j 1 mffflH 1 1 1 1 UNIV 1 1. 1 1 1 11 III nil |l^ j 3 1 i 1 ■^' / A/1 s> o THE LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Mrs. E.G. Hallman /.t'» Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of British Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/farmconvenienceOOhals FARM CONVENIENCES A PRACTICAL HAND-BOOK FOR THE FARM. TW^O HITNDBED AND TWELVB IIXlJSTRATLJNft N«W TORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY ^tered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by tit ORANGE JTJDD COMPANY, 2ft th* Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Wttsliingto" Printed in U. 8. Ao -^^ OF AC^^rr^-'^ PREFACE. Skill in the construction and use of simple labor» saving devices is of vast importance to the farmer, and any aid to the development of this manual dexterity is always very welcome. The volume, herewith presented, abounds in valuable hints and suggestions for the easy and rapid construction of a large number of home-made contrivances within the reach of all. It is an every-day hand-book of farm work, and contains the best ideas gathered from the ex- perience of a score of practical men in all departments of farm labor. Everv one of tlie two hundred and fortv pages, and two hundred and twelve engravings, teaclies a valuable lesson in rural economy. "Farm Convex- lEXCEs" is a manual of what to do, and how to do '* quickly and readily. CONTENTS. TAtn Bin for Oats 9 Fastenings for Cows 10 Nests, Movable, for Hens 11 Straw, How to get Rid of 13 Bulls, Young, The Management of 15 lee-Hook, A Convenient 17 Workshop, Hints for the 17 Barrel-Header, A 19 Boats, Building Ribless 21 Tug, To Mend a Broken 24 Hay Racks 27 Mired Animal, Extricating 2d Grinding Tools 83 Hanging Hogs, Method of 34 Bog Spavin, Relief for 35 Tool Boxes for Wagons 36 Hinge, Making a , , 38 Shelter for the Head 40 Level with Square and Plumb Line 41 Cattle, Keep under Cover 43 Watering Places for Stock 43 Shaving-Horse, A 44 Milking-Stool, A 45 Trap, A Locust 47 Manure Spreading 49 Tools, Putting Away 51 Doors, Self-Closing 52 Ventilators for Fodder Stacks 53 Com Marker for Uneven Ground 55 Harrow, A Home-Made 56 Land Clearing by Blasting 57 Losses, Preventable on the Farm 62 Qradle for Drawing a Boat 64 Feed Rack for Sheep 65 Night-Soil, How to Manage 66 Trough, A Water and Feed 69 Stalls, The Construction of 70 Hog Killing Implements, — Ringing 73 Cement, How to Mix 74 Bulls, Ringing and Handling 78 Sled for Removing Corn Shocks 81 Trough, A Tagging 83 Lime and Lime Kilna 83 Com, Unloading , 87 Stone Boats 88 Dump Cart, A 89 COXIE^'IS. Washing of Hill-Sidea, To Prevent 90 Mink-Trap, A Lo^ 93 Plowing From Inside of Field OS Wire Fence Tightener 95 Planting Com, A Marker 96 Feed Trough and Halter 99 Scow, How to Make a Fishing 101 Flood Fence 107 Clearing Slough Land 107 How to Dress a Beef 109 Farm Cart Ill Gate Post Braces 113 Whipple-Trees for Plowing Com 114 Fastening for Mill Leg 116 Hitching a Crib-Biter 119 Vegetable Matter, How to Increase in Soil 120 Open Links 121 Trap for Sheep-Killing Dogs 123 How to Use a File Properly 126 Manure Harvest, The 1 30 Fastening Cattle with Bows 131 Nest for Egg-Eating Hens 135 Plowing Gear for a Kicking Mule 136 Fork, A Leaf 137 Nail, Horse-Shoe, flow to Drive 139 Screw-Drivers 140 Prevent Cows Sucking Themselves 142 Hay Rack and Manger 145 Basket, A Bam 145 Cows Kicking, Treatment of 146 Boat-House, How to Build 147 Waste Lands. Make Them Useful 149 A Rat Guard 150 A Crupper-Pad for Horses 151 Dam for a Fish Pond 153 A Wagon Jack 154 Brace for a Kicking Horse 156 How to Save Liquid Manure 157 An Open Shed for Feeding 159 Shade for Horses' Eyes 160 AField Roller 163 Portable Slop Barrel 163 Where and How to Apply Fertili2ers 164 Mill for Crushing Bones 165 Farm Wheelbarrow 168 Balling of Horses' Feet, To Prevent 169 Cattle Throwing Fences, To Prevent 170 Feed Boxes 171 A Cattle Tie 173 ABeefRaiser 174 Cedar Stem SoU-Stirrer 175 i COHTTEI^TS. FAoa flint for Plg.KJlHnjr , 175 Mending Broken Tools. 176 A Large Feed-Rack. 178 Barn Door Fastening. 179 Fork Stable Scrapper 180 Curing Hay, Method of 181 Oranar^ Conveniences 182 Kon-Slipping Chain for Boulders 184 Pitchfork Holder 185 Hog Loader, A Convenient 186 Land Scraper 187 Bag-Holder, A Home-Made 189 Egg-Carrier, A Safety 190 Brush-Holder, A 192 Brood Sow Pens 193 Rabbit-Trap, A 194 Wooden Stable Floor 195 Holder or "Grip" for Rails 197 Orindstone-Box and Hangers 199 Com Loader 200 Drains, Protecting Outlets of 201 Log Boat, A 202 Wagon Seats, Cheap 203 Bag-Holder on Platform Scales 204 Drains, Making Board 206 Place for Tools 207 Vv^ater-Spout and Stock-Trough 209 Shed, A Desirable Milking 210 Wear Plate for Harness Tugs 211 Fence, Portable Water 2l2 Ditch Cleaner and Deepener 212 Dam, How to Build , 214 Hop Poles, How to Drive 215 Grain Box, A Convenient 216 Road-Scraper, A 817 Root Crops, Aids in Digging 218 Swinging-Stall Fronts 221 Corn Fodder, Save All Everywhere 222 Brush Rake, Improved 223 JMuck and Peat, Digging. 225 Cleaner for Horses' Hoofs 226 Shelter for Stock in Cold Weather 226 Troughs, Good Stone 227 Lambs, Artificial Feeding of 229 Bailed Box, A Convenient 230 Cart, Cheap Ensilage. 233 Hurdle, A Revolving Sheep 234 Nest for Setting Hen» 286 Barn-Yard Economy ....,...., 237 Shed, A Cheap Manure, .,-,■> <....• 288 FARM CONYEXIENCES. A CONVENIENT BIN FOR OATS. The usual receptacle for oats, corn, or mill feed, or other grain for domestic animals, is a common bin or box about four feet in higlit. It is difficult to get the grain out of such a place when the quantity is half or more exhausted. To obviate this inconvenience, there may be affixed, about one foot from the bottom on one side of the bin, a board, (B) figure 1. This is nailed so as to project into the bin at an angle sufficient to allow the filling of u measure between the lower edge of board B and top edge of the opening at 3f, The opposite lower side of the bin is covered with boards, as indicated Fig. 1. — A lii Mi uATS OK OTUEK FEED. by the dotted line at i?, for the purpose of placing the contents within easy reach. The top can be completed with hinged cover as well aa the delivery space. By 1* 10 FAEM COiq-VEN'IElS-CES. using a bin of this form, tlie last bushel la as aasiij r# DQOv^d as the first one. FASTENINGS FOR COWS. Although stanchions are really the safest fastening ior cows, yet some persons object to them because the animals are held in a too confined position, and one which is supposed to be painful, or otherwise objection- able to the cows. Most owners of valuable cows consider safety to be the first requisite in their management, and the question as to what the cow would like as of minor importance. Stanchions have the valuable recommen- dation that one always finds his cows in the morning just where they were left at night, if they have been properly secured. Nevertheless, for those who dislike stanchions, there are other safe ways of fastening cows. For some years we used the method shown in figures 2 and 3. In Fig. 2.— FASTENING BY SLIDING RING ON A POLF the first a strong smooth pole was inserted through the floor and *' stepped " into the beam beneath and into the floor above. It was also fastened by an iron strap bolted through the front of the trough. A steel ring to which FARM CONVENIENCES. 11 a steel chain was attached was made to elide up and down upon the post, and a. leather neck strap, or, in some cases, a leather head stall, was attached to the chain by a suitable ring or loop. The ring coulc' not fall so low as the fioor, being held by the edge of the feed-trough, and the cow's feet could not, therefore, be entangled in the chain by getting over it. This is the chief dangei in the use of neck straps and chains, but it may be avoid- ed in this way. Another plan is to have an iron rod bolted to the feed-trough, upon which the ring may slide. This is equally secure, and gives more room for move- ment to the cow. With these ring- ties it is best to have Fig. L5, — lAaTEMXG ATTACllilD TO FELD-inOl'QU. short stalls to prevent the cows interfering with each other, else one of them may step on to another as it is lying down. The teats are sometimes injured even when stanchions are used, but the dange/* of this is greater with chain ties. MOVABLE NESTS FOR EESS, Hens, as a general thing, are remarkably self-willed and obstinate. Perhaps an exception may bfi made as 12 FABM C0NVE2fIBX0BS» regards the Brahmas, which are very docile and easily managed. On account of this general peculiarity of fowls, many people who possess a somewhat similar dis- position, find no success in keeping them. Their hena will not lay in the nests provided for them, or after sit- ting a few days upon a nest of eggs, leave them and never return. The consequences are, either no eggs at all, or nests hidden where they cannot be reached ; no chickens, and time and labor lost. This may all be avoided if the owners will only study the habits and in- stincts of their poultry reasonably. One of the most inveterate habits of hens is that of hiding their nests, or seeking them in retired, shaded places. Those who would have plenty of eggs must make their arrangements ac- cordingly. A very cheap and convenient nest is shown in figure 4. It is made of pieces of board eighteen MOVABLE hen's ISfBST. inches long, nailed endwise to three-sided cleats at the top aud bottom. The box need not be more than eight- een or twenty inches in length. Some corner pieces are nailed at the front to make it firm, and the back PXBM COlJ^VEinBNOIS. Ik ihould be closed. These nests may be placed In lecludea corners, behind sheds, or beneath bushes in the back yeird, or behind a barrel or a bundle of straw. Tbe nest egg should be of glass or porcelain, and every even- ing the eggs that have been laid during the day should be removed. A little cut straw mixed with clean earth or sand, will make the best material for the nest. This should be renewed occasionally, for the sake of cleanli- ness. When a hen has taken possession of one of these nests, it may be removed at night to the hatching-house, without disturbing her. Before the nests are used, they should be thoroughly well lime-washed around the joints, to keep away lice. HOW TO GET RID OF STRAW. Many farmers in " the West," and some in what wo call '*the East," are troubled as to what they shall do with the piles of straw which lie about their fields. Upon the same farms with these nearly useless straw piles, many head of stock are kept, and many more might be kept, which could be made useful in reducing the straw to a condition in which it would serve aa manure. If the already urgent necessity for manure ipon the western and southern fields were realized, there ^^ould be little hesitation in takinsr measures to remove :lie difficulty. The chief obstacle is, that these involve either personal or liired labor ; the first is objectionable to many, and the second cannot be had for want of the money necessary to pay for it. The least laborioua method of using this straw and making it serve the double purpose of a shelter for stock and a fertilizer for the field upon which it has been grown, is as follows : Some poles are ^.i in the ground, and rails or othei 14 FARM COmTBNIBNOBS. poles are laid upon them so as to form a sloping root This is made near or around the place chosen for thrash- mg the grain. The straw from the thrashing-machine is heaped upon the rails, making a long stack, which form? three sides of a square, with the open side towards the south, and leaving a space beneath it in which cattle may be sheltered from storms. In this enclosure some rough troughs or racks may be placed, from which to feed corn. Here the cattle will feed and lie, or will lie at nights under shelter, while feeding during the day upon corn in the field. As the straw that is given them becomes trampled and mixed with the droppings, a further supply is thrown down from the stack. The accumulation may be removed and spread upon the field to be plowed in when it is so required, and the stakes pulled up and carried to another place, where they may be needed for the same purpose. Such a shelter as this would be very serviceable for the purpose of making manure, even where straw is scarce, as in parts of the Southern States. There pine boughs may be made to serve as a covering, and leaves, pine straw, dry pond muck, swamp muck, '* trash " from cotton fields, corn stalks, or pea vines, and any other such materials may be gathered and thrown from time to time beneath the cattle. Cotton-seed meal, straw, and coarse hay would keep stock In excellent order, and although there may be little snow or ice during the winter months in those States, yet the animals will be very much better for even this rude but comfortable shelter. In many other places such a temporary arrangement will be found useful in saving the hauling of straw, stalks, or hay from distant fields, and the carting of manure back again to them. It will be found vastly easier to keep a few young cattle in such a field, and go thither daily to attend to them during the winter when work is not pressing, than ^ PAEM C0NTENIENCB8. U Haul many loads of hay or straw to the bam at harvest tune, or many loads of manure in the busy weeks of spring. THE MANAGEMENT OP YOUNG BULLS. Many farmers want a method of disciplining bulls so that they may be made more docile and manageable. To do this it would be advisable to work them occasion- ally in a one-horse tread power. They should be used to this when young, and thus being made amenable to restraint, there will be no *' breaking " needed afterwards and consequently no trouble. We have used a Jersey bull in a tread-power in which he worked with mora steadiness than a horse, and twice a week he served a very useful purpose in cutting the fodder for the stock. Nothing more was needed than to lead him by a rope from the nose-ring into the tread-power, and tie him short so that he could not get too far forward. He was very quiet, not at all mischievous, and was a very sure stock bull ; and besides this, the value of his work was at least equal to the cost of his keep. Where there is no tread-power, a substitute may be found in the arrange- ment shown in figure 5. Set a post in the barn-yard, bore a hole in the top, and di'ive a two-"ich iron pin into the hole. Take the wheel of a wagon that has an iron axle, and set it upon the top of the post so that it will turn on the pin as on an axle. Fasten a strong pole (such as a binding pole for a hay wagon) by one end to the wheel, and bore two holes in the other end, large enough to take the arms of an ox-bow in them. Fix a light-elastic rod to the wheel, so that the end will be in advance of the end of the larger pole. Yoke the bull to the pole, and tie the nose-ring to the end of the elastic rod, in such a way that u slight pull is exerted upon the ring. Then 16 FAP-M APPLT.\-N"CES. FARM C0KVENIENCE8. 17 Uad the bull around a few times until b« geta used to it ; ho will then travel in the ring alone until he is tired, when he will stop. Two hours of this exercise a daj will keep a bull in good temper, good condition and excellent health. A CONVENIENT ICE-flOOK, A very handy ice-hook may be made as shown m tig- are 6. The handle is firmly fastened and keyed into a socket; at the end are two sharply- pointed spikes, one of which serves to push pieces of ice, and the other to draw them to the shore, or out of the water, to be loaded and removed. It may be made of light iron, horse-shoe bar will be heavy enough, and there is no need to have the i'>g «.— ice-hook. points steeled ; it will be sufficient if they are chilled, after they axe sharpened, in salt and ice pounded to- gether. HINTS FOR THE WORKSHOP. A grindstone is very seldom kept in good working or- der ; generally it is "out of true," as it is called, or worn out of a perfectly circular shape. A new stone is fre- quently hung so that it does not run "true," and the longer it is used, the worse it becomes. When this is the case, it may be brought into a circular shape by turning it down with a worn-out mill-file. It is very difficult to do this perfectly by hand, but it is easily done by the use of the contrivance shown in figure 7. A post, giotted in the upper part, is bolted to the frame. A 18 FAEM C0:N'VEXIENCE8. piece of hard wood, long enough to reach over the frame, is pivoted in the slot. This should be made two inches wider than the stone, and be pivoted, so that an opening can be made in the middle of it, of the same width as the stone. This opening is made with sloping ends, BO that a broad mill-file may be wedged into it in the same manner as a plane-iron is set in a plane. At the opposite end of the frame a second post is bolted to Fig. 7. — TRUEING A GRINDSTONE. it. A long slot, or a series of holes, is made in the lower ps^t of this post, so that it may be raised or lowered at pleasure by sliding it up or down upon the bolt. If a Blot is made, a washer is used with the bolt ; this will make it easy to set the post at any desired height. It ehould be placed so that the upper piece of wood may rest upon it, exactly in the same position in which the file will be brought into contact with the stone. A FAKM COXVEi^IEXCES, 19 weight is laid upon the upper piece to keep it down, and liold the cutter upon the stone. When the stone ia turned around slowly, the uneven parts are cut away, while those which do not project beyond the proper lina of the circumference are not touched. A Grinding Frame to hold tools is shown in figure & Fig. 8.— UOLDER FOR TOOLS. It is made of light pieces of pine, or hard wood. The tool to be ground ia fastened to the cross-piece. A sharp point, a nail, or a screw, is fastened to the nar- row end of the frame, and, when in use, the point ia stuck into the wall of the shed, which forms a rest. A NON-PATEXTED BARREL-HEADER. Not long si'jce we saw in operation a useful contriy* ance for pressing the heads of apple or egg barrels into place. Both apples and eggs require to be packed very no FAEM CONVENIENCES. firmly to enable them to be transported in barrels witli safety. Apples loosely packed in a barrel will come to market in a very badly bruised condition, and if the packing around eggs is not very firmly compressed, the eggs and packing change places or get mixed up, and it is the eggs, and not the packing, which then suffers. A barrel of eggs properly packed, with layers of chaff or oats an inch thick between the layers of eggs, and three inches at each end of the barrel, will bear to be com- pressed as much as three inches with safety; without this compression, eggs are almost sure to be greatly damaged. A barrel of apples may fill the barrel to about two inches above the chime, and will bear to have the head brought down to its place. When barrels containing these perishable articles are thus packed they may receive very rough usage without injury to the con- tents. The header referred to con- sists of a bar of half-inch square iron rod, with a large eye or loop at one end, and at the other end two diverging hooks which grasp the bottom of the barrel. The bar is bent to fit the curve of the bar- rel. When in use, the hooks are placed beneath the lower chime of the barrel, one end of a short lever is placed in the eye, and the lever rests upon a block, which is set upon the head of a barrel properly placed in position. A fetrap or cord, with a loop or stirrup at one end, is fastened to the other end of the lever. The foot is placed in the loop or stirrup, and the weight of the body thrown upon it brings the head of the barrel into its place; the hands being free, the hoops can be driven down tightly without the help of an assistant. Without the Fig. 9. — BAKREL-HEADER. FABM C0XVENIEKCE8. Zl nse of the cord and stirrup, two persons are required to head barrels, but with the aid of these the services of one can be dispensed with. BUILDING RIBLESS BOATS. A method of building boats, by which ribs are dii- pensed with, has recently been brought into use for coast, lake, and river crafts. These boats are light, swift, strong, and cheap. They have been found to be remarkably good sea boats, and to stand rough weathei without shipping water. By this method of huilding, fishermen and others who use boats can construct their own at their leisure, and in many cases become inde- pendent of the skill of the professional boat builder. The materials needed are clear pine boards, one inch thick, a keel of oak or elm, a stem and stem-post of the same timber, and some galvanized iron nails. Por small boats the boards and keel should be the whole length of the boat intended to be built ; for l)oats over sixteen feet in length, splices may be made without injuring the strength, if they are prop- erly put together. The materials having been ])ro- eured, a frame or a set of tressels are made, and the keel is fitted to them in the usual manner, by means of cleats on each side, and wedges. The stem and stern- post are then fitted to the keel in the usual manner, the joints being made water-tight by means of layers of freshly-tarred brown paper laid between the pieces, or by the use of a coating of thick white lead and oil. Previously to being fitted together, the sides of the keel, stem, and stem-post are deeply grooved to receive the first strip of planking. The boards are then ripped into strips one inch, or an inch and a half wide, according to the degired strength of the boat. For rough work. 2Z FARM COi^VBlflENCBS. FARM CONVENIEI5"CE3. 23 sacli as fishing with nets, or dredging, an inch and a Half would be a proper width for the strips. The rip- ping may be done with one of the hand circular sawing machines, or at a saw-mill, with gi-eat rapidity. The first strip is then nailed to the keel, a coating of tar or white lead having first been given to the groove in the keel already prepared for it. The broad side of the ^rip is laid next to the keel. A set of molds, corre- sponding to the lines or form of the boat, are cut out of inch boards, and tacked to the keel in the manner shown m figure 10, with the help of cleats upon each side. Then one strip after another is nailed to each preceding one, and the shell of the boat is built up of these strips. Each strip is trimmed down at the ends in a proper manner, with a drawn knife, or a plane, and as each one is nailed to the preceding one, some of the tar or white lead is brushed over it, to make the joint tight and close. A sufiBcient number of nails is used to hold the strips firmly together, and the heads are driven down level with the surface of each strip. The work proceeds in this manner, forming the strips as each is fitted, bending them to the shape of the molds, and nailing one alter- nately upon each side, so that the molds are not dis- placed by the spring of the timber. When the sides of the boat are completed, the fender and gunwales are fitted, and bolted to them to strengthen them, and cleats are bolted inside for the seats to rest upon. The molds are now removed, and the bout consists of a solid shell an inch and a half thick, with not a nail visible excepting on the top strip, and conforming exactly in shape to the model. To give extra strength, short pieces of the strips are nailed diagonally across the inside, from side to side, and across the keel. In this manner a great deal of additional t-tiffness and strength is given to the boat, A boat of this kind is easily repaired when 24 FARM COlsVENIENOBS. injured, by cutting out the broken part and inserting pieces of the strips. For a larger boat, which require« a deck, the strips are wider and thicker, or a diagonal lining may be put into it ; knees are bolted to the sides, and the beams to the knees, the deck being laid upon the beams. The method is applicable to boats of all sizes and for all purposes, and its cheapness and con- venience are rapidly bringing it into fayor. If the material is ready for use, two men can finish a large boat in two weeks, and a small one in one week. These boats being very light and buoyant, considerable ballast will be necessary to make them steady enough in case sails are used. TO MEND A BROKEN TUG. No one should go from home with a buggy or a wagon without a small coil of copper wire and a ^'mul- turn in parvo " pocket-knife. This knife, as its name implies, has many parts in a little space, and, among other useful things, has a contrivance for boring holes in leather straps. In case a strap or a leather trace breaks, while one is on a journey, and at a distance from anv house, one would be in an awkward *' fix " if with- out any means of repairing damages. With the copper H^ire and an implement for boring some holes, repairs can be made in a very few minutes. The ends of the broken strap or tug may be laid over each other or spliced ; a few holes bored in the manner shown in fig- ure 11, and some stitches of wire passed through in the way known among the ladies as '* back stitching." The ends of the wire are twisted together, and the job will be finished almost as quickly as this may be read. If it ia a chain that breaks, the next links may be brought to- gether and wire wound around them in place of the FARM COITVEiaEXCES. 91 broken link, w^hich will make the chain serviceable until home is reached. In fact, the usea of a piece of wire are almost endless. Nothing holds a button upon one's working clothes so securely as a piece of wire, and once put on in this manner, there is never any call upon the women of the house at inconvenient times for thread Fig. 11, — REPAIRING TUG. and needle to replace it. The wire will pierce the cloth without any help, and nothing more is needed than to pass it through each hole of the button and twist the ends to secure them, cutting them off close with a knife. There is scarcely any little thing that will be found of so great use about a farm, or a workshop, or in a mill, or even in a house, as a small stock of soft copper wire. BUSINESS HABITS. There is probably not one farmer in ten thousand who keeps a set of accounts from whicli he can at any mo- ment learn the cost of anything he may have produced, or even the cost of his real property. A very few farm- ers who have been brought up to business habits keep such accounts, and are able to tell how their affairs pro- gress, what each crop, each kind of stock, or each ani- mal has cost, and what each produces. Knowing these points, a farmer can, to a very great extent, properly de- cide what crops he will grow and what kind of stock he will keep. He will thus be able to apply his labor and money where it will do the most good. He can weed out his stock and retain onlv such animals as mav be kept with profit, "P'or the want of such knowledge % 86 FARM COITVENIENCES. fanners continue, year after year, to feed cows that are unprofitable, and frequently sell for less than her value one that is the best of the herd, because she is not known to be any better than the rest. Feed is also wasted upon ill-bred stock, the keep of which costs three or four times that of well-bred animals, which, as has been proved by figures that cannot be mistaken, pay a large profit on their keeping. For want of knowing what they cost, poor crops are raised year by year at an actual loss, provided the farmer's labor, at the rates current for common labor, were charged against them. To learn that he has been working for fifty cents a day, during a number of years, while he has been paying his help twice as much, would open the eyes of many a farmer who has actually been doing this, and it would convince him that there is some vahie in figures and book ac- counts. It is not generally understood that a man who raises twenty bushels of corn per acre, pays twice as much for his plowing and harrowing, twice as much for labor, and twice as great interest upon the cost of his farm, as a neighbor who raises forty bushels per acre. Nor is it understood that when he raises a pig that makes one hundred and fifty pounds of pork in a year, that his pork costs him twice as much, or the corn he feeds brings him but half as much as that of his neigh- bor, whose pig weighs three hundred pounds at a year old. If all these things were clearly set down in figures upon a page in an account book, and were studied, there would be not only a sudden awakening to the unprofita- bleness of such farming, but an immediate remedy would be sought. For no person could resist evidence of this kind if it were once brought plainly home to him. If storekeepers, merchants, or manufacturers kept no ac- counts, they could not possibly carry on their business, and it is only because the farmer's business is one of th« PARil COISTENIENCES. 