlha (white rose. w. J. ^ ), germs ovate, glabrous or hispid ; stem and petioles

prickly ; leafets ovate, villose beneath.
centifo'lia (hundred leaved rose. r. ^), germs ovate; germs nnd peduncles his-

pid ; stem hispid, prickly ; leaves pubescent beneath ; petioles unarmed.
cinnamo'mea (cinnamon rose. > ), germs globose ; germs and peduncles gla-

brous ; stem with stipular prickles ; petioles somewhat unarmed ; leafets ob-

long. R. majalis. Stem brown cinnamon colour.
mnltijlo'ra (japan rose. ^), germs ovate; germs and peduncles unarmed, vil-

lose ; stem and petioles prickly. Branches generally purple ; leafets ovate ;

flowers small, panieled.

2—1. • ROSMARINUS. 42.39.

Exotic.

officinal** (rosemary. * ), leaves, some green both sides ; others whitish be-
neath, linear ; margins revolute.

4—1. RUBIA. 47. 57.

tincto'ria, (madder), leaves lanceolate, about in sixes ; stem prickly, climbing.
Var. sylvestris, lower leaves in sixes, upper ones in fours or in pairs.

11—13. RUBUS. 35. 92.

ide'iu (garden raspberry. E. w. M. > ), leaves quintate-pinnate and temate ;
loafers rhomb ovate, acuminate, downy beneath ; petioles channelled ; stem
prickly, hispid flowers sub-panicled. Var. americanus, branchlets nearly
glabrous ; stem and petioles terete ; leaves all temate ; pedicels -somewhat
prickly. 4— 6 f. S.

viuo'sus (high blackberry. O w. J. > ), pubescent, hispid and prickly ; leaves
digitate, in threes or fives ; leafets ovate, acuminate, serrate, hairy both sides ;
stem and petioles prickly ; calyx short acuminate ; racemes naked ; petals
lance ovate. 4-^6 f. S.

strigo'gus (red raspberry. O. w. J. V \ unarmed, rigidly hispid ; leafets 3, or
pinnate quinate, oval, at the base obtuse, acuminate, marked with lines, and
whitg-downy beneath, terminal one often sub-cordate. Fruit red, sweet.
ocddenta'lis black raspberry. O. w. g. >), branches and petioles glaucous and
prickly ; leaves ternate, oval, acuminate, sub-lohate and doubly serrate, \vhit<
downy beneath ; petioles terete ; prickles recurved. 4 — 8 f. S.
trivia'tis 'creeping blackberry, dew berry. O. w J. ^> ), sarmentose procumbent ;
petioles and peduncles aculeate hispid, with the prickles recurved ; stipules
subulate ; leaves ternate or quinate, oblong oval, acute, unequally serrate,
sub-pubescent ; pedicels solitary, elongated. Var. flagdlaris •, has orbicular
petals, and small smooth leaves. S.

odora'tus (flowering raspberry. E. r. J. *> ), unarmed, erect, viscid hispid ;
leaves simple, acutely 3 or 5 lobed ; corymbs terminal, spreading. Flowers
large ; berries rather dry and thin. 3 — 6 f. S.

17—3. RUDBECKIA. 49. 55.

lacinia'ta (cone flower, cone disk sunflower. O. y. Au. 4), lower leaves pinnate ;
leafets 3 lobed ; upper ones ovate ; egret crenate ; stem glabrous. Damp.
5-10 f. S.

6—3. RUMEX. 12. 28.

oris"pus (dock. O. Ju. 4), valves of tho calyx ovate, entire, all bearing grain
like appendages on their backs ; leaves lanceolate, undulate, acute. 2 — 3 f.
ascetosel"lus (field sorrel O. g. p. M. 4), valves without grains ; leaves lance
hastate; flowers dicecious, 6—12 i.

RUTA, SARRACENIA. 407

Exotic.

patien"tia (garden dock, patience, 4), valves entire, one of them bearing a grain
like appendage ; leaves lance ovate. Naturalized.
10—1. RUTA. 26. 81.

Exotic.

irrave'oleni (rue), leaves more than decompound ; leafets oblong, terminal ones
obovate ; petals entire.

3—2. SACCHARUM. 4.10.

Exotic.

ojficina'rum (sugar cane), flowers panicled, in pairs, one sessile and one pedicel-
led ; corolla 1 valved, awnless. From the East Indies.
19—12. SAGITTARIA. 5. 13.

sagittifo'lia (arrow head. O. w. Ju. 4), leaves lanceolate acute, sagittate ; lobes
lanceolate, acute, straight. Var. latifolia, leaves ovate, sub-acute, sagittate ;
lobes ovate, slightly acuminate, straight. Var. major, leaves large, abruptly
acute ; scape sub-ramose. 1 — 2 f. <S.

1—1. SALICORNIA. 12.29.

herba'cea (samphire, glasswort. L. Au. ©), herbaceous, spreading ; joints com-
pressed at the apex, emarginate-bifid. Var. virginica, has the branches un-
divided, and the jointed spikes very long. The fructification is very ob-
scure ; but it maybe known by its leafless nearly cylindric jointed branches.
It grows in salt marshes along the sea-board. Onondaga salt springs. 12
—18 i. S.

20—2. SALIX. 50. 99.

babylo'nica (weeping willow. E. M. > ), branchlets pendant ; leaves lanceolate,
acuminate, serrate, glabrous, upper and lower sides of different colours ; sti-
pules roundish, contracted : aments flower at leafing time ; germs sessile,
ovate, glabrous. Supposed to be the willow on which the Israelites hung
their harps, when captive in Babylon. Introduced. S.
2—1. SALVIA. 42. 39.

Exotic.

officina'lis (sage, b J. 4. or ^ ), leaves lance-ovate, crenulate ; whorls few-
flowered ; calyx mucronate.

scla'ra (clarry. $ ), leaves rugose, cordate, oblong, villose, serrate ; floral bracts
longer than the calyx, concave, acuminate.

5—3. SAMBUCUS. 43. 58.

canaden"sis (black-berried elder. O. w. J. > ), branchlets and petioles glabrous ;
leafets about in 4 pairs, oblong-oval, glabrous, shining, acuminate ; cyme
lax, divided into about 5 parts. 8 — 15 f.

puhes"cem (red-berried elder. O. w. M. >), bark warty ; leafets in 2 pairs,
lance-oval, pubescent beneath : flowers raceme-panicled, or in a crowded
bunch. 6—12 f.

13—1. SANGUINARIA. 27. 62.

• canaden"sis (blood-root. O. w. Ap. 4), leaves sub-renilbrm, sinuate-lobed :
scape 1 flowered. A variety, stenopetala, has linear petals. 6 — 10 i. S.

4—2. SANGUISORBA. 54. 92.

canaden"sis (burnet saxifrage, w. Ju. 4), flowers in a long cylindric spike :
stamens several times longer than the corollas. The leaves resemble the
burnet. 3— 5 f . S.

5—2. SANICULA. 45. 60.

marylan"dica (O. w. June — Au. 4), leaves all digitate ; leafets oblong, deeply
serrate ; staminate flowers numerous, pedicelled. 2 f S.
10—2. SAPONARIA. 22. 82.

Exotic.

officina'lis (soapwort, bouncing bet. w. J. 4), calyx cylindric ; leaves lance-
ovate, opposite sub-connate, entire. Probably introduced, and naturalized.
10—18 i.

12—1. SARRACENIA. 54. 62.

purpu'rea (side-saddle. O. p. J. 4), leaves radical, short, gibbose-inflated or
cup-form, contracted at the mouth, having a broad arched lateral wing ; the

408 SATUREJA, SILENE.

contracted part of the base hardly as long as the inflated part Scape with
a single, large nodding flower. In marshes. 1 — 2 f. 5.

13—1. SATUREJA. 42. 39.

horten"sis (summer savory, b-w. Ju. ©), peduncles axillary, somewhat in cyme;
leaves lanceolate, entire .- stem brachiate.

7—4. SAURURUS. 2. 6.

cer"nuus (lizard's tail, breast weed. W. Au. 4), stem angular, sulcate ; leaven
alternate, heart-oblong, acuminate. Rare in New York east of Cayuga
Lake— abundant west of it. 1—2 f.

10—2. SAXIFRAGA. 13. 84.
Leaves radical, undivided : stem nearly naked.

virginien"sis (rock saxifrage. O. w. M. 4), minutely pubescent ; leaves oval
obtuse, crenate, decurrent into the petiole ; flowers sub-sessile on the di-
chotomous branches of an almost leafless scape. 1— 15 i. S.
pensylva'nica (water saxifrage. O. y-g. M. J. 4), pubescent ; leaves oblong-
lanceolate, acute at each extremity, obsoletely toothed ; stem naked ; panicle
oblong, flowers fasciculate ; petals linear, longer than the calyx ; capsule
•uperior. 18—28 i.

Exotic,

sarmento'sa (beef-steak, creeping saxifrage w. Au. 4), leaves roundish, tooth-
ed, hairy ; sending off creeping shoots ; 2 petals in each flower elongated.
6—1. SCILLA. 10. 14.

Exotic.

marit"ima (squill, w). scape long, naked, many-flowered ; bracts bent back.
Root bulbous.

13—2. SCROPHULARIA. 40. 40.

marylan"dica (figwort. O. g-p. Ju. 4), leaves cordate, serrate, acute, rounded
at the base ; petioles ciliate below ; panicle fasciculate, loose, few-flowered ;
stem obtusely angled. 2 — 4 f. S.

13—1. SCUTELLARIA. 42. 39.

lateriftofra (mad-dog scull-cap, hood-wort. O. b. Ju. 4), branching, glabrous ;
leaves long-pet ioled, ovate, toothed ; cauline ones sub-cordate ; racemes
lateral, leafy. Damp. 1—2 f. *S.

galericula'ta (scull-cap. O. b.J. 4\ branching ; leaves sub-sessile, lance-ovate,
sub-cordate at the base, crenate, a little white-downy beneath ; flowers axil-
lary, solitary or in pairs. Flowers large. Damp. 12 — 18 i.

3—2. SECALE. 4. 10.

cerea'le (rye. J. £), glumes and bristles scabrous-ciliate : corolla smooth. In-
troduced.

10—5. SEDUM. 13. 83.

terna'tum (false ice-plant. W. w. J. 4), small, creeping : leaves flat, round-
spatulate, ternate : flowers somewhat 3 spiked. Varies into the eighth class.
Cultivated. S.

Exotic,
tetephium (orpine, live-forever, r. w. Ju. 4), leaves flattish, tooth-serrate,

thickly-scattered ; corymb leafy ; stem erect.

anacampr'sero* (stone-crop. 4), leaves wedge-form, entire, sub-sessile; stem
decumbent ; flowers corymbed.

12—13. SEMPERVIVUM. 13. 83.

Exotic.

tecto'rum (houseleek. Au. 4), leaves ciliate ; bulbs spreading ; nectaries wedge-
form, crenulate.

arbo'reiun (tree houseleek), stem woody, smooth, branching ; leaves wedge-
form, glabrous, with soft spreading hairs.

15—12. SIDA. 37. 74.

abu'tilon (indian mallows. E. y. Ju. @), leaves round-cordate, acuminate,
toothed, tomentose ; peduncles solitary, shorter than the petioles ; capsules
2 awned, truncate. 4—6 f. 5.

10—3. SILENE. 22. 82.
pcnsylva'nica (pink-catchfly. p. M. J. 4), viscidly pubescent ; radical leaves

SIN APIS, SOLID AGO, 409

wedge-form ; stem leaves lanceolate 5 panicles trichotomous ; petals slightly
emarginate, very obtuse, sub-crenate. 8 — 12 i. S.

virgin"ica (r. J. 4), erect or decumbent ; yiscidly pubescent ; leaves lance-
oblong, scabrous on the margin; panicle dichotomous ; petals bifid; stamens
exsert. 12 i. S.

14—2. SINAPIS. 39. 63.
Exotic.

ni'gra (common mustard, y. J. ©), silique glabrous, 4 angled, close pressed to
the stem ; leaves at the top lance-linear, entire, smooth. Naturalized.
15—3. SISYRINCHIUM. 6. 18.

an"ceps (blue-eyed grass. O. b. J. 4), scape (or culm) simple, 2 edged or 2
winged ; glume-like spatha of 2 unequal valves, extending above the flower ;
petals mucronate. 6—12 i. S.

20—6. SMILAX. 11. 12.

rotundifo'lia (green brier. O. w-g. Ju. > ), stem prickly, sub-terete ; leaves un-
armed, roundish-ovate, short-acuminate, cordate, 5-7 nerved ; berries spheri-
cal. S.

5—1. SOLANUM. 28 41.

dulcama'ra (bittersweet. E. p-b. Ju. >), stem unarmed, woody, climbing;
lower leaves mostly cordate, glabrous ; upper ones mostly guitar-hastate,
few-flowered ; corymbs opposite to the leaves. This is the true bittersweet ;
but the Celastrus scandens is wrongly called so by some. Damp.

ni'grum (deadly night-shade. O. w. p. b. J. ©), stem unarmed, erectish or
erect ; branches angled, dentate ; leaves ovate, repand, glabrous ; racemes
2 ranked, nodding. 1—2 f. S.

Exotic.

lubero'sum (potato, b. w. Ju. ^),stem wing-angled, unarmed ; leaves inter-
ruptedly pinnate ; leafets entire ; flowers sub-corymbed ; roots knobbed-
tuberous. Cultivated.

lycoper"sicum (love apple, tomatoes, y. S. ©), stem unarmed ; leaves pinnati-
fid, gashed ; racemes 2 parted, leafless ; fruit glabrous, torulose.

melong"ena (egg-plant. J. ©), stem unarmed ; leaves ovate, tomentose ; pedun-
cles pendant, incrassate ; calyx unarmed.

pseudo-cap' 'sicum (Jerusalem cherry. > ), stem woody ; leaves lanceolate, re-
pand ; umbels sessile.

17_2. SOLIDAGO. 49. 55.
1. Flowers one-sided. Leaves with three combined nerves.

canaden"sis (Canadian golden-rod. O. y. Ju. 4), stem downy ; le'aves lanceo-
late, serrate, rough ; racemes copious panicled, recurved ; rays hardly longer
than the disk ; stem angular ; leaves sessile, three inches long, sometimes
nearly entire. 2 — 5 f. &.

gigan"tea (giant golden-rod. O. y. Au. 4,) stem erect, glabrous ; leaves lance-
olate, smooth, serrate, rough-edged, obscurely 3 nerved ; racemes panicled ;
peduncles rough-haired ; rays short. 4 — 7 f. S.

lateriflo'ra (side-flowered golden rod. y.' Au. 4), stem erect, a little hairy;
leaves lanceolate, slightly 3 nerved, glabrous, rough-edged ; lower ones sub-
serrate ; racemes panicled, a little recurved, sub-secund ; flowers large, the
rays being much longer ^han the calyx ; stem striated, often purplish, pinna-
tifid, with numerous lateral flowering branches. 2 — 3 f. S.
2. Racemes or flowers one-sided. Leaves veiny.

<iltis"sima (variable golden-rod. O. y. Au. 4), stem erect, ro«;gh-haired ; leaves
lanceolate ; lower ones deeply serrate, scabrous, rugose. The panicled ra-
cemes are very numerous and spread eveiy way, so as to bring the one-sided
flowers upwards ; rays half as long again as the calyx. But this species is
so variable that students generally endeavour to make several species of it.
The serratures of the leaves are equal and unequal ; it is hairy or villose ;
and sometimes the racemes diverge but little. 3 — 6 f. £.

pat"ida (spread golden rod. O. y. S. 4), stern erect^, glabrous ; leaves oval, ser-
rate, glabrous ; radical ones oblong-spatulate ; racemes panicled, spreading ;
peduncles pubescent. Stem wand-like, angular and striate ; stem-leaves
sessile, about an inch long, pointed ; the radical ones resemble those of the
ox-eyed daisy ; racemes about an inch long ; flowers rather large. 2 f. S.

35

410 SORGHUM, SYRINGA,

3. Racemes erect.

bi'-colour (white golden-rod. O. w. Au. 4), stem hairy ; leaves oval, hairy ; lower

ones serrate ; those on the flower branches entire, numerous, and small ;

scales of the calyx obtuse. Racemes are short and compact ; rays white,

somewhat numerous and shortish ; disk florets rather numerous. 2—4 f. -S.

3—2. SORGHUM. 4. 10.

Exotic.

tacchara'tum (broom-corn, y-g. Au. ©), panicle somewhat whorled, spreading ;
seeds oval ; glumes covered with permanent softish hairs ; leaves linear.
From the East Indies. 6—8 f.

10—5. SPERGULA. 22. 82.

arven"sis (spurry. w. Ju. @), leaves whorled : panicles dichotoraous ; pedun-
cles of the fruit becoming reflexed. 6 — 10 i. S.

20—5. SPINACIA. 12. 28.

Exotic.

olera'cea (spinach. J. ©), fruit sessile, prickly or unarmed ; leaves hastate-sagit-
tate ; stem branched. In habit resembles the Chenopodium album. 1 — 2 f.
11—5. SPIRAEA. 36. 92.

Stem more or less woody.

xdiciff/lia (meadow sweet, willow hard-hack. O r. w. J. >), leaves lanco-
ovate or obovate, serrate, glabrous ; flowers in panicled spreading racemes.
Var. '//'", has white petals, and generally the twigs are reddish. The small
branches are generally killed by frost in the winter, as also of the next
species. 2—4 f. S.

tomt'tUo'sa (steeple bush, purple hard-hack, meadow-sweet. O. r. Ju. > ), leaves
lanceolate, unequally serrate, downy beneath : racemes in a crowded, sub-
panicled, spike. 2— 3f. S.

kgperictf&ba (John's wort, hard-hack, w. M. > ), leaves obovate, entire or tooth-
ed at the apex ; umbels sessile. Cultivated. 3 f.

opulifo'lia (nine-bark, snow-ball, hard-hack. E. w. J. >), leaves sub-ovate,
lobed, douHy toothed or crenate, glabrous ; corymbs terminal, crowded ;
capsules inflated ; flowers trigynious. Wet. 3 — 5 f. S.

