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THE

FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Br JOHN NICHOLSON, Esq.

OF HERKIMER COUN'TT, STATE OP NEW-rORK.

THB SUBJECTS ON WHICH THIS WORK TREATS, ARE NUMEROUS
EMBRAnXG EVERY ARTICLE RELATING TO AGRICULTURE
ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER.

:'i

ALBANY:
PRINTED BY H. C. SOUTHWICK.

No. 94, State-Strut.

1814.

Uish-ict of Xew-Yorh^ ss.

BK it remeiiiboreiJ, that on the seconcj day of July, in the thirty-eightb
year of the IiKlepciuIeiiceof the United Slates of .Ameiicj, H. C. Sovthwick,
of the said Distritt, has deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right
whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit :

" The FARMER'S ASSISTANT, by John Nicholson. Esq. of Herkimer
CoJinty, State of New-Vork. — The subjects on which this work treats, are.
numerous.... embracing every article relating to Agriculture, arranged in al-
phabetical order."

Is conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled
" An act for the enconraijement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps,
Charts and Books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, du ing the
time therein mentioned." .4nd also to an act. entitled *• An act siipplemen-
taiy to an act, entitled " An act for thf> enconngf ment of Learning, by .se-
cnrine the copies of Maps, Charts anri Books to the authors and proprietors
of such ciipies, dnri.ig iju times therein mentioned, and extending: the bene-
fits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other
prints."

THERO^^ RUDD, CI. rk
of the Southera District of New-York

INTRODUCTION.

'T^HE following Work is offered for the patronage of the farmers
and planters of our country. It is particularly calculated tor the
northern and middle states ; but as husbandry has general features
of similarity in all countries, it is nearly equally well adapted to
those states which lie farther to the south. It is believed to con-
tain a summary of the best means known in this country for the
farmer to conduct his business to advantage. The various articles
comprising the Work, are arranged in alphabetical order, with
])roper references to each other, where they have a necessary con-
nexion. The Work is, in part, an abridgment of the essays of others
— and, in part, it is original. Acknowletlgaieuts are due to the
gentlemen whose essays have been published by " the society for
the promotion of agriculture," «^"c. and that " lor the promotion of
useful arts," in this state ; and, in most instances, the authority of
their names has been made use of; particularly that of the learned
and worthy President of those institutions, whose exertions in im-
proving the state of farming amongst us, entitle him to the first agri-
cultural honors of the state.

Although, in some parts of Europe, Practical Farming may be
considered as nearly reduced to a science. ...yet, in this country,
from inattention to this important subject, (owing, perhajis, to the
ease with which a subsistence is acquired, where lands are plenty)
the means of making the most of the labors of the field is, in sene-
ral, but imperfectly understood. On this subject, the existing
knowledge in other countries, even if brought home, would not, in
all respects, be knowledge for us. A difference in soils, climates,
and the production? to be raised, must ever be productive of ditler-
ences in the best modes of culture. To the agricultural geniuses of
our own country, we must, therefore, look for aid in maturing the
best system of farming here ; and, no doubt, in a country j)OJ-?fss-
ing such varieties of climate and soil, many variations will be found
necessary.

Some Chemists of Great-Britain, and elsewhere, have gone into
the analyzation of earths, in order to ascertain the constituent parts
of those which are fertile, and of those which are pterile ^ and thus.

BECOMMENDATIOXS.

Copy oj a Utierfrom Simeon De Witt, Esq. Surrcyor-Gerural nf the tlair
of yen-York, to the Publisher.
Sis,

Since yon put ioio my hamli, Mr. Xichol«oii'< manusciipt on hus-
baodry, entitled " Tht Farmrrt Assistant,^" I have not had leisure to
ezamioe it critically, and to compare its contents with «rliat is to be found
in the rarious author? who have treated on the same or similar subjects.
However, after the perusal I have given it, I have no hesitation in recom-
mending it as a book that will be found very useful to the practical farmer.
The merit of sucb works depends principally on a judicious selection from
what has been said by the standard writers on such subjects. ...from what
is to be found in periodical and occasional publication<: — together with the
luiHTitten information collected by the writers themselves, and the results
of their own observations, arranged so as best to accommodate readers.
In all these respects, I believe the present work will be found to evince
considerable research and observation, as well as judgment in the plan of
conducting it. It certainly contains a good deal of useful matter, which L<
iKJt to be found embo^lied in any one book on husbandry. Hi<; gleanings
from various publications, are considerable.. -.and these, together with his
own observations, are brought together in such a manner as is well calcu-
lated to condense the information intended to be communicated. The ar-
rangement of his topics in alphabetical order, will f<ici]itate that recourse
to them, for which the farmer will have frequent occasion, and is, there-
fore, judiciously adopted. Considering this work as a valuable collection
of materials, relating to rural economy, adapted to our country, I Lhiuk it
deserving of that patronage which Anaerican productions of merit ought to
receive from us, and hope it will meet with that encouragement which will
enable you to give it to the public.

I am, sir, respectfully yourr,

S. DE WITT.

RECOMMENDATIONS. vn

Copy of a letter from T. Romeyn Beck, M. D. to the Publisher.
Sir, Albany, March 23, 1814.

I have examined, at your request, the manuscript copy of a
work, entitled " The Farmer''s Assistant," written by John Nicholson,
Esq. The very slight acquaintance that I possess, on the practical part
«f the subjects treated of in this valume, prevents me from giting a de-
termined opinion on its merits. I can, however, add, with perfect con-
viction of its truth, that many articles are written with correctness, and
convey information which must prove useful. A laudable degree of in-
dustry appears to have been exercised in compiling from the writings of
foreigners, as well as Americans, whatever may be important to the
practical farmer. The plan adopted by the author, appears better calcu-
lated for the class of citizens to whom it is addressed, than any other that
could have been chosen. A consise, yet comprehensive detail on each of
the subjects which, in succession, call for the attention of the husband-
man, is one that best comports with his situation and his leisure. From
being arranged in alphabetical order, the facility of investigation is increa-
sed, as is also the ease of reference from one subject to another. The ne-
cessity of a work similar to the " Farmer's Assistant,' is acknowledged
by most practical men, and, in fact, is absolutely indispensable, in order
to keep pace with the improvements made in this highly important branch
of industry. The agriculturalist 611s an interesting situation in every com-
munity, and particularly so in the United States. Patriotism, as well aa
every social feeling, suggests the encouragement of this most useful, and,
in most cases, virtuous section of our population. To render the labors of
the farmer more productive, and to increase the comforts of society, Iq
general, appear to be among the motives of this work — and it is siucerely
hoped that such exertions may meet with a liberal reward.

T. ROMEYN BECK, M. D
Mr. H. C. Southwick.

I HAVE perused a part of the manuscript above mentioned, iind am
of opinion that the work will be highly important and useful to Farmers,
and therefore concur in recommending it to their patronage.

DANIEL D. TOMPKINS,
[Governor of the. Sliate of AVw-ForA.j
Albany, Junt 18, 1814.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

A.

AIR. Seeds which are buried so deep as to be secluded from their
requisite proportionof air will not vegetate; for this reason weeds are
constantly springing up in new ploughed grounds ; those seeds which
before lay too deep for vegetation being turned up nigher the surface.

Let seeds be sown in the glass receiver of an air-pump, exhausted
of air, and they will not vegetate ; but admit the air and they will
grow directly.

The lodging, or falling of some kinds of grain and of grass, is owing
to standing too thick to admit a free circulation of air, by means of
which they can only preserve a healthy state. Plant one grain of
wheat, for instance, in the richest soil, and the stalks when grown,
will not fall ; but plant a great number of grains in the same soil, so
closely together as to preclude a free circulation of air amongst the
stalks, and they become unable to sustain their own weight.

Air consists of diflferent gases, as they are termed ; the oxygene gas,
or vital air, which is essential to the existence of all animals; the Jiy-
drosene gas, or inflammable air; the nitrogene gas, or common atmos-
pheric air, deprived of its oxygen, by having served the purposes of
respiration or combustion, and which is also called azote; and the
carbonic acid, formerly caWeA jixed air, so often found fatal in the bot-
toms of wells and elsewhere. These are the principal; but by the ap-
plication of a sufficient degree of caloric, (heat.) all liquid substances
can be changed into the gaseous state.

The common atmosphere is principally composed of the oxygene
and nitrogene gases, being about twenty-one parts of the former and
seventy-nine of the latter.

As the oxygene or respirable air is essential to the existence of ani-
mals, so the hydrogene and the azote is absorbed in plants, and is es-
sential to their growth. Plants also, while exposed to the light, emit
oxygene. Thus, by the economy of Nature, the vegetable werld is

10 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

continually absorbing that air which is hurtful to man, and is almost
constantly reproducing that which is healthful.

SVf further article?, Food or Plants, GKRMiNAxroN of PlantS;
Seeds, Sowing, &c.

APPLES. The seeds of an apple seldom produce trees which
bear the same kind of apples, and hence the necessity of grafting or
inoculating, when we would raise the same kind.

A judicious selection of trees which bear the best apples for dififer-
fnt uses, is a matter worthy of particular attention..
See articles Cidkr, Orchard, &c.

For gathering apples for winter use, they should be picked from the
tree, laid carefully in a heap, under cover, without being bruised ;
after they have sneatctf, let them be exposed to the air and well dried,
by wiping them with dry cloths; then lay them away in a di-y place
where they will not freeze. The lime requisite for sweating will be
six, ten, or fifteen days, according to the warmth of the weather.

Mr. Forsyth says, that " the most com|)lete method of saving them>
so as to preserve them the greatest length of time, is to wrap them in
paper and pack them away in stone jars between layers of bran; hav-
ing the mouths of the jars covered so close as to preclude the admission
of air, and then to keep them in a dry place where they will not be
frozen.

The fruit should not be gathered till fully ripe, which is known by
the stem parting easily from the twig: It should also be gathered in
dry weather and when the dew is off.

APPLE-TREE; (Pyrus Malus.) This tree flourishes most in a
fertile sandy loam, sandy, or rich, warm, gravelly soil. A stiff clay js
not good, even though it be rich. It thrives better in a i>oor sandy
soil than in any other poor earth.

Some apple-trees bear alternately and some yearly. The cause of
the former is owing to the young free bearing too large a crop at first ;
this so exhausts it as to render it unfit for bearing the next year; in
the mean time it becomes sufficiently recruited for a heavy crop the
third year; and thus it becomes confirmed in the hahit of alternate
bearing, in which it ever after continues. In order, therefore, to pre-
vent young trees from getting into this habit, let the young fruit be
8trip|)ed off where it ap|)ears too plentiful, but gradually, less and less
each year, until such time as the tree cau hear a full yearly crop, and
thus become confirmed in the habit of a yearly bearer. Perhaps a
tree that has become confirmed in the habit of alternate bearing might
have its habit changed by once or twice divesting it of its young fruit
during the bearing year, and manuring it well during that season.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 11

Take a scion from a yearly, and graft it on the limb of an alternate
bearer, and it will become alternate, and vice versa. But if the true
reason has been given for alternate bearing, it does not follow that a
scion from a yearly bearer, when grafted on a stofck that has never
borne, will become alternate. In the first case, the h*bit of the alter-
nate bearer being already confirmed, regulates the scioo^ but where
ihe habit of the scion has become confirmed and that of the young
«tock has not, it would seem that the habit of the scion mmt prevail.
It is said, that about the summer solstice, the bark of the body of an
apple-tree may be taken off and a new hark will presently form, which
will regenerate the tree, and render such as were before barren, pro-
ductive ; but, perhaps, to ensure an experiment of this kind it w ould be
well to give the part of the tree deprived of its bark, a coat of For-
syth's composition, or something similar-

5^c further articles; Fruit-trees, Orchard, Nursery, S:e.

APRICOT. The same culture that is proper for a peach-tree is
also good for an apricot, with this difference, that apricots require a
lighter and warmer soil than a peaeh-tree. S^e article Peach-tree.

ASH; (Fraxinus.) There are three kinds of ash in this country;
the Avhite, the yellow, and the black. The upland white-ash is the
best timber, but is liable to a white rot when kept too much in contact
with the ground. Winter is the best lime for felling it to preserve the
white part from worms. The black-ash is the most durable wood for
rails, «fcc-

ASHES. See article ^Manures.

ASPARAGUS. To make a bed of this excellent spring green,
■open a trench four or five feet wide and one foot deep, in the warmest
part of your garden — the warmer the better. Fill the trench half full
of good barn dung ; level it, and scatter some good earth over it ; then
lay on your roots, eight or nine inches apart, in their natural position;
or, if seeds be used, about half that distance apart : Fill up the trench
Avith good soil and your bed is made.

If roots be planted, they may be cut the second year; but if seeds,
not till the third- After the bed is fit for use, all the shoots which
come up before the middle of June may be cut off; but all after that
should run to seed to strengthen the plants.

As this plant is one of the first green vegetables Avhich the oppning
season presents, and as no substitute equally productive can be had
till the season for green peas and beans, which usually is not until
some time in summer, it becomes a matter of economy to have two
asparagus beds ; the first to be brought forward as early as possible ,

12- FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

the other late. For this purpose the latter ought to have a northern
exposure, and it should be spaded in order to retard its growth ; by
which means the plants will be equally large and yet rery tender.
The roots should be laid so deep as to admit of spadius: the ground
over them. The beds should be kept clear of weeds throughout the
season. In the fall they should have a layer of rotten dung spread
over them, an inch in depth, which may in part l»e taken off the next
spring ; ami, when the bed becomes too high by the constant addition
of dung, part of the earth may be pared off in the spring, before the
plants shoot, and the bed covered again with a thin compost of rotten
dung.

ASS. This is a valuable animal for carrying burdens, and for being
used in small carts. Mr. Liviugston observes, that for these purposes
they are much used in the country between Naniz and Paris; and,
that even loads of wood and hay are there carried on their backs.
Their use for many purposes in this country, particularly in villages,
would be found an article of economy ; Ihey will subsist on the coarse-
est fare ; may be kept at constant service ; are subject to few or no
diseases; and they live to a great age.

It is also mentioned in " The Complete Gra::icr^^ that asses have
been successfully used in Great-Britain for ploughing light lauds, fonr
of them being equal to two horses.

B.

BARLEY ; (Hordaim.) This is a hardy c;rain, subject lo lew dis-
eases; bears the drought well and is profitable for cultivation. When
hulled, it may be ground into flour, which makes a bread whiter than
•wheat and but little inferior in taste. Soups made of il, when hulled,
are as good as those made of rice, and are accounted cooling and de-
tersive in fevers. The longer this grain is kept the better tasted it
becomes; the cause of its bad taste is owing to its hull. The usual
allowance of seed for an acre is two bushels; but this is hardly suffi-
cient; in general, two and a half is better. Barley has frequently
been known to yield sixty bushels an acre. It requires a soil iu good
condition, and like many other crops, tarns to poor account when
gown on such as are poor. The best for raising it are the loamy,
sandy-loamy, or gravelly soil but it will do very well even on a strong

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 13

stiff clay, provided it be well mellowed with frequent and effectual
plougbings and harrowings, and these can be done to the best effect
in the fall preceding.

As barley is a dry husky grain and requires con«KlerabIe moisture
to cause it to vegetate, it should be sown when the ground is sufficient-
ly moist : It should also be sown as soon as the ground can be well
prepared in the Spring. This grain receives essential benefit from
being soaked in lye, brine, or some other fertiliziog liquor. An Eng-
lish writer mentions an experiment made some years since which may
be worth inserting. " The last Spring," says he, " being remarkably
dry, I soaked my seed-barley in the black water taken from a reser-
voir which constantly receives the draining of ray dung-heap and
stables. As the light corn floated on the top I skimmed it off and let
the rest stand twenty-four hours. On taking it from the water I mix-
ed the grain with a sufficient quantity of wood ashes, to make it spread
regularly, and sowed three fields "with it- The protluce was sixty
bushels to the acre. I sowed some other fields with the same seed,
dry, but the crop, like those of my neighbors, was very poor, not more
than twenty bushels an acre, and much mixed with weeds. I also
sowed some of my seed dry, on one ridge, in each of mv former fields,
but the produce was very poor in comparison to the other parts of the
field." Adding some saltpetre to the liquor in which the barley i?
soaked, will probably be found of great service.

Sec article Sowing.

It is injurious to harvest this grain before it is tl^oroughiy ripened ;
and, after it is cut, it should lie a night or two in the dew, in order U<
make the beards come off more easily in threshing.

This grain, like many others, will degenerate so much in a few
years as not to be worth cultivating, if the seed be not frequently
changed. The farmer ought, therefore, to procure new recruits of seed
brought from some considerable distance. It may be advisable also,
to change the kind of barley in order to ascertain which is most suit-
able to the soil. These are various : There is the two-rmvcd, the
four-rowed and the six-rowed barley : and, there is also a species of
barley which has no husk upon it, which is commonlj- called spelt.
(See article Spelt.) The six-rowed barley is sowed in England and
Ireland, as a winter grain, and is there called bear, bere, or barley-big.
It shells very much if suffered to stand until it is sufiBciently ripe. The
four-rowed barley has generally been cultivated in this and theneio'h-
bouring states; probably because, in them, it has generally been
found the best for cultivation.

14 FARMER'S ASSISTAINT.

As in some parts farmers have attempted to cultivate this grain witli-
out success, it may be well to observe, that perhaps the cause of this
failure was owine to their lands not having been made sufficiently
rich — to not having been plou<:htd and harrowed sufficiently — to not
having sowed on them a sufficiency of seed ; for if this be not done,
this grain wiil often be choaked with weeds — to seed, which had be-
come degenerated by having been too long used in one part of the
country- — or, perhaps, to the icind of barley not having been suitable
to the soil. If the farmer has satisfied himself as to all these particu-
lars, and still finds himself unsuccessful in the culture of this grain, he
may conclude that either his soil, of whatever kind it may be, or the
climate in which his farm is situated, is not suitable to the culture of
barley.

Whtrever a country is found suitable to tlie culture of barley, and
not so suitable for raising wheat or rye, there, particularly, it becomes
highly expedient to erect mills for hulling barley; for this grain, when
bulled, can be converted into a very good substitute for wheat or rye-
bread. Peas can also be hulled at such mills, \Niiich renders them ex-
cellent for soups, &:c.

BARN. The size of the barn oughi to be proportionate to the pro-
<luceof the farm, for in this country, where building is not expensive,
all the hay and grain ought to be stored in buildings sufficient to cover
them. Many farmers content themselves with a small barn, perhaps
not sufficient to hold half their produce, while most of their hay is left
in their meadows, in stacks, to be there foddered out to the cattle in the
course of the winter. In this way the manure if almost totally lost,
as a stack containing five tons of hay, fed out in this way, would not
manure an eighth of an acre to any essential purpose : Cow-dung, in
particular, is most beneficial when buried in a dry soil ; but when laid
on a wet soil it answers but little pur|)08e. In the mean time, if the
meadow happens to be bare and unfrozen, as is often the case, the cat-
tle will indeed have the chance of picking some dead grass, but at the
expense of destroying the roots, and of poaching the soil with their
feet, which produces an additional injury to the meadow.

If the ground will admit, the barn ought to be about so far distant
from the house, and in such direction from it, as to preclude all danger
of fire being communicated from the one to the other, by the means
of the most prevalent high winds.

The farmers of the older parts of Pennsylvania build very large
barns in general, and to obviate the consecjuences of the hay or grain
beating, in a large mow, four poles or pieces of timber are set up in

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 15

middle, so as to form >vithin them a square space of about three feet.
The poles are braced by cross pieces at certain distances. Through
the aperture thus made, the extra moisture in the hay or grain has a
chance to escape, so as to prevent its being mow-burat. Their barns
are usually built of stone, and in the walls a large n\imber of small
holes are made for the admission of air. Their cattle axe chiefly all
housed, and their dung is uuder cover when thrown out of the stables,
to prevent its being injured by the rains. The roofs of the barns are
usually painted to preserve theai against the weather.

The floor of the barn ought to be kept tight, so that the grain can-
not fall through in threshing, and for this purpose it should have a layer
of thin boards under it. It is most advisable also, to have a place set
apart in the barn for the purpose of storing away the grain after it is
threshed. The bins for the grain should be made of hard plank to pre-
vent the rats and mice eating through them, and should have lids which
can be fastened dawn with padlocks. A row of narrow bins with dif-
ferent apartments for various kinds of grain may be placed very con-
veniently along the side of the floor where the horse-stable is placed,
so as to be partly under the manger.

BARN-YARD. The practice of having a barn-yard on a decli-
vity is a bad one, as in this way very much manure is washed away with-
out essentially benefiting the adjoining grounds. The yard should
be level, and lowest in the middle, in order to prevent the escape of
much liertilizing liquor, that will otherwise run off from the dung dur-
ing heavy rains. It should be cleared in the Spring of the dung
made during Winter, and if the milch-cows and other cattle are to
be kept in it at night during Summer, much manure may be made in
it by carting in rubbish of various kinds, together with suitable earths
to mix with the dung of the cattle and absorb their stale.

The yard should also have a high close fence round it, as well for
securing the cattle as for breaking ofl" the winds, and in order to make
the most of the dung, the cattle should be kept constantly in the yard
during the season of (bddering and have a well close adjoining to sup-
ply them with water. The stifler the soil of the barn-yard the less
manure will be lost by the stale and wash soaking into the earth, and
for this reason some have taken the trouble to cover the whole with a
thick layer of clay.

BEAN; (Vicia.) There are a great variety of beans, some of
which are best adapted for field husbandry and others for culinary pur-
poses. For the former, the English or Windsor bean is the best for
strong clays and other rich soils, and the little white bean for thoste

16 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

which are light ami <Irr. They are each cultivated in the drill
method, and ploughed aod hoed like other hoed crops.

The English bran is to be sowed early as a little frost uill not hurt
it. When the; have grown to the height of about three feet, and in-
cline to become too tall, the tops should be broken off. After gather-
iBg the first crop the stalks are to be cut off cl6?e to the ground, and a
a growth of suckers will rise and afford another green crop late in the
fall.

The little white bean is to be pulled before the fall frosts and to lie
on the ground to dry and ripen. The haulm of beans should be saved
for winter food for sheep, as they are very fond of it.

For culinary jiurposes, the Canada bean, which is a bush bean,
ripens soonest, and is therefore to be preferred for an early supply ;
the pods, however, become unfit for eating when the bean has attain-
ed its size. Of those which have vines, the case-knife bean, the cran-
berry, and the thousand for one, so called, are very good. The short
bean, as it is called, is also much esteemed on account of the pod
being good to eat when the bean is full grown. Mr. Deane says, the
best manure for beans which have vines is hog's dung with a mixture
of ashes.

When beans are cultivated in a climate which are not natural to
them, they will degenerate ; and, therefore, fresh supplies of seed
should be obtained from that country to which they are best adapted.

BEER. To inakc Spruce-Beer. — Boil some spruce bouglis with
some Avheat-bran till the water tastes sufficiently of the spruce ; strain
the water and stir in at the rate of two quarts of molasses to a half
barrel ; work it with the emrdyings of beer, or with yeast if you have
it; after working sufficiently bung up the cask, or which is belter,
bottle it? contents.

To mcJce Molasses-Beer. — Take five pounds of molasses, half a pint
of yeast and a spoonful of powdered ginger , put these into a vessel,
and pour on two gallons of scalding hot so/l water; shake the whole
till a fermentation is produced ; then add of the same kiud of water
sufficient to fill up your half barrel. If the cask be greater or smaller
than thig, the component parts must be in proportion. Let the liquor
ferment about twelve hours, then bottle it, with a raisin or two in each
bottle.

If honey instead of molasses be used, at the rate of about twelve
pounds to the barrel, it will make a very fine beverage after havinj
been bottled a %vhUe.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 17

To make Beer with Hops.— Take five quarts of wheat bran and
(hree ouDcesof hops, and boil them fifteen minutes in fifteen gallons of
water ; strain the liquor; add two quarts of molasses ; cool it quickly
to about the temperature of new milk, and put it into your half barrel,
having the cask completely filled. Leave the bung out for twenty-
four hours, in order that the yeast may be worked off ami thrown out,
and then the beer will be fit for use. About the fifth day bottle off
what remains in the cask, or it will turn sour if the weather be warm.
I f the cask be new apply yeast or beer empt3ings to bring on the fer-
mentatioQ ; but if it has been in this use before that will not be ne-
cessary.

Yeast, particularly the whiter part, is much fitter to be used for fer-
menting than the mere grounds of the beer barrel ; and the same may
be observed in regard to its use in fermenting dough for bread.

To recover a cask of stale Small-Beer. — Take some hops and some
chalk broken to pieces, put them in a bag, and put them in at the bung-
hole and then stop up the cask closely. Let the proportion be two
ounces of hops and a pound of chalk for a half barrel.

To cure a cask of ropy Beer. — Mix two handsful of bean flour with
one handful of salt and stir it in.

To feed a cask of Beer. — Bake a rye-loaf well nutmegged ; cut it in
pieces and put it in a narrow bag with some hops and some wheat, and
put the bag into the cask at the bung-hole.

To clarify Beer. — For a half barrel take about six ounces of chalk,
burn it, and put it into the cask. This will disturb the liquor and fine
it in twenty-four hours.

It is also recommended in some cases to dissolve some loaf-sugat
and add to the above ingredients.

BEES. The product of these is almost entirely clear gain, as their
honey and wax is principally extracted from flowers without injuring
Ihem. Rural economy is incomplete where the yearly supply which
may be derived from bees is wanting; the expense of occasionally at-
tending them is but trifling when compared with their products; and,
that attention can scarcely be called labor but rather an amusement.

In every hive or swarm of bees there are two sorts beside what is
called the queen bee. She is distinguished by being larger, and of a
brio^hter red than the rest. She is said to be the leader of the swarm
.ind to lay the eggs in the cells for new broods, which consist of thou-
sands every year. The other kinds are the drones which have no
siin"-3, are the darkest colored, and are supposed to be the males; and
1 he honey or working bees, which are much the most numerons.

3

18 FARMER'S AS5=If=TANT.

The bee-house should be at a proper distance from places wbert
catlle are kept, or where horses are tied : Irom hog-sties and everj
other place where filth is collected. It should be ojien to the south.
ivith the other si<]es close. Let it stand leaning forward a little witb
the front part o^ the roof projecting over coosidtrably to prevent south-
erly rains from wetting the hives. These should be kept dry, cleaD>
and warm iu winter ; not so warm however as to tempt the bees abroad
in warm winter days. The species of swallow called martins will
destroy bees, of course no harbor should be afforded these birds.

One method of managing bees, as recommended by Mr. Deane, is
as follows: Three hives of the same dimensions, say ten inches in
heighth, each, aud fourteen inches in diameter each way, are to be
placed one on the top of the other. The two undermost ones are to
have square holes in the tops, about three inches in diameter, and
covered with a sli4ling shutter. Let each hive have also a place ol
entrance two or three inches long and a third of an inch high. I'be
square holes in the two lowermost are to be ojien. The bees will 611
the uppermost hive first. When this is full, which can be ascertained
by weighing it in a cool morning when the bees do not stir, take ir
off and carry it into a room with a wiDdow open to the nwrning sun,
and as this enlivens the bees they will fly off to their accustomed place
and commence their labors in storing the second hive, which should
then have the hole in its top closed. When this is filled the same
process is to be repeated ; but w hen they have filled the last hive, let
it remain for the winter stock of provisions for the swarm.

In taking out the honey from the hive, which should be done
speedily, let those bees which are loun*' unable to fly be thrown into
a tub of water, out of which they can crawl again, and they will soon
recover their wonted activity and go after their companions.

Id this way there is no necessity for the process of fire and hriis-
etone for gettinc rid ol the bees — a procedure equally cruel and
destructive to their race.

Another method of taking the honey without killing the bees, is as
follows : When the hive is 6lle<l w ith honey, take it in the night and
turn it bottom upwards, and sf i an enipfy hive of the same size with
its bottcm exactly on the bottom of the other: Let (here be one or
two cross pieces uithin the empty hive lor the bees lo light on : Then
take a stick and strike gently on the sides ol the full hive, and the
bees will leave it antl ascend to the upper <>'>e. When they havp ;,II
i5Dt into lhi», l«ke it otf gently and »et it \vhere the lull hive stood, anfl

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. i^

xke bees will go to work again as before. This b the method usually
practised in i rauce.

But, perhaps, the foUowiqg maBagement is the best : Have a bole
in the top of the l)ive, covered with a shutter, as belore described-
W hen this is tilled, which is to be known by the bees lying inactive
about its mouth, oj)en the hole above and set a small hne on the top,
into which they will ascend and fill it with the purest honey, without
any nusture of the bee-bread. Mhen full, take it ofl' as before direct-
e-d and place another in its steaiL The bees in the full hive nill soon
fly off to the old one, and the swarm will recommence iheir labors in
filling the empty one again. \N hen full, take it away as before, and
S'et the empty one in its place. These upper hives should hold about
seventeen pounds of honey when filled, and such the swarm will usu-
ally fill three times in a season. The boney in the lower hive is to
remain for their winter food.

To preserve be^s from the morm or butterjf!y, which has lately proved
so destructive to them, — About tlie first of May, raise the hives up and
atrew some fine salt under the edges which will drive the worms away.
A writer in a late Morristown paper, says, that he has tried this for
two years with complete success.

It is sometimes advisable to feed bees when their stock is exliausted.
If this be near the close of winter, motives of interest alone will dic-
tate the measure ; but if they are fouad destitute more early, then
their destiny must be averted from motives of compassion. And is
the industnous insect that toils incessantly lor us during summer, un-
worlhy of pity in the hour of distress ? It should be remembered, for
it tends to soften and ennoble the Iveart, that when even a little bee
perishes with famine, it " feels a pang as great as when a giant dies."

Honey is the most natural food for bees. It is to be conveyed into
the hives by very small troughs, and the food is to be given to them
^aily until they are able to provide for themselves. Toasted bread
soaked in strong ale is also good to give them, as they will consume
the whole of it.

Sometimes it is advisable to join two sraafl swarms together. This,
says tlie last mentioned author, is done by stupifying them with the
smoke of the dried mushroom which is commonlj' called puff-ball. It
is first to be compressed and then dried in an oven, till it will retain
fire. The hives intende<l to l>e joined are to be placed with iheir bot-
toms over those of two empty ones — a piece of puff, set on fire, is
placed under each full hive so that the smoke will ascend into them —
and, when the bees have become aapified, let the full hives be knock'

ae FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

ed gently on the sides and the bees will fall into the empty ones in b
torpid state, when the queen-bee of one of the swarms must be search-
ed for and killed. The two swarms are then to be put together, mix-
ing them well, and dropping them among the combs of the hives they
are to inhabit. The door of the hive is then to be covered with h
cloth so that (hey cannot get out.

The second night after their union, remove the cloth in the dusk of
the evening, and the bees will sally forth ; but on account of the ap-
proaching night they will soon return. Keej) them confined for three
or four days longer, letting them out in the evening as before, and then
the cloth may be removed.

Sometimes the bees which are owned by one, will be found carrying
off the honey from the hives belonging to another, to their own dwell-
ings, and in that case, the bees of the emptied hives are always found
to follow. Whether this be a matter of conquest on one side, or of
consent on the other, is difficult to say ; but where the owner of the
deserting bees finds this to be case, which is to be known by the sud-
den desertion and emptying of his hives, perha|)s liis best remedy is,
to remove his remaining swarms to another neighborhood for that
season, or to change his stock of bees.

It should be added, that many disbelieve either the existence of
the queen-bee, or that one, and one only, is to be found in every swarm.
BEET ; (Beta.) There are varieties of beets, but the best are
the red, and the redder the sweeter. Sow them early, if the soil be
not very rich, but they may be sown later where it is strong. The
soil should be well mellowed to a good depth. A soil naturally mel-
low is best for them. The larger they grow the farther they should
be set apart, even to the distance of twelve inches. The seeds gene-
rally come up double, but should be separated while young, otherwise
both roots will be small and sometimes twisted round each other.
Those taken out may be transplanted, yet they will make but short
roots. Beets should be kept clear of weeds till the leaves covering
the ground prevent their further growth.

The roots should be dug up before any severe frosts; none of the
fibrous roote should be taken away, nor should the tops be cut close.
Jn this situation they should be boiled to prevent any loss of their
juice. In winter they are best kept in sand, and they should not be
suffered to freeze, as this makes them tough and unfit for use.

In Europe this root is now ajiplied to the i)urposes of making sugar
jvnd ardent spirits ; the knoulege of which uses is probably calculated
'o confer on it a great additional value.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 21

Some of the most enterprising English farmers are in the practice
of raising beets for feeding and fattening cattle.

B0G-3IEAD0WS. Where these are not a turf, but a mere loose
black dirt and can be drained sufficiently, ha\ing then a sufficient
depth, they make valuable lands, particularly for the purpose of raising
hemp. The drier this land can be laid the better. When this earth
is carted out upon upland it is found a good manure ; and upland, par-
ticularly gravel and sand, when carted into bo^-meadows is almost
equally beneficial. Prodigious great crops of herdsgrass have been
raised on them when thus manured with upland earth ; aud if this be
so beneficial for grass, why not equally so with hemp ? It would
seem, that not only grass and hemp, but many other productions, such
as Indian corn, potatoes, cabbage, carrots, beets, turnips, parsnips, and
perhaps, almost every grain but wheat, might be cultivated to great
advantage on well drained bog-lands, where they had been previously
well manured \vith upland earths. The Indian corn, however, must
he such as has been long cultivated in a more northerly climaie, and
of course, ripens so soon as to escape the early frosts which prevail ia
lK)g-mcadow5. Hoj)s are cultivated to great advantage in these
lands.

The method of draining these lands effectually, is, first to rnn a
ditch through the middle, and draw off as much of its Avaters in this
way as possible. Where the meadow is very wet and miry, you com-
mence at the htvcst part of the ground where you design its outlet to
begin, and from thence carry the ditch into the meadow, sinking it all
the way as you proceed, as low as Arill barely give the waters a cur-
rent to run off; and the dee[)er this ditch can be sunk the better. You
then run a ditch proportionately deep all round the edge of the bo«-,
for the purpose of cutting off all the springs. Then cross ditches are
to be made, in number and size proportionate to the extent of the boo-
and of the size of the middle and surrounding ditches. Generallj^
speaking, the deeper and larger your ditches, the fewer cross ditches
you need have.

It should be remembered, that bog lands will settle down very much
after draining, for which a due allowance ought to be m»de in regard
to the depth of the ditches. Sometimes it may be found, that there
will, after draining, be too thin a layer of bog dirt above the clav on
which it is bottomed to be of much value ; and foreseeino- this it
ought in some cases to deter the proprietor from going to the expense
of draining the swamp, particularly if it be covered with a thrifty
growth of timber.

22 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

See further, article Ditches.

BOT-\N OHMS. 'J'he manner in which these are produced iathitt ;
An insect gonieuhat resembling a bee in its head and ntck, having a
long crooked tail, may be seen during the months of autumn, almost
constantly flying about horses, aud in the course of a few weeks will
fill their hair, particularly about the breast and legs with great uum-
bers of its nits. W henever the horse itches in any part, he applies
his teeth for the purpose of scratching; in doing this he loosens some
of these nits, and they are received into his moutii, from whence they
pass with his food iutothe stomach, and from these the bot is produced.
Experiments which have been communicated by Mr. Livingston put
this matter out of doubt.

To kill hots in a horse, pour a quart of rum down his throat. This
will make them loose their hold of the maw, and they Avill be carried
off with its contents. Repeat the dose as often as may be found ne-
cessary. A few doses of linseed oil, one pint each time, will also
quickly effect a cure.

See also BarllcCs Farrierxj for his metliod of cure.

BUCK-WHEAT; (Polygonium.) The product of this grain is
quite uncertain, owing to the degree of heat prevailing during the time
it is in blossom. If there be much warm weather at this time, the
grain will not be well tilled. The projjcr time to sow it is when the
chesnut trees are in full blossom. This is (he rule in those parts
where chesnut trees grow. Perhaps the time wJien herds-grass first
begins to blossom, or a little sooner in more northern climates, might
afford a more general rule for farmers in every |)art of the country.

A crop of buck-wheat is very easily raised ; it requires but little
ploughing, and with the aid of a little gypsum will grow year after
year on a poor piece of land, provided it be suitable to the use of gyp-
sum. It is pretty good to fatten hogs, to feed horses and fowls ; but
its peculiar excellence is for the purjiose of making cakes, which, while
warm, are more generallj' liked than any other kind of bread.

About hall a bushel, or less, is sufficient seed for an acre. Some-
times a crop of rye is sown with the buck-wheat, and in this way a
tolerable crop of each may usually be obtained ; perhaps fifteen or
twenty bushels of buckwheat and ten bushels of rye to the acre. This
is considerable for the small quantity of labor laid out; but the rent
of the land ought also to be brought into the account of profit.

BULL. See article Neat Cattle.

BinJN-BAKING. A method of manuring stiff clay lands. It is
performed by paring off the Bward in pieces about eighteen inches

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 23

long, a foot wide, and two or three inches thick ; these are set ou
their edges, leaning against each other, to dry, which in good weather
requires about three weeks. They are then laid up somewhat in form
of ovens, with their mouths to a common windward side, having a hole
in the top of each for the smoke to pass off. In a dry day when the
wind blows into the mouths, they are set on fire with straw, and if
they burn too briskly some earth must be thrown on to deaden the
fires. At the end of about three days they will be completely burnt
through, and then the burnt earth is spread over the ground and
ploughed in with a shoal furrow.

See further article Weeds, for another use of Burn-Baking.