27 most safe that he can still go on working in the dark, anrl throwing away opportunities of bettering his con- ditiou and increasing his profits. HAY-RACKS. We here illustrate two kinds of hay-racks, which have Fig. 12.— HAY-RACK. i»cen found more convenient in use than some of the old Fig. 13.— RA-^K FOR eSADf. kinds. That shown in figure 1*2 consists of a frame made 28 FABM CONVEKIEN-CBS. lillililli^^ ^ ^^^H 1 f9 FAEM C0XTENIENCE8. 29 of Bcantlings, mortised together, and fitting upon the wagon after the box has been removed. Cross-pieces, which project over tue wheels, are bolted to the frame, and to these one or two side-boards arc bolted. A few short, sharpened stakes are fixed into the sides of the frame, which help to hold the load, and prevent it from slipping off from the rack during the loading. A strong rack of this kind may be made to carry a very large load of hay. We have seen over thirty hundred-weight loaded upon one of them, and more might have been easily added to the load. The plan of building this rack is readily seen by studying the engrav- ing. At figure 13 is shown a rack made to fit upon a wagon body. When grain is hauled, much is sometimes lost through the rack, by shelling. This is almost always the case in hauling ripe oats, and always in drawing buckwheat. To avoid this loss, wo have used a strong wagon-box of rough planks, fitted with iron sockets, bolted securely to the sides. Into these sockets were fitted head and tail racks, as shown in the engraving. For the sides we procured natural crooks, shown in figure 14. Fig. 14. — SUPPORT roB RACK. HOW TO EXTRICATE A MIKED ANIMAL.; An animal mired in a swamp gets into a worse pre- dicament the longer it struggles. The effort to extricate it should be made in an effective manner, po that the ani- mal may no^ be encouraged toexhnu?t itself in repeated ex- ertions, which are useless, and only sink it deeper in the mire. The usual method is to fasten a rope around the 80 FARM COIJVENIENCES. animal's horns or neck, and while this is pulled by some of the assistants, others place rails beneath the body of the animal for the purpose of lifting it out of the hole. This plan is sometimes effectiye, but it often is not, and at best it is a slow, clumsy, and laborious method. The materials needed for the method here referred to are all that are required for a much better one, which is illus- trated in Figure 15. This is very simple, and two men can operate it, and, at a pinch, even one man alone may succeed with it. A strong stake or an iron bar is driven into the solid ground at a distance of twenty-five feet or more from the mired animal. Two short rails, about nine feet long, are tied together near the ends, so that they can be spread apart in the form of a pair of shears, for hoisting. A long rope is fastened around the horns or neck of the animal, with such a knot that the loop cannot be drawn tight enough to do any injury. The rope is cast over the ends of the rails as they are set up upon the edge of the solid ground, and carried to the stake or crow-bar beyond. The end of the rope is fast- ened to a stout hand-spike, leaving about a foot of the end of it free. This end is laid against the bar or stake, and the other end is moved around it so that the rope is wound upon it, drawing it up and with it drawing the animal out of the mire. The rope being held up by the tied rails, tends to lift the animal and make its extrica- tion very easy. HOW TO SAVE AND KEEP MAinJRE. There is no question more frequently or seriously con- sidered by the farmer, than how he shall get, keep, and spend an adequate supply of manure ; nor is there any- thing about the farm which is of greater importance to its successful management than the manure heap PAfiH CONVEXIENOES. 81 rhere are few farmers now left who pretend to ignore this feed for the land ; and few localities, even in the newer Western States, where manure now is thought to be a nuisauce. We have gradually come to the inevitable final end of our ** virgin farms," and have now either to save what is left of their wonderful natural fertility, or to restore them slowly and laboriously to a profitable condition. We have reached the end of our tether, and we obliged to confess that we have trespassed over the line which bounds the territory of the locust, or have improved the face of the country so much that, the pro- tecting timber being removed, the water supply is be- coming precarious, and springs, brooks, and rivers no longer flow as they did heretofore. To some extent the tide of emigi'ation, which has flowed westward so many years, is now eddying or even ebbing, and the cheap, worn lands of the East are finding purchasers, who un- dertake to bring them back to their fonner condition. At the same time Eastern farmers are discovering more and more certainly that they must increase their crops, and make one acre produce as much as two have hereto- fore done. The only way in wbich either of these classes can succeed, is by keeping sufficient stock to manure their farms liberally ; to feed these animals so skillfully and well that they shall pay for their feed with a profit, and in addition leave a supply of rich manure, with which the soil can be kept in a productive state, and to save and use the manure with such care that no particle of it be lost. It is not every farmer who can procure all the manure he needs ; but very many can save what they have, with far greater economy than they now do ; and this, although it may seem a question secondary to that of getting manure, is really of primary importance ; for by using what one has to better pur])ose, he opens a Way to increase his supply. We have found this to be S3 FARM COKVEl^^IBNflES. the case in our own experience^ and by strict attention to saving and preserving every particle of manure in its best condition, we have succeeded in so enlarging our supply of fodder that the number of stock that could be fed was largely increased each year, and very soon it was necessary to go out and buy animals to consume the sur- plus. To bring a farm into improved condition, there is no cheaper or more effective method than this. The ordinary management of manure, in open barn- yards, where it is washed by rains, dried by the sun's Bcorching heat, and wasted by every wind that blows, is the worst that is possible. In this way half or more of the value of the manure is lost. By figuring up what it would cost to purchase a quantity of manure equal to what is thus lost, the costliness of this common method would be discovered, and the question how much could be afforded to take care of the manure would be settled. When properly littered, one cow or ox will make a ton of manure every month, if the liquid as well as the solid portion is saved. Ten head would thus make one hun- dred and twenty tons, or sixty two-horse wagon loads in a year. A pair of horses will make as much manure as one cow, or twelve tons in the year. A hundred sheep, if yarded every night and well littered, will make one hundred tons of manure in the year, and ten pigs will work up a wagon load in a month, if supplied with sufficient coarse material. The stock of a one hundred acre farm, which should consist of at least ten cows, ten head of steers, heifers, and calves, a pair of horses, one hundred sheep, and ten pigs, would then make, in th« aggregate, three hundred and sixteen tons of manure every year, or sufficient to give twelve tons per acre every fourth year. If this were well cared for, it would be, in effect, equal to double the quantity of ordinary yard mauuro : and if a plenty of swamp muck could be pro- JTABM CONVENIENCES. 83 oared, at least bix hundred tons of the best manure could b<) made upon a one hundred acre farm. If this were tiie rule instead of a rare exception, or only a possibility, what a change would appear upon the face of the coun- try, and what an addition would be made to the wealth of the nation I GRINDING TOOLS. The useful effect of many tools depends greatly upon the exact grinding of their edges to a proper bevel. A cold cliisel, for instance, requires an edge of a certain E !fOR GRINDING MILL-PICKi. bevel to cut hard metal, and one of a different angle for softer metal; the harder the work to be cut, the greater should be the angle formed by the edge, and the softer th(- material, the more acute the edge. The same rulf a* 34 FARM CONVENIENCES. is to be observed in wood-cutting tools. But there are no tools which require more exact and careful grinding than mill-picks, and the first business of a miller is to "^inow how to grind his picks. Upon this depends the dress of the stones, and the quality of work turned out by them. Figure 16 represents a small grindstone for sharpening picks, which is run by means of friction wheels covered with leather, and provided with a gauge for setting the pick at a variable angle to the stone. This gauge, shown in the engraving, is so serviceable as to be well worth a place in any farm workshop. It con- sists of a series of steps raised upon a slotted plank, which is screwed upon the frame of the grindstone. By means of the slot and a set screw, seen below the pick, the gauge can be set for tools of different lengths, and each step causes the tool set in it to be ground at a dif- f^ent angle. A METHOD OF HANOmG HOGS. An easy method of hanging a hog or a beef, is by the nse of the tripod shown in figure 17. It is made of three by three oak scantling, six feet long, connected at one end, iu the manner shown, by means of an iron bar one inch thick, passed through a hole bored in each piece. The two outside pieces are fastened together by two cross-pieces, bolted to them, so that they are spread at the bottom sufiiciently, which would be about three feet. A hook is fastened to the lower cross-piece, upon which the hog is suspended. Fig. 17.-TRIP0D SET UP. Tq j^^^g ^^Q i^^g ^-^Q fj,ajjje is laid upon the ground with the hog between the outside FAKM CONVENIENCES. 35 legs, the third leg being drawn backwards. The hog is hooked by the gambrei stick to the cross piece, the frame 18 lifted up, and the hinder leg is spread out so as to sup- port it, as shown in figure 17. The frame may be lowered easily when the hog has to be taken down, and as the frames are cheaply made, and occupy little room, it will be well to have several of them. They may be made to serve other useful purposes. RELIEF FOR BOG-SPAVIN AND THOROUGH-PIN. Bog-spavin, and thorough-pin, which are in reality die same disease, differing in position only, and that very slightly, may be considered as incurable. But like many chronic disorders, they may be very much relieved by proper methods. They are caused by an inflammatory condition of the synovial membrane of the hock joint, and are chiefly located in the vicinity of the junction of the bones of the leg, or the capsule between the tibia and the astragalus. This inflammation may be primarily caused by sudden shocks, or by continued strains from hard work, and the troubles are common among those horses which are of a lymphatic constitution, soft boned, or hereditarily subject to scrofulous or inflammatory con- ditions. They are also found lower down the leg, in which case they are the result of inflammation of the sheath of the tendons. They do not always cause lame- ness, except when the horse is first brought from the stable, and after a short time the stiffness may pass away. At other times there is great heat and tenderness in the parts, and the animal is decidedly lame. The best treatment is by cold applications and pressure upon the part. Blistering, which is sometimes resorted to., generally increases the trouble, and may cause a perma- nent thickening of the tissues, and a stiff joint, Pres- 86 FARM COi^VElJ^IENCES. sure is best applied by a sort of truss, or strap, provided with a single pad m case of spavin or wind-gall, or double pads in case of thorough-pin, which is sim- ply a spavin or wind-gall, so placed that the liquid which is gathered in the sac or puff may be pressed be'- tweenthe tendons or joint, and madt to appear on the opposite side of th^j leg. In this case it is obviously necessary to apply the pressure upon both sides of the leg, and a double pad strap will be needed, of the form shown in figure 18. A com- mon broad leather strap, lined with flannel, or chamois leather, to pre- vent chafing, is used ; pads of soft Fig. i8.~sPAviN PAD. leather, stuffed with wool, are sewn to the strap, and the exact spots where the pressure is to bear, disks of several thicknesses of soft leather or rubber are affixed. The pads must necessarily be made to fit each individual case, as success will depend upon their properly fitting the limb. The pads should be worn continually until the swelling disappears, and meanwhile, at least twice daily, the parts should be bathed for some time with cold water, and cloths wetted with cold water, with which a small quantity of ether h»B been mixed, should be bound around the parts, and the pads buckled over them so tightly as to exert a con siderable pressure. Absolute rest is necessary while the animal is under this treatment. TOOL-BOXES FOR WAGONS, ETC. To go from homo with a wagon without taking ft few fcooli, is to nak a break-down from some unforeseen aooi* FARM C0XVENIEXCE8. 87 dent, without the means of repairing it, and perhaps a consequent serious or costly delay. Those who do busi- ness regularly upon the roads, as those who haul lumber, wood, coal, or ores of different kinds, should especially be pro- vided with a set of tools, as a reg- ular appurtenance to the wagon, and the careful farmer in going Fig. 19.— wagon box. to market or the mill, or even to and fro upon the farm, should be equally well provided. We have f jund by experience that a break-down generally happens in the worst possible place, and where it is most difficult to help one's self. The loss of so simple a thing as a nut or a bolt may wreck a loaded wagon, or render it impossi- ble to continue the journey, or some breakage by a sud- den jerk upon a rough road may do the same. It is safe to be provided for any event, and the comfort of knowing that he is thus provided greatly lightens a man's labor. At one time, when we had several wagons and teams at work upon the road, we provided the fore* man's wagon with a box such as is here described, and it was in frequent use, saving a considerable outlay that would otherwise have l)een necessary for repairs, besides much loss of valuable time. It was a box about eight- een inches long, sixteen inches wide, and six inches deep, divided into several compartments. It was supplied with a spare king-bolt, a hammer-strap, wrench, some staples, bolts, nuts, screws, a screw-driver, a hammer, cold-chisel, wood-chisel, punch, pincers, a hoof-pick, cx)pi>er rivets, a roll of copper wire, a knife heavy and strong enough to cut down a small sapling, a roll of narrow hoop-iron, some cut and wrought nails, and such other things as experience proved to bo convenient to have. The shape of the box i^ shown in figure 19. The middle of the top L^ fixed, and on each side of it is a lid 8d FARM CONVEi?^IEKCES. hinged to it, and which is fastened by a hasp and staple, and a padlock or a spring key. The box is suspended to the wagon reach, beneath the box or load, by two strong leather straps with common buckles. Being only six inches deep, it is not in the way of anything, and is readily accessible when wanted. MAKING A HINGE. A gate with a broken hinge is a very forlorn object, and one that declares to every passer-by, ^* here lives a poor farmer." If there is one thing more than another worthy of note and a cause of congratulation in this one hundredth year of the existence of the United States, it is the infinite number of small conveniences with which we are supplied, every one of which adds to the sum of our daily comfort. More than this, the majority of these little things, which are in use all over the world, are the inventions and productions of Americans. So plentifully are we supplied with these small conveniences, that we cannot turn our eyes in any direction without coming across some of them. It is these small matters which enable us to have so many neat and pleasant things about our homes, at so little cost of mone}^, time, or labor. One of the greatest of the small conveniences around the farm, or the mechanic's rural home, is the small forge. To make a gate-hinge with the help of this portable forge is a very easy thing. We take a piece of half-inch square bar-iron, as long as may be needed, and heating one end, round it for an inch or two ; then, heating the other end, flatten it out gradually to a point for the same length, and bend it over a mandrel, or the nose of an anvil, into the shape shows PARM CONTEK^IENCES. 80 in figure 20. We then cut off a piece of round half-inch bar, about two inches long, and drive it into the loop, tightening the loop around it as much as pos- ^^^- ^* sible. The loop-end is then brought to a welding heat, and the joint closed around the pin, and neatly worked smooth with the hammer. Another piece of square iron is then taken, and worked at each end the same as the first one, the loop, however, is worked open upon a piece of cold |-inch round bar, so that it will be large enough. to work easily upon the pin of the first piece. A thread may now be cut upon the round ends, or they may be riveted over a piece of iron plate, or a large washer, when they are driven through the gate-post and the heel-post of the gate. It is best, however, to have a screw-thread and a nut, using a washer under each nut, to prevent the wood from being crushed. The whole then appears as at figure 21, and is a hinge that cannot easily be broken or worn out. In boring the holes for a hinge of this kind, a bit or an auger of only half-an-inch diameter should be Fig. 21. used, so that the edges of the iron should cut their own way into the wood, and when the hinges are driven, a piece of hard wood should be laid upon the ends that are stnick, so that they will not be battered by the hammer. Care must be exercised to have them driven in squarely, so that the gate may swing without binding on the hinges. For lighter hinges, the same sized iron may be used, but the ends should be hammered out to a point, and the edges should be notched or bearded with a cold-chisel, as shown at figure 22. These may be driven into a post ^'ff- ^• very readily, if a hole smaller than the iron be bored to 40 FARM CONVENIEK^OES. kad the way, and when driven in, will not be easily drawn out. When it is necessary to draw a hinge out of a post or gate, that has become rusted in, or that has been very tightly driven, it may easily be done by boring a hole above it, or on one side of it, or beneath it, a little larger than the iron, and then forcing it into the hole by means of a wooden wedge driven close to it. It will then be loose, and may easily be taken out without difficulty. SHELTER FOR THE HEAD. Many a severe headache, and a restless night after an exhausting day's work in the harvest field, might be prevented by the use of some simple precautions. The sun beats down upon the head and neck with great force, when the thermometer marks ninety degrees and over in the shade, and the scorching effect of a heat of one hundred and twenty degrees in the direct sunshine is both uncomfortable and dangerous to the health. The head should be protected in such cases by wearing a straw hat, or one of some open material, with a broad brim, and by placing a leaf of cabbage or let- tuce, or a wetted cambric handker- chief in the crown of it. The very sensitive back of the head and neck is best protected by means of a white handkerchief fastened by one border to the hat-band, figure 23, and the rest made to hang down loosely over the neck and shoul- ders. The neck is thus shaded! from the sun's rays, and the looselj flapping handkdrohief oausei a constant ourrent of air to Fig. 23. —NECK-PRO- TECTOR. FARM CONVENIENCES. 41 pass around and cool the neck and head. We have found this to be a most comfortable thing to wear, and its value as a protector to the base of the brain and the spinal marrow is so well known in hot countries, that the use of a similar protection is made imperative in armies when on the march. HOW TO LEVEL WITH SQUARE AND PLUMB-LINE. The common carpenter's square and a plumb-line may be made to serve as a substitute for the spirit level for many purposes on the farm or elsewhere, when a level is not at hand. The manner of getting the square in position to level a wall, for instance, is shown in figure Fip;. 34.— MANNER OF LEVELLING A WALL. 24. A piece of board, three feet in length, having one end sharpened, is driven into the ground for a rest ; a notch is made in the top of the stick large enough to hold the square firmly in position, as shown in the en- graving. A line and weight, held near the short arm, and parallel to it, will leave the long ann of the square leT*l. By sighting over the top of tha iquftre, any irreg- 42 PAEM COKVEKIEITCES. ularities in the object to be levelled are readily discoyered, A method to find the number of feet in a descent in the ground is illustrated by figure 25. The square is placed as before directed ; then a sight is taken over and along the upper edge of the square to a pole or rod placed at a 6 5. — .,,. — .i"# H3 z i Fig. 25.— measuking a slope with a square. desired point. The point on the pole which is struck by the line of sight shows the difference between the levels of the two places. This method will be found ap- plicable in lapng out drains, where a certain desired fall is to be given to the ditch. KEEP THE CATTLE UNDER COVER. Even now, in some of the newer regions of the West, the easiest way to get rid of the manure is considered the best. The English farmers have long been obliged to feed farm animals largely for the fertilizers they yield, and this has proved that covered yards are the most economical. These covers are not so expensive as might be supposed at first thought. Substantial sheds, large enough to accommodate a hundred head of cattle, may be built at a cost all the way from $1,000 to 11,500, FABM COmTENIENCZS. US fjccording to the locality and price of labor and lumber. The roof may be made with three ridge poles resting upon outside walls, and two rows of pillars. There should be ample provision for ventilation and the escape of the water falling upon the roof. The original cost will not be many dollars per head, and the interest on this will represent the yearly cost. If this should be placed at two dollars for each animal, it will be seen that this outlay is more than repaid by the increased value of the housed manure over that made in the open yard, and exposed to the sun and drenching rains. The saving in food consequent upon the warm protection of the animals has been carefully estimated to be at least one-tenth the whole amount consumed. In the saving alone, the covered yard gives a handsome return upon the investment. WATERING PLACES FOR STOCK OX LEVEL LAND. It is frequently the case that there are underdrains of living water passing through level fields, in which thero is no water available for stock. In such a case, a simple Fig. 20.— TAKING WATER FROM UMDEKDRAIN. plan for bringing the water to the surface is shown in figures 26 and 27, in which is indicated an underdrain of stone or tile ; a pipe of two-inch bore of wood ot tile, and about 15 feet in length, is laid level with the bottom of the drain, and connecting with a box one foot or more square sunk into the /ground. If the soil b« u FARM C0KVEKIEKCE8. soft, the box is surrounded with stones as shown. A loTV place or small hollow at some point along the drain is selected for the watering box, or, should the land be .iT!4iM''"i!!ijii;v::' .:>(- Fig. 27.— THE WATERING PLACE. nearly level, then with plow and scraper an artificial hollow is soon made at any point desired. Two fields may be thus easily watered by making the box two feet in length, and placing it so that the fence will divide it. A SHAVING-HORSE. The shingle-horse, shown in figure 28, is made of t plank ten feet long, six inches wide, and an inch and Fig. 28.— SHAVING-HORSE FOR SHINGLES. a half thick. A slot is cut through this plank, and n lever, made of a natural crook, is hinged into it. A trooden epring is fixed behind the le^fer, and i» fastened FABH COXVEXIEXCES. 45 to it by a cord. This pulls back the lever when the foot is removed from the step beneath. The horse may have four legs, but two will be sufficient, if the rear end is made to rest upon the ground. Figure 29 is made of a plank, six feet long, ten inches wide, and two inches thick. Four legs, t^vo feet long, are fixed in inch and a half holes, as shown below. A bench, eighteen inche« Fig. 29.— HORSE FOR GENERAL USE. long, eight and a half inches wide, and an inch and a half thick, is fixed upon the horse. A slot, eight by one and a lialf inches, is cut through the bench and the plank, and the lever, two feet eight inches long, is fixed in this by means of a pin passing through the bench. Some extra holes are made in the lever, by which the height of the head above the bench may be changed to suit different sizes of work. A head is put upon the lever, six inches square eacli way, but bevelled off at the front. The foot-board, five by ten inches, is fastened to the bottom of the lever by a strong pin. A MILKING-STOOL. The froL" of the stool (figure 30) is hollowed to re- ceive the pail, which is kept in its place by a wire, fixed M ihown in tht engraritig. Ths front Ug hM a pro- 46 FARM COi^-VEiq-IENCES. jecting rest upon which the bottom of the pail is placed to keep it from the ground, and also from breaking Fig. 30.— A MILKING-STOOL. away the wire by its weight. The milker may either sit astride of this stool, or sideways upon it. HOW TO TREAT THRUSH. Thrush is a disease of the horse's hoof, quite common in this country. It results oftener from neglect in the stables than from any other cause. The symptoms are fetid odor and morbid exudation from the frog, accom- panied with softening of the same. A case recently came under our observation. A young carriage horse, used mostly on the road, and kept in the stable through the year, showed lameness in the left fore foot one morn-, ing after standing idle in the stable all the previous day. On removing the shoe, and examining the hoof, a fetid odor was observed. The stable was examined, when the sawdust used for bedding was found to be saturated with urine. The stable was cleaned immediately. Dry saw- dust was placed in the stall, and a few sods packed in the space where the horse usually rested his fore feet. The lameness diminished without medical treatment, FARM COXVENIENCBS. 