Exotic.

nbna'ria (queen of the meadow, w. Au. 4), leaves pinnate, downy beneath ;
the terminal leafets larger, 3 lobed ; the lateral ones undivided : flowers in
a proliferous corymb. Stem herbaceous.

13-1. STACHYS. 42. 39.

as"pera (hedge nettle, clown heal. O. w-p. Ju. 4), stem erect, hispid backwards ;
leaves sub-petioled, lanceolate, acutely serrate, very glabrous ; whorls about
6 flowered : calyx with spreading spines. Var. tenuifolia, leaves very thin
and slender.

5—3. STAPHYLEA. 23. 95.

trifolia (bladder nut. E. y-w. M. ^ ), leaves in threes ; racemes pendant ; petals
ciliate below. When in flower, if the germ be cut transversely and examin-
ed, it will appear 2 or 3 celled, and will contain the rudiments of 15 to 20
seeds. But when the fruit is ripe, it consists of 2 or 3 inflated, adnate, sub-
membranous capsules, each containing 1 to 3 hard small nuts. 6 — 12 f. S.

16—10. STROPHOSTYLES. 32. 93.
angulo'sa (E. p. Au. ©), leaves ternate ; leafets angular, 2-3 lobed ; ped uncles

longer than the leaves : flowers capitate. <S.

hel"vola (r.), prostrate, sometimes twining; leaves temate, deltoid-oblong;
flowers capitate ; banner short ; wings large, expanded. /S.
5—1. SYMPHITUM. 41. 42.

Exotic.

qffi<ina'le fcomfrey. y-w. J. 4), leaves ovate sub-lanceolate, decurrent, rugose.
Naturalized. 2— 4 f .

2—1. SYRINGA. 48. 37.

wdga'ris (lilac, b-p. w. M. > ), leaves cordate ; flowers in a thyrse.
per"sica (persian lilac, b. M. », leaves lanceolate, entire and pinna tifid.

TAGETES, TRIFOLIUM. 411

17—2. TAGETES. 49. 55.

Exotic.

erec"ta (african marygold. y. Ju. ©), leaves pinnate; leafeta lanceolate,
cilitate serrate; peduncles 1 flowered, incrassate, sub-inflated; calyx
angled.

17—2. TANACETUM. 49. 55.

Exotic.

vulffa're (tansey. y. Ju. 4), leaves doubly pinnate, gash-serrate. Naturalized.
Var. crispum (double tansey), leaves crisped and dense.

13—1. TEUCRIUM. 42. 89.

canaden"se (wood sage, germander. O.r. Ju. 4), pubescent; leaves lance ovate,
serrate, petioled ; stem erect; spikes whorled, crowded; bracts longer than
the calyx. Var. virginicum, upper leaves sub-sessile ; bracts about the length
of the calyx. 1— 3 f. S.

12—13. THALICTRUM. 26. 61.

dio'icum (meadow rue. O. w-r. M. 4), flowers dioecious ; filaments filiform ;
leaves about 3 ternate ; leafets roundish, cordate, obtusely lobed, glabrous ;
peduncles axillary, shorter than the leaves. 1 — 2 f. S.
12—1. THEA. 54. 71.

Exotic,
bohe'a (bohea tea M. > ), flowers 6 petalled; leaves oblong oval, rugose. From

China and Japan.
vir"idis* (green tea. ^ ), flowers 9 petalled ; leaves very long oval.

14— J. THLASPI. 39. 63.

bursa-pasto'ris (shepherd's purse. O. w. M. ©), hirsute; silicles deltoid obcor-
date ; radical leaves pinnatifid. ,S.

13—1. THYMUS. 42. 39.

Exotic.

vulga'ns (thyme, b-p. J. 4, > ), erect ; leaves ovate and linear, revolute ; flow-
ers in a whorled spike.

12—1. TILIA. 37. 79.

gla'bra (bass wood, lime tree. O. y-w. Ju. ^ ), leaves round cordate, abruptly
acuminate, sharply serrate, sub-coriaceous, glabrous ; petals truncate at the
apex, crenate ; style about equalling the petals ; nut ovate. Large tree, wood
soft and white. Leaves often truncate at the base. S.

6—1. TRADESCANTIA. 6. 13.

virgin"ica (spider wort. b-p. M. 4), erect, branching ; leaves lanceolate, elon-
gated, glabrous ; flowers sessile ; umbel compact, pubescent. Cultivated.
1— 2f.

17— i. TRAGOPOGON. 49. 53..

Exotic.

porrifo'lium (vegetable oyster, goat beard, salsify, p. Ju. $ ), calyx longer than
the rays of the corolla ; the corollets very narrow, truncate ; peduncles in-
crassate.

13—1. TRICHOSTEMA. 42. 39.

dichot"oma (blue curls, b. Au. ©), leaves lance ovate ; branches flower bearing,
2 forked ; stamens very long, blue, curved. Var. linearis, somewhat pubes-
cent ; leaves linear. 6 — 12 i. S.

7—1. TRIENTALIS. SO. 34. ,

america'na (chick wintergreen. O. w. Ju. 4), leaves lanceolate, serrulate, acu-
minate ; petals acuminate. 3 — 6 i.

16—10. TRIFOLIUM. 32. 93.

re'pens (white clover. O. w. M. 4), creeping ; leafets ovate oblong, emarginate,
serrulate ; flowers inumbelled heads ; teeth of the calyx sub-equal ; legume*
4 seeded. S.

praten"se (red clover. O. r. M. 4), ascending, smoothish, leafet ovate, sub-en-
tire ; stipules awned ; spikes dense-ovate ; lower tooth of the calyx shorter
than the tube of the corolla, and longer than the other teeth. 2—3 f. S.

arven"se (rabbit-foot. O. w. J. ©), heads very hairy, oblong cylindrical ; teeth

* It is asserted by some, that this is only a variety of the bohea.

41'2 TRILLIUM, USNEA.

of the calyx setaceous, longer than the corolla ; leafets viltoee, narrow obo-
vate ; banner deciduous. 6— 12 i. S.

6—3. TRILLIUM. 11. 12.

pen"dulum (noddding wake robin, w. M. 4), peduncles erect, with the flower
a little nodding ; petals ovate, shortly acuminate, spreading, flat, longer than
the calyx; leaves rhomboid acuminate, sessile.

crec"tum (false wake robin. O. p. w-y. 31. 4), peduncles erect or crectish, with
the flowers a little nodding; petals ovate, acuminate, spreading; equalling
the calyx ; leaves rhomboid, acuminate, sessile Var. atropurpttreum, petals
large, dark purple. Var. album, petals smaller, white ; germ red. Var. fla-
rum, petals yellow; both petals and calyx leaves longer and narrower. 12-
to 18 inches high- Leaves often 3 to 4 inches broad. Peduncles about 3
inches long. 9 — 16 i. S.

3—2. TRITICUM. 4. 10.
Exotic.

hyber"num (winter wheat J. « ), calyx glume 4 flowered, tumid, even, imbri-
cate, abrupt, with a short compressed point ; stipule jagged ; corollas of the
upper florets somewhat bearded. -There are several varieties of this species
which are introduced by culture.

8—1. TROP^OLUM. 23. 73.

Exotic.

ma'jus (nasturtion, indian cress, y. & r. Ju. © & 4), leaves peltate, sub-repand ;
petals obtuse, some of them fringed.

6—1. TULIPA. 10. 14.

Exotic.
waWofcn* (sweet tulip. M. 4), small stem 1 flowered, pubescent ; flower erect;

petals obtuse, glabrous ; leaves lance-ovate.

gesneria'na (common tulip. M. 4), stem 1 flowered, glabrous : flower various
coloured, erect ; petals obtuse, glabrous ; leaves lance ovate.

17—2. TUSSILAGO. 49. 55.,

far"fara (colt's foot: y. Ap. 4), scape single flowered, scaly ; leaves cordate,
angular, toothed downy beneath. The flower appears long before the leaves.

19—3. TYPHA! 3. a

latifo'lia (cat tail, reed mace. O. Ju. 4), leaves linear, flat, slightly convex be-
neath ; staminate and pistillate nmrnts close together. Wet. 4—6 £ S.
5—2. ULMUS. 53. 99.

america'na (elm, white elm. O. g-p. Ap. > ), branches smooth ; leaves oblique
at the base, having acuminate serratures a little hooking ; flowers pedicelled ;
fruit fringed with dense down. Var. pendula, has hanging branches and
smoothish leaves. 40— 70 f. 5.

21—4. ULVA. 57. 2.

lin"za, frond lance linear ; margin undulate crisped. About an inch broad, ta-
pering td the base, green. Sea shore.

5—2. URASPERMUM. 45. 60.

clayto'ni (sweet cicely. O. J. 4), leaves compound, hairy ; leafets gash toothed ;

umbels axillary and terminal, about 5 rayed ; style as long as the villose

germ, filiform, deflected. 2 f.

21—6. UREDO. 58. 1.
linea'ris (yellow grain rust. J. ©), linear, very long, stained yellow, at length

but obscurely coloured. On the culms and leaves of barley, oats, rye,

wheat, &c.

19_4. URTICA, 53. 99.
dio'ica (common nettle. O J. 4), leaves opposite, cordate, lance ovate, coarsely

se»rate ; flowers dioecious ; spikes panicled, glomerate, in pairs, longer than

the petioles. 2—3 f. 5.

21—5. USNEA. 57. 2.

plica'ta, frond pendulous, smooth, pale ; branches lax, very branching, sub-
fibrous ; the extreme ones capillary ; receptacles flat, broad, ciliate ; the
cilise very slender and long. On trunks and branches of trees ; most com.-

UVULARIA, VICIA. 413

moti on dry dead limbs of evergreens, from which it often hangs in long
green locks. *

6—!. UVULARIA, 11. 14.

perfolia'ta (bell wort. O. y. M. 4), leaves perfoliate, oval obtuse (lance linear or
oval oblong in the young state) ; corolla bell liliaceous, scabrous or granular
within ; anthers cuspidate. 8— 12i.

sessilifo'lia (O. y. M. 4), stem smooth ; leaves sessile, oval lanceolate, glaucous
beneath ; petals flat, smooth within ; capsules stiped. 6 — 12 i. S.
10— 1. VACCINIUM. 18. 51.

resino'sum (black whortleberry. O. p. M > ), leaves slender, petioled, oblong
oval, mostly obtuse, entire, bedewed with resinous specks beneath ; racemes
lateral, 1 sided : pedicels short, somewhat bracted : corolla ovate conic, 5
cornered. Berries black. One variety has a yellowish green, and another
has a reddish yellow corolla. 1 — 4 f. S.

6—3. VERATRUM. 10. 13.

vir"ide (indian poke, white hellebore. O. J. y. 4), racemes paniculate ; bracts of
the branches oblong lanceolate, partial ones longer than the sub-pubescent
peduncles : leaves broad ovate, plaited. 3 — 4 f. S.

5—1. VERBASCUM. 28. 41.

thap"sus (mullein. O. y. J. $ ), leaves decurrent, downy both sides : stem gene-
rally simple, though sometimes branched above : flowers in cylindric-spike.
3— 6f. S.

Uatta'ria (moth mullein, sleek mullein, w-y. J. ^ ), leaves glabrous, tooth ser-
rate : lower ones oblong obovate : upper ones heart ovate, clasping : pedicels
1 flowered, in a terminal panicle raceme. Var. alba, leaves toothed : flowers
white. Var. lutea, leaves doubly serrate : flowers yellow. 2—3 f. S.
13—1. VERBENA. 42. 39.

liasta'ta (vervain, simpler's joy. O. p-w. Ju. 4), erect, tall: leaves lanceolate,
acuminate, gash-serrate: lower ones sometimes gash hastate: spikes linear,
panicled, sub-imbricate. Var. pi.nnatiftdat has the leaves gash pinnatifid,
coarsely toothed. Var. oblongifolia, leaves lance oblong, deeply serrate,
acute : spikes filiform, panicled. 2 — 5 f. S.

urtieifo'lia (nettle leaf vervain. O. w. Ju. 4), erect, subpubescent ; leaves oval,

; acute, serrate, petioled : spikes filiform, loose, axillary, terminal : flowers te-
trandrous. 2— 3f. S.

2—1. VERONICA. 43. 35.

ojficina'lis (speedwell, b. M. 4), spikes lateral, peduncled . leaves opposite, ob-
ovate, hairy : stem procumbent, rough haired. 9 — 12 i. 5.

angal"lis (brook pimpernel. O. b. J. 4), racemes opposite, long, loose : leaves
lanceolate, serrate ; stem erect. 12 — 18 i. S.

beccabun"gla (brook lime. b. J. 4), racemes opposite : leaves oval, obtuse, sub-
serrate, glabrous : stem procumbent, rooting at the base. Probably a variety
of the last. 9—18 i. S.

5—3. VIBURNUM. 43. 58.

pyrifo'lium (w. J. ^ ), smooth : leaves ovate oblong, acute, crenate serrate : pe-
tiole naked : cymes sub-pedunculate : fruit oblong ovate. 5 — 10 f.

lenta'go (sheep berry. O. w. J. > ), glabrous : leaves broad ovate, acuminate,
hook serrate : petioles margined, undulate : cymes sessile. The branches
when full grown often form a fastigiate top. Berries black, oval, and plea-
sant tasted : somewhat mucilaginous. 8—15 f. S.

acerifo'lium (maple guelder rose, dockmackie. O. w. J. > ), leaves heart ovate
or 3 lobed, acuminate, sharp serrate, pubescent beneath : cymes long pedun-
cled. Stem very flexible : leaves broad and sub-membranaceous. 4-6 £ £.
Leaves applied to inflamed tumours by the Indians.
Exotic.

op"ulus (guelder rose, snow-ball, w. J. ^ ), leaves 3 lobed, sharp toothed ; pe-
tioles glandular, smooth ; flowers incompact cymes, surrounded with radia-
ting florets. Var. roseum, has the whole cyme made up of radiating florets.

ti'nus (laurestine. r-w. ^ ), leaves ovate, entire, with tufts of hair in the axils of
the veins beneath : flowers in smooth cymes.

16—10. VICIA. 32. 93.
Exotic.

fa'ba (garden bean, Windsor bean. w. & black. J. ©), stem many flowered,

414 YINCA, VIOLA.

erect, strong ; legumes ascending, tumid, coriaceous ; leafets oval, acuteren-
tire ; stipules sagittate, toothed at the ba.se. From Persia.
5—1. VINCA. 30. 47.

Exotic.

mi'nor (periwinkle, b. Ap. >), stem procumbent ; leaves lance oval, smooth at
the edges ; flowers peduncled ; teeth of the calyx lanceolate.

5—1. VIOLA. 29. 80.
1. Stemless, or with a subterranean stem.

(Leaves more or less reniform, always cordate, younger cucullatc : proper
colour of the corolla violet.)

cvcullu'ta (O. p. b. M. 4), glabrous ; leaves cordate, somewhat acuminate, cre-
nate dentate ; autumnal ones largest, very exactly reniform ; peduncle some-
what 4 sided, longer than the leaves ; divisions of the calyx subulate, acumi-
nate, emarginaic behind or very entire : petals (as in many American species)
oblique, veiny, very entire, white at the base, upper one generally naked,
glabrous, lateral ones bearded, and with the upper one marked with a few
blue lines. Var. jxipiiionarea, petioles and peduncles longer ; leaves sub-
lance ovate ; beards of the lateral petals often yellow. Var. tetragona, pe-
duncle strong, exactly 4 sided ; petals azure colour, veinless. Var. villosa,
leaves, petals and peduncles villose. 4 — 8 i. S.

palmu'ta (O. p-b. M. 4), mostly villose ; leaves heart reniform, palmate, 5 — 7
lobed ; lobes polymorphous, often narrow, and gashed, middle one always
larger; sometimes villose both sides, sometimes only beneath, often glabrous,
all of them very often purple beneath ; the first spring ones are ovate, entire ;
petioles sub-emargiuate ; peduncle somewhat 4 sided, longer than the leaves ;
divisions of the calyx lance ovate, ciliate, very entire behind ; petals all
very entire, veiny, and white at the base, upper ones narrower, smaller,
aometimes villose at the base, yet oflen naked, glabrous ; lateral ones densely
bearded, and with the upper one, marked with a few blue lines. One variety
has white flowers. 3—6 i. S.

(Leaves oblong or ovate, never reniform : younger ones cucullate.)

sagitta'ta (E. b-p. Ap. 4), glabrous ; leaves ciliate, oblong, not acute, sagittate
cordate, dentate, gashed at the base (or furnished with elongated divaricate
teeth); peduncle somewhat 4 sidt-d, longer t him the leaves ; divisions of the
calyx lanceolate, acuminate, emarginate behind ; petals all very entire, veiny,
white at the base ; upper one generally naked, glabrous ; lateral ones densely
bearded, and with the upper one marked with a few blue lines ; spur elon-
gated behind. A variety has the leaves more or less villose. Dry.

(Leaves ovate or lanceolate : corolla white, with lha lateral petals narrower.)

ama.'na (E. w. Ap. 4), glabrous : leaves ovate sub-acuminate, crenate, some-
times sub- villose above . petioles long, spotted with red, peduncle somewhat
4 sided, equalling or exceeding the length of the leaves spotted : divisions
of the calyx lanceolate; petals all very entire, green at the base : lateral one*
sometimes with the base pubescent, and with the upper one marked with a
few blue lines. Moist woods. Flowers odorous.
(Stemless.)

rotundifo'lia (O. M. y. 4), glabrous ; leaves thickish, appressed to the earth,
broad ovate or orbicular, cordate, crenate ; nerves pubescent beneath ; sinus
closed ; peduncle somewhat 4 sided, as long as the leaves ; divisions of the
calyx oblong, obtuse ; petals sometimes emarginate ; upper ones small ; lateral
ones somewhat bearded, and with the upper one, marked with a few yellow-
ish brown lines; spur very short. Woods. 1 — 3 i.

peda'ta (O. M. p-b. 4), glabrous ; leaves sometimes ciliate, variously divided,
very often pedately 9 parted ; divisions linear, and obtusely lanceolate, gene-
rally 3 lobed at the apex, often simply lanceolate, with the apex, 5— 7 lobed,
peduncle somewhat 4 sided ; divisions of the calyx lanceolate, acute ciliate,
emarginate behind ; petals all white at the base, veinless, very entire, very
glabrous, nakod ; upper one truncate, and marked with a few very blue
fines, sometimes obsolete. Var. velutina, has the two lower petals of a very
deep violet colour, and appears like velvet. Var. alba, has white flowers.
Dry. 3-4 i. 5.