For cutting up the sward in squares for burn-baking — a roller with
sharp iron rims round it, at suitable distances, is to be used. As the
roller passes over the ground the rims sink into it suflBciently deep.
The ground is first to be cut one way with this implement, then with
another implement, resembling a wheel plough ; it is cut into squares
by crossing the direction of the roller, and the squares are at the same
time severed underneath by a broad thin share for the purpose, and
are turned over in the manner of turning over sward ground. They
are then to be set up as before directed.

Mr. Young, the late famous agriculturalist of Great-Britain, re-
commends burn-baking, where it can be easily performed, as highly
beneficial to cold, stiff, and clayey soils.

BURNT CLAY. This is a good manure for clay and other heavy
soils. In " The Complete Grader" it is also recommended for light
soils. The method of preparing it is as follows :

In the first place dig your clay in spits of the size of bricks and lei.
them be well dried in the sun : Take small billets of wood, or faggot?
of brush, and pile them up in the form of a sugar-loaf three or tour
feet high ; then pile your spits of <li'ied clay closely round this, leav-
ing a hole on side to kindle the fire and another in the top for the
smoke to pass off: Surround the pile again with two more enclosures
of the spits of clay, and then kindle the fire: When it has j^otlen
well on fire stop up the holes with clay, and the innate heat will so
fire the mass, that wet clay may be thrown on in great quantities. Care
must however be taken, not to lay it on so fast, nor so closely, as to
put out the fire, as in that case you must begin anew. By raising r
stage round the pile you may throw on clay till you get it as high as
you please. The pile must be watched day and night till fuUy
burnt.

24 FARMER'S A8SISTAx\T.

Farmers possessing clay lands will tlo well to make experiments ot
this manure. From (en to twenty loads of it is a suitable dressing for
an ncre.

BL'TTER. For curing butter take Dr. Anderson's recipe as fol-
lows : " Take two parts of common salt, one of brown sugar, and one
of saltpetre : bent them together so as to blend them completely, and
apply one ounce of this to every pountl of butter; work it well into
the mass and close it up for use/' This will cost about a cent per
pound more than by curing butter in the usual way ; but its peculiar
excellence is, that butter thus cured will keep sweet for two or three
years, and its taste is much superior to that which is cured in the com-
mon way. It must not, however, he used sooner than a month after
it has been laid down, as it doe^; not fully acquire its rich marrowy
taste until about that length of time. Butter cured in this way and
laid down for winter use, will then be found worth at least twenty-five
per cent more than that which has merely been cured with salt alone.

Dr. Anderson condemns the practice of keeping milk in leaden ves-
iels, and butter in stone jars, as communicating to the milk, and to
the butter a poisonous qualit}- extremely injurious to the human con-
stitution.

To prevent the rancidity of common salted butter, Mr. De "Wilt
Tery judiciously recommends making it into rolls, and keeping it in
a pure brine in a cask with a lid and dasher, somewhat similar to the
common churn. The dasher is for the purpose of kee|)ing the rolls
under the brine, wJiich is effected by means of a cord tied at one side
of the vessel, run over the bead of the handle of the dasher, and
then tied down at the opposite side. The brine does not penetrate
the butter. ;ind therefore may be made strong: and, to keep it pure
it may be occasionally heated, and the scum taken off, Avhich will
clarify it.

Country merchants, who take in butter, by attending to this, may
preserve all their spring and summer butter sweet for the fall market.

To make the finest butter, take the last fourth part of the milk of
each teat of the best cows for making butter and make it by itself.
The first part of the milking, which contains much the least and the
poorest of the cream can be made into inferior butter, or used for
other purpo?er.

Butter made in the month of M^ is observed to be the best for
keeping.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. as

c.

CABBAGE; (Brascia.) There are many sorta of this plant,
such as the coramon >\hite and red cabbage, the Dutch and Scotch,
the Savoy, the winter-green globe, the brocoli, the borecole, the Bat-
tersea, the turnip-cabbage, &ic. The oil called rape-oil is made Iroxn
the seeds of the borecole, or rape, as it is sometinies called.

In Great-Britain the cultivation of cabbages is a part of field hus-
bandrj-, and thej are used for feeding and fatting cattle in the fall and
during winter. Our winters are too severe for this; but for fall use
■we might raise and feed them to advantage.

Cabbages require a soil made rich, but the kind is not so material.
Mr. Young makes mention of good crops raised in red sand. Rich
swamp lands, well drained, are gooti for them. They will grow yearly
on the same ground, and they exhaust the soil but little. For field
culture the plants are to be set in rows four feet apart and about two
feet from each other, and ploughed and hoed like other hoed crop?.
Transplanting is the most advisable method, though the seeds may be
planted at first w here they are designed to grow. Strew ing soot, ashes
or lime round them, while young, will assist considerably in keeping
oflf the insects which usually attack them. Where they are liable to
become club-footed, by reason of worms which eat into their roots, a
small trifle of salt strewed round them is good.

When cabbages are fed to milch-cows, the decayed leaves must be
taken oET, or they will impart a bad taste to the milk and butter.

Where a field-crop of cabbages is to be raised, or an early crop for
the table, the seeds for the plants should be sown very early in the
spring ; where the crop is designed for fall and winter use the seeds
may be sown later ; hut as the proper time for this must still depend
on the climate, it is a matter that is best learned by experience.

Cabbages for winter use should be pulled in dry weather, and be
well dried before they are put into the cellar. Let them be hung up
in the cellar with the heads downwards. The cellar should not be
too warm or they will soon rot. They may also be kept well during
winter, by cutting off the heads and laying them away in a cask filled
with snow and keeping them in a cold place.

But for the spring supply, let a trench be made in a dry soil and
line it with straw ; set the heads in closely together with the roots
upwards; cover them with straw, and then with earth., piled up a*

4

2iL FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

steep as possible. lu this maDner (hey ^viII keep till May, and niaj
occasionally be dug out as they are wanted.

The turnip-cabbage, so called, on account of its large bulb above
ground, is a pereoniel plant, and \\'\\\ withstand the severity of our
climate. It is good for table use in spring and does not grow spongy
when old. Its culture was highly recouimended by the Bath Society
in England, as an article of profit for feeding sheep and other cattle in
the spring. By Sir Thomas Bevor's communication to that societ}', it
appear?, that he kept twentyfour bullocks and one hundred sheep,
for three weeks, on two acres of this plant; the value of which keep-
ing he estimated at a sum equal to about sixty-five dollars. This was
in the year 1 770.

This plant is to be sown and cultivated in the manner most proper
for turnips. It is left in the field all winter, and in the spring the cat-
tle are to be turned in to eat of it at pleasure. As sheep can eat
the closest, they are to have the last feeding.

CALVES Sec article Neat Cattlf.

CANKER. Sec article Friit Trees.

CANKER-WORM. See article Insects.

CARRIAGES. Some of the best British farmers principally
use one horse carts, instead of waggons, on their farms. 3Ir. Young
particularly reconunends them for this purpose, as being on the whole
more convenient and cheaper. In Ireland the wheel car is almost
universally used on farms and for transporting on the highways. On
these, one man is found sufficient to drive four cars ; the horses being
under good command, and follow each behind the other. Each horse
draws from ten to twenty hundred weight, acccording to the state of
the roads ; for it is found that one animal drawing by itself in a car
or cart, can as easily draw eight hundred weight, as two can draw
twelve hundred weight when put together in a waggon. The reason
of this is obvious ; in a cart the horse carries a part of the load on his
back ; and in drawing, his exertions are not batBed by the jostling
and unequal exertions of another. Carts are, however, more easily
upset in bad roads than waggons. Another objection against them
is. that they press too heavily on the horse or oxen when going
down hill, particularly when carrying a top-heavy load; and they in-
cline to tilt up behind when going up hill with such load. These de-
fects are, however, easily obviated by a contrivance fixed in front of
the box, for the puq^ose of raising its fore end when going down hill,
and of sinking it wbeu going up, so that in either case the centre of

FARMER'S ASSISTATS'T. 27

grayitj of the load will not be materially altered from what it is on
level ground. A cart contrived and used by Lord Somerville, in Great
Britain, answers this purpose in part. Aaotlier contrivance of that
nobleman's is, a wooden bar placed on the outside of each wheel, just
above the hubs, so that when going down hill the bars are drawn by
each end against the sides of the wheels so strongly as to impede their
motion, and thus prevent the load pressing forward with more force
than is convenient. — A description of the means by Avhich these se-
veral operations are performed is here omitted, because they are, per-
haps, nearly as easily imagined as described. Any one wishing to
test their ef&cacy, need not be long at a loss for the means.

The cart wheels made use of by the above nobleman and others
are of cast iron, being about three feet in diameter, with a rim about
four inches broad ; the spokes are flat, and broadest where they join
the hub and the rim, so as to give them most strength w here most is
wanted. If any part of the wheel happens to break by a too violent
concussion, it can be mended again with wrought iron, when it will
be as strong as ever. The axletree is of wrought iron. Such a cart
may last an age, with good usage, and the cost of them is not so great
as that of carts made of wood. Probably they would, however, be
found too brittle on stony lands ; though their strength will be found
very great if cast of the best metal to be had for the purpose.

In the construction of the body of the cart, the essential points are
to fit it for the purix)ses for which it is mostly to be used ; to place so
much of it before the axletree as that, when filled, about a fifth of the
weight of its contents will rest on the horse; and that it be so con-
trived as to be tilted up to empty its load.

The improvements above mentioned for regulating the centre of
gravity of the load, and for impeding the progress of the carriage in
going down hill, may be equally well applied to our ox carts.

The w aggons generally used in this country, whether for one, two
or more horses, are, perhaps, as convenient as those to be found else-
where; all that is particularly insisted on is, that according to the ex-
perience of the best British farmers, the one horse cart should be pre-
ferred to the waggon on smooth w ell cultivated farms, as being cheap-
er, and more convenient for most uses.

Whether the wheels of carts be made of wood or of cast iron, the
rims should be as much as four inches broad ; by this means they sink
less into the earth, and therefore run more safe and steadily. Their
being low, and placed pretty wide apart, also renders the cart le?s li-
able to upset.

20 FARMER'S ASSISTANT,

Carriages should be constantly shielded from the weather ^vhen not
in use ; the summer sua cracks and shrinks the ivood, and wet weather
tends imperceptibly to decay it, and to waste the parts n hich are of
iron by rust.

For the best method of seasoning timber for carts, waggons, &c. see
article Timber.

Wap:gon9 and carts may be made to run at least one fifth easier, by
having iron rollers in the boxes — this at the same time saves the trou-
ble of tarring the axletrees. A plan has been patented for waggon
boxes with rollers, which has the rollers held at equal distances by
having each end fixed in a rim or ring, so that as the rollers run round
in the inside of the box, the ring turns with them, and thus prevents
any friction by the rollers getting out of their places. If four or five
dollars a year can be saved by the easy running of a carriage, by be-
ing enabled to carry, perhaps, a fifth more at a load, it is well worth
w^hile to be at the additional expense of four or five dollars in the first
instance to fit the carriage for this purpose.

CARROT; ("Daucus.) There are few articles of culture inere
profitable than that of carrots. They will yield, with good cultiva-
tion, from six hundred to a thousand bushels an acre. Allowing them
to be worth nineteen cents a bushel for the purpose of fatting hogs
and cattle, and taking 700 bushels as the average produce of an acre,
this amounts to 133 dollars. Allowing what would be equal to 40
days labor to an acre to raise and gather them, which, at 75 cents a
day for hire and boarding, would amount to 30 dollars; and then al-
lowing 10 dollars an acre for the rent of the land, this would leavr
93 dollars the clear profit of an acre.

Carrots require a mellow soil, into w hich they can easily penetrate
deeply. They will grow very well on one which is moderately
rich, provided it be well and deeply mellowed. A fertile sand, a
sandy loam, a dry warm loam, or a fertile gravelly loam, are each
suitable for them, with proper manuring and cultivation. The ground
ought to be ploughed til! it is perfectly mellow, and as deep as possi-
ble, not less than a foot in depth, if you expect the beet crops. The
land should be perfectly free of stone?. The best way is to plough
but one way — not to cross plough — for this is only necessary in
rough hard ground, for breaking clods and other obstructions to the
plough ; hut for the mere purpose of mellowing land, cross ploughing
is not more efficacious than constantly ploughing one way. In this
way where you make the parting furrow, yoa begin the next time to

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 29

make the back furrow, and thus you keej) the depth of tlie earth that
is stirred by the plough equal, which is essential to the equal growth
of carrots. The ground ought to be ploughed in this way in the fall,
and then but little will be requisite to prepare it in the Spring ; after
ploughing in the Spring it ought to be finely harrowed, aud then it
will be fitted for the reception of the seed.

The sowing is performed either in the broadcast way or the drill.
In the former, the seed is covered with a rake instead of a harrow, to
prevent its being covered too deep. The first hoeing being <'one
through, after they have arrived to a suitable size, the groiind is all
harrowed over; and they are then to be gone over again, for the pur-
pose of uncovering those which the harrow may have covered : this
is also a proper time for thinning them where they are too thick —
they are to be thinned so a» to stand from about four to six inches
apart. They may, however, be thinned after this, when they have
got to some size; and then those which are pulled out may be given
to the hogs, as they are very fond of them, and will readily eat both
roots and tops. As soon as they have got so large that the tops will
cover the ground, they will stop the further growth of weeds. For
neat cattle and hogs they cannot bo too large, and therefore ought to
be sown as early as the fore part of May if the ground and season v/ill
iidmit; they will, however, do very well when sown as late as the
latter ead of May, and such are the best for culinary purposes.

The hoe which is proper for working among them is the garden
hoe ; it must be sharp for cutting weeds, and about four inches wide ;
aud on the other side of the handle is fixed four small prongs, similar
to those of a dung fork, for the purpose of stirring up the ground.

The method of drilling, or soAving in rows, would be much the best,
v^ere it not for the tediousness of the operation of getting the seeds
into the ground. The seed must be dropped into the rows by hand,
unless some drill machine can be devised by which to commit them
to the earth more rapidly. This, probably, might be done, notwith-
standing the seeds are so badly shaped for that purpose. If they
were first rubbed smartly together, so as to make them of rounder
shape, then made wet with lye or brine, and dried with gypsum, and
this repeated till the seeds should become encrusted, they might then
probably be managed successfully in a small hand drill machine,
which may be easily contrived for the purpose.

The first hoeing of drill rows, after ploughing between them, re-
quires considerable hand labor, after which it may be performed al-
most entirely by the horse hoe or cultivator. (See articles Horse

30 FAR.AIER'S ASSISTANT.

Hoe and Cultivator.) The rows are to be tbinDed, so thai the
carrots when grown will be about an inch apart.

The best way to keep carrots through the winter for family use, is
to bury them in dry sand. In this way, they may also be kept for
feeding out to horses, hogs, sheep, 6cc. and a cellar for the purpose
might be made in a side hill, covered with earth, and otherwise forti-
fied against the frost, to be sufficiently warm for that purjwse.

Many farmers in G. Britain, where farmers in general understand
the means of making the most of their lands much better than we do,
sow yearij' ten, twenty, thirty acres or more, of carrots, for fatting
cattle or swine, &;c. Such are the farmers that grow wealthy there ;
and such would rapidly acquire wealth here, where wealth is so much
more easily acquired.

For the best method of boiling carrots for feeding to hogs, «S:c. see
the article Swine.

CATERPILLARS. See article Insects.

CATTLE. See articles Ass, Foals, 6cc. Goats, Horse, Mares,
Neat Cattle, Sheep aod Swine.

CHANGE OK CROPS. By a Judicious change of crops land can
be yearly applied to the most profitable uses of which it is susceptible.
At the same time the fowl requisite for different plants being sorae-
ivhat different either in kind or quantity, can be extracted with less
injury to the soil where the extraction is equal — that is, where by
one kind of crop certain given quantities or kinds are extracted, and
different quantities or kinds by another.

Some jdants will grow yearly on the same soil; others again will
not. Flax, for instance, so exhausts that fooolvhich is necessary to
produce it, that it will not grow to perfection on the same ground of-
tener than about once in six or seven years. Wheat sown yearly on
the same ground will degenerate ; and perhaps the same may be said
of oats and barley. Rye, on the contrary, %vill grow yearly for twen-
ty years or more on the same soil, without materially injuring it. Corn
will also grow yearly, but it greatly exhausts the soil. The same
may be said of buckwheat. Potatoes, carrots, parsnips, beets, and
perhaps all kinds of grasses, require little or no change of soil, and do
not materially exhaust it.

The propriety of changing crops arises partly from convenience
and partly from necessity. When we have raised a crop of [jotatoes,
for instance, we know that we can raise a succeeding crop equally
good on the same ground. But here we study convenience; we want
to raise a crop of flax or barley, and this ground is the best prepared

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 31

for such purpose, while at the same time another piece will do equal-
ly well for potatoes. On the other hand, Avhen we have raised the
crop of flax, we are under the necessity of taking another piece of
ground for the next crop ; and for the same reasons we change, year-
ly, the greunds on which we raise our wheat, oats and barley. It
may, therefore, be properly said that changing crops is partly a matter
of convenience and partly of necessity, and that these two causes
combining serve to give a direction to that course of cropping which
no good farmer will resist.

But though a change of crops is in general the best management,
it is not such in every case. If we have got a piece of ground well
fitted for raising carrots, and we find the culture of these more profit-
able than any thing else we can apply to that ground, it would not be
advisable to apply it to a less profitable culture, and be at the trouble
of fitting another piece of ground for raising this root ; unless it should
be found that the ground became exhausted for its culture, and that
a change was on that account necessary. The same may be observ-
ed with respect to the culture of onions, parsnips, beets, <S:c.

The best changes of crops must depend much on the soil. In a
fertile sand, sandy loam, gravelly loam, or other dry warm soil, it is
as well to begin the first year with corn and potatoes, or perhaps po-
tatoes alone, first ploughing in all the barn dung made that Spring ;
the second year corn, which will then receive the greatest benefit
from the rotten dung and the previously fermented state of the soil ;
the third year, barley, and clover sown with it ; the fourth, clover ;
the fifth, clover, one crop, and then the sward, after the clover has
grown considerably again, well turned over, and harrowed in with
wheat; the sixth, wheat, sown as before mentioned, with clover; the
seventh and eighth, clover; and then the sward torn up again in the
fall for potatoes the next year.

If the lands are a cold loam or clay, which are too wet for wheat,
I should advise to break up in the fall, and in the Spring cart on all
the barn dung, and plough it iu well, and harrow the ground ; then
plant it with potatoes in rows, on the top of the ground, about four
feet apart. When the potatoes are laid, a light furrow run close along
each side of the rows will cover them. When they have got to a pro-
per height, run a furrow on each side of the rows, turning it against
them, and complete the dressing Avith the hoe. In due season give
them another such dressing. By this time the earth forming the rows
will be thrown up so hi-'-h !hat it must be sufficiently dry and have
every chance of producing the greatest degree of fermentation, and

32 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

of course will afford the best chance to produce as good a crop of [ki
tatoes as such soil is capable of producing.

When the potatoes are dug, which may be chiefly performed liy the
plough beiDg run through the ron^s, first on each side and then in the
middle, throw up the ground again in high ridges of two furrows on
each side, and so let it lie during the winter. The next Spring plough
it all level at first, and harrow it fine, then ridge it again by throwing
up two furrows against each other, at the distance of four feet apart,
and |)laut your Indian corn on the tops of the ridges; aud then with
proper attention in ploughing and hoeing it, when the ground is not
too wet, a good crop of Indian corn may be raised on ground, which,
when planted in the cold unferniented state of the soil, and receiving
DO immediate assistance from the crude state of the barn dung, would
scarcely produce a crop worth gathering.

After the corn is taken ofl*, by again ridging the hind for the winter
frosts, and then levelling it in the Spring, and ploughing it well in dry
times, you may fit the soil for a good crop of oats, or perhaps barley
or summer wheat, if the lands lie in the more northerly part of this
state. With this crop it must be seeded down — not with clover, for
this will winter-kill in such soils — but with herdsgrass, which it will
produce well for several years. After this grass has failed, tear up
the sward, and go through the same process of culture again. This,
or something similar, is about all the change of crops that can be had
to any advantage on such lands.

Such lands, by being hollow drained, become dry enough for wheat
and clover, and are then generally excellent for cultivation. Far-
mers, therefore, whose lands are all of this description, ought to com-
mence hollow draining, and as they progress they will find themselves
enabled to raise crops of wheat superior to those which are raised on
soils naturally dry. {See article Hollow Drains.)

There are other courses of crops that may be most suitable for dif-
ferent soils, and perhaps variations may be made to advantage in
each; all of which are calculated to exercise the judgment and skill
of the experienced farmer.

CHANGE OF SEEDS. Most plants are found to degenerate to
a certain degree, unless their seeds are frequently changed. This
has been attributed to their cultivation in climates where they are
not indigenous. But this can hardly be the sole reason ; for it is
found that most plants will be improved by having the seeds brought
from the east to the west, and vice versa.

FARMER*S ASSISTANT. 33

Providence, in making so large a world as this, seems to have de-
signed that there should, nevertheless, be a common acquaintance
among the nations which inhabit it. They are invited abroad for
conveniences which their own climates do not furnish; they are im-
pelled to a general intermixture, from a knowledge that it is benefi-
cial ; and the benefits to be derived from a change of seeds are pro°
bably only in furtherance of the general design of a community among
nations. *

But we are as yet much in the dark as it respects the best changes
of seeds, and from what parts of the world they should be brought, to
prothice the greatest crops. Ought not this to become a matter of
more general concern ? The Irish farmers sow our flaxseed, and find
great account in it. Would their flaxseed be equally beneficial when
sown here ? I have known flaxseed brought from Long-Island and
sown in Orange county, which produced nearly double the crop which
the common seed there produced. Spring wheat brought from Cana-
da and sown Irere, (Herkimer county) greatly enhances the crop, but
soon degenerates, Siberian wheat yielded largely in this country
for a while. The seeds of apples brought from Europe will produce
trees larger than our own. For roofs it is generally supposed that
seeds brought from a more southerly climate are best. Indian corn
brought far from that quarter will be in danger of ripening too late ;
that brought far from the north will ripen too early for a large crop.
On the whole, the farmer should make his changes as judiciously as
possible, and in most instances he will then find the product of his
crops greatly increased.

CHEESE. For making this article take the following directions :
Make your milk blood warm, and put in your ruunet, but no more
than will just make the curd come. Add an once of fine salt to so
much curd as will make a cheese of fifteen pounds, and in that pro-
portion for a greater or less. Stir the curd till it is gathered ; put it
in a strainer, and with your hands work out all the whey ; then lay it
in a clean linen cloth, put it in the hoop, and covering it with the
cloth, put it in the press, and let it stand tlierc two hours; then take
it out, rub it over with fine salt, put it in another dry cloth, and put
it in the press eight hours ; then take it out again, put it in another
dry cloth, and put it in the press again, where it is to remain till the
next cheese is ready. When taken out of the press, put if in brine
twenty-four hours, and let the brine have as much salt-petre in it as
will lie on a shilling. Some little additions of salt and salt-petre must
be occasionally made to the brine, and let it be cleansed as often as

5

M far:\ier'S assistant.

necessary, by heating it and taking off the scum. When you take
the cheese out, dry it uilh a cloth ; bind it round with a long siring
to make it keep its shape, w hich must be kept round it for some days,
and let it be daily turned on the shelf for two months.

Let the evening milk be put with that of the morning ; and to make
the best cheeses, let none of the cream be taken away. If the even-
ing milk, however, be skimmed, and added to that of the morning, it
will make tolerable clfeeee. Skim-milk cheeses are also made, but
they are not worth much.

But no good cheese can be made unless the runnet be good. See
article Ri nnet.

The room where cheeses are to be kept for drying should be dark,
to keep out flies ; and to prevent these from depositing their eggs in
the cracks of the cheeses, let them be smeared over with a mixture
of salt butter and tar. To give them a line colour, let a little annatto
be put in the milk; this is harmless — but beware of colouring them
with any thing that is poisonous.

CHURN. The best chum is the oblong square, which is turned
on two pivots by a crank. The pivots are not placed in the centre
of the two ends ; but one is placed at one side of the end, and the
other at the opposite side of the other end, so that the churn is sus-
pended diagonally on the pivots. This, when it is turned, gives the
milk a violent motion from one end of the churn to the other, while
at the same time it turns very easily. The churn ought to be about
of the following proportions : One that is three feet long ought to be
one foot wide one way, and about nine inches wide the other way, so
as to form &Jiat oblong square. The pivots are made of iron, and are
livetted on the outside. A square hole is made on one side for letting
in the nnlk and taking out the butter; and a square piece is made ex-
actly fitted to fill up the hole, which is fastened down to its place by a
little iron bar across it, with staples at each end.

Oak is generally preferred lor churns, as pine is apt to communi-
cate something of its taste to the butter.

CIDER. To make the best cider there are several requisites. —
The apples should be of one sort, and of the best kind. They should
be perfectly sound, ripe and clean. Those which are shook Irom the
trees by a gentle shaking are best; and all knotty, wormy and rotte»
ones should be rejected. Such as are not of this prime rate may be
made into common cider.

Let the apples thus selected he spread on a floor, raised from the
ground, with a cover over it, and the sides enclosed. Here they are

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 3.5

to lie for the purpose of sweating, by which their more watery parts
are thrown ofiF. Let them lie here about tour or five days when the
weather is dry and warm, but longer when wet and cool, and let
them then be dried, by exposure to the sun, and ground immediately
in a clean mill. Some prefer having the seeds broken in grinding, aa
imparting a more agreeable taste to the cider. Let the vessels which
receive the cider be perfectly sweet and clean, for without this the
best juice will be spoiled. New casks, or those which have just been
emptied of brandy, are tlie best. The manufacturers of wine take
great pains to have their casks clean, and commence the cleansing
for months before they are to be used.

For cleansing casks, let them be first washed perfectly clean, after
they are emptied of cider, and bunged up tight. Before they are to
be used again, take at the rate of a pint or more of unslacked lime
for a barrel, put it in, and pour in three or four gallons of hot water,
or more for a larger cask ; shake it well, and while the lime is slack-
ing give it some vent, lest it burst the cask. Let it stand till cooled,
and then rinse it with cold water. If it still has any sour smell, re-
peat the operation till it smells perfectly sweet. The effect of this
is, that the lime destroys all the acidity which may be in the cask.

The first and the last running of a cheese should be put in a cask
by itself, as it is not so good as the rest. In pouring the cider into
the cask, let there be a strainer of coarse cloth in the bottom of the
funnel to keep out the pumace. After the casks are filled, the
next process is the fermentation, and this is a matter of some nice-
ty-
There are three fermentations — the vinous, the acid, and the pu-
trid. When the first ceases the second begins, and when that ceases
the third begins. The first is only necessary for cider, and care must
be taken to stop all further fermentation as soon as this is over. This
is known by the liquor ceasing to throw up little bubbles to the top.
Then too all the pumace is raised up, and if suffered to remain there,
will again sink to the bottom and render the liquor turbid. Let this
time then be carefully observed, and let the liquor then be drawn off,
not too closely, and put into other clean casks, or bottled, and closed
tight, and set away in a cool cellar. Let a gallon of French brandy
be added to every barrel.

But to further improve it, let it undergo a further operation, as fol-
lows : As you draw off the cider from the first casks, put it into f^esh
ones, filling each about three quarters full, and set them away tilt
winter ; at which time let them be exposed to the frost* latU one half,

36 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

or even two thirds of the contents of each are froien ; give the liquor
some vent while freezing; draw off the unfrozen part, hottle it, or put
it in clean new casks, and set it awaj' in a cool cellar, and let it re-
main there for two or three years, and it will then nearly equal the
best wines.

If it should require clarifying, let it be done with isinglass ; or it
may be leached through a tub of powdered charcoal, which will ren-
der it very clear ; but the tub should be covered close to prevent any
evaporation of the spirit. To clarify it with isinglass, pour into each
vessel about a pint of the infusion of about sixty grains of the most
transparent of this glue in a little white wine and rain or river water,
stirred well together, after being strained through a linen cloth.
This viscous substance spreads over the surface of the liquor, and car-
ries all the dregs with it to the bottom.

Some boil cider in the spring, for summer use; but the practice is
a very bad one, particularly when boiled in brass kettles. If any
boiling be ever proper for cider, it must be as it comes from the press.
This is the proper method of treating water cider, or that which is ex-
tracted from the pumace after the cheese has been pressed. The
puniace is put into casks in the evening, with a due proportion of
warm water thrown on it, and in the morning it is made into a cheese,
and pressed off again, the liquor is then to be boiled till all the scum
has risen and been skimmed off, and then it is to be put away in casks
in a cool cellar, and treated like other cider. It ferments but little,
and makes a pleasant drink for the next summer, if bottled, or other-
wise kept well. Perhaps this would be a good method of treating all
cider.

Cider may be kept for years in casks without fermenting, by bury-
ing them deeply under ground, or immersing them in spring water;
and when taken up the cider will be very fine.

A drink called cider-royal, is made of the best running of the
cheese, well clarified, with six or eight gallons of French brandy, or
good cider brandy, added to a barrel ; let the vessel be filled full,
bunged tight, and set in a cool cellar, and in the course of a twelve-
month will be a fine drink. If good rectified whiskey be used, in-
stead of brandy, it will answer very well.

A quart of honey, or molasses, and a quart of brandy, or other spi-
rits, added to a barrel of cider will improve the liquor ver)' much, and
will restore that which has become too flat and insipid. To prevent
its becoming pricked, or to cure it when it is so, put a little pearl-ash-
f B, or other mild alkali, into the cask. A lump of chalk broken ia

FARMER^S ASSISTANT. 37

pieces, and thrown in, is also good. Salt of tartar, where the cider
is about to be used, is also recommended.

To refine cider, and give it a fine amber colour, the following me-
thod is much approved of. Take the whites of six eggs, with a hand«
ful of fine beach sand, washed clean, stir them well together ; then
boil a quart of molasses down to a candv, and cool it by pouring in
cider, and put this, together with the eggs and sand, into a barrel of
cider, and mix the w hole well together. When thus managed it will
keep for many years. Molasses alone will also refine cider, and give
it a higher color, but to prevent the molasses making it prick, let an
equal quantity of brandy be added to it. Skim-milk, with some lime
slacked in it, and mixed with it, or with the white of eggs ^-ith the
shells broken in, is also good for clarifying all liquors, when well mix-
ed with them. A piece of fresh bloody meat put into the cask, ^vill
also refine the liquor and serve for it to feed on.

To prevent the fermentation of cider, let the cask be first strongly
fumigated with burnt sulphur, then put in some of the cider, burn more
sulphur in the cask, stop it tight, and shake the whole up together ;
fill the cask, bung it tight, and put it away in a cool cellar.

To bring on a fermentation, take three pints of yeast for a hogs-
head, add as much jalup as will lie on a sixpence, mix them with
some of the cider, beat the mass up till it is frothy, then pour it into
the cask, and stir it up well. Keep the vessel full, and the bung open,
for the froth and foul stuff to work out. In about fifteen days the
froth will be clean and white ; then, to stop the fermentation, rack
the cider off into a clean vessel, add two gallons of brandy, or well
rectified whiskey to it, and bung it up. Let the cask be full, and
keep the vent hole open for a day or two. By this process, cider that
is poor and ill tasted, may be wonderfully improved. Let it be re=
fined by some of the methotls before described.

To cure oily cider, take one ounce of salt of tartar, and two and a
half of sweet spirit of nitre, in a gallon of milk, for a hogshead. To
cure ropy cider, take six pounds of powdered allum and stir it into a
hogshead ; then rack it off and clarify it.

To colour cider, take a quarter of a pound of sugar, burnt black, and
dissolved in half a pint or hot water, for a hogshead, add a quarter of
an ounce of allum to set the colour.

Cider-brandy mixed with an equal quantity of honey, or clarified
sugar, b much recommended by some for improving common cider;
so that, when refined, it may be made as strong, and as pleasant as the
most of wines.

3a FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Cider has beeo made in Great-Britain, of such superior quality as to
command a price of sixty guineas a hogshead. If such can he made
there, it can also be made here, where our climate in general is mor«
favorable for the production of apples of the best qualities.

CLAY. The basis of this earth is alumine. A quality peculiar
to clay is, that by reason of its alumine, it contracts when dried or
heated, and expands again when moistened. A clayey soil therefore
is always to be known bj' its cracking open in dry weather; and the
more clayey, the wider will be these openings.

AVhere the soil is very clayey, and at the same time wet, it is worth
but little for the plough, though it may be good for mowing, or pas-
ture ; but if the adhesion of the soil be destroyed by proper manures,
and it be laid dry by hollow draining, it then becomes a fine soil for
most productions.

See articles Manures, and Hollow Drains.

Some nicety is requisite as to the proper time for ploughing this
ground. If it be too dry it will not crumble; an<l if too wet, the
ploughing will only render it more compact. The hard clods are ea-
siest mellowed by the plough after they have been merely wet
through with a gentle rain.

See further article Earths.

CLEARING OF LANDS. But little need be said on this sub-
ject, as he who has to undertake the clearing new lands will acquire
more knowledge from practice of the best methods of subduing our
heavy forests, than from any essay on the subject. He will find that
the essential point is to put his shoulder to the wheel, and persevere
undauntedly; and in a few years he will find his exertions amply
compensated by the pleasing scenes and profitable improvements
which shall have been made around his dwelling.

When new settlers first go into the wooils, they have to spend
much valuable time in hunting up their oxen and milch cows, w hich,
for want of an enclosed pasture, have to run in the woods; and to re-
medy this as soon as possible, I would propose the following : About
the first of June, take a suitable piece of ground, cut out the bushes,
and all thr small growth of timber which shall be under a certain size,
Bay a foot over at the but; pile all the brush round those trees which
are left standing. In a dry time, in the month of August, set fire to
thcra, and the fires will kill the trees left standing ; then pile and burn
what lies on the ground, which is soon done, and in due season har-
row in a crop of wheat or rye, and in the following spring sow the
"round over with herdsgrass. The crop of wheat or rye, sown in this

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ^9

way, will be nearly as good as if the timber were all taken off; and
the year following the ground will afford the requisite supply of pas-
ture and hay. When the limbs of the standing trees begin to rot and
fall off, cut the whole down, and let them lie there ; as the pasture
will not be injured, but rather eventually benefitted, by the trees ly-
ing and rotting upon it. This method of killing trees by fire, is how-
ever, only recommended where they are such as cannot be killed by
girdling ; such as beach, maple, bass-wood, &c.

New settlers, who will take this method of providing a supply of
pasture and hay, will always find their account in two ways ; it is
turning the grounds to immediate profit, with the least possible ex-
pense ; and the surplus of hay and pasture will demand an extra
price; as those articles are always scarce during the commencement
of new settlements.

CLIMATE. All seeds are to be planted, or sown, at such time
as is suitable to the climate. In northerly climates, or in very ele-
vated situations, the spring and autumn press closer upon each other,
and there the spring crops must be planted, or sown, later, and the
fall crops earlier than in more temperate climates. The right time
for planting and sewing, must, therefore, be ascertained by the judg-
ment of the farmer, founded on due experience, and a knowledge of
the climate in which he lives.

Climate depends greatly on altitude as well as latitude. This is no
where more strikingly exemplified than on the sides of Mount .Etna.
When, at the base of that mountain, the peasants are reaping their
spring crops, on its highest cultivable parts they are busied in sowing
the same crops ; and at its extreme point of elevation is perpetual
winter. The highest lauds which lie between the Mohawk and
Black river, in this state, are not fifty miles north of Albany ; yet the
climate on this height, is at least six degrees of latitude colder than
at that city.

From a knowledge of these facts, it is obvious, that the same pro-
ductions will not thrive equally well in all places, under the same de-
gree of latitude, even though the soil be the same ; and, knowing this,
it becomes necessary for the farmer to regulate his system of farmin'^'
accordingly.

CLOVER; fTrifolium pretense.) White clover is a very fine
grass, affording the sweetest pasture and hay, but the product is too
small, when compared with rod clover, which is nearly as swee^. to b*'
worth coltivatinsr.

40 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

The almost universal use of red clover upon dry upland soils, is, it
would seem, an indication of its superiority over most other grasses ;
but, it certainly never can be made to yield so great a clear profit as
Lucerne, where this grass is cultivated in a suitable soil and climate.

One excellence of red clover, is, that it is the only grass which can
with advantage be turned under by the plough, and thus, with one
ploughing only, ensure a good crop of Avheat, or other grain. The
crop, however, will be best where the clover is mowed, and not fed
off by cattle. Another good quality is, its superiority over almost all
other grasses, in mellowing and enriching the soil. It derives most
of its nourishment from a considerable depth, and like all tap-rooted
plants, it exhausts the land but little, while at the same time, when
ploughed under, it forms a good green dressing for the soil.

Green clover is a good food for swine during summer; and clover-
hay, when boiled, is also found to be a good food for them during win-
ter. Mr. Livingston makes mention of a farmer at Rhinebeck, who
fed his hogs during winter with no other food but boiled clover, and
that they were kept in good condition. The clover used for them
was preserved by being salted, a quart to a load. It was cut and left
in win-rows about six hours, then put into small cocks. The next
day, about noon, these were opened; towards evening they were
rode home, and laid away with salt, which kept it green and juicy all
the year.

See further, article Swine.

The quantity of red clover seed, to be sowed to the acre, is about
ten pounds, and none but clean seed ought to be sown.