47 and in ten days disappeared altogether. A bedding of sawdust or earth, covered with straw or leaves, jDromotea the comfort of the horse, but it needs watching and systematic renewing. The limit of the absorbing power of the driest soil, or sawdust, is soon reached. If a horse is kept most of the time in the stable, his bedding Boon becomes wet, and unfit for his use. It is all the better for the compost heap, and for the horse, to have frequent renewals of absorbments of some kind, that fermentation may not be in progress under his hoofs. The proper place for this fermentation is in the compost heap. Too often the care of the horse is left to a servant without experience in the stable, and the result is per- manent disease in the hoofs and legs of the horse. This is most certainly one of the cases in which " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." A WESTERN LOCUST TRAP. A great many devices have been used for the destruc- tion of the locusts in those Western States where they have done so much mischief for a few years past. Whether the locusts are to remain as a permanent pest to the W^estem farmers, or not, remains to be proved. It is certain, however, that through some effects of the climate, the attacks of parasitic enemies, their consump- tion by birds and other animals, and by the efforts of the farmers themselves, the locusts have of late been greatly reduced in numbers, and their depredations have become almost inconsiderable. Many methods have been adopted for their destruction. Rolling the ground ; plowing fur- rows, and making pits in them in which the insects are caught ; burning them in long piles of dry grass ; catch- ing them in large sacks, and upon frames smeared with 48 FARM COI^^VENIElirOES. gas tax*, and upon large sheet-iron pans containing burn- ing fuel ; all these have been tried with more or lesa success, as well as the negative means of diverting them from their course by means of thick smoke from smoth- ered fires of prairie hay. A most effective method is one invented by a woman in Minnesota. This consists of a large strip of sheet-iron, figure 31, from ten to thirty feet long, turned up a few inches at the ends and one side ; a wire is fixed to each end, or at proper places in the front, by which it can be drawn over the ground by a pair of horses or oxen. A light chain or rope is fixed so as to drag upon the ground a foot in advance of Fig. 31. — TRAP FOR CATCHING LOCUSTS. the front of the sheet -iron, by which the locusts are dis- turbed and made to jump, and as the machine is moving on at the same time, they drop upon it. A thick coat of gas- tar is smeared over the surface of the iron, in which the locusts are imbedded and stick fast. The vig- orous kicking of the trapped insects helps to keep the mass stirred up, and present a sticky surface. When the trap is full, the locusts are raked off iuto a pile, and set on fire and consumed. This machine can be drawn over young wheat without injury, as it is not hesLYj enough to break it down, and being flexible, conforma to the surface of the ground it is passing over. The en- graving shows the manner of preparing the sheet-iron tor this purijose. The eoafciou when the locustt have i^ARil COXVEXIEXCES. id formerly damaj^ed tlie newly sprouted wheat is in the spring, and it will be useful for many Western farmers to know of this cheap and effective method, which is not patented, and for which they may thank a farmer's wife of more than usual ingenuity and habits of observa- tion. SPREADING MAmJRB The winter is a good season for spreading manure. It is immaterial whether the ground is covered with enow or not, or whether it is frozen or soft, provided it is not too soft to draw loads over, and that the ground U not upon a steep hill-side, from which the manure may be washed by heavy rains or by sudden thaws. We have spread manure upon our fields several winters, and always with advantage, not only in saving labor and time, but also to the crops grown after it, more espe- cially to oats and potatoes. In spreading the manure, it FI^'. 32.— WAGOK WITH KAl.-^i.. .v.. v. IB the best to drop it in lieaps, leaving it to be spread by a man as soon as pos:-ible afterwards. This maybe done most readily by using a manure hook, with which the manure is drawn out of the tiled or wa^^on-box. Sloping 8 §0 FAEM CONVEITIENCES. wagon-beds are used for hauling various heavy materials, and why should they not be used for this, the heaviest and most bulky load a farmer has to handle ? A wagon, having the box raised (figure 32), so that the forward wheels could pass beneath it, would be very convenient on a farm. It could be turned in its own length, and handled with vastly greater facility than the ordinary farm wagon, which needs a large yard to be turned in. Such a wagon could be unloaded with great ease and Fig. ^.—MANNER OF SPREADING. very rapidly by the use of the hook, and in case It was desired to spread the load broadcast from the wagon, that could be done perfectly well. But to do this keeps the horses idle the greater part of the time, and is an unprofitable practice. Two teams hauling will keep one man busy in the yard helping to load, and another in the field spreading ; the work will then go on without loss of time. In di'opping the heaps, they may be left in rows, one rod apart, and one rod apart in the row • each load being divided into eight heaps. This will giva twenty loads per acre. If ten loads only are to be spread, the rows should be one rod apart, and the heapa two FABH COKYEKIENOES. §1 rods apart m the rows. In spreading the manure, it should be done evenly, and the heaps should not be made to overlap. If there is one heap to the square rod, it should be thrown eight feet each way from the centre, covering a square of sixteen and one half feet, as shown ip figure 33. One heap then is made to join up to another, and the whole ground is equally manured. There is more in this point than is generally supposed by farm- ers, many of whom are careless and wasteful in this re- spect, giving too much in some places, and too little in others. The consequence is uneven growth over the field, rusted grain, or perhaps laid straw in some places, and in others a half-starved crop. Another important point in spreading is, to break up the lumps, and scatter the fine manure. Unless this is done, the field cannot be evenly fertilized. There is work about this, which would tempt some hired men to neglect it, but it should not only be insisted upon, but looked to, and its per- formance insured. PUTTIXG AWAY TOOLS. The wearing out of farm implements is, as a rule, due more to neglect than to use. If tools can be well taken care of, it will pay to buy those made of the best steel, and finished in the best manner ; but in common hands, and witli common care, sucli are of little advantage. Iron and steel parts should be cleaned with dry sand and a cob, or scraped with a piece of soft iron, washed and oiled if necessary, and in a day or two cleaned off with the corn-cob and dry sand. Finally, paint the iron part with rosin and beeswax, in the proportion of four of rosin to one of wax, melted to^^cthcr and applied hot. Tliis is good for the iron or steel parts of every sort of tooL 68 FAKM CONVENIENCES. Wood-work should be painted with good, boiled, linseed oil, white lead and turpentine, colored of any desired tint ; red is probably the best color. Keep the cattle away until the paint is dry and hard, or they will lick, with death as the result. If it is not desired to use paint on hand tools, the boiled oil, with turpentine and *' liquid drier," does just as well. Many prefer to saturate the wood-work of farm implements with crude petroleum. This cannot be used with color, but is applied by itself, 80 long as any is absorbed by the pores of the wood. SELF-CLOSING DOORS. A self -opening, rolling door is shown in figure 34. A half- inch rope, attached to a staple driven into the uppei edge of the door, passes parallel with the track, and be* \ Fig. 34.— SELF-CLOSING SLIDING DOOR. yond the boundary of the door when open, over a small grooved pulley and thence downward ; a weight is at* tached to its end. The door is shown closed, and the weight drawn up. As the door is a self-fastening one, when the fastening is disengaged the weight will dra^f the door open. By a string or wire connected to th« FARM CONVENIENCES. 53 ragtening, the door may be opened while standing at any part of the building, or if one r- end be attached to a post outside, near the carriage way, the door may be opened without leaving the vehicle, a desirable plan, espe- cially during inclement weather. The weight and pulleys should be located inside the building, but are shown outside to make the plan more readily understood. By attaching the rope to the op- posite side of the door, it may be made self-closing instead of self- ^^' 35.-swing-dook. opening, as thought most convenient. The manner of closing a swing-door, as in figure 35, is so clearly shown as to need no description. VENTILATORS FOR FODDER STACKa The perfect curing of fodder corn is difficult, even with the best appliances ; as usually done, the curing i very imperfect. The fodder corn crop is one that merits not only the best preparation of the ground and the best culture, but it is worthy of special care in harvestins: and curinr CONVENIENCES. 81 SLED FOR REMOVING CORN-SHOCKa A sled used for moving corn-shocks from a field which is to be sown with winter grain is shown in figure C2. It is simply a sled of the most ordinary construc- tion, and which any farmer can build. It is made of two joists or planks of hemlock, though oak might be better ; say three inches thick, a foot wide, and four- teen to sixteen feet long, rounded at one end and con- nected by three strong cross-pieces, being in form just Fig. b-. — alDE. Oe bLED. Buch a sled as a farmer boy would make to use in the snow, with the addition of cross braces before and be- ll ind. The under edge of the runners should be rounded off to the extent of one and a half to two inches, to turn more easily. There should be also short standards be- fore and behind. The runners may be four to five feet apart, according to the length of the com. A side view of tha runner with the standards is given in figure 62, Fig. 63.— TOP OF SLED. and a top view of the complete sled in figure 63. First, cut off the corn and put it in shocks in the usual way, making the shock smaller than usual. Let it stand thai 4» 8^ FARM CONVEKIEKCES. a few days to dry, then a pair of horses are hitched to tie Bled, which is driven alongside the shock. The shock is pushed over on to the sled, and so one shock after another until the sled is full. The load is then driven to an adjoining field, where the shocks are set up on end again, and about four of them made into one and tied at the top, or reared against a fence. The particular advantages of this plan are : First, that by use of the sled and method of loading and un- loading the shocks, all actual lifting of the corn is avoided, and the labor and expense reduced more than one-half. Second, by permitting it to dry a few days, its weight is greatly reduced, and the handling much lighter. Third, the corn being partially dried, it can be put together in larger shocks the second time, and will keep better. By this method one man can clear two acres or more in a day, according to the weight of the crop. A TAGGING TROUGH. Sheep should be tagged in early spring, and a table for this purpose is shown in figure 64. The sheep is placed on this table feet upwards, in which position it is perfectly helpless, and will not struggle. Then the soiled wool about the hind parts, the belly, or the legs is clipped off with great ease, less than a minute being needed to tag a sheep. Half time will serve for some shearers to do this. In large flocks these tables will be necessary, and those who have small ones will find them ?ery useful. LIME AND LIME KILNS. The periodical use of lime as a fertilizer is necessary to good culture. In the best cultivated parts of the FARM CONVENIEKCES. 83 country, lime Is used once in every rotation of five crops, the usual rotation being two years, grass, com, oats, wheat, or rye, seeded to grass or clover again. The lime is applied to the land when it is plowed for the fall grain, and is harrowed in before the seed is drilled, or it is har- rowed in with the seed, sown broadcast. The quantity used is from forty to fifty bushels per acre> The effect of lime is both mechanical and chemical ; it opens and Fig. 64.— TKOL loosens heavy clays, and consolidates li.2:ht, loose, sandy, or peaty vegetable soils ; it has the effect of liberating potash from the soil, and of decomposing inert orgimic matter, and reducing it to an available condition. But while it is beneficial, it cannot be used alone without exhausting the soil of its fertile properties. This is evi- dent from what has been said of its character ; at least this is true, so far as regards its effects beyond affording directly to the crops any lime that they may appropriate from the supply thus given. All the benefits received beyond this is a direct draft on the natural stores of the •oil. It is therefore necessary, to good agriculture, that 84 FAR3I CONVENIENCES. either a thrifty clover sod should be plowed under, at least once in the rotation, or that a liberal dressing of manure be given, or both of these. In those localities where the benefits to be derived from the skilful use of lime are best known and appreciated, this method is practised ; a heavy sod being plowed under, after having been pastured one year, for the corn, and a good coating of manure being given when the land is plowed for fall grain. Under such treatment, the soil is able to main- tain itself and return profitable crops. It is not where Fig. 65. — IMPROVED LIME KILN WITH ELEVATED TRACK. this course is pursued that complaints are prevalent of the unprofitableness of farming. The use of lime is spreading gradually into the Western States, where the competition of the still farther and fresher western fields is being severely felt. The experience of Eastern farm- ers is now being repeated in what were once the West* ern States, and every appliance of scientific and thorough agriculture is found to be needed to maintain those Western farmers in the close contest for a living. This kiln, figure 05, is intended to stand upon level ground, and is furnished with a sloping track, upon which self- FAEM CONVENIENCES. 8ft dumping cars containing fuel or lime may be drawn up by horse-power with a rope and pulleys. The body of the kiln may be twenty feet square at the bottom, and thirty feet high, with a flue above the stack of ten to twenty f:et. The stack may be built of stone or brick, but should be lined with fire-brick or refractory sand- stone. The arch is protected by the shed under the track. At B, B, are two bearing bars of cast-iron, three by two inches thick, which support the draw-bars, C. These are made of one and a half inch round wrought iron, having rings at the outer end, and of which there are four to the foot across the throat of the kiln, which is four or five feet in diameter. The rings serve to ad- mit a crow-bar, by which the bars, or some of them, are drawn out to let down the charge of lime. Tlie open space, D, is intended for the insertion of the bar to loosen or break the lime, should the throat become gorged. A cast-iron frame, with an aperture of three by twenty- four inches, is built into this opening. It also serves to kindle the kiln, and is closed by an iron door. The car should be made of wood, and lined with sheet-iron ; it is hinged to the front axle, and hooked to the draft-rope, so that when the fore-wheels strike the block, E, at the mouth of the kiln, the car tips and dumps its load. The iron door, Fy which closes the kiln, is raised or lowered by means of the rope and ring, G, which passes over a pulley fixed upon the side of the flue. A covered shed will be needed to protect the top of the stack, and a gal- lery should be made around it, for a passage-way for the workmen. This kind of kiln is suited only for th€ use of coal as fuel ; when wood is used for burning the lime, common pits or temporary kilns are to bt oonatructed. 86 FARM COi^rVEJS'IEiTCES. FALL FALLOWING. The old practice of summer fallowing, or working the soil for one year without a crop, for the purpose of gain- ing a double crop the second season, is now, very properly, obsolete. While some may question the propriety of thi3 opinion, there can be no doubt as to the value of fall fallowing. The constant turning and working of tlie ground during the fall months cost nothing but time and labor, at a season when these cannot be otherwise employed, and so, in reality, cost nothing. But the benefits to the soil are very considerable. Especially is this the case with heavy clay soils, and less, in a descend- ing ratio, through the gradations from heavy clay down to light loams — at least it is so considered by many ; and it is reasonable to suppose that if the atmospheric effects upon the particles of a clay soil serve, to some extent, to dissolve the mineral particles, they may easily do the same service for a sandy soil, and help to set loose some of the potash contained in the granitic or feld- spathic particles of such a soil. The mechanical effects of the fall working are certainly more useful upon clay than a light loam ; but there are other purposes to serve than merely to disintegrate the soil, and mellow and loosen it. There are weeds to destroy, and the forward- ing of the spring work by the preparation of the ground for early sowing. These seiwices are as useful for a light soil as a heavy one, and as it is reasonable to look for some advantage from the working in the way of gain in fertility on light as well as heavy soils, it is advisable that owners of either kind should avail themselves of whatever benefits the practice affords. Fall fallowing consists in plowing and working the soil with the culti- vator or the harrow. This may be done at such inter- vals as may be convenient, or which will help to start FXBH CONTEITIEJrCES. 87 iome weeds into growth, when these may be destroyed by the harrow or cultivator. Heavy soils should be left in rough ridges at the last plowing, with as deep furrows between them as possible, in order to expose the largest surface to the effects of frost and thaw. Light soils may be left in a less rough condition, but the last plowing should be so done as to throw the furrows on edge, and not flat, leaving the field somewhat ridged. A very little work in the spring will put the ground into excel- lent order for the early crops, and for spring wheat, especially, this better condition of the soil will be of the greatest benefit. "When thus treated in the fall, the soil is remarkably mellow, and is dry enough to work much earlier than the compact stubble land which remains as it was left after the harvest. As to the time for doing this work, the sooner it is begun, and the oftener it is repeated, the better. It is not too late to finish when the ground is frozen or there is an inch of snow on the ground UNLOADING CORN. Every little help that will ease the troublesome labor of transferring the corn crop from the field to the crib is Fig. 66.— BOASD rOB XIVUXXDISQ. gratefully accepted. We have used both of the contri- vances here shown (figures 06 and 67), to help in getting 88 FAKM CONVENIENCES. the ears out of the wagon-box. At the start it is difl* cult to shovel up the corn, and until the bottom of the wagon-box is reached, the shovel or scoop cannot be made to enter the load. But if a piece of wide board is placed in a sloping position, resting upon the tail-board of the wagon (figure QQ), the shovel can be used with ease Fig. 67. — UNLOADING ARRANGEMENT. at the commencement of the unloading. Another plan is to make the box two feet longer than usual, and place the tail-board two feet from the end, figure 67. When the tail-board is lifted, the ears slide down into this re- cess, from which they can be scooped with ease. STONE BOATS. For moving plows, harrows, etc., to and from tk^ifieldfl^ Fig. 68.— PLANK STONE BOA.T. and for many other purposes, a stone boat is far better than a sled or wagon, and is many times cheaper than FARM CONYEXIENCES. 80 either. Two plans of construction are illustrated. The boat shown in figure 68 is of plank, six feet in length, one foot at one end being sawed at the angle shown. Three planks, each one foot in width, will make it of about the right proportion. A railing two by three inches is pinned upon three sides, while a plank is finnly pinned at the front end, through which the draw- bolt passes. That shown in figure 69 has some advan- Fig. G'J. — STONE BOAT WITH KUX>EUS. tage over the former, a cheaper quality of wood and of shorter length can be used, and when one set of runners is worn out, others can be readily attached without de- stroying the frame. Oak or maple plank should be used for the best boats, and when runners are used, the tough- est wood at hand should be selected. Don't think be- cause it is only a stone boat it is not worthy of being taken care of. A DUMP-CART. The dump-cart, figure 70, is a handy contrivance, a good deal used in some parts of this State, and is simply an ordinary ox-cart, the tongue shortened and fastened by a king bolt to the forward axle of a wagon, as shown in the engraving. It can be turned very short, as the wheels liavc a clear swing up to the cart-tongue, and is very convenient for hauling anything that is to be dumped : such as stones, earth, wood, manure, etc 90 FARM COKVE]S^IE]S"CES. The seat of an old mowing machme is fastened to tlif Fig. 7Q.--l^i.tiiOV^D i>Ux\ll'-<^AiiT. cart-tongue, on which the driver sits. Horses or oxen may be used. TO PREVENT WASHINa OF HILL-SIBES. Much damage is done by the washing of hill-sides into deep gullies by heavy rains. Where sloping ground is cultivated this is unavoidable, unless something is done to prevent it. In some cases deep plowing and loosen- ing the subsoil v/ill go far to prevent washing, as it enables the water to sink into the ground, and pass av/ay without damage, by slow filtration. But where the sub- soil is not Yerj porous, and when the rain falls copiously and suddenly, the water saturates the surface soil in a few minutes, and the surplus then flows down the slope, cutting the softened earth into many channels, which by and by run together. Then the large body of watei FABM C0ifVENIE2(CES. 91 pofisessea a force which the soil cannot resist, and carriei the earth down with it, often doing serious and irre- parable damage in an hour or less. Of the many plani which have been suggested and tried to prevent this washing, the most successful is the terracing of th« sioi^e. This is done by plowing, with a s\nvel plow, around the hill, or back and forth on the slope, com* mencing at the bottom and throwing the earth down- wards in such a manner that a flat terrace is formed, which has a small slope backwards from the front of the hill. When this terrace has been formed, the plowing is commenced ten or twelve feet above, and another terrace is made in the same manner. This is continued to the top of the slope. If thought desirable, the inner furrows on each terrace may be made to form a water channel, and this may be connected with the channel on the next slope lower down, in some safe manner, either by a shute of boards or of stone, to prevent washing of the soil at these points where the fall will be consider- able. This, however, is a side issue, which does not necessarily belong to the main work. The arrangement -ef the hill-side is shown in figure 71, in which the Fig. 71. — PKOFILB OF A TERKACED DILL. original outline of the hill, and the arrangement of the terraces, which are cut out of it, are given. Wlien a heavy rain falls upon the terraced hill, the effect will be to throw the water backwarls from the outer elope, into the channels at the rear of the terraces ; and there, aa well as upon the broad surface of the terraces, there ia B2 FARM C0NYEKIENCE8, abundant means of escape bj sinking into the soil. If not, and the amount of water is too great to be thus dis- posed of, it may be carried down the slope, by arranging the furrows as drains in the way previously indicated. Hill-sides of this character should be kept in grass, when the slope is too steep for comfortable plowing, after it has been thus arranged ; or it may be planted with fruit trees, vines, or timber, upon the slopes, leav- ing the terraces to be cultivated, or the slopes may be kept in grass, and the terraces cultivated. But in what- ever manner the ground may be disposed of, it would be preferable to leaving it to be gullied by rains, barren, useless, and objectionable in every way. A LOG MINK-TRAP. A mink-trap is made by boring a two-inch or two and Fig. 72.— MINK-TRAF. a half inch hole in a log, four or five inches deep, and into the edges of this hole drive three sharpened nails, so that FABM COKTEJS'IEXCES. 01 they will project half an inch or bo inside, as shown in figure 72. The bait being at the bottom, the mink pushes his head in to get it, but on attempting to with- draw it is caught by the naiJs. Musk-rat is good bait for them, and a highly praised bait is made by cutting an eel into small bits, which are placed in a bottle and hung in the sun, and after a time become an oily and very odorous mass. A few drops of this are used. The above simple mink-trap may be made by using any block of wood, or a stump of a tree, large or small, and the same plan may be made use of to trap skunks, or, by using a small hole and some straightened fish-hooks, it will serv^e to catch rats or weasels, enemies of the rural poultry yard, which may be thinned off by the use of this trap. PLOWING FROM THE INSIDE OF THE FIELD. There is but one reason why plowing should not be done from the inside of the field, and that is, the imag- inary difficulty in *^ coming out right." There are sev- eral points in favor of this method : When a field is plowed, beginning at the outside, there is always a dead furrow running from each corner to the centre ; besides this, the team is obliged to run out, and turn upon the plowed land at every corner, making a broad strip which is much injured by the treading, especially if the land is clayey and rather moist. By beginning at the middle, all this is avoided ; tlie horses turn upon unplowcd land, and the soil at each plowing is thrown towards the cen- tre of the field, as it should be. There is no difficulty in finding the centre of the field from which to begia the plowing. Suppose we have a rectangular field like the one shown in figure 73 ; any person who can meafr are by pacing, is able to find the middle of the endjs, 94 FAEM COlfVENIEKCES. A D and B 0 ; the points K and X. From jP', paoo towards L, a distance equal to one-half A Dy which gives the point E, Also the same distance from L, towards Kf giving F, and the work of fixing the central point is done. Run a furrow from A and D to E, and from B and C^ to F; these define the corners and assist in the turning of the plow. The plowing then begins by baok- t. — B Fig. 73. — PLAK FOB RECTANGULAR FIELD. furrowing from E to F; plowing on the ends a* soon aa possible. After the work has progressed for a time, as far as indicated, for example, by the dotted lines, G, H, I, /, pace from the furrow to the outside (see dotted lines), at or near each end of the furrow, as a correction, and, if necessary, gauge the plow until the furrow on all sides is equally distant from the boundary. When the field is of irregular shape, it is not difficult to begin in the centre and ploT7 outward ' — in fact, this system is of most importance here, be- rig. 74.— PLAN FOR TRREOTTLAR FIELD. cause all the short turning in the middle of the field, FARM COirrE>"IEXCES. 9ft tnoident to the irregularity of the field, oomefi on un- piowed ground. In figare 74 we have a piece of very in*egular shape. From a point on A D, at right angles to By pace the distance to B, and place a stake at the middle point, E, In the same way, determine the point F on the line N D. In a line with E^ F, measure from K 2i distance equal to M E (one-half the perpendicular distance across the end of field), and also in like manner determine the point i^— which gives the central line, E F, The plow should be run from the four corners, a€ in the first case, to make the corner lines. The plow- man will use his judgment, and plow only upon the lower portion at first, until the plowed land takes the fihape G, H, /, J, when the correction is made. From this time on the furrow runs parallel with the boundary, and the work continues smoothly to the end. A WIRE-FENCE TIGHTENER. Having occasion recently to tighten some wires in a trellis, we made use of the following contrivance. Into 1 Fig. 75.