VISCUM, ZEA. I 415

2. Caulescent.

pubes"cens (O. y. 4), villose pubescent; stem simple, erect,, terete, leafless
below ; leaves broad ovate, cordate, dentate ; petioles short ; stipules large,
ovate, dentate ; peduncles 4 sided, shorter than the leaves ; bracts subulate,
minute ; divisions of the calyx lanceolate ; petals all very entire, veinless ;
upper one naked, glabrous ; lateral ones bearded, and with the upper one,
marked with a few blue lines ; lower ones often becoming reddish outside ;
spur short, gibbose, acutish ; stigma pubescent, scarcely beaked. Varies in
pubescence ; leaves are even found glabrous ; the capsules are also glabrous
or woolly. 4 — 12 i. rarely — 4 f.

Exotic,
tricolour (garden violet, heart's ease, pansy, p. y. b-p. M. 4), stem angular,

diffuse, divided ; leaves oblong, deeply crenate ; stipules lyrate pinnatifid.
odora'ta (sweet violet, b. M. 4), stemless ; scions creeping ; leaves cordate,
crenate, smoothish ; calyx obtuse ; two lateral petals with a bearded or
hairy line.

20—4. VISCUM. 43. 58.

verticitta'tum (misletoe. g-w. J. ^ ), branches opposite and whorled ; learea
wedge obovate, 3 nerved ; spikes axillary, a little shorter than the leaves.
Berries yellowish white. On the branches of old trees: This is the golden
bough of Virgil, and the sacred plant of the Druids. 1—2 f. S.

5—1. VITIS. 46. 72.

Remark. All the North American species of grape are polygamous or
dioecious.

labrus"ca (plum grape, w-g. J. ^ ), leaves broad cordate, lobe angled, white
downy beneath ; fertile racemes small ; berries (blue, flesh colour and
green) large. Var. labruscoides (fox grape), has smaller fruit, approaching a
tart taste.

rulpi'na (frost grape. O. w-g. J. ^ ), leaves cordate, acuminate, gash toothed,
glabrous both sides ; racemes lax, many flowered ; berries small. Leaves
very variable ; but the uppermost mature leaves will agree with the
description.

5—1. XYLOSTEUM. , 48. 58.

cilia'tum (fly honey suckle, twin berry. O.w-y. M. ^ ), berries distinct ; leaves
ovate and sub-cordate, margin ciliate, in the young state villose beneath ;
corolla a little gibbous or calcarate at the base ; tube ventricose above ;
divisions short, acute ; style exsert. 3 — 4 f.

3—1. XYRIS. 6. 13.

cardinia'na (yellow eyed grass. E. y. Au. 4), leaves linear, grass like ; stem
or scape two edged ; head ovate acute ; scales obtuse. 9 — 18 i. S.

5—13. ZANTHORHIZA. 26. 61.

apiifo'lia (parsley, yellowropt. p. Ap. > ), stem simple : leaves 3 ternate ;
petioles dilated and clasping at the base ; racemes compound, below the
leaves. 1—3 f.

21—5. ZANTHOXYLUM. 46. 94.

fraxin"eum (prickly ash, tooth-ache bush. O. g-w. M. > ), prickly ; leaves
pinnate ; leafets lance-oval, sub-entire, sessile, equal at the base ; umbels
axillary. 8— 12 f. S.

19—3. ZEA. 4. 10.

Southern,
mays (Indian corn. y-g. Ju. ©), leaves lance linear, entire, keeled.

VOCABULARY,

OR

EXPLANATION OF BOTANICAL TERMS.*

A.

A, in composition, signifies privation, o
destitute of; as, acaulis, referring to
plant without a caulis or stem.

Abortive flower. Falling off without pro-
ducing any fruit.

stamens, not furnished with an

Defective in some essen
Not becoming perfec

through want of the fertilizing innuenc
of the pollen.

Abrupt' leaf. A pinnate leaf with an odd
or terminal leafet.

Acal'ycea. (From o, signifying without
and calyx, a flower cup.) A class in an
ancient method of arrangement, consist
in» of plants without a calyx.

.icnu Irx. (From a, wanting, and caulis, a
stem.) The 20th class in Magnolius' me-
thod, including plants without stems.

Accra' st leaf. Linear and permanent, as
in the pine.

Acic'ular. Needle shaped.

A'cinus. A small berry which, with many
others, composes the fruit of the mulber-
ry and raspberry ; the plural is acini.

Acotyled'onous. (From a, without, and co-
tyledon, a seed lobe.) Plants destitute ot
seed lobes, and which consequently [tut
Ibrth no seminal or seed leaves, as mosses
and ferns.

Acu'leu*. (From ociw, a needle.) A
prickle, or sharp point ; common to thi
rose and raspberry. It dirters from the
thorn in being a prolongation of the
outer bark of the plant, and unconnected
with the wood. Prickles have been
compared to the nails and claws of ani-

iJld'versifo'lia. (From advernu, opposite,
and folium, a leaf.) Plants whose leave*
stand opposite to each other, on the same
stem or branch. Name of the 5th claw
in Sauvage's Methodus foliorum (me-
thod of leaves), as exemplified in the la-
biate flowers.

JEstiva'les. (From astaa, summer.)
Plants which blossom in summer. The
second division of Da Pas' method, with
reference to the four seasons of the year,
cnii-isting of herbs which blossom in
summer.

A' fora. (From a, without, and fores, a
door.) Having no doors or valves. The
name of a class in CameriuB' method,
consisting of plants whose pericarp or
seed vessel is not furnished with internal
valves.

ga'moHs. (From a, without, and games,
marriage.) A term derived from the in-
delicate notions of the botanists of the
last century, respecting the sexual di*
tinriions of plants; and which, what
ever analogies may actually exist be-
i \\ren the variable and animal king-
doms, should as far as possible be exclu-
ded from the science. Were it to be
otherwise, the study of botany ought to
he limited to the medical profession* Of
all studies, that of botany should be un-
accompanied by aught that might pain
or disgust a delicate mind. Plants with-
out any visible stamens or pistils are by
French botanists called agamous.

Acu'minate. Abruptly sharp pointed, hav-
ing the point curved towards one edge of
the leaf, resembling an awl.

Acute. More gradually sharp pointed than
acuminate. An obtuse angle or any
other mathematical angle, is acute in bo-
tanical language.

Adel'phous* (From the Greek adelphos, a
brother or an equal.) Applied to plants
whose stamens are united by their lila-
ments, whether in one or two sets.

Adnate. Growing together.

a'ges of plants. Ephemeral are such as
spring up, blossom and ripen their seed
in a few hours or days ; annual live a
few months or one summer.
biennial, spring up one summer and di«
the following.
]>i'rtnnial,\ive an indefinite period.

Ig'gregate. (From aggrtgare, to assem-
ble.) Many springing from the samo
point : this term was at first applied to
compound flowers, but there is at present
a sevenfold division of aggregate flow-
ers ; the aggregate, properly so called ;
compound,
umbellate,
cymose,
amentaceous,
glumose,
upadiceou*.

* The author, in preparing the following vocabulary, coaaultsd -¥»/«, Thorn**,
Xrrbti and Eaton.

VOCABULARY.

417

Aggregate flower is erected on peduncles Ang
or footstalks, which all have one com-
mon receptacle on the stem ; they some-
times have one common calyx, and are
sometimes separately furnished with a
calyx.

Ai'grctte. See egret.

A'la. A Latin word signifying a wing.
It is sometimes used to express the angle
formed by the stem with the branch or
leaf. Linnaeus and some others use the
term a/a, as the name of a membrane,
affixed to some species of seeds which
serves as a wing to raise them into the
air, and thus promotes their dispersion.

A' la. The two lateral or side petals of a
papilionaceous flower.

Albu'men. Tire farinaceous, fleshy or
horny substance, which constitutes the
chief bulk of monocotyledonous seeds ;
as wheat, rye, &c.

Albur'num. (From albus, white.) The
soft white substance, which in trees is
found between the liber, or inner bark
and the wood, and becoming solid, in
progress of time is converted into wood.
From its colour and comparative soft-
ness, it has beeri styled the fat of trees.
It is called the sap wood, and is formed
by a deposite of the cambium or descend-
ing sap ; in one year it becomes wood ;
and a new layer of alburnum is again
formed by the descent of the cambium.

Al ' gas. Flags ; these by Linnaeus com-
prise tUe plants of tUe order Hepatioa>
and Lichenes.

Alpine. Growing naturally on high moun-
tains.

Alter' nate. Branches, leaves, flowers, &c.

, are alternate, when beginning at differ-
ent distances on the stem ; opposite, is
whea they commence at the same <"
tances, and base stands against base.

Alter 'natcly pinnate leaf; When the leafets
are arranged alternately on each side of
the common footstalk or petiole.

Alve'olate. Having cells which resemble
a honey-comb.

Am'bitus. The outer rim of a frond, re-
ceptacle, &c.

A'ment. Flowers collected on chaffy
scales, and arranged on a thread or slen-
der stalk ; these scales mixed with the
flowers resemble the chart" in an ear of
corn ; in the willow and poplar, an
ainent supports both staminate and pis-
tillate flowers on distinct roots. Flowers
supported by an ament are generally des-
titute of a corolla.

Amplexicau'lis. Clasping the base of the Ap'te
stems.

Analysis. To analyze a plant botanically,
is to ascertain its name, by observing its
organs, and comparing them with scien
tine descriptions of plants.

Anrip'ctal. Having two sharp edges like
a sword.

An'dria. Signifies stamen.

Androg'ymous plants. Such as bear sta-
minate and pistillate flowers on the same
root ; as the oak and Indian corn ; such
plants belong to the class Monoecia.

Angiocar'pus. Fungi bearing seeds inter-
nally.

^iosper'mal. (From angio, a vessel,
and sperma, seed.) Plants whose seeds
are inclosed or covered.

Angular. Forming angles ; when the
stems, calyxes, capsules, &c. have ridges
running lengthwise.

Angustifo'lius. Nafrrow-leaved.

Annual. A plant which lives but one
year. The herbage is often annual,
while the root is perennial ; in this case
the plant is said to be perennial.

Annula'ted. Having a ring round the cap-
sules ; as in ferns ; or in mushrooms
having a ringed stipe.

An'nulus. A ring.

Anom'alous. (From a, without, and no-
mos, law.) Irregular, or whatever forms
an exception to a general rule. The
Hth class in Tournofort's method is call-
ed anomalce, including plants whose co-
rollas are composed of irregular and dis-
similar parts ; as the columbine, monk's
hood, violet, larkspur, &c.

Anther. (From anthos, a flower, so called
as indicating its importance.) That part
of the stamen which contains the pollen ;
it is of various forms, as linear, awl-
shaped, heart-shaped, round, &c. ; it is
one celled, two celled,' &c. ; the anther
of the Tritilaria (crown imperial) has
four cells.

Antherid' ium. A mass of pollen.

Antherif'erous. Flowers bearing anthers
without filaments.

Anthua. (From the Greek ant/ios.') A
flower generally referring to the petals
only.

Antiscorbutics. Substances which cure
eruptions.

Apet'alous. (From a, without, and peta-
lum, a petal.) Having no petals or co-
rollas ; such flowers are termed incom-
plete ; such as are destitute of either sta-
mens or pistils are called imperfect.

Apet'alce. A class formed by some of the
ancient botanists, including plants desti-
tute of corollas.

A'pex. The top or summit.

Aphyl'lous. (From a, without, and phyl-
lon, a leaf.) Destitute of leaves.

Aphyl'lcB is the name given by an ancient
botanist to a class of plants without
leaves, comprising -garlic, rush, mush-
rooms, &c.

Appen'daged. Having bracts, thorns,
prickles, &c.

Appres'sed. Closely pressed ; as leaves
against the stem, &c.
rox'imate. Growing near each other.
terous. Without wings.

Aquat'ic. (From aqua, water.) Growing
in, or near water. Aquatica, was an
ancient name for a class including all
plants which grow in water.

Ar'bor. A tree ; a perennial plant, which
rises to a great height, having a woody
stein. Most trees spring from seeds hav-
ing two cotyledons ; they are therefore
called dicotyledonous plants. The steins
of such plants are said to be exogenous,
that is, growing externally, new layers
of wood being every year formed under
the bark, around the outside of the old
wood. Palm trees are inonocotyledonous

418

VOCABULARY.

plants ; their stems are called endoffe-\Barb. A straight process, armed with

no*g, that is, growing internally and. teeth pointing backwards.

pressing upon the outer coats, which \)K-\Barba'lun. Beard'-d.

come hard and compact. The ancient; Bark. The covering of vegetables, con

botanists divided plants into trees and
herbs; but tliis distinction is too vague
to form the basis of classification.

Arbo'reus. Like a tree.

Arbiisti'vus. (From arbvatum, a shrub.)

.-istinir of several parts ; as cuticle, cellu-
lar integument, &.c. The bark consists
of as many layers as the tree on which
it grows has years: a new layer being
formed from the cambium every year.

An ancient clam of plants containing The newest layer of bark is called liber.
shrubs, as the myrtle, mock-orangejfiar'ren. Producing^no fruit ; containing

(philadelphus}, &c.
Arch'td. Curving above, vaulted.

.Ir'cuate. (From arcus. a bow.) Bent

like a bow.

Arena'rius. Growing in sand.
Argen'teus. Silver coloured.
JlSid. Dry.
A'ril (ariUus). The external coat or co- Bi'dens. Having two teeth.

stamens only.

Beak'ed. Terminating by a process shaped
like the beak of a bird.

lirr'rij. A pulpy pericarp enclosing seeds

without capsules. See Bacca.
/>'/, derived from bis, signifying two.
Bicor'nis. Anthers with two horns.

Bi'dena. Having two teeth.

vering of seeds which, drying, falls oil Bien'nial. Living two years, in the second

spontaneously.
Jlris'tate. (From area, to be dried). Awn

of which the flower and fruit id produ-
ced ; as in wheat.

ed, ending in a bristle. Bi'fid. Two parted.

Aro'ides. So called from arum, and form-! Bila'biate. Corolla with two lips,
ing a natural family of plants. Kijiin'nate. Twice pinnate.

(irwo). Offensive weapons. Plants Biter'nate. Twice ternate. The petiole

are said to be armed, when they are fur-
nished with prickles, thorns, fee.

Aromat'ic. Sweet scented.

Aromat'ica. The name of a class of Di

supporting three termite leave*.
Bi'vaive. Two valved.
Blas'teme. From the Greek blastema, a

bud.

oscorides, Clusius, Bauhin, and some Border. The brim or spreading part of a
other botanist* who arranged plants ac- corolla.

cording to their virtues and sensibleiBo/'n/*. A cluster, like grapes,
qualities. \Brach' iate. Branches opposite, and eacli

S!lf\prd Tike an arrow head,| p«ur at right aimles \\ ith the preceding.
Bract. Floral leaf; a leaf near the flower

-fo
liar

the hind lobes acute.

Artie' ulat'-il. Jointed ; as in the culm or

stem of the grasses.
Arwulina'ceons. (From arunJo, a reed.)

Resembling reeds.

Growing in cultivated fields.

Ascending. Rising from the ground ob-

Aspn-ifo'lius. Rough leaved.
Astringents. Substances which condense

the fibres.
Attenuated.

pertnf.
Auric' tdate. Having appendages resem- Bud. The residence of the infant leaf and

which is different from thu other leave*
of the plant. In the crown -imperial tin:
bracts are at the termination of the
tl.iwer stein : tViiin their resemblance to
a hair, they are called coma.
Branch. A division of the main stem or

main root.
Branch'let. Subdivision of a branch, a

twig.

Bre'via. Short.
Gradually diminished or ta- Bnina'les. (From brvma, winter.) Plants

which blossom in winter.

bling ears. flower.

.Iwl-fonn. Sharp at the point, and curved Bulbs. Called roots ; sometimes found

to one side.

Jlwn. A short stiff bristle.
Ax'il. The angle between a leaf and stem

on the upper side. •
Ax'illary. Growing out of the axils :

leaves nre snid to be axillary when they

proceed from the angle formed by the

stem and branch.

15.

u ing on the stem; strictly speaking
bulbs are buds, or the winter residence
of the future plants. A bulb contains in
miniature or embryo, a plant similar to
the pantnt plant. Plants may be renew-
ed from bulbs as well as seeds. Annual
plants do not have bulbs ; they are only
I-, i -'Tved by seeds.
I Bun' die. See fascicle.

Bac'ca. A berry. It is a pulpy prrirarp,
enclosing seeds without capsules. A
berry is said to be proper, when it is
formed of the pericarp or seed vessel ;
improper or singular when it is formed

C.

Caducous. (From c«rfo, to fall.) Falling
early ; as the calyx of the poppy.

Caes'pitose. Forming turfs, several roou
growing together.

of any other parts. In the mulberry and ICal'amus. Reed like.

rose, a large, fleshy and succulent calyx Calcareous. Containing lime; applied to

becomes a berry. In the strawberry, a | shells of oysters, &c.

berry is formed of the common recepta
cle ; in the raspberry of a seed.
Bearing berries.

Ban'ncr. The upper petal in a papiliona-
ceous dower.

Calyb'ion. iFroni kalubion, a little cabin.)
A genus in Mirbel's second class of fruits.

Cafyc'ulated. Having an additional calyx.

Calyp'tra. The cap or hood of pistillate
mosses, resembling &n extinguisher set

VOCABULARY.

419

on a candle. Although called a calyx, it Cine'reous. Ash coloured.
is iu reality the corolla of the moss Cin'gens. Surrounding, girding around.