The best crops with which to sow clover, are barley, oats, and
spring wheat. It is, however, frequently sown in the spring on win-
ter wheat, or rye ; but in this way it often happens that the seeds do
not grow, owing to their not being covered. This difficulty may,
however, be obviated, by giving the ground a brushing, by dragging a
large bunch of bushes, tied together, over it, where the land is rough ;
or by giving it a light harrowing where it is smooth ; either of which
methods, but particularly the latter, will be a benefit to the growth of
wheat or rye. It may also be sown with winter wheat, or rye, in the
fall ; but there is danger in that case of its being killed by the suc-
ceeding winter.

Clover yields two crops in the season, if the land be in good heart ;
unless it be in the northerly parts of the state, where the second
growth will generally be too small to mow to advantage, and is, there-
fore, be^ to be fed off.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 41

When you wish to let the clover go to seed, take the second crop ;
or, where you cannot have two crops in a season, pasture it till some
time in IMay, and then let it grow up to seed, which will of course be
late. The reason for doing this is, that in the first crop in each sea-
son, very little seed is to be found. A machine has been invented
for gathering the seed, which runs through the clover, while standing,
somewhat similar to a comb running through hair, and the heads are
nipped off by a sharp edge, and fall into a box made for the purpose.
Keeping a growth of clover for seed injures the roots more than mow-
ing ; and, therefore, the seed crop ought to be the last that is taken
from any one sowing. Clover is only a biennial plant ; the third year
the crop is little oruothing.

Cattle, when first tinned into a luxuriant clover-field, either of white
or red, sometimes become liovcn, as it is called ; that is, so expanded
with wind as to die, unless relief be afforded. The cure for this con-
sists simply in stabbing them with a sharp pointed knife, with a blade
three or four inches long, between the hip and the short ribs, where
the swelling rises highest. This Avil! let out the wind, and if it gathers
again, open the hole afresh with the knife, and repeat this as often
as may be necessary. The v, ound will soon heal of itself.

Sec article Grasses.

COMPOSTS. Sec article Maxcres.

COWS. The marks of a good cow are these ; the forehead broad,
the eyes black, the horns large and clean, the neck long and straight,
the belly large and decj), the thighs thick, the legs round with short
joints, and the feet brond and thick. Red cows are said to give the
best milk ; though the black ones are said to bring the best calves,
which is, however, doubtful. But the cow that gives milk the longest
lime between the periods of her calving, is generally best for profit or
for family use ; provided, the quantity and quality of her milk be equal
to that of others. Jiist before calving, a cow should be well fed; and
if she calves in winter, her drink should be a little warmed for a day
and night afterwards. If she does not clean well after calving, give
her a pail of warm water, with some ashes in it. Those that calve
pretty early Avill yield most milk in the season.

The times of milking oii;i;ht to be regular, and as nearly equi-distant
as possible. "Where the iVeding is fnll, it is found that milking three
times a day, during the simnner seavon particularly, will increase the
quantity nearly one third. In that citse, the first milking ought to be
by sunrise, the second about one, and the latter about seven or eight
o'clock in Ibe evening. Omitting to milk cows regularly, at least

42 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

twice a day, tends very much to dry them. Sometimes one or more
teats of a cow may be diseased, but this does not affect the milk ol the
rest.

Cows are certainly rcry profitable. Allow ingj one to give only
six quarts a day, for forty weeks in each year, and this is not a large
allowance, her milk, at two cents per quart, will amount to upward*
of thirty-three dollars ; which is probably sufiBcient to purchase her,
and pay for a year's keeping.

See further articles. Cattle, Cbeam, Dairy, &c.

CRAB- APPLE-TREE; (Pyrus Coronaria.J This is a genuine
and distinct species of the apple ; it grows in all parts of North- Ame-
rica which have been explored, from the Atlantic as far west as
the Rlissisippi : its blossoms are remarkably fragrant ; its fruit EmaTT^
possessing, perhaps, of all others,, the keenest acid. It makes an ex-
cellent vinegar, and the eider made from it is much admired by those
who profess to be connoisseurs in that article. The European crab-
apple is a very different fruit from this.

There are no varieties of fruit of the crab-apple tree. Every tree
bears nearly equally well and pretty plentifully. It is believed, that
this fruit is well worth cultivating.

CREAM. Fans, or trays, for holding milk, to raise the most cream,
ought to be broad and shallow, and the milk in them ought not to b^
more than three or four inches in depth. Tin and wood are the best
materials for making these. Some line wooden trays wilh lead ; but
this is a bad practice, as lead may sometimes be dissolved by the acid
of the milk, and then it is poisonous. Wooilen trays ought to be well
ecalded, and dried in a cool place, as often as new milk is [)ut in them, to
prevent the wood from absorbing too much of the acidity of the milk,
and thus coagulating the new milk before the cream has time to rise ;
for cream will not rise after the milk has become coagulated.

If new milk be kept as warm as when it comes from the cow, ao
cream will rise on it ; but when sufficiently cooled, the cream se|)a-
rates from the rest and rises to tlie top. In order then to effect this
to the best advantage, the new milk should be made as cool as possi-
ble, and the cooler it is thus made, the more suddenly and effectually
the cream will rise. The cooler the cellars, therefore, in which milk
18 kept, the better. To set milk-pans, made of tin, in beds of salt;,
would, no doubt, be useful, where the cellar is too warm ; ami to set
all milk vessels on a floor which is constantly covered wilh cold
sprine water, is also an excellent plan, and where it can be done,
ought never to be omitted.

FARMER^S ASSISTANT. 43

Most of the cream comes last from the cow in milking. The last
hair pint of milk that can be got, by milking the cow dry, contains as
oiuch cream as the first quart, or perhaps three pints; and for this
reason, cows ought always to be milked as clean as possible. The
quantity of cream will also be greater, if the milk of each cow be
strained into a pan by itself, as soon as possible. The practice of
pouring the milk of the cows together, while milking, and letting the
whole stand till nearly cooled, is a very bad one, as, in this way, much
of the cream will not afterwards rise.

CUCUMBER ; (Qumcumis.) These are a cold fruit and hard of
digestion, yet pleasant to the taste. They are rendered more whole-
some by pickling ; though the taste of a pickled cucumber must be
considered far inferior to those which are fresh when properly pre-
pared for eating. This is best done by slicing them, and then putting
them in cold water for a while, which renders them more easy to
digest.

Cowper in his " Ta.'^^'' in describing the method of raising cucum-
bers in hot-beds, directs that after " two rough indented leaves" are
produced, " a pimple that portends a future sprout," on *' the second
stalk'* is to be pinched otf, to prevent its growth ; and this, he says,
Tvill make the other branches grow more strong and be more prolific.

The soil for cucumbers cannot be too rich, nor too well cultivated,
to raise a great crop. A spot well manured with fish, or other flesh,
will produce a great quantity. Hog's-dung is also very good for
them.

See also article Radish, for a good manure for them.

Take a tub and fill it half full of stones, and with as much water;
over this lay some straw, and fill the tub with the richest earth ; plant
this full of the seeds, and guard the plants well while they are subject
to insects, though they will be much less subject to them in this way ;
epread some brush round the tub for the vines to run on, and in this
way a great crop may be raised. The water in the tub must be ct-n-
stantly replenished by a tube from the outside, which will keep the
soil in the tub sufficiently moist to keep off insects from the plants.

See article Insects.

CURRANT; (Rihes.) There are a variety of currants, including
those called gooseberries. {See article Gooseberrv.) The black
currant, which grows in the swamps in this country, is greatly im-
proved by cultivation, says i\lr. Winterbotham, and affords a wine
equal to Port when it has age. It is also an excellent medicine lor a
s^re mouth and throat. When bruised and steeped in whiskey, or

44 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

other spirits, it is also excellent for colds aiul lor bad coughs arising
from pulmonic complaints. They arc to be steeped a fortnight or
more, then strain the liquor, bottle it, and put it away for use. The
red and the white currants are most common here, and each make
good wines, though the white is thought to make the best. Currants
are the most useful of all the small kinds of fruit-trees, and for making
wines they are very profitable.

After pressing out the juice for making wine, let the seeds be dried
and sown late in the fall, or early in the spring, on line light earth,
and from these, new varieties maybe had; some of which may be
found very fine and much superior [)erhaps to those in common use.
Some may be found to ripen early, others late, which are qualities
particularly desirable for family uses.

Currants are easily propagated from cuttings, Avhich is the usual
method, or from layers or slips.
See articles Layers and Slips.

As soon as vegetation has commenced, lake the strongest and
straightest shoots, but not such as are suckers, and set the ends pretty
well in the ground, in order that they may have sufficient moisture;
and, let them be watered if the weather be very dry after planting.
They will soon take root, and the next season will begin to bear.
They should then be kept carefully pruned, and should not be suffer-
ed to run too high. They should be kept clear of suckers, as these
draw much of that nourishment which is requisite for the fruit. The
ground about them should be occasionally hoed, to keep it clear of
weeds and grass.

Currants will do very well even on light sandy soils ; but perhaps,
the best soil for them is a good mellow sandy loam. With proper cul-
ture, however, they will grow pretty well on almost any soil that is
not too hard and poor.

Mr. Forsyth gives some very minute directions for pruning currants,
and ap|)lying his composition to the wounded parts; but in this in-
stance, as in some others, he probably carries his theories to extremes.
Whatever may be the case in Groat-Britain, Avhere fruit is not so
easily raised, it is believed that the above general directions, if pur-
sued, will ensure good cro|)s of currants in this country, which ap-
pears to be very natural (o their growth.

To make Currant Wine. — Take currants fully ripe, at the rate of
one gnllon for each gallon of water; bruise them fine in the water;
strMiii the w lole throush a cloth, and a'ld two pounds and three quar-
ters of good brown sugar to every gallon of currants and water thus

FARi^lEK'S ASSISTANT. 43

mixed together ; stir it well, and when the sugar has dissolved, put
the whole into a clean cask, filling it full and leaving a good vent hole
open. When the lennentation is over, stop it up tight, and in six
months it will be fit for bottling or for use. Like other wines, how-
ever, it improves much by age.

Probably molasses, well clarified, might be made to answer instead
of sugar; and, probably, honey, or a due mixture of it, would be bet-
ter than either.

An acre planted with currants, and well cultivated, Avould proba-
bly yield, on an average, a quantity of fruit sutficient to make a thou-
sand gallons of wine yearly. The expense of making this wine does
not exceed fifty cents a gallon, and the wine, after having a little age,
is worth treble this money.

A currant-garden should be set with the bushes in rows, about
eight feet between each, and about three feet between each bush,
with intervals of proper Avidth and at regular distances for passing
across the rows. Planting currants on the south side of a wail will
make them ripen more early, and they will ripen later when planted
on the north side.

CUTTINGS. These are twigs of trees cut off and set into the
ground, where they will take root and grow. They should be taken
from young thrifty trees.

Cuttings of currants, grape-vines, willow, Lonibardy poplars, &c.
are made to grow without any difficulty ; those of quinces are not so
easy, and those of the apple-tree are still less so. Let those which
are most difficult to grow be set as deep as twelve inches; those less
difficult six, eight, or ten, as the kinds may require. Let them be cut
and set in the spring, as soon as vegetation has commenced, and per-
haps earlier than this is best for those which are most difficult to ^roAv.
Let them be frequently watered when the ground is i\ry. The twi<^s
used for this purpose should be of good straight growth, but not such as
are suckers.

Ai)ple-trees raised in this way will not grow so large as those raised
from the seeds, nor will they be so long lived ; but in this way as in
grafting, the choicest selections of fruit can be made.

Where cuttings are to be kept some time before settino- in the
ground, let the cut ends be kept in moist earth and soaked in water
before they are set.

Sec further article Slips.

Scions : Twigs cut oS' for grafting. They should be taken from
young thrifty trees, but not from sprouts or suckers. Let them be of

46 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

the ends of limbs of the former year's growth. Cut them just before
the buds begin to swell, aod keep them in a moist place with the cat
ends in moist earth till the time of grafting.

D.

DAIRY. The business of the dairy requires close attention. The
miikiugs, in order to be most profitable, should be three times a day ;
the first at ilay-light ; the second at noon ; and, the latter at twilight.
This will very considerably increase the quantity of milk given in a
day from any num'»er of cows.

In order to ascertain which cow's milk is the best, as yielding the
most cream, let ihe milk of each be put by itself, and their products of
butter will then determine the point. The quantity of milk afforded
by each should also be taken into consideration.

See further articles, Bltter, Cheese, Cirrn, Cows, Cream,
Neat Cattle.

Dr. Anderson recommends wooden vessels as being the most whole-
some for holding milk ; but that if tin pans be used, they should be
washed, every time they are emptied, with warm water in which a lit-
tle salt has been dissolved, and should be kept clean by scouring ; and
to prevent acidity in wooden vessels they should in like manner be
scoured and cleansed with hot water. Leaden vessels he condemns,
as is menlionetl under article Butter.

The dairy requires two apartments — a clean cool room in the cellar
lor the milk, and » dark room above ground for drying and keeping
the cheese. Many farmers, however, confine their attention to making
butter alone, and in that case a good cool cellar is the essential requi-
site. Let the milk he set on the ground, for it is the coolest part of
the cellar in summer and the warmest in winter.

If milk be kept in tin pans, and set within earthen ones, of a texture
soporous, so that the water in them will gradually exude, this will im-
part a great degree of coolness to the milk. The water in the earthen
pans should surround those holding the milk if the outer pan were
made of Bti£r leather, it would answer the same purpose.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 47

DEW. '• An experiment," says Mr. Livingston, " has been made
to ascertain the difference between dew water and rain water, by put-
iog an equal quantity of each in different vessels, and setting them in
the sun to dry away ; the result was, that the sediment or settlings
of the dew water were greater in quantity, blacker, and richer, than
that of the rain water."

Dew is, therefore, fertilizing ; and, this is the reason why lands will
be most benefited by being constantly ploughed when the dew is on
them.

See article Fallowing, &c.

DITCH- This is either for enclosing grounds to serve in the
place of other fencing, or to carry off superfluous water. When made
for a fence, it ought to be four feet wide at the top, one, or less, at the
bottom, and about two and a half deep, with the earth all thrown out
on one side, and banked up as high as possible. This, however, is
but a poor fence, unless a hedge of some kind be planted on it; or,
unless it be raised higher by posts and rails, or boards ; or, by stakes
and wicker-work; and this, where cedar can be had for the purpose,
makes a good durable fence.

See article Hedges.

To drain swamps, ditches ought to be of size and depth proportion-
ate to the extent of the swamp; or rather let them be proportionate
to the quantity of water to be carried off. Those round the edges of
the swamp ought to be so placed as to receive all the water from the
springs which commonly run in on every side ; or, if convenient, they
should be so placed as to cut off the springs, by receiving them int©
the ditch. When a very wet swamp is to be drained, the months of
August and September are the best for performing this labor, as the
ground is then driest, while at the same lime the water will not prove
trouldesome by its coldness. The proper proportions for these kind*
of ditches are to be three times as wide at the top as they are at the
bottom, and a little more than half as deep as they are wide. If they
are not thus sloped they will fall in; owing to the heaving of the
ground liy the froets. To prevent their falling in, it is advisable to
sow some strong rooted grass on the sides of the ditches.

See further, article Bog-Meadow.

DIVISIONS OF A FARM. If a farm be nearly square it may
sometimes be advisable to have a wide lane through the middle, and
lots laid off on each side ; or, if it be more oblong, a wide lane on one
side may be advisable, and th. lots laid off to it. No certain direc-
tions can, however, l»e given on this head, ouing to the differeat

48 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

shapes, soils, «i:c. of farms. A lane of this kind may often be the
more eligible where it can take in some spring, or other living water.
as in that case, every field becomes accessible to the water at all
times, by leaving open the gate of that which is in present use in
pasturing.

Lots for tillage should always be square, or at least of equal sides ;
those for mowing or pasture may be irregular without any incon-
venience.

DRESSINGS. A dressing differs from a manuring only in this,
that the former is intended merely for one croj), Avhile the latter is
intended for several. Some dressings, such as gypsum, ashes, salt,
&c. &:c. are to be laid on the soil; others again, such as composts, 6cc.
are to be slighlly buried in it, and mixed with its surface.

DRILL: An instrument for sowing seeds by opening furrows at
proper distances, and of proper depth, dropping the seeds and cover-
ing them all at one operation. It may be drawn by horses, or b\
hand, according to its size, and the use to which it is to be applied.
A single drill plough is successfully used for planting Indian corn in
rows. Mr. Rutherford makes mention of one used in New-Jersey for
sowing wheat in rows thirteen inches apart, which is drawn by two
horses, with which a man can drill in about eight acres per day. The
cost of it is about eight or ten dollars. He adds, that where the see<!
is drilled in with this machine, the crop will be much larger, and at
the same time less seed is requisite.

The land on which the drill is used should be entirely clear oi
stumps and stones ; and on such lands the farmer may tind great ac-
count in making use of these machines. Particular descriptions of
them are here omitted, because it is diificult to describe them so as to
give the reader an adequate idea of their construction. The spirited
farmer who is anxious to test their efficacy may easily inform himself
of the construction of the different kinds in use.

DROUGHT. As a country becomes cleared of its timber, it be-
comes more liable to droughts; and these will be more or less severe
according to the climate. That which is naturally cool and moist,
such as that of Great-Britain and Ireland, will seldom, if ever, be af-
fected by too much dry weather ; while that in which the summer?
are hotter, and of course, the atmosphere drj'er, will often suffer much
on this account. In most parts of Spain, the fields are parched up by
the middle of summer; but before this the crops are all harvested. In
this country, droughts are never so severe, nor so universal, yet partial
ones are often experienced, much earlier, and long before the crops

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 49

haveeome to maturity. This is an evil, and all the farmer can do,
is to make the best possible provision against it.

Generally speaking, nothing is better calculated to ward off the
effects of droughts than good cultiTation, by ploughingsufiBciently deep,
and effectually, and manuring well. Ground that is well mellowed
to a proper depth will stand a drought much better than that which is
ploughed shallow and left in clods; and that which is well manured
will retain more moisture than that which is poor. Again, ground
which is thus well prepared and manured, shoots forth its crop so
rapidly, that the ground is soon covered and shaded from the heat of
the sun, and for this reason, retains its moisture longer. The same
may be observed of mowing lands.

Gypsum is also an antidote to droughts ; and fortunately, it suits the
soils best which are most affected in this way.

Another way to avoid the effects of droughts, is, to cultivate swamp
lands more extensively, in raising such productions as are most liable
to receive injury in this way. Such lands, when well drained, and
duly mixed with proper earths, or other manures, may undoubtedly
be rendered excellent for almost every summer crop which is liable
to be injured by too much dry weather. Wet lands also, which hare
been hollow-drained, will stand a drought much better than in their
original wet state.

In pastures, planting some kinds of trees in different parts, is bene'
ficial in preventing the effects of drought ; and the best for this is the
locust; as it will increase the pasture, serve for shade, and eventually
yield much valuable timber and fuel.

See article Locust.

DUNG, DUNGHILLS, &c. S<fe article M^yusEs,

50 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

E.

EARTHS. Chemists by analysiog the matter which forms the
Earth, find it to contain several primuire earths, some of which are
called aUcnline earths, and some, earths simply. The former are
barytes, strontites, lime, and maguesia; the latter are silex, alumine,
zircon, glucine, and ytria.

It is unnecessary to describe these earths minutely, or to Bay any
thing of any other than those which commonly enter into the compo-
sition of soils. These, says Mr. Davy, are principaHy silex, aluniine,
Hme, and magnesia. In addition to these, other subrtauces are found
soils, such as animal and vegetable matter in a decomposing state, cer-
tain saline compounds, and the oxyde of iron.

Of lime, something has already oeen said. {See article Limestone.)
Lime is but seldom found in its jiurity ; it is geoerally combined with
other earths, and Avith acids. Limestone, mar'»le, chalk, marie, &c-
are mixtures of lime with other earths, combined with carbonic acid.
Gypsuni, or sulphate of fime, is a mixture of Kme with other earths,
combined with sulphuric acid ; and, when lime h combined vitb
phosphoric acid, it is called phosphate of lime. Lime, in its pure
state, is infusible, but is readily dissolved in acrds, or in 680 times ita
weight of water.

Magnesia is a pure white earth, very friable, light, and spongy, and
is always combined with other substances. Alumioe is the basis of
clay, and serres to endue it with the peculiar characteristic of coo-
tracting when dried, and still more when heated, and of expanding
ag nin when moistened.

Silex, or flinty earth, is mostly exhibited in the form of white or
crystalline sand. There are also calcareous sands, and silex i< some-
times mixed with these. Calcarious sands are solable, with efferves-
cence, in muriatic acid.

Aninud decomposing matter exists, says Mr. Davy, in different
states, according as the substances from which it is proiluced are dif-
ferent It contains much carbonaceoBs substance, and may be mostly-
resolved, by heat, into this, together with carbonic acid, volatile al-
kali, and inflammable aeriform products. It is principally found in
lands that have lately been manured.

Vegetable decomposing niHtter is likewise various in kind, and con-
tains more carbonaceous substance than animal matter. It produces

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 61

«> volaiHe alkali. It forms a large propertion of peats; abounds in
rich mould ; and is found in greater or less quantities in all lands.

The saline compounds found in soils are rarely to be discovered,
and are principally muriate of Soda, (common salt,) sulphate of raag-
Besia, (Epsom salt,) and muriate, and sulphate of pot-ash, nitrate of
lime, and the mild alkalies.

The oxyde of iron, (rust of iron,) is found in all soils, but most in
yeliow and red cJays, and yellow and red silicious sands.

The same combinations of earthy matter may be productive of very
diii'crent degrees of fertility in dilJerent situations, and in different
clvnates. Thus a sandy soil under the equator is barren from its want
of retnining a sufficiency of water for the climate, Avhile the same soil
in a cool moist climate would lie found sufficiently retentive to be pro-
ductive. A stilf clay, again, which under the equator would not be
too reteative of moisture for fertility, would be found barren from its
wetness in a cool moist climate. But let the sand in the hot climate
have a close understratum of stiff clay, or the clay in the cool climate
a close unilerstratum of loose sand, and they would each be rendered
fertile.

Mr. Tillet, in some experiments made on the composition of soils at
Paris, found that a soil composed of three eights of clay, two of river
sand, and three of the parings of linieatone, was very proper for
wheat.

Mr. Davy mentions a very fertile corn soil from Ormiston, (Eng-
land,) which contained, in an hundred parts, eleven of mild calcarioue
earth, twenty-five of silicious sand, and forty-five of finely divided
clay. It lost nine in decomposed animal and vegetable matter, and
four in water, and afforded indications of a small quantity of phosphate
of lime. He attributes its extreme fertility to the presence of the
phosphate, as this is found in wheat, oats, and barley, and is probably
part of tbeir food. Soil from the lowlands of Somersetshire, which
is famous for producing wheat and beans, without requiring any ma-
nure, he found to consist, one ninth of sand, chiefly silicious, and
^ight ninths of calcareous marie, tinged with iron, and containing
about five parts in the hundred of vegetable matter. This contained
no phosphate, or sulphate of lime, and he supposes its fertility owing
principally to its power of attracting vegetable nourishment from water
and the atmosphere.

By analysing the finest soils in this country, and comparing the
ri»6ults with those which are poor in the same neighborhood, we might

52 FARMER'S ASSISTAIST.

ascertain the deficiencies of the latter, and thus in many instances he
enabled to apply the remedy with much more precision and effect.

ELDER. These are extremely offensive to almost all insects, and
are therefore good to spread round plants when they are liable to their
attacks.

See article Insects.

ELM ; (Ulmus Americana.) A beautiful tree to plant near houses
and elsewhere. It grows pretty rapidly and is very long-lived. There
are three varieties, the white, the yellow, and the red elm. The
two latter are the best timber for any kind of use, and the latter in
particular is very durable.

ENCLOSURES. Throughout the most of France and seme other
parts of Europe, the arable and mowing lands are not fenced, but lie
in common, while the lands on which cattle are usually kept are en-
closed.

This method of husbandry has some advantages, and it has its dis-
advantages ; much is thereby saved in the expense of making en-
closures; but when cattle are to be fed on uninclosed grounds, as must
sometimes be the case, they must be watched, to prevent their stray-
ing away, or getting into mischief. This, says Mr. Living«lon, is
generally done by the women ; they may be seen at all times during
the season of pasture, sitting in the fields employed in sprnniug, while
the keeping of the cattle within their proper limits does not require
their immediate attention.

It may be ditficult to determine whether this method of farming
may not, on the whole, be as good as any, in a highly cultivated and
thick settled country. Be this as it may, those countries w hich l»ave
adopted this method will hardly ever be found to change, owing as
well to the inconvenience of producing, throughout a whole country,
so radical an alteration, as to the difficulty of over<5oming prejudices,
which are almost inseparable from an ancient and hereditary custom.

EXPERIMENTS. There is no way of making improvements in
farming but by experiments. If the farmer is informed of, or has con-
ceived a different and better method of culture, or management, in
any branch of his farming, he is to test the goodness of that method
by experiments; and if these prove successful he may congratulate
himself on having performed an act which is serviceable to bis coun-
try and honorable to himself.

Perhaps it would be well, if some institution was devised and sup-
ported at the expense of the state, which should be so organized as
Tfould tend most effectually to produce a due degree of emulation

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. b'3

among farmers, by rewards and honorary distinctions conferred on
those who by their successful experimental efforts and improvements,
should render themselves duly entitled to them. It might also be ad-
visable to have two or three experimental farms in different parts of
the state, under the direction of suitable superintendents, who should
have the profits of the farms to themselves, and who should be excited
to a degree of emulation by a reAvard given yearly to that superin-
tendent which should be found the best entitled by his superior cul-
ture, and by the success of his experiments, when duly authenticated,
and published yearly for the benefit of community. Something like
these might cost considerable at first; but might eventually be made
Jhe means of greatly enriching the state by improving its agriculture.

F.

FALLOWING of LAND. Lands may be greatly recruited by
a summer fallowing, and also, by a winter fallowing; as by these me-
thods, particularly the former, sufficient time is given to recruit and
enrich the soil by frequeut ploughings and harrowings. All kinds of
soils, however, do not derive equal benefit from fallowings. A very
rich soil, and a light sandy one, require little more than to be suffici-
ently mellowed for the reception of the seed ; but all others which are
naturally more or less sterile, or have been exhausted by too frequent
cropping, may be greatly recruited by frequent ploughings and harrow-
ings. Mr. Tull, an ingenious farmer of Great-Britain, was of opinion,
that lands could be made and kept rich by the mere operation of th*
plough and harrow ; that dung, or manure, only served to produce a
greater fermentation in the soil ; and, that this could be as well ef-
fected by frequently stirring it. This is perhaps in a great measure
true, but not wholly so. Undoubtedly in what are called the harder
or stiffer soils, frequent ploughings will do wonders, not only in pre-
paring the ground for a single crop, but also in fertilizing the soiK
Take, for instance, a field of any stiff or hard soil, which with the
common culture of ploughing three times and harrowing twice, will
yield a crop of ten bushels of wheat, or rye, to the acre ; let this

oi FARMER'S ASSISTAiNT.

same field be broke up early and give it ten ploughiugs, and it niil
then yield twenty bushels an acre, and the laud will afterwards be
richer and much freed from weeds by this culture. Here, then, by
the seven extra ploughings the farmer gains ten bushels an acre —
Will this pay him ? The expense of these seven additional plongb-
ings, allowing a man and two horses to plough two acres a day, and
putting this at two dollars, would cost seven dollars; and lor this he
gets ten bushels of wheat, or rye, in the field, and his lands made more
valuable by the extra ploughings.

The farmer will find nearly the same advantage in winter fallow-
ing as in summer fallowing, particularly in the stiffer soils, where the
ground ought to be well mellowed in the fall, and thrown up in ridges
or large furrows for the operation of the winter frosts ; as these will as-
sist much io mellowing and fertilizing it.

Summer fallowing is, however, merely recommended, generally,
for exhausted lands ; but by no means as part of a general system of
good farming, where the land is in a proper state for high cultivation
and a rotation of fruitful crops. The farmer, if his fields are exhaust-
ed, may begin to recruit them by summer fallowings, and Irequent
ploughings; but he should do more than this; he ought to persevere
in enriching them bj- gypsum or other manures, and clover, until he
has rendered them truly fit for complete cultivation.

Ploughing early in the mornings, while the dew is on, is much the
best ; as the fertilizing qualities of dews are then absorbed in tlie soil,
which are afterwards evajwrated by the heat of the sua. (See article
Dew.) a farmer cannot, however, always wait tohave all his lands
ploughed while the dew is on, though it may be well to do as much
of it then as [)Ossible. When coarse barn dung is to be applied to a
fallow, it ought to be carted on in the spring, so that it may be well
mixed with the soil by the ploughings; but where composts are ap-
plied it should be done just before sowing, and then be well mixed
with the soil, but not buried deep in it.

Green sward land intended for spring crops should always be broken
up pretty early in the fall, and if it be wet, or a siitTsoil, let it be
cross ploughed and thrown up into high narrow ridges, in order to lie
dry, and be mellowed and fertilized by the winter frosts.

FALSE QUARTER. A rift or chink in the hoof of a horse
from top to bottom. The inner side of the hoof t)eiog the thinnest is
most liable to it. When it becomes troublesome to a horse, Gibson
directs, that the cleft be pared out to the quick ; then annoint the
hoof , with a mixture of tar. honey and suet, melted together, and lay a

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 55

pledgef, dipt in the same, along in the cleft. Then bind up the hoof
as tight as possible, by winding rope-yarn closely round it from top to
bottom. The shoe should previously be taken off. The wound
should be opened and drest every third or fourth day, and to prevent
any inconveniency from this, let the cleft be held together at the
bottom by a thin [date fastened on for the purpose.

It is however very difficult, and often impossible, says this author,
to effect a cure in an old or a diseased horse.

FARCY. A disease in horses similar to the scurvy among men,
and is caused by coufiaing a horse too long to dry meal. It is known
by small tumors appearing on the head and other parts of the body.
Turning the horse to fresh pasture will effect a cure in the first stages
of the disorder; but where it has become more inveterate by long
standing, Gibson directs, that the horse be bled, motlerately purged,
and then, that doses of antimony be given him.

FARMERS. Originally those were called farmers who took
lands upon rent ; while freeholders and those who owned farms them-
selves, were called t/fo.nm or gentlemen farmers. But here we ap-
ply the term generally; every man who cultivates a farm, whether
he owns it, or has a freehold estate in it, or merely rents it, is called
a farmer. We do not consider the mere circumstance of owning a
farm sutficient to dub the owner a gentleman; neil^her do we consider
the condition of him who is obliged to hire lands of others to culti-
vate for a living, so low as to be on that account precluded from that
rank. Farmers here being generally lords of the soil they cultivate,
have reason to be thankful that their lots are cast in pleasant lime*
and places; and that their condition is not that which too generally
prevails throughout Europe. There, it is at best but as tenants in
common socage ; and descending from this to the lowest state, as in
Poland and Russia, is that of mere slavery ; being attached to the
soil, liable to be sold with it, and under the despotic control of their
landlords or masters.

But though the farmer here has attained his proper standing, let
him not suppose, that in all cases the mere holding and occupying a
large farm will either contribute to his profit or to his consequence as
a farmer. If he has hands sutficient within his own family to carry on
the necessary labors of a large farm, it is well; but if he has to hire
all his laborers for this purpose, he must be industrious and farm on
the best plans, if he makes as much as ought to be the just reward of
his exertions. Owing to the circumstance that the most industriou:*
youngmen who are destitute of property are in the habit of goingoff to

5ti FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

new countries to procure new lands for themselves, the price of laboi-
is so hinh, that the utmost must be made olit, if the farmer expects a
good j)rofit; and lience is derived an additional reason why farmer*
should study to improve their system of farming. But by no means
let those be discouraged who are ambitious to excel in farming on a
large scale, for when ably conducted, fanning largely has usually been
found to yield most clear profit to the acre ; but those who have but
little help within their own families, and at the same time do not feel
sufficiently ambitious to drive the business with vigor, are advised not
to trouble themselves with large farms; rather let them sell these and
buy small ones, which they can sufficiently cultivate with their own
resources oflabor, and put out the surplus money at interest. When
we see a farmer attem|)ting to cultivate a farm of two or three hun-
dred acres, with one or two hands; and, as is usual in such cases,
merely running over his fields without deriving much from them, the
reflection must naturally arise, how much better it would be for him
to sell his large farm, purchase one of half, or a third of its size, culti-
vate that well, and then from the interest of the surplus money he
might derive an annual income, which could be yearly added to the
principal, and thus enable him to grow rich in a few years; while
with his large farm he might toil all his life-time without making any
material addition to his estate.

These remarks are, however, more applicable to farms which are
naturally arable lands, than to those soils which never fail of yielding
plentiful crops of grass and an abundant supply of pasture; and such
lands greatly abound in the western and northerly parts of this state.
On such lands the farmer may turn almost his whole attention to
rearing cattle, raising little more grain than is sufficient for his family,
and as many hands are not requisite in this case, except in mowing
time, the labor necessary for a large farm may be performed with lesa
expense, and at the same time to advantage; but not with so much
clear profit to the acre as may be derived from most of the same lands
if made arable, and brought under the most approved cultivation.

As this method of farming affords abundance of manure from the
dung of the cattle, it enables the farmer to cultivate a small piece of
ground to the utmost advantage. He may raise a few acre* of the
necessary roots for feeding his cattle, and the same of grain, and have
the produce of each as great as it is possible for the soil to yield.

See further articles, Soiling, Neat Cattle, &c.

FENCES. Poor fences are productive of incalculable mischief to
the farmer. By these his crops are constantly liable to be destroyed

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 57

and his cattle learn to become habitually unruly. One unruly creature
will leara others to be so; and thus the farmer, uith his poor fences
tinds his cattle, instead of being profitable, to become productive of
unceasin<^ losses, and, what follows of course, of unceasing vexation.
When the farmer is conscious, that he cannot even sleep in peace, on
account of the danger of his cattle destroying the fruits of his labors,
he cannot be said to enjoy that tranquillity which ought to be he re
ward of the swe^t of his brow. Rather, therefore, let him make his
fences what might be generally deemed more than suthciently high
and strong, than too low and weak. This, if it be an error, is errmg
on the safe side-oa the side which secures tl^e fruits oi his labors,
and promotes his tranquillity and happiness.

Lo<. fences are often made on new cleared lands where rail timber
does not sufficiently abound, and these the farmer will of course make
of the most durable logs which his new cleared land aftords. ^^ hite
nine log fences are very good, and will last twenty years without any
essential repairing. Clear white pine timber may, however, be split
into raiU, which are very durable. All kinds of wood wdl last much
lon<-er in rails where the bark is peeled off.

What are called worm fences are made with most ease, but reqmre
more timber than some other kinds. If, therefore, timber be scarce
post and rail fences, set in a bank, made of the earth of two small
ditches thrown up together, ought to be preferred, where good durable
posts can be had. If the posts are too small to have holes made
through them, the rails may be flatted at the ends and fastened to the
posts with spikes, or with wooden pins well secured. Post and rail
fences, without these ditches on each side, are very good where the
soil is dry, and the same may be observed of board fences ; but where
the soil is wet, the posts will be thrown out by the frosts. In all
ca^es the posts ought to be set at least two feet in the ground. Red
cedar is best for posts. Locust, chesnut, butter-nut, and black walnut
are also sood. Good oak will also last pretty well. Burning the ends
of the posts which go into the ground, 30 as to make them black, will

make them last longer.

For hedge fences, ,ec article Hr.DGES. For making stone walls,

sfftf article Stones.

FERMENTATION. Ground is in a complete state ot termema-
tion when the adhesion of its particles is destroyed; when it is in a
,0ft puffy state, so that when pressed down it will expand again. It
is to be brought to this state by frequent ploughiues, or by ploughmgs

and manurings together.

8

uH FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

When ground is in the highest fermentation, it is then in the best
state for growing of plants; and (he more effectually the fermentafion
is kept up during the time in which the plants are growing, the greater
will be their growth.

Frosts have great effect in preparing for a state of fermentation in
stiff soils, when thrown up during winter, in such manner as to lie dry.
{See article Freezing.) Moderate rains, succeeded by warm sun-
shine, have also a similar effect on such soils.

During the summer season a proper state of fermentation is only
to be produced in the soil when it is neither too wet nor too dry.
Ploughing, however, when the ground is very dry, if not so good for
producing: a state of fermentation, is nevertheless, good for killing all
weeds and gras«, with wiiich the soil may be infested.

FERN, OR BRAKES ; C Poh/podium.J This weed grows in some
cold loamy soils in the northern parts of this state ; but it appears to
be easily extirpated i)y tilling the land. In the northern parts of Eu-
rope, it is in man\- places troublesome and difficult to subdue. They
however esteem it much when made into manure, as it contains a
large portion of salts. In some parts of the north of Europe they
burn it, and gather the ashes, which, being wetted with water, are
made into little balls and dried in the sun, and are then esteemed to
be nearly as good as soap for the purposes of washing.

FLAX ; (Limim.) Such crops of flax as are usually raised do not
pay for the labor bestowed on them. This must be owing to bad
management. As this is a crop that the farmer must raise, if he has
any regard to domestic economy, the means of raising it to advantage
should be duly attended to.