— WTRE TIOnTENlR. ft small piece of wood a few inches long we put two screws about three inches apart, and near to one end one other screw, leaving the heads projecting about lialf an inch. By placing the wire between the two screws, and turning the piece of wood around, the wire was drawn tight ; and bv engaGring the heaa of the single screw npon it, the tension was maintained. The operation of 96 FAEM CONTEKIENCESl fche contriyauce is shown at 1, and the method of arranifi ing the screws or pins appears as 2. By using a strong piece of wood two feet long, and strong Iron bolts, fast- ened with nuts upon the back side, this derice may b0 used to tighten fence wires. PLANTING CORN— A MARKER. What would be thought of a mechanic who should rip his boards from a log with the old-fashioned whip saw and plane them or match th&m by hand, or who should work out his nails on the anvil one at a time by hand labor ? He would hardly earn enough to find himself in bread alone. Yet in an equally old-fashioned, costly, and unprofitable way do thousands of farmers plant and cultivate their corn crops. The ground is plowed, bar- Big: W.— BUNNER AND TOOTH FOR MASKSB. rowed and marked out both ways, either with the plow, or sometimes by a quicker method, with a com marker. The seed is dropped by hand and covered by hand with a hoe ; the crop is hoed by hand or plowed in the old oaeltioa, leaving the ground ridgod and deeply furrowed, *.. tiittt JL ti. ary season the corn sulTers Jor wantol nioiM- f4T>.. ill' (-*Li)< coHW. sc mucli t\ '\l Lififc iarmer* l&boi FAEH COXTEXIENCES. brings him about fifty cents a day, upon which he Uyee^ griimbiing that ''farming does not pay." This method ^'ould be ruinous in the West where corn is a staple crop, and that it is not so in the East is simply because it is not grown to a large extent. But there is no crop that may be grown so cheaply and easily in the East that pro- duces so much feed as corn. Fifty bushels of com and four tons of fodder per acre contain more dry nutriment than thirty tons of turnips or mangels, and may be grown with less labor and less cost, if only the best methods are employed. Now, with the excellent implements and machines that are in use for planting and cultivating com, no farmer can afford to work this crop in the old- fasiiioned method. There is no longer any need to plant in squares, for the crop may bo kept perfectly clean when planted in drills, if the proper implements are used. There are several corn planters by which the seed Fig. 77. — THE MARKER AT WORK. may be dropped and covered at the same time in single or double drills, at the rate of eight to twenty acres pei day. By using the Thomas harrow a few days after ' planting, every young weed will be killed, and the crust, which so often gathers upon the surface, will be broken tip and the surface mellowed. The harrow may be used without damage until the com is several inches high. Then anyone of the many excellent horse hoes may be ttfled by which the weeds may be cut out of the rows clote J8 FARM OOKVENIEKCES. to the corn until the crop is so high that farther working is useless. This method of cultivation may cost two dol- lars per acre, or less, as the ground may have been Kept free from weeds in previous years, while on the old-fash- ioned system it may cost ten dollars per acre, or more, as the weeds pjay have been allowed to get further ahead. Nevertheless, there are farmers who will still work on the hand-to-mouth plan, and will still mark out their crops by a marker and drop the seed by hand. Tor these it will be convenient to have at least a good marker. It will mark uneven as w^ell as level ground ; it can be se< to any width between rows ; any farmer or smart boy can make it, and the inventor, who is a farmer in Can- ada, does not propose to patent it. The marker is made of two by four scantling, one piece beiug eight feet long. In this five holes are bored, one for each of the runners, one and one-eighth inch in diameter. The runners are also of two by four timber, and eighteen inches long. Holes one and one-eighth inch in diameter are bored through the runners, in which are placed hard wood pins fourteen inches long. These are driven in from the bottom, the ends being left broad, so that they may not pass through the holes, and projecting an inch and a half. This is shown in figure 76. The small pin which passes through the larger one serves to connect the run- ner with the principal timber, and by shifting the large pin from one hole to another, the runners may be brought from four feet to one foot, or even six inches apart, and made to mark rows of widths increasing by spaces of six inches up to four feet. When one of the markers meets with an obstruction it is lifter' by it, as seen in figure 77, and passes over it. A guide marker is fixed by a hinge to one of the outside runners, and carries a scraper which ie held in place by a pin, by moving which the distance of the next row may be regulated. A pair of light shafts FAEM con\t:niexces. 99 may be attached to tlie marker, and a pair of handles by which it may bo guided. FEED TROUGH AXD HALTER The trough rests on the floor and is four feet long. Af A, are inch auger holes ; a rope, four feet long, is put through them and tied. Another rope, D, has a ring rig. 78.— FEED TROUGH AND HALTER. spliced on one end, and a "snap hook" on the other. The longer rope passes through the ring, By and when the rope, Z), is put over the neck of the cow, the ''snap, C, hooks into the ring. This allows the animal to stand or lie down with comfort. >» THE HORSE-SHOE AND ITS APPLICATION. Any excess of growth at the toe renders the pastema more oblique, and, as a consequence, throws undue weight upon the "back sinews." whereas, too great height of heels has a similar effect upon the joints of the extremities, by rendering them too upright. Tak- ing as our guide the foot of the animal that has never been brought to the forge, and which, in consequence, must be considered u a correct model, let the externa] 100 FARM C0KVENIENCB3. wall of the hoof be reduced by means of the raep to « level with the firm unpared sole. If there is no growtl of the external wall beyond this level, then there 19 nothing to be removed. In the selection of a shoe for the healthy foot, we must bear in mind the object in view, which is to pi 0- tect the parts from excessive wear. This protection is to be found in a metallic rim of proper size and shape, securely adjusted. Almost every shoe in common use meets this end more or less satisfactorily, and we have already remarked that the proper preparation of the foot that has been previously shod is of vastly more impor- tance than the particular kind of shoe to be adopted. At the same time, there are faults in the shoe most com- monly employed, which had their origin in its particular adaptation to the foot after this had undergone more or less severe mutilation at the hands of the farrier, and which have been retained more through custom than through actual necessity, as we have reason to hope. The most prominent of these faults consists in extreme narrowness of rim with a concavity upon the upper or foot surface, in order to prevent the sole from sus- taining least weight or pressure, which it is perfectly unfitted to do after being pared down to a point of sensi- tiveness. In a state of nature we know that every por- tion of the foot comes to the ground and sustains its share of weight, and in the shod state it should do the same, as far as practicable. Hence, the shoe should be constructed with its upper surface perfectly flat, and with a breadth sufficient to protect a portion of the sole, and to sustain weight. It should be bevelled upon the ground surface, in imitation of the concavity of the sole, and not upon its upper surface, where the space thus formed serves as a lodging place for small stones and other foreign bodies. In shape it ahould follow the ex- PARM CONTEXIENCES. 101 act outline of the outer wall, being narrowed at the heels, but continued of the same thickness throughout. The lateral projection at the quarters, and the posterior one at the heels are unsightly, of no benefit, and sliould Tiever be allowed where speed is required. HOW TO MAKE A FISHING SCOW. Boat-building should be done during the winter, whea in-door work is more agreeable, and leisure is more ample, than in the summer. A boy who can handle tools, may make a very handsome boat or scow, such as Fig. ly. — VIKW OF FliiUINU SCOW. is shown at figure 79, at a cost of five dollars or less, in the following manner. Procure five three-quarter or half-inch clear pine boards, twelve feet in length and eight inches wide ; four boards ten feet long, one inch thick, and one foot wide, and three strips ten feet long, one and a quarter-inch thick, and three inches wide Plnne all these smoothly on both sides, and have them all free from loose knots or shakes. Cut two of the one- inch boards sloping at each end to a straight line for two feet, and then slightly rounding the middle of the board. Cut two pieces of the one and a quarter-inch strips into lengths of two feet ten inches, and nail them to th« ends of the side-boards, n« shown in figure 80 If itripi of ioft brown paper are dipped into tar and nlaoed i(M PARM COKVEKIEifCES. between the joints, they will be made closer and more water-tight. Cut the eight-inch boards into three feet lengths, and nail them across the bottom, as shown in figure 80 ; where the bevel ends, the two bottom boards must be bevelled slightly upon one of their edges, so as to make a close joint. Then take two of the one and Fig. BO. — PUTTING ON THE BOTTOM. a quarter-inch strips, and make cuts in each on one side with the saw, one inch deep, as follows : measuring from one end, mark with a pencil across the strip three feet .ix inches from the end ; then mark again across the strip one inch and a half from the first mark, and score between these marks with an x . Then measure three inches and make another mark, and then an inch and a half and make still another mark, and score as before between these last two with an x . Then do precisely the same on the same side of the strip, measuring from the other end. Then on the edges of the board score with gauge or make a line with a pencil exactly one inch from the marked side. Then make the cuts on the pencil lines down to the score on the edge, just one inch deep, but no more. Cut away the wood in the places that were marked with an x , leaving four slots one inch and a half wide, one inch deep, and with three inches be- tween them upon each strip. Nail these strips with the cut side inwards, to the upper edge of the side-board, on the outside of the boat, as seen in figure 81. The ■paces left in the gunwales are for the rowlocks. Tht VARH CONVENIENCES. 103 strips should be well nailed near the rowlocks, and if a quarter-inch, flat-headed, counter-sunk carriage-bolt were used on each side of them, it would be yery much better than so many nails. A thin washer, or burr, should be used beneath the nut of each bolt. The row- lock pins should be made of hard maple or oak, in the shape shown at a, figure 81. They are one inch thick, one and a half inch wide at the lower part, which fits into the slot, with a shoulder of half an inch, and the top is bevelled off neatly as shown. The seats, of which Fig. 81.— INTEUIOR OF BOAT. there are two, are made ten inches wide. The cleats for the seats, one inch thick, one and a half inch wide, and ten inches long, are nailed three inches below the upper edge of the side-board. The middle seat goes exactly in the centre of the boat, with each edge four feet seven inches from the end of the boat. The end seats are 104 FARM CONVEKIEi^CES. placed with the backs two feet from the ends of the boat, leaving eight inches between each seat and the edge of the rowlock nearest to it. There are cleats for three seats, but only two seats are used at once. When one seat is used, the rower sits in the centre, and he can use either of the rowlocks, the boat being double-bowed. When two seats are used, one person only rows at one time, but either can row without changing seats, and one always faces to the direction in which the boat moves. This arrangement of seats is very convenient. Eighteen inches of each end is closed in, and makes a locker for holding fish-lines, hooks, or the ^'painter," which is a light rope for tying up the boat when not in use. This may be fastened to a ring-bolt or a hole bored in one of the locker covers. The long bottom- board, seen in figure 81, eight inches wide and half an inch thick, is nailed as shown, by wrought nails driven from the outside and clinched on the inside. The seat cleats are nailed in the same manner, as are also the side strips. Every nail is counter-sunk and the hole filled up with putty. Tlie seams are puttied or filled with a strip of cotton sheeting pushed in with the blade of a dinner knife. If the joints are made as well as they may be, this is not needed, but two coats of paint will make all tight. The inside should be painted lead-color, made by mixing lampblack with white paint to a proper shade. The outside may be painted white or a light- green, with the gunwale of a light- blue. A few days will be required to harden the paint before using th« boat. None but seasoned boards should be used. CROWS AND SCARECROWa Probably there is no point upon which a gathering of half a doisen farmers will have more positive opinions ?AEiI COXVENIEKCES. 10^ than as to the relations of the crow to agriculture. li is likely t.iat five of these will regard the bird as totally bad, while the minority of one will claim that he is all good. As usual, the truth lies between the extremes. There is no doubt that the crow loves corn, and knows that at the base of the tender shoot there is a soft, sweet kernel. But the black-coated bird is not altogether a Tegetarian. The days in which he can pull young com are few, but the larger part of the year he is really the friend of the farmer. One of the worst insect pests with which the farmer, fruit-grower, or other cultivator ha« to contend is, the '' White Grab," the larva of the '^ May Beetle," ''June Bug,'' or *'Dor-Bug." It is as well established as any fact can be, that the crow is able to detect this grub while it is at work upon the roots of grass in meadows and lawns, and will find and grub it oit. For this service alone the crow should be every- where not only spared, but encouraged. We are too apt to judge by appearances ; when a crow is seen busy in a field, it is assumed that it is doing mischief, and by a constant warfare against, not only crows, but skunks, owls, and others that are hastily assumed to be wholly bad, the injurious insects, mice, etc., that do the farmer real harm have greatly increased. Shortly after corn is planted, the crows appear, and are destructive to young corn. Some assert that the crow pulls u ) the com plant merely to get at the grub which would destroy it if the bird did not. How true this may be we do not know, but as the corn is destroyed in either case, it may be as well to let it go without help from the crow. The first impulse of the farmer, when he finds his com pulled up, is to shoot tho crow. Tliis we protest against. Even admitting that the crow does mischief for a short time, it is too useful for the rest of the year to be thus cut do WD in active life. Let him lira for the good he bai 106 FABM CONVENIENCES. done and may do. It is vastly better to keep the crowi from pulling the young corn, for two or three weeks, and allow them all the rest of the year to destroy bugs and beetles in astonishing numbers. The com may be protected by means of " scarecrows," of which there are several very effective kinds. Crowds are very keen, and are not easily fooled ; they quickly understand the or- dinary '^ dnmmj/' or straw man, which soon fails to be of service in the corn-field. It has no life, no motion, and makes no noise, and the crow soon learns this and comes and sits upon its outstretched arm, or pulls the corn vigorously at its feet. A dead crow, hung by a swinging cord to a long slender pole, is recommended as far better than a straw man — as it, in its apparent strug- gles to get away, appeals impressively to the living crow's seL"~'^ of caution. But the crow may not be at hand to be til as employed, and if it were, the farmer cannot afford to kill it. Better than a dead crow is a glass bot- tle with the bottom knocked out, which may be done with an iron rod. The bottle is suspended to an elastic pole by a cord tied around its neck ; the end of the cord should extend downward into the bottle, and have a nail fastened to it and within the bottle, to serve as a clapper. If a piece of bright tin be attached to the cord extending below the bottomless end of the bottle, all the better. A slight breeze will cause the tin to whirl, and, in the motion, cast bright reflections rapidly in all directions, while the nail keeps up a rattling against the inside of the bottle. An artificial ^' bird," to be hung in the same manner, may be made from a piece of cork — one used in a pickle-jar — into which a number of large goose or chicken feathers are fastened so as to roughly imitate a dilapidated bird. A rough head may be carved and put on, to make the deception more complete. As thia *' bird" catches the wind, it will ''fly" here and there FABM COJTVEXIZNCES. 107 In 8 peculiar manner not at all enticing to the corn- loving crows. FLOOD FENCE. The weak point of a fence is where it crosses a stream ; a iudden fi'eshet washes nway loose rails, and a gap ia Fig. 82.— A FLOOD OATB. ief t through which trespassing cattle soon find a passage. Many devices have been used. The one shown in figure 82 is self-acting: when water rises high enough, it opens, and when the flood falls it closes again. It may be made of rails, bars, or fence strips. CLEARING SLOUGH LAND. In clearing up land that is covered with tussocks of coarse grass and a tough sod, and digging out ditches to drain such land, much useless labor may be given that could be spared by skilful work. The spade is commonly used for this purpose, but, as in digging dry ground, this slow tool may be replaced to very great advauta^ by the plow and the horse-shoveL In work- 108 FAEM COJSYEXIEIN^CES. ing in swamps these more effectiye tools may be made ayailable in many cases. To cut off the tassocks with grub-hoes, while they are tough in the summer time, is Tery hard and slow work ; but if a common horse-scraper is used they can be torn up, or cut off, with the greatest aase. The scraper should be furnished with a sharp steel-cutting blade in the front, which may be riveted on, or fastened with bolts, so that it may be taken off and ground sharp. If there are wet and soft places the scraper may be drawn by a chain of sufficient length to Fig. 83. — THE HORSE-SHOVEL AT WORK. keep the horse upon dry ground, as shown in figure 83. This plan has been tried by the writer with success, and with a great saving of time and expense ; the digging of a pond twenty feet wide along the edge of a swamp, was ^rformed with one man, a boy, a team, and a horse- ahovel, as quickly as ten men couhl have done it with spades. In cutting tough swamp, the plow may be used to break up the surface when the horse-shovel will re- move the muck very fast. If the swamp la wet> and FARM CONVENIENCES. 10ft #ater flows ia the excavation, the digging may still bo done with the horse-scraper by adding to the length of the handles and using planks upon each side for the man to stand upon, and planks upon the inner side of the excavation for the scraper to slide upon with its load of muck. The muck maybe thrown in heaps on the side of the pond or ditches, and it Avill be found convenient to leave it upon one side instead of in a continuous heap, as this will greatly facilitate its final disposal in what- ever way that may be. HOW TO DRESS A BEEP. There is a way of sJaugiitoring that is not butchering, and it may be done painlessly by taking the right course. The barn floor or a clean grass-plot in a convenient spot Fig. 84.— THE PROPEU PLACE TO 8TRIKB. will be a suitable place for the work. To fasten the an- imal, put a strong rope around the horns, and secure the head in such a way that it cannot be moved to any great distance, and in a position to allow a direct blow to be easily given. The eyes may be blinded by tying a cloth urouzid tht head lo that there will be no dodging to 110 FARM COl^VEKIENCES. avoid the stroke. The place for the stunning blow li the centre of the forehead, between the eyes and a little above them. The right place is shown at a, figure 84. The best method is to fire a ball from a rifle in the exact spot, and this may be done safely when the animal is blinded, by holding the weapon near to the head, so that a miss cannot be made ; otherwise a blow with the back of an axe made when the striker is on the right side of the animal, and the head is fastened down near the ground, will be equally effective. So soon as the animal falls, the throat is divided with a cut from a long, sharp knife ; no jack- knife should be used, but a long, deep, sweeping stroke Fig. 85.— RACK FOR A CARCASS OF BEEF. which reaches to the vertebrae as the head is held back, This divides all the blood-vessels, and death is almost in- stantaneous, but at any rate painless. When the carcass has been freed from blood, it should be turned on its back, and the skin divided from the throat up the brisket, along the belly to the legs, and up the legs to the knees, where the joints should be severed, taking care, how- ever, to out off the hind feet below the hock jointJ FARM COXVEKIENCES. Ill ibout two or three inches. The skin is then stripped from the legs and belly, and as near to the back as may be by turning the carcass. The belly is then opened, and the intestines taken out ; the brisket is cut through, and the lungs and gullet removed. It is now necessary to raise the carcass. This is done on the rack, the for- ward legs of which are placed on each side of the car- cass, and tbegambrels are placed upon the hooks shown in figure 85. The legs of the rack are then raised as far as possible, and as the carcass is lifted, the hinder leg is brought up to hold what is gained until the carcass is clear of the ground ; the hide is then wholly removed, the carcass washed and scraped from anything adhering, and then divided down through the backbone, leaving the sides hanging. As a matter of safety from dogs or other dishonest animals, it is well to have the work dono in the barn, laying down a quantity of straw to protect the floor, if thought necessary, as the beef should re- main at least twelve hours to cool and set. A FARM CART. While there are different kinds of farm carts, we have not yet hit upon the cart — i.e., one that meets with general approbation. The writer, having much work for a cart, has designed one which is intended to do all the work of the farm more easily than a wagon or any other cart. For the carriage of manure, of fodder-coni, green clover, or other soiling fodder, for hauling roots and such work, a cart is needed with a low body, that can be turned around in its own length to back, or even turn in a manure cellar or on a barn floor. All this can be done with this cart, and when hay, straw, or green fodder ii to be loaded, the fore and hind racks may be 112 FAKM COKVENIEI^CES. put on, and greatly increase its capacity. With f our-inoll «rheels, this cart can be drawn> when loaded, over plowed ground or muddy roads, and scarcely sink below the surface. The cart body consists of a frame eight feet long, three and a half feet wide, and fourteen inches deep, thus holding, when heaped, about a cubic yard and a half of manure, or as near as possible one ton. The frame is made of three by four timber for the top, and two by three for the bottom, sides, and cross-bars, and is covered with bass-wood or willow boards on the bottom, the front, and the sides near the wheels. The rear end is closed when desired by a sliding tail-board. The axles are fixed to the frame, as shown in figure 86, and pass through the , middle side posts under the upper ■slide bar and a wide iron strap. Fig. 86.-AXLE FAST ^^-^^ embraccs the top of the frame, and passes under the bot- tom, as shown in the engraving, being screwed by bolts to the timbers. The wheel is the same size as ar ordinary wagon wheel, viz., four feet ; this brings the bottom of the cart body to within one foot of the ground, and in loading, the lift is only a little more than two feet from the ground. The saving of labor and the effect of work are thus greatly increased, a man being able to load twice as much with the same force, into a cart of this kind, as into a wagon-box four feet high. The rear end of the cart may be provided with a roller, fitted into the rear posts, which serves to ease the unloading of the cart when it is tipped, the rear end then easily moving over the ground as the cart is drawn over the field when unloading manure. But ae the cart body is so low there will rarely be any need for tipping the cart. To enlarge its capacity, thct^ PAKM COXYEXIEXCES. 113 ire moTable racks fitted before and behind, as shown in figure 87. The cost of two of these carts is not more than that of a wagon, and may be less, if economy Fig. 87.— THE CART ■V^^TH MOVABLE RACKS. is exercised in making them. The shafts may be bolted to the sides and so arranged that the cart can be tipped over when the load requires it. BRACES FOR A GATE POST. On the side of the post, and near the surface of the ground, spike an inverted bracket, made of a two-inch plank of white oak, or other hard wood. The bracket Fig. 88.— BBACINO A GATE POST. ihould be not less than six inches wide, and a foot long. There should be two of those braces, one on the gate 114 FARM COKVEKIENCES. side of the post when the gate is shut, and one on tha gate side when open. Under the bracket place a flat stone firmly settled in the ground, on which the bottom of the bracket is to rest ; a piece of plank, as long as it lasts, will do instead of the stone. The hang of the gate can then be exactly adjusted by puttiag a thin stone or piece of \YOod between the bot- tom of the bracket and the flat stone or plank. This is a simple and effective method of suj)porting a post, where there is no other convenient way of bracing, and even in almost all cases, it gives additional firmness. Ii the lower end of the post is of good size, and is well put in, this method of bracing will hold a very heavy gate. WHIPPLE-TREES FOR PLOWING CORN SAFELY. We have found it beneficial to cultivate our corn crop until the rows become impassable for a horse, or until it was font feet or more high. But to do this with the wide whipple-tree, the ends of which project beyond the traces, and break down the stalks, is impossible. It may, however, be done by using a whipple-tree spe- cially provided for it. This is Fi|'89.