Cir'rose. Bearing a tendril. From Cir'-
rus, a tendril or climber.

closed.
Calyx. From

the Greek, signifying a

flower cup ; in most plants it incloses,
and supports the bottom of the corolla.
It is defined by Linmeus to be the ter-
mination of the outer bark.

Cam'bium. The descending sap, which
every year forms a new layer of bark
and one of wood. It descends between
the bark and the wood, so that the new
wood is formed externally and the new
bark internally.

Campari ulate. Bell-form.

Campes'tris. Growing in uncultivated
fields.

Canes' cent. White or hoary.

Capillary. Hair-form.

Cap'itate. Growing in heads.

Cap'sule. A little chest ; that kind of hol-
low seed vessel which becomes dry and
opens when ripe ; a capsule that never
opens is called a samara.

Carcer'ular. (From career, prison.) A
seed contained in a covering, whose
sides are compressed. One of Mirbel's
genera of fruits, in the order Carceru-
lares.

Cari'na. The keel or lower folded petal
of a papilionaceous flower.

Car'inatcd. Keeled, having a sharp back
like the keel of a vessel.

Carno'se. Of a fleshy consistence.

Carpos. From the Greek karpos fruit.

Caryopjiyl'leous. Pink-like corolla, hav-
ing five petals with long claws, all regu-
lar and set in a tubular calyx.

Cat' kin. See Ament.

Can' date. Having a tail ; as iu some
seeds.

Cau'dex. The main body of a tree, or root.

Caules'cent. Having a stem exclusive of
the peduncle or scape.

Can' line. Growing on the main stem.

Clasp' ing. Surrounding the stem with
the base of the leaf.

Class. The highest division of. plants in
the system of Botany. Linnaeus divided
all plants into 24 classes ; 3 of these are
now rejected, and the plants which they
included placed , in the remaining 21
classes. The ancient botanists knew
neither methods, systems, or classes ;
they described under chapters, or sec-
tions, those plants which appeared to
them to resemble each other in the great-
est number of relations.

Cla'vate. Club-shaped, larger at the top
than the bottom.

Clau'sus. Closed, shut up.

Claw. The narrow part by which a petal
is inserted.

Cleft. Split or divided less than halfway.

Climb'ing. Ascending by means of ten-
drils, as grapes ; by leaf stalks, as the
Clematis; by cauline radicles or little
fibrous roots, as the creeping Ameriean
ivy.

Club-shaved. See clavate.

of all plants, called in French, la tige.

Cell. The hollow part of a pericarp or an-
ther ; each cavity in a pericarp that con-
tains one or more seeds is called a cell.
According to the number of these cells
the pericarp is one-celled, two-celled,
three-celled, &c.

Cel'lular. Made up of little cells or cavi-
tias.

Ceno'bion. From the Greek, signifying a
community; one of Mirbel's genera of
fruits.

Ccrion. A carcerulate fruit, forming one
of Mirbel's genera of fruits.
'

Clustered. See racemed.

Cly'peate. Form of a buckler. See pel-
tate.

Coad'nate. United at the base.

Coat'ed. With surrounding coats or layera

^occin'eous. Scarlet coloured.

Coch'leate. Coited spirally, like a snail
shell.

Coc'cum. A grain or seed ; tricoccous,
3-seeded, &c.

Cwru'leus. Blue.

Coleop'tile. From koleos, an envelope, and
ptilon a bud.

Co 'leorrhize. From koleos, an envelope,
and riza, a root.

Colli'nus. Growing on hills.

Cau'lis. The main herbage-bearing stem Coloured. Different from green ; in the

language of botany, green is not called a
colour. White, which in reality is not
a colour, is so called in botany. The
primitive colours and their intermediate
shades and gradations, are by botanists
arranged as follows :

( Water-colour, hyalinns.

\ White, albus.

( Lead-colour,

C BLACK,
< Brown,
f Pitch-black,

cinereus.

niger.

fuscus.

ater.

luteus.

l YELLOW,

< Straw-colour, flavus.

( Flame-colour, fulvus.

CerKa'lis. Any grain from which bread is

made. (From Ceres, goddess of corn.)
Cer'nuiis. When the top only droops.
Chaffy.' Made up of short membranous

portions like chaff.
Channelled. Hollowed out longitudinally,

with a rounded groove.
Cho'rion. A clear limpid liquor contained

in a seed at the time of flowering. Af- . * u^™*., r^.f,*, <.„*.

tcr the pollen is received, this liquor be- \ Violet-colour, ccBruleo-purpureug.

comes a perfect embryo of a new plant. I
Cie'atricp. The mark or natural scar J BLUE, caruleus.

from whence the leaf has fallen. j GREEN, viridis.

Cil'iate. Fringed with parallel hairs. White is most common iu roote, iweet

RED,

Flesh-colour,

Scarlet,

( PURPLE,

rubex.

incarnatus.

coccincus.

purpureus.

420

VOCABULARY.

berries and the petals of spring flowers.] and tego, to cover.) The rind or coarse
Black, in roots and seeds. Yellow, in outer hark of plants; the organization
anthers, and the petals of compound of the outer and inner harks ditR-rs chief-
flowers. Red in the petals of summer ly in the fineness of their texture,
flowers and acid fruits. Blue and vio- Cor'tical. Belonging to the bark,
let colour, in the petals. Green, in the Coryda'lis. Helmet like. f

Co'rymb. Inflorescence, in which the
tlowi-r stalks spring from different
heights oil the common stem, forming a
flat top.

I, 111 I

leaves and calyx

Columd'la. That which connects the
seeds to the inside of the pericarp. The
central pillar in a capsule

Column. The style of gynandrous plants

used forcolumella.
Co' ma. A tuft of bracts on the top of a

spike of flowers.
Com'mon. Any part is common, which

includes or sustains several parts similar

among themselves.
Compound. Made up of similar simple
parts
flowers. Such as are in the

class Syngenesia, having florets with

united anthers.
leaf. When several leafets

grow on one petiole.
raceme. When several rac

grow along the side of a peduncle.

umbel. Having the peduncles Creeping. Running horizontally ;

subdivided into peduncles of lesser inn

bels.

petiole. A divided le.-if stalk.

peduncle. A divided tluwer

stajk.

Compres'scd. Flattrned.
Concave. Hollowed on one side.
Conceptac'ulum. Sin»le valved capsule.

Conchol'ogy. The science which treat* of] Crinitus. Longhaired.

shells.

Cone. A scaly fruit like that of the pine
See Strobilum.

Conglomerate. Crowded together.

Con ic. With a broad base, gradually nar-
rowing to the top like a sugar loaf.

Coniferous. Hearini: cones.

Conjugate. In paii-.

Oppos

IL' lulu

ite, with the bases united

Connate.

orgrowiiiL' into one, formtof the appeal
ance of one leaf. Anthers are some-
times connate.

Conni'vrnt. Converging, the ends inclining
towards each other.

Contiguous. Uninterrupted.

Contor'ted. Twisted.

Contrac'ted. Close, narrow.

Conner' ging. Approaching or bending to-
wards each other.

Con'vex. Swellinu' out in a roundish form

Con'rolute. Rolb d into a cyliudric form
as leaves in the hud.

Cor'culum, or Corcle. The embryo or
miniature of the future plant, which is
found in seeds often between the cotyle-
dons.

Cor' date. Heart-shaped, side lobes round
ed.

Curia' ceous. Resembling leather; thick
and parchment-like.

Cor'nu. A horn or spur.

Comic'ulate. Horn shaped.

Corolla, or corol. (A word derived from

corona, a crown.) Usually encloses the Cyan

stamens.

Corona 'tus. Crowned ; as the thistle seed

is crowned with down.
Cor'tex. (From cerium, leather, or hide,

Costate. Ribbed.

nu. (From kntulr, a cavity.)
lobes. The fleshy part of seeds
which in nn»t plants rises out of the
ground and toims tin- first leaves, called
seminal or seed li aves. Tin ~e lol.es in
the greatest proportion of plants, an
two 1:1 number ; they art- very conspic-
uous in the leguminous seeds ; as beans,
peas, &r. The COM ledon.- are externally
convex, internally flat, and inclose ;be
embryo or principle of life,- which it Is
their otljcc to protect and uoni i>h.

Cre'mocarpe. 'From kn i/mfi, to fiispcnd,
and karpos, fruit.) A name given by
.M libel to a genus of fruits.

aresometiines creeping, as also roots.
Cre'nate. Scolloped, notches on the nmr-

>:iii of a leaf which do not point towards

either the apex or base.
Cre'nulate. Finely crenate.
Cres 'cent-form. Resembling a half-moon.
Crest' ed. Having an appearance like a

cock's comb.

Crowded. Clustered together.

I riiirnnl. See CoronatUS.

Cruciform. (From mis, cruets, a cross.)
Four petals placed like a cross.
ii+tu ceou.t. Small crusty substances
lvin«r one upon another.

Cryptoga'mia. Stamens and pistils con-
cealed.

(-'n l-it. A measure from the elbow to the
end of the middle finger.

Cucul'latr. Hooded or cowled, rolled or
folded in, as in the spatha of the Arum
or wild turnip.

I'linirhHa'ceous. Resembling gourds or
melons.

Cu tiiiary. Suitable for preparations of
food.

( '«//« or straw. ( From the Grrok kalama,
stubble or straw ; in Latin*c«t/mu*.) The
stem of grasses, Indian corn, sugar
cane, &.c.

Culmif'erous. Having culms; as wh«f»t,
grasses, &c.

Cunc'iform. Wedgp-form, with the stalk
attached to the point.

Cup' ul a. A cup.

Curv'ed. Kent inwards. See incurved.

Cus'pidate. Having a sharp straight point.
(The eye tooth is cuspidate.)

Cu'ticle. The outside skin of a plant, com-
monly thin, resemblini; the scarf or out-
er skin of animals. It is considered aa
forming a part of the bark.

Blue.

Cy'athiform. Shaped like a common wine

glass.
Cylindrical. A circular shaft of nearly

equal dimensions throughout its extent

VOCABULARY.

421

Cyme. Flower stalks arising from a com-
mon centre, afterwards variously subdi-

vided.
Cymo't

Inflorescence in cymes.

Cyp'scle. (From the Greek, kupselion.) A Dicotyledonous
little chest.

D.

tils in another ; whether on the same
plant or on different plants.

' Containing two grains or

With two cotyledons or

Dicoc'cous.
seeds.

seed Ic

Did'ymous. Twinned, or double.

iDidyna'mia. (From dis, twice, and du-
De'bilis. Weak, feeble. namis, power.) Two powers. A name

Decan'drous. Plants with ten stamens in appropriate to one of the Linnsean

each flower.

Decaphyl'lus. Ten leaved.

Decid'uovs. Falling oft" in the usual sea-
son ; opposed topersistent and evergreen,
more durable than caducous.

Declined. Curved downwards.

Dccomposi'tion. Separation of the chemi-
cal elements of bodies.

Decom'pound. Twice compound, com-
posed of compound parts.

Decamp os'itae. Name of an ancient class
of plants, having leaves twice com-
pound ; that is, a common foot stalk
supporting a- number of lesser leaves,
each of which is compounded.

Decum'bent. Leaning upon the ground,
the base being erect. This term is appli-
ed to stems, stamens, &c.

classes.

Dierisil'ia. (From diairesis, division.)
One of Jussieu's orders of fruits.

Difform.. A monopetalous corolla whose
tube widens above gradually, and is di-
vided into unequal parts ; any distorted
part of the plant.

Diffrac'ted. Twice bent.

Diffu'sed. Spreading.

Dig'itate. Like fingers. When one pe-
tiole sends off several leafets from a sin-
gle point at its extremity.

Digyn'ia. Having two pistils.

Dimid'iate. Halved.

Dioi'cious. Having staminate and pistil-
late flowers on different plants.

Dis'coid. Resembling a disk, without
rays.

Decur'rcnt. When the edges of a leaf run Disk. The whole surface of a leaf, or of

down the stem or stalk.

Decur'sivc. Decurrently.

Decus' sated. In pairs, crossing each other.

Deflec'ted. Bent off.

Defoliation. Shedding leaves in the pro-
per season.

Dehis'cent. Gaping, or opening. Most Di'stichus. Growing in two opposite ranks
capsules when ripe are dehiscent.

Del'toid. Nearly triangular, or diamond Divar'icate. Diverging so as to turn back-

form, as in the leaves of the Lombardy

poplar.

Demer'sus. Under water.
Dense. Close, compact.

Den'tate. Toothed ; edged with sharp Dor' sal. Belonging to the back.

projections ; larger than serrate.
Dentic'ulate. Minutely toothed.
Denu'date. Plants whose flowers appear

before the leaves ; appearing naked.
Dcor'svm. Downwards.

the top.

Description

In giving a complete de-

Dextror' sum. Twining from left to right
as the hop- vine.

Diatlel'phous. (From dis, two, and adel-
phid, brotherhood.) Two brotherhoods
Stamens united in two parcels or sets ,
flowers mostly papilionaceous ; fruit le-
guminous.

Di'amondform. See deltoid.

Dianthe'ria. (From dis, two, and anther.)
A class of plants including all such as
have two anthers.

Dichot'omous. Forked, dividing into two
equal branches.

Diclin'ia. Stamens in one flower, and pis-

the top of a compound flower, as opposed

to its rays.

Disper'mus. Containing two seeds.
Dissep'iment The partition of a capsule.
Dissil'iens. A pericarp, bursting with

elasticity ; as the impatiens.

wards.

Diver' ging. Spreading; separating wide-
ly.

Diur'nus. Enduring but a day.

Dotted. See punctate and perforated.
Droop'ing. Inclining downward, more

than nodding.
Drvpe. A fleshy pericarp, enclosing a

stone or nut.

Dcpres'sed. Flattened, or pressed in at Drupa'ceous. Resembling, or bearing

drupes.
Dul'cis. Sweet.

E.

scription of a plant, the order of nature Dumo'sus. Bushy.
is to begin with the root, proceed to the Du'plex,. Double,
stem, branches, leaves, appendages, and
lastly to the organs which compose the
flower, and the manner of inflorescence.

Colour and size are circumstances least Eared. Applied to the lobes of a heart-
t.o be regarded in descriptions ; but sti-
pules, bracts, and glandular hairs, are
all of importance.

form leaf, to the side lobes near the base
of some leaves, and to twisted parts
in plants which are supposed to resemble
the passage into the ear.

Ebur'neus. Ivory white.

Echi'nate. Beset with prickles, as a hedge-
hog.

Ecos'tate. Without ne>-ves or ribs.

Efflorescen'tia. (From effloresco, to bloom.)
A term expressive of the precise time of
the year, and the month in which every
plant blossoms. The term efflorescence
is applied to the powdering substance
found on Lichens.

Effolia'tion. Premature falling off of
leaves, by means of diseases or soaie

accidental causes.

36

422

VOCABULARY.

Effuse. Having an opening by which

seeds or liquids may be poured out.
Keg-form. See Ovate.
Egret or Aigrette. The feathery or hairy

crown of seeds, as the down of thistles

and dandelions. It includes whatever

remains on the top of the seed after the Fas' dele

corolla is removed. The egret is

Btiped, when It is supported on a foot

•tern; it is

simple, when it consists of a bundle of] Faux

simple hairs; it is

plumose, when each hair hns other little

hairs arranged along its sides.
FMip'tic. Oval.

Elongated. Exceeding a common length.
Emar'ginate. Having a notch at the end,

retuse.
Em'bryo. (From embrao, to bud forth.)

The germ of a plant ; called by Linnjtus Fi'bre

the run uliim.

En'docarp. The inside skin of a peri-
carp.
Endofr'rnous. Applied to stems which

grow from the centre outwardly, as in

monocotyledons.

Eno'dis. Without joints or knots.
En'siform. Sword form, two edged, as in

the flag and iris.

Entire. Even and whole at the edge.
Entomology. The science which treats of Flag

insects.
Epi. A Greek word, signifying upon ;

often used in composition.
Ep'icarp. (From epi, upon, and karpos

fruit.; The outer skin of the pericarp.
Epider'mis. (From epi, upon, and derma,

•kin.) See cuticle.
Epip'ynous. (From epi, upon, and gynia,

pistil.)
Ep'ispcrm, (From epi, upon, and sperma,

Eaninoc'tial flowers. Opening at stated Flo'rist

hours each day.
E'quitant. Opposite leaves alternately

enclosing the edges of each other.
Erect'. Straight ; leas unbending than

strictus.
Eroded. Appearing as if gnawed at the

edge.

Es'eulent. Eatable.
Ev'ergreen. Remaining green through the Fol'licle.

year, not deciduous.
Excava'tus. Hollowed out.
Exot'ic. Plants that are brought from fo-
reign countries.
Expan'ded. Spread.
Expectorant. (From expectoro, to dis

charge from the breast.) Medicines

which promote a discharge from the

lungs.
Ezser'ted. Projecting out of the flower 01

sheath.
Eye. SeeHilum.

Fari'na. (From far, corn.) Meal or flour.
A term given to the glutinous parts of
wheat and other seeds, which is obtain-
ed by grinding and sifting. It consists of
gluten, starch and mucilage. The pollen
is also called farina.
A bundle.

Fascic'ulate. Collected in bundles.

fastif'iate. Flat topped.

Favo sus. Resembling a honey comb.

faux. Jaws. The throat of the corolla.

Feb'rifuge. (From febria, a fever, and
fttffo, to drive away.) That which pos-
sessea the property of aliaiiiiL- lever.

Ferns. Cryptogamous plants, with the
fruit on the backs of the leaves, or in
spikes made up of minute capsules open-
ing transversely.

Fer'tile. Pistillate, yielding fruit.

Wbre. Any thread-like part.

Fil'ament. The slender thread-like part of
the stamen.

Fil'ices. (Frnmfilum, a thread.) Ferns.

Fil'iform. Very slender.

Firnfbriatt. Divided at the edge like
frin;.fe.

ia'tulous. Hollow or tubular, as the leaf
of the onion.

Flac'cid. Too limber to support its own
weight.
gel'liform. Like a whip lash.

Flam'meus. Flame coloured.

Fla'vus. Yellow.

Flesh'y. 'Thick and pulpy.

Flex'uous. Serpentine, or bending in a
zig-zag form.