A good method of raising a great croj) of flax, is as follows : Sum-
mer-fallow a piece of ground of suitable soil, and give it six or eight
ploughingB and harrowings during the summer, so as to destroy all the
seeds of weeds. {See article Simmer-fallowing.) Apply your ma-
nures during the first ploughings, unless they be composts, or top-
dressings; at all events let the soil be eventually made rich enough
for hemp. The next spring mellow the ground well again by two or
three ploughings, harrow it, and sow, of well cleaned seed, at the rate
of about three bushels to the acre, and harrow it in lightly. Give the
ground a top-dressing of about four bushels of fine salt to the acre, and
also some gj'|)sum, if the soil be suitable. Let the crop be sown
about the first of May, or as soon as the ground can be effectually
prepared after vegetation has commenced. By this method of culture,
and with a proper change of seed, five or six hundred pounds of flax

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 59

may be expected from the acre, of a fine quality. This is probably
about the best culture, and all deviations Irom it, by less expensive
methods in preparing; the ground, will, generally, be much for the
worse. Ground may, however, be pretty well prepared for a good
crop by previous hoed crops which have been well manured, particu-
larly if pains be taken to prevent any weeds going to seed in the fall.
Weeds are the enemy of flax; and no good crops can be raised on
ground that is full of their seeds, evea though it be sufficiently rich
and well prepared.

See further article, Folding of Land, for a proper method of
preparing the ground for flax.

In adiUtion to the requisites of a rich earth, free of the seeds of
weeds and well mellowed, for obtaining a good crop of flax, another
requisite is, that the ground shall not have l>orne flax for as much as
seven years previous to tlie time it is to be sown with this crop. Al-
most every soil that is sufSciently dry for a proj)er degree ol' fermenta-
tion, may, by being well prepared as above directed, l>e made to yield
good crops of flax, unless the soil has too little moisture, as may be
the case with dry gravelly and light sandy earths. Gypsum will,
however, very materially assist in supplying these earths with a due
degree of moisture.

But a very essential point ia raising great crops of flax is to have
frequent change of the seed.
See article Change of Seeds,

The quantity of seed sown should be proportioned to the strength
of the soil. Flax of good length, but coarse, may be raised on a soil
which is far from being rich, if it be Avell mellowed, clear of weeds,
and sown with not more than three pecks of seeil to the acre. I have
seen 450 pounds raised from one bushel of seed sown on better than
an acre and a half of ground. Such flax is, however, not so well fit-
ted for very fine spinning. Where the stalks stand so thin as to
branch at the roots they also branch widely at the tops ; and, thou:;h
more seed is in such case to be expected, still the lint will be less in
proportion and of a coarser quality.

If flax is to be water-rotted, it should be pulled as soon as the blos-
soms have fallen oS"; and at this time the coat of the stalk is stronger
than afterwards. The ground also which produces the crop is less
exhausted than when the crop has stood until fully ripe. If it is to be
rotted on the ground it should stand until nearly ripe, and then the
a«ed can be saved, which is a matter of some consequence. That

60 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

which is designed for affording seed for sowing again, should have tiie
seeds ripened most before pulling.

The process of water-rotting flax, which is almost wholly practised
iu Ireland, is very similar to that of water-rotting hemp, and the same
precautions are requisite. (Sff article Hemp.) Probably the method
of rotting by boiling, as mentioned there, might be found equally pro-
per for flax. The method common in this country, of rotting on the
ground, is so well known, that it is useless to say any thing of it far-
ther, than that the flax should be spread thin and evenly, and that it
should be turned over when abouthalfroUed, otherwise the under side
will be more rotted than the upper.

Flax that is harsh may be softened iu the manner directed for hemp.
That which is rotted too much may be restored to its strength by keep-
ing it a few years.

It is a very nice point to give flax the proper degree of roltiuj:;.
If rotted too much, its strength is impaired for present use, and it
wastes more in cleaning; and, if rotted too little, a great addition of
labor is requisite in fitting it for use. That which is coarse will rot
quicker than that which is fine; these should, therefore, be kept sepa-
rate while rotting, in order that the latter have longer time for tlii;
purpose. The short and the long shouhl also be sorted, as it is incon
venient to have them mixed in dressing.

In some parts of Europe the dressing of flax is a business carried on
by itself, and water machinery is generally used for the purpose. 3Iany
kinds of labor are accelerated by being divided into different branches;
as it is found that those folIo^^ing a particular branch become more
expert in it, and of course can perform the labor better, and at the
same time cheaper.

The farmer perhaps would do well to make more of a business
of raising flax when he becomes engaged in it, by raising enough in one
season to last him two or three jears; he would then have a greater
inducement to go more spiritedly into the most approved method of
cultivation, from the conviction that cultivating it in the most com-
plete manner, and pretty largely at a time, is the only way to make
the business profitable.

Particular care should be taken to have the seed perfectly clean,
and also to sow it evenly. This is best effected by first sowing one
halfof the seed over the whole ground, and then the other half cross-
wise. It should be sown in a calm lime.

FLOODING OF LANDS. Where swamp land is to be cleared,
and it can be flooded, by making a dam at the outlet, at a small ex-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 61

pense, it is a matter of ecouomy to atieacl to this, as in this vrzy its
growth of wood can be completely killed. 'J'his may also be per-
formed on lands after they are cleared, for the purpose of killing the
grass, if it be bad, in order with more ease to introduce a better kind,
or a better sj'stem of culture. Flooding; also serves, in a greater or
less degree to enrich the land ; though this depends chietly on the
kind of water with which it is flooded. If it contain a rich sediment
it is good, but if destitute of this it is of no use.

See article Improving of Lands.

FOALS, OR COLTS. To raise the best colts, the first step is to
procure the best breeding mares, then put them to the best horses,
and give the colts good keeping, particularly during the first winter
after they are weaned. The proper time for weaning is the begin-
ning of foddering time; and then they ought to be put in a stable by
themselves, kept on gootl haj^, and fed regularly twice a day during
winter with oats, or some other nourishing food. The next summer
they ought to have a good dry pasture.

Colts are frequently spoiled by poor keeping at the time they
require the best ; and this, as this is the case with all other young
animals, is during the first winter. After this they do not require bet-
ter keeping than is requisite for other horses. If colts be not well
kept the first winter they are very apt to get stunted, and of this they
never wholly recover. If farmers would pay more attention to keep-
ing their colts in the best manner, as well as a due attention to the
selection of breeding marcs, and o. horses for covering, we should
soon find the breed of horses in our country much improved.

FODDER AND FODDERING. Much chaff and straAv, that is
ofien thrown away, may with a little pains be made good fodder for
rattle, by being mixed with green corn stalks, or with hay not fully
dried, and sprinkling a little salt throughout the whole. In this way
the moisture and much of the sweetness of the stalks, or hay, is absorb-
ed by the straw and chaff, and with the addition of the salt, the whole
mass is converted into good fodder. Cattle will also eat straw or
chaff very well, after having some brine sprinkled over it.

Salting all fresh hay when put up, is a great addition to it, as it
renders it more nourishing to cattle, and of course will go further in
keeping them. A respectable farmer of this countj', (Herkimer,)
who keeps a large stock of cattle, says, that by adding eight quarts of
salt to every ton of h«y, he is certain that a ton thus salted, will go as
far as a ton and a quarter that has not been salted. At the same
time, hay may be put into the mow, when salted, in a much greener

62 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

state than without it ; and when taken out will be found almost as
green and apparently as fresh as when first stowed away.

Hay which is stored in narrow mows, or on scaffolds, will keep well
with less drying than that which is put into large mows. To prevent
hay from damaging in a large mow, some recommend a barrel or a
stuffed sack to be placed in the center, and gradually raised as the
mow is raised ; this forms an opening in the middle through which
ike steam of the heated hay can pass off, and thereby prevent it from
being mow-burnt. Another methwl is to pit the driest hay in the
center, and the wettest nearest the outsides.

See also, article Barn.

Meadows which produce wild grass ought to be mowed very early,
and the hay well salted down, and in this way cattle will eat it nearl}'
as well as herdsgrass.

Stacking of hay in meadows, to be fed out there, is a poor plan ; as
the meadows are often in this way much injured by the treading of
the cattle; and even when this is not the case much hay is generally
wasted, and the dung of the cattle turns to little or no account. The
farmer ought always to have sufficient room in his barn, and hay
houses, to hold all his hay: or if he has not this he ought to stack his
hay adjoining his barn, and then it can be easily thrown in at once
when his barn is emptied.

Foddering should not be commenced till it is really necessary, for
when the cattle have been taught to expect it they will neglect their
other feeding. Fodder at first in the mornings when the frost is oi
the ground. Neat cattle should not yet be housed but horses should.
In cold rains they should however be sheltered, as these are more hurt-
ful than cold weather.

The meanest fodder should not be dealt out first, but leave this for
severer weather. If the stock of fodder is too scanty for the stock of
cattle, don't pinch them in the forepart of the winter; they can bet-
ter endure scanty living when thejr have become hardened to the
rigors of the season.

Some farmers feeU their straw entirely to some of the hardiest of
the youn^ cattle, and for this purpose keep them by themselves, with-
out suffering them to taste any other food, l»y which means they wil!
keep toleral)ly well ; but perhaps the better way is to lay aside the
straw, when threshed, with some brine sprinkled over each layer, so
as to give a degree of saltness to the whole mass, and after it has lain
a while, to occasionally feed it out to all the neat cattl«. This will

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 63

answer in place of salting them, and at times they will eat this food
with a good relish.

It should be remembered, that cattle ought not to be kept constant-
ly on salted fodder, for in that case they grow tired of it ; a change of
food, sometimes salt, and sometiiues fresh, is best.

Too much fodder should never be laid before cattle at once ; rather
let them have a little at a time, and be fed the oftener. By constantly
breathing on their food it becomes less palatable, and for this reason
they will eat that which has been exposed to the open air and winds,
after they have rejected it in the stable.

Cattle which run out during winter should have a shelter, and a rack
under it to hold their fodder. By this means most of their dung being
dropped under the shelter, will be preserved from the rains, and will
on that account be much better than that which has been more ex-
posed.

Cows that are near calving should not be confined to their stalls,
but each should have a separate apartment and be kept without tying.

Horses keep best, on well cured clover hay, though herdsgrass and
some others are very good for them. If thej"^ are to be fed with Indian
corn, or other hard grain, it should be well soaked, boiled, or ground,
before it is given them. They may be kept in good order by feeding
them with raw potatoes or carrots, washed clean, though they would
be more nourishing if they could conveniently be fed on them when
boiled.

Sec further, article Neat Cattle.

FOLDING OF LAND. Folding sheep on fields which are plough-
ed up for fallow land, is a very good practice ; as in this way the land
receives all the manure that is made from their dung and urine, with-
out the trouble of any previous preparation, or carting, &c. But
folding sheep on small pieces of ground, says Mr. L'Hommedieu, will
do the shee[» as much injury as it will benefit the land. The reason
of this seems to be, that for sheep to lie on ground on which thej-^ have
previously lain and dunged for several nights, becomes hurtful to
them for pretty much the same reasons that they are injured where
too many of them are placed together in one pen during winter ;
their own breath and the smell of their excrements are injurious to
each other. But where they are folded in a larger field, they choose
a fresh place to lie down every night, and in this way eventually go
over the whole field. It is said, that in this way, one hundred sheep
will, in one season, sufficiently manure a fallow of eight acres for a

61 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

good crop of wheat. The manure thus made, sliould be frequently
plouffhed, or harrowed under, to prevent much of its evaporation.

FoUling cows, &C. on land, can only be done to advantage on
small pieces of ground designed for cabbages, turnips, &:c. ; for if put
into a large field, they will almost always lie down on nearly the
same spot.

See article Manures, for an advantageous method of folding

cows, &:c.

A low spot of grass ground, which is inclining to bear coarse wild
grass, will be much helped by folding sheep on it, to the injury of the
sheep, however, and so will a dry spot by folding cows on it.

When ground is folded for raising turnips, instead of sowing this
crop the first year, let it be frequently ploughed, in order to kill all
the weeds, and sown early with flax the next spring, and then with
turnips, after the flax is taken oS". Great crops of flax may in this
manner be raised, and by again mellowing the ground, after the flax
crop, a very good cron of turnips may be raised.

FOOD OF PLANTS. Every seed contains a plant in embryo;
when it has acquired its full size and shape it is then a perfect plant.
In the mean time it derives from the air, the earth, and from water,
certain food which nourishes it and causes it to grow to maturity.

From the air it absorbs hydrogene gas and the septous principle, or
azote ; and for this reason will grow most thrifty in large cities, or in
the vicinity of animal putridity. Let any putrid decaying flesh be
laid in a field of growing plants, and those which are nearest to the pu-
trid matter will grow much faster than those at a distance, because
those nearest have a greater chance of absorbing the impure air emit-
ted from it, than those growing farther ofif.
See further, article Air.

From the earth, plants derive some of their component parts, as dis-
covered by chemical analysis ; such as earth, salts, oil, «tc. and from
water, whether mixed with the earth, or otherwise, they imbibe the
juices or sap, which is so essential to their existence.
See article Sap.

Some manures, it would seem, operate by attracting matter which
is foml for plants ; such as gypsum, which is supposfd to attract nitre
and mobture. Ashes afford salts and attract nitre. Other manures
again aflbrd, in part, the food of plants, and at the same time assist
them in obtaining more from the earth by opening it for the more
easy extension of their roots -. such as barn dung and manures of that

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. It

lised in Great-Britain; it being necessary there to raise much of their
more tender fruit by the sides ot' walls, made very high tor the pur-
pose, round the fruit-gardens, and there the keeping of some kinds of
fruit trees in the dwarf state, is the more necessary.

Fruit-trees are subject to a disease, called the caiikcr. It occasions
the bark to grow rough and scabby, and turns the wood affected to a
rusty brown colour. It will sometimes kill the tree, if not remedied
in due season.

Tliis disease may arise from various causes; from bad pruning;
from dead shoots left on the tree ; from frosts killing the last year's
shoots, &:c.

The diseased parts are to be entirely cut away, till nothing but
sound Tvhitc wood remains ; or if the disease be merely iu the bark, the
outer bark must be cut away, and if ihe inner bark be also aiiVcted,
which is to be known by its exhibiting small black spots like the dote
of a pen ; cut all away that is thus afiecteJ, and let the composition
be applied, as before directed.

Fruit-trees, of the stone kind, are frequently diseased with pan,
which arises from bad pruning, bruises, and other causes. The dis-
eased parts are to be cut away, and the composition applied as
before.

Thus much for Mr. Forsyth. Those who are anxious to be more
intimately acquainted with this author, will do well to i)urchase his
book. In the plates annexed to it are exhibited many specimens of
his ingenuity.

If fruit-trees be suffered to run much to suckers, these will creatly
injure their bearing. Let them, therefore, be kept clear of these. All
straight upright shoots from the limbs of trees, should also be taken
away, for these bear no fruit ; though in time their lateral branches
may bear some. Lateral branches are always the bearers, and such
branches as do not bear, only serve to rob the bearing branches of their
requisite nourishment, and should therefore be taken awaj. The
trees should also be cleared of all dead and decaying branches, and of
all cross branches that rub against each other.

Young api)le, and plum-trees in particular, are apt to get covered
with what are usually called lice, being an inanimate substance re-
aembling an insect, of the colour, and somewhat of the shape of a grain
of flaxseed, but narrower. Where the bark is thickly covered with
these the growth of the tree will be very much impeded, and some-
times it will be killed, if they are not removed. They'are to be

n FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

scraped off with a knife. iMoss ought also to be scraped off, a« it
greatly injures the growth of the tree.

For keeping off moss, lice, and every thing else that should be kept
off from young apple, and some other fruit-trees, it is a good plan to
white-wash their bodies, and princi()al limbs, every spring, with a mix-
ture of lime and water; or, perhajis, Forsyth's composition, before
mentioned, would be equally good. He, however, recommends for
this purpose, a mixture of old urine and soajvsuds. Where young
fruit-trees stand in sward ground, the sward should be cut awa^^
from about them, and the ground about their roots loosened ever j
spring.

It is found, that the seeds of the apple, and probably all other fruit-
trees, which are brought from Europe, here, will grow lar;j;er than
those of our own. Probably, this is merely the effect of a change of
seed , if so, our seeds sown there might produce the same inequality.
Be this as is may, it is by no means certain, that the largest fruit-trees
are the most profitable to the acre; as the larger they are, the more
ground each must have.

See further, the articles which treat of the various kinds of fruit-
. trees.

FULLER'S THISTLE; (Dipracufi.) The heads of these are
used for raising the knap on fine wollen cloths. From their present
scarcity in our infant manufactories, they command a great price, and
are, therefore, worthy of attention.

Sow the seeds at the rate of about a peck to the acre, about the
first of May, on ground properly prejiared l>y ploughing and harrow-
ing. Keep down the weeds by hoeing, and let the plants stand al>out
a foot asunder; all the rest are to I)p cut away. Hoe them as often as
the weeds rise. The heads do not form until the second summer.
When they are fit to cut, which will be about the first of August, let
them then be cut, tied in bundles, and dried, undercover, or in the
open air, according to the state of the weather.

The heads hare sold in our woollen factories for a cent a piece,
and sometimes double that price. An acre, at this rate, vrould amount
tn several hundred dollars.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 69

there, perhaps, some parts of it may be found more pleasant in theory
than profitable in practice. His composition lor curing defects iu trees,
and restoriugold decayed ones, and tlie methoil of preparing it shall
be first noticed, and is as follows :

Take a bushel of fresh cow-dung, half a bushel of lime rubbish
from the ceilings of old rooms, which is best, or pounded chalk, or old
slaked lime will answer, half a bushel of wood ashes, and a sixteenth
of river sand ; sift the three last articles fine before they are mixed i
work them well together by beating, &c. so as completely to mix
them : Then reduce the mass to the consistence of thick paint, by
mixing with it a suflBcient quantity of urine and soap-suds, so as that
it can be used Avith a brush. A good coat of this is to be applied to
the naked wood where a limb is cut off, or the wood otherwise laid
bare, and the powder of wood ashes and burfit bones is to be sprinkled
over this and gently pressed down with the hand. \S hen any of the
composition is left for future use it is to be covered with urine to pre-
serve it from the atmosphere which injures it.

With this composition Mr. Forsyth restores old rotten decayed
trees to a flourishing state. In order to do this, all the rotten and
dead part of the tree is first cut away and scooped out, quite down into
the roots, till you come to the live wood, and then smoothed, and the
edges next the live bark rounded off. Then the composition is laid
on with a brush, and covered as before directed, with the powder.
As the bark on the edges grows over this covered wood, it works off
the composition and supplies its place, till at length the bark of the
two edges meet and grow together. If the growing bark should raise
up any flakes of the composition, so as to expose the wood, let them
be pressed down with the finger some rainy day when the composition
is pliable. Where a tree would be too much weakened by cutting
away all its dead wood at once, cut only a part away next the edges,
and as the bark covers this cut away more. Where limbs are cut off
let the stumps be pared smooth and the edges rounded, before the
composition is laid on. He saj-s, this should always be applied where-
ever a limh is cut off, in order to preserve the tree from rotting at
such places.

He makes mention of many old decayed trees, some of whose trunks
were rotted away two-thirds, and half of the roots gone, which he
restored to a sound flourishing state by the process above described.
It is, however seiid, that some who have tried the experiment in this
country have not been successful ; but whether this may be ascribed
to a want of skill in the performance, or to a difference in climate, vf.

7a PARMER'S ASSISTANT.

perhaps not well ascertained. Perhaps the composition ought to b©
rarietl in its materials, so as to be better adapted to the greater degree
of beat and dryness which prevails in our atmosphere. He also makes
mention of shaving off all the caukery bark ol old stunted trees, then
scarifying the remaining bark, where they were bark bound, and cov-
ering the whole with his composition, which produced a surprising
alteration in their growth.

In lieu of the above composition, the following has been success-
fullj D>ed about Albany for healing the wood, and for covering the
stock in grafting : Take two parts of bees-wax, one of rosin, and one
of hogs-lard; melt them, and blend them together : It must be made
soft enough to put it on with the hand ; and let it be laid on thickest
rotrad the edges and thinly in the middle. If it becomes too soft
during the heats qf summer let a little powdered rosin be sprinkled
over it.

UTr. Forsyth's method of heading down trees, in order to renovate
their growth, and to procure a new set of straight thrifty bearing limbs, *
IK as follows: First take off one or two of the princijial limbs, just
above an (Tje ; let them be cut slaoting dow nwards, with the sides
where the eye is the highest: Pare and round off the ends of the
ftamps, and cover them with the composition : Presently, sprouts
win start out from the eyes, which are to be trained aud pruned for
new bearing limbs. When these have gipwn a little, cut off more of
vhe limbs, and go through the same process with them, and so on, till
Iheyare all taken off. Thus, a new set of thrifty limbs are given to
the tree, which v. ill be lietter bearers than the old. The new growths
roon cover the stumps so as to leave only a slight cicatrix. He speaks
of heading down some trees at once, and particularly recommends the
heading dnwn of all young trees while in the nursery, by taking oflf
the whole trunk a little above the ground, and in the manner above
directed, which he says will greatly improve their future growth, and
make them better bearers. He mentions, particularly, some young
oaks, that he thus headed down, which afterwards grew more than as
fast again as those which were not.

He also describes a method of pruning the limbs at their bearing
ends. This is to take off the most prominent twig, when it has become
tiredoi bearing, close to the next lateral branch, and then this shoots
fonvard and becomes the bearer; when this has in like manner become
fired of bearing, the limb is to be taken off, back at the next lateral
branch, aud the next shoots forward again, and soon. This may be
a good plan to keep trees in the dwarf stale, which is so much prac

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. €17

For raising oaks, which are an essential article, let the acorns be
ploughed under, with a shoal furrow, in the fall ; or they may then
be buried in a bed of earth, and after they have sprouted in the spring,
planted as before, at the distance of about a foot from each other.
They may also be planted in the sward, at the depth of about two
inches, by digging little holes for the purpose. Let the weeds be kept
down till the young growth of the forest sliall have overpowered
them. The strongest plants will keep down the weakest, and thus
sufficiently thin the trees as they increase in size ; but where a growth
for timber is intended, let the weakest be cut away to give more
room for the strongest, after they have attained some considerable
size. Let no cattle be admitted into the forest until the trees are
beyond their reach : and, at no time whatever, where young succes-
sive growths for fuel is intended.

FOUNDERING op HORSES. We usually say that a horse is
foundered, when his legs and feet have become stiffened and sore, by
eating too large a quantity of hard grain at once. The best remedy
for this, is exercise by riding ; and in addition to this let the bits of
his bridle be wound round with a rag, into which let as much human
ordure be put as it will hold. Put this into his mouth, and let him
€hew upon it v/hile riding him, and in due season repeat the dose, if
necessary.

But there is a disorder of the feet of horses, in which they are also
said to be foundered. This is a painful disease; the horse affected
with it draws himself up in a heap and is loth to move. It is occasion-
ed by standing in cold water, after being heated with exercise, or
sometimes even by standing still in the stable several days after ex-
ercise, sometimes by bad shoeing, or by bruises on the legSo

In this case, if a remedy be not speedily applied, a gathering will
take place in the feet, and the hoofs will be cast off; by which the
use of the horse will be lost for some time. The remedy is to slit the
hoofs open from top to bottom, so that blood will follow pretty freely.
In order to cure these wounds again, apply tar, turpentine and honey,
melted together, with a fourth part of the spirits of wine. Let pledgets
made of tow, be soaked in this, and then laid in the chinks, and the
foot bound up. These are not to be opened for two days; and then
let fresh applications be made every day till the channels in the
hoofs be grown up.

If the sole of the foot is also drawn, it must be served in a similar
ttianner. A piece of leather should be laid over the sole, a \i th

68 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

wbole foot so bouQd up with strong bandages, that the applicatioos
may not t>e displaced.

FREEZING. ETery hard stiCF soil when thrown up in ridges ia
<he I3II, and mellowed by the frosts, receives thereby an essential ad-
dition to its fertility. A winter's Irost is not however always suffici-
ent to mellow the largest clods: these should, therefore, be broken
in niect^ in the fall, in order to derive full benefit from the frosts.

A farmer of Nea-Jersey. some years since, trench-j)loughed an ex-
hausted field of stiff soil in the fall ; cross-ploughed a [>art of it, and ia
that part broke the lumps to pieces. In the spring the field was all
ploughed equally and sown with barley and clover. The part on
Khich the most labor had thus been bestowed was in fine order when
sown, and yielded about thirty bushels an acre c^ barley ; the other
part was still in lumps, the frosts not having been found sufficient to
mellow them entirely, and the product of barley was only about
twenty bushels an acre. The same difiference was afterwards ob-
served in the clover.

But this field, %vith this stratum of criide earth thrown uppermost,
would have yiehled little or nothing the next spring, and until mel-
lowed and fertilized by summer suns, had it not been mellowed and
fertilized by winter frosts.

Another benefit derived from freezing is, that it serves to restor*
bII soils to a due state of sensibility to the operation of beat.

Heat is the stimulant of soils ; but, as is the case with all stimu*
lants, the longer it is applied without intermission, the less powerful
it becomes ; particularly in the production of grasses and other plants
which are natural to northern climates. Thus, a degree of heat
which in the fall wil! not be found suffi'-.ient to make those plants grow,
irill make them grow rapidly when applied to them in the spring. In
this respect, therefore, freering, which is only the absence of heat,
serves as a kind of rerDrafive to the soil and refits it for the repro-
duction of those plants. Thus freezing is a fertilizer o( stiff soils, and
a restorer of all, by renewing their sensibility 10 the effects of heat.

Vheo plants hare been frost-hitlen, while jrtowing, they may be
rcstoretl by sprinkling them plentifully while in the frozen state with
brine, or with water containing a solution of sal ammoniac, which it
better.

FRUIT-TREES. Mr. Forsyth's essay on these has been justly
esteemed for i» originality and research. It is, however, a produc-
tion best calculated for the country where it was imtten ; and even

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 65

kind. Others, perhaps, assist directly in supplying food ; sUch as
salts, blood, [lutrid flesh, &:c. Others again merely serve to open
earths which are too solid to admit the roots in search of food ; such
as sand, rotten uootl, saw dust, &:c. applied to clays. And, lastly,
clay applied to sand, assists in part, by supplying additional food,
and partly by enabling the soil to retain a sufficiency of water to sup»
ply plants with the requisite proportion of this article.

Some plants extract their food principally from the air ; some
mostly from air and water, and others principally from the earth. The
hyacinth, and many other plants will grow well with air and water,
without the assistance of earth. But generally speaking, plants re-
tjuire the united assistance of air, water, and earth,* and from these
they extract that food which is requisite to bring them to perfection.

Some plants require most of one kind of food from the earth, and
some another. Tap-rooted plants, again, derive their nourishment
from a greater dei)th, while those with fibrous roots merely extract
from the surface. Hence, the earth, as the common parent of plants,
may become exhausted in continually producing some kinds, while
it may still be well fitted for the production of others ; and hence, in
some instances, arises the necessity of a change of crops.

See article Change of Ceops.

FOREST. Every fartn ought to have a piece of woodland, or
ibrest, sufficient for fuel and other purposes. Raising timber for the
pur|)ose of fencing, will not often be found advisable ; farmers must
eventually depend on making stone walls, or hedges, for the purpose
of enclosing their lands. But wood and timber sufficient for fuel, for
building, for carriages, and implements of farming, cannot be dispensed
with. Of these the farmer will always find it most advantageous to
keep the requisite stock himself, and not rely on others for purchasing
it. Nor is it advisable to have his woodland separate, and at a con=
siderable distance from his farm ; unless it be in parts of the country
where part of the lands are too valuable to be kept in wood, and other
adjacent parts are only fit for that purpose.

When the farmer is clearing up his farm, he ought to reserve for
woodlaud, that part which is least adapted for tillage, or for grass.
Land which is swampy with a thin soil over a sandy bottom ; that is
rocky and hilly; or that is dry, poor, sandy, or very gravelly, may
do well for woodland, while it would answer but [>oorly for tillage.

The quantity of ground to be set apart for this purpose must de-
pend on (he SUV. of the fiirm; the quality of the soil of the woodland ;
t^e nature of the climate; and, frequently, according to the dpmand

9

66 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

or market for uood ; for in some cases, it may be found more profitabtc
to keep tolerable gootl land in wood than in any other cultivation.
Of the natural growth of wood, it >\ill require as much as twenty acres,
or more, to keep two fires, according to the common method of using
wood for fuel ; but it is a very easy matter to have sitting rooms warm-
ed, and all the cooking and other apparatus of the kitchen so contrived
as not to require more than one third of the w ood that is commonly used.

Sec article Warming of Rooms.

To thicken a forest, or to prevent its becoming too thin, cattle
should be kept out of it at all seasons. Acorns ought also to be planted
in every part that becomes destitute of growing wood. If woodland
be suffered to become so thrn that the sun can get in and cause the
ground to be covered v»ith a sward of grass, this will prevent the fur-
ther growth of young timber; and in this way the ground eventually
becomes 9lrip[>ed of all its growth. This, however, is not the case
with the locust, as it encourages the growth of grass amongst it, and
in this situation grows very rapidly. Perhaps the farmer will find,
when he is reduced to the necessity of planting wood lor fuel, that
this tree will answer his purpose best^

See article Loclst.

The Lombardy po^)lar, aho grows very rapidly, is easily raised
front cuttings, and when cut and dried, will answ er tolerably well for
fuel.

The easiest method of raising the locust, is as follows: Plant, in
the first instance, about fifteen or twenty trees on an acre ; when
they have got to be tv» elve or fifteen feet high, and their roots w ell ex-
tended, run straggling furrows through the ground, and wherever the
roots are cut with the plough, new trees will start up, and soon stock
the whole ground with a plentiful growth. This tree has been but
lately infroiluced into general use in France; and it is said to be
there valued more than any other which is cultivated in that country.

Where wood is raised merely for fuel, it may be suffered to grow as
thick as it will ; it becomes sufficiently thiuned of itself as it grows
larger; but where oak, or any other trees are to be raised for timber,
they ought to stand further apart, in order to have their growth rapid,
and of course, the timber firm and durable.

If wootls are old and decaying, tli# better way is to cut all off as
you want to use the woo«l, and let tn entire new growth start up,
which will grow more rapidlj'.

Much poor exhausted lands in this country should be planted with
forests, to supply the waste of wood that is constantly cncrecsing.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 73

G.

GARDENS. These are distinguished into the flower garden, the
fruit garden, and the kitchen garden. I shall say nothing of the
flower garden, for farming has nothing to do with flowers; but the
fruit and kitchen gardens are somewhat more substantial.

It is best to have the fruit and kitchen gardens in the same enclo-
sure; but the plan, too often observed, of blending them together ia
too great a degree, ought to be avoided. Fruit trees which make
considerable shade, must be injurious to the growth of vegetables in
the same neighbourhood, and ought therefore to be cultivated by them-
selves. Such fruit trees, however, which make but little shade, as
grapes, currants, quinces, &c. may be very agreeably intermixed
with the growths of the kitchen garden.

For the Fruit Garden, see articles Fruit Trees, Peaches, Apri-
cots, Quinces, &c. &c.

A kitchen garden well stored with vegetables is highly important
to the farmer, as the use of these supercede the necessity of consum-
ing much meat, a practice equally inconsistent with economy and
with good health. When we perceive that the food of the cottagers
of Ireland is principally milk and potatoes ; that these are a race of
people which are healthy, robust, well made, with strong, quick and
ardent powers of mind ; — and when we perceive that those savage na-
tions, which, for want of other food, are obliged to subsist entirely' on
fish or other meat, are generally the most stupid, squalid and ill made,
we certainly cannot draw very favorable conclusions in favor of eat-
ing great quantities of flesh.

It is advisable to have a close high fence round your kitchen and
fruit gardens. This in the first place renders every thing within it
secure from pillagers, and also serves to keep out fowls. Another be-
nefit consists in keeping off the strong cold winds of the spring, which
are very injurious to the young plants, and aL-o to the fruit, which is
then about putting forth.

Dung that is old, and destitute of the seeds of weed^, ought only to
be used in manuring a kitchen garden, and the ground ought not to be
ploughed, but deeply dug, for all vegetables which root deeply in the
ground. Nothing further need be said with regard to the kitche.T

10

74 far:\ier'S assistant.

garden, than that a loose mellow soil, with a southerly exposure, ia^the
best; that it ought to he ke[>t rich ; that as fast as weeds rise, thej
ought to be extirpated ; and thai no weeds ought to be suffered to go
to seed within the garden.

If the garden l)e of a wettish, or stiff soil, it will be greatly benefit-
ted by being thrown up into high ridges in the fall ; at the same time
this will assist some in destroyiug the seeds of weeds, but patticularly
in destroying insects which may i)e breeding in the soil.
GAKGET. 6Vf article .- eat Cattle.

GER3I1NAT10.N OF Pi^A.^TS. By experiments made by Mr.
Humbolt, in 1793, it was found that seeds which require thirty hours
to germinate in common water, could be made to germinate in six
hours in oryrenateil nmiiatic acid gas mixed with water; and by add-
ing •' the stimulus oi calork (heat.) to that otthe oxygene, he was en-
auled stiJl more to accelerate the progress of vegetation." He took
the seeds o. garden cresses, peas, French beans, garden lettuce, mig-
nouette ; equal quantities of which were thrown into pure water, and
the oxygenated muriatic acid, at a temperature ol bS° Fahreuheit.
Cresses exhiuited germs in three hours in this acid, while noae were
seen iu the water till the end of twenty-six hours.

13y means ol this stimulant, seeds which were more than an hundred
years old, were made to vegetate ; as were other seeds which had
been kept lor thirty years at the botanical garden at Vienna, which
had resisted every other means used tor that purpose.

The application of this may be ibund useful in planting Indiau
corn, as it will lie sooner out of the way ol birds and squirrels ; and,
wheu the first planting has lailed, or when birds, 6cc. have pulled up
the corn, this method would greatly accelerate the growth of a second
planting. It :s also useiul lor many kinds of garden seeds which have
been kept over one year. ProbaUly, the seeds of the American thorn
might, also, in his way, be made to vegetate readily, and that bemp>
seed might thus be made to grow after the first year.

Another method of makiug old seeds germinate more readily, is
to immerse them iu water, nearly boiling hot, for the space of half a
minute, then suddenly cooling them by exposure to the air, ami sow
them w hen the soil is well warmed by the sun. If sown, however,
" tvhen the earth is cold, they will rot in the ground.

GIG?3. Little tumors, or bladders, filled with matter, found in the
months of horses. The cure is efft cted by slitting them open, an^
then w ashing them with salt and vinegar.

^ far:mer'S assistats^t. 95

GLANDERS. Commonly called the horse distemper. It is al-
vr&js accompanied with a discharge of matter from the nostrils, and a
swelling of the glands under the throat and tongue. When the bonea
io that part become carious, it is generally incura!jle; and this may
be known by the bad smell which is produced in such cases. The
treatment recommended in Gibson's tarriery, lor this disease, white in
its first and second stages, is to make use ol" purges, dia[iIioretics. and
Towelling in the hinder parts. 1 imagine, that «)weiling in the breast
will answer the sarne purpose.

See article Rowelling.

To clear the nosirils, Gibson recommends passing the Fumes of
burnt brimstone, or burnt leather into the nose ol the horse, and after
the matter has been discharged, to syringe his nostrils with brandy, or
ted wine. Afterwards, he says, a small quantity of Unquaitwn
Ezypcianinn, dissolved in oil of turpentine, may be injected Ihrough a
large pipe for the purpose of cleansing theulcerated par;?.

GOATS. These animals are hardy and rather more prolific than
sheep. The kids are Bpt to poison themselves by eating laurel, if
tlfey can find it. These are excellent lor the table, and even the old
ones are tolerable goml eating, and are generally well filled with taN
low. The milk of the goat, of which they give a greater quantity
tlian any other animal of their size, is good to mis with that of covva
in making cheese^ It is also much esteemed in consumptive cases.
Their skins are much more valuable than those of sheep, being nearly
as strong as that of the deer.

Goats are very useful on new farms, as they serve eGfectually to
destroy all sprouts and bushes. They are peculiarly excellent in de-
stroying shrub-oak bushes, as these are naturalh' hajd to subdue.

GOOSE. >yc article Fovltry.

GOOSEBERRY : (R^bes GrossuIaria.J Tbis species of the cur-
rant requires about the same soil and culture, that is required for the
common red or white currant.

See article Currant.

A very good wine may also be made from the gooseberry, and va-
rieties may he produced of this |)lant, by sowing the seeds in the same
manner as is mentioned of currants. Mr. Forsyth observes, that y
mixing up a rich soil to plant those in that have been rais- d from seed,
and by watering and thinning the fruit, they have grown much larger
than any ever before seen in England. He further observes, that
great attention should be paid to the early and late sorts; that where
&ey r^u up to long naked stems they should be cut dornt. which will

76 FARMER^S ASSISTANT.

make them throw out good bearing shoots, and in that case his com-
position must be applied. There are other observations made by
Mr. Forsyth, on the culture of this plant, which are here omitted, as
not being considered of any material consequence.

GRAFTING. Mr. Forsyth describes several methods of graft-
ing:—

As, first — Grafting in the rind, which is proper only for large trees.

Secondly — CUft-sprafting, which answers well on small stocks or
limbs, and has been mostly practised in this country :

Thirdly — Whip-grajling, or tonguc-gr a/ling, which is also proper
for small stocks only, and as Forsyth says, is the most effectual of any
and the most in use in Great-Britain:

Fourthly — Inarching, or ^rc^ting by approach. This is done where
the stock to be grafted on, and the tree from which the graft is taken,
stand so near together, that they may be joined.