-wHippLE-TRlE. ^^^® ^s follows: a piccc of oak timber, two inches thick, three wide, and twenty inches long, is rounded at the corners, and deeply grooved at the ends, so that the trace-chains may be entirely imbedded in the gi'ooves. A small hole is bored through each end. into which a small caiTiage bolt is inserted, being made to pass through a link of the traoe-chain, and it is then fastened boneath with a nut. FARM COi^VENIE^^CES. 115 The trace-chains should be covered with leather where they will rub against the corn, and a flap of leather should be left to cover the front corners of the whipple- tree, as shown in figure 89. A ring or an open link ia fastened at the part of the chain which is attached to the clevis, and one at each end by which it is hooked t6 the traces. With this arrangement one may cultivate his corn without injury, and the same method may be applied to the whipple-trees, for plowing or cultivating amongst trees in the orchard or garden. WHAT TREES TO PLANT FOR FUEL AND TIMBER. The attention of our people in the older States is being very properly turned to planting rocky ridges and worn- out pastures with forest trees. This work is done by those who have no expectation of cutting the timber themselves, but with a view to improve their property for future sale, or for their heirs. These old pastures now are worth $10, or less, per acre. Forty or fifty years hence, covered with heavy timber, they would be Worth three hundred dollars, or more, per acre. Two elements may safely enter into this calculation of the profit of tree planting : the steady growth of the trees, and the constant increase in the price of fuel and tim- ber. There is great difference ia the price of the varie- ties of wood, but still more in the rapidity of their growth. Hickory grows more rapidly than white oak, and in most markets is worth a quarter more for fuel. Chestnut prrows about three times as fast a^ the white oak, and for many purposes makes quite as good timber. It is in great demand by ship-builders, and cabinet- makers. The chestnut, the tulip tree, and the hickory attain a good size for tiriber in twenty to twenty-five 116 FARM CONVENIENCES. years, and the spruce and pine need about fifty years* The maples grow quite rapidly, and are highly prized, both for fuel and for cabinet purposes. On light sandy land, the white pine will grow rapidly, and cannot fail to be a good investment for the next generation. As a rule, the more rapid growing trees, if the wood is valua ble, will pay better than the oaks. TO STEADY PORTABLE MILLS. Figure 90 shows a contrivance for steadying portable mills, which has been used for several years. It is an . ^ iron rod of suitable size, about a I i^J foot long, fastened by iron brack- I^J ets to the leg, or post of the mill. Three or four inches of the rod is a screw, and fits one of the brackets through which it runs, and can be turned up or down. The lower end of the rod is pointed, and the upper end squared, that it may be turned with a wrench. The rod is fastenec' Fig. 90.— LEG OF MILL, firmly to the side of the post (one on each of the forward posts), and turned down so that the point shall enter the floor sufficiently to hold it firmly. SPLITTING RAILS AND POSTS. Autumn is the best season for cutting timber, aa many farmers have learned by experience. The season- ing process is much more perfect, because there is no layer of growing sap wood. Insects do not work in autumn cut timber, as in that cut in the spring or sum- mer, and the wood does not "powder post." It is best to split the logs into rails or posts at once, and not wait lAEM CONVEi^IENCES. 117 until the timber has become seasoned in ihe log. The logs will split easier, the rails will season quicker, and be more durable. The splitting of rails is a work thiit requires good judgment, otherwise much timber will be wasted. Some persons will make rails that are large at one end, and gradually tapering to a sliyer at the other, and are worthless for fencing purposes. Set the wedge at the top end of the log, after first '* check- ing " with the axe, by driving with the beetle, so as to divide the log into two equal parts. Now drive in two wedges, as shown in figure 91, both at the same time. Next use a wooden wedge or ''glut,'' either in the end of the log, or on the top a little back from the end. After halving the log, quarter it, and then proceed on the principle that a rail should be about three by three inches. The size of the log will determine the numbei' of rails ij be made. For example, in figure 92, six rails are made by first halving the quarter, then splitting off the inner part half-way from the centre, and afterwards halving the outer part. Should the logs be larger, twelve rails are made from each quarter, as shown in figure 93, — or forty-eight rails from the log. In split- ting logs into posts, a broad and smooth side is to be •ought. Suppose we have the same sized log as the one split iuto forty-eiglit rails, or twelve rails per quarter, figure 93 — the splitting would be, in each case, from the centre to outside with cross splitting mid- way. Thennmborof posts would be determined by the size of the posts desired. If the logs are of the size of the quartor, shown in Fig. oi^^TioN OF ^^"^® ^^y ^^^^^^ ^s "0 ^^0^3 split- wMDQz. tinrr, unless a small piece for n 118 VABH CONVENIENCES. stake is taken from the centre. When the logs are onl;^ large enough for four posts, and a broad surface is de- sired, as in bar posts, they may be split by first ''slab- bing," and afterwards splitting through the centre ; all the split surfaces to be parallel. If still smaller, three Fig. 92. Fig. 93. posts can be made, by splitting off two slabs on opposite sides, as in the case above, and not divide the heart, and finally when the log will make only two, it can be halved. A MIXTCTRB OF GRASSES. It is a well-known fact that mixed crops are more pro- ductive than those sown singly. Thus one acre sown to oats and barley, or oats and peas, will yield as much, or nearly as much, as two acres sown singly to either crop. So in grass lands. Clover and Timothy, mixed, will pro- duce nearly twice as much as if the ground were seeded to one of these alone. It is also a well-known fact that our grass lands are not so productive as we could wish, and the reason of this may be, and probably is, that we have but one or two kinds of herbage in them. If we examine an old, thick, luxuriant sod, in a pasture or a meadow, it will be found to consist of a variety of grasses and other plants, each of which seems to vie with the other in occupying the soil for itself. This is the result of natural seeding, and gives us a lesson which we may well profit by. There is another reason why grasses Bhould be mixed ; this is that the periods of gi'eatesti PABM CONVENIENCES. 119 vigor of different varieties occur at different times. We can therefore secure a succession of herbage for a long season by sowing a variety of grass seeds. To give examples, we might mention that a mixture of Orchard Grass, Red Clover, Timothy, and Kentucky Blue-Grass will produce a pasture which will be in good condition for grazing from April, when the first men- tioned grass is in fine condition, up to October, when the last is in its most vigorous state ; the Clover and Timothy serving to fill up the interval. With one of these alone there would be but one month of good herb- age, and that coarse, if given the whole field to itself. In like manner, a quantity of Rye Grass added to a meadow would help to furnish a quick growing herbage which rapidly and constantly recuperates after cutting or eat- ing down. The fact is, that we make much less of our advantages in regard to our meadows and pastures than we might. On the average, seven acres of pasture are required to keep one cow through the pasturing season, when by the best management one acre, or at the most two, ought to be sufficient. This is due in great measure to the prev- alent fashion of seeding down with but one variety of gi'ass, with clover added sometimes, a fashion which, hereafter, experience teaches us should be more honored in the breach than in the observance. HITCHING A CRIB-BITER. Those persons who have a horse that is a crib-biter and windsucker, and which practices his vice when hitched to a post in the street, is recommended to try a hitching- rod, such as shown in figure 94 It consists of a piece of hickory, white oak, or tough ash, about twenty-foui 120 . FARM COKYENIEl^^CES. or thirty inches long, thickest in the middle, where it may be an inch in diameter. A ferule with a ring is fast- ened to each. end; in one ring a common snap- hook is fixed, and a short leather strap is passed through the other, by which the stick is fast- ened to the post. The horse thus hitched can- not possibly reach the top of the post, to seize it with its teeth. In the stall such a horse should be hitched with two straps, one at each side of the stall, and of such a length that he cannot reach either side to take hold of the rail or partition of the stall. If a swinging feed-box is used, the crib-biter will be forced to suspend operations, as he cannot draw in the air or *'suck wind," unless he has some projecting object that he can lay hold of with the teeth. HOW TO INCREASE VEGETABLE MATTER IN THE SOIL, The amount of vegetable matter in the soil may be increased by various methods ; one is by large applications of barn-yard manure, say fifty cords to the acre. But this would be very ^* ' expensive, and is out of the question in com- mon farming. It may be done by putting on peat or muck, when these are near to the fields. But this involves a considerable outlay for labor in digging the peat, and a still larger expense in carting it, whether it first pass through the yards and stables, or be carted to the fields for composting or spreading upon the sur- face to be plowed in. On some farms this may be the cheaper method of supplying vegetable matter to tho soil. But on others the most economical method is the raising of clover, to be fed off upon the land, or to bo FABM COXTENIENCEa. 131 hirned in. If a ton of clover may be worth nine dollars, as a fertilizer, the growing of the plant is a cheap method of improving the land. Two tons for the first crop and a ton for the second is not an uncommon yield for land in good heart. The roots of clover also add largely to the vegetable matter in the soil. The first crop may be pastured, waiting until the crop is in blos- som, and then turning in cattle enough to feed it off in three or four weeks. They should be kept constantly upon the field, that the whole crop may be returned to the soil. This will, of course, help the second crop, which maybe turned in with the plow soon after it is in blossom. If the equivalent of three tons of dried clover hay, and one ton of roots have been grown to the acre, about thirty-six dollars' worth of manure have been addcL to the soil, and it has been distributed more evenly than would have been possible by any mechanical process. There has been no expense for carting and spreading peat, or for composting. On the contrary, there has been the equivalent of two tons of clover-hay consumed upon the field, worth, as fodder, twenty-four dollars. This will more than pay the cost of seed, of plowing twice and other labor. This is generally admitted to be the cheapest method of increasing the vegetable matter and the fertility of soils in common farming. And thi% it will be seen, requires some little capital. OPEN LINKS. An open link, shown in figure 95, is made of three- eighth inch iron rod, and when use that may be drawn up, is proyided for use at low water. WASTE LANDS— MAKE THEM USEFUIj. Waste land abounds everywhere. It is fenced, and has the appearance of farm-land, but the owner, if a farmer, would be better off without it than he is with it. Xo one locality seems to be better or worse than another in this respect, unless it be that the Southern States have the most waste land, and the Eastern States come next in this respect. There are rocky fields, and fields covered with loose stones ; swamps and wet ground, and land covered with wretched brush and small timber, and in the South, especially, barren and guilitd hill-sides. It is true, that to clear up these lands, and make them fruitful, will cost in labor, if the labor is valued at the current rates, more than the land would bring if olTered for sale. But this is not the right way to look at this matter. In reality, it will cost nothing to clear thc8v lands, because their owners may do it by working whi.r, they would otherwise be idle. The way to do it is tc- Bct about it. To clear an acre or two at a time, of those fields that can be cleared ; and to plant with timber, of Bome valuable sort, that ground which is too rough for the plow, instead of permitting it to grow up with use- less brush. In many cases, the worst trouble that farmers suffer is, that they have more land than they can care for, under their preFcnt system of management. Hundreds of farms are worked as grain farms, that are Dot well suited for any other use than dairy farms, and ground is plowed that should be kept in permanent grass. In some cases, the owners of land have discovered their proper vocatiou, as in the dairy district of Central 151 FABM CONVENIENCES. oiaflping the reins when driven. As a preventire of botb of these habits, the pad shown in figure 121 is often used by horse- men, instead of the cruel and un- necessary operation of "nicking." This appliance is made of leather, is stuffed with hair or wool, and is about three inches in diameter at the thickest part, gradually taper- ing toward each end, where it is fastened to the crupper straps. It should be drawn up close to the roots of the tail, and by exerting a pressure beneath it, the tail is Fig. 121.— cKuppER-PAD. carried in a raised position, and is not thrown over to one side. If it is, a few sharp tacks may be driven into the inside of the pad. A DAM FOR A FISH POND. In making a fish pond, by placing a dam across a stream, it should be borne in mind that success depends upon the proper construction of the dam, whether it be Fig. 133. — STAKES AND BKUSB. large or small. Any defect here will make the whole useless. The main point in the construction of a dam is, to have a complete union between the earth of the bed and that of the dam. This cannot be done by FA2:i COXyL2fIE2s"CES. 15S throwing the earth upon an old surface. A new aurfaoa must be made, solid and firm, to receive the ne\7 earth. In addition, there should be a central core of some strong material, that will serve to strengthen and bind the new construction. In making a dam or embankment to re- tain or exclude water, the beginning should be to dig a shallow ditch, removing sod or uneven ground, or if the earth is bare, to disturb it thoroughly with the pick, so as to provide binding material to unite with the bottom of the dam. A line of stakes is driven into the ground, and filled with brush woven in, or wattled, as in figure 122. In building the dam, all the sods and vegetable matter should be placed on the outside, where these will root, and bind the surface together ; the rest of the earth should be well trodden, or rammed down firmly, and it the soil is puddled by admixture of water in the process of ramming, the work will be better for it. The water- way in the stream should be tightly boarded or planked. Three posts may be driven or set on each bank of the stream, and boards nailed, or planks spiked for a larger structure, so as to retain the earth of the embankments on each side, figure 123. A timber is fitted as a mud- sill, to the front and rear posts, and one to the central posts ; the latter at such a height as will raise the water to the desired depth. The spaces between these timbers are boarded and planked, and may be filled in with earth, well rammed, and mixed with straw and fine cedar brush, under the covering. If it is desired to raise the water to a greater depth, loose flash-boards may be fitted with cleats, on the centre of the waste-way, or a wire-gauze fence may be placed there, to prevent the escape of the fish. If freshets are apt to occur, a sufficient number of these waete-ways should be provided to carry off the surplus water, and prevent overflowing and wasting of the dam. The dam of a fish pond should always b« lU FARM COifVENIENCBS. made high enough for safety against overflow, and to guard against percolation, and washing away by under- mining, it should be made three times as wide as it is high, with slopes of one and a half foot horizontal oi^ iig. 126. — WASTE-GATE FOH POND. each side, to one foot in perpendicular height. If any plants are set upon a dam or embankment, they should be of a small, bushy growth, such as osier willow, elders, etc., but nothing larger, lest the swaying caused by high winds should loosen and destroy the bank. A WAGON JACK. In figures 124 and 1 25 is shown a most convenient home-made wagon jack, in constant use for ten years, and has proved most satisfactory. The drawings were made with such care, the measurement being placed upon them, that the engravings tell nearly the whole story. Figure 124 shows the jack when in position to hold the axle, at a. When not in use, the lever falls down out of the way, and the affair can be hung up in a handy place. Figure 125 shows the "catch -board, "and the dimensions proper for a jack, for an ordinary wagon, buggy, etc. It is so shaped and fastened by a din be- f ABM CONVENIENCES. 16b tween the upright parta of the jack, that it ia pushed in position, d, by the foot at c, when the axle is raised , and falls back of its own accord when the lever is raised a trifle to let the wheel down. All the parts are made Fl>. ri4.— MICUIGAN VkAGuN Jack. fig. 125.— CATCIi-DOA.KD. of inch stuff, the foot board, catch, and lever should be of hard wood ; the upright boards between which they are placed can be of pine or other soft wood. Persona who see this simple and convenient wagon jack fre- quently say, '* Why don't you get it patented ?" but the inventor thinks that such simple things, which any one can make, ought to be contributed for the common good, and in the same spirit we commend it to any who mAj be in need of a good wagon jack. WILL YOU FEED HAY OR WOOD? A great deal has been said and written about the proper time of cuttiug hay. The best time, all things considered, is to cut the grass just after it haa come inH 156 FAEM COmTEiaENCBa, full bloom, though many think the preferable time it just when it is coming into full blossom. As it is im- possible to always mow every field just at the right mo- ment, the general safe rule is, we think, to be all ready to begin at full bloom, and finish before it is entirely past. There is this important fact to be kept in mind, viz., that as soon as grass of any kind has attained its growth, and is full of juices, it begins to change more and more into woody fibre, and that when fully ripe a large part of the stems or stalks differ very little in comnosition from dry wood. And every one knows that dry wood is neither easily digested nor nutritious. It stands to reason that a stalk of grass cut when it is full of juice containing sugar, gum, and protein compounds, and cured thus, must be more nutritious than if left standing until a part of these constituents have changed into woody fibre. Feeding hay not cut until it is thoroughly ripe, is giving the animals that which is in part only so much wood. The practical lesson is, make a good ready well in advance, now, and have the barns, mows, stack- ing arrangements, mowers, scythes, horse and other rakes, forks, wagon racks, in short, all things, in perfect order — and the work planned, so as not to let any hay- field get into the fully ripe condition. Head work be- forehand will save hard work and worrj?, and secure better hay. A BRACE FOR A KICKING HORSE. Those so unfortunate as to own a kicking horse know something of the patience that it requires to get along with it — and will welcome anything which will prevent the kicking and finally effect a cure. The writer knew a horse, which was so bad a kicker that after varioui rXEM C0NTEXIENCE8. 157 txiala, and after passing through many hands, and get- ting worse all the time, to be perfectly cured in the course of three months by the use of the device here given. This is a simple brace, which acts upon the fact that if the head be kept up, the horse cannot kick. A kicking horse is like a balance, when one end goes up, the other must go down. The brace is shown in figure 126, and consists of a one-half inch iron rod, which may be straight, or, for the looks, bent into a graceful curve. It is forked at both ends ; the two divisions of the upper end are fastened to the two rings of the bit, while the lower ends fit upon the lower portion of the collar and hames. The upper ends can best be fastened to the bit by winding with wire, which should be done smoothly, so as not to wear upon the mouth. The lower end is secured by means of a strap fastened to the upper loop, and passing around the colhir is buckled through the hole in the lower part of the end of tlie brace. The brace need not be taken from tlio bit in unhar- ^^f^' 126.-the brack. nessing. Any blacksmith can make such a brace, taking care to have it of the proper length to fit the particular horse. Keep its head at about the height as when "checked up," and the horse will soon be cured. now TO SAVE LIQUID MANTTRE. In ordinary farm practice, by far the larger part of the liquid manure of the stock kept is lost. No effort is made to save it. There is no bam cellar, no gutter be- 158 FAEM CONVENIENCES. dind the stabled animals, no absorbents. Analysis showi that the liquid manure is quite as valuable as the solid, or even more so. In 1, 000 pounds of fresh horse dung there are 4.4 pounds of nitrogen, 3.5 of potash, and 3.5 of phosphoric acid. In horse urine there are 15.5 pounds of nitrogen, and 15.0 of potash. In 1,000 pounds of fresh cattle dung there are 2.9 pounds of nitrogen, 1.0 of pot- ash, 1.7 of phosphoric acid. In the urine, 5.8 pounds of nitrogen, 4.9 of potash. These are the most valuable constituents of manure, and no farmer can afford to have them so generally run to waste. There is very lit- tle loss where there is a gutter well supplied with absorb- ents, and a barn cellar well coated with dried peat, muck, or headlands, to absorb the liquids as fast as they fall. But barn cellars are still in the minority. Mr. Mechi iiad a very expensive apparatus for distributing the liquid manure over his farm, by means of tanks and pipes, and thought it paid, but failed to convince his contemporaries of the fact. However that may be, it is out of the ques- tion to apply liquid manure in this manner, economic- ally, upon the average farm. It takes too much capital, and requires too much labor. By the use of absorbents, it can be done economically on a small or large scale, with very little waste. Some use a water-tight box, made of thick plank, covering the floor of the stall. This is a very sure way to save everything, and the only objection to it is the expense of the box, and the in- creased labor of keeping the stalls clean. We used for several years dried salt-marsh sod, cut in blocks eight or ten inches square, taken from the surface of the marsh in ditching. This had an enormous capacity for absorb- ing liquids, and a layer of these sods would keep a horse or cow comfortably dry for a fortnight. Refuse hay or straw was used on top for purposes of cleanliness. The iatu rated sod was thrown into the compost heap with FAEM C0XVEXIEKCE8. 15f other manure, where it made an excellent fertilizer. Later we nsed sawdust, purchased for the purpose at I J70 cents a bushel, as bedding for a cow kept upon a cemented floor. A bed a foot thick would last nearly a month, when it was thrown out into the compost heap. The sawdust requires a longer time for decomposition, but saves the liquid manure. Our present experiment, coTering several months, is with forest leaves, principally hickory, maple, white ash, and elm. A bushel of dried leaves, kept under a shed for the purpose, is added to the bedding of each animal, and the saturated leaves are removed with the solid manure as fast as they accu- mulate. The leaves become very fine by the constant treading of the animals, and by the heat of their bodies, and the manure pile grows rapidly. It is but a little additional labor to the ordinary task of keeping animals clean in their stalls, to use some good absorbent, and enough of it, to save all the liquid manure. What the absorbent shall be is a question of minor importance. Convenience will generally determine this matter. No labor upon the farm pays better than to save the urine of all farm stock by means of absorbents. These are in great variety, and, in some form, are within the reach of every man that keeps cattle or runs a farm. Stop thia leak, and lift your mortgage. AN OPEN SHED FOR FEEDING. A feeding-trough in a yard, which can bo covered to keep out snow or rain, is a desirable thing, and many devices have been contrived for the purpose, most of which are too costly. We give herewith a method of constructing a covered feeding-trough, which may be made Tevy cheaply of the rough materials to be had on every farm. A sufficient number of stout posta are set 160 FARM CONVENIElJrCES. firmly in the ground, extending about ten feet aboT© the Burface. They should be about six feet apart and in a Btraight line, and a plate fastened to their tops. A pair Fig. 127.— AN OPEN FEEDING-SHED. of rafters supported by braces, as shown in figure 127, is fitted to each post. A light roof of laths is laid, and covered with bark, straw, corn-stalks, or coarse hay. Strips are fastened from one brace to another, and latha or split poles nailed to them, about six inches apart, to make a feed-rack. A feed-trough for grain or roots is built upon each side. For sheep, the shed and rack may be made only eight feet high at the peak, and the eavea four feet from the ground ; giving better shelter. A SHADE FOR HORSES* EYES. The most frequent cause of weak eyes in horses is h badly-arranged stable. Foul gases irritate and inflama the tender membranes of the eye and head, and horset brought from dark stables into bright sunlight, or onto glittering snow, are dazzled and blinded. The existing weakness or irritation is intensified, and the poor animal Bufl^ers unsuspected torments. The remedy is to purify tii^ sjiabic aiul (.'-ivt^ ]t sufHcicut light, shaded by blinda. PAUM COi^VEN-IENCES. 161 from before and behind the horse, or from both sides, avoiding a light from only the front, rear, or one side light. A shade for weak or inflamed eyes may be constructed by ' ' fastening wires to the bridle and covering it with oiled cloth in the manner repre- eented in figure 128. Thus a soft, subdued light reaches the eves, while the horse can still see the ground immedi- ately before him. It will be a timely job to prepare such Fig.i28.— to protect thbetks. % shade for use before the snow of winter comes. TEST ALL SEEDS- IMPORTANT. No one can, by merely looking at them, positively tell whether any particular lots of field, garden, or flower seeds have or have not sufficient vitality of germ to start into vigorous growth. Yet it is a severe loss, often a disastrous one, to go through with all the labor and ex- pense of preparation and planting or sowing, and find too late that the crop is lost because the seeds are de- fective. All this risk can be saved by a few minutes* time all told, in making a preliminary test, and it should be done before the seed is wanted, and in time to get other seed if necessiiry. Seeds may not have ma- tured the germ ; it may have been destroyed by heat or moisture ; minute insects may have, unobserved, punc- tured or eaten out the vital part of a considerable per- centage. Select from the whole maes of the seed, one hundred, or fifty, or eves ten ieeds, that will be a fair lampld of 163 FARM COHVEKIEKCES. all. For larger seeds, as wheat, corn, oats^ peas, etCs take a thin, tough sod, and scatter the counted seeds upon the earth side. Put upon the seeds another simi- lar sod, earth side down. Set this double sod by the warm side of the house or other building, or of a ti^jht fence, moistening it occasionally as needed. If very cold, cover, or remove to the kitchen or cellar at night. The upper sod can be lifted for observation when desirable. The swelling and starting of the seeds will in a few days, according to the kind, tell what percentage of them will grow — a box of earth will answer instead of sods, both for large and small seeds. Small seeds of vegetables oi Fig. 139. — HOME-MADE HOLLER. flowers, and even larger ones, may be put into moist cot« ton, to be kept slightly moist and jJaced in the sun or in a light warm room. For small quantities of valuable flower seeds and the like, half a dozen will suffice for a trial test. With any seed, for field or garden, however good, it is always very desirable and useful to know ex- actly how many or few are defective, and thus be able to decide how much seed to use on an acre, or other plot. FARM COXVENIEXCES. 