Flo'ra. Considered by the heathens as the
goddess of flowers ; descriptions of flow-
ers are often called Floras.

Flo'ral leaf. See Bract.

Flo' ret. Little flower ; part of a compound
flower.

One who cultivates flowers.

Flos'cular. A tubular floret.

Flaw'er (Flos). A term which was for-
merly applied almost exclusively to the
petals. At present a stamen and pistil
only are considered as forming a perfect
flower.

Flow'er stalk. See peduncle.

Folia' ceous. Leafy.

Leafets ; a diminutive of fo
aid

F.

Facti'tious. (From f ado, to make.) Not

natural, produced by art.
Fam'ilies. A term in Botany implying a

natural union of several genera into

groups ; sometimes used us synonymous

with Natural Orders.
Fal'cate. Sickle shaped ; linear and crook

ed.

Hum, a leaf. The smaller leaves which
constitute a compound leaf.

Foli'um. Leaf. Leaves are fibrous and
cellular processes of the plants, of differ-
ent figures, but generally extended into
a membranaceous or skinny substance.

Fol'licle. A seed vessel which opens length-
wise, or on one fide only.

Foot' -stalk. Sometimes used instead of
peduncle and petiole.

Fork'ed. See Dichotomous.

Frag'ilis. Breaking easily, and not bend-
ing.

Frond. The leaf of Cryptogamous plants ;
formerly applied to palms.

Fronde*' cence. (From front, a loaf.) The
time in which each species of plants un-
folds its first leaves. See Frondose.

Frondo'se (Frondosus). Leafy, or leaf-
like.

Fructifica'tion. The flower and fruit with
their parts.

Fructiferous. Bearing or becoming fruit.

VOCABULARY.

423

Fruc'tus. The fruit is an annual part o
the plant, which adheres to the flowe:
and succeeds it ; and after attaining ma
turity, detaches itself from the paren
plant, and on being placed in the bosom
of the earth gives birth to a new vegeta

ble. In common language the fruit in- Gram'ina. Grasses and grass-like plants.

eludes both the pericarp and the seed
but strictly speaking, the latter only i
the fruit, while the former is but th
case or vessel which contains it.

Prates' cent. Becoming shrubby.

Fru'tex. A shrub.

Fu'gax. Fugacious, flying off.

Jill

fcrg'.

Props, supports; as the petiole

peduncle, &c.
Ful'vous. Yellowish.
Fun'gi. The plural of fungus, a mush

room.
Fun'gous. Growing rapidly, with a soft

texture like the fungi.
Fun'nel-form. Tubular at the bottom and

gradually expanded at the top.
Fu'siform. Spindle shaped ; a root thick

at the top and tapering downwards.

G.

Ga'lea. A helmet.

Gem' ma. A bud seated upon the stem and
branches, and covered with scales, in
order to defend it from injury. The bud
resembles the seed in containing the fu-
ture plant in embryo ; but this embryo is
destitute of a radicle, though if the bud
is planted in the earth, a radicle is de-
veloped.

Gemma' ceous. Belonging to a bud ; made
of the scales of a bud.

Gener'ic name. The name of a genus.

Genic'ulate. Bent like a knee.

Ge'nus. (The plural of genus is genera.)
A family of plants agreeing in their flow-
er and fruit. Plants of the same genus
are thought te possess similar medicinal
powers.

Germ. The lower part of the pistil, which
afterwards becomes the fruit.

Germina' tion. The swelling of a seed,
and the unfolding of its embryo.

Gib'bous. Swelled out commonly on one
side.

Glabel'lous. Bald, without covering.

Gla'brous. Sleek, without hairiness.

Grafting, is the process of uniting the
branches or buds of two or more sepa-
rate trees. The bud or branch of one
tree, is inserted into the bark of another,
and the tree which is thus engrafted up-
on is called the stock.

Gland. A small appendage, which seems Herba'ccous. Not woody,
to perform some office of secretion or ~"
exhalation.

Gland'ular. Having hairs tipped with lit-
tle heads or glands.-

Glauc'ous. Sea green, mealy, and easily
rubbed off.

Glome. A roundish head of flowers.

Glomerate. Many branchlets terminated
by little heads.

Glume. The scales or chaff of grasses,
composing the calyx and corolla; the
lower ones are called the calyx, all others
the corolla ; each scale, chaff, or husk,
is called a valve : if there is but one, the
flower is called univalve, if two, bivalve

Glu'tinous. Viscid, adhesive.

Gon. (From gonu, a knee or angle ;) as
pentagon, five angled ; hexagon, six an-
gled ; polygon, many angled.

Mostly found in the class Triandria.
Gramin'eous. Grass-like ; such plants are

also called culmiferous.
Grand'iflorus. Having large flowers.
Gran'ular. Formed of grains, or covered

with grains.

Grave' olens. Having a strong odour.
Grega'rious. In flocks, plants growing

together in groups.
Groov'ed. Marked w,ith deep lines.
Gymnocarp'es. (From gumnos, naked,

and karpos, fruit.) Mirbel's first class of

fruits, containing such as have fruit

without being covered or concealed.
Gymnosper'mia. (From gumnos, naked,

and sperma, seed.)' Having naked seeds.
Gynan'drous. Stamens growing upon the

pistil.
Gyn'ia. From the Greek, signifying pistil.

H.

Habita'tio, or Habitat. The native situa-
tion of plants.

Habit. The external appearance of a
plant, by which it is known at first sight,
without regard to botanical distinctions.

Hair. See Pilus.

Hazr-like. See Capillary.

fal'bert-form. See Hastate.

land'-form. See Palmate.

lang'ing. See Pendant.

Hastate. Shaped like a halbert ; it dif-
fers from arrow-shaped in having the
side processes more distinct and diver-
gent.

Head. A dense collection of flowers,
nearly sessile.

feart. See Corculum and Corcle.

feart'-form. See Cordate.

Hel'met. The concave upper lip of a labi-
ate flower.
Helminthol'ogy. The science which treats

of worms.

Hepat'ic. Liver-like.
Herb. A plant which has not a woody
stem.

Her' b age. Every part of a plant except
the root and fructification.

Herba'rium. A collection of dried plants.

Herb'ist. One who collects and sells
plants. <j

Hexag'onal. Six cornered.

Hi'ans. Gaping.

Hi'lum. The scar or mark on a seed at
the place of attachment of the seed to
the seed vessel.

Hir'sute. Rough with hairs.

His'pid. Bristly, more than hirsute.

Ho'ary. Whitish coloured, having a scaly
mealiness, not unlike glaucous.

Holera'ceous. Suitable for culinary pur-
poses. The term is derived from holus,
signifying pot herbs. One of the natural
orders of Linnasus, called Holeracce, in-
cludes such plants as are used for the

424

VOCABULARY.

table, or in the economy of domestic af

fairs.

Hon'eycup. See nectary.
Hood'ed. See cucullate, or cowled.
Hora'riun. Continuing but an hour.
Horizon' tal. Parallel to the horizon.
Horn. See spur.
Ifu'iuiH*. Low, humble.
Husk. The larger kind of glume, as th

husks of Indian corn.
Hybema'lis. Growing in winter.
Hy'brid. A vegetable produced by th

mixture of two species ; the seeds of hy

brids are not fertile.
Hy'po. (From upo, under.) Much used in

the composition of scientific terms.
Hypocratrr'iform. Salver shaped, with a

tube abruptly expanded into a flat bor

dcr.
Hypog'ynous. Under the style.

I.

Icthyol'ofry. The science of fishes.

Icosari 'drous. Having about twenty sta
mend growing on the calyx. Such plants
furnish a great proportion of the mos.
delicious pulpy fruits.

Im'bricate. Lying over, like scales,
shingles of a roof.

Impcr'fi rt. Wanting the stamen or pistil

Incarna'tua. Flesh coloured.

; >#r. Front tooth.

Included. Wholly received, or container
in a cavity : the opposite of exsert.

Incomplete. Flowers destitute of a calyx
or corolla arc said to In- incomplete. A
term differim: from imperfect.

Incras'yuti. Thickened upward, larger
towards tho end.

In'crcmeiit. The quantity of increase.

Inruiii'/,' nt. 1 ,eaiiin» upon or against.

Incur 'ml. Unit inwards.

Indig'enous. Native, growing wild in n
country. (Some r.\otics, after a time
spread and appear as it indigenous.)

In' du rat i'd. Becoming hard.

Ivtlu'*iuin. A covcrin«; plural indnsia.

Infi 'riur. Below ; a calyx or corolla is in
t'erior when it comes out below the germ

Injln'trd. Appearing as if blown out with
wind, hollow.

/ d. The same as incurved.

Inflorescence. (From ivflorcsco, to flour-
ish.) The manner in which flowers are
connected to the plant by the peduncle,
as in the whorl, raceme, &c.

Infrin-'tiif. Hent in with such an acute
angle as to appear broken.

Infundibultfiu-'mi.t. Funnel form.

hi* 1 1- tul. (Jrowinsioutof, or fixed upon.

/».-•/ "ili a*. Sitting upon.

Insig-ni'tus. Marked.

Ih'teger. Entire.

Jtiti-nin'ilc. The space between joints ; as
in gr.i-

Intcrniptcdly-pin'nate. When smaller lea-
fets are inte.rposed among the principal
ones.

Intor'tu*. Twisted inwards.

Jut rail ii'ced. Not originally native. —
Brought from s.ime other country.

Inrutu'crinii. A kind of general calyx serv-
ing > many flowers, generally situ-

ated at the base of an umbel or bead.

Involu'cel. A partial involucrum.

In'volute. Boiled inwards.

Irides'cent. (From /ri>, the rainbow.)

Reflecting light.

Irreg'ular. Differing in figure, si/.p or pro-
portion of parts among themselves.

Irritabil'ity. The power of iM-ing excited
so as to produce contraction ; this power
belongs to vegetables as well as animals ;
sensation i-s thought to imply the exist-
ence of internal properties not possessed
by plants ; though some ha\e attributed
sensation to plants as well as animals.

J.

Jag' red. Irregularly divided and subdivi-

Jaws. See faux.
Joint.--. Knots or rings in culms, pods,

leaves, Sec.

Ju'fum. A yoke; growing in pairs.
Juita-position. (From juxta, near, and
I, to place.) Nearness of place.

K.

or the feel. The under lip of a papilionaceous

flower.

Kerl'ed. Shaped like the keel of a boat or
ship.

/. See Nucleus.

',,11,1,1. Heart shaped without
the point, and broader than long.
Knre. A joint, being genticulate.
Knob'bed. In thick lumps, as the potato.
Knot. Bee joints.

La'biate. Having lips as in the class Di-

dynamia.

acin'iate. Jagged, irregularly torn, lace-
rated.

Lades' cent. Yielding a juice, unusually
white like milk, sometimes red, as in the
blood root.

tir'tui*. Milk white.
ocus' tris. Growing about lakes.
Smooth, even.

Lamil' Intnl. In thin plates.

La in' in n. The liroad or flat end of a petal,
in distinction from ils daw.

La'nate. Woolly.

Laiicr'-iilnti'. Spear shaped, narrow with
both ends acute.

Lance-o'rate. A compound of lanceolate
and ovate, intermediate.

Lut'i-nil. (From latus.) On one side.
La' tint. (From lateo, to hide.) Hidden,
concealed

Lnr'ra. The caterpillar state of an in-
sect.

Lax. Limber, flaccid.

Leafet. A partial leaf, part of a com-
pound leaf.

Lcaf'-statk. See petiole.
rff'uine. A jiot or pericarp, having its
seeds attached to one side or suture ; as
the pea and IM an.

',rtru'iitiinniii. Hearing legume*.

.tpu>i't/iiui». A term used for a petal-like
nectary ; like that of the larkspur and
monkshood.

VOCABULARY.

425

Li'ber. The inner bark of plants. Imme-
diately under the cuticle is a succulent,
cellular substance, for the most part of a Mollus'cous. Such animals as have a soft

green colour, especially in the leaves
and branches. Under this cellular in-
tegument is the bark, consisting of but
one layer in plants or branches only one
year old. In older branches arid trunks

body without bones ; as the oyster.

Mo-nadel'phous. Having'the stamens uni-
ted in a tube at the base.

Monti' if arm. Granulate, strung together
like beads.

of trees, it consists of as many layers as Monocotyledons. Having but one cotyle-

they are years old ; the innermost and
newest being called the liber ; it is in this
layer only that the essential vital func-
tions art; carried tin for the time bein<r,
v,-hic!i it is pushed outwards with
the cellular integument, and, like that,
becomes a lifeless crust.

Ijfr'nraus. Woody.

J. iff' num. Wood.

jjfru'late. Strap or ribbon like, flat, as
the florets of the dandelion.

don.
Mona'cious. Having pistillate and stami-

nate flowers on the same plant.
Monopet'alous. The corolla all in one

piece.

Monophyl'lons. Consisting of one leaf.
Monosper'mus. One seed to a flower.
Monta'nus. Growing on mountains.
Moon-form. See crescent-form. .
Mosses. The second order of the class

Cryptogamia.

Lilia'ceous. A corolla with six petals Mu'cronate. Having a small point or

gradually spreading from the base.

JAntb. The border or spreading part of a Mul'tiflorus. Many flowered.

monopetalous corolla.
Lin' ear. Long and narrow, with parallel

sides, as the leaves of grasses.

Lip. The under petal in a labiate corolla.
Littor"ibus. Growing on coasts, or shores.
Liv'idous. Dark purple.
Lobe. A large division, or distinct portion

of a leaf orj>etal.
Loc'ulus.

place

Lo'ment. A pod resembling a legume, but Napifor'mis. Resembling a turnip.

divided by transverse partitions.
J^ongifo'lius. Long leaved.
Longis'simus. Very long.
Lu'ddus. Bright and shining.
I At! rid. Of a pale dull colour.
Lu'teus. Yellow.
Ly'rate. Pinnatifid, with a large roundish

leafcl at the end.

M.

Pro

Mola'rcs. Back teeth, grinders.
Soft.

prickle at the end of an obtuse leaf.

Multiplex. Many fold, petals lying over

each other in two rows.
Mul' tus. Many.
Mu'ricate. Covered with prickles.

N.

Wa'ked. Destitute of parts usually found.
(From locus, a place.) A little Na'nus. Dwarfish, very small,

Wap. Downy, or like fur, tomentose.

Warcot'ic. (From narco, to stupefy.) A
substance which has the power of pro-
curing sleep — Opium is highly narcotic.

Na'tant. Floating.

Natural character. That which is appa-
rent, having no reference to any particu-
lar method of classification.

Natural history. The science which treats
of nature.

Nec'tary. (From nectar, the fabled drink
of the gods.) The part of a flower which
produces honey ; this term, is applied to
any appendage of the flower which has
no other name.

Ncmoro'sus. Growing in groves, often
given as a specific name, as Anemone
nemorosa ; the ending in a denotes the
adjective as being in the feminine gen-
der; the adjective in Latin varying its
termination to conform to the gender of
the substantive.

Macula' tus. Spotted.

Mures' cent. Withering.

Mar' gin. The edge, or border.

Mar'itime. Growing near the sea.

Mrdul'la. The pith or pulp of vegetables.
The centre or heart of a vegetable. Va-
rious opinions have been entertained re-
specting the importance of the pith ;
Linnceus considered it was the seat oi
life and source of vegetation ; that its

vigour was the principal cause of the Nerves. Parallel veins,
shooting forth of branches, and that the Nerved. Marked with nerves, so called,
seeds were formed from it. It is now
generally thought that the pith does not
perform so important a part in the econo-
my of vegetation as was supposed by
Linnaeus.

Melliferous. (From mcl, honey.)
ducing, or containing honey.

Mem'branous. Very thin and delicate.

Mcs'ocarp. The middle substance of • -.„ _.

pericarp or leaf, having the epicarp on\Nod'ding: Partly drooping,
the outer, and the endocarp on the inner Node, Nodus. Knot,
side.. No' men. A name.

Mes'osperm. That part of the seed which Notch' ed. See crenate.
corresponds to the mesocarp of the peri- iNu'clcus. Nut, or kernel,
carp. INu'dus. See naked.

Mid' rib. The main or middle rib of a leaf Nut, Nux. See nucleus.

,

though not organs of sensibility like the
nerves in the animal system.
Nic' 'titans. (From a word which signifies
to twinkle, or wink.) Applied as a spe-
cific name to some plants which appear
sensitive ; as the cassia nictitans.

Ni'ger. Black.
Nit'idus. Glossy, glittering.
The middle substance of the Niv'eus. Snow white.

running from the stem to the apex.
Minia'tus. Scarlet, vermillion colour.

Nu'tant. See nodding, pendulous.

36*

426

VOCABULARY.

O. the keel as the pea. Mostly found in

the class Diadelphia.
Ob. A word which, prefixed to other Papil'lose. Covered with protuberances.

terms, denotes the invention of the usual
position ; as, obcordate, inversely cor-
date.

Pappus. The down of seeds, as the dan-

Obcon'ic.
wards.

Conic with the point down-

Obcor'date. Heart-shaped with the point

downwards.
Oblance'olatr. Lanceolate with the base

the narrowest.
Obli'que. A position between horizontal

and vertical.
Oblong. Longer than oval, with the sides

parallel.
Obo'vate. Ovate with the narrowest end

towards the stem, or place of insertion.
Ob'solete. Indistinct, appearing as if worn

out.

Obtu'se. Blunt, rounded, not acute.
Odora'tus. Scented, odorous.
Officina'lis. Such plants as are kept for

sale as medicinal, or of use in the arts.
Old, Oi'dr.s. This termination imports re- Pau'ci. Few in number.

Parasit'ic. Growing on another plant and
deriving nourishment from it.

Parcri chyma. A succulent vegetable sub-
stance ; the cellular substance ; the thick
part of leaves between the opposite sur
faces ; the pulpy part of fruits, as in the
apple, &.c.

Partial. Used in distinction to general.

Parti'ti»n. The membrane \vliiili <li\id<>
pericarps into cells, called the dissepi-
ment. It is parallel when it unites with
the valves where they unite with each
other. It is contrary or transverse when
it meets a valve in the middle or in any
part not at its suture.

Parted. Deeply divided ; more than cleft.