Forsyth says, that grafts, or scions, should be cut off from the treea
before the buds begin to swell ; that they should be laid with the cut
end downwards, and buried half their length in earth, having the tops
covered with litter to prevent their drying too much ; that they should
be all of the growth of the former year; that tliey should always be
taken from healthy, fruitful trees, for if taken from sickly ones, the
graft? often partake of the distemper; that if taken from young luxu-
riant trees, they may [)roduce luxuriant shoots, but will not be so pro-
ductive as those taken from fruitful trees ; that those which are taken
from lateral, or horizontal branches are to be preferred to those of the
strong perpendicular shoots ; and that none should be taken from the
aprouts of trees.

Mr. Forsyth prefers the ivhip-grafting for common cases, but for
these, Mr. Deane prefers the clc/t-grafting. This, he says, is most
commonly practised in this country and is attended Avifh success. It
is done on the stocks in the nursery, or on the small limbs of trees.
The proper season for it is just before the leaves begin to open. The
bead ol the stock must be cut off sloping, and a slit made sloping the
opposite way, deep enough to receive the scion, which should be cut
like a wedge, with the outside thicker than the inner. The Had of
the scion must exactly join the rind of the stock. The slit should be
opened by a wedge of hard wood ; the scion should then be gently
put in its place and the stock closed. After this, the whole must be
daubed round closely with a mortar made of a mixture of loam and
fresh horse-dung, so as comjdotcly to exclude the access of air; and
this mortar must be surrounded with a winding of (nv.-. or old cloth?,

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 77

to prevent the rains washing it away. The scion should he covered
nearly to the top with this mortar; aud it should also extend two or
three inches downwards round the stock.

In place ot this mortar,!* orsyth recommends a plaister made of pitch,
turpentine and Dees-wax, which is in like manner to be daubed closely
round, so as to exclude the external air. The mortar, however, if
well made, and well applied, will answer very well. It should be
composed of fine loam, not clay, because clay will contract and crack
open when dried.

Whip-grafting is performed by cutting off the head of the stock
sloping, then making a notch in the slope from the upper part down-
ward, a little more than half an inch deep, to receive the scion, which
must be cut with a slope upward, and a slit made in this like a tongue,
■which is to be inserted into a slit made in the slope of the stock, and
the scion is then set in, so that the rinds of each join exactly together.
The scion is then fastened by a ligature to keep it steady, and then
surrounded with mortar, or the plaister, as before.

Grafting in the rind is performed by cutting oG" the stock square;
slitting down the bark a small distance, and raising it up, so that the
end of the scion may be inserted between it and the wood : The scion
is made with a shoulder, cut in about half its thickness, and the other
half is sloped off gradually, so as (o give it the form of a wedge; the
cut side being flat and the bark side untouched. This wedge or
tongue, is inserted under the bark, with the shoulder fitted to the stock;
the raised bark is then pressed close and bound round, and the plaister
is applied, as before mentioned. It is usual, in this case, to insert
three or four scions in one stock.

See further, articles Inarching and Innoculating, for the methodi
of performing'these operations.

GRAIN-HOUSE, or GRANARY. If the farmer thinks proper
to build a grain-house, which is very useful for Indian corn in particu-
lar, the best method of keeping rats and mice out of it, is to set it on
blocks, covered with flat stones, large enough to project four or five
inches beyond the blocks, on every side. To prevent the blocks from
rotting at the bottoms, they ought to be set on stones, raised a little
above ground. It is a good plan to have a grain-house and carriage,
or waggon-house built together ; the upper part for Indian-corn, and
ether grain, and the lower part lor waggons, carts, ploughs, &:c. d;c.

Some farmers make provision for a place to keep their Indian-corn
In their barns, which is a pretty good plan. The place for this is a
AooT, raised on a p«>cond set of beams, \\hich rest on posts set in tlie

78 FARMER'S ASSFTANT.

beams, next below the plates of the barn. In the middle of this floor
is a hole, through which a tackle is suspended, and the corn is raised
in baskets and spread a proper thickness over the floor. Such a floor
in an ordinary sized barn wouKl prol)ahly contain three hundred bush-
els. At the proper season, the corn is thrown down on the barn floor,
and there threshed out with flails, or with a threshing-machine, which
is better, and is then cleaned and put into bins made for the purpose
on one side of the barn floor. (Scf article Barn.) The bins must be
made tight, of hard plank, sufliciently thiek to prevent the rats from
gnawing through them ; and the lid to each may be fastened down by
a clasp secured by a padlock. This plan is equally good for keeping
wheat and other grain. If the grain which is put into these should
heat, it can be shovelled out upon the floor, and there stirred about
until it is sufficiently dry to be returned into the bins. The method
of ascertaioiug whether grain has become heated in the bin, is to run
a stick to the bottom ; let it remain there for a quarter of an hour ;
and if in that time there be any heat in the grain it will be communi-
cated to the stick.

If grain be kept long in sack*, its heating may be prevented by
frequently turning them first on one end, and then on the other.

GRASSES. Some of these are best calculated for moist or wet
soils, some for dry, and some for the different climates in which grass
is cultivated. Some again are best for pastures and some for mowing.
The different kinds which are most valuable are here noted, together
with their proper soils, &:c.

BIeadow Catstail, Timothy Gras.", or HiTd<:^ras<;, fPhlcum
Pratensis,J is the grass most used for hay in the northern states, it is
also erroneously calledybx-rai7, but this is another grass. The cats-
tail has a long head, somewhat resembling the tail of a cat with very
fine seeds; the fox-tail has a short bushy head more like the tail of a
fox with coarser seeds. In other respects they have considerable re-
semblance.

Catstail grows best in a rich moist soil ; but it will grow well for
a few years in a rich wet, or in a rich arable soil. In the rich wet
soil it gradually lessens in product, while at the same time it gives way
to wild grasses. In the rich arable soil it gradually fails by reason
of the ground becoming bound and the sward thickened with other
grasses. Probably if it were well torn with the harrow every spring,
and not too closely pastured in the fall, aud none iu the spring, it
would grow well for many years in such soil. By close pasturing in
the fall, it is apt to be torn out by the roots, and by cropping it again

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 79

in the spring, it suflfers greatly. It will yield one half more when not
pastured at all, than when pastured closely in the tall and again in the
spring. In the richest soils, and when not pastured, upwards of four
tons may be had from the acre in a season at two mowings. Cattle
are not quite so fond of it in pastures as they are of clover, but when
made into hay they eat it very readily. It is not so much a fertilizer
of land as clover; on the contrary, it binds, and somewhat exhausts
the soil. It is perennial, and will last beyond the memory of man, if
not destroyed by close pasturing. The proper time for mowing it, is,
when it is in blossom, or a littie later.

From the trials made in Great-Britain of this native American
grass, it is however asserted by 3Ir. Curtis, to possess no excellence
which is not possessed in an equal degree by the

Meadow Foxtail; (AlopecurusPratensis.) This grass is much
cultivated in Great-Britain. It is an early grass and vegetates with
such luxnriancy, that according to Mr. Curtis it may be mowed three
times a year. The British graziers consider it as one of their best
grasses, particularly for larger cattle. 'i"he soil best suited for it, is
moist meadow-land, or that which is occasionally overflowed, though
it will grow well on almost any soil except those which are very wet,
or very dry. Linnaeus states it to be a proper grass for grounds which
have been drained.

It is |)erennial, and yields abundance of seed, which is easily gather-
ed. The seed is, however, sometimes liable to be destroyed by an
insect.

Meadow Fescue ; (Yestnca Pratensis.) Is an early, hardy, peren-
nial grass, and grows well on almost every soil ; good for hay or pas-
ture ; produces abundance of seed, which is easily gathered. Mr-
Curtis says, it has a great resemblance to ray-grass, but is superior to
it for forming meadows, as it grows longer and has more foliage. It
blossoms about the middle of June.

Darnel, or Kay-Grass ; (Lolium Perrenc.J Is good for an early
supply of pasture, as it starts very early. It grows to the height of
about two feet and blossoms the latter end of May. Hor?es are ex-
tremely fond of it when made early into hay ; and for race horses,
particularly, has been found preferable to any other hay. It is, how-
ever, apt to run too much to stalks in most soils, and then cattle dis-
like it in pastures, A natural sort of ray-grass is mentioned, as hav-
ing been lately cultivated in Great-Britain, which b much superior to
the sort usually cultivated there.

80 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Crested Dog's-Tail; fCi/nositrus Gristatits,) Is good for upland
pastures, and is a wholesome food for sheep. It forms a thick turf,
and blossoms about the middle of June. It abounds with seed, which
is easily gathered ; but care should be taken, that it be fully ripe, as
otherwise it will sometimes fail to grow. It is suitable for dry, sandy
soils and will not thrive in wet meadows.

Meadow-Grass; ("Poa Prataisis,) Will flourish well even in the
driest soils, and will endure drought better, perhaps, than almost any
other grass. It makes tine hay and is fit for early cutting. It is also
good for early pasture. It yields plenty of seed, but this is difficult
to sow on account of their filaments causing them to adhere to each
other. To remedy this, it is recommended to put them in newly
slaked lime, to sejTarate them, and then to be rubbed in dry sand.

Vernal or Spring Grass; (.inthox Ant urn Odor alum,) Is a very
early grass for pasture and grows in almost every situation, though not
equally productive in each. It is an odoriferous grass and is recom-
mended by some to be sowed with olher grasses, in the proportion of
about one eighth for meadows. It is not very productive.

Meadow Soft Grass; (Holcus Lanatus,) Grows well on any
#oil, not too dry and barren. It is best calculated for sheep in pastures.
It is injurious to horses when made into hay, by |)roducing a profuse
discharge of urine, and general weakness, which may, however, be
readily removed by a change of food. It is not a very early grass.

Sheep's Fescue : (Festuca Ovina,) Grows well in dry, sandy
soils, is very good for sheep, as they are fond of it, and soon fattened
with it. It is perennial and flowers in June.

Hard Fescle ; C Festuca Duricuscula,) Flourishes in almost every
situation, wet or dry, and blossoms in June. It grows luxuriantly at.
first, o ten to the height of four feet, but it soon becomes thin and dis
appears after a while. It is best for mixing with some other grasses.
Annual Meadow Grass; (Poa ^mma,^ Is in flower throughout
the summer. Cattle of every kind are fond of it. It is recommended
for milch cows, on account of its aSbrding butter of a very superior
quality.

Rough-Stalked Meadow-Grass; (Poa Triiialis,J Resembles
the preceding in its ap|)earance and in flowering, but is best suited
for moist or wet meadows. It is very productive and good for pasture
or hay. It is, however, lialde to be injured, says Mr. Curtis, by se-
vere cold or excessive drought.

Fowl Meadow-Grass; (Poa Avaria, Spicalis Subbifloris,J Was
first discovered ia a meadoW: in Dedhacn, and was supposed to hare

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 81

been brought there by water-fowls, says Mr. Deane. It is an excel-
lent grass for wet meadows, and has been known to yield three tons
to an acre in a season. It remains so long green, that it may be mow-
ed at any time from July till October. It makes very good hay for
horses, and neat-cattle particularly.

Flat Stalked .Meadow-Grass; (PoaCompressa,) Flourishes ia
dry soils, and flowers from June to August. Dr. Anderson esteems
this as the most vnlui'de of all the Pocs. It forms a fine turf, and
imparts a delicate flavor to the flesh of sheep and deer, which animals
are very fond of it.

Silver Hair-Grass; (Aira Cai-yophyllea.) Is most suitable for
sandy lands, and is recommended by Mr. Stillingfleet for sheep-walks,
on account of the fineness of the mutton of those sheep which are fed
on it. It flowers in July. Mr. Stillingfleet applies the same remark
to the waved mountain hair-gnss, ("azra ji^'xyo>(i,J which grows La
heaths and barren pastures, and is in flower from June to August.

Creepixg Bent-Grass; fAzrostis Stolonifera.) Grows in moist
lands, and is a good food lor cattle. It grows with such lu:s:uriance as
to suppress the growth of moss and other weeds.

Tall Oat-Grass; CA eiia Elatior,) Flewers in June and July.
It grows very large and coarse and makes a pretty good hay, though
horses are not fond of it. In (ioint of excellence, Mr. Curtb ranks it
nest to foxtail. In pastures it should be closely led. It yields plen-
tifully of seed. No doubt, a little salt applied to the hay made of this
grass, when laid down in the mow, would be a great improvement
to it.

Mr. Muhlenbergh, of Pennsylvania, recommends this grass very
highly as one of the best he had cultivated. It would probably an-
swer well for soiling, as it starts very early and grows very late.

Yellow Oat-Grass; ( Avena Flavescens,) Is also a coarse grass,
which thrives in meadows and pastures, and on hills of calcarioussoil,
where it flowers in June and July. Though tolerably sweet, it is less
relished by cattle than ihe poas, anil/«a<f grasses ; though Mr. Curtis
says, it promises to make good sheep pastures.

Yamlow; (Achillea Millefolium.) Is highly recommended by Dr.
Anderson, as being one of the most valuable plants growing in Great-
Britain. It thrives well on moist loams and on the driest soils, and
will be found green when other grasses are parched with drought.
Every kind of cattle are !ond of it. The seeds ere gathered ia Octo>
her. it flowers ia June and July.

11

82 FARMER'S ASSISTANT,

RiB-Gii.\5.s ; (Piintaao Lancolnta.) Has been considerably propa-
gated in Vorkshire, (Great-Britain) where it is iield in estimation. It
is best adapted to rich sands and loams, and on poor sands it an?\\cr3
tolerably well for sheep. It is not liked by horses, and is bad for hiiy,
on Mccount of its retaining its sap. It i= said by Baron Haller, that
the richness of the milk in the celebrated dairies of the Alps is owing;
to the cows feeding on this plant and the lady's mantle, (alchemilla
vulgaris.) Its seed is plentiful.

Cock's- Foot; (Dactijlis Glomerala.J Is a coarse grass and grows
■with luxuriance. It suits all kinds of soils but those which are very
Avet or very dry. It is recom-nended by ."Mr. Pacey, who says it af-
fords an abundant crop ; springs early ; yields abundance of seed f
makes excellent hay ; and is very permanerjt. It flowers in June.
Where it grows on rank soils, however, or in coarse patches, cattle
ivill not eat it.

Bl!"e Doc's-TAiii Grass : CCynosurus CoeniUus^) Is the earliest
of all the British grasses, and flowers a fortnight sooner than any
other. It is, however, not very productive, but may be useful in
shee|) pastures, in high rocky situations where there is but little
soil.

Of Aquatic Plants nhich are useful in Cnllivalion, are the
folloning :

Flote Foxtail ; ( Alopecuriis Geniculmus.) Grows in meadows
on the Severn, where other good grasses are expelled by reason oi
wetness and inundations. It is a good grass for hay and flouers in
May and June. It is recommended for newly reclaimed morasses
an<l lands recovered from the sea.

Flote Fescie; (Fcsttica Fluitnns,) Will grow in still wetter
grounds than the flote foxtail, or rather may be said to be amphibious,
growing as well in tl>e water as otherwise. It flowers k) June, and i»
a constituent part of the celel)rated Orcheston meadow in Great-Bri-
tain. Horses and cows are very Ibnd of it. It springs early, and
promises to be useful for the same purposes as the last mentioned
ffrass. The Chedder and Cotlenham cheese owe their excflUence
principally to this grass, and to the

Water Hair-Grass; ( Aira Aqtiatica,) Which is further said to
contribute much to the fine flavor of the Cambridge butter. It gene-
rally grows in the edges of standing waters, and flowers iu June and
July.

FARMER'S ASSISTAN1\ 83

Reed Me vdotv-Grass; fPoa Jff4atica,J Is one of Ihe larffest
ind most useful of the British grasses, and forms much of the riches of
Cambridgeshire and other counties in England, where draining: niea-
dous by wind machinery is carried on. It is good lor [)asture and
hay, particularly for milch cows, though it is not relished so well by
horses. It is strong and well suited to low places which are liahie to
be inundated. It grows to the heighth of sis feel, but sliouUl be mow-
ed vhen about four feet high. It may be mowed several times in a
season. It grows picntil'uily in the marshes of Sandusky B;iv. River
Raisin, Detroit, and elsewhere, round the westerly [)art of Lake Lrie,
Avhereit is the principal reliance for pasture and hay. The French
tarmers there cut it, and bind it in bundles, when dried, which seems
to be similar to the management of it in tlie parts where it is culti-
vated in Great-Britain.

hi nddilion to the Nalural Grasses here emnneraled as ivorlhy of
culture, are several Artificial Grasses, or T'egetables ahich are
cultivated as such, among ihe most valuable of ivhich are the
folio ning :

Ltceuve: CMciUca^o Sativa.) This grass was introduced from
France into Great-Britain, about sixty years since, and is very highly
esteemed for soiliyiir, though it makes good hay, if cut while quite
green. 3Ir. Livingston hns made considerable trials of it in this state,
and the products have, in some instances, been greater than those
mentioned by British writers. With the best cultivation and plentiful
manuring, from sis to nine tons of hay, i)er acre, may be had in a sea-
son of this grass. Twenty pounds of seed are requisite for an acre, if
sown io the broad cast, or six pounds if drilled. If cultivated in the
latter way it is to be ploughed and hand-hoed three or four times in the
season: but perhaps the broadcast is the more profitable culture here
Avhere labor is high. 3Ir. Young recommends it to be sown with oats;
first sowing and harrowing in that grain, and then sowing or drilling in
the Lucerne, and covering it lightly with a light harrow. Others, how-
ever, advise, that the ground Ije previously well pre[>ared by deep,
frequent and effectual ploughiugs, and that the seed be sown by itself;
and as it is essential that the ground be well seeded, perhaps this is
the better way. Mr. Livingston sowed it in the fore part of Se;item-
ber, after a crop of early potatoes, and found it to answer very well.
If the ground be prepared for it by summer-fallowing it may be sowed
-at Ibis time. The essential points in preparing the ground are. first,

84 FAR:\rER'S ASSISTANT.

to manure it irell, and then to have it frequently and deeply ploujh-
cd, .'ml well cleared of the seeds of weeds. A dry loam, san<ly or
gravelly loam, rich sand, or other srood dry soil, is suitable for it. It is
said to grow well in the coldest climates ; but those which are mild
are most suitable for it. It is a very early grass, endures drought well,
and grows very late. Probably our dry warm summers are more favor-
able to its growth than the cool moist ones of Great Britain, and that
for this reason greater crops of it may be raised here. Where ground
has been well prepared for a crop of flax this grass might be sowed to
advantage immediately after that crop.

See article Flax.

During the first season of its growth the product will not be so
large as afterwards; in this season too, when cultivated in the broad
cast, it is most infested with weeds, which are most easily destroyed
by frequent mowinss for the purpose of soiling. The mowings may
be as often as the grass will fill the scythe. During this season too,
it will be much hurt by being pastured ; but after this, it may be fed
■without injury.

Sometimes this grass becomes diseased and turns yellow; in such
case, let it be mowed immediately, and it will then start as fresh and
green as ever.

Mr. De La Bigarre says, that after tlus grass has stood two or three
seasous. it should be well harrowed early in the spring; and if the
roots are considerably torn by the operation they will not be injured.
This should be repeated every second spring afterward?, and at these
times the ground should previously have a good top dressing, which
will be well mixed with the soil in the operation of harrowing. The
dressing should not be of barn dung, but some manure, or composf,
free of the seeds of weeds. Bog dirt, Iwg marie, mud, Arc. are good
for this purpose. Let gypsum also be applied every spring, but not
before the harrowing, as this manure should never be buried in the
soil.

!Mr. Young, of Great-Britain, makes a computation of his expenset
in cultivating an acre of this grass in the drill way ; and after deduct-
ins the expenses and rent of the ground, tythe, and rates, he makes
the clear profit «Z. 18^. 4</. sterling. Mr. Livingston has also made
a similar computation of some cultivated by him in the broad cast,
the result of which was not very far different, though the value of the
cro,» was in this case set much lower than that put upon it hy the
former gentleman.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. S5

This grass lasts about ten years, when the ground should be plough-
e<l U[>, and it will then be found very rich, as the crops do not materi-
ally exhaust the soil.

It is believed, that for soiling, in particular, this ground will be
found more productive and profitable than any other, where the high-
est cultivation aad a suitable soil are given to it, and where the cli-
mate is suitable for its growth. Mr. Young says, that for fatting bul-
locks, and for pasturing swine, this grass may be very advantageously
used. Where it is made into hay, let it be cut while quite green,
and made without much shaking about, as the leaves fall off consider-
ably when dry. A little salt added to it when laid down in the mow,
^vould no doubt be a great improvement.

Saintfoix ; (^.edy Santm Onyhrrjchis^) Will grow very well on
dry stony soils, that are unfit for any good cultivation, and will pro-
duce on the worst lauds a ton of hay. beside considerable after-math,
in tiie season. On good dry lands the product will be much larger.
It may he used for soiling during the forepart of the season and mow-
ed for hay in the htter part. The hay will fatten horses considera-
bly, as is said, without the aid of oats. It increases the quantity of
the milk, and some say of the cream also; while the butter is im-
proved in ils colour and flavour.

Saintfoin requires a soil free of the seeds of weeds, as for Lucerne,
and the ground should be well mellowed by deep ploughing?. The
seed may be sown with the drill, or in the broad cast ; three bushels
being allowed to the acre in the former method, and at least four in
the latter. The seeds should he fresh and sown early in the spring.
Those which have a bright husk, a plump kernel, which is bluis'i, or
grey without and greenish within, are the best. It is believed to be
the better method to sow from one to three bushels of this seed, with
about five pounds of common red clover to the acre ; as the clover
serves to keep down the weeds till the saintfoin has become well root-
ed. The seeds may be sown with oats or barley.

During the first season of its growth no cattle should feed on it, nor
should sheep during the second season. At the end of six or seven
years, and afterwards, the ground should have such top-dressings and
harrowings as is directed for Lucerne, and let gypsum be also applied
every other spring.

If the first season for mowing proves wet let the crop be left for seed.
It is at no time to be cut before it is in full bloom.

Burnet; (Poterium Sanpiisorha,) Is mostly used for early sheep
feeding, tboagh it may be advantageously used for soiliDg cattle, as i*

86 FARMER'c^ AS^rSTANT.

K hardy — is little affected by droushi or Irosts — and will even vege-
tate in moderate winter weather. If reserved for hay, it must he cut
early, or it will become too coarse. It requires a dry soil, and may be
sown with the drill or broad cast. It is essential to have good seed,
for which pur|to?e a proper s;»ot for raising it should be selected.
Wh*'n a crop is designed for seed, let the ground lie fed fill somrtimo
in May, otherwise the grass will be too rank for seed. These should
be gathered while moist with dew, and threshed out in the barn a?
soon as they can be dried there. They may be sown any time be-
fore August, after the ground has been well prepared. The following
season the crop is to be kept clear of weeds Ijj' the barrow, and after
that, it will grow so strongly a? to keep down all other growth-.

CicHORY ; (Cichorium Intilnis.) Commonly called wild succorj',
has been but lately cultivated: but on poor blowins sauds. and weak
dry soils, Mr. Young thiaks it superior to any other plant ; anu, that
if sown with burnet and cockVfoot, it will form a layer for six or se\ en
yeai^, far exceeding those made of trefoil, ray-grass and white clover.
It grows more luxuriantly than Iturnet, Lucerne, orsaiutfoin, and may
l>e often cut for soiling daring the summer; twice during the first sea-
-■on, and three or four limes aflerwirds, or every second month till
October. It may be made into hay, which is coarse, but tolerably
nourishing; its principal use, however, is for soiling and for sheep-
feeding, as it is less injured by close feeding than most other
^egelables.

Mr. Yoang advises it to be drilled at the distance of nine inches
on poor lamds, or twelve where the soil is richer, after the soil ha?
l>een first duly mellowed. In this case it will be greatly improved
by an occasional scarifying. It may also be sown with oats iu the
broad ca£t, but for soiling it is best sown alone in the fore part of the
treason and lightly harrowed in. It produces plenty of seed which is
easily gathered.

Spirry; (Spurpda jirrenns,j Has been considerably ci^ltivated
in Flanders, on account of its growing very late in the fall, and even
during winter, and alTording good food for sheep and cows. Cattle
are very fond of it. It flowers from July to September, and is best
suite<l to sandy and other dry soils.

The Bv6H Vetch; (Ticia Scpunn,j Is said to shoot earlier in
-pring than any other artificial grass; it grows late in autumn, and
in Great-Britain, retains its verdure throusrii the .vinter. Mr. Swayne
states the amount of its produce, |)er acre, to have lipf-ii ;il>out twenty-
four and an half tons of green fodder, equal to about four and an half

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. 87

tpnsofdry hay. The culture of this |>lant was long since recom-
men.led i>y Anderson, but the i)riuci|)al ditficulty seems to be in col-
lectiug the seeds, as the pods burst when ripe, and thus scatter them
before they can be conveniently gathered. Dr. Withering also ob-
serves, that the seeds are ofteu destroyed by the larvcu oU species of
catela/ius-.

Tares ; C^'icia Sativa.) Of these there are two varieties, the
winter and spring tares. 3Ir. Livingston made some trials of the lat-
ter, which were not very successful.

The spring tare is to be sown as early in the spring as the ground
can be well prepared, and the winter tare early in September, each at
the rate of about eight or ten pecks to the acre, broad cast, or about
hall that proporUon for the drill. Each kind is good for feedin- cat-
tie of every description, particularly the winter tare, which, in Great-
Britain, comes into use just as the turnip crop is exhausted. This
plant is not proper for making into hay, being greatly injured by wet
weather and requiring more than common pains to dry it. The seeds
of (he different kinds must be carefully kept apart, as they cannot be
distinguished from each other.

The Broad Leaved Vetch, or Everlasting Tare ; (Lathynis
LatifohusJ Was long since recommended by Dr. Anderson as pro-
niismg to afford large crops of hay and grass. It is eaten eagerly by
cattle, and often grows to the heighth of twelve feet.

The TiKTED Vetch, or Tare; fricia EraccaJ Attains con-
siderable heighth and produces abundance of leaves. This sort and
the 7vood vetch (vicia sylvatica,) which rises from two to four feethio-h
are said to restore ^veak or starved cattle sooner than any other vege-
table known.

The Strangle Vetch; (Lathyroides,) Has been strongly re-
commended by Mr. Amos, as affording a tender and agreeable food
tor sheep.

Of Clovers, the most valuable kinds which are known and culti-
vated, are the

Trefoil, or Common Red Clover; fTrifotmrnPratenseJ Which
•s commonly cultivated in this state. It grows well on all dry soiN
About ten or twelve pounds of seed are requisite for an acre It is
sown in this country with barley, oats, or spring wheat, when that ar-
ticle is raised; or it may be sown with winter wheat in the fall if the
laud he dry and warmly exposed; or in the spring, when it sljould
be lightly brushed or harrowed in.

88 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

The product of this grass, when well maoured, may be four toQ3 to
an acre, at two mowiogs. It is peculiarly excellent for foraiing a lay
Ibr a crop of wheat ; which may be sown to great advantage on tlie
clover sward, when properly turned under. All kinds of cattle feed
and thrive well on it, eithes in pastures, when soiled on it, or when
■when fed on the hay. For fecdiug swine with the hay, however, it
should be well saved, early cut, and steam-boiled before it is given
them, and in this way it will keep them in good condition through
winter.

See article Swine.

Red Perennial Clover, or Cow-Grass; fTn/oIium Medium, j
Is cultivated in Great-Britain, in almost every kind of good upland
soil, even in heavy clay lands. It is to be sowed in the spring with
oats, barley, Szc. It is also usual to sow it there, as well as the corn-
men red clover, with the crop of flax. It rarely succeeds when sown
by itself. It produces abundance of seeds which are easily col-
lected.

Hop Clover; ('Trj/b/mrn ProrumJfn*,^ Grows naturally in Great-
Britain, in dry meadows and pastures. It is recommended by Mr.
Amos for laying down land to grass, by mixing it with the clover last
mentioned, and the

White Clover; (Trifolium Repens.) This grass grows sjk>u-
taneously on dry u;)land3 in this state, after they have !)een manured
with gy;)sum, or with lx)g raarle, Sec. It is a very sweet grass for pas-
ture or hay, but not very productive. It is generally short-lived, but
may l>e made to last longer by passing a roller over it ; for where the
stalks come iu close contact with the ground, new roots will start and
descend into it. It is cultivated in Great-Britain for sheep pastures
and for other uses. It is most useful in mixing with other grasses for
the purpose of thickening the growth at the bottom, and thus increas-
ing (he product.

After having said thus much of each particular kind of grass, some-
thing remains to be said ol them in general.

It may firstly be observed, that in laying down lands to grass of
every kind, the work should be done effectually. The ground should
be made mellow and tine; the seed should be clean and good, and
sowed evenly and plentifully, and lightly covered, and the ground
made perfectly smooth, particularly where it is intended for mowing
or soiling.

The graziers of Great-Britain in laying down their grass lands,
make use of much more seed than is usual in this countrv. Whethei

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. |9

they use more than is profitable, experiments alone are competent to
determine. Let one rod square of grouod. properly prepared, be laid
down with a given quantity of seed ; another square rod with a greater
quantity, and another with a still greater; then carefully gather and
weigh the product of each square rod separately; and if that which
has most seed has an increase of product sufficient to pay for the ex-
tra seed, and about thirty per cent more, that quantity of seed may be
most advisable to give the ground. In the same way it may be ascer-
tained how far it is proG table to sow the ground with different kinds
of grasses, in order to increase the product of the whole. This is a
matter that is much attended to in Great-Britain, as will be seen by
the following directions of Mr. Young and Mr. Toilet, for laying down
particular soils to grass. Thus, Mr. Young directs for an acre of clay
land, the following grasses and proportions of each :

Of cow-grass, 5 pounds; trefoil, (common red clover) 5 do. : dog's"
tail, 10 do. and of fescue and foxtail, I bushel.

For an acre of loam, of white clover. 5 pounds; dog's-tail, 10 do.;
cay, 1 peck; fescue 3 do. ; foxtail, 3 do.; and of yarrow, 2 ditto.

For an acre of sand, of white clover, 7 pounds ; trefoil, i do. ; bar-
net, 6 do. ; ray, 1 peck, and yarrow, 1 bushel.

Mr. Toilet directs, that for an acre of such dry light soil as is
adapted to the culture of turnips, the following proportions of seeds
be given :

Of smooth stalked poa or meadow-grass, 6 quarts ; ray-grass, 4 do.j
dog's-tail, 6 do. ; yellow oat-grass. 4 do; cock's-foot, 2 do.; vernal-
grass, 1 do. ; cow-grass, 3 do. ; v.hite clover, 2 do. ; rib-grass, 2 do. ;
and of yarrow, 2 ditto.

Agaio, for such soil, as is of the raoister kind of upland, he allows,
for an acre, of foxtail, 6 quarts; rough stalked poa, 6 do. ; meadow
fescue, 6 do. ; smooth stalked poa, 4 do. ; ray-grass, 2 do. ; vernal-
grass, 1 do. ; cow-grass, 3 do.; white clover, 2 do. ; rib-grass, 2 do. 5
and of yarrow, 2 ditto.

For firm low lands, liable to be overflowed, he allows of foxtail, 2
pecks; meadow fescue, 2 do.; rough stalked [»oa, 2 do. ray-grass, 1
do.; vernal-errass, 1 quart; white clover, 2 do.; cow-grass, 2 do. ; and
of rib-grass, 2 ditto.

Where the water lies longer, he directs the composition to be as
follow, :

Of rough stalked poa, 2 pecks; foxtail, 2 do. : meadow fescue, 2
do.: flote foxtail, 3 quarts; and of flote fescne, 4 ditto: And, for sifii-

32

90 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

ations still more wet, ihe following : Of rough stalked poa, 2 pecks ;
foxtail, 2 do. ; flote foxtail, 1 do. ; and of flote fescue, 1 ditto.

The above are given merely as spccimeos of the quantities of seed?
advised to be apportioned to dififerent soils, and of the several kinds
which are deemed most suitable to each, in Great-Britain. Our sum-
mers being warmer, and our atmosphere less moist, it does not follow,
that the same sorts of grasses, or the same proportions and quantities
of the seeds of each, would here be found most proper in similar soils.
These are matters that are proper subjects of enquiry with the ingeni-
ous and experimental farmer. Generally speaking, it is believed,
that the British farmers and graziers give their grounds more seed than
will be found npcessary in this country, whatever nia}' be the case io
Great-Britain.

GRAVEL. The principal difference between gravel and sand is,
that the latter is chiefly a collection of very minute pebbles, and the
former is merely pebbles of a larger kind.

Soils may be more or less gravelly, and where they are little else
but gravel, thej"^ are worth but very little for tillage. Where they are
but moderately gravelly, they may be very good for most productions.
What are called gravelly lands, generally speaking, are lands of a
middling quality ; they will, however, produce good crops with the aid
of gypsum, and the more gravelly the soil, to a certain extent, the
greater will be the effect of this manure upon it. Poor dry gravel?
are much heljied by carting clay upon them.

GREEN-DRESSING. Turning under a growth of green vege-
tables for the purpose of manuring the soil. Buckwheat is much used
for this purpose. Sow it in iMay, altout half a bushel to the acre ; and
when in blossom, run a roller over it, exactly in the way that it is to
be ploughed under. After it has been all turned under, let it lie
about twenty days, or a month, by which time it will be rotten, and
fit to be i)loughed again to receive the grain iuteuded to be sown. To
increase the growth of the buckwheat, and of course the quantity of
manure, let a little gyjjsam be strewed over the ground, if it be suit-
able to that manure. Even to wet buckwheat intended to be sown,
and then strew on it as much gypsum as will adhere to the grains, will
make the growth of it considerably larger.

A green dressing may be useful to a crop of wheat where the land
is summer-fallowed, and at the same time is in poor heart. Lands,
however, which are suitable for gypsum, are most easily recruited by
ihe free use of that manure and red clover ; but where the soil is not

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. 91

assisted by that manure, or where it cannot be procured on reasonable
terms, green dressings may be found a useful part of husbandry.

GREEN S. Pot-herbs, proper for boiling when young and tender,
for food in the spring.

Spinage, sown in the fall, affords a plentiful supply of these ; so
will the common turnips, French turnips, kale, &c. But the farmer
ought to supply himself, in addition to these, with at least one good
bed of asparagus. {See that article.) The plant which is commonly
called poke-weed, is a very fine green when it first starts up in the
spring, and until it gets to be about a foot in height. It might be
well to keep a small patch of ground sown with it, as, after it has once
got into the ground, it will start up every spring from the roots. The
same may be said of the tops of the plant which is commonly called
milk-weed, which are also very fine.

The ccUtha palustrisy or marsh-marygold, growing abundantly in
marshy places, makes an excellent green in the spring of the year.

GREEN SCOURING. A disease to which sheep and bullocks
are often subject. It is cured by verjuice ; a wine glass full for a
sheep, a pint for a bullock. Verjuice is the juice of the English crab-
apple. Our crab-apple is of a different kind. The juice, however, of
sour unripe apples of the common kinds may answer in place of ver-
juice.

GRIPES. A disorder of the cholic kind with which horses and
sometimes horned cattle are troubled. It generally proceeds from
wind pent up in the stomach or bowels, and is caused by a high state
of costiveness. Horses and horned cattle have been known to have
the dung within them so hard and dry, that it could not be voided
without assistance, and this assistance is by clearing it out by ham'.
After it has in this way been principally cleared out, clysters are to be
administered which will open the passage and of course give vent to
the wind.

See further, article Neat C.vtti.e for the particular treatment of
the disorder in them.

GROVES. These are both ornamental and useful. To plant
heights of ground, the sides and tops of which are generally not very
good for tillage or pasture, adds much to the beauty of a landscape ;
and is at the same time highly useful, as it regards the quanlilies of
firewood which may be produced from such spots. Planfing rows of
trees along highways is also pleasant for shade to the traveller and
profitable to tha owner of the <=oil. The same may be observed in rf*

99 fak:mer's assistant.

gardto lanes and to passages from the higliway to the mansiou-house.
Sugar-maple trees, planted round the borders of meadows, and some
straggling ones in them, are very pleasant and profitable, as they do
no injury to the growth of the grass. Wherever trees can be planted
in pastures and along fences, without doing injury to the growths of
the adjoining fields by their shade, this part of rural economy ought
never to be omitted.

The shade of some kinds of trees is much more hurtful to the
growth of plants than others. " I planted maize," says Mr. Living-
ston, " CD the west side of a young wood, consisting of oaks, po[>!ars,
a few chesnuts, and a large mulberry somewhat advanced into the
field; the shade made by the rising sun, extended nearly across the
field, and was not entirely off until about ten o'clock ; 1 remarked,
that as far as the shade of the chesnut reached, the corn was extremely
injured ; it was yellow and small ; the conical shape of the morning
shade from particular trees might be traced a considerable extent, in
the sickly appearance of the plants; the black oaks were likewise in-
jurious, but less so than the chesnuts ; the poplars very little so. Neap
the mulherry-tree, the corn was covered by its shade for a very long
time every morning, and though not so large as that which had more
sun, maintained a healthy appearance."

The shade of the black-oak is particularly hurtful to the growth of
wheat; that of the locust is, on the contrary, beneficial to grass
grounds; and that of the sugar-maple does but little injury to tJh$
growth of grain and none to erass.

GYPSUM. 5a article Maklrbs.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 93

H.

HARROWS AND HARROWING. In regard to shape, the three-
fijuare harrow is as good as any ; but let it be long and narrow fof
stoney or stumjiy grounds, and wider where the ground is smooth-
The essentials for a good harrow, are, to have long heavy teeth, made
of iron, and pointed with steel at the ends. Where the land is rough
there ought to be fewer teelh than where it is smooth. The teeth of
the harrow for rough ground ought to be set slanting a little back-
ward, so that it will not get fastened on the stones, roots, or stumps;
and, on the contrary, where it is used for smooth ground they ought
to be set slanting considerably forward.