16S A FIELD ROLLER. A Tcry good field roller may be easily made in .Tinttr, when timber ia being cut. Use a butt-log of au oak tree, in the form shown in figure 129. The log need not be a yery large one, because the frame, in which it is mounted, enables it to be loaded to any reaionabie extent, and the driver may ride upon it, and thus add to the weight. A roller will be found very valuable m the spring when repeated frosts have raised the ground and thrown out the stones. A PORTABLE SLOP BARREL. A barrel mounted upon wheels, as shown in figure 130, will be found useful for many purposes about the farm, garden, or household. The barrel is supported upon a pair of wheels, the axles of which are fastened to Fig. 130. —PORTABLE BAIiREL FOR SLOPS. a frame connected with the barrel by means of strap* bolted to the sides. The frame may be made of iron bent in the form shown in figure 131, or of crooked tim- ber liaving a sufiRcient bend to permit the barrel to bo tipped for emptying. A pair of handles are provided, aa shown in the engraving. When not in use, the barrel rests upon tlie ground, and may be raised by bearing down upon the handles. The barrel may bo mndo to rest in notched bearings upon the frame, so that by raising ih$ 164 FARM CONVElsIENCES. handles, the wheels may be drawn away from th« barrel, and the latter left in a convenient place until ii needs removal. This contrivance will be useful for feed- 1^^*.==^ Fig. 131.— PLAN OF FRAME OP BARREL. Ing slops to pigs, or for removing the waste of the house to the barn-yard. WHERE AND HOW TO APPLY FERTILIZERS. It is often difficult to decide — for barn-yard or stable manures, or for any artificial fertilizer — whether to use it in the hill or broadcast it ; and whether to apply it on the surface, or bury it deeply. Here is a hint or two. If not strong enough to injure the first tender roots, a little manure near at hand gives the plant a good send- off, like nourishing food to the young calf or other ani- mal ; the after-growth is much better if the young ani- mal or plant is not dwarfed by imperfect and insufficient diet. Therefore, drilling innocuous hand fertilizers in with the seed is useful, as is putting some well-rotted manure or leached ashes into hills of corn, potatoes, in- deed with all planted seeds. But there arc good reasons for distributing most of the manures or fertilizers all through the soil, and as deeply as the plant roots can possibly penetrate. The growth and vigor of all plants or crops depend chiefly upon a good supply of strong roots that stretch out far, and thus gather food over the widest extent of soil. If a flourishing stalk of oom^ FARM CONTEXirXCES. IW grain or grass, be carefully waslied, so as to leave all ita roots or rootlets attached, there will be found a wonder- ful mass of hundreds and even thousands of roots to any plant, and they extend off a long distance, frequently several feet — the farther the better, to collect more food and moisture. Put some manure or fertilizer in place two feet away from a corn or potato hill, or from almost any plant, and a large mass of roots will go out in that direction. So, if we mix manures or fertilizers well through the whole soil, they attract these food-seeking roots to a greater distance ; and they thus come in con- tact with more of the food already in the soil, and find more moisture in dry weather. A deeply-stirred soil, with manure at the bottom, develops water-pumping roots below the reach of any ordinary drouth, and th' crops keep right on growing — all the more rapidly oi account of the helpful sun's rays that would scorch a plant not reaching a deep reservoir of moisture. A MILL FOR CRUSHING BONES. To save the expense of a purchased bone-mill, one may be made as described below, which will crush them into a condition much more valuable for manure than the whole bones, if not quite as good as if finely groun(i. Make a circular mould of boards, six feet wide and two feet deep. Hoops of broad band-iron are fitted to the inside of the mould, and secured to it about one inch apart. The mould is then filled with a concrete of Port- land cement, sand, and broken stone. Place in the con- crete when filling binding pieces of flat bar-iron, to pre- Tcnt the mass from cracking: when in use. In the cen- tre place squares of band-iron, as a lining for a shaft by which the cmsher is turned. When the concrete is 8et ftnd hardened, the frame may be taken apart ; and. ai in IM FARM CONTEKIEKCES. setting the concrete will expand somewhat, the iron bands around the mass will be found to have become a tight solid facing to the wheel. The wheel is then 3et up on edge, and a square shaft of yellow pine, six inches thick, is wedged into the central space. This shaft is fitted to an upright post by a loose band of iron and a swivel joint, so that the wheel may be made to revolv?? around it. Any other suitable connection may be used for this purpose. A hollow trough of broken stone and well rammed concrete is then laid in the track of thij Fig. 132. — HOME-MADE BONE-MILL. wheel as it revolves, and the crusher is complete and ready for a pair of horses to be attached to it, figure 132. A crusher of this kind may be put up at a country mill, or as a joint affair by a few farmers uniting their efforts, and thus utilizing a valuable fertilizing material, which is now wasted for want of means to render it available. LIMB AND LIMESTONE. In the first place, limestone, marble, calo-spar, challc (of rare occurrence in this country), marl, and oyster, and PARM CONVENIBNCES. 167 othef shells, are all essentially the same in composition, however they may differ in texture, form, and other par- ticulars. They are all different forms of the carbonate of lime ; that is, they consist of the alkaline earth, lime, in combination with carbonic acid, and in the case of shells, with animal matter. As a general thing, we only know carbonic acid as a gas. It has a very weak hold of the lime, for if we drop a fragment of limestone into strong vinegar, the acetic acid of the vinegar will unite with the lime (forming acetate of lime), while the car- bonic acid, being set free, will be seen to pass off in small bubbles. In this case we free the lime from its carbonic acid, by presenting to it a stronger acid, that of vinegar. But if instead of using another acid to displace the car- bonic acid, we place limestone in any of its forms, in a strong fire, the carbonic acid will be driven off by the heat, and there will be left, simply lime. This is called quick lime, or caustic lime, and by chemists oxide of the metal calcium, or calcium oxide. Lime, then, is limestone without its carbonic acid. All the forms of limestone are very little soluble in water; lime itself is more soluble, though but slightly so, requiring at ordi- nary temperatures about seven hundred times its own weight of water, yet it gives a marked alkaline taste to water in which it is dissolved. Lime in this condition, as quick lime, or when combined with water, ''slaked** as it is called, is much employed in agriculture. A email portion of lime is required by plants, but the chief use of lime, when applied to the soil, is to bring the vegetable matters contained in the soil into a condi- tion in which they can be used as plant food. This ap- plication of lime as a fertilizer has long been followed by farmers, and in many cases with the most beneficial re- 8ult8. Within a year or so great claims have been made for groand limestone, especially by the maken of milli 168 FAEM COJSVENIEi^CES. for grinding it ; some of these have asserted that it wag superior to burned lime, and superior to nearly all other fertilizers. The question which most interests farmers is, has limestone, however fine it may be, any value as a fertilizer ? To this the answer would be both "yes " and **no." Upon a heavy clay soil the carbonate of lime, or limestone in any form, appears to have a beneficial ef- fect ; it makes such soils friable and open, so that water and air may penetrate them. While its action upon th6 vegetable matter in the soil is far less prompt and ener- getic than that of quick-lime, yet its presence, affording a base with which any acid that may be present in the soil may unite, is often beneficial. To extol ground limestone as " the great fertilizer of the age,'' to even claim that it is equal to linie itself, is a mistake. Both have their uses. It should be borne in mind by inquir- ers about the value of ground limestone, that many soils already contain more lime in this form than can ever be utilized, and need no addition. A FARM WHEELBARROW. The wheelbarrow is an indispensable vehicle on the farm and in the garden. Applied to hard uses it needs Fig. 133. — FAllM WHEELBARROW. to bo strong and durable. A barrow of the ordinary kind, used on farms, soon becomes weak in the joints and falli FAKM COXVEXIENCES. 169 to pieces. The movable sides are inconvenient, and the shape necessarily adopted when movable sides are used greatly weakens the structure. It will be noticed at first «ight that the wheelbarrow, shown in figure 133, is most strongly supported and braced, that the box, instead of weakening it, greatly strengthens it, and that it is stout and substantial. It is put together at every part by strong bolts, and can be taken apart to pack for transpoi tation, if desired, and a broken part readily replaced. TO PREVENT THE BALLING OP HORSES. When the snow upon the roads is cohesive and packi firmly, it collects upon the feet of horses, forming a hard, projecting mass, in a manner known as ** balling." This often occurs to such an extent as to impede the motion of the horse, while it causes the animal great discomfort, and is sometimes dangerous to the rider or driver. The trouble may be prevented very easily by the use of gutta- percha. For this purpose the gutta-percha should be crude, t.«., not mixed with anything or manufactured in any manner, but just as imported. Its application depends upon the property which the gum has of soften- ing and becoming plastic by heat, and hardening again when cold. To apply it, place the gutta-percha in hot water until it becomes soft, and having well cleansed the foot, removing whatever has accumulated between the shoe and hoof, take a piece of the softened gum and press it against the shoe and foot in such a manner aa to fill the angle between the shoe and the hoof, taking care to force it into the crack between the two. Thus filling the crevices, and the space next the shoe, where the snow moat firmly adheres, the ball of snow has nothing to hold it, and it either does not form, or drops out ai soon m il • ITO FARM COKVEi^IETS'CES. is gathered. When the gutta-percha is applied, and well smoothed off with the wet fingers, it may be hardened at mce, to prevent the horse from getting it out of place by stamping, by the application of snow or ice, or more slowly by a wet sponge or cloth. When it is desired to remove the gum, the application of hot water by means of a sponge or cloth will so soften it that it may be taken off. As the softening and hardening may be repeated indefinitely, the same material will last for years. For a horse of medium size, a quarter of a pound is sufiScient for all the feet. TO PREVENT CATTLE THROWING FENCES. To prevent a cow from throwing fences or hooking other cows, make a wooden strip two and a half inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick, and attach it K—ir:ir~-^ ^^ ^h® horns by screws ; to this is I'i^^S^^ fastened, by a small bolt, a strip of hardwood, three inches wide, half an inch thick, and of a length suf- ficient to reach downward within an inch of the face, and within two or three inches of the nostrils. In the lower end of this strip are pre- viously driven several sharp nails, which project about one-quarter Fig. 134.-CATTLB CHECK, ^f ^^ |^^j^^ rpj^^ arrangement is shown in figure 134; the strip, when properly attached, allows the animal to eat and drink with all ease, but when an attempt is made to hook or to throw a fence, the sharpened nails soon cause an abrupt cessation of that kind of mischief. FARM C0XVEXIEXCE6. 171 FEED BOXES. In figure 135 a box is shown firmly attached to two posts. It ha.s a hinged cover, p, that folds over, and may be fasteifd down by inserting a wooden pin in the Fig. 135. — COVERED FEED BOX. top of the post near n. The one given in fignre 136 maybe placed under shelter, along the side of a buiMIug or feDce. One side of the top is hinged to the fcLoe . ._,. lUu— HINOED FEED BOX. or building, the bottom resting upon a stake, e. When not in use, the box may be folded up, the end of the •trap, h, hooking over the pin, a, at the tide of the box* 172 PAKM COIS^VEI^IElsCES, A good portable box, to be placed upon the ground, 18 shown in figure 137. It is simply a common box, with a strip of board, h, nailed on one side and projecting about Fig. 137. — PORTABLE FEED BOX. eight inches. When not in use, it is turned bottom up, as shown in figure 138. The projecting strip prevents three sides of the box from settling into the mud or snow. The strip is also a very good handle by which to carry it. Fig. 138.— FEED BOX INVERTED. Those who now use portable boxes will find the attach- ing of this strip a decided advantage. A very serviceable portable feed box is made from a section of half a hollow Fig. 139.— BOX FROM HOLLOW LOG. log, with ends nailed on, as shown in figure 139. By let- ting the ends project above the sides four or five inches, it may be turned over when not in use, and easily tum^ci FARM CONVEX lENCES. 178 back by grasping tlie sides without the hand coming in contact with earth or snow. All feed boxes and racks should be placed under shelter during summer, or when not in use. A CATTLE TIE. Judging from the numerous stanchions and arrange- ments for fastening cattle in stalls, illustrated from time to time in the public prints, the perfect cattle-fastening has not yet been invented. We do not claim perfection for the arrangement given in figure 140, but it will be difficult to devise a cheaper one, and we doubt if any better or more satisfactory one is in use. The fastening consists of a three-fourth inch rope, which is run through the partitions of the stalls, one long rope being used for the tier of stalls, although short pieces may be employed if desired. Tins rope is knotted on either side — — ^iTTrm Fig. 140.— CATTLE Til. of each partition, and a good swivel snap for use with a rope, is tied in the rope in front of the centre of each •tall. The rope ihould pa»i over, very nearly, the front 174 FARM CONVENIENCES, of the manger — from the side of the cattle— and foi cattle of ordinary hight, it ought to be about two feet from the floor. When put in, the rope should be drawn up tightly, as it will soon acquire considerable and sufiScient slack from the constant strain from the ani- mals. With this arrangement each cow must be pro= vided with a strap or rope about the neck, the rope or strap being supplied with a free-moving iron ring. When the animal is put in the stalls the snap is fastened in the ring, and if the snap is a good oue — none but the best swivel snaps should be used — an animal will rarely get free from it. This fastening, it will be noticed, admits of considerable fore and aft motion, arid but slight lateral movement. The cost of this arrangement it is difficult to state accurately, it is so small. Tiie rope for each stall will c-ost less than five cents ; the snaps will cost ten cents when bought by the dozen, and the time of putting these fittings in each stall is less than fifteen minutes. The rope will wear two years at least. A BEEP RAISER. Two posts are set about fifteen feet high. A deep mortise is cut in the top of each to receive the roller, ivhich is grooved at the points of turning. One end of the roller extends beyond the post, and through this end three two-inch holes are bored. Three light poles are put through these holes, and their ends connected by a light rope. In raising the beef the middle of a stout rope is thrown over the roller ; the ends are drawn through the loop, and after the beef is fastened to the loose ends the roller is turned against the loop by meana of the ** sweep," or lever arms, figure 141. A heavy FARM CONVENIENCES. 17& beef can be easily raised, and may be fastened at any Fig. 141. — A BEEF RAISER. Aight desired, by tying the end of one of the leyers to the post with a short rope. A CEDAR STEM SOIL-STIRRER. A convenient and quickly-made implement for stirring and mixing manure and fertilizers with the soil, may be Fig. 142.— A. STIRRER MADE OF ▲ CEDAR STEM. made as follows : A cedar stem is cut about eight feet long, and the branches cut oft several inches from the stem, leaving long spurs on all sides for its whole length, M shown in figure 142. A horse is hitched by a chain iH FAKM CONVEl^IEKOES. to me butt end, and the driver guides the implement by a rope fastened to the rear end of the stem. By means of the guide-rope the implement may be lifted over or around obstacles, and turned at the end of the field. Such an implement is specially useful in mixing fertil- izers with the soil, when applied in drills for hoed crops, A HINT FOR Pia KILLING. Lay a log chain across the scalding trough, and pui the pig upon it. Cross the chain over the animal, as Fig. 143. — SGALiDING A PIG. shown in figure 143. A man at each end of the chain can easily turn the pig in the scald, or work it to and fro as desired. MENDING BROKEN TOOLS. Farming tools, such as shovels, rakes, forks, etc., that are much used, will often, through carelessness or acci- dent, become broken, and, with most men, that means to be thrown one side, as utterly useless. By exercising a little ingenuity, they could in a short time be fitted up to do service for several years. The head of hand-rakes often becomes broken at the point where the handle en- torn, and not unfrequontly the handle itself is broken off i' A 11 il COIiV K N I r. N C KS. 177 where it enters the head. In either case the hreak ii easily made good by attaching a small piece of wood to Tig. 144. — A MENDEI> RAKE. the head, by small nails or screws, as shown in figure 144. Should the head be broken where one of the bow* Flip. 145.— MENDING A SHOVKL. passes through, it may bo uicnded in a like manner, K Shoveig and spRdorf. owini,' to tho great itrriin to wlncli 178 FARM co:n"Vekiekces. they are often subjected, especially by carelessly pr3ring with them, crow-bar fashion, are frequently broken, and usually at the point where the wood enters the blade. This break, bad as it is, should not consign the broken parts to the rubbish pile, especially if the blade and the handle be otherwise in fair condition. Remove the iron straps or ferule from the handle ; firmly rivet a strip of iron, a, figure 145, on top of the handle, and a similar one underneath, to the blade and handle, as shov/n in the engraving. Other broken tools may be made to do good service by proper mending. A LARGE FEED-RACK. The width of the rack is seven feet, but it can be any Jength desired; hight, ten feet ; hight of manger, two and a half feet ; width, one and one- half foot. Cattle can eat from both sides. The advantage of such a rack. rig. 146.— A LIRGE YARD FODDER-RACK. Bhown in figure 146, is that it will hold a large quantity 01 feed, and so securely that very little can be wast-ed bj the feeding animals. FARM CONVENIENCES. BARN DOOR FASTEXINQ. 179 One of the best barns in the country has its large double doors fastened by a bar of iron, about six feet long, which is bolted to one of the doors at its middle point. The ends of the bar are notched, one upon the upper and the other on the under side, to fit over sock- ets or " hooks " that are bolted to the doors. One hook -Ar Fig. 147. — IKON BAR DOOR FASTENING. bends upward, and the other downward, and the bar moves in the arc of a circle when the door is being un- fastened or bolted. The construction of this door fast- ening is showTi in figure 147. A wooden bar may replace the iron one, and may be of a size and length sufficient Fig. 148.— WOODEN BAR DOOR FASTENING. to make the fastening secure. A wooden bar is shown in figure 148. Such a method of fastening could be used for a single door, provided it needs to be opened and closed only from the inside. By putting a pin in ISO FABM CONVENIENCES, khe bdi nertr the «fnd that passes by tlie door-poit, lo thftl it will reach through a slot in the door, such a *' latch" might be used for any door. A "FORK" STABLE SCRAPER. A very handy stable scrape/ is made of an inch board, tire inches wide, and about eight i^iches longer than the width of a four-tined fork. Bore a hole for each tine a quarter inch in diameter from the edge of the board to about two inches from the opposite edge, the holes passing out upon the side. The lower part of the board is bevelled behind, thus forming a good scraping edge. After the coarse manure is pitched up, the fork is in- Fig. 149.— A "fork" barn scraper. lerted in the holes of the board, and a scraper is at onoe ready for use, figure 149. To store it, nail a cleat on the floor two inches from the wall, and secure the scraper behind this cleat ; place one foot upon the board and FARM CONVEinlENCES. 181 withdraw the fork. Notches may be cut in the edge oi the board opposite each hole, to assist in placing the tinei. A METHOD OP CURIXG HAY. A method of curing hay which has been used for ser* •ral jeari with entire satisfaction consists in taking Fig. 150. — TEE FRAME. (our slender stakes six feet long, a, a, a, a (figure 160), Fig. 151.— TUG fiMAl.L tiTACK. ftwtened together at the upper ends with a loose joint similar to thut of an ordinary tripod. One end of the 183 FARM C02STENIENCBS. fifth stake, 3, rests on one of tlie four legs about a foot from the ground, the other end resting on the ground. The hay is stacked around this frame nearly to the top of the stakes, after which the stake, h, is withdrawn, and then the four upright stakes are removed. This is done by two men with hay forks, who raise them directly upwards. As soon as the legs are lifted from the ground the pressure of the hay brings them together, and they can be removed with ease, leaving a small stack of hay, as shown in figure 151, with an air passage running from the bottom upwards through the centre of the small stacks as indicated by the dotted lines. GEANARY CONVENIENCES. The better plan for constructing grain bins is to hare the upper front boards movable, that the contents may Fig. 152.— STEPS TS i. GRANABT. be more readily reached as they lessen. But as there are tens of thousands of granaries where the front bin boards are firmly nailed, a portable step, like that shown in figure 162, is almost a necessity. It should have two FJLEM C02?^VE2JIEXCES. 183 iteps of nine inches each, and be one foot wide, and two feet long on top. It is light and is easily moved about fhe granary. Every owner of a farm needs a few extra sieves, which, i^he^x not in use, are usually thrown in some corner, or Fig. 153.— A SIEVE RACK. laid on a box or barrel to be knocked about and often in- jured by this rough handling, besides being frequently D the way. A little rack, which may be readily mada Fig. 154.— A GRAIN BAO HOLDEB, above one of the bins in the granary, as showt in figure 153, is convenient to put sieves out of the way, and keep them from injury. 184 FABM OOKYENIEI^CES. Grain baga are too expensiye and valuable to 6e «cat< tered about the buildings. A simple mode of securing them is shown, which is at once cheap and safe. In the ceiling over the bins, staples are driven about four feet apart, to which are attached pieces of wire two feet in length. To these wires is fastened a pole five feet in length, over which the bags are thrown when not in use, and they are then out of reach of mice from the bins and wall, as shown in figure 154. A NON-SLIPPING CHAIN FOR BOULDERS. One great trouble in hauling boulders or large stones with team and chain is the liability of the chain to slip off, especially if the stone is nearly round. By the use of the contrivance shown in figure 155, nearly all of this trouble is avoided. It consists in passing two log chains around the stone and connecting them a few inches above the' ground by a short chain or even a piece of rope or wire. Connect the chains in a similar manner near the top of the stone. The ends of the draught chains are attached to the whipple-trees in any way desired. In ffLllAi Fig. 155.— METHOD OF FASTENING CHAINS ON A BOULDER. hauling down an incline, or where the ground is very rough, it will be best to wrap each chain clear around the stone, connecting with whipple-trees by a single chain, thereby preventing a possibility of the chains becoming detached or misplaced in any wav. VABM CO:Ny£IilENCLS. ZlX WEAK PLATE FOR HARNESS TUGS AND COLLASa In llio manufacture of improved harness trimmings, devicto are employed to prevent, as much as possible, the A* ear and breaking of the tugs where the buckle tongue enters them. This is quite an important point with those purchasing new harness. The simple con trivance, such as is shown in figure 189, consists of a Fig. 180. — WEAR PLA.TE FOR TUG, thin iron plate a little narrower than the tug, and about two inches in length, with a hole for the reception of the buckle-tonguo when placed between the tug and the buckle. The strain from the buckle upon the tug is equally distributed over the entire surface against which the plate rests. A harness thus equipped will last many years longer than those not so provided. There is another part of tlie harness that is the cause of much trouble- mainly, the part where the tug ^omes in contact with the col- lar. The tug and its fasten- ings to the hamo soon wear through the collar, and com- press the latter so much that during heavy pulling the horse's shoulder is often pinched, chafed, and lacerated. This is worse than carelcEsness on the part of the teamster, as the collar should be kept plump at this point, by re-filling when needed ; yet, very much of this trouble may 1>« «void©d by tacking to tha rig. 190.— WEAR PLATE rOB UAM£». nz FARM COJSTVEIS^IENCES, underside of the hame a piece of leather, as shown in Agure 190. It will be found not only to save the collar, but prevent chafing of the shoulder. POTABLE WATER FENCE. The water fence, shown in figure 191, is one of the best we have ever used, and those who live near or on tide- water will find such an one very useful. This fence is made usually of pine ; the larger pieces, those which lie on the grourd and parallel with the ^*run '* of the fence, are three by four-inch pieces, hemlock or pine, and connected by three cross-bars, of three by four-inch pieces, mortised in, three feet apart. Into the middle Fig. 191. — SECTION OF A WATER FENCE. of these three cross-pieces (the upright or posts), are securely mortised, while two common boards are nailed underneath the long pieces to afford a better rest for the structure when floating on the water, or resting on the ground. Stout wires are stretched along the posts, which are four ^eet high. DITCH CLEANER AND DEEPENER. Open ditches require constant attention to prevent their being choked with weeds and accumulations of iilt. FARM COXVIiL^li'^XCES. 213 Keeping them cleaned out with a hoe is a diflBcult and laborious task, while drawing a log down them is un- satisfactory and ineffectiye. To run a plow along the bottom is not only a disagreeable task, bat frequently does more harm thiin good. In view of those facts we devised the simple and effective implement shown in figure 192. The centre-piece is six by eight-inch oak, eight feet long, and shaped as shown in the cut. The wings, or Fig. 192.