Patens. Spreading, forming less than a
right angle.

semblance, aspetaloid, like a petal ; tka
lictroides, resembling a thalictrum, &c.
Opa'yuc. Not transparent.

capsules of mosses.
Opposite. Standing against each other on

opposite sides of the stem.
Orbic'vlar. Circular.

gy which treats of birds.
O*. A bone. A mouth.
Os'seous. Bony, hard.

ripens.

O'vate. Egg shaped, oval with the lower Peregri'nus. Foreign, wandering.

end largest

as birds, &c.
O'vules. Little eggs ; the rudiments of

fertilization ; after that the ovules ripen
into seeds.
o'ricin. An egg.

P.

Pal"ate. A prominence in the lower lip
of a labiate corolla, closing or nearly

clo.-iiii: t!i«' throat.
Paleaceous. See Chaffy.

Pal' male. Hand-shaped; divided so as to

re-emble the

spread.
Pakuftri*. Growing in swamps

marshes.

delion; a feathery
Bgret.

appendage. See

Pec'tinate. Like the ie, tii of a comb, in-
termediate between firnbriate and pinna
tifid.
Oper culum. The lid which covers the Pedate. Having a central leaf or segment

and the two side ones which are com-
pound, like a bird's foot.

Ped'icel.
cle.

A little stalk of partial pedun-

Orchld'eoua. Petals like the orchis, fonr Pedun'ele. A stem bearing the flower and

arched, the fifth longer. fruit.

Ornithology. That department of zoolo- Pd'licle. A thin membranous coat.

Pellucid. Transparent or limpid.
Peltate. Having the petiole attached to
some part of the under sidi- of the leaf.

O'vary. A name sometimes given to the Pendant. Hanging down, pendulous,
outer covering of the germ, before it Pen'cUled. Shaped like a painter's pencil

or brush.

Peren'nial. Lasting more than two years.

Ovip'arous. Animals produced from eggs, Perfo'liate. Having a stem running

through the leaf ; differs from connate
in not consisting of two leaves.

seeds which the perm contains before its Per 'forate. Havin« holes as if prickr-d

throiiL'h : differs from punctate, which

has dots resembling huh.-..
Pe'ri. Around.
Per'ianth. A sort of calyx.
Per'icarp. (From peri, around, and kar

pos, fruit.) A seed vessel or whatever

contains the seed.
/'(/•/V//;(,,;/x. From peri, around, and gy-

nia, pistil.
Pe'rispcrm. (From peri, around, and spcr-

ma, seed.) Around the >eed.

hand with the fingers Permanent. Any part of a plant is said
to be permanent when it remains longer
than is usual for similar parts in most
plants.

and

Paiidu'riform. Contracted in the middle Persis'tcnt. Not falling off. See Perma-

Jike a violin or guitar.
Pan'i 7r. A loose, irregular

nent.
bunch of Pcr'sonate.

the oat.

Pan'icled. Bearing panicles.

Papil'io. A butterfly.

Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped, — an ir-
regular corolla consisting of four petals ;
the upper one is caUed the banner, the
two side ones wings, and the lower one

Masked or closed.

flowers with sub-divided branches, as Pe'tal. The leaf of a corolla, usually

coloured.

Pe'tiole. The stalk which supports th<;
leaf.

Phenog'amous. Such flowers as have sta-
mens and pistils visible, including all
plants except the cryptogamous.

VOCABULARY.

427

Physiol'ogtj. Derived from the Greek, a\Pseudo. When prefixed to a word, it ira-

discourse of Nature.

Pkvtol'otni. The science which treats of Pubes'cent. Hairy, downy, or woolly,
the organization of vegetables, nearly D~7~ rphQ """" -«ii"i«r «ihotan»

synonymous with the physiology of

vegetables.

Pi'leus. The hat of a fungus.
Pillar. See Colurnella and Column.
Pilose. Hairy, with distinct straitish hairs.
Pilus. A hair.
Pimpled. See Papillose.
Pinna.

See Papillose.
A wing feather, applied to leafets.

Pinnate. A leaf is pinnate when the leaf-
ets are arranged in two rows on the side
of a common petiole, as in the rose.

Pinnat'ifid. Cut in a pinnate manner. It
differs from pinnate, in being a simple
leaf deeply parted, while pinnate is a
compound of distinct leafets.

Pistil. The central organ of most flow
ers, consisting of the germ, style, and
stigma.

Pis'tillate. Having pistils but no stamens

Pith. The spongy substance in the centre
of the stems and roots of most plants
See Medulla.

Plaited. Folded like a fan.

Plane. Flat with an even surface.

Plica' tus. See Plaited.

Plumo'se. Feather-like.

Plu'mula or Plume. The ascending part
of a plant at its first germination.

Plu'rimus. Very many.

Pod. A dry seed vessel, not pulpy, mos*
commonly applied to legumes and sili-

Pulp. The juicy cellular substance of

berries and other fruits.
Pulver'ulent. Turning to dust.
^u'milus. Small, low.
Punctate. Appearing dotted as if pricked.

See Perforated.

ungent. Sharp, acrid, piercing.

urpu'reus. Purple.

ques.
Po'dosperm. (From podos

a part, anc

spcrma, seed.) Pedicel of the seed.
Pointal. A name sometimes used for

pistil.
Pollen. Properly fine flour, or the dus

that flies in a mill.

11UU1,

The d

ust which is

contained within the anthers.
Po'lus. Many.
Polyan'drous. Having many stamens in

serted upon the receptacle

Polygamous. Having some flowers which Ramus. A branch.

are perfect, and others with stamen

only, or pistils only.
Polymorphous . Changeable,

many forms.

Polypet'alous. Having many petals.
Polyphyl'lous. Having many leaves.
Pome. A pulpy fruit, containing capsule

as the apple.
Porous. Full of holes.

Pramorse. Ending bluntly, as if bitten off

plies obsolete or false.

Pusil'lus.
Puta'men.

Diminutive, low.
A hard shell.

Pyx'ide. (From puxis, a box.) Name of
one of MirbePs genera of fruit.

a.

Quadran'gular. Having four corners or

angles.

Quarter'natc. Four together.
Quinate. Five together.

R.

Raceme. (From raz, a bunch of grapes,
a cluster.) That kind of inflorescence in
which the flowers are arranged by sim-
ple pedicels on the sides of a common
peduncle; as the currant.

Ra'chis. The common stalk to which the
florets and spikelets of grasses are at-
tached : as in wheat heads. Also the
midrib of some leaves and fronds.

Ra'diate. The ligulate florets around the
margin of a compound flower.

Ra'dix. A root ; the lower part of the
plant which performs the office of at-
tracting moisture from the soil, and com-
municating it to the other parts of the
plant.

Rad'ical. Growing from the root.

The part of the corculum which

afterwards forms the root ; also the mi-
nute fibres of a root.

Ramiferous. Producing branches.

Ray. The outer margin of compound

flowers.

assuming Recep'tacle. The end of a flower stalk ;
the base to which the different parts of
fructification are usually attached.

Recli'ned. Bending over with the end In-
clining towards the ground.

Rectus. Straight.

Recurv'ed. Curved backwards.

Reflex' ed. Bent backwards, more than re-

the same as abrupt. curved.

Pras'inus. Green, like a leek. Reg'mate. (From rcgma, to break with

Praten'sis. Growing in meadow land. an explosion.) Name of one of Mirbel's
Prickle. Differs from the thorn in being genera of fruits.

fixed to the bark, the thorn is fixed to Refrig' 'erant. * (From rcfrigero, to cool.)

the wood.
Prismat'ic.
sides.

Cooling medicines.
Having several parallel flat Rc'niform. Kidney-shaped, heart-shaped
without the point.

is. An elongated nose or snout,
applied to projecting parts of vegetables

Process. A projecting part.

Procum'bent. Lying cm the ground.

Proliferous. A flower is said to be pro-
liti'ious when it has smaller ones grow-
ing out of it.

Prop. Tendrils and other climbers.

Prox'imus. Near.

Repand. Slightly serpentine, or waving

on the edge.
Repens. Creeping.
Rcsu'pinatc. Upside down.
Retic'ulate. Veins crossing each other

like net work.
Retuse. Having a slight notch In the end,

less than emarginate.
Rever'sed. Bent back towards the base.

4-28

VOCABULARY.

Rcr'olntt. Rolled backward or outward.

Hluniibiiiil. Diamond-form.

Hil>. A nerve like supixtrt to a leaf.

Riffid. Stiff, not pliable.

Hi n <t. The band around the capsules of
ferns.

Ringent. Gaping or grinning; a term be-
longing! to tin- labiate corollas.

Root. The descending part of a vegeta-
ble.

Rootlet. A fibre of a root, a little root.

Rosaceous. A corolla formed of roundish
spreading petals, without claws or with
very short ones.

RHXI''H.<. Hose coloured.

Roatel. That pointed part of the embryo, si' nun. A bay; applied to the plant, a

which tends downward at the firat ger-
mination of the .-ceil.

Runt rate. Having a protuberance like
bird's beak.

Rotate. Wheel-form.

Rntun'du*. Round.

Ruhr, i. Hed.

Rufous. Reddish yellow.

««>»..•!. Wrinkled.

Run i-innii. Having large teeth pointing
backward, as the dandelion.

Rupcs'tri*. Growing among rocks.

Sapit'tate. Arrow-form.

Stuiferou*. Heading or producing salt.

Salnus. Salt t a>;. (I.

Salver-form . Corolla with a ,flat spread

ing border proceeding from the top of a

tube : flower monojietalous.
Sam'ara. A winged pericarp not opening

by \ alves. as the maple.
Sap. The watery fluid contained in the

tubes and little cells of vegetables.
Sapor. Having taste.
SariHcn' tose . Running on the ground, and

annually a large shoot in the spring and
another in June.

s/truA. A jilant with a woody stem,
branching out nearer the ground than a
tree, usually smaller.

Sic'cus. Dry.

SH'icle. A seed vessel constructed like a
silique, but not longer than it is broad.
liquc. A long pod or seed vessel of two
valves, having the seed attached to the
two edges alternately.

Simple. Not divided, branched or com-
pounded.

v/// u,rt,'. The margin hollowed out re-
sembling a bay.

roum'isli cavity in the edge of the leaf

or petal.

So'ri. Plural of sorus ; fruit dots on ferns.
Spa'tlix. An elongated rc.-rptaclc of flow

ers, commonly proceeding from a spatha.
Spa'tha. A sheathing calyx opening

lengthwise on one side, and consisting

of one or more valves.
Spat'vlate. Large, obtuse at the i ml.

gradually tapering into a stalk at the

base.

Spe'dct. The lowest division of vegeta-
bles.

Specif ie. Belonging to a species only.
Sperrma. Seed.
spike. A kind of inflorescence in which

the flowers are sessile, or nearly so, as

in the mullein, or wheat.
Spike' let. A small spike.
Spin'dle shaped. Thick at top, gradually

tapering, fusiform.
.Spine. A thorn or sharp process growing

from the wood.
Spino'sus. Thorny.
pi'ral. Twisted like a screw.
Spur. A sharp hollow projection from a

flower, commonly the nectary.

striking root from the joints only, as the Spur' red-rye. A morbid swelling of the

strawberry.
Sar'cocarp. (From jtorz, flesh, and Jtar-

f cw, fruit.) The fleshy part of fruit.
Sen 'In r or Sca'brous. Rough.
Scandena. Climbing.
•Scape. A stalk which springs from the

root, and supports flowers and fruit but Squarro'se.

no leaves, as the dandelion. • a;< •-.

Sca'rious. Having a thin membranous stamen. That part of

margin. which the artificial cl

Scattered. Standing without any regular Stam'inate.

order. tils.

Scionf. Shoots proceeding laterally from Standard. See banner.

the roots or bulb of a root.

leaf, calyx or corolla.

Sempervi'reii*. Living through the win-
ter, and retaining its leaves.

Serrate. Notched like the teeth of a saw.

Ser'ntlatc. Minutely serrate.

Sessile. Sitting down ; placing immedi-
ately on the main stem without a foot
stalk.

Seta. A bristle.

Sfta'ccous. Bristle-form.

Shuft. A pillar, sometimes applied to the
style.

Sheath. A tubular, or folded leafy portion
including within it the stem.

Shoot. Each tree and shrub sends forth

seed, of a black or dark colour, some-
times called ergot; the black kind is
called the malignant ergot. Graingrow-
ing in low moist ground, or new land,
is most subject to it.
Squamo'sus. Scaly.

Ragged, having divergent

the flower on
« are founded.
Having stamens without pis-

Strl'late. Like a star.

Segment. A part or principal division of Stem. A general supporter of leaves,

flowers and fruit.
Stenless. Having no stem.
Ster'ile. Barren.
Stiff 'ma. The summit, or top of the pis

Stipe. The stem of a fern, or fungus ;

also the stem of the down of seeds, as

in the dandelion.
xtip'itate. Supported by a stipe.
Sti'pu/e. A leafy appendage, situated at

the base of petioles, or leavi s.
Stoloniferous. Putting forth scions, or

running shoots.

Stramin'eous. Straw like, straw coloured.
Strap-form. Ligulate.
Stratum. A layer ; plural strata.

VOCABULARY.

429

Striate. Marked with fine parallel lines.
Strictus. Stiff and straight, erect.
Strigose. Armed with close thick bristles.
Strob'ilum. A cone, an ament with woody

scales.
Style. That part of the pistil which is

between the stigma and the germ.
Styl'ides. Plants with a very long style
Sua'vis. Sweet, agreeable.
Sub. Used as a diminutive, prefixed to

different terms to imply the existence of

a quality in an inferior degree ; in Eng

lish, may be rendered by somewhat ; it

also signifies under.
Subero'se. Corky.
Submersed. Growing under water.
Subter'raneous. Growing and flowering

under ground.
Subtus. Beneath.
Sub' acute. Somewhat acute.
Sub'sessile. Almost sessile.
Sub' ul ate. Awl shaped, narrow and sharp

pointed. See awl form.
Sue' culent. Juicy ; it is also applied to a

pulpy leaf, whether juicy or not.
Suc'cus. Sap.
Sucker. A shoot from the root by which

the plant may be propagated.
Suffru'ticose. Somewhat shrubby, shrubby

at the base ; an under shrub.
Sul'cate. Furrowed, marked with deep

lines.

Super. Above.
Supradecom' pound. More than decom-
pound ; many times subdivided.
Superior. A calyx or corolla is superior

when it proceeds from the upper part ol

the germ.

Supi'nus. Face upwards See resupinatus.
Suture. The line or seam formed by the

junction of two valves of a seed vessel.
Syco'ne. (From sucon, a fig.) A name

given to one of MirbePs genera, of fruits.
Sylvcs'tris. Growing in woods.
Syn'carpe. (From sun, with, and karpos

fruit.) A union of fruits.
Syngene'sious. Anthers growing together

forming a tube ; such plants as constitute

the class Syngenesia, being also coin-
pound flowers.
Syn'oni/iiis. Synonimous, different names

for the same plant.
Synop'sis. A condensed view of a subject

or science.

T.

Tazon'omy. (From taxis, order, and no-
ttws, law.) Method of classification.

Teeth of Mosses. The outer fringe of the
perifttomium is generally in 4, 8, 16, 32
or 64 divisions ; these are called teeth.

TV»TKX. Covering;

Tc if 'it in rut. The skin or covering of seeds
often buists off on boiling, as in the pea.

Tern' per ature. The degree of heat anc
cold to which any place is subject, no
wholly dependent upon latitude, being
atfected by elevation ; the mountains o
the torrid zone produce the plants of th
frigid zone. In cold regions white an<
blue peials are more common ; in warn
regions red and other vivid colours ; in
the spring we have more white pe-

tals, in the autumn more yellow ones.

Ten'dril. A filiform or thread like appen-
dage of some climbing plants, by which
they are supported by twining round
other objects.

Tencl'lus. Tender, fragile.

Tniuifo'lius. Slender leaved.

Ten'uis. Thin and slender.

Ter'ete. Round, cylindrical, tapering.

Ter'minal. Extreme, situated at the end.

Ter'nate. Three together, as the leaves of
the clover.

Tctradyn 'amous. With four long and
two short stamens.

Tf tran' drous. Having four stamens.

Thorn. A sharp process from the woody
part of the plant ; considered as an im-
perfect bud indurated.

Thread-form. See filiform.

Thyrse. See panicle.

Tige. See caulis.

Tincto'rius. Plants containing colouring
matter.

Tomen'tose. Downy.; covered with fine
matted pubescence.

Tonic. (From tono, to strengthen.) Me-
dicines which increase the tone of ihe
muscular fibre.

Toothed. See dentate.

Trachea}. Names given to vessels suppos-
ed to be designed for receiving and dis-
tributing air.

Transverse. Crosswise. ,

Trichot'omous. Three forked.

Trifid. Three cleft.

Trifo'liate. Three leaved, v)

Trilo'bate. Three lobed.

Triloc'ular. Three celled.

Trun'cate. Having a square termination,
as if cut off.

Trunk. The stem or bole of a tree.

Tube. The lower hollow cylinder of a
monopetalous corolla.

Tuber. A solid fleshy knob.

Tuberous. Thick and fleshy, containing
tubers, as the potato.

Tubular. Shaped like a tube, hollow.

Tu'nicate. Coated with surrounding lay-
ers, as in the onion.

Tur'binate. Shaped like a top, or pear.

Twining. Ascending spirally.

Twisted. Coiled.

U.

Uligino'sus. Growing in damp places.
Umbel. A kind of inflorescence in which

the flower stalks diverge from one centre,

like the sticks of an umbrella.
Umbelliferous. Bearing umbels.
Unarmed. Without thorns or prickles.
Un'cinate. Hooked.
Unctuo'sus. Greasy, oily.
Un'dulate. Waving, serpentine, gently

rising and falling.
Unguis. A claw.
Unffuic'ulate. Inserted by a claw.
Uniflo'rus. One flowered.
U'nicus. Single.

Unilat'eral. Growing on one side.
Urce'olate. Swelling in the middle, and

contracted at the top in the form of a

pitcher.

430

VOCABULARY.