In stoney rough grounds, harrowing cannot be performed to so
much advantage, but on smooth grounds, and every farmer ought to
make his grounds smooth, two or three good harrowings may be as
good as a ploughing. Harrowing ought to be performed on wet
ground, in a dry time, and in the middle of the day. On dry lands it
is best to harrow in (he mornings while the dew is on, and when the
ground is moderately dry. It ought to be harrowed before seeds are
sown ; otherwise they will be buried of unequal depths and will come
up in rows; most of the seeds being in that case thrown into the bot-
toms of the furrows.

On furrows of green sward turned under, the harrow must be load-
ed with more than its common weight, which in all cases ought to be
prettj' heavy, and run lengthways with the furrows. Where seed is
sown on ridges, the harrow ought also to be run lengthways. Per-
haps, in such cases, it is best to let the land remain in the furrows, as
it is left by the plough ; the seed, in such cases, being usually plouf^h-
ed in.'

Harrowing meadow laads, where they become bound, or where they
become cold and mossy, is of essential service to them, and will make
them produce much more largely the following years. The best time
to do this is in the spring while the ground is soft. If the meadow be
too wet, however, for spring harrowing, it ought to be done in the
drier part of the fall ; and, in such case, if a dressing of horse, or
sheep-dung, mixed with sand, be laid ou previous to the harrowing, it
will be of essential service.

94 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Harrowing wheat and rye in the spring is considered by European
writers to be very beneficial ; but doubtless this ought to be done very
carelully ; and, it is advised by some, that a roller be afterwards pass-
ed over the ground to fix the plants which may have been disturbed
by this process.

See also, article Spiky Roller.

HARVESTING. In addition to the wheat and rye-harvest, ift
this country, we have the Indian corn harvest.

A general rule, as it regards wheat and rye is, that the earlier each
are harvested, and before the grain has become hard, the whiter the
flour will be, and the thinner the skin of the grain ; but the whole
weight of the product will be a little less than if the grain be harvest-
ed later. Probably all that is gained by late harvesting is an addition
to the skin of the grain.

AVhen a severe blight or rust has struck wheat or rye, it must be cut
immediately, even if the grain be in the milky state, and it must lie on
the ground, but not so close as to injure the heads, until such time as
the stalks have become dry and the grain somewhat hardened. Then
it ought to be bound up and put in shooks, and carted in as soon as it
is sufficiently dry. It ought to be observed, that the later wheat and
rye are cut, the easier it will thresh; but at the same time there is
greater waste by the shelling of the grain in harvesting and carting

it in.

As soon as Indian corn is ripe, it should be harvested ; but while
the stalks have any greenness, the crop cannot be said to be fully ripe.
If the corn is merely lopped in the tield, not all cut up by the roots
wliile <^reen, it is advisable to gather the ears, cart them home, and
husk them out by nighl; by which means lime is saved, and by which
also, the husks may be saved, \Nhich are very valuable for fodder for
cows, &c.

If Indian corn be killed by a frost, it ought to he immediately cut
up by the roots, before the leaves have had lime to w ither, and set up
in shooks, having the tops tied together, to keep out the rains. In
this way the ears will ript n in the same manner as when left to ripen
on the stalk. This, in most cases, is a good practice where no iVost
has injured the crop ; as in this way the field is cleared of the corn in
time to ploua;h and sow with wheat, and at the same time all the
leaves and stalks are saved for fodder.

HAY-MAKING. If a meadow is to he mowed twice in a season,
the first crpp ought to be cut earlier than where mowed but once, iB

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 9j

order that the roots may recover immediately and be ready for vege-
tation afresh. Where the grass is cut later the vegetation of the
roots stops for some time. The grass, however, which is thus cut
early will not be so heavy as that which is cut later, as it will shrink
after cutting, but the roots will not he so much exhausted, and will
aBTord a larger crop the next time of cutting, or the next summer, if cut
but once in a season.

The best time for cutting herds-grass, where but one crop is cut in
the season, is when the seeds of the grass have formed, but before they
have become fully ripe ; but as farmers cannot cut all their bay ia a
day or two, it is necessary they should begin before this time, that
they may not end too long after it. The same time is also proper for
cutting clover; or rather when a part of the heads begin to turn
brown. Fowl-meadow or bird-grass, may be cut much later, without
being hurt by long standing. I have seen wire-grass mowed on the
clay lands of Coxackie in the month of October, for the Grst time in
the season, and it then made tolerable good hay. Lucerne, on the
contrary, must be cut while entirelj' green, otherwise it will make
but poor hay : The same may be observed of all wild swamp grasses,
and of the high coarse grasses which grow every where on the vast
prairies that extend through the western parts of the territory of the
United States.

For hay-making, it is essential to have dry weather; and the pros-
pect for this ought always to be an object of attention with the farmer.
Frequently the change and full of the moon produces an alteration of
the weather, either for the better or the worse ; but there is no cer-
tainty in this. As a general rule, the weather between the change
and the full may be expected to be the best. Sometimes rainy spells
of weather last for weeks during hay-time, and durins such spells it is
sometimes as well for the farmer to let his grass stand untouched, un-
til the indications of the weather become more favorable.

See article Weather.

Some methods are recommended for making hay which are more
tedious and more expensive than the common method, and on that
account, so much the worse, if in other respects ihey are better. But
where labor is scarce, time is every thing, in " making hay while the
sun shines," and that method in which it can be made with most ex-
pedition, ought to be preferred. The best plan, therefore, is, for the
farmer to be at his mowing betimes in the morning; cut down as
much as possible by nine or ten o'clock, by wliich lime the dew will

96 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

he off; then spread (he mowed grass evenly, and al>out twelve turn it
over where it lies thick ; in the artenioon rake it into ivinrows, sh^ke
it iiM lightly, that it may he better exposed to the air; towartls ?uu>
down make it into neat small cocks and let it remain so a day or two:
if it he not then sufficiently dry, shake it out again on a small space
of ground, and turn it over till it is dried; then cock it again, if ne*
cessarj', and as soon afterwanla, as po55il)lr, draw it in.

But in order to save much trouble in drying hay, the application of
from four to eight quarts of salt to the ton is recommended: it is found
that hay thus salted, can be well saved in a much greener state, and
at the same time the benefit which the hay derives from the salt is
more than fourfold its value.

1'he method, also, of having a hf»Ie in \he middle of large mows,
may be found Avell worth attention, on account of its obviating the
necessity of so much labor in drying hay, that is to be stowed away
in such mows.

Sec article Barn.

General Smith, of Suffolk, makes use of a horsc-rakc, for raking in
liis smooth mowing grounds, which, with one m;in, a horse, and a boy
to ride the horse, will gather hay Ai fast as six men in the ordinary
way. The rake is al>out ten feet long; the teeth about two feet; and
at ri^ht angles from these are some ui)right slats of the same length,
set at the lower end, into the piece into which the teeth are morticed,
and into another light slen»ler piece at the top. The teeth, when in
operation, run along the ground nearly horizontiilly, with the p.'intsa
little the lowest, so as to run under the hay, and as they take it up
the u])right slats retain it till the rake is lull, wht-n tht' man who fol-
lows it behind, turns it over, and thus empties it in a row ; then lifts
it over the hay, thus emptied, and sets it in lnyond it, and so it [tro-
ceeds on till it is again filled, and the same process is again repealed.
^Vben one strip across the piece is thus raked u\>, the horse is turned
round, and another strip is raked in the same manner, emptying the
hay at the ends of the last heaps raked up, so that in this wav win-
rows are formed. When it is thus raked into winrows, if is dragged
up by the rake into bundles, large enough for making into cocks.

Those who make use of smooth ploughing lands for mow ing grounds,
or have smooth meadows, will do well to attend to this labor-saving
implement.

HEDGES. Mr. De La Blgarre, recommends that (he white mul-
berry be used for making hedges, as it answers well for this purpose.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 97

and has the peculiar advantage of affording food for silk worms, which
may be either raised on the hedges, or the leaves may be gathered
to feed them. (See article Silk Worms.J For wet lands, howe-
ver, willow should be used for making hedges.

If the hedge be made of thorn, let it be our own thorn, for
the English is apt to be killed by the winters in this state. The dif-
ficulty in making the seeds of our thorn vegetate, it is believed, can
be easily overcome by their being put in hot water, or in muriatic
acid gas, mixed with water. See article Germination of Plants.

For raising thorn, mulberry, and willow, see those articles.

Mr. L'Hommedieu says, if apple seeds, in the pomace, be strewed
along and buried in the top of the bank of the ditch made for the
hedge, and kept from (he cattle, until they have attained sufficient
■strength, they will answer very well for this purpose : and as the cat-
tle will be constantly biting off the young shoots, it will make the
hedge grow more bushy, thick and strong.

In dry lands hedges may do very well without ditches ; and in this
way they are now made in the middle states, of English thorn, which
can endure the winters there. But where the soil is wet, or spongy,
the thorn should be set in the bank of a ditch, and no doubt it would
be equally necessary for the mulberry. Willow in such grounds
perhaps would not, in any case, need a ditch, as it is natural to wet
grounds. Mortimer directs that the hedge consist of two rows, a foot
apart, if no ditch be used.

Where ditches are used, probably the better way in general is to
have two small ones, with the bank thrown up between them. Mr.
Miller directs that the sets of thorn, when planted out, be of the thick-
ness of a goose-quill ; that they be planted when newly taken up,
with their tops cut off about six inches above ground ; and that they
be bedded in the richest mould dug out of the ditch. Where two
rows are set together, let each plant be put at the distance of about a
foot ; but where there is only one, they should stand closer. They
should be hoed and kept clean of weeds during summer, says this au-
thor, and after having one summers growth, they should be cut off
early nest spring at the distance of about an inch from the ground,
which will make them send out strong shoots, and help their growth.
This is agreeable to Forsyth's plan oUicading domi.

See article Fruit Tree?.

When the hedge is eight or nine years old, it should be plashed, by
cutting them half through and weaving them together, trimming off
superfiuou? branches. This should be done early in the spring. The

13

98 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

joung hedge is to be protected from cattle, by another fence, until it
ha? growu suffi- iently strong to lorm a I'ence of itself. Alier twenty
or thirty years some occasional rei>air5 may be necessary, by selling
young |)lants in the place of thitse which may have died out.

For making white mulberry hedges Mr. I)e La Bigarro directs that
the plants when set shouhi have a year's growth, and be cut ofl'as he-
fore directed ; that their roots be taken ofl', and that they be set five
inches apart, and eighletn inches deep, in a ditcli dug for the purpose,
and the earth thrown in iijion them again. The depth lie recom-
mended for setting the plants is evidently too great, and the distances
between them too small, unless they are to be afterwards thinned as they
grow larger. He also directs that the shoots be cut olTthe following
spring a little ai)0ve ground, in order that they acquire more strength,
and shoot forth more branches; and then they will !<)rm a j)retty
gooil hedge the third or fourth year, and at last grow so thick as to be
impassable by any cattle. He says the branches must be twisted antl
•woven together much earlier than those of thorn. The youns: plants
^\hea set out are to be kept clear of weeds, and protected from cattle,
as before directed.

Mulberry hedges may also be made from slips or cutting?, taken
from mulberry trees, and in that case they should perhaps be set as
deep as Mr. TXe La Biija re recommends for sets.

Hedges may be made of other trees than those a])ove named; such
as white-oak, elm, hickory, birch, Ac. In all cases the hedge should
be made of such growth as is suitable to the soil; and this growth
should he raised in a soil similar to that in which it is to be pranted.

Where timber is scarce, the farmer will find that hedges are cheap-
er than rail or other wooden fences. When hedges are once made
they are very durable, need but little repairs, and the expense of mak-
ing them is not very great. Those farmers, therefore, whose farms
are crowing scarce of rail timlier, ougiit to get into the method of
making hedges. They will find too, that a well ma<le hedge is a
miif-h bettor protection for their crops, than such \voo<Ien fences asarc
us . dly made. They are, however, not so good to keep out hogs;
butihese should always l)e kept in inclosures made for the purpose.

liE.MP. This plant requires a mellow dry soil and the richer the.
better. It turns to but little account where the soil is not sufficiently
fertile. It will grow year after year on the same ground, and it is not
so exhausting as some other crops. If the soil be sufficiently rich, it
isth s'.s o' any crop: if is =u'j(ct to no diseases ; severe drcughtB
do bm little aflcctit; and cattle will not touch it. From two to

FARIMER'S ASSISTANT. 99

Three bushels of seed are requisite for an acre; two, where the soil is
middling, and three where it is very rich.

Vv'here the soil is not naturally ver}^ strong, son>e advise having two
fields lor this culture, which are to bear crops ali^mately ; while the
©ne is bearing a crop the other is preparins; for the next season, by
ploughings and manuring. This is productive o! an extra expense
for the rent of the land, <S:c.; but as very large crops is the essential
point iti making the culture very profitable, two years rent ol the
land may be found but a small drawback in the amount of the profits.
If, for instance, two acres can be made to produce a ton, which shall
bring three hundred dollars in the market, and half that amount he
allowed for the exi)ense of pre|)aring the ground, and raising and clean-
ing the crop, the surplus profit would be but little lessened by deduct-
ing the extra year's rent of two acres.

To enrich the ground during the alternate years, perhaps, two suc-
cessive screen dressings of buck-wheat, ploughed under, might be
found of considerable service.

Sec article Green Dressing.

In this case, the first growth might be ploughed nnder in (he suin-
Hicr and the latter in the fall. If barn-dung is to be added, let it be
plougb.ed under in the s|>riug ; but if compost, not until the next spring,
when the seed is about to he sown for the crop of hemp, and then let
it l>e well mixed with the surface of the soil. Gypsum will also help
the crop, if the soil be suitable for that manure.

Let the ground be well mellowed by repeated ploughings in the
spring for the reception of the seed, and let it be harrowed before the
seed is sown, and then harrow- the seed in. It should be sown pretty
early in the spring, b«t not before the ground has sufficiently dried and
can be put in ample order. The seed should be buried of as even a
depth as possible, in onier that it may all start equally ; otherwise a
part of the plants will outgrow and keep down the rest. When sown
as early as above directed, it will be fit for i)ulling, or cutting, about
the first or August, the time for which being known by the falling of
the flowers and withering of the leaves.

The male |)lants of hemp bear the flowers and the female plants the
seed. A sufficiency of the latter are to be left for seed, and these will
require about six weeks further lime to ripen ; the ripeness being
known by the seed turning brown. The seeds may be gin.lj, beat
ofif the stalks when dried; or they may be taken ofl" by a coarse kind
of comb made for the pur|)03e. The female hemp which has stood to
ripen the seeds, requires a longer time to rot than the male, and when

100 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

dressed is harsher. The better way is to sow some hemp, thinly, by
itself, for seed, and then the rest of the crop may Ire all pulled or cut
together.

In the bog-meadows of Orange couoty, the hemp is cut close to the
ground with an instrument made for the purpose ; but in uplands
which have any little stones in the way, it is best to [lull it. In cut-
ting, or pulling, each one takes a swarth wide enough to spread the
hemp as he goes along. When sufficient!}' dried, which in good wea-
ther will require about a week, it is to be gathered in buudles and
bound with straw, and carefully stacked in the field till about Christ-
mas. It is then to be carefully spread on the snow, and then by being
covered with other snows, it will be bleached and improved in its co-
lour. When the snows dissolve in March, it will generally be found
sufficiently rotted; and is then to be taken up and set iu small loose
shooks in the field. When sufficiently dry it is to be broken with a
coarse break, then carried to the barn to be again broken with the
common flax break, and then dressed in the manner of flax, but more
gently, as it will waste with hard beating.

The above is the Orange county method ; but the hemp may also
be rotted in the fall, and then dressed out agreeably to the above di-
rections. It may also be water-rotted, which is to be done shortly
after it is pulled, and about five days are generally requisite for this
purpose. When sufficiently rotted in this way, a small handful may
be |iulled asunder with a little exertion ; and then it must be taken
out very carefully, so as not to injure the coat, and dried. The water
in which it is rotted should not run rapidly, as such will wash away
the coat. Let the sheaves be laid lengthways across the stream, and
sunk completely under. Standing water is good for rotting; but un-
less the hemp be once turned while rotting, that which lies upper-
most will he rotted most, owing to the water near the surface being
warmer than that below.

A new method of rotting hemp has been commuuicated by M.
Bralle, as follows :

Put fifty pounds of hemp, in the stalk, into a vessel filled with wa-
ter, sufficient to cover the hemp, and previously heated as high as 200
deerees of Fahrenheit, and into which has been mixed at least one
pound of good soft soap ; take away the fire, and let the hemp remain
in *hp vessel two hours ; then take it out and cover it with straw, so
th •' i? may cool gradually ; the next day, spread it evenlv on a floor,
and run a heavy roller over it several times, which serves to i>re:ik it;
spread it out on the grass for five or six days to bleach : then take it

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 101

up, dry it, and clean it. By this management, it is stated, that (me
fourth more of cleaned hemp may be obtainea than by rotting in any
other way ; the hemp is much softer, gtron?er, of better quality ; and
the process of cleaning is much less expensive.

To make this method of cleaning hemp profitabie, it must be made
a sei)arate business and carried on exlensivel} . Wooden vessels may
be used for boilers, and the boiling [tenormed by steam, in the man-
ner described under article Swine. If a larger quantity of hemp be
put into the boiler, the soap must be jjroportionate, and more must be
added, as more water becomes necessary

The seed for a croi) of henjp must be of the last year's growth ; that
which is older will not readily vegetate.

Sec article Germination of Plants for the method of making old
seeds vegetate.

Some kinds of birds are fond of this seed, and must, therefore, be
kept from it when sown.

If hemp be sulTered to stand after the right time for pulling, the
stalks of the male wither and blacken, and then the coat is liutol little
value. Where hemp grows too long for dressing, it may be cut in
two without any injury.

Hemp may be made a substitute for flax for all ordinary purposes ;
but in that case, it must be softened by steeping it over warm water,
or lye; and after it ib dried again, beating it till it is perfectly soft.
The steeping is performed by placing it on sticks, within the vessel,
over the water. The steam-boiler, just mentioned, might be applied
to this purpose.

No very particular directions are here intended to be given in re-
gard to preparing the ground for hemp, by manuring, A;c. ; all that
will be insisted, is, that plenty of manure must be applied, evenly to
the soil, of such kind as is suitable to it, and that the ground must be
effectually ploughed.

See article New Husbandry for a good method of preparing ground
for hemp.

HERDH-GRASS, see article Grasses.

HESSIAN-FLY, sec article Insects.

HIDE-BOUND. Horses often become hide-bound when they are
poorly kept, and badly used. In this case the animal grou?. poor,
his j-kin sticks to his ribs, and small boils break out on his back. A
method of treatment opposite to that which the horse has received
will generally restore him ; that is, keep and feed iiim well, work

102 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

him moderately, and loosen his skin by oiling it, and using the curry-
comb frequently, but not too harshly.

JHILLb AND VALLEVS. It is found that more rain falls in the
valleys than on the hills. The reason of this is, that ki the valleys
the dro|>s of rain having farther to fall, of course come in contact with,
and alisorb more of, that vajtor with which even the driest atmos-
phere al)ounds.

If a goblet filled with cold water he set in a warm asmo[»here, this
vapor will presently adhere to its sides in tlio form of water, and iu
ihe same way it adiieres to the drops of water in their descent.

In this, as in every t^ing else, the wisdom ol' the Creator is display-
ed. The temperature of the VHllcys lieing warmer than that of the
hills, more moisture is required, and more is given them. Hence, too,
the reason why many plants wiiich require much heat, grow best in
valleys; they have the requisite degree of heat, and at the same time
a proportionate degree of moisture. But as all grasses which are indi-
genous require only the heat of the hills, they grow as well on iheni
as in the vallej's : a good general rule, therefore is, the valleys for
lillagc, and tlic hills for pastures. Two other good reasons for this
are: firstly, when hills are kept in tillage they are generally more or
less washed b}' the heavy rains, by which much of the best of soil is
carried off; and secondly, they are always more or less inconveneut
lor ploughing, and generally still more «litficult for carrying any h; a-
Vy manures upon them. The above rule, however, is not to be ap-
plied to hills of large extent and moderate descent ; it is, iu strictness,
jncrely applicable to broken hills and declivities.

HOE AND IIOEING. Where the hoe is to be used in rough or
stony ground, it must be made stronger and narrower; where the
ground is light and mellow, it ought to be broader, and may be made
lighter.

Hoeing, generally speaking, ought to be merely the finishing work
of the plough or horse-hoe. Where it is used merely by itself, the
work is more laborious, and less effectual, as the hoe ujerely passes
over the surface of the ground. It is, however, of great use in killing
those weeds which the plough or hor^e-hoe does not toucli, and in du-
ly distributing the fresh earth in its proper |)lace near the plants.
Where the plough is not used, the hoe is indispensable, (.bVc more
on this subject in treating of crops that refpiire hoeing.)

HOGST Y. A good sty is of the utmost iinj)ortance in fatting hogs;
nor i it less important for keeping them in winter, as the more com-
fortably they are kept the less nourisiiment they require.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 103

The sty sliouUI be proportioned in size to the number of swine it i?
1.0 coutaiu. Uiie of sixteen feet by twelve is probably sufficient for
eight fatting swine, it should be divided into two apartments; that
in the rear, which shouhl be about six feet wide, should be close and
warm for the hogs to lie in. Here they should have a constant sup-
ply of drj' Ktter when the weather is cool, for it is an essential point
to keep them comfortable. The front part of the sty, which would
then be about ten feet wide, should have the floor descending to one
side for the urine to run off, and in order that the lower side may be
repository of their excremeut; and on this side should be an opening
wide enough to scrape it out. The trough should be on the upper
side, covered vrith one or more lids; and upright pieces should be set
before it, at such distances apart as that one hog only could put his
head between any two of them, in order that while feeding, the weak-
er animals should be protected against the stronger. The whole-
should be covered with a roof; for it is essential that they be pro-
tected from storms while they are in the outer or feeding apartment.

According to the foregoing, if sixteen hogs are to be kept or fatted
in the sty, it should be thirty-two feet long and twelve wide, and ia
thsjt case there might be a sleeping apartment at each end. These
apartments should again be subdivided, in order that, for the quiet of
the animals, |)articul;irly in fatting, too many may not be forced to lie
together. It would probably be best also to divide the feeding apart-
ment ; for too mauy hog? kept together are not a|tt to enjoy that peace
and quiet v.liich is necessary to their fatting well. Posts should also
be set up in the sty for the hogs to rub themselves.

If thirty-two hogs are to be kept or fatttd, then, perliaps, the better
way is, to have two stys, of the dimensions last described, placed to-
gether, with a roof over the whole, and a passage between them for
purpose of carrjing food to the troughs.

The upper part of the sty, or some part of it, may be appropriated
to storing the different articles of food which are intended for feeding:
or fatting. It would be well also to have the steam-boiler under the
same roof. For a description of this, sec article Swixe.

If a part of the roof extended considerably beyond the sty, it would
afTord a convenient cover for forming a heap of compost from the dung
of the swine.

HOGS. See article Swine.

HOi.LOW DRAINS. These are made for the purpose of laying
lands dry which are naturaily too ivet : and the operation at the same

104 FARMER'S ASSISTA^'T.

time tends greatly to feraiize the soil, and render it well fitted lor
many kinds of culture for which it was unfit before.

In making these drains rrsard must be had to the shape of the
land; and for this jjurpose the leading ones must be carrieil in such
direction that the smaller ones will naturally run into them. The
descent of the drains ought not to be too raj^id ; and therefore, where
the ground is considerably descending, let ihein be carried in an ob-
lique direction. The smaller ones are to be jdaced alx)ui twenty or
twenty-four feet apart, and to be dug about four feet deep upon an
average, minding to have the «lesceiits in the bottoms uniform. The
width of them need not exceed fourteen inches at the top, and ten at
the bottom. After they are thus dug they are to be filled alwut half
full with stones which weigh from one to twelve pounds, and these
are to be covered with a layer of quite small ones, that will serve to
fill up the chinks, so that when the earth is thrown on, it cannot fall
down among the stones below. Then throw on the earth that was
before thrown out, reserving the best for the top. The main leading
drains are to be of a width and depth proportioned to the extent of
ground from which they carry off the water.

Sometimes lands may require hollow draining whicii are so shaped
as to have no natural outlet for the waters to pass off. In such case
let a hole be dug in the lowest part of the land, if it be upland, suffi-
ciently deep to find a loose coarse sand, or gravel, if such can be
found at a reasonable depth. \N hen the hole has been thus sunk to
the sand or gravel, fill it up with stones as belore mentioned, and run
all the drains into it, and here the waters will sink away into the sand
or gravel.

Where stones cannot conveniently be had to fill hollow drains, i
is said by some English writers that cutting the bottoms of the small
drains very narrow, not more than four inches wide, and cutting the
top of the ground into proper sized chunks, with the sward on it, so
that where these chunks are wedged into the Iwttom of the ditch, with
the 2ra?s downwards, there will be left a cavity below them sufficient
to carry off the water; this will sufficiently answer the purpose of
hollow drains for forty years. Others advise that, in place of these
chunks, larce rolls of twisted straw be laid in the bottom. Other*
again advise that coarse gravel be used for the purpose.

Large tracts of lands in Great-Britain, which, before they were hol-
low drained, were too wet for grain, or even for good grass, are said
by Mr. Young and other British agriculturalists, to have become so

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. 105

well fitted for the plough and for grass as to be considered lands of
the first rate. It would he desirable that some of our more o|)Ulent
agriculturalists, stimulated by successful experiments of this kind be-
yond the Atlantic, would make suitable trials of this method of im-
proving our cold wet lands^ in order to ascertain whether in this coun-
try, where labor it higher, this improvement would be warranted by
its expense. I think that in most cases it would.

HOP; fHoiniilus.J This plant requires a rich mellow soil, well
prepared by digging or deep ploughing. Bog-meadows are good for
raising it.

The plants are raised in hills, six or seven feet apart where the
soil is not very rich, and at a greater distance where it is richer* In
the spring, when the plants begin to shoot, take cuttings from branches
which grow from the main root ; if of the last year's grow th, the bet-
ter, and these are known by their white appearance. Let each have
three or four buds ; bury them lightly in the hills, with the buds up-
permost; allow two or three sets to a pole, and three poles to a hill.
For making the hills, first dig round holes about three feet in diame-
ter, a foot in depth, and deeper if the soil will admit it, fill up these
with the earth thrown out, well mixed with old compost, if the soil be
not already very rich.

The first year the hills are not to be poled, but the ground in this,
as in all succeeding years, is to be kept mellow and free from weeds
by ploughings and hoeings. As the vines rise this year, let them be
slightly twisted together ou each hill, and let the hills be raised a little
by hoeing in some earth round the vines.

Early in the spring the second year, and always after this, the hilU
are to be opened, and the sprouts or suckers cut off within an inch of
the old root ; but that must be left entire, as well as those shoots which
incline downwards, to form new roots. Some manures should occa-
eionally be added, of composts formed of sea sand, marie, ashes, &C-
with other ingredients, such as rotten hog dung, <fcc.

The poles should never be too long, as the vines never begin to
bear much till they have got to the ends of the poles. Set them so
as to form a triangle, with one point to the north, and let them meet
together at the top. Poles of ten feet are long enough for the first
year; after that they are to be fifteen, eighteen or twenty feet long,
according to the strength of the ground, but never so lonj as that the
▼finea cannot go somewhat beyond their tops.

11

166 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Abont the first of September, or as soon as their colour is chaneed
and they emit a fragrant smell, they are to be gathered. If gat 1 1 red
later, the vines will bear more the next year, but the present crop
will not be quite ?o good.

When the poles are drawn to be picked, cut the vines a^^under
three or four feet from the ground ; for cutting lower while thej are
green weakens the root by too great a flov? of sap.

The best way to dry them is on kilns, and this is necessary where
large crops are raised ; but they may be dried in the sun, or on floora
under cover, though these will not be so well flavored as when WfU
kiln-dried. When kiln-dried, let the heat be steady and moderate,
for if it turns the hop brown it will be injured. Let them lie al out
six inches thick, and be frequently turned while drying. The seed*
will crackle a little when bursting, and then the hops are suflBciently
dried.

Before they are bagged they should be laid in a heap, abotrt
four days, to sweat and grow tough, and if covered with blankets
awhile they will be the better. The bags are to be of coarse linen
cloth, about eleven feet long, and about two and a half yards in cir-
cumference, and should contain about two hundred and fifty weight
of hops. The thicker the bag the better they will keep.

To bag them, a hole is made through an upper floor, to which the
open bag is suspended; the hops are thrown in, in small quantities at
once, and trod down as hard as possible, for the harder the better.
When full, sow the bag up as tight as possible. Mind to make four
handles to the bag, one at each corner; they are made by tying a
handfull of hojjs in each corner, so as to form knobs, which may easily
be held in the hand.

The best poles are those which will last longest. Chesnut is on
tkis account to be preferred. They are to be laid under cover while
not in use. Each pole should have three vines, and all above this
should be broken off in the spring.

A hop garden, says Air. Young, will last almost for ever by renew-
ing the hills that now and then fail; but the better way is to grub it
up and new plant it about every twenty-five years.

Mats made of the splinters of ash, will answer as well as those
made of hair, for the purpose of being used in kilns for drying the
hops.

The seed of the hop is the strongest part, and therefore they should
always be grathered so soon as that theae will not fall out in gather-
ing-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 107

The long white hop are most esteemed, as yieldiug the greatest
quantity and I.eing the most beautiful. Care Siiould be taken to hare
the hops all of one kind, for if there be dififerent: w^/ts some will pro-
bably ripen before others.

Some say that the hills in the hop yard should be covered with ma-
nure every fall, to preserve the roots irom the frosts; but this may
probably be the suggestion of those who are often so minutely aice
that their practice is not warranted by the expense. Experience,
however, is the best guide in these matters.

The culture of hops is very profitable. At the price they com-
mand in this country, an acre of them, well cultivated, will amount
to two or three huj'lred dollars, and the expense to the acre of rais-
ing them will not b^ found more than one hundred. Nor need the
farmer be fearful of a want of market for them, as they are always a
good article for exportation if not wanted at home.

HORN DISTEMPER. Sfe article N eat Cattle.

HORSE. The marks of a good horse are, a high neck, full breast,
a lively eye, a strong back, stifi" dock, full buttocks, ribs reaching
aear to the hips, good hoofs, and a good gait.

Something has already been said of colts, and of the manner in
which they ought to be treated while they are acquiring their growth.
(See article Foals.) The next point is to treat of them as horses ;
and here a matter of the first consequence is, to break them well.

The common method of forcibly breaking them is absurd in prac-
tice, and often dangerous to him that undertakes it. In this case, as
in most others, gentle means are best. First let a young horse be tam-
ed by leading with a bridle ; then saddle him, and lead him about
smartly so as to make him trot ; then put weights in the saddle, add-
ing more and more till he carries the full weight of a man. If he be
very fractious, lead him with anotl>er horse. After be has been
broke to leading well, and carrying burdens, let him be gently mount-
ed, while some person holds him. and rode abotit in a ploughed field,
with another horse before liim if necessary, until he learns to go by
himself.

In teaching a young horse to draw, the same gentleness should be
used; first putting him with a gentle horse that is true to draw, then
loading him lightly, and gradually heavier, till he has learned, like
his fellow, to exert his utmost strength.

Horses should have a dry pasture, and a good shade in it. Mr.
L'Hommedieu makes mention of a horse which was always kept in a

108 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

dry poor pastare of wild grass, and yet was always fat; and the rea-
Bon assigned for this was, that the horse, for w:int of water, learned to
feed at night, when the dew is on, which renders the grass more
nourishing.

The best method of keeping working horses in Summer, where it
ean be conveniently done, is to soil them, that is, to feed them in sta-
bles, cutting and carrying iu grass to feed them. The grass should be
cut and carried in during the morning, while the dew is on. They
should also have a yard adjoining the stable, in which they may run
at large at times. This practice is a great saving of pasture land;
the horses will keep much belter, aud they are always at hand for
service. See article Soiling, &:c.

Clover, whether green or dry, is considered one of the most nou-
rishing grasses lor horses. When grain is given them, let it be either
ground, well soaked or boiled.

A horse should never be exercised so severely as to make him
sweat profusely ; or if he should, let him be well covered uniil hi*
skin and hair be dried, and in the mean time thoroughly rubbed
down. He should at all times be kept clean, and his skin currie<},
tut not too severely.

A very common error with farmers is to keep more horses than
they want, and to keep them all but poorly ; but the reverse of this
can only be called economy. Keep but few horses, and keep them
"well. On a stock or dairy farm of a hundred acres, two horses, if
properly kept, are sufficient ; and double that number is enongh on a
farm of the same size that is kept under the plough ; or rather, on
such farm, two horses and a yoke of oxen may, perhaps, be found ad-
visable.

When a horse is on a journey, be sboald be fed with hay and pro-
Tender, and not turned out to grass at evening, for his joints to be
stiffened by the dampness and cold of the night, after the warm and
severe exercises of the day. To prepare him for a journey, he ought
also to be previously kept to hay, with provender, and have moderate
daily exercise, in order that his fat may become more solid, and of
course his body better enured to latigue. He ought also to be shod
some days before hand, iu order that the shoes may become easy to
his feet.

It would be desirable to have a remedy for the dryness of hay, so
W to render it a more agreeable foot! for horses. Set a basket of snow
before a horse while at hay, an«l he will take a mouthful of hay and

FARMER^S ASSISTANT. 109

then of snow, alternately; w^hich shews that something is needed to
jupply the waste of saliva which is absorbed by the hay while eating.
In summer, horses might have water constantly before them, but the
cohlness of winter precludes any substitute but snow, unless some-
thing of this kind should be found in feeding plentifully with carrots.
These they are fond of, and it is found that they will keep them as
well as oats, and fatten those that are lean. Some other kinds of
roots would, perhaps, answer equally well, particularly when steamed.
It is chiefly what may be called a comfortable state of existence, or a
freeness from sufiferiug, which occasions a horse to grow fat; and
therefore, the less they suffer from thirst, from want of agreeable food,
or comfortable stabling, or from too severe exercise, the easier they
may be kept in good order. These things are apt to be little attend-
ed to ; and in this way animals entrusted to our care, which it is our
-^uty to make comfortable while they exist, are often neglected, and
left to suffer.

A disorder has for some years past been gaining ground among
horses in Pennsylvania, and is extending to those of this state: —
this is, an excessive watering or running at the mouth, which prevails
mostly during the middle and latter part of the growing season, and
tends to weaken and impoverish these animals exceedingU'. The
disorder seems to follow the culture of clover, where the lands have
been manured with gypsum. Probably the luxuriant growth of the
clover on which they have been used to feed, is the remote cause of
the disorder. If so, either a change of grass, or a chanjie in the man-
ner of keeping the horses, or both together, would no doubt remove
the disorder. Let the farmer whose horses are thus alHicted pursue
the method o{ soiling during the growing season, and let their footl be
Lucerne, or some other good grass for that purpose, and it is believed
this will be found an adequate and very profitable remedy. See arti-
cles Grasses, Soiling, &c.

When the teeth of an old horse meet together they project out-
ward, so as nearly to form a right angle ; those of a young horse meet
almost perpendicularly ; those of the middle age are a medium be-
tween the former and latter; so that the age of a horse can be very
nearly ascertained by attention to these circumstances. The lips
also of a youns horse are firm and hard, and his mouth is very fleshy
within the palate. The lips of an old horse are soft and flaltby, ami
easy to turn up, and his mouth is lean above and below the palate,
and seems only to have the skin over the bones. The teeth of th^

iro FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

yonng horse are usually short, those that are old usually Ions; — though
these signs are not always certaia. The eye of an old horse usually
appears sunken, that of the young more full. The ends of the teeth
of a two year old horse have no black spot? ; at three, they have two
of these io the two middle under teeth; at four, they have four such
spots ; at five, they have six, each front tooth then having one ; and
at six these spots disappear in the four mid<lle teeth, and are only
seen in the two next the tusks, which at the age of five make their
appearance. Those well experienced in these matters have other
signs hy which they can judge pretty nearly of the age of a horse af-
ter he has passed six years, but not with certainty.

See further, article Mares. For the diseases of horses, see articles
BoT-WoRMs, FaI/SE-Quarter, Farcy, ForNDERixo, Gigs, Glan-
ders, Gripes, Hide-Bound, Lampas, Poll-Evil, Scratches, Spa-
viR, Staggers, Strain, Surfeit, Tumor, Vives, Ulcer, Wheez-
ing, WiNDGALL and Yellows.

When horses, by long journeys or otherwise, have the skin rubbed
eS* their backs, let a little dry white lead be occasionally sprinkled
over the raw flesh, which will soon heal the sore. Persons on jour^
Beys ought always to carry some of this article with them for this pur-
pose. When the withers of the horse are wrung, and swelled by
means of bad saddles or otherwise, the swelling may be allayed by
washing the part with brine, or with salt and black soap mixed to-
gether, applied to the swelling. Any restrlngent, such as alum beat
up with the white of eggs, is also good.

HORSE-HOE. This is a kind of plough invented by Mr. TulJ.
It differs from the one horse plough, in having shafts like those of a
one horse carriage, and the plough is regulated in a great degree by
the shafts, so that much depends on the steadiness of the horse. Its
being but little used, would, however, seem to favor the opinion that
a is no better than the common one horse plough.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Ill

I.