— A CLEANER FOR DITCHES. scrapers, are made of oak, or other tough wood ; boards ten inches wide. They are attaclied to the centre-piece at the forward end by an inch bolt that passes through all three pieces. They are connected at the rear end by a strong cross-bar of hard- wood. Twelve or fifteen inchca back of this bar the end of the lever is attached to tho centre-piece by an eye and staple. A short chain is fastened underneath the centre of the cross-bar, with an eye-bolt passing through it. The chain is attached to the lever with a hook, and may be lengthened or short- ened as required. The implement is drawn by two hors??, one on each side of the ditch. A man stands on the centre-piece, and handles the lever. If the ditch is narrow and deep, the rear ends of the wings or scrapers will naturally be forced upward to a considerable hight, and the lever chain should be lengthened accordingly. In wide, shallow 214 FARM COKYE^'IEN'CES. ditclies, the cross-bar will nearly rest on the centre-piece, and the chain must be short. The scrapers are forced down hard by bearing on the lever. If the bottom of the ditch is hard, two men may ride on the implement. Long weeds catching on the forward end must be re- moved with a fork. A strap of iron is fastened across the forward ends of the scrapers where the bolt passes through to prevent them from splitting. The horsea may be kept the proper distance apart by means of a light pole fastened to the halter rings. HOW TO BUILD A DAM. A form of crib, shown in figure 193, is built of logs, about eight feet square for ordinary streams. The bot- tom should have cross-pieces pinned on the lowest logs. The jjtones that till the crib rest on these cross-pieces Fig. 193. — A CBIB FOR A DAM. tnd bold everything secure. The crib can be partly built on shore, then launched, and finished in its place in tha flam. All the logs should be firmly pinned together. The velocity of the iatroam will determin* the diatauo« PAKM COXVENIEKCES. 215 between the cribs. The intervening spaces are occapied with logs, firmly fastened in their places. Stone is filled Fig. IM. — LOQ i!iUL^& FOa A DAM. In between the logs, and the bottom Is made water-tight with brush and clay. A dam without cribs, built of timbers spliced together, and reaching quite across the stream, is shown in figure 194. The frame is bound together with tiers of cross-tim- bers about ten feet apart The sides of this framework of spliced logs are slanting and nearly meet at the top. The interior is filled with stone and clay, and planked over tightly, both front and rear. For a small stream with an ordinary current, this is perhaps the cheapest and most durable dam made. The engravings fully Hufitrate the construction of the two forms. DRIVING HOP AND OTHER POLES. The usual method of driving stakes, etc., is to strike them on the upper end with a sledge or other heavy ar« tide ; but in the case of hop or other long poles this mode is impracticable. Hop poles are usually set by making a hole with an iron bar and forcing into it tht 216 FABM CO:N'yEN"IElsCES. lower end of the pole. Poles and other long stakes often need to be driven deeply in the ground, and this may be done quick- ly, and without a high step or plat« form, by using a device shown in figure 195. This consists of a block of tough wood, one foot in length, four or five inches square at the top, made tapering, as shown, with the part next the pole slightly hollowed out. Take a common trace chain, wind closely about the block and pole, and hook it in position. With an axe, sledge, or beetle, strike heavy blows upon the block. Each blow serves only to tighten the grip of the chain upon the pole. In this way, quite large poles or stakes may be quickly driven firmly in the ground. To keep the chain from falling to the ground when unfastened from the pole, it should pass through a hole bored through the block. Fig. 195.— DRIVING BLOCK. A CONVENIENT GRAIN BOX. The box here represented, figure 196, is at the foot, and just outside of the bin. It serves as a step when emptying grain into the bin. The front side of it is formed by two pieces of boards, hung on hinges at the outside corners, and fastened at the middle with a hook and staple. The contrivance opens into the bin at the back, thus allowing th^ grain to flow into it. When a quantity of grain is to be taken from the bin, the cover is fastened up, the front pieces swung round, giving a ohance to use the scoop-shovel to fill bags or measures. FARM OOi^YEXIEXCES. 217 The box is a foot deep and sixteen inches wide. Its length is the same as the width of the bin. The first four boards, forming tlie front of the bin, may be made stationary by this arrangement, as, at that convenient hight, bags may be emptied over by using the box as a step. The cost of this is about seventy-five cents. An improvement has the front piece and ends nailed together. Fit:. VM. GRAIN BOXES. Fig. 197. and the whole fastened to the bin-posts by hooks and staples from the end-pieces, as shown in figure 197. Then the whole could be removed by unhooking the fast- enings, and the cover could be let down, to form the Jower board on the front of the bin, if desired. A ROAD-SCRAPER. A road-scraper is shown in figure 198, which consists of a heavy plank or hewn log, of oak or any other hard timber, six feet long, six inches in thickness, and ten inches wide. A scantling, b, two by four inches thick and six feet long, and the brace, c, are secured to the log, rt, by a strong bolt. The edge of the scraper is made of an old drag-saw, and secured by rod-iron nails. The scantling serves as a reach, and is attached to the front part of a heavy wagon, when in use. When 19 313 FARM CONYENIEITCES. the road is very hard, it becomes necessary sometimei for the driver to stand on the scraper, to make it take better hold. The scraper should be shaped about as Fig 198. — A ROAD-SCRAPER. shown at d, in the engraving, so as to make it run steady, and cause the loose dirt to slide to one side, and leave )t in the middle of the road. AIDS IN DIGGING ROOT CROPS. Figure 199 shows a carrot and sugar beet lifter, made in the following manner : Take a piece of hard wood, two and a half by three inches, and six feet long, for the main piece, a, into which make a mortise two feet from Fig. 199.— A ROOT LIFTER. the wheel end, to receive the lifting foot (figure 200) ', attach two handles, h, I, at one end, and a wheel, c, at the other. This wheel can be set high or low as desired, by the set screw, dy in the clevis, e. Figure 201 shows the lifting ''foot" separate from the machine. This is made of flat iron or steel, five-eighths inoh tbiok and FARil COKVENIEliCES. 9Il three inches wide, with a steel point and a small fr jig at the bottom. It is in the curved form seen in the engraving. The roots are first topped with a sharp hoe or sickle, two rows of tops being thrown into one, which leaves one side of the rows clear for the lifter. The horse walks between the rows and the foot of the impl©- oaent enters the ground at the side of the roots in a Fig. 200. Fig. 201. slanting direction, as shown in figure 201, lifting the roots so the}^ may be rapidly picked up. The imple- ment is very easily made to run deep or shallow, by simply changing the wheel and lifting, or pressing down upon the handles. A "foot," made in the form of figure 200, may be placed in the centre arm of a com- mon horse hoe with sides closed, and used a'3 above. THE WOOD.LOT IN WINTER. A few acres in trees is one of the most valuable of a farmer's possessions ; yet no part of the farm is so mis- treated, if not utterly neglected. Aside from the fuel the wood-lot affords, it is both a great saving and a great convenience to have a stick of ash, oak, or hickory on hand, to repair a break-down, or to build some kind of rack or other appliance. As a general thing, such timber as one needi U out off, without any ref*^reno6 to 220 FAKM COi^YEN-IENCEa. what IS left. By a proper selection in cutting^ and ih% encouragement of the j'Oung growth, the wood-lot will not only coDtinue to give a supply indefinitely, but even increase in value. A beginning, and often the whole, of the improvement of the v/ood-lot, is usually to send a man or two to "brush it,^' or clean away the under- brush. This is a great mistake. The average laborer will cut down everything ; fine young trees, five or six years old, go into the heap with young poplars and the soft underbrush. The first point in the management of the wood-lot is, to provide for its continuance, and gen- erally there are young trees in abundance, ready to grow on as soon as given a chance. In the bracing winter mornings one can find no more genial and profitable exercise than in the wood-lot. Hard-wooded and use- ful young trees should not have to struggle with a mass of useless brush, and a judicious clearing up may well be the first step. In timber, we need a clean, straight, gradually tapering and thoroughly sound trunk. In the dense forest, nature provides this. The trees are 80 crowded that they grow only at the upper branches. The lower branches, while young, are starved out and Boon perish, the wounds soon healing over are out of sight. In our open wood-lots, the trees have often large heads, and the growth that should be forming the trunk is scattered over a great number of useless branches. Only general rules can be given in pruning neglected timber trees ; the naked trunk, according to age, should be from one-third to one-half the whole hight of the tree ; hence some of the lower branches may need to be cut away. All the branches are to be so shortened in or cut back as to give the head an oval or egg-shaped out- line. This may sometimes remove half of the head, but its good effects will be seen in a few years. In removing branches, leave no projecting stub on the timber, and FARM COXYEXIEXCES. 221 coTer all large wounds with coal-tar. Whosoever wor\» in this manner thoughtfully cannot go far astray. SWINGING-STALL FRONTS. The value of swinging-stall fronts is appreciated by those who have used them. They prevent the animals from putting their heads out into the alleys, and endangering themselves thereby. The *^cribber," or " windsucker," has been made such by want of a con- trivance like the one shown in figure 202. Anyone with a moderate knowledge of the use of tools can put it up, as the engraving shows how it is made ; a, a, Fig. 202.— FRONT OF STALLS. being straps to fasten the *' fronts '* down into place wben they are not raised to feed the stock. Inch stuff consti- tutes the material. The cleats to which the strips are attached should be four inches wide, with the sharp, ex- posed edges taken oil with a plane. The strips should be from two to two and a half inches wide, and attached with screws or wrought nails. The hinges can eitlier be of wrought iron or of heavy leather. If more durable fronts are desired, oak, or yellow pine can be used, though it is much more expensive. Unplaned lumber will answer, but to make a neat, workmanlike job had better use planed lumber. 223 FABM CONVENIENCES. SAVE ALL CORN FODDER EVERYWHERE. Tlxe profits of farming, as in other business, is the margin between receipts and expenditures. Ttie receipts are largely augmented by saving wastes ; these wastes in farming are enormous in the aggregate. The losses in this direction, that might be saved, v/ould make the bus- iness very profitable, where it is now barely paying, oi not doing that. Take com stalks, for example. The leaves and a portion of the stems that produce each bushel of corn have a certain amount of nutriment that would support and increase the weight and growth of animals. Yet of our great corn crop, seventeen hundred to two thousand million bushels annually, only a very small part of the fodder is turned to much account. At the very lowest estimate, the stalks yielding one bushel of corn are on the average worth ten cents for feed, even includ* ing the great corn regions — a total of two hundred mil- lion dollars. At the South, generally, little value is attached to corn stalks as fodder. At the West, many farmers let their cattle roam in the fields, pick off somo leaves, eat a little of the stalk, and trample the rest down ; they pack the earth so much in trampling on it, that the damage thus done to many fields surpasses the value of the food obtained. Nearly the whole of a corn stalk, except a very little of the thin, hard outside coating, affords nutritious fod- der, if it is cut at the proper time, is well cured and ju- diciously fed. It needs to be cut when not so green as to mould in the shock, but not so ripe as to lose all ita eucculence and become woody. Experience and obser- vation will generally indicate to every one the proper time of cutting it. In shocking corn, the stalks should be kept straight and parallel . The ehooks should be large enough to not have FARM CONVENIENCES. 223 too many stalks exposed to the weather, jet small enough to dry and cure through. For somewhat heavy corn, twelve hiih square (one hundred and forty- four hills), is abundant for one shock. A good mode of shocking is this : When the shocks are set nearly perpendicular, draw the tops together very firmly with a rope, and tie temporarily — two men working together. Bind with straw or with stalks. For the latter choose tough, nearly ripe, long, slender stalks. "Bend-break" the top with the thumb and finger every two or three inches. Thrust the butt end into the shock and towards the centre nearly two feet, and carefully bend-break it at the surface to a right angle. Insert a similar top-broken stalk two feet distant ; bring the top of the first one firmly around the shock, bend it around the second stalk close to the shock, and then bend the second stalk aix)und and over a third one ; and so on, using as many stalks as required by size of shock and length of binders. Bring the end of tlie last one over the bend in the first, and tuck it under the binder into a loop, into which insert a stalk stub, push- ing it into the sliock to hold the loop. ^Ul this is more quickly done than described. IMPROVED BRUSH RAKE. One of the most disagreeable tasks connected with a hedge fence is gathering and burning the annual or semi- annual trimmings. Itisgenerally done with pitohforks, and often causes pain. To have a long shoot, covered with thonis an inch long, spring out from » roll of brush and hit one square across the countenance, is ex- wpcrat ng in the extreme. To avoid this danger, many expedients are resorted to. Among the beflt of these ii a long, strong rail, with a horse hitched to each end 234 FARM COKVEXIENCES. by means of ropes or chains eight or ten feet long. A boy is placed on each horse, and two men with heavy sticks, eight or ten feet long, follow. The horses walk on each side of the row of brush, and the men place one end of their sticks just in front of the rail, and hold them at an angle of about forty-five degrees, to pre-- rent the brush from sliding over it. When a load is gathered, the horses are turned about, and the rail with- drawn from the brush. The device shown in figure 203 is an improvement on this method. A good, heavy pole, eight to twelve feet long, has four or five two-inch hard-wood teeth set in it, as seen in the cut. These teeth may be twelve to Fig. 203.~A BRUSH RAKE. twenty inches long, and slide on the ground in front of the pole similar to those of a revolving hay rake. The handles are six to eight feet long, of ash or other tough wood, and fit loosely into the holes in the pole. Two horsoe are employed, one at each end of the rake. One man holds the handles, and raises or lowers the teeth as necessary. When a load is gathered, the handles are withdrawn, the ends of the teeth strike the ground, throw the pole up, and it passes over the heap. After a little practice, a man can handle this rake so as to gather up either large or small brush perfectly clwin, and do it rapidly FARM COXVEiflEi^^CES, 326 DIGGING MCJCK AND PEAT. A drj fall often furnishes the best time in the whole circle of the yoar for procuring the needed supply of muck or peat for absorbents in the sty and stable. The use of this article is on the increase araonc: those farm- era who haro faitlifully tried it, and are seeking to make the most of home resource;? of fertilizers. Some who have used muck only in the raw state have probably abandoned it, but this does not impeach its value. All that is claimed for it has been proved substaDtiahy cor- rect, by the practice of thousands of our most intelligent cultivators, in all jmrts of the land. There is consider- able difference in its value, depending somewhat upon the vegetable growth of which it is mainly composed, but almost any of it, if exposed to the atmosphere a year before use, will pay abi'.ndantly f or digging. This dried article, kept under cover, should be constantly in the stables, in the sties and sinks, and in the compost heap. So long as there is the smell of ammonia from the stable or manure heap, you need more of this absorbent. Hun- dreds of dollars are wasted on many a farm, every year, for want of some absorbent to catch this volatile and most valuable constituent of manure. In some sections it is abundant within a short distance of the barn. The most diflBcult part of supplying this absorbent is the digging. In a dry fall the water has evaporated from the swamps, 80 that tnc pent oed can be excavated to a depth of four or five feet at a single digging. Oftentimes ditcliing, for the sake of surface draining, will give the needed supply of absorbents. It will prove a safe investment to hire extra labor for the enlargement of the muck bank. It helps right where our farming is weakest — in the manu- facture of fertilizers. It is a good article not only for oonn)08t with stable manure, but to mix with other fertU- 226 FARM COKVEKIEKCES. Izeis, as bufcclier's offal, night soil, kainite, ashes, bon« dust, fish, rock weed, kelp, and other marine products. Dig the muck when most convenient and have it ready. A CLEANER FOR HORSES' HOOFS. The engraving herewith given shows a simple and convenient implement for removing stones and other substances from between the frog and the ends of a horse's shoe. Its value for this and other purposes will be quickly appreciated by every driver and horse owner. When not in use, the hook is turned within the loop of yig. 204. ~ A HOOF-CLEANEB. the nandle, and the whole is easily carried in the pocket. The engraving shows the implement open, two and one- half times reduced in size. If horsemen keep thia cleaner within easy reach, it will often serve a good turn, and be of greater value than a pocket corkscrew. COLD WEATHER SHELTER FOR STOCK PROFITABLE Not one farmer in a hundred understands the impor- tance of shelter for stock. This has much to do with Bucoess or failure of tens of thousands of farmers. Ani- lijais fairly sheltered consume from ten to forty per cent, less food, increase more in weight, come out in spring far healthier ; and working and milk-producing animals aro much better able to render effective service. The loss - PARM CONVENIENCES. 221 of one or more working horses or oxen, or of cows, oi other farm stock, is often a staggering blow to those Bcarcely able to make the ends of the year meet, and the large majority of such losses of animals are traceable to diseases due, directly or indirectly, to improper protec- tion in autumn, winter, or spring. Of the food eaten, all the animals use up a large percentage in producing the natural heat of the body at all seasons, and heat enough to keep up ninety-eight degrees all through the body is absolutely essential. Only what food remains after this heat is provided in the system can go to increase growth and strength, and to the manufacture of milk in cows and of eggs in fowls. When heat escapes rap- idly from the surface, as in cold weather, more heat must be produced within, and more food be thus consumed. In nature this is partly guarded against by thicker hair or fur in winter. Any thinking man will see that an animal either re- quires less food, or has more left for other uses, if it is protected artificially against winds that carry off heat rapidly, and against storms that promote the loss of heat by evaporation of moisture from the surface of the body. A dozen cows, for example, will consume from two to Bix tons more of hay if left exposed from October to April, than if warmly sheltered, and in the latter case they will be in much better health and vigor, and give much more milk. Other cattle, horses, sheep and swine will be equally benefited by careful protection. GOOD STONE TROUGHS OR TANKS. Figure 205 shows an unpatented stone water tank, or trough, neat, effective, and readily constructed by almost any one. These troughs may bo of any length, width 228 FARM CONVEJSriENOES. and depth desired, according to their position, use, and the size of stones available. Here are the figures of tht one shown : The two side-pieces are flagging stones, six feet long and twenty-seven inches wide. The bottom- piece is four feet ten inches long, two feet wide ; and the two end-pieces, two feet long, twenty inches wide, or high. These stones were all a little under two inches thick. Five rods, of three-eighths inch round iron, have a flat head on one end, and screw and nut on the other ; or there may Fig. 205. — A STONE TROUGH. be simply a screw and nut on each end ; they must not extend out to be in the way. Five holes are bored or drilled through each side-piece, wliich is easily done with brace and bit in ordinary stone. The middle hole is four to five inches above the bottom edge, so that the rod through it will fit under and partially support the bot- tom stone. The end rods are about four inches from the ends of the side-pieces, and stand clear of the end stones in this case so that the dipper handles hang upon them; but they may run against the end stones. When setting up, the stones being placed nearly in position, newly-mixed hydraulic cement is placed in all the joints, and the rods screwed up firmly. The mortar squeezed out in tightening the rods is smoothed off neatly, so that when hardened the whole is almost compact solid stone- work— if good water-lime be used. Almost any flat stones will answer, if the edges of the bottom and end- pieces be dressed and a somewhat smooth groove be out JX:RU COXYEl^IENCES. 229 in tbe side-pieces for them to fit into or against. Th« mortar will fill up any irregularities. A little grooving will give a better support to the bottom-piece and th« ends than the simple cement and small rods. It will be noted that the side-pieces extend down, like sleigh run- ners, leaving an open space below. A hole can be drilled in a lower edge to let out the water in hard freezing weather, and be stopped with a wooden plug. Such tanks will keep water purer than wood, and last a cen- tury or longer, if not allowed to be broken by freezing. Any leakage can be quickly stopped by draining off the water and applying a little cement mortar where needed. When flagging or other flat stones are plentiful, the work and cost would be little, if any, more than for wooden tanks. They can be set iu the ground if de- sired. The iron rods need painting, or covering with asphalt, to prevent rusting. ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OP LAMBS. It frequently happens that artificial feeding of lambs is necessary, and to do it successfully good judgment is required. The point is to promote a healthy and rapid growth, and not allow the lambs to scour. The milk of some cows, especially Jerseys, is too rich, and should be diluted with a little warm water. Farrow cows* milk, alone, is not a good feed, since it frequently causes con- stipation. It may be given by adding a little cane mo- lasses. Milk, when fed, should be at about its natural temperature, and not scalded. Lambe, and especially "pet" lambs, are often "killed with kindness." Feed only about a gill to a half pint at first. After the lamb has become accustomed to the milk, it may bo fed to th« extent of its appetite. When old enough, feed a little flax eeed and oats, or oil-meal if early fattening is desired. 230 FARM CONVEKIENCES. There are various methods of feeding young lamhs arti« ficially. A satisfactory way is to use a one-quart kerosene oil can with the spout fixed so as to attach a nipple ; the milk flows more freely from this than from a bottle, on account of the vent. Let ewes and lambs have clean, well-ventilated apartments. When the weather is mild and warm turn them out into the yard. If it is not con- venient to let the ewes out, arrange partitions and pens, so that the lambs may enjoy the outside air and sun- light. A CONVENIENT BAILED BOX. The common box with a bail, or handle, is a useful farm appliance ; it answers the purpose of a basket, is much more durable, and a great deal cheaper. Instead of a flat bail, we would suggest, for heavy work, a green hickory or other tough stick, to be chamfered off where it is nailed to the sides of the box, the portion for the Fig. 206.— A BAILED BOX. hand being, of course, left round. It will be found use- ful to have these boxes of a definite size, to hold a half- bushel or a bushel. A legal bushel is two thousand one hundred and fifty (and a fraction) cubic inches. A box toay be made of this capacity of any desired shape. Endfi a foot square, and side-pieces and the bottom FAEM COXVEI>'IEKCES. 281 eighteen and a half-inches long, will make a bushel box. If desired narrower, make the ends eight inches high and fourteen inches wide, with the sides and bottom two feet long. Such a box, shown in figure 206, holds a very lit- tle more than an even bushel. It is inexpensire. SAWDUST FOR BEDDIXG. We have tried for two years dry sawdust in the cows' stable, and on the whole like it better than any bedding we have ever tried. It makes a more comfortable bed, completely absorbs the urine, and the cow is kept clean with less labor than when any other is used. The ob- jection to salt-marsh sods, dried, or to headlands, and dry muck, is that they soil the cow, and make it neces- sary to wash the bag before milking. Straw, of all sorts, soon becomes foul, and, without more care than the ordi- nary hired man is likely to bestow, soils the cow's bag also. Dry sawdust is clean, and makes a soft, spongy bed, and is an excellent absorbent. The bag is kept clean with the aid of a coarse brush without washing A charge of fifteen bushels in a common box-stall, or cow stable, will last a month, if the manure, dropped upon the surface, is removed daily. The porous nature of the material admits of perfect drainage, and of rapid evaporation, of the liquid part of the manure. The saw- dust is not so perfect an absorbent of ammonia as muck, but it is a much better one than straw, that needs to be dried daily, in the sun and wind, to keep it in comfort- able condition for the animals. In the vicinity of saw and shingle mills, and of ship-yards, the sawdust accu- mulates rapidly, and is a troublesome waste that mill- owners are glad to be rid of. It can be had for the cart- ing. But even where it is sold at one or two cents a bushel, a common price, it makes a very cheap and sub- 982 FAEM CONVEls^IENCES. itantittl bedding. The saturated sawdust makes an es^ ceilent manure, and is so fine that it can be used to ad- vantage in drills. It is valuable to loosen compact clay soils, and will help to retain moisture on thin, sandy and gravelly soils. There is a choice in the varieties of saw- dust for manure, but not much for bedding. The hard woods make a much better fertilizer than the resinous timber. To keep a milch cow in clean, comfortable condition, we have not found its equal. A CHEAP ENSILAGE CART. The adoption by many farmers of the silo method of preserving fodder^ has made it necessary to change the manner of feeding live stock. When the ensilage is re- moved twenty feet or more from the silo to the feeding rack, it is best to have some means of conveying it in Fig. 207.— AN ENSILAGE CART. quantities of from one to two hundred pounds at a time. This can be done cheaply and quickly by a small hand- cart, one of which any farmer having the tools can make in half a day. A good form of ensilage cart is shown in figure 207, and is simply a box eighteen inches wide, Fjlbm convikiences. 