V. I Vires' cent. Inclining to green.

I ir irate. Long and slender. Wartlike.
Valves. The parts of a seed vessel into yir'tdis. Green.

which it finally separates ; also the leaves
which make up a glume, or spatha.

Variety. A subdivision of a species, dis-
tinguished by characters which are not
permanent; varieties do not with <->:r
tainty produce their kind by their seed
All apjiks are but varieties of one spe-
cies ; if the seeds of a sour apple be plant-
ed, they will produce, perhaps, soint
sweet apples, some of a green colour
some red : there are as many trees of
different kinds of fruit, as there are seeds
planted. The quince is a species of the
same genus, or family, as the apple ; but
the seed of a quince has never been
known to produce an apple tree.

Vaulted. Arched over ; with a concave
covering.

Veined. Having the divisions of the petiole
irrecularly branched on the under side
of the leaf.

Vcn'tricose. Swelled out. See inflated.

Vernal. Appearing in the spring.

Vrr'rucose. Warty, covered with little
protuberances.

Vertical. Perpendicular.

Vertieil'latc. \Vhorled, having leaves or Zool'ogy. The science of animals,
flowers in a circle round the stem.

Vesie'ular. Made up of cellular substance.

Ves'pertine. Flowers opening in the eve-
ning.

Vil'laus. Hairy, the hairs long and soft.

Viola' ceout. Violet coloured.

Virgvl'tum. A small twig.

Virose. Nauseous to the smell, poisonous.

Viscid. Thick, glutinous, covered with

inlhe-ive inoiMiire.
Vitel'lus. Called also the yolk of the seed ;

it is between the albume'n and embryo.
Vit'reus. Glassy.
Vivip'arous. Producing others by mean*

of bulbs or seeds, germinating while yet

on the old plant.
Vul'nerary. (From vulnus, a wound.)

Medicines which heal wounds.

\V.

Wedge-form. Shaped like a wedge, round-
ed at the large end, obovate with straight-
i-ii sides.

'• aped. See rotate.

Wings. The two side petals of a papilio-
naceous Sower.

Wood. The most solid parts of trunks of
trees and shrubs.

Zoophytes. The lowest order of animals,
sometimes called animal plants, though
considered as wholly belonging to it»
animal kingdom. Many of them n -. m-
Me plants in their forni,"and exhibit very
fuint marks of sensation.

LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

Besides the scientific relations which are to be observed in plants, flowers
may also be regarded as emblematical of the affections of the heart and quali-
ties of the intellect. In all ages of the world, history and fable have attached
to flowers particular associations ; consecrating them to melancholy remem-
brances, to glory, friendship or love. In oriental countries, a selam, or boquet
of flowers, is often made the interesting medium of communicating sentiments,
to which words are inadequate.

The authorities for the emblems here adopted, are " Flora's Dictionary,"
"Garland of Flora," " Les Vegeteux Curieux," and "Emblems Des Fleurs."
In a few cases, alterations have been made, in order to introduce sentiments of
a more refined and elevated character, than such as relate to mere personal
attractions.

Acacia. Friendship.

Acanthus. Indissoluble ties.

Aconitum. (Monk's Jiood.) Deceit. Poisonous words.

Adonis autumnalis. Sorrowful remembrances.

Affrostemma. (Cockle. ) Charms please the eye, but merit wins the soul.

Althea. I would not act contrary to reason.

Aloe. Religious superstition. Think not the Almighty wills one idle pang,
one needless tear.

Amaranthus. Immortality. Unchangeable.

A. Melancholicus. Love lies bleeding.

Amaryllis. Splendid beauty. Coquetry.

Anemone. Anticipation. Frailty.

Arum. Deceit. Ferocity. Treachery.

Apocynum. Falsehood. *

Arbor Vita. (Thuja occidentalism Friendship unchanging.

Aster. Beauty in retirement.

Auricula. Elegance. Pride.

Asdepias. (Milk weed.) Cure for the heart ache. The miserable have no
medicine but hope.

Bachelor's button. Hope, even in misery.

Balm. Sweets of social intercourse.

Broom. Humility.

Broom corn. Industry.

Balsam. (Impatiens.) Impatience. Do not approach me.

Bay. (Lauras.) I change but with death.

Box. Constancy.

Calla ethiopica. (Egyptian lily.) Ffeminine delicacy.

Camellia japonica. (Japan rose.) Pity is easily changed to love.

Campanula. (Bell flower.) Gratitude.

Cape jasmine. (Gardenia florida.) My heart is joyful.

Cardinal flower. (Lobelia cardinalis.) High station does not secure hap-
piness.

Catch fly. (Lychnis.) I am a willing prisoner.

Cedar. (Jumperus.) You are entitled to my love.

China-aster, double. ( Aster chinensis.) Your sentiments meet with a teturn.

China-aster, single. You have no cause for discouragement.

Chrysanthemum red. Love.

Chrysanthemum white. Truth needs no protestations.

Chrysanthemum yellow. A heart left to desolation.

Clematis. (Virgin's bower.) Mental excellence.

Cock's comb. (Amaranthus.) Foppery. Affectation.

Columbine, purple. (Aquilegia canadensis.) I cannot give theo up.

432 LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

Columbine, red. Hope and fear alternately prevail.

Convolvulus. Uncertainty.

Cornus. Indifference. A changed heart.

Cowslip. (Primula.) Native grace.

Crocus. Cheerfulness

Crown Imperial. (Fritillaria imperialist Majesty. Power.

Cypress. Disappointed hopes. Despair.

Chamomik. Blooms in sorrow. Enorgy to act in adversitv.

Carnation. (Dianthus.) Disdain. Pride.

Citron. Beautiful, but ill humoured.

Dahlia. Forever thine.

Daisy. (Belli* perennis.) Unconscious beauty.

Dandelion. Smiling on all. Coquetry.

Eglantine. (Rosa rubwinosa.) I wound to heal.

Elder. (Rambucus.) Compassion yielding to love.

Everlasting. (Gnaphali-um.) Never ceasing remembrance.

Fox glove. (Digitalis.) I am not ambitious for myself, but for you.

Fuchsia. (Ladies' ear drop.) It were all one,

That I should love a bright particular star,
And think to wed it.

Geranium, fi.vh. Thou art changed.

Geranium, oak. Give me one look to cheer my absence.

Geranium, rose. Many are lovely, hut you exceed all.

Hawthorn. (Cratcegus.) Hope ! I thee invoke !

Heart1* ease. (Viola tricolour.) Forget me not.

mMMM, Beauty is vain.

Hollu. (Ilex.) Think upon your vows.

Hollyhock. (Althea rosea.) Ambition.

Honeysuckle. (Lonicera.) I strive with grief. Fidelity.

Hyacinth. Love is full of jealousy.

Hydrangea. A boaster. Superior merit, when assumed, is lost.

Houstonta cerulia. Meek and quiot happiness.

Hirpericum. (St. John's Wort.) Animosity.

Jasmine. You bear a gentle mind. Amiability.

Jonquil. (Narcissus.) Affection returned.

Iwnuea. Busy body. Busy bodies are a dangerous sort of people.

Iris. I have a message for you.

Ivy. (Vitis hedera.) Female affection. I have found one true heart.

Lfifiurnum. (Cytirus laburnum.) Pensive beauty.

Lady's slipper. (Cypripedium.) Capricious beauty.

Larkspur. (Delphinium.) Inconstancy. Inconstant as the changing wind

Laurel. (Kalmia.) Oh what a goodly outside falsehood hath !

Lavender. Words though sweet may be deceptive.

Lemon. (Citrus lemonium.) Discretion. Prudence.

Lilac. (Syringa.) First love.

Lily, white. (Lilium candidum.) Purity. With looks too pure for earth.

Lily, yellow. False. Light as air.

Lily of the valley. (Convallaria.) Delicacy. The heart withering in Porrrf

Locust, the green leaves. Affection beyond the grave. Sorrow ends not.
when it seemeth done !

Lupine. Indignation.

Magnolia. Perseverance.

Marigold. Cruelty. Contempt.

MtraKta. (Four o'clock.) Timidity.

Myrnomedk. (Reseda odorata.) Moral and intellectual beauty.
JMOM. (Sensitive Plant.) My heart is a broken Into !

Mock Orange, or Syrinsm. (Philadelphia.) Counterfeit. I cwir.ot believe
one who has once deceived me.

Miirtle. (M,/rtus.) Love.

Myrtle, withered. Love betrayed.

Narcissus. Egotism. The selfish heart deserves the pain it feels.

Nettle. ( Urtica.) Scandal.

Nlphtshade. Suspicion. Artifice. Scepticism.

Nasturtion. (Tropceolum.) Honor to the brave. Wit

LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. 433

Oleander. Beware. Shun the coming evil. In vain is the net spread in
the sight of any bird.

Olive. Peace. After a storm comes a calm.

Orange flowers. Bridal festivity. f

Parsley. (Apium.) Useful knowledge.

Passionflower. (Passiflora.) Devotion.

Peach Blossom. Here I fix my choice.

Periwinkle. (Vinca.) Recollection of the past.

Phlox. Our souls are united.

Pine. (Pinus resinosa.) Time and philosophy.

Pine. Spruce. Farewell ! for I must leave thee.

Pink, single white. (Dianthus.) ' Ingenuousness. Stranger to art.

Pink, single red. A token of all the heart can keep,
Of holy love in its fountain deep.

Pink, China. (Dianthus Chinensis.) Aversion. Though repulsed, not in
despair.

Pink, variegated. Refusal. You have my friendship ; ask not for more.

Pcp.ony. (Pceonia.) Anger. Ostentation.

Polyanthus. Thou knowest my confidence in thee.

Pomegranate flower. (Punica.) Mature and beautiful.

Poppy, red. Consolation. Let, the darkness of the past be forgotten, in the
light of hope.

Poppy, white. Doom'd to heal — or doom'd to kill,

Fraught with good or fraught with ill.

Poppy, variegated. Beauty without loveliness.

Primrose. (Primula.) Be mine the delight of bringing modest worth from
obscurity.

Primrose, evening. (O3nothera.) Inconstancy. Be not beguiled with smooth
words. Man's love is like the changing moon.

Ranunculus. Flowers are beautiful, but do not, like mental beauty, delight
the heart.

Rosemary. Keep this for my sake. I'll remember thee.

Rue. (Ruta.) Disdain. This trifling may be mirth to you, but 'tis death
to me.

Rose bud. Confession. Thou hast stolen my affections.

Rose, Burgundy. Modesty and innocence united to beauty.

Rose, damask. ' Sweeter than the op'ning rose.

Rose, red. The blush of modesty is lovely.

Rose, moss. Superior merit.

Rose, while. " I would be,

In maiden meditation, fancy free."

Rose white, withered. Emblem of my heart. Withered like your love.

Rose, wild. Simplicity. Let not your unsophisticated heart be corrupted
by intercourse with the world.

Rose, cinnamon. Without pretension. Such as I am, receive me. Would
I were of more worth, for your sake.

Sage (Salvia.) Domestic virtues. Woman's province is home.

Scarlet Lychnis. (Lychnis chalcedonica.) I see my danger without power
to shun.

Snapdragon. (Antirrhinum.') I have been flattered with false hopes.

Snowball. (Viburnum.) Virtues cluster around thee. A union.

Snow drop. (Galanihus.) Though chilled with adversity, I will be true to
thee. I am not a summer friend.

Sorrel. (Rumex.) Wit ill timed. He makes a foe who makes a jest.

Speedwell. (Veronica.) True love's a holy flame,

Aiid when 'tis kindled, ne'er can die.

Spider wort. (Tradescantia.) The pledge of friendship, 'tis all my heart
can give. Would'st thou then counsel me to fall in love ?

Star of Bethlehem. (Ornithogalum.) Reconciliation. Light is brightest
when it shineth in darkness.

Solidago. (Golden rod.) Encouragement.

Strawberry. (Fragaria.) A pledge of future happiness.

Sumach. (Rhus.) Splendor. Wealth cannot purchase love. Have you
never seen splendid misery ?

37

434 LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS.

Sunflower. (HeUanthus.") You are too aspiring.

Sweet William. (Dianthus barbatus.) Finesse. One may smile and be a
villain. I cannot smile when discontent sits heavy at my heart.

Sweet pea. Departure. Must you go ?

Stock gitty-flower. You are too lavish of your smiles.

Thistle. (Carduus.) Misanthropy. O that the desert were my dwelling
place !

Thorn apple. (Stramonium.) Alas, that falsehood should appear in such a
lovely form !

Thyme. Less lovely than some, but more estimable.

Tuberose. (Polyanthus Tuberosa.) Blessings brighten as they take their

flight!
Tulip.

Vanity. Thou hast metamorphosed me ! This love has been like
a blight upon my opening prospects.

Tulip tree. (Liriodendrum.) Rural life favourable to health and virtue.

Verbena. Sensibility. The heart that is soonest awake to the flowers,
Is always the first to be touch'd by the thorns.

Violet, blue. Faithfulness. I shall never forget.

Violet, white. Modest virtue.

Wall flower. (Cheiranthus.) Misfortune is a blessing, when it proves the
truth of friendship.

Weeping Willow. (Salix.) Forsaken. Ask not one to join in mirth whose
heart is desolate.

Wood Sorrel. (Oxalis.) Tenderness and affection.

Woodbine. (Lonicera.) Fraternal love.

Water Lily. The American lotus. (Nymphaea.) An emblem of silence.

Yarrow. (AchUlea.) To heal a wounded heart.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Acotyledonous plants, 38, 39, 129, 169,

177, 267.
Adansion, 320.
Adansonia, 248.
Agamous plants, 167.
Agaricus, 274.

Age, its effects on plants, 300.
Aggregate flowers, 207.
Aigrette, or Egret, 130.
Air, 291.
Albumen, 128.
Aloes, 223.
Amaranthi, 181.
Amaranthus, 263.
Araent, or Catkin, 91, 262.
Amentaceee, 193.
American laurel, 232.
Amygdalus, 236
Analysis of the pink, 22.
" of the lily, 19.
" of the rose, 25.
" of the poppy, 26.
" of the daisy, 185.
" of one of the grasses, 205.
Anemone, 241.
Annual roots, 51.
Anther, 20, 103.
Apocynum, 260.
Aquatic plants, 57.
Arabs, 308.
Aristolochise, 180.
Aristotle, 304.
Aroides, 178.
Arrow head, 265, 284.
Arrow root, 190.
Artemisia, 253.
Artificial classes, 21, 29, 34, 167, 195.

orders, 32, 195.

Artificial system, 194, 317, 158.
Asparagi, 179.
Asplenium, 268.
Aster, 254.

B.

Barberry, 222.
Bauhin, 314.
Bark, 147.
Bicornes, 231.
Biennial roots, 51.
Blackberry, 237.
Blessed thistle, 255.
Blood root, 281.
Blue eyed grass, 245.

Botanical names, directions for pro-
nouncing them, 41.

" their use, 194.
Botanical gardens, 311.
Botany, objects ofwhich it treats, 19.

" its departments, 19, 20.
Bread fruit tree, 262.
Bract, 88.
Brake, 269.
Branching roots, 52.
Buckwheat, 227.
Buds, 44, 54.
Bulb-bearing stem, 63.
Bulbous root, 55.

C.

Cactus, 235.
Calla,264,282.
Calycandria, 235.
Calyptra, 92.
Calyx, 88.
Cambium, 146.
Camellia japonica, 247.
Campanulaceas, 183.
Camphor, 228.
Capsulares, 116.
Capsule, 116, 124.
Carcerulares, 116.
Carex,262.
Cassia, 230.
Catalpa, 200.
Cat tail, 262.
Caulis, 59.
Cellular tissue, 87, 141.

" integument, 148.
Characters used in classification, 172.
Charter oak, 301.

Chemical composition .of plants, 156.
Chick weed, 261.
Chrysanthemum, 254.
Cinnamon, 228.
Citrus, 240.
Classes of Linnaeus, 29.

" of Jussieu, 39.

" of Tournefort, 164.
Classification of Ray, 315.

of Rivinus, 315.
Clover, 282.
Clusius, 313.
Cochineal, 299.
Cockle, 233.
Cossalpinus, 314.
Columbine, 282.

436

INDEX.

Coffee, 2 13. G

Columniferae, 247. Galen, 307.

Companulacea?, 183. Gentian, 216.

Comparison of different botanical me- Germ, 104.

thods, 170. Germination of the seed, 134.

Comparison of natural and artificial Gesner, 313.

classes, 172.
Compound flowers, 183. 252.
Coniferse, 193.
Corals, 233.
Corolla, 20, 93.
Cortex, 149.
Corydalis, 249.
Cotyledon, 128.
Cowslip, 215,280.
Cranberry, 225.
Creeping root, 54.
Crocus, 200.
< 'rovvn Imperial, 100.
Cruciform plants, 188.
( 'ryptogamous plants, 44, 177,
Cucumber, 265.
Culm, 59.
Cuticle, 81.
Cynips,299.

D.

Ginger, 1%.
Girdling trees, 149.
Glands, 86.

Glandular system, 142.
Glume, 92.
Golden rod, 254.
Grafting, 236.
Gramina, 178, 202.
Granulated root, 54.
Grapes, 213.
Grasses, 178,202,301.
Growth of plants, 152.

H.

Habits of plants, 289.
Habitations of plants, 292
Hare bell, 222.
Haw thorn, 236.
Heat, 291, 338,138.
Heath, a»T^
Heavenly bodies, 15, 326.

Daisy, 185.

Departments in Botany, 19. Herbarium, manner of labelline for 24

Dicotyledonous plants, 38, 39, 150, 153, " "

Regeneration of organs, 297.
Dioscorides, 306.
Diseases of plants, 298.
Drupe, 119, 125.

manner of preparing, 45.
Herbs, 44, 292, 315.
Hippocrates, 304.
Hippuris, 196.
ollvh

Elephant's foot, 255.
Enchanter's night shade, 199.
Endocarp, 114.
Endogenous stem, 64, 153.
Ensata;,221.
Epicarp, 128.
Evergreens, 285.
Exogenous stem, "64, 153.

F.

Fall of the leaf, 84.

Ferns, 177, 267.

I- is, 122,266.