IMPROVEMENT of LAND. This is to be effected in various
ways and by various means, Some lands are naturally sterile from
the want of moisture ; some from having too much of this ; some from
being destitute of certain ingredients in the soil, and some from being
too rough and stony for any profit in tillage.

In the southern states, too, there is much land that has become ste-
rile by severe cropping with tobacco and Indian corn, and by being
left bare have washed much into gullies by the rains.

Many dry, sandy and gravelly tracts may be converted into a state
of fertility by the addition of clay or marie to the soil. See article
Mam'res. There are also particular grasses that flourish in very dry
soils, which would enable the farmer successfully to pursue the soiling
system of culture in such lands. See articles Grasses, Soiling, &c.
Where such soils are, however, at the same time very broken, per-
haps the culture of the locust would be found the most profitable to
which they could be applied. The mulberry might also be cultivat-
etl in the lower and richer parts. See articles Locust and Mul-
berry.

Where lands are too retentive of moisture, and at the same time
not too level nor too steep, they may be greatly benefitted by
hollow drains. See article Hollow Drains. Where they are flat
meadows, marshes or morasses, they are to be laid dry by open drains.
See articles Bog-Meadows and Ditches. Where they lie too low
for any draining of this kind, they are either to be raised by the means
of warping, or the water is to be raised out of the ditches lor the pur-
pose of being thrown back into the river, ocean or elsewhere, from
whence they came, by the means of Avind machinery. In this man-
ner a large proportion of Holland has been redeemed from the ocean ;
and considerable tracts in Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire, in Eng-
land, have in like manner been made very productive for grass. In
this case, the ditches, which are to be large and proportioned to
the extent of the tract drained off, are to be run to that point where
it is most convenient to raise the waters out of them by wind-machin-
ery, to be carried off. But in order to this, a dyke. Or bank, is first to
be raised round that part of the land adjoining th« side from whencp

U2 PARMER'S ASSISTANT.

it is overflowed ; or if it be an island, it is to he banked all round.
The hank is to be of a height and thickness suitable to the weight
and turhulence of the waters it may at times have to encounter from
without. It is advisable to plant the outside of these banks with the
shrub willow, which grows along the banks of the lowlands of many
of the small rivers of this country; but by no means should ?uch
banks l)e planted with trees of large growth, as these are liable to be
upset by the winds, and might thus do great mischief by letting in the
adjacent waters.

The method of raising land by the means of warpins, as it is called
in Great-Britain, where it has been succesffully practised, is a modern
agricultural improvement. Along the banks of rivers low tracts are
frequently to be found which are constantly overflowed, either by the
usual titles or by the floods of the spring. If the waters of such ri-
vers have considerable sediment, the method of warping is calculnted
to retain that sediment, and thus to raise the land on which the sedi-
ment settles, so as eventuall}^ to make it sufficiently high and dry for
growing all kinds of vegetables. In this way considerable has been
done on the banks of the Don, the Ouse, and the Trent, in Great>
Britain. The low land which is thus to be raised, has, first, a dyke,
or bank, made round it, as before descril)ed, to keep out the neighl>or-
ing water, except where it be necessary to let it in. When it should
be let in, that is, when it has considerable sediment to de|)09it, the
floodgate is raised, and after all the sediment of the water has settled,
it is let oS*, and a new supply of muddy water is again taken in at the
next tide, or at the next flood. Where this operation can be cori-
stantly repeated at every tide, its efl"ects will of course be much the
most eflectual, or will All up the enclosed land more rapidly. Men-
tion is made in "the Complete Grazier'' of lands in Great-Britain
being raised two feet by this operaiion in a short time. The land
thus made, too, is of the best quality, being similar to the finest inter-
vale. No doubt many extensive marshes on our tide rivers, and
others, might in this way be converted into the finest lands. But this
plan appears to be admirably calculated for filling up the swamps on
the Missisippi, by letting parts of its turbid stream through the levees,
during the season of high water, into the back grounds, when proper-
ly embanked, and letting the water ofl" again into the bayous or eUe-
where, after its sediment has been deposited.

Soils which are naturally destitute of the necessary ingredients to
promote vegetiitioD, are mostly of the turf or pete kinds. They, how-

FAHMER'S ASSISTANT. 113

erer, abound but little in this county, or at least but seldom to any
great depth. They appear to be principally masses of woody and
vegetable matter mixed together, and only decomposed to a certain
extent, owing probably to a want of sufficient heat; for if these earths
be mixed with lime in compost;, they will then undergo a complete
decomposition, and thus be rendered good manure. They mostly
abound in low wet morasses.

Where such land is laid suflBciently dry, and exposed to the sun,
the surface, by being frequently stirred, will undergo that further de-
composition which serves to endue it with fertility, by making it
more tenaceous of moisture ; but it is most effectually helped by the
adilition of sand or gravel carted on it, which renders it suitable to
the production of many iiinds of good grasses. If such lands can be
flooded with waters which have a sediment to deposit, by the method
of n-arping before mentioned, this will most effectually ameliorate
them. Mention is also made of land of this description being very
successfully cultivated for grass in Great-Britain, by the improved
method of irrigating meadows which is practised there. See article
Water.

The clearing of lands which are full of rocks and stones is some-
times a matter of no small difficulty, and in some instances it may be
advisable to calculate whether the additional value of the land, when
cleared, will warrant the expense. Lands may be very stony, and
yet of considerable value for pastures, or for fruit or other kind of trees.
See article Stones.

The southern j)lanter finds himself in possession of large tracts of
worn-out lands, which, when abandoned to commons, are termed old
fulJ. These, perhaps, do not yield him six cents an acre by the year.
How shall he renovate these lands, and thus restore beauty, plenty
and fertility, to that portion of country where nature has been most
profuse in her benefits, but which have been blasted by the hand of
man ?

There is nothing more easy. Let the planter change his system
of culture. Let him turn his attention to the rearing of a due propor-
tion of cattle, to afford him the means of making manures. Let him
keep his grounds well stocked A\ith clover, Lucerne and other suitable
grasses; attend to the soiling culture, before mentioned^ where hi«
grounds are suitable : be diligent in manuring ; plough often and well,
and he would soon find that his now barren wasfps i\ ^iiM bloom with

114 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

fresh smd increased verdure. Those grounds, however, whicli hav«
become too much washed and deejily gullied, shoukl be plented witl>
locust and other good wooil. In short, it is Itelieved tliat the soiling
husbandry in particular is amply calculated, iu a very profitable man-
ner, to change into a state of hij^h fertility the mo6t exhausted tract*
ia the southern states.

The improvement of a country, not only by bringing its waste and
barren tracts to as high a degree of protluctiveness as they will bear,
but by adding the highest additional fertility to the better parts, is the
foundation of its wealth ami prosperity. The greater the char profits
which are derived from the lands, the greater is the wealth of a coun-
try-. Farmers with large tracts of lands which yifdd little more than
the value of the labor bestowed on them, aa is but too often the case
in some parts of this country, are, properly speaking poor — their con-
dition is but little better than that of the laborer who earns his daily
bread. With the best culture, a little land is sufficient to make tlte
farmer comfortable: but wi'h such culture as is frequently to be found,
bis troubles are often proj)ortioned to the extent of his grounds. The
best culture is a source of rational pleasure ; the worst, of unceasing
vexation. The highest improvement of a country rs, then, properly a
source of happiness, as well as of wealth, to its inhabitants.

In the highly cultivated country, as much less ground is requisite
for the support of each family, they are brought closer together; thus
much lalx)r is savetl in Iheir necessary intercourse. The distances,
also, to the necessary places of resort are proportionately shortened,
and thus much is saved in all the usual jHirjioses of transportation and
travelling. Such are some of the most proraineut advantages result-
ing from highly improving a country.

INARCHING. Sometimes called grafting by approach. It is
tlie joining of two young trees together, that stand sufficiently near
each other for that purpose. A |>art of each, of the same length ami
width, is to be cut away, so that when the trees are brought together,
the pared edges of the rinds will exactly join. A tongue should be
made in the one, and a slit in the other to receive it ; to keep the
parts from slipping, they are to be bound firmly together, and coated
with wet loam, or otherwise, as is directed in article Grafting. Af-
ter about four months they will be so well joined that the top and
bottom of either part may be taken away at pleasure ; so that in this
w ay the top of one tree may be set on the slock of another. Let the
parts taken away be cut jtrelty close and sloping, and cover the end-
>\ ilh Forsyth's compcr;ition, or w ith a coal of wet loam.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 115

Tliis operation is to be performed ia April or May, and is common-
ly practised upon myrtles, jassraines, walnuts, firs, pines and other
trees, il.at will not succeed by common grafting. Forsyth, however,
observes, that the trees thus reared will be weakly.

INDIAN CORN; (Zea.) This plant is a native of this country,
and seems to be adapted to every part of it that is tolerable to be in-
liahiied. There is but one species of it, though many varieties, owing
perhaps principally to the variations of climate. It requires a warm
summer, and this is afforded even beyond the most northerly parts of
our territory. It is a very valuable grain for almost every purpose ;
its great increase when properly cultivated, and the trifle that is re-
quired for seed, must ever render it a favorite of the poor, as well as
an article of profit with the wealthy. The praises of " the hasty pttd-
ding'' have been deservedly sung ; and surely those at least whose
" bones are made of Indian corn," will readily assent to the eulo-
giums of the poet on the cheap, yet delicious, meal which this pud-
■ding, with milk, alTords. It is to be hoped that our farmers will never
so far ape the fashions of the proud and wealthy, as to acquire a taste
sufficiently vitiated to reject the hasty pudding ; as it is believed that
a proper proportion of this diet is as well calculated to raise a fine,
■hardy and comely race of men and women, as perliaps any other
whatever. The author of " The Wealth of Nations" observes, that
fliose of the Irish whose principal food is potatoes and milk, are the
handsomest and best made of any people in Great-Britaiu : but in
point of taste the hasty pudding is very far superior— and is probably
better calculated to nurture rising generations of the first order, such
as, with proper culture, will be better fitted to be " the lords of hu-
man kind," than those who arrogantly assume this pre-eminence.

In Kentucky, and elsewhere on the rich lands of the Ohio, a hun-
dred bushels of Indian corn are frequently raised to the acre. This
has also been done in this county, (Herkimer)— but so great a crop
in this northern climate is not to be expected, unless on some chosen
spots, and where the best cultivation is bestowed. Two very larse
crops which were raised near the city of New- York some years since,
deserve, however, to be noticed, as specimens of what good culture
is capable of producing in this state. Mr. Stevens, who raised the
largest of these crops, each being the product of three acres, ploughed
hh ground three times, and previous to the last ploughing carted on
700 horse.- cart loads of street manure. He planted his seed in douhle
rows, about eight inches apart, and the seeds were set, diagonalfv

lia FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

the same distance from each other: between each of these double
rows was left a space of five anil a half feet. During the season the
crop was suckered three times, and the intervale were repeatedly
ploughed, and kept clear of weeds by hoeing and hand weeding. His
product was 118 bushels to the acre; and it would probably have
been greater, had not a thunder-storm injured it, by blowiug most of
it down at the time the ears were sitting.

Mr. Ludlow, who raised the other crop, had 98 bushels to the acre.
He, however, carted only 200 loads upon his three acres. He plant-
ed hb seed in single rows, which were four feet apart, with the grains
set eight inches asunder. Probably the reason of this crop being
less than the other was on account of legs manure having been carted
on; as it is doubtful whether planting in double rows is better than
planting in single.

From all this, it appears that a greater quantity of Indian corn can
be raised on an acre than any other grain ; and considering its nutrir^
mental qualities, it may safely be saiil that, next to rice, a given piece
of ground cultivated with this grain will support a greater number of
people than that which is cultivated with any other grain whatever.

The proper soils for this grain are the sandy, sandy loam, gravelly
loam, and rich red, or dark coloured earths, which have no clay in
them. Stiff clays are very unfit for this crop, and cold or wet loams
are not much better unless well managed. See article Chance op
Crops for the best method of managing such soils.

Where sward land is intended for Indian corn, it should be broken
up in the fall : and if it be a stiff or wettish soil, it should be thrown
up in high narrow ridges by a second ploughing. In the spring the
ground should be well mellowed with ploughing immediately before
planting. Whatever fresh barn dung is to be applied, should be
ploughed in. Planting in rows, agreeably to the methods before de-
9cribe<l, is best, as in this way about one sixth part more can be raised
from the acre. As soon as the plants have got to the height of six
or eight inches, run a furrow, with a one horse (dough, as close to the
rows as possible without injuring the roots, turning the furrows from
the plants; then immediately turn the furrows back again, so as ef-
fectually to mellow the mold into which the roots are sborlly to ex-
tend. Let this idouehing be of a good depth — the hoe is to follow
and complete the dressing. In due season the plough is again to be
appliefl. running the tiirroAvs Tnrther from the plants, «nnd turning them
towards them, which is again to be followed by the hoe. After thi^

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 117

another lioeing should be given, for the purpose of extirpating all the
after-growth of weeds, which in old ground are apt to spring up ; but
any further ploughing, unless at a considerahle distance from the rows,
will be found of little use to the roots; and the stalks, which are now
very tender, will he easily broken.

In raising this crop, the essential points in tilling the ground are,
to keep it mellow and clear of weeds; and, therefore, pluughin;: im-
mediately before planting, and then again stirring all the ground that
can he stirretl, by first ploughing closely from the rows and then back
to thr-m, answers the purpose of mellowina; most eflectually. As the
roots extend into the ground thus mellowed, that part only into which
they have not yet extended can, with any benefit to the roots, receive
any further mellowing from the plough.

It is essential to have this plant started well ; because if it gels
stunted at the outset by the cold rains, it seldom gets the better of
this during its whole groAvth, particularly if the soil be not perfectly
suitable to it. To prevent this, it is advisable to apply some stimu-
lant? to the plants at that time ; and the best for this purpose are bog
dirt, marie, <1ug out of bog swamps, ashes and gypsum. The latter
ought, however, to be preferred on all soils to which it is suitable, be-
cause it is cheap and easily applied.

Where a soil is wettish, it ought, after being well mellowed, to be
tlirown up into ridges, by having two furrows thrown up against each
other at proper distances, and on the top of these ridges let the seeds
be planted, the planters carrying their rows crossways of these ridges.

Where furrows are made for planting they ought to be shallow, not
more than half the dej)th of common ploughing. It would be as well
to have no furrow at all, but merely to harrow the ground smooth be-
fore planting, and then to plant in rows, by a line or mark drawn
along the ground by hand, with an instrument made for the purpose.
A more complete method, however, is to drill in the seed, by a li^ht
drill plough that may be easily made for the purpose. One of this de-
scription may be drawn by hand ; and may be so contrived as to make
a small furrow about two inches deep, drop the seeds at proper dis-
tances into the furrow, and cover the seeds, all in one operation.
— These methods, however, are for ground that is entirely clear of
stones.

If this crop be harvested too early it will lose much by shriukin^.
It is also found by experiments, that where it is topped at the usual
time, the crop will he considerably less than if i{ stacd without top

118 FARMER'S ASSISTAIST.

pin?. If, therefore, it he topped at all, it ought not to he done before
the grains have hardened. It is believed that the best plan is to cut
np the stalks by the roots some days attcr the usual time for topping,
and set it up in sliocks to harden. In this mode the ears derive the
same nourishment from the stalk which they do when it is left stand-
ing. A large additioual quantity of valuable fodder is thus saved,
•while at the same time the ground is cleared of its incumbrance, so
to be ready for sowing a crop of wheat the same fall. The additional
labor of husking out the corn in tins manner is very trifling. The
shocks are to be of such size as can be conveniently tied together at
the top by bands of straw, in such manner as to keep out the rain.

The best and soundest ears should be selected for seed, rejecting
the grains which grow near each end. In order to accelerate the
growth of the crop, it is sometimes advisable to soak the seed in watet
a little warm, for about twenty-four hours. Another method is to
pour boiling water upon it, let it stand on it about half a minute, then
cool it as soon as possible, and plant it before it dries. In this man-
ner the seed will come up much sooner; but if there should be cold
rains immediately after planting, there is danger that it will not come
up at all. Sec article Germination of Plants, for a safe method
of quickening its growth.

If the seed be smeared all over with tar, and then have ashes or
gypsum sprinkled on it sufficient to render it fit for handling, and be
then planted, neither birds nor squirrils will touch it. In this case,
however, it is necessarj' fir?t to soke it sutTicienfly to make it vege-
tate; as without this the coat of tar will keep out the moisture, and
prevent the seed from sprouting.

The proper time for jdanting depends on the climate. In this
gtate, however, from the twentieth cf Mhv to the first of June is about
the best time. The old Indian rule, whioli perhaps is the best, is to
plant when the leaves of the oak tree have grown to be as large as a
squirrel's foot.

A change of seed is advisable with this grain as with all otherg,
but a change of seeds grown on different soils is |>erhaps the most re-
quisite. Changes of this seed ou«jht rather to be from east to west, or
from west to east, allowing the climate to be the same, than from
north to south, or from south to north. If it be carried from the south
too far to the north, the crop will he large, but will not ripen before
the frosts; and if carried from the north too far to tlie south, it will
ripen earlier than i» requisite, but the crop w ill be goiall. But it

FARIMER'S ASSISTANT. 119

must be remembered that climates often depeml on altitude as well
as on latitude. Where this crop is raised on bog-meadows, which are
always subject to early frosts, the seed should be brought from the
northward, in order that it may ripen before the frosts.

Of the varieties of this plant, those which have the longest ears
and the largest grains ti'ill yield most; but farmers, in many situa-
tions, must have regard to that kind which ripens earliest, whether
the most productive or not.

The practice of making very large hills to this crop while growing
is unnecessary. The principal point in hoeing is, to destroy all the
weeds, drawing at the same time a little fresh earth round the stalks
while young. There ought, however, to be sufficient of earth even-
tually drawn round to support the stalks. The growth of suckers is
injurious to the crop, and ought to be either pulled up, or bent down
to the ground and covered with earth sufficient to kill them; and this
is believed to be the better way, as by this means the principal stalk
is not injured by Avounding. It is said that sprinkling some gypsum
on the silk of the ear will make it fill to the very end.

Indian corn will grow many successive years on the same ground j
but it is never advisable to i)lant it more than two years successively,
as it is a crop which exhausts the soil. Like some other crops it can-
not be overdone by manuring, but on the contrary the richer the soil
the greater will be the clear [irofit; ami if the ground be left too rich
for wheal or barley, it can be put to the more proiitable culture of
hemp.

This plant may be gradually habituated to a more northerly or
southerly climate. For instance, take the Virgir/ia corn and plant it
one or two miles farther north ever}' summer, and by the time it has
got into Canada it will be the small Canada corn, and vice versa.

INOCULATING, or BUDDING. This, says Forsyth, is the
best method of grafting niost kinds of fruit, particularly stone fruit.

He observes that this operation is best learned by pnictice, but
gives directions for performing it, a» follows: Provide a sharp pen-
knife, with the end of the handle flat for raising the bark ; prepare
your slips intended to be inserted; choose a smooth part of the slock,
five or six inches above the ground for dwarfs, for half standards about
three feet, but for standards about six feet ; cut horizontally across
the stock about an inch in length, and from that slit the bark down-
wards about two inches, so as that the incisions be in the form of the
letter T ; Don't cut so deep as to wound the stock. Aftvjr havio"-

120 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

cot off the leaf from the bud, leaving the foot stock remainins, y*i
make a cross cut about half an inch below the eye, and with your
knife slit off the bud, with pan of the wood to it, in form of an es-
cotcheon; pull off with your knife that part of the wood which was
taken with the bud, observing that the eye of the bud be left, for
the?e th?t lose their eyes in striarjiac should be rejected. Then, hav-
ing gently raised the bark of the stock, insert the bod; place it
smooth l)etween the rind of the stock and the wood ; and having fit-
ted it in as exactly as possible, wind the whole closely round with
bass mat made soft by soaking in water, (soft rope yarn will perhaps
an?wer as well) beginning at the under part of the slit and proceeding
to the top, minding not to bind round the eye of the bud, which should
be left open.

In three or four weeks you will perceive which have taken, by
their appearing fresh, and then the bandages round these should be
loosed. In April following, cut off the stock, sloping, three inches
above the bud ; fasten the shoot [>roceeding from the bud to the stump
of the stock for the ensuing season, and the next season take off that
stump close above the bud.

The time for inoculating is, from the middle of June to the middle
of August, or rather at the time when the bark raises easily, and the
bo<l8 will come off well from the wood. The most general rule is,
when you observe the buds formed at the extremity of the same year's
shoots, for then they have finished their spring growth. Cloudy wea-
ther, and mornings and evenings, are the best for the operation. For-
syth says, the slips or cuttings to be used for budding should not be
thrown into water. He adds, that all trees of the same genus, which
agree in their flavor and fruit, will take upon each other. All the
nut bearing trees will therefore grow on each other, and the same
may be observed of all the plumb bearing treeS; including the almond,
I)each, nectarine, apricot, Sec.

To the foregoing directions, which are also those of Mr. Miller,
Mr. Forsyth has added drawirjgs, which are calculated better to ex-
plain the process of inoculating.

INSECTS. Immense numbers of these prey upon the labors of
the farmer, against the ravages of which it is in most instances diffi-
colt, or impossible, to provide adequate remedies. Such, however,
as have been discovered shall be here noticed, as something is said of
different kinds ol insects.

It may be firstly observed, that the leaves of the elder, rSambums

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 121

nigra) are extremely oflfensive to all insects as long as the leaves re-
main green — the dwarf kind is said to be most offensive. Elder
leaves may, therefore, be considered as an antidote in regard to in-
sects, as far as its use can be rendered practicable or profitable.

In treating of insects, we shall begin with

Canker-Worms. These are insects of the species of the miller,
which, about eighty years since, made their first appearance in the
oldest settled parts of the New-England states, and were called can-
ker-worms because they produced an effect upon apple trees similar
to that produced by canker. See article Frlit-Trees.

One of the most effectual methods to prevent their ascending the
trees, which the female does early in the spring to deposit her eggs,
is that which is found equally effectual iu preventing the ascent of
caterpillars, that is, to fasten a strip of sheepskin, with the wool out-
wards, round the body of the tree. This, it is found, is a barrier
which they cannot pass, as in attempting to climb over the wool,
they lose their hold and fall down. Another method is, to fasten a
strip of oiled paper round the tree, with the lower edge projecting out
an inch or more, and slanting downwards, which edge they cannot
pass. These strips must be closely fitted round the tree to prevent
their passage between them and the body. Dr. Mitchiil recommends
scraping off the shaggy parts of the bark, in order to deprive them of
places of safety from birds, and of shelter from storms. In addition
to <his, let the bodies and the large limbs of the trees be white-washed
with lime and water, or with a mixture of old urine and soapsuds, as
is recommended by Mr. Forsyth for keeping off all insects. The
urine is to be saved in vessels for the purpose.

Caterpillars. The above directions for keeping canker-worms
from trees, are equally applicable to these insects.

When a nest of these is formed, run a pole into it, twist it round
till the nest and its contents are wrapped round the pole, and bring
the whole down and kill the worms. Let this be done early in the
morning, when the worms are all in the nest. If any escape this ope-
ration, repeat it when they have rebuilt the nest.

Where the nests have been suffered to ren>aiu till the insects have
left them, young broods for the ensuing year will, the next spring, be
found on the trees in the chrysalis state, under the shelter of a dry
curled leaf or two, bound with filaments like cobwebs ; these should
be searched for and destroyed.

Ki

122 far:\ier's assistant.

It is said that caterpillars will take shelter under woollca rag?,
when |)ut on trees where they resort, from which they can be easily
taken and destroyed.

Gri Bs. Lar^e maggots, produced from the eggs of a certain spe-
cies of the butterfly, very injurious to corn by eating its roots. They
are said to produce the beetle. Frequent ploughings will nearly de-
stroy them.

Top, or Spindle-Worms. White worms resembling gnibs, fonDd
in the central hole which is formed by the leaves of Indian corn ;
aud they there eat off the stem which forms the top of the plant.
They are mostlv to be found near barn-yards, and in rich spotE.
They are discovered by their excrement appearing on the leaves. —
Sprinkling the coru with a weak lye of wood ashes will extirpate
them.

Black-Worms. Ash coloured worms, with black stripes on their
backs. When full grown they are of the thickness of a goose-quill,
and about an inch and a quarter long. They hide in the soil by day,
and commit their dej)redations by night. They eat off young plants
above ground, and frequently endeavor to draw them under. It is
said that manuring the ground with salt will drive them from it, and
that lime and ashes will also have nearly a similar effect.

Red-Worms. These are slender, about an inch long, with a hard
coat, and pointed head. They eat off wheat, barley and oats, above
the crown of the roots; and they also eat through turnips, potatoes,
Arc. No adequate remedy known, unless it be lime and soot, and
effectual summer fallowings, which destroys them by depriving them
v\' food.

Palmer-Worms. About h^lf an inch in length, with many legs,
and very nimble. They give to apple trees the same appearance
that the canker-worm does. IMr. Deaoe says, tliat great numbers of
Ihem appeared in the year 1791, in Cumberland, (ilassachusetts) and
eat off all the leaves of the trees, except the membraneous parts, but
that next year they disappeared. They let themselves down from
the trees by threads, similar to the spider. No remedy known.

Timber-Worms. The smaller kind merely eat into the sap of
wood, and turn it into j)owder post, as it is commonly called. Fell-
ing timber about the middle of winter, the time it has least sap in it,
tvill obviate this difficulty.

The large boring worm takes it? residence chicny in pine timber.
They are hatched in the cavities of the bark, and being small when

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. l^

they enter the wood, they grow larger as they proceed, till their bor-
ing may be heard at a considerable distance. If the trees be scorched
in a light flame, says Mr. Deane, or steeped in salt water, it will de-
stroy these worms, or prevent their entering the woo<l.

The same author also makes mention of formidable armies of
worms which, in the year 1770, over-ran the county of Cumberland
about the middle ot July. They stripped the vegetables of iheir
leaves, leaving only the stems — were extremely voracious — moveU
in apparent haste, and all in the same direction — crawled over houses,
ic. unless they found an entrance. Other parts of the eastern slates
have since experinced their ravages.

The best security found against them was, to stop their course by
trenches, having their sides leaning over, out of which they could not
climb after they had got into them.

Hessian Flt. Well known for its ravages in wheat. Remedy :
Immerse the seed wheat ten or fifteen seconds in boiling hot water ;
cool it suddenly ; dry it, with lime or gypsum sprinkled upon it, and
sow it immediately. This process will assist its growth, in addition
to its killing the nits of the fly, which, by a good glass, are said to be
discernible near the sprouts of the grains that are infected- This
remedy stands well attested by several publications, and is believed
to be eS'ectual.

This insect appears to be now on the decline, and its duration will
probably be found to be temporary. Though we have given it a Ger-
man appellation, it is very doubtful whether it ever was known iu
Germany, or any other part of Europe.

Maggots. Troublesome to the roots of cabbages, and to turnips
and radishes. Let the ground have a previous manuring with salt,
which it b believed will be effectual ; if not, let some brine, about as
strong as sea water, be sprinkled once only about the plants ; for if
repeated it will probably be found hurtful to them. Or perhaps a
better way is, to apply a weak brine more than oace> Let it be done
just after a rain.

Yellow Striped Blg. Formidable to young plants of cucumber,
squash, melons, pumpkins, d:c. while in the seed leaf. Water made
bitter by bruising tansy in it, and sprinkled over the plants, will keep
off this insect; but tliis must be frequently repeated, particularly after
rains. Green elder leaves are also very useful in this case. Sprink-
ling soot over the plants while the dew is on is also good, but must b«
repeated after every rain. Gypsum is also recommended for lliis pur*

124 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

pose. It is advisable to plant a great many seetls in erery hill, and
then some of them will stand the better chance of escaping the rava*
ges of these insects.

TiRMP Fly. This eats the seed leaves of the young turnip
plants, and thus destroys them. One remedy is, to sow the ground
thickly, partly with old and partly with new seed, which will come
up at diflerent times, and thus a part of the one or of the other will
stand a chance of escaping. Gypsum, soot and tansey water, applied
as before mentioned, is good. Elder leaves, frequently dragge<l over
the ground after the plants are up, is also efficacious. Some advise to
sow some tobacco plants with the turnip seed, or rather to set some
of the plants where the seed is sown. Smokes made to the wind-
ward side will help to keep o£f this insect ; and rolling the ground af-
ter sowing, is also recommended, but this must be done where the
ground is rery smooth. The benefit derived from this consists in
compressing the surface of the ground, so as to afford fewer hiding
places in it for these insects. It is also advisable to let ducks into a
turnip field, as these will destroy the insects without injuring th«
young plants.

Garden Flea. Very destructive to young cabbage plants while
in the seed leaf. Remedy : Elder leaves, gypsum, soot and tansy
water, as before mentioned. Soap-suds is also good to be epriakled
over them.

Lice. These infest cabbages, «fcc. They may be extirpated by
smokes, particularly of tobacco, but the frosts generally destroy them.

Weavel. a little black bug, very destructive to wheat, either in
bams or graneries. On thrusting your hand into a bin of wheat in-
fested with them, considerable warmth will be felt ; but as they are
usually collected together, every part of the heap or bin should be
examined.

They may be destroyed in a close apartment by fumigating it with
burnt sulphur for about twelve hours. But Mr. L'Hommetlieu's me-
thod of extirpating them is believed to he the best. Having found
his bin of wheat full of weavel, he emptied the bin, white-washed the
inside, and then returned the wheat into it, sprinkling a handful of
fine unslacked lime over every four or five bushels thus returned, and
§ve or six handfulls was sprinkled over the whole. lu ten or twelve
day? the weavel had wholly disappeared. When the wheat was used,
he winnowed it, which took out the lime.

Weavel may he sifted out of wheat by a seivc, which will let them
pass through and retain the wheat.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 125

Grasshoppers. Prodigious quantities of these are some years ge-
uerated in upland mowing grounds. Upland pastures do not produce
so many, owing probably to the feet of the cattle destroying many
before they are brought forth. Low wet meadows or pastures seliiom
produce many of them. The only known remedy against them, and
it is sometimes very inadequate, is to destroy them by raisiug large
flocks of turkies and other poultry, which feed on them.

Lice on cattle, and Ticks on sheep, may be added to the above
catalogue of destructive insects. Where colts and young neat cattle
become lousy, by reason of poor keeping or otherwise, the lice are to
be destroyed by oiling the creature, or washing it with a decoction of
tobacco; and then they should have better keeping to prtvent a re-
turn of the lice. And where sheep become full of ticks, which will
sometimes kill them if not removed, the ticks are to be destroyed by
a fumigation of tobacco smoke. See article Sheep.

J.

JAUNDICE, see articles Overflowing of the Gall, and Yel-
lows.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE ; (Helianthus Tuleroms.) This
is a hardy perennial plant, with a large bulbous root. The stalk
grows to a considerable height. It is cultivated by the roots, in the
manner of potatoes. The roots are particularly useful for feeding
swiue when boiled, and are said to very productive. One cultivatoj
found its produce to be about four hundred and eighty bushels to an
acre, without manure. Another raised between seventy and eighty
tons from an acre. They will grow well in almost any drj soil, even
if it be poor. When cut, and ground in a cider mill, they make gootl
food for horses, with the addition of a little salt. Mr. Legaux, of
Springmill, (Penns) Ivania) raises this root from Dutch seed, and has
had them eight and nine inches in diameter. He says they are easily

126 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

kept through winter in the ground, nothing being requisite Turther
than to dig a trench round them to prevent the water injuring theoj.

K.

KILLING OF BEASTS. But little need be taid on this subject,
as bulcheriog is only to be learned by practice. But the cruel man-
ner in which butchering is often performed is deserving of some ani-
madversion. The killing of beasts for our use b lawful, but surely it
is not so to torture them. He who, in the act of taking the life of an
nnoffending creature, deals not the stroke of death with mercy — must
either have become callous from inveterate habit, or in feeling must
be of little higher grade than the animal against which his hand is
raised.

L.

LAMP AS. An excrescence in the roof of the mouth of a horse,
which hinders him from feeding. Young horses are most liable to it.
It is cured by applying a hot iron, made for the purpose, to the swol-
len parts. Care must be taken, says Gibson, not to penetrate so deep
as to scale the bone that lies under the upper bars of the mouth, for
this would be very injurious to the animal.

LAYERS. Trees and shrubs that yield no seed in this climate,
and which cannot be propagated by slipe or cutting?, may nererthe-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. J27

iJBss be propagated by layers. The manner of doing it is as follows :
Take shoots of the last year's growth, bend them to the earth, and
bury them half a foot deep in a good mellow soil ; fasten them with
hooks to prevent their rising, and bend the tops so as to bring them
above the surface. A slit upwards should be made in that part of the
twig which lies deepest, or a wire drawn tightly round it there, to
prevent the sap from mounting too fast. Let the ground be covered
to keep it moist, and let it be watered if necessary. When the twigs
have struck root they may be cut off in the spring and transplanted in-
to the nursery.

The time for laying evergreens is July or August, and October for
deciduous trees. Many herbaceous plants may also be propagated in
this way.

LICE. See article Insects.

LIMES TONE. If sulphuric, nitrous or muriatic acid, be laid on
stone which has lime in it, an effervescence will be produced, by
which means limestone can always be known.

Limestone is the last of the stony incrustations of the earth, and
appears to have been formed before " the dry lands appeared." Che-
mists suppose it to have been formed from shells, such as those with
which many parts of the bottom of the ocean now abound in prodi-
gious qantities ; and the skeletons of fish and other aquatics, ofteii
found in this stone, would seem to confirm this opinion.

Some limestone is principally combined with argillaceous, some
mostly with silicious earths ; and some is found to contain a large pro-
portion of magnesia. The former is geuerally known by its hardness
and smoothness of surface when broken, and is the least calculated to
benefit a clay soil. The silicious limestone is the best for clay, and
is more soft and rough when broken. That which contains much
magnesia makes what the English farmers call hot lime, and is of

much less value as a manure, as magnesia is found to be destructive to
vegetation.

" The magnesian limestone," says Mr. Tennant, " is easily distin-
guished from that which is purely calcarious, by the slowness of its
solution in acids, which is so considerable that even the softest kind
of the former is much longer in dissolving than marble. It has also
frequently a chrystalized structure, and sometimes, though not always,
•mall black dots may be seen dispersed through it." (See Henry's
Chemistry for the most accurate method of ascertaining the presence
of magnesia in limestone.)

128 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

LOAM. This earth has the greatest resemblance to clay of any
other, hut is not so solid and compact, nor does it shrink and crack
open as clay does when dried. It is of different colours, but that
ivhich is of a deep or pale red, or brownish jellow, is the best. That
which is of a pale colour, and is hard and slippery when wet, i» poor.
Frequently what are called loams have a litile clay in them. Pro-
bably clays and loams are nearly the same earths; with this differ-
ence, however, that clays have more or less of alumine, of which
loams are destitute.

Loams are generally cold and wet, and in their natural state are
more or less covered with moss, particularly in the colder climates.
Some, however, are dry and very natural to grass, and will in iheir
natural ?tate j)roduce good crops of most kinds of grain, Indian corn
excepted. This is a soil which, whether cold, wet or dry, will pay
well for manuring it, particularly with horse and sheep dung, and
other warm manures; but where it is wet, it is most effectually mend-
ed and fertilized by hollow draining. See that article.

LOCUST; (Rohina.) This is a very valuable tree for cultiva-
tion, as it will grow well on any poor barren sand hill, and indeed ia
eyery kind of dry soil, where the climate is not too cold. A sandy
loam or gravelly loam is best suited for it. It will cause grass to grow
on the poorest soil ; so that ground planted with these trees answers
the double purpose of forest and pasture. The trees will acquire a
very considerable size in fifteen years, and in about twenty-five year*
are full grown. The timber is excellent for the trunnions and knees
of vessels, for cogs for mills, and for many other purposes where hard*
ness and durability are required. For posts for fences it will last fifty
or sixty years, and for firewooil it is also excellent. On the whole,
consideriDg all the good qualities of the locust, it may be accounted
the most profitable which the farmer can cultivate. See article Fo-
rests for an easy method of cultivatiug this tree.

It is said that immersing the seeds of this tree for half a minute in
boiling hot water, and then cooling them before planting, will make
them sprout very suddenly, and grow two feet high the first year.

LOMBARDY POPLAR; (Populus.) This tree acquires its full
size in about twenty years, by which time it will contain half a cord
of wood. It is grown at present merely for ornament ; but when
fire-wood becomes necessary to be planted, probably this tree may be
thought worth cultivating for fuel. It will not, indeed, make fuel
ei^ual in quality to that of the locust ; but as it grows faster, its inferi-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 129

oritj of quality may perhaps be compensated by the rapidity of its
growth. It must, however, be dried before it will be fit for fuel, as ia
it£ green state it will not burn to any advantage. It is easily raised
from slips or cuttings, and will grow on almost any soil.

In France and Italy this tree is cultivated and trimmed up for
beams and other limber for buildings ; but probably it will grow larger
ia those countries than in this state, as the climate there is more
friendly to its growth.

LUCERNE. See article GaABBESk

M.

MANGEL WURZEL, or SCARCITY ROOT; (Beeta Alhis-
iuna.J This species of the beet is very highly esteemed in many
parts cf Europe for feeding milch cows. It imparts a fine flavor to
the milk and butter. For fatting cattle it is thought not to be so sood
as carrots, parsnips, potatoes and turnips. Its abundant foliage, says
the compiler of " The Complete Grazier,' may be given with much
advantage to horses, sheep, cows and swine; but for the two last, the
leaves should be separated from the roots, as these animals will not
eat them fresh from the plants. They are not subject to the depre-
dations of insects. The seeds of this vegetable should be dibbled, in
the month of April or May, in the manner of the common beet, but at
greater distances apart.

MANURES. A knowledge of the efficacy of different manureg.
to what soils they are most suitable, and the means of making the
most of each, is worthy of the particular attention of the farmer.—
Lands are seldom so rich but it may be a matter of gain to increase
their fertility; and few tracts are so poor but, with proper tillage and
manuring, they may be made the residence of plenty.

Manures are composed of all those substances which either direct'
ly or indirectly supply plants with their requisite food, by aoeacs $."

17

I3d FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

which thej are enabled to expand and come to maturity. See articF*^
Food of Plants.

In the first place, different earths wilF serve to manure each other.
Thus clay is a fertilirer of a light samly soif, and sand is equally a
fertilizer of clay. Where clay land? are in grass, the sand should be
laid on as a top dressing; but where they are ploughed, it should be
well mixed with the soil for the purpose of destroying its adbesioB.
Sand which has been washed down in roads and elsewhere is best.
Where clay is applied to a sandy soil, it should be carted on in the
fall, and spread evenly over the ground, that the frosts may pulveiite
it before it is mixetl with the soil in the spring. The better these
earths are mixed in the respective soils, the more sensible and imme-
diate will be their effects; but their principal excellence is, that they
are calculated permanently to improve the soils to which they are
applied. Stiff loams are also in the same way assisted by sand, an**
sand again by these; but neither in so great a degree as in the for-
mer cases. Generally, it may be observed, that all light dry soils
are improved by being mixed «-ith heavy earths, and nee versa.

Sand and fine gravel will greatly fertilize the soil of bog-meadows,
and this earth again is a very good manure for all upland soils, but
best for those which are light and drj-. It is peculiarly excellent for
Indian corn when applied to the hills, and is very good for flax, hemp,
and most other summer crops. Like gypsum, it is friendly to the
growth of white cfover. When applied to upland grasses, it should
be laid on a top dressing. Every bind of black mud, from ponds and
9wamp?> answers a somewhat similar purpose, though if the mud be
stiff and clayey it should only be applied to a light dry soil.

The different sorts of marie found in bog-swamps are also excellent
manures for all upland soils. These earths are usiually found at the
depth of from one to three feet from the surface, and are either of s
whit^, grey or brownish colour. The former is the most efficacious,
and the latter the least so, their strength being in proportion to the
quantity of carbonate of lime which they contain. It is best to mix
these earths with the mass of black earth or bog dirt that forms the
upper stratum, in order to reduce their strength; and when thus mix-
ed, a load of even the weakest kind is more efficacious than two of
common barn dung. Their operation as manures is similar to that of
gypsun^, having little or no effect when first applied to wheat and
rye, but by its afterwards covering the ground with a thick growth
of white clover, it is then rendered fit for producing largely of Ibesie

PARMER'S ASSISTANT, 13I

crops- The same may l>e observed of the bog dirt. Like this, too,
they are peculiarly excellent for Indian corn and all summer grain^
and a less quantity is suflBcient. They may be used as top dressings
or otherwise.

The upland marles are good manures for sand}', graveHy and other
dry soils. They are also valuable in proportion to the quantity of
carbonate of lime which they contain. Mr. Young mentions the tract
«f country lying between Holkam and Houghten, in Elngland, hav-
ing been converted into good farming lands, which formerly were so
Mght and poor as to be kept only for sheep walks. This was effected
by digging up the marie, which wae fousd to 4ie ^t some depth un-
derneath, and manuring the soil with it, at the rate of about ©oe hun-
dred loads to the acre.

This kind of marie is merely a clay, with sometimes a mixture of
fine sand, having a greater or less proportion of carbonate of lime ia
h, and the more the better. It is generally of a bluish colour, and
like other marles is to be known by the effervescence it occasions
when dropped into vinegar, or other strouger acid. The greater the
effervescence the better -the marte. (See Henry's Chemistry for the
means of ascertaining how much calcareous earth any marie contains.)
Upland marie should be carted out in the fall, and spread as directed
for clay. The other kinds should be thrown up in a dry time in the
fall, and may be carried out in the winter or other time when the
ground is sufficiently firm to go upon.

Ashes, as a manure, are found to be more efficacious in some parts
of the country than in others; generally most so when applied to lands
near the ocean. The Long-Island farmer can afford twelve cents a
bushel for even leached ashes, w^hile in Herkimer county they are
suffered to lie untouched about the pot-asheries.

Ashes generally answer the most valuable purpose when applied
to Indian corn, particularly where the soil is not suMable to this
piant^ Where the soil is wet, eold, loamy or clayey, the plants are
apt to get stunted by the cold rains which usually fall after planting,
and then the ashes serve to supply the natural deficiencies of the soil
till it becomes fertilized by the summer suns. But where the soil is
natural to the growth of this plant, and there is no danger of its beino-
stunted at its outset, perhaps it may be better to apply the ashes later,
so that the plants may derive the greatest assistance from this manure
while the ears are setting and forming.

Ashes should generally be used for top-dressings; their salts Ios«
sothing by exposure to the air, and soon find their way into the soil.

132 FAKMER*S ASSISTANT.

Soot 18 much more efficacious than ashes ; beside salts, it eootaios
oil. The soot of coal is esteemed equally as gooti as that of wood.
It is used for top-dressings, and requires about forty bushels for an
acre. When applied to winter grain, it should be sown in the spring ;
and the same may be observed of ashes. Coal soot particularly is
very good for meadow lands which hare become sour and mossy.
This manure can, however, only be had in considerable quantities in
the ricinity of large towns.

Of salts which serve as manures, the principal are, the common sea
gait, aalt-petre and alkaline salts. To the latter, the virtue of ashes
as a manure is principally owing. Salt-petre should be dissolved fb
water, in which the seeds should be soaked before sowing or planting.
Instances are mentioned of its good effects on Indian corn — the seeds
thus soaked started much quicker, the plants grew faster and larger,
ripened earlier, and produced more than those whose seed had not
been thQs previously managed. Mr. Johnson mentions a very strike
ing difference produced in a crop of i^ heat where the seed-wheat of
part of the field bad been thus soaked, and part had not- -the former
being near a fourth larger than the latter. The farmer should, there-
fore, test the effects of salt-petre, by soaking every kind of seed in it
before sowing; and then, by comparing the products with other parts
of his fields where the seed bad not been thus prepared, he can more
exactly ascertain for what seeds, and in what soils, its effects are
most evident. Let him try it on wheat, rye, barley, and on Indian
corn in particular. Let the seeds be soaked about twenty-four hours,
and those of wheat and rye be dried with lime, those of barley and
corn with gypsum.

Sea salt is a good manure for almost every soil that is not too wet
or too near the ocean. Too much at once, however, is hurtful ; three
or four bushels to an acre is probably sufficient at a time. Let it be
made fine, and sown in the broad cast way. It is particularly recom-
mended for flax, though perha|)s its effects are nearly the same on
most plants. When applied to wheat and grasses, it should be sown
in the spring.

Lime is much used as a manure in Great-Britain ami oiber north-
erly parts of Europe whe*e the summers are cool, and of course xvhere
there is much soil that is cold. Where the summers are warmer, and
therefore the soil generally warmer, it is believed thr.t lime is not ia
general so efficacious as a manure. It should be applied to soils, or in
conoposts, immediately after it has slacked.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 133

Mr. Livingston is of opinion that the effect of lime as a manure
consists principally in imparting heat to the suil. Others have main-
tained that its use is in sui)plying plants 'with carbonic acid, (6xed
air) with which it abounds, and which is found greatly to assist their
growth. But if this were the case would it not have nearly the same
efifect on light warm soils that it has on those w hich are cold and
clayey ? Even in Great-Britain lime is never applied to warm, sandy
and gravelly lands. If, however, the farmer has any cold, loamy or
clayey lands, and hag limestone at hand, he ought to make accurate
trials of the efficacy of this manure ; but where this is not the case, it
is most probable that in thii country he can generally apply his time
to more advantage in procuring other manures. In stiff clays it is,
however, believed that lime will be found particularly useful in de-
stroying the adhesive quality of the soil. {See further, article Lime-
Btoe.)

Probably if lime could be easily impregnated with a due proportiou
of sulphuric acid it would then be as efficacious as gypsum. '-One
hundred parts of gypsum,'' says Mr. Chaptal, " contain thirty of sul-
phuric acid, thirty-two of pure earth, and thirty-eight of water." " If
it be kept in a fire of considerable intensity in contact with powder of
charcoal, the acid is decomposed, and the residue is lime."

" Gypsum is found in the earth in four different states: 1. In the
pulverulent and friable form, which constitutes gypseous earth, fossil
flour, Sec. — 2. In solid masses, which constitute plaister stone — 3. In
stalactites, and — 4. In determinate crystals of different forma."

" The colour of gypsum," continues the same author, " is subjt-ci
to a great number of varieties, which are the signs of various qualities
relative to its uses. The white is the most beautiful ; but sometimes
it is grey, and in this case it is less esteemed and less valuable. The
several states of the oxydes of iron, with which it abounds in greattr
or less quantities, constitute its rose coloured, red, black and varie-
ties."

For all light, hard and dry soils, which are not too near the ocean,
Ais is an exceeding cheap and valuable manure, and its use has tend
ed greatly to equalize the respective value of soils, by enabling the
farmer 'o render those which are light and sterile almost as produc-
tive as those which are naturally rich. From one to two bushels is a
sufficient dressing for an acre for a year or more. It is generally best
applied to red clover, by which means the soil is afterwards well fitted
fof other crops. It is excellent to apply to young plants of Indian

134 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

corn, about a tea-spoon full to each hill. It is perhaps more or IcAa
a stimulant to every kind of plant, except wheat and rye, and when
gown on these it has no very sensible effect ; but it afterwards covers
the ground with a fine sward of white clover, which is au indication
that it has enriched the soil, and fitted it for a better succeeding crop.
A rich sward will always afford a good crop of wheat or rye. In or-
der, therefore, for the farmer to reap immediate benefit from this ma-
nure on his poor fallow ground, let him apply the gypsum to it early
in the spring, and by the first of June following it will cover the field
with a fine growth of white clover; then let the ground be broken up
and well ploughed, and a good crop of wheat or rye may be expected,
perhaps nearly double the amount which the field would have pro-
duced without the gypsum. The field will also be left much richer
than it w as before the gypsum was applied. Gypsum has no sensible
effect when sown on herdsgrass.

The farmer should keep a due supply of this excellent manure, if
his linds are suitable for it. He will find thv\t, with proper manage-
ment, every bushel that he applies to his soil will yield him double,
treble, and even fourfold its value, according to his soil, and the price
which his gypsum costs him.

Mr. Livingston says, that in travelling through Flanders he found
that pyrites were used as a manure, particularly for grass lands, at the
rate of about six bushels to the acre. The seed grain is also covered
with it, as it is with gypsum in this country. This stone is sufficiently
impregnated with sulphur to burn when dry, and this is the method
there used to reduce it to poAvder. For this purpose it is laid in heaps,
aod when it has become red with burning, the fire is extinguished j;
ferr if it burns longer it becomes black, and then the quality is not so
good. After the burning it is easily reduced to powder; and as a
proof of its great value as a manure, he observes it is carried forty and
fifty miles into the country on the backs of asses.

Mr. Livingston is of opinion that the sulphuric acid in this, as well
as in gypsum, is the fertilizing principle; that in this slow combus-
tion this acid is ab£ori)ed in the burnt earth, while the inflammable
matter is dissipated ; aud that ihe union of the alkali aod the acid
forms a salt not unlike, in its chemical relation, to gypsum, or per-
haps one that is more soluble, more impregnated with the acid. Re-
ferring also to a circumstance mentioned by Duhamel, where this
acid being scattered over weeds, with the view of destroying them,
only made them grow with additional vigor, he observes, that proba-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 135

biy if it were diluted, and applied to the soil, or mixed with wood
ashes, and applied in that way, it might answer the purpose of gyp-
sum. And in order to find an acid that would be cheaper and better;
as being already composed of a constituent part of vegetables, he ob-
serves that the pyro-ligneous acid may be obtained at a trifling ex-
pense, by converting wood into charcoal, and condensing the vapor j
as the charcoal would of itself repay the expense of the operation,
particularly where wood is cheap.

Mr. Livingston further observes, that he has seen pyrites on his
own estate, and advises that experiments be made of this earth. It
is to be laid in beds about four feet thick, and while burning should
be stirred with a rake. When cooled, pound it fine and sift it. If
the earth should prove too inflammable, he advises to give it a mix-
ture of lime, which, by the process of burning, would be converted
into gypsum; or wood ashes would be found useful, if the pyrites
be in lumps it must be reduced to a coarse gravel before burning.

A due attefttion to the recommendation of Mr. Livingston on this
subject might be productive of very beneficial results, as no doubt,
many parts of the interior of this country may be Sbnnd abounding ic
pyrites which are destitute of gypsum.

Pulverized stone coal, says Mr. Muhlenbergh, is a good manure for
most soils. Four hundred pounds are sufiicient for an acre. Pulve-
rized charcoal is also said to be good, and the same is said of pulve-
rized slate, limestone, and shells of shell fish. The latter are also
good to be ploughed in whole in a dry soil, for the purpose of increas-
ing its moisture.

Burnt clay, good for cold stiS" soils. See articles Burnt Clat and
Burn-Baking.

Every part of animal substances can be converted into good m'a-
DUre. The flesh, in decomposing, discloses abundance of azote and
miasma ; and some of the constituent parts of blood are alkaline and
sea salts, oil, air, water. Sec. all of which are essentially the food of
plants. The bones, when powdered, are good as a top-dressing ; and
even the shavings of the horns, and of the hide when curried, are good
in composts, or when buried in light soils. The flesh should be spread
over the ground to rot, and be ploughed in. The blood is best used
in composts.

Of vegetable manures, those which are either ploughed down for
jreen-dressings, or are otherwise buried in the earth while green, are
nnicb more efficacious than when dried, especiaUy if long exposed t<?

136 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

the weather. See article Green- Dressing. Such may, howerer,
be useful when brought into cow-yarda and there mixed with the
dung of the cattle, by which means they absorb much of the stale and
juices of the excrements that would otherwise be lost. For this pur-
pose almost every kind of plant, whether green or dry, ie more or less
useful.

Of the contents of the barn-yard, horse dung is the worst, and sheep
dung is much the best, as a manure. If the former be suffered to lie
long in a heap it will be spoiled by its own heat, which is to be known
by its white mouldy appearance, and therefore should be applied to
the soil as soon as possible. It is most suitable for cold, wet and stiff
soils, and the same may be observed of sheep dung, though this will
greatly assist any soil. Cow dung is best for light dry soils. Every
kind of barn dung is much injured by being suffered to lie exposed t»
the rains, and therelore should be kept as much under cover as |)OS8i-
ble. It should be carted out in the spring, and immediately buried in
the euil for a crop of Indian corn or potatoes, in order that the seeds
of weeds which it contains may be destroyed by the hoeings and sub-
sequent ploughings. Or if any part of the dung be retained in the
barn-yard for makins; composts, it should be that which is under co-
ver; and if this be the horse dung let it he immediately mixed with
some cooling earths which are fit ingredients for composts.

Theee may be made of every ingredient that can be gathered to-'
gether that is calculated to manure the soil for which it is inteniled.
Clay, sand, mud, lime, peat, &c. may therefore be parts. To these
may be added the scrapings of the back-yard, turfs on which cattle
have long dunged, old rubbish of buildings, earth that has been long
covered, banks of rich earth that have been thrown up by the plough
against fences, and generally all rich earths that can be spared. On
the heaps of composts should be thrown all the soap-suds, dish-water,
meat brine, urine, water that has run from dung, and generally all
the filth that is collected in and about the house and barn.

Composts should be frequently stirred up from the bottom, in order
that a due degree of fermentation may eventually pervade the whole
mass ; and when it is in this state of fermentation it should be carted
out, spread evenly on ground well prepared, ploughed in very lightly,
and well mixed by the harrowings which cover the seed that is at the
same time to be aown.

A heap of compost of this kind may be made to advantage near
the dwelliag-hoose, for the purpose of receiving from it the additions

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 137

that may be affonletl there. Another may also be made adjoining
the hog-pen, to receive all its contents ; lor hog dung is an excellent
manure for alt dry soils.

These heaps of compost will be the better to be slightly covered,
so as to admit no more rains than will serve to keep them in a proper
degree of moisture. If properly prepared, they will be found much
superior to equal qnaaiilies of raw barn dung; and if proper pains be
taken very considerable quantities of them may be made every year.

An excellent method of making a large quantity of manure vith
little trouble, is as follows: In the spring enclose a piece of ground,
say ten rotls long and two wide : Have the two end feuces so that
they can he speedily removed at pleasure, to plough the ground more
easily. After ploughing it wiih a cleft furrow, turn the milch cows
and other young cattle upon it every night. After they have satu-
rated the surface, plough it with a gathering furrow; and so on alter-
nately, at intervals, until the ground is completely saturated with
their stale and dung. Then cart it off, and apply it as before directed
for composts.

• By first carting earth and rubbish into the barn-yartl, the same pro-
cess of making manure may be carried on there; but this requires an
additional carting, which greatly enhances the expense. It is usually
better to make these yards in suitable places, and drive the cattle
into them after the cows are milked. They may be made in the field
intended to be manured. Sheep, however, should never be shut up
in thi? manner, as it will be found more hurtful to them than the ad-
vantage gained by their manure is worth. Perhaps the same may be
observed of horses. Let a slight shed be made in a sheep pasture,
and under this cart a layer of sand or other earth : the sheep will re-
sort to this for shade if it be the only one in the fieUl. As they satu-
rate the earth thus carted in, bring iu more and spread it over the
other; as this becomes also saturated, let more be brought iu, until
the mass is raised so high as to render it necessary to cart it olf to
manure the soil, as before directed. The same process may be car-
ried on in the sheep-pen, during winter, to nearly equal advantage.
The earth becomes in this way so fully saturated with the uriue and
excrements that it becomes very good manure : for it should be re-
membered that the stale of cattle, and generally all urinary matter,
possesses very fertilizinsj qualities, and should n-.-ver be suflored to be
lost for want of something to absorb it. Human urine is, however,

18

138 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

much superior as a manure to that of brutes, and is excellent for gTa«^
when sprinkled over it. The stale and manure of horses and other
cattle, might in part be saved during the warm summer days in th«
manner above directed for sheep.

The reader will find the most efifectual and complete method of
making the most of the manure which is usually lost in summer, un-
der article Soiling.

The method recommended some years since by the Society of Im-
provers in Scotland, for making use of the ridges which are apt to ga-
ther along side of the fences in fields which have been long ploughed,
Bhall be here noticed. First plough the ridge deep with a clfitving
furrow, then cart on a layer of stiff clay, then a layer of barn (iuiig,
then another of clay, and on the top of the whole a layer of lime, and
cover the whole over with ploughed' earth from each side, and let it
lie a spelk After a while enter it with a deep cleaving furrow, and m
this way plough it to the bottom ; then go over it again with gathering
furrows, until the whole is thrown up in a high ridge, and in this situ-
ation let it again lie to ferment. Repeat this |)rocess of cleaving,
down and ridging up, at proper intervals, until the whole mass is well-
mixed and fermented, and then cart it out as a compost manure for
the soil, at the rate of about fifty loads to the acre.

The farmer may easily follow the directions here given, or he may
rary from them in regard to the component parts, so as to fit the com-
post for the soil for which he intends it ; and no doubt in many in-
stances it may be done to great advantage.

Mr. Davy, in his Memoir to the Board of Agriculture in England,
after mentioning the different results of analyzed earths which were
found extremely fertile, observes, that " in supplying animal or vege-
table manure a temporary food is only provided for plants, which is
in all cases exhausted by means of a certain number of crops; but
when a soil is rendered of the best possible constitution and texture
with regard to its earthy parts, its fertility may be considered as per-
manently established. It becomes capable of attracting a large por-
tion of vegetable nourishment from the atmos[)here, and of producing
its crops with comparatively little labor and expense. See further, ar-
ticle Earths.

When manures of the common kinds are to be applied, let them be
laid on pretty plentifully, and generally for that crop which needs
them most. They should be applied evenly to the soil. It is but
too common to see dung scattered thickly round where the heaps

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. S39

were laid in carting out, while the ground farther oEFhas little or none
on ,• but this is miserable management. All kinds of dung, in com-
posts or otherwise, shouW be mixed with tl>e soil as soon after cartiag
out as possible, as they lose mi>ch by drying and evaporation.

It should, however, be remembered, that soils may he overcharged
with composts or raw barn tUing. Too much of even composts in s,
sandy soil tends to overheat it, and thus lessen instead of increasing
its moisture ; and too much in clays tends to produce too rank a
growth. Raw barn tlnog may, however, be buried plentifully in
«lays, where its fermentation will be so slow as not to produce too
great degree of fertility. In sand, however, it is otherwise. Com-
posts, or raw barn dung, is much more efiBcacious to the growing
plants when laid in the drills where they are planted than when mix-
ed generally with the soil ; but as this requires muefa more labor and
expense, and as the ground becomes hardened by carting on the ma-
aure, it is doubtful whether any thing is, in general, gained by the
practice,

MAPLE, See article Sycamore.

MARES. Those which are kept for breeding are only here to be
noticed.

Mares should not be suffered to breed till after they are four years
old. They should be free from distempers, lest their colts inherit
them. They should be of good colour and size, well made, strong
and spirited, with bright prominent eyes. If the mare have any de-
fects, don't put her to a horse having the same. Alwut the first of
June is the proper time to put her to horse, and every ninth day af-
terwards till she refuses to take him.

iNIares with foal should be housed pretty early in the fall, and be
well kept till foaling. They should not be ridden swiftly, nor put to
drawing or earrj'ing burdens, for a month or two before foaling. The
smell of a hide newly taken off will make a mare lose her foal. When
about to foal they should be kept in a yard by themselves.

It is very desirable to have the breeding mares cast their colts after
the likeness of the horse, as in that case their own form and qualities
are not so essential. They should also give plenty of milk, in order
that the colts have a good first summer's growth. A further and very
essential requisite is, that they should be sure in being got with foal
every year, in order that the owner may not be disappointed in his
expectations of profit.

Good breeding mares are profitable ; but those not possessing the

140 far:\ier'S assistant.

above qualities had better he kept for some other use. Pastur-e*
which are wet, and hear coarse grasses, are usually applied with more
advantage to keeping breeding mares than to any other purpose.

DIARLE. See article Mam res.

MEADOWS. All mowing lands are properly meadows; but
when we speak of these in general, we mean low moist grounds,
■which in their natural state are best fitted for the production of
grass.

Many pieces of land of this description Avhich bear nothing but
coarse wild grass, might he made the best of lands b}' hollo\\-<lraining
and manuring with sand or other proper manure. This will render
them fit for the plough, and well suited for the |)roduction of the larg-
est crops of grass. Three tons of hay to the acre, beside fall [)astur-
ing, or perhaps a second crop, may be had from such pieces of land
after being thus improved. Such land would then be worth two hun-
dred dollars an acre, while perhaps in its natural state it would not be
worth thirty. Farmers should study their own ease, |)leasure and pro-
fit, l)y fitting a small piece of meadow so as to yield them a sufficien-
cy of hay. An acre, at two mowings, can be made to yield four tons
of hay, and at this rate ten acres would yield sulficient for a hundrei)
acre farm. The greater ease, and saving of expense, in gathering
forty tons of hay from ten acres of fine smooth meadow, instead of per-
haps twenty-five acres of rough meadow, ought of itself to be a suffi-
cient inducement for the farmer to improve a part of his meadows, so
as to answer in place of the whole.

Meadows may be |>a3tured in the fall without much injury, but not
.closely. The after-growf h of grass should never be too shortly eaten,
but a part should \^e left to cover Ihe roots during winter. Good mea-
dows are often, spoiled by close feeding in the fall ; and in addition to
this many farmers practice feeding them in the spring, until such time
as the upland pastures have grown. By this means the meadow is
poached, and the roots of the grass torn to pieces, in such manner
that not more than one half of the crop is to be expected that might
be obtained by pasturing moderately in the fall and none in the
spring. By this bad management, too, all the best grasses are eaten
out, as cattle will eat these Ihe closest; or being more tender, they
are destroyed by the feet of the cattle ; an<l in the mean time the wild
grasses usurp their places, to the great injury of the meadow.

Where a meadow is (|uile wild it should be mowed rather before
the grass has attained its full tiize, and in this way it may yield a tOr

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 141

lerable good second crop ; while each crop, by being mowed while
verj green, and by adding a peck of salt to every ton, may be con-
verted into good fodder. IJy mowing wet meadows very early, the
grass may be out of the way before the heavy rains which often fall
in the month of July. Meadows which are entirely of wild grass are
much less liable to be injured by close pasturing and the treading of
cattle than any other; the treading of such grass will not essentially
injure it, and cattle are never disposed to eat it very closely.

For destroying moss in meadows, see article Moss.

MELO^J. Seeds brought from the southward produce the best
melons, and the seeds should occasionally be renewed by a fresh sup-
ply from that quarter. Blr. Miller says they should be three years
old before planting, and that those which will swim in water should
be rejected. The ends of the runners, and the fruit last formed, says
Mr. Deane, should be taken off, in order that the fruit first formed
may have more nourishment, grow larger, and arrive to greater per-
fection.

A sandy loam, with a southern exposure, is best for melons. A
good manure to be put under them when planting, is an old compost
made of good loam and the dung of neat cattle or swine. The Can-
leloupe is the finest tasted melon.

METHEGLIN. A hundred pounds of honey is generally used to
make a barrel of this liquor, but Mr. Deane says he found ninety
pounds to answer very well. It improves considerably by age, and
becomes as strong as common wines. The liquor is made thus :
Take of honey and clear Avater, in the proportions above mentioned,
and boil them for an hour; when the liquor is cool barrel it, adding
£ome ginger, cloves and mace, though it will answer tolerably well
without these. Some yeast must be put in the cask to ferment it.
Let it have a little vent while fermenting, but close the vent as soon
as most of the fermentation is over. It will be improved by being
bottled after five or six months.

MILDEW. Mr. Young says that when the wheat-stem has a par-
ticular cast of a bluish green, it is then affected with mildew.

Mr. Marshal directs that as soon as wheat is discovered to be struck
with mildew it should be cut, and that this serves to prevent the ef-
fects of the mildew ; that wheat may be thus cut three weeks before
the usual time of harvesting.

The grain in this case will be smaller than usual, but will make
much better flour, and the quantity will be greater, as the skin will

142 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

then be found very thin. If the grain has attained its full size, though
only in the milk, it is sufficient ; it receives that nourishmeut Irooj
the stalk which serves to mature it. The green stalks of the wheat
must be sufficiently dried before slacking, and when carted in they
will be found bright and clear of the mildew, and will make good
fodder.

Mildew is probably owing to a revulsion of the sap in the stalks of
the wheat, occasioned by cool niglUs, when the atmosphere has be-
come cooler than the earth, which in that case forces the juices up-
ward too fast, and thus bursts open the stalks; as they are perhaps
more easily split than those of any other plant whatever. The know-
ledge of this, however, points to no practicable preventive of mil-
dew; all that can be done is to counteract its effects, as above di-
rected.

MILLET; (Paniann.) The stalks and leaves of this plant re-
semble those of Indidu corn, though much smaller. It grows to the
height of about three and four feet. A sandy soil suits it best, and it
ehould be sown in drills, about three feet apart. The plants should
stand about six inches apart in the rows after hoeing. It will pro-
duce as large crops as Indian corn, and bears drought admirably well.
A crop of it so^^Ti thick, and mowed green, is excellent fodder.

" This grain, (says Mr. Deane) is a good food for fowls and swine ;
for the latter it should be ground into meal. Some mix it with flour
in bread, but it is better for puddings."

MOSS ; (Lichen.) There are various kinds of this; some grows on
trees, on stones, on the shingled roofs of houses, on the surface of the
ground ; and some of a very minute kind, which is commonly called
jnoutd, on the surface and in the crevices and cavities of almost every
substance which is w et or moist.

Moss is particularly injurious to the growth of trees and of grass.
Its growth is encouraged on fruit trees, where the soil is either too
cold and wet, too sterile and dry, or too thickly planted. Where the
soil is too cold and wet, the best remedy is hollow-draining, and nia-
Huring with sand, sheep dung, and other manures suitable to the soil.
Where it is too sterile and dry, dig away the earth from about the
roots, and supply its place with a mixture of earth and mud from
ponds or creeks, or some other rich earth, that is better calculated
to retain moisture. Where the trees stand too thick, cut part of
them away, rub the moss otf the rest, and apply Forsyth's method
of heading don-n if necessary, making use of his composition to pre-
serve the wood. See article Frvit Trf.e«5.

FARiMER'S ASSISTANT. 143

Where moss prevails in grass ground, apply a heavy sharp iron-
toothed harrow to it, scarify the top of the soil till it is somewhat raw,
strew some seeds of herdsgrass, or other good grass, over it, and give
it a good dressing of a mixture of sheep dung and sand, or other warm
manure that is suitable to a cold soil. This is for grounds sufficiently
dry ; but if the moss be occasioned by too much wetness in the soil,
although the above method may prove beneficial for a while, yet
nothing short of hollow-draining will ever prove eflfectual for any con-
siderable length of time.

By experiments, says Mr. Deane, it is found that the common yel-
low moss is a good manure for potatoes. It would seem to be best,
however, when mixed with stable duog, or rather laid on top of it.
It is said to be very good to mix with lime in composts, as the lime
is best calculated to dissolve the oil which it contains j and oil is
known to be an ingredient in the food of plants. It is also recom-
mended to be mixed in dry sandy or gravelly soils, for the purpose of
enabling such to retain a due degree of moisture.

MOWING. This being a laborious employment, it becomes ne-
cessary for the mower to husband his strength to the best advantage.
For this purpose, the first requisite is to have a good scythe, of proper
length, if the mowing ground be not too rough, well hung on a light
stiff snead, so that the scythe will not tremble as it goes through the
grass, having the edge of the scythe to face the nib which is held in
the left hand, and to keep it well ground and well whetted. As
much art is requisite in keeping a scythe in the best order, as there is
in learning to mow well.

The sneads most commonly used are bent in a twisted shape ; but
some use a snead which is nearly in the shape of a half circle, and
the latter are always preferred by those who have become used to
them. They take a wider swarth with the same extension of the
arms; a larger cut, and therefore may be slower; require less stoop
ing; and from the position of the body which is requisite to enter tht
point of the scythe into the grass, being more twisted rouml to the
right, requires little more than bringing the body to its natural pes
ture to carry the scythe through.

Mowers should always be at their work betimes in the morning, s(y
as to have half their days's work performed before the heat of the
day; and then they can afford themselves a resting spell during the
most sultry hours. By this means, too. the mowed grass has a longer
time for drying during the day.

144 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Where mowins grounds or meadows are of perfectly smooth surface,
as they ought always to be, particular pains shouhl always be taken
in mowing to cut the grass as close to the ground and as evenly as
possible. Mr. Young remark:?, that grass will never thrive well that
is not mown quite close; and the loss in the crop where this is not
done is very considerable, " as one inch at the bottom weighs more
than several at the top.*'

MO^^■IXG GROUND. We generally apply this term to arable
lands that are laid down to grass. But little is necessary to be said
under this hea«l further than what has been said under articles
Grasses and Mf.adows. This may, however, be observed of all
grasses which are not biennial, that where the ground becomes Ixtuud
it is good husbandry to tear it well with a sharp iron-toothed harrow
before manuring, and in this way to mix the manure with the soil as
much as possible, particularly if the strength of the manure be such as
is calculated to evaporate by drying and exposure to the air. It may
also be further observed, that it is a waste of money to lay down to
grass lands which are exhausted by severe cropping, unless they are
of such nature as can be recruited by gypsum, or some other similar
top-dressing. Generallj', if lands be poor, and cannot be assisted by
gypsum, they ought to be recruited while under the plough, not while
under grass.

Ground that is full of small stones may be fitted tolerably well for
mowing b\' i)assing a roller over it after sowing; but the better way
is, to gather the stones into small heaps and carry them off, anil thej-
will then be of no further trouble in future crops. It is ahnost unne-
cessary to add, that all erass grounds should be laid down smoothly,
hy being well harrowed after sowing.

MUD. See article Manures.

MULBERRY : (Morus.) This tree is well worth raising, not
only for its fruit, and great use in feeding silk worms, but also lor its
timber and for fuel, as it grows very ra|)idly, and is generally well
adapted to our climate. It grows well in a deep dry soil that is mo-
derately rich. It may be raised from the seeds, or by cuttings or
slips. See further, articles Hedges and Silk Worms.

MUSTARD ; (Sinapis.) This plant requires a soil sufficiently
strong for turnips. Let the ground be well prejinred, by ploughings
and harrowine? early in the spring, and sow, of well ripened seed, at
the rate of two quarts to the acre. When the plants are a few inches
High, thio them so as to stand about ten inches apart, and destroy the

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 14a

weeds with the hoe. When the lower seeds are ripe-, the middle seeds
green, and the top of the plants in blossom, cut them with a sickle,
bind them in moderate sized sheaves, and put these in small stacks
for a few days. In this situation the green seed will soon ripen. Carry
the sheaves to the barn, having a targe cloth under them, to prevent
wasting, and in a fewdnys they will be fit for threshing.

The ground for raising this plant should be previously well cleared
of weeds.

N.

NEAT CATTLE. All tame animals which are fed in pastures,
are properly cattle ; but to distinguish the cow-kind from others, they
are usually called neat cattle.

Of these are various breeds, which appear to be original and dis-
tinct, though perhaps climates and soils may have done something in
producing these varieties. The most obvious of these is the Galloway^
or polled hreef], as they are called in Great-Britain, or the cattle with-
out horns. Other breeds in that country, where, perhaps, the greatest
variety is to be found, may be well worthy of notice.

1. The original or wild race of that country. Colour invariably
white; horns tipped with black; end of the ears, inside and out-
side, reddish ; black muzzles; flesh fine and well tasted.

2. The Devonshire 6rea/,said to be in part descended from the above
race; colour, light red, with a light dun ring round the eye;
thin face; thin skin; hips wide; tail quite low; rather small
boned ; horns turning upward ; the cows yield good rich milk ;
oxen good for draught and fatten early.

3. Dutch, or short horned breed ; hide thin ; horns short; tails set
high; colour, red and white nearly mixed ; tender constitutions;
fatten kindly, and yield large quantities both of milk and tallow.

4. Lancashire breed, with straiter horns than those of any other,
spreading widely and extending forward : lars'* and square built ;

19

146 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

fore-r(uarter3 deep; milk not aliiindant but rich; the animal
hard}'. From an intermixture of this breed with others. IMr.
Bakewell ol)tained his Dishlcy breed, which are remarkable lor
fatting very easily and u|)on the most valuable parts; though
they yield but little milk or tallow, when compared with some
others.
Considerable pains have been taken to introduce bulls of thi^, or
similar breeds, into this state, without any apparent knowledge of the
uses to which the calves from such bulls were to be applied. It should
have been understood, that such breeds are not so well fitted for milch
cows as for fatting cattle, and in England are raised for that purpose.
5. Hisihland brcctf, or Kylocs, with horns turned upwards; colours,
various, chielly black, though sometimes brindled or dun; hair
long and close; bodies well sha|)ed ; best suited for cold moun-
tainous countries ; good for milk, and kind to fatten.
0. Polled breed, before mentioned ; shaped like the Devonshire
breed, though rather shorter; hides moderately thick; hardy,
and fatten kindly on the best parts; flesh good, and well mixed
with fat ; oxen good for draft. A variety of this breed of cows
called the Suffolk duns, are excellent for the dairy. These are
small, lean, big-bellied, and of a dun colour.

7. Aldcrnai/, or French breed; suvdU, light red; smooth neat horns ;
tender constitutions ; rich milkers: flesh good.

8. Welsh breed, chiefly black ; small, with horns thick, and turning
upward ; well shaped ; vigorous, and well calculated for labor.

Our cattle mostly resemble those of the Devonshire, but evidently
we have mixtures of various breeds; so much so, that no specific cha-
racters can be given them. We have also the polled breed distinct
by itself; though sometimes they are found mixed with others.

Mr. Livingston observes, that black cattle are uncommon in
France, but almost universal in South Holland and Brabanl ; that
the butter made in the latter countries is much inferior to that of the
former; and hence he concludes, tliat the butter of black cattle is in-
ferior to that made from cows of lighter colours, which is agreeable
to the common received 0])iuion.

" A perfect cow," says the compiler of " The Complete Grazier^^
" should have a broad smooth forehead ; black eyes ; large clean
horns; thick skin ; large deep body ; strong muscular thighs; large
white udder, {yellow is better,) with four long elastic teals, together
with every other token requisite in a bull, allowing for the ditference

far:mer's assistant. m

of sex. They should also be young; for milch kine are not good for
breeding after they are twelve; though they will often live much
longer if kept well and free from diseases."

Heifers generally arrive at the age of puberty when they are
eighteen months ; though instances have occured where they have
brought forth calves before that time. The better they are kept the
sooner Ihey will breed. If, however, they breed so early, they
should be highly kept ; for otherwise, they will be apt to be stinted
in their subsequent growth. 3Ir. Bakewell used to keep his Dishly
breed of heifers from the bull until the age of three ; but Sir John
Sinclair attributes to this their often missing being