388 ihrM feet long, and two and a half feet in bight X wooden axle, of some tough fibre, is nailed to the bottom, ten inohca from the end, and wheels from one to two feet in diameter are placed upon the axle. Suitable wheels can be made from planks, with cleats nailed on to keep them from splitting. Handles and legs are at- tached as shown in the engraving. The axle being near the centre, throws nearly the whole weight of the load upon it while being moved. It will be found easier to handle than a barrow, and not so liable to upset when unequally loaded. It is a cheap arrangement, and may be used for various other purposes as well as for moving ensilage. MILKING AND MILKING TIME. Any one who has had to do with dairy farming knows that there are a great many poor milkers, against a few who understand and practice the proper method of re- moving the milk from a cow. It is a well-known fact that some persons can obtain more milk from a cow with greater ease and in quicker time than others. In the first place, there must be an air and spirit of gentle- ness about the milker, which the cow is quick to com- prehend and appreciate. It is not to be expected that a cow, and especially a nervous one, will have that easy, quiet condition so necessary to insure an unrestrained flow of milk, when she is approached in a rough way, and has a person at her teats that she justly dielikes. There must be a kindness of treatment which begets a confidence before the cow will do her best at the pail. She should know that the milker comes not as a thief to rob her, but simply to -elieve her of her burden, and do it in the quickest, q lutest, and kindest way possible. The next point in proper milking is cleanliness : and it 334 FAEM COKVEN-IENCES. is of the greatest importance if first-class milk and but* ter are the ends to be gained in keeping cows. No sub- stance is so easily tainted and spoiled as milk ; it is par- ticularly sensitive to bad odors or dirt of any kind, and nnless the proper neatness is obseryed in the milking, the products of the dairy will be faulty and second-class. Those persons who can and will practice cleanliness at the cow, are the only ones who should do the milking. It matters not how much care is taken to be neat in all the operations of the dairy, if the milk is made filthy at the start ; no strainer will take out the bad flavor. Three all-essential points are to be strictly observed in milking : kindness, quickness, and neatness. Aside from these three is the matter of the time of milking. It should be done at the same hour each and every day, Sundays not excepted. It is both cruel and unprofitable to keep the cows with their udders distended and aching an hour over their time. We will add another ness to the essentials already given, namely: promptness. A REVOLVING SHEEP HURDLE, An easily moved feeding hurdle is shown in figure 208. It consists of a stout pole or scantling of any convenient length, bored with two series of holes, alternating in nearly opposite directions, and twelve inches apart. Small poles five or six feet long are so placed in the holes that each adjoining pair makes the form of the letter X. These hurdles are arranged in a row across the field, and the sheep feed through the spaces between the slanting poles. The hurdles are moved forward by revolving them, as shown in the engraving. By using two rows of these hurdles, sheep may be kept on a narrow strip of land, and given a fresh pasture daily by advancing the FABM CONVEXIEIfCES, M lines of hurdles. This method of feeding off a forafre crop IS 0110 of the most effective and inexpensive for eij Fig. 208.— A REVOLVING HURDLE FENCE. nching worn-out land, especially if a daily ration at grain oi oil-cake ia given to the sheep. UGHTS IN THE BARN, It is estimated that nine-tenths of all fires are caused by carelessness. 'Winter is the season when tlie lantern is frequently used in tlie barn, and we give a word of caution. Never light a lamp or lantern of any kind in the bam. Smokers may include their pipes and cigars in the above. The lantern should be lighted in the liouso or some out-building where no combustibles are stored. A lantern which does not bum well should never be put in order in the hay-mow. There is a great tempta- tion to strike a match and re-light an extinguished lan- tern, wherever it may be. It is best to even foel one*t 186 FARM CONTBNIENCBa. way out to a safe place, than to run any riaki. If th« lignt is not kept in the hand, it should be hung up. Provide hooks in the various rooms -where the lights are used. A wire running the whole length of the horse stable, at the rear of the stalls, and furnished with a sliding hook, is very convenient for night work with the horses. Some farmers are so careless as to keep the lamp oil in the barn, and fill the lantern there while the wick is burning. Such risks are too great, even if the buildings ai-e insured. A NEST FOR SITTING HENS. The nest box shown in figure 209 can be made to con- tain as many nests as desired, and be placed in the poultry house or any other convenient place. When a hen is set in one of the nests, the end of the lever is slid from under the catch on top of the box, and the door falls over the entrance to keep out other hens. They rarely molest the sitting hen after she has held exclusive possession three or four days, and the drop may be raised Fig. 209.— BOX OP HENS' NEST. again. The box legs should not be over six inches long. The step in front of the nests, four to six inches wide, Is a continuation of the bottom of the box. It is a vast PARM COXTEKIENCBfl. 287 improvement on old barrels, broken boxes, and othet makwhift hem' nests so generally employed. BARN- YARD ECONOMY. A dark stream, often of golden color, always of golden ralue, flows to waste from many an American barn-yard. This liquid fertility often enters the side ditch of the farm lane, sometimes of the highway, and empties into a brook, which removes it beyond the reach of plants that would greatly profit by it. Mice may gnaw a hole into the granary and daily abstract a small quantity of grain, or the skunks may reduce the profits of the poul- try yards, but these leaks are small in comparison with that from the poorly-constructed and ill-kept barn-yard. The most valuable part of manure is that which is very soluble, and unless it is retained by some absorbent, or kept from the drenching rains, it will be quickly out of reach. Manure is a manufactured product, and the suc- cess of all farm operations in the older States depends upon the quantity and quality of this product. Other things being equal, the farmer who comes out in the spring with the largest amount of the best quality of manure will be the one who finds farming pays the best. A barn-yard, whether on a side-hill or on a level, with all the rains free to fall upon the manure heap, should be so arranged as to lose none of the drainage. Side-hill barn-yards are common, because the bams thus located furnish a convenient cellar. A barrier of earth on the lower side of the yard can be quickly thro\NTi up with a team and road-scraper, which will catch and hold the drench ings of the yard above, and tlie coarse, newly- made manure will absorb the liquid and bo benefited by it. It would be better to have the manure made and 238 FAEM CONVENIENCES. kept under coyer, always well protected from rains and melting snows. Only enough moisture should be pres- ent to keep it from fermenting too rapidly. An old farmer who let his manure take care of itself, once kept some of his sheep under coyer, and was greatly surprised at the increased yalue of the manure thus made. In fact, it was so '^strong" that when scattered as thickly as the leached dung of the yard, it made a distinct belt of better grain in the field. The testimony was so much in favor of the stall-made manure that this farmer is now keeping all his live stock under cover, and the farm is yielding larger crops and growing richer year by year. If it pays to stop any leak in the granary, it is all the more important to look well to the manure that fur- nishes the food, that feeds the plants, that grow the grain, that fills the grain bin. At this season the living mills are all grinding the hay and grain, and yielding the by-products of the manure heap. Much may be saved in spring work by letting this heap be as small as out-door yard feeding and the winds and rains can make it, but such saving is like that of the economic sportsman who went out with the idea of using as little powder and lead as possible. In farming, grow the largest possible crops, even though it takes a week or more of steady hard work to get the rich, heavy, well- prepared manure upon the fields. More than this, en- rich the land by throwing every stream of fertility back upon the acres which have yielded it. Watch the ma* aura heap as you would a mine of gold. A CHEAP MANXTRE SHED. Many farmers waste much of their stable manure bj throwing it out of doors to be acted upon by sun and FARM CONVENIENCES. 880 rain. We recently saw a very cheap, sensible method of almost wholly preventing such loss. A board roof, ten feet square, is supported by posts eight feet long above ground, which are connected inside by a wall dt planks (or of poles, as the one examined was). Kear the post at each end, stakes a, a { figure 210), are set, against which one end of the end-planks rest. This allows the Fig. 210.— A SHED FOR MANURE. front planks, d, d, to be removed in filling or loading. It is placed near the stable, preferably, so that the ma- nure from the stable can be thrown directly into one corner, whence it is forked to the opposite comer in a few days, to prevent too violent fermentation. A fre- quent addition of sods, leaves, and other materials that will decompose, will increase the heap, and improve its value, supplving a manure superior to many of the com- mercial fertilizers, at less cost. A SHEEP RACK. The dimensions of the rack (fig. 211) are : length twelve feet, width two feet nine inches, and bight three feet. The materials arc : ten boards twelve feet long, 340 FAKil COlH^VENIENCES. eight of them ten inches wide, one seven inches wide, and one eight inches wide ; four boards, two feet nine inches long and twelve inches wide; six posts three by four inches, three feet long ; sixty-four slats, sixteen inches Jong and one inch square ; and two strips, twelve feet long and two and a half inches wide. Nail the two nar- rower boards in the shape of a trough, turn it bottom np, and draw a line through the middle of each side. Set the dividers to four and a half inches, and mark along the lines for holes with a three-quarter-inch bit, and bore the narrow strips to match. Set the slats into the trough, and fasten the strips on their upper ends. Nail two of the boards to the posts on each side, as seen in the sketch, and also the short boards on the ends. Fig. 211.— FODDEB RACK FOR SHEEP. Lay in a floor one foot from the ground, and set in the trough as shown in the engraving. Fit a board from the slats up to the top of the outside of the frame. The floor need not cover the middle under the trough. f ABH COiryE2<7IS1^0S8. Ml Fig. 212.— FRONT VIEW. JL GOOD PICKET POINTER. On many farms a picket pointer might n«T«r be fd nte, but anyone wishing to put up a picket fence a hun- dred or more feet long would save time by making one for the occa- sion. Pickets may be purchased ready pointed, but true economy consists in doing as much of the work as possible at home. This arrangement does not concern the fancy-topped pickets some- times seen, but simply the popular square picket with pyramidal point, which makes, after all, one of the neat- est fences that can be found for the yard. The waste material from build- ing or fence-making, and an hour's time, will suffice for its making. A bit of studding material, 30 inches long, has a hard- wood strip three inches wide nailed on each side so as to project half of its width forward, thus forming a groove in which the picket is held, as will be seen later. They extend lower down than the central piece and with it form the front leg. The left strip, instead of extending to the top, however, is there replaced by a broader bit of hardwood board five or six inches long and pro- jecting forward tlireo inches, after ^*«- ^is-sidk v«w. which the projecting edges on both sides are sawed off at the proper angle for the picket points, say a little lower than 45 degrees. The two rear legs are strips of lath five feet long, fattened near the top of the front leg and braced eo that 243 FARM COI$rVENIENOE& the forward part is not quite vertical. A block or seat 18 inches long is fastened across them 33 inches from the lower end, and so adjusted as to hold them one foot apart at the ground. The clamp by which the pickets are held in place consists of a half cylindrical block suspended by short lengths of strap iron and connected by a wire on each side to a foot lever, the action of which need be but slight. Measure from the bevel at the top, down just the length the pickets are to be made, and place a block transversely in the groove at that point, for the stick to rest on. The groove should be at least one-fourth inch wider than the pickets, but a small wedge is inserted at the bottom on the left, so that as they fall into position they are crowded over to the right side. To do the pointing, first cut all the pickets in a miter box to the right length, and at the proper angle to fit the water ledge over the baseboard, then place one in the groove of the pointer, thrust it down past the clamp, which it will push out, till it reaches the block at the bottom. Apply a little pressure on the foot lever to hold it in place, and then, with a sharp drawing knife, bevel the top, keeping the blade flat on the guides of hard- wood; lift the picket, turn one quarter to the right, thrust down and cut again, and so on until it is finished. With poplar pickets one and one-fourth inches square, I have seen f,hem pointed at a little more than one per minute, which is certainly much better than to lay off each one and cut with a chisel, as I have known a car- penter to do. STERILIZING OYEN AND BOTTLE TRUCK. Both oven and truck for milk can be made by any car- penter and tinner. Fig 214 represents the sterilizing oven. It is made on a light frame, of matched lumber; the FARM CONVEi^IEJJCES. IMA inside is lined with zino soldered at the Joints. The door should be double, with heveled edges fitting loosely and having felt, rubber or asbestos packing all around the outside. No threshold or extra floor is required. Drainage must be supplied, preferably through the floor. W^^ fig. 214.— flTKBILIZINO OVEN. Steam is introduced by a row of jets eiglit to 12 inches apart in a steam pipe laid on or near the floor on the two sides and back and connected with steam supply, A valve just outside regulates the amount to be used. The pipes at the end just inside tlio door are capped so that no stoam eacapes exoept at the short nipples, or timplj 244 VABM GONYEKIENOSSi holes drilled in pipe, which will answer very well. A flue opens out of the top of the oven, made of tin, three or four inches in diameter and long enough to go out at the roof. This flue is closed by a damper just above the oven; except after sterilizing it is opened to hasten the cooling and assist in drying off the bottles which are in- side. Such an oven is never to be used for the heating of milk, but in it may profitably be placed not only bottles, but tinware, stirrers, faucets, dishcloths, in fact, any- thing movable that comes in contact with the milk. A convenient method of handling a large number of bottles is illustrated by fig. 215. This consists of shelves Fig. 215.— BOTTLE TRUCK. BO arranged that when the bottles are placed on them^ necks inside, they are inclined suflBciently for the water to drain out of them readily, and the dust does not as readily enter them as it would if they were in an upright position. The truck is of such a size that when loaded it will readily enter the oven and admit of the door being closed. A good way to mount such a truck is to place it on two wheels in the center, which bear the entiw weight The little wheels, one eaoh at the front and VABH COKTENIENOISS. «4d rear, do not quite touch the floor when the truck is level; these latter are also fixed so as to turn around in a socket like a table caster. Thus rigged, the truck may be pushed around wherever wanted to load or unload and saves a vast amount of handling and inevitable breakage. INEXPENSIVE BUILDING CONSTEUCTION. Many farmers would like to put up a small building for some purpose or other but are deterred by the ex- pense, the shingling or clapboarding of walls and the shingling of the roof being a large item in the expense account, both for labor and materials. The cut shows a Pig. 216.— BATTENED BUILDIXO. simple and inexpensive plan that will give good satisfac- tion. The frame of the building is put up and covered, roof and sides, with red resin-sized building paper btretched tiglitly and lapping so as to shed water if any should ever reach the paper. This costs only II per 500 square feet. The boarding is then put on, "u^vand- down," and the cracks battened, as shown. Cover the boards and battens with a cheap stain or paint, and they will last for many years. Such a building will not only be inexpensive but it will be very warm, and in later years can, if desired, be clapboarded and shingled by •imply removing the old battens. 146 PAEM CONVENIENCES. COVER FOR SAP BUCKETa A good cover for sap buckets may be made at a cost ot iess than one cent by taking a wide shingle {a), sawing of four inches of the tip end and fastening to it a smaU spring wire, as shown in the illustration. The wire can be made fast to the shingle by little staples, or by using a narrow cleat like a piece of lath. The wire should be about 30 inches long and will cost less than half a cent. When done, spring the ends of wire apart and it will hug the tree firmly. A HANDY TROUGH. For watering or feeding cattle in the barn a handy trough is illustrated, gotten up by a practical farmer. It may be of any desired dimensions, but is usually about four feet long and one and one-half feet wide. If built slanting, stock can eat up clean any feed in it, or the trough can be readily cleaned. It is very handy for watering cattle in winter, as the trough full of water can be rolled down in front of the cattle, and from one to another as soon as they are through drinking. Where yi.BM GOmrENISNCES. S47 running water ia handy, it can be let into this tub and quickly rolled in front of the cattle. With wheels made Fig. 218.— A HANDY TROUGH. of hard wood this device will last for vears, and can also be used for a variety of other purposes about the bam. It is one of those handy contrivances that save labor and add to the pleasure and profit of farming. SUBSTITUTE FOR FLOOD GATE. When a flood gate cannot be used, the device shown in the illustration is very desirable; a represents the posts or trees to which the device is attached; J is a piece of iron i^i*!**. H^ Fig. 219.— FLOOD OATK BUBSTmJTE. in the shape of a capital L, the lower end of which it driven into the post. Further up is a small iron with an eye which fits over the upper end of this iron. This is driven in or turned in after the poles, c, have been placed in position. It ia best to make the poles or rails, c, of Bome good timber. Use enough of these to make th« fM FABM OONYENIEKOEGU fence or gate sufficiently high. These swing around on the rods as the water forces them apart. When the water recedes these can be again placed in position, and there is no loss of fence material. The ends are laid on each other, as in building up a rail fence. HOOKS FOR SHOP OR STORE HOUSE. A handy arrangement for hanging up articles, as foi instance, tools in the shop, or meats and other eatables ic the storeroom, is shown in the accompanying sketch. This plan is particularly to be commended where it is de- sired to get the articles up out of the reach of mice, rats £— ^ Fig. 220.— CHEAP SUPPORT FOR HOOKS. or cats. Suspend a worn-out buggy wheel to the ceiling by an iron bolt, with a screw thread on one end and a nut or head upon the other. The wheel can be hung as high or as low as desired. Hooks can be placed all about the rim and upon the spokes, in the manner shown, giving room in a small space for the hanging up of a great many articles. This arrangement is convenient, also, from the fact that one can swing the wheel about and bring all articles within reach without moving, IMPROVING A PASTURE SPRING. The average pasture spring is apt to be a mud hole because not protected from the cattle's feet. Whert f JLBH CONYEinSNCES. 249 A Bpring is to farniflh the sole supply of water for a pasture year after year, it i3 worth while to make the most of it. If there is an old iron kettle with a break in the bottom, it can be utilized after the fashion shown in Fig. 221.— A SPRING WALLED UP. t!i# cnt, provided the source of the spring is a little higher than the point where it issues from the ground. With rough stones and cement, build a water-tight wall about the spring, setting the rocks well down into the ground. Set the kettle with the opening in the bottom, BO that the water will rise to its top. A pure supply will thus always be at hand for the stock and a permanent improvement made to the pasture. A GENERAL FARM BARN. The ground plan shown in the illustration, fig. 222, provides sufficient stable room for ten cows, three horses, and a box stall, besides a com crib and a tool house. These are all on the first floor. The building is 40x30, with a feed way running through the middle four feet wide. The building can be made any desired hight, kat 20-foot poits are usually most desirable. On th% «0O FABM CONYEiaENOBa. second floor is space for hay, sb.eaf oats, corn fodder or other coarse food. There should also be on the second floor a bin for oats or ground feed. This is spouted down to the feed way, where it can be easily given out. Fig. 222.— GROUND PLAN OF BARN. The corn crib, of course, can be divided, if it is thought necessary, so that ground feed can be kept in a portion of it. There are plenty of windows in front and back, so that the building is well lighted. This barn can be built cheaply, and is large enough for a small dairy farm. HANDY CLOD CRUSHER AND LEVELER. One who has not tried it would be surprised to find how much execution the device shown in the cut will ac- Flg. 223.— CLOD CRUSHER. complisb. Insert a narrow plank in front of the rear teeth of an A harrow^ and the land will be harrowed, f ABJC OOITTENIEirOQB. S5] the lumps crushed and the surface leveled, at one operas tion. One can also, by stepping on and off the cross- piece, drag earth from knolls and deposit it in depres- sions, thus grading the land very nicely. GlVma SEEDS AN EARLY START IN THE GARDEN. The ground is often cold when the seed is put into the garden plot. To get the earliest vegetables, have a few boxes without bottoms and with a sliding pane of glass Fig. 224.— FORCINO BOXES. for a top, as shown in the cut. Let the top slope toward the sun. Shut the slide entirely until the plant breaks ground, then ventilate as one would in a hotbed, as sug- gested in the right-hand sketch. A few such boxes will make some of the garden products ten days earlier — worth trying for. A POST ANCHOR. "WTiere temporary wire fences are used to any consider- able extent, the comer or end posts may bo anchored, as shown in the illustration. The large rock, or, is sunk into the ground as deep as the post is placed and the earth is solidly trampled above it. Place the wire around the stone before it is put into the ground, then pass it around the top of the post. By using a stick, b, the wire can bo tightened if there is any tendency to become loose. To move the fence, loosen the lower strand from the posts. Begin at one end and make a ooil about two feet across. Boll this on the groond, 253 FABH COlSmtSlE^CES, crossing and recrossing the strand of wire \fith the roll, about every foot of length on the strand. The barba will hold it and keep the roll together. When the roll is as large as is convenient to handle, cut the "wire and begin again. When replacing, fasten one end to the post Fig. 225.— ANCHOR FOR END POST. where the top wire is to stay and roll along the ground close to the posts. Follow with the second one a little further off, and then the third. Experience has proved to me that this is the easiest, quickest and best plan to remove wire fence, as after some practice it can be done quickly. STONEBOAT FROM TWO BOARDS. Most of the stoneboats in use are made with run- ners. I prefer to secure two boards the length desired for the boat, about 15 inches wide and three inches thick. I then measure 12 inches on top of the board and 18 inches on the opposite side, as shown in fig. 1. Saw through on the dotted line, turn the end of the board «yer and with four bolts fasten it as shown in fig. %, VJLBX COVTEirtESCCVL 258 Do this with both boards^ place them side by side and 6tften with strong crosspieces. This makes a good boati Fig. 226.— EASILY-MADE DKAG. and in my experience is more desirable than any other kind. They can not only be nsed for hauling about the place, but are excellent for breaking roads during the winter. A HANDY GARDEN BARROW. A great improvement on the ordinary garden wheel- barrow is shown in the cut. The wheels have broad Fig. 227.— IMPBOVKD BARBOW. ttrea, are light and run beneath the body— just in tha podtioD to balance the load when the handlea are raited. 254 FABlf OOKYE^EKOBS. This barrow can be dumped from tbe side^ as in the oaic of the ordinary barrow. It is thus possible to make over one of the old-fashioned wheelbarrows into the style shown, and that^ too^ at but small trouble and expense. HOMEMADE TRUCKS AND WHEELa Low trucks are constantly of service on the fann. Now it is a feed car for the bam, or a two-wheel barrow Fig. 228.— HOMEMADE WHEEL. fbr the garden, or it may be that low wheels are needed for one end of a crate for moving sheep or hogs. The cut shows how to make any of them. With a "key- hole " saw cut circles from inch boards and screw them together with the grain at right angles, as shown. Two- inch hoop iron binds the edges and keeps them from iplitting. Large iron washers help to hold such wheels firmly in place on the axles. A ROLLER FROM MOWING MACHINE WHEELS. Cast-off mowing machine wheels may be utilized very readily for making a land roller. Use narrow strips FARM coisrvENiEisrcEa. 25fi ©f plank with slightly beveled edges, putting them around the wheels in the manner shown in the cu^ Fig. 229.— SIDE VIBW. making slots in the planks to fit the cogs on the rims of the wheels. These strips are held firmly in place by ** shrinking on" two iron hoops at the ends, as shown. The frame is attached in the usual manner. MAKING A PICKET FENCE HEN-TIGHT. On many farms the hens could be given free range if the garden fence were a sufficient barrier to the fowls. The cut shows a picket fence with a picket extending upward for fifteen inches every twelve feet. To these extended ends of the pickets is stretched a twelve-incli I i i i i m I i I ri^m I i i i I I «iiJ«^U.*ii< rig. 230.— PICKET F£>'CB. ■trip of wire netting, as shown in the iketoh. In the prominence of the pickets the fowls do not clearly notice thd netting until they fiy against it Aftar a faw triaLi 266 FARM COKYEI^riEirOSS. they will give up the attempt to fly over. Poultry yard tence can be constructed in this way, using ordinary pickets, and above them any needed width of netting, according as the fowls are Brahmas, Plymouth Rocks or Leghorns, BAEREL STRAWBERRY CULTURK Probably many readers have heard of the plan ol raising strawberries on the outside of a barrel. If one has only a small city or village lot, or *' back yard," the experiment is well worth trying. The accompanying illustration shows one or two wrinkles that may help make the experiment a success. First bore the holes all about the barrel, then put inside 'tj/SiSsc a drain pipe made of four strips of board, reaching from the top to the bottom. The joints should not be tight. Now fill in earth about the pipe and set out the Fig.23i.-yiEw OF BARREL, strawbcrry plants in all the holes and over the top. Put the barrel en a bit of plank, on the bottom of which wide casters have been screwed. The barrel can then turned about every few days to bring the sun to all the plants. An ordinary flour barrel will anawer very well for trying thia interesting experiment. 01^ Z^^ky University of British Columbia Library DUE DATE FORM 310 > FORESTr . AGRICULTURE LIBRARY