Filament, 20, 102.

Flax, 218.

Fluid parts of vegetables, 143.

Flowers proper for analysis, 46.

Follicle, 118, 125.

Forest trees, 265.

Frondescence, 82.

Fructification, organs of, 21, 50, 88.

Fruit, 1 13.

" Mirbel's classification of, 115.

" Linnaeus' classification of, 124.
Fucus natans, 57, 272.
Fungi, 178, 274.
Furze, 250.

Hollyhock, 247.

Honey, 99.

Houstonia, 206.

Horse chesnut, 223, 290.

Humboldt's division of climates, 2%

Hydrangea, 233.

Impressions of leaves, 46.

Indian corn, 263, 265, 291.

Indians, their knowledge of Botany, 15.

Inflorescence, 108.

Inorganized bodies, 305, 327, 337, 338.

Involucrum, 91.

Irritability of leaves, 83.

Irides, 180.

Jasmine, 198.

Jussieu, 319.

Jussieu's division of compound flowers,

Jussieu's general divisions, 38.
" method, 168.

L.

Labiate corollas, 96, 181, 242.
Lacebark tree, 226.
Ladies' eardrop, 226.
Ladies' slipper, 258.
Laurel, 227.
Lauri, 180.
Leaves, 44, 69.

" anatomy of, 80.
Legume, 116, 124, 190, 249.

INDEX.

437

Leguminous plants, 302.

Liber, 149.

Lichens, 273.

Lilac, 197.

Liliaceous plants, 179, 220.

Lily, 19,24,220.

Lily of the valley, 222.

Lima bean, 250.

J jnnaea borealis, 284.

Linnaeus, 318.

Linnaeus, system of, 19, 29, 166, 194,

290.

Litmus, 274.
Liverworts, 271.
Lupine, 250.
Luridae,210.
Lizard's tail, 224.

M.

Magnolia, 241.
Mandrake, 53, 211,238.
Marigold, 255, 286.
Matter, sciences which relate to, 18. .
Mesocarp, 114.
Microscope, 316.
Milk weed, 258.
Mind, its faculties, 13.

" science which relates to it, 18.
Misletoe, 266.
Monocotyledonous plants, 129, 137,

Monsters, 46.
Mosses, 177, 269.
Mountains, 295.
Mullein, 212.
Multisiliquae, 241.
Mushroom, 177, 274.

N.

Narcissi, 180.

Nasturtion, 226, 291.

Natural families of Linnaeus, 36.

" ofJussieu.39,168, 319.
Natural History, 18.

" Science, 46, 323.
Nature, 326.
Nectary, 99.

Numerals, Latin and Greek, 29.
Nyctanthes, 199.

O.

Odour of flowers, 98.
Oil, 302, 158.
Olive, 199.
Opium, 240.
Orchis, 180, 257, 261.
Ovary, 114.
Ovule, 114.

P.

Palms, 178, 154.

Papilionaceous corolla, 97, 190, 248.
Parasites, 57, 300.
Parenchyma, 81.
Paris, 226.

Passion flower, 245, 286.
Peduncle, 60.

Peony, 241.
Perennial roots, 52.
Perianth, 90.
Pericarp, 113.

" parts of, 114.

" Mirbel's classification, 115.

" Linnaeus' 124.

Perspiration of plants, 145.
Petiole, 60.

Phsenogamous plants, 44.
Philosophers of Greece, 304.
Physiological Botany, 19, 133, 139.
Pink, 22, 233.
Pistil, 20, 103.
Pith, 151.
Plantain, 206.

Plants, method of preserving, 45.
" when first spoken of, 303.
Pliny, 306.
Poke weed, 233.
Pollen, 105.
Polydelphia, 32, 251.
Polygamia, 32.
Pelygonoeae, 180.
Pomace®, 236.
Pomegranate, 236.
Poppy, 239.
Pond lily, 239, 284.
Potatoe, 54, 210.
Premose root, 53.
Prickles, 85.
Proper juices, 147.
Proteae, 180.

Proximate principles, 157.
Pubescence, 87.
Primus, 236.
Pythagorus, 304.

R.

Radicles, 52, 130.
Red bud, 230.
Receptacle, 113, 115.
Rhubarb, 228.
Rice, 223, 291.
Roots, 44, 51.
Rosaceas, 189.
Rose, 25, 236.
Rough leaved plants, 209.
Rubiacere, 187.

Sage, 198.

Salts, 291.

Salicornia, 196,

Sap, 143.

Sassafras, 227.

Scales, 86.

Scape, 60.

Scouring rushes, 289.

Sea weeds, 272.

Seed, 126.

Seneca snake root, 260.

Sensitive fern, 269.

Septas, 234.

Side saddle flower, 238,

Silk cotton tree, 248,

438

COMMON NAMES OF PLANTS.

Silique, 117, 124.

Sir J. E. Smith, 318.

Shad blossoms, 281.

Snow ball, 218.

Solid parts of vegetables, 140.

Solomon's seal, 222.

Sjrr.fl, 223, 233.

Spatha, 91.

Species, 167.

Spindle root, 53.

Siiuncri, 20, 101.

Stem, 44, 58.

Stigma, 104.

Stings, 86.

Stipules, 85.

Sinr.vberry, 237.

Sunflower", 181, 255.

Symmetry of Structure in plants, 199.

Syngenosious plants, 183, 252.

Synopsis of classes and order of Lin-

iiii-ns, 34.
Synopsis of organs of plants, 50.

of classes of Jussieu, 169.
" of the method of Tounie-

fort, 165.
Systematic Botany, its divisions, 19.

Tendrils, 87.
Theophrastus, 305.
Thorns, 85.

Tournefort's method, 164.
Trumpet flower, 243.
Tulip, 221.
Turmeric, 1%.

U.

Valerian, 197.
Vascular system, 81, 141.
Vernal flowers, 280.
Venus' fly trap, 232.
Veronica, 199.
Violet, 215, 255.
Virgin's bower, 241.
Virginia snake root, 260.

W.

Water, 291.
Whortleberry, 231.
Wild ginger. 260. .
Wild pea, 230.
Wild turnip, 265, 228.
Willow, 266,280.
Winter green, 231.
Wood, 150.

X.
Xylosteum, 281.

COMMON NAMES OF PLANTS.

Aracia, 361.

Birth wort, 365.

Carrot, 349.

Aililrr tongue, 351.

Black berry, 356.

Cassia, 353.

Agrimony, 350.

Black snake root, 357.

Castor nil plant, 367.

Albany beach dropa, 354.

Black walnut, 367.

Catalpa tree, 343.

Alder, 366.

Bladder nut, 350.

Catmint, 358.

Alismu. 352.

Bladder senna, 362.

Cat-tail, 365.

Apple, 356.

Blessed thistle, 364.

Celandine, 356.

Apricot, 355.

Klite, 343.

Celery, 349.

Amaranth, 366.

Blood root, 356.

Cenomyce, 370.

American cowslip, 357.

Blue curls, 359.

Cerastium, 355.

American water cress, 360.

Blue bottle, 364.

Cetraria, 370.

Angelica, 349.

Blue eyed grass, 361.

Changeable hydrangea, 355.

Arethusa, 365.

Blue gentian, 358,

Cherry, 355.

Arrowhead. 366.

Blue hearts, 359.

Chestnut, 367.

Asparagus, 351.

Boletus, 371.

Chick- weed, 355.

Asphodel, 351.

Boneset, 363.

Chick-winter-green, 352.

Aiainask lily, 350.

Borage, 346.

Choak-berry, 356.

A vend, 356.

Brake, 368.

Cinque-foil^ 3.~>r,.

Bachelor's button, 348.

Broom corn, 345.

Cives, 351.

Bwifwes, 370.

Buck wheat, 353.

Clover, 362.

Balm, 35i).

Bugloss, 347.

Cock foot gram, 345.

Malm nf (Jili-ad, 368.

Bulrush, 351.

Cock's comb, 366.

Balsam apple, 367.

Burdock, 363.

Cockle, 355.

Barberry, 350.

Burnet, 366.

Cohosh, 357.

Barlev, 345.

Bush clover, 362.

Colic weed, 361.

Bass-wood, 356.

Bush honey suckle, 348.

Colt's foot, 364.

Beech, 366.

Bush locust, 362.

Columbine, 357.

Beech drops, 359.

Button bush, 345.

Comb tooth thistle, 363.

Bean, 36-J.

Butternut, 367.

Cuinlrry, 347.

Bear berry, 354.

Button wood, 367.

Cone flower, 364.

Bedstraw, 346.

Cal.lmjre, 361.

Coriander, 349.

Beet, 341).

Campion, 355.

Coronilla, 362.

Bell flower, 347.

Cancer root, 359.

Cotton, 301.

Bull wort, 351.

Caper, 366.

Cow wheat, 359.

Bind weed, 347.

Caraway, 349.

Cranberry, .'{">-'

Birch, 3r,7. ^

Cardinal flower, 347.

Crane bill, 36 1.

-.!. 331.

Carpet weed, 345.

Crow foot, 358.

COMMON NAMES OF PLANTS.

439

Crown imperial, 351. ,

Hawk weed, 363.

Mullein, 347.

Cucumber, 367.

Hazlenut, 366.

Musk melon, 367.

Culver's physic, 343.

Heal all, 359.

Mustard, 360.

Currant, 348.

Heath, 352.

Myrtle, 355.

Cut grass, 344.
Cypress vine, 347.

Hedge hysop, 343.
Hellebore, 357.

Nasturtion, 353.
Necklace weed, 356.

Daffodil, 351.

Herb-robert, 361.

Nettle, 366.

Dandelion, 363.

Hickory, 367.

New Jersey tea, 348.

Darnel grass, 345.

iiogweed, 366.

Night shade, 347.

Day flower, 344.

Holly, 346.

Nostoc, 370.

Day lily, 351.

Holly hock, 361.

Oak, 366.

Dill, 349.

Honesty, 360.

Oak of Jerusalem, 349.

Dock, 352.

Hop, 368.

Oats, 345.

Dodder, 349.

Horehound, 358.

Onion, 350.

Dodbane, 365.

Horse balm, 344.

Orange, 357.

Dogtooth violet, 351.

Horse chesnut, 352.

Orchard grass, 345.

Dog wood, 346.

Hound tongue, 346.

Orobanche, 359.

Dry strawberry, 356.

House leek, 358.

Painted cup, 359.

Ear drop, 352.

Hyacinth, 351.

Palma christi, 367.

European ivy, 348.
Elecampane, 364.

Hydrangea, 354.
Ice plant, 356.

Parmelia, 370.
Parnassus grass, 350.

Elephant foot, 364.

Indian corn, 366.

Parsley, 349.

Elm, 349.

Indigo, 362.

Parsnip, 349.

Enchanter's night shade,

Indian mallows, 361.

Partridge berry, 346.

344.

Indian turnip, 366.

Passion flower, 361.

English water cress, 360.

Jacobea lily, 350.

Pea, 362.

Erigeron, 363.

Jasmine, 343.

Peach, 355.

Euchroma, 359.

Jonquil, 351.

Pear, 356.

Evening primrose, 352.

Judas tree, 353.

Pennyroyal, 358.

Eye-bright, 359.

Jungermannia, 369.

Pennywort, 359.

False crow foot, 361.

King's spear, 351.

Peony, 357.

False fox glove, 359.

Knot grass, 353.

Pepper grass, 360.

False indigo, 362.

Ladies' slipper, 368.

Pepper mint, 358.

False mustard, 350.

Larkspur, 357.

Pheasant's eye, 358.

False saffron, 363.

Laurel, 354.

Pickerel weed, 351.

False sun flower, 364.

Lavender, 358.

Pig weed, 349.

False syrinea, 355.

Leather leaf, 354.

Pine, 367.

Fan palm, 352.

Leek, 350.

Pink, 354.

Fennel, 349.

Lemon, 357.

Pipsissiwa, 353.

Field sorrel, 352.

Lettuce, 363.

Plantain, 346.

Fig tree, 367.

Lichnidia, 347.

Plum, 355.

Five finger, 356.

Life everlasting, 363.

Polytrichum, 369.

Flag, 344.

Lilac, 343.

Polypod, 368.

Flax, 350.

Lily, 351.

Poison hemlock, 349.

Flower de luce, 344.

Live for ever, 355.

Poison ivy, 350.

Flowering fern, 369.
Fly honey suckle, 348.

Liver leaf, 358.
Lizard tail, 352.

Poke weed, 355.
Pomegranate, 355.

Fool's parsley, 350.

Loose strife, 347.

Pond lily, 357.

Fox glove, 360.

Louse wort, 360.

Poplar, 368.

Four o'clock, 348.

Madder, 346.

Poppy, 357.

Fucus, 369.

Magnolia, 358.

Potatoe, 347.

Fumitory, 362.

Maiden hair, 368.

Pot marigold, 364.

Funaria, 369.

Mallows, 361.

Prickly ash, 368.

Garden artichoke, 363

Maple, 352.

Prickly pear, 355.

Garden daisy, 364.

Marchantia, 369.

Prim, 343.

Garlic, 350.

Mare's tail, 343.

Primrose cowslip, 347.

Gentian, 348.

Marigold, 364.

Princes' pine, 353.

Gill-over ground, 358.

Marjoram, 359.

Pumpkin, 367.

Ginseng, 349.

Marsh mallows, 361.

Purslane. 356.

Goat's beard, 363.
Golden rod, 364.

Matrimony, 346.
May weed, 364.

Quake grass, 345.
Quince, 356.

Golden saxifrage, 353.

Meadow rue, 357.

Radish, 361.

Gold thread, 357.

Menispermum, 368.

Raspberry, 356.

Gooseberry, 348.

Mezereon, 353.

Rattle box, 363.

Gourd, 367.

Mitella, 354.

Rattlesnake leaf, 365.

Grape vine, 348.

Misletoe, 368.

Red cock's comb, 366.

Grass pink, 365.
Ground ivy, 358.

Mock orange, 355.
Monkey flower, 360.

Red pepper, 347.
Red top, 344.

Ground nut, 362.

Monk's hood, 357.

Reed, 344.

Ground pine, 369.

Mother-wort, 358.

Reed mace, 365.

Gyrophora, 370.

Mountain mint, 358.

Rhubarb, 353.

Habenaria, 365.

Mouse ear, 355.

Ribbon grass, 345.

Halymenia, 369.

Mucor, 370.

Rice, 352.

Hard back, 356.

Mulberry, 366.

Rose, 356.

440

COMMON NAMES OF PLANTS.

Rose bay, 354.

Squills, 351.

Ulva, 369.

Rosemary, 344.

St. John's worts, 357.

Usnea, 370.

Hue, 353.

Staff tree, 348.

T redo, 370.

Rush urass, 351.
Rye, 31."..

Star grass, 351.
Star flower, 364.

•etable oyster, 363.
Venus' fly trap. 354.

Saffron, 344.

Star of Bethlehem, 3.11.

Venus' pride, 346.

Sane, 314.

Stock July flower, 360.

Ver.itrnm, 352.

Samphire, 343.

Stone crop, 355.

Vetch, 362.

is, 353.

Stork geranium, 361.

Violet, 348.

Satin tiower, 360.
Savon-, 358.

Stork's bill, 361.
Strawberry, 356.

Virginian orpine, 355.
Virgin's bower, 357.

Saxifrage. :di.

Succory, 362.

Wake robin, 366.

Bcabish, 352.

Sugar cane, 344.

Wall cress, 360.

Scarlet pimpernel!, 347.

Sumach, 350.

Wall flower, 360.

Scorpion crass, 346.

Sundew, 350.

Walnut, 367.

Scrophularia, 359.

Sun ray, 364.

Water arum, 366.

Scull cap, 359.

Sweet cicily, 349.

Water hemlock, 349.

Sensitive polypod, 368.
Shad flower, 356.

Sweet flag,"351.
Sweet pea, 362.

Water horehound, 345.
Water melon, 367.

Sheep berry, 350.
ShHl flower, 358.

Sweet pepper bush, 353.
Sweet vernal grass, 344.

Water radish, 360.
Wax bush, 355.

Shepherd's puree, 360.

Sweet William, 354.

Wheat, 345.

Shin leaf, 3.Vt.

Tansey, 363.

White cedar, 367.

Side-saddle flower, 357.

Tassel, 346.

White bush, 354.

Silk weed, 365.

Tea, 357.

White lettuce, 3f,3.

Skunk cabbage, 346.

Thistle, 363.

Whortleberry, 354.

Sleek leaf, 3.13.

Thorn apple, 347.

Wild cucumber, 367.

Smilax, 3iH.

Thorn bush, 356.

Wild bean.

Snake head, 360.

Thorough wort, 363.

Wild bean vine, 363.

Snake mouth, 365.

Thyme, 359.

Wild germander, 358.

Snake root, 362.

Timothy grass, 345.

Wild ginger, 365.

Snap dragon, 359.

Tobacco, 347.

Wild honev suckle, 347.

Snow ball, 350.

Touch-me-not, 34K

Wild indigo, 353.

Snow drop, 351.
Soap wort, 354.
Solomon's seal, 351.

Trailing arbutus, 354.
Trickle root, 360.
Trumpet flower, 359.

Wild mandrake, 356.
Wild sarsaparilla, 350.
Willow, 3ti7.

S{H.-«'il\Vell, 343.

Trumpet honey suckle, 34

8. Witch hazel, 346.

Spear t;ra--, 313.
Spear mint, 358.

Tuberose, 351.
Tulip, 351.

Wood sorrel, 355.
Worm wood, 3i'.3.

Spice leaf bush, 353.

Tulip tree, 358,

Wound-wort, 358.

Spicy winter green, 354.

Turnip, mil.

Yarrow, 364.

Spider grass, 350.

Turusol, 347.

Yellow eyed graw, 344.

Spider wort, 350.
Sprinc beauty, 348.

Twin be-ry, 348.
Twin flower, 346.

Yellow pond lily, 357.
Yellow root, 350.

Squash, 367.

ERRATA.

Page 86, 4th line from bottom, for calyxes read tcalet.
11 193, Fig. 101 is placed in' an inverted position.
K 213, 16th line from top, for honicera read lonic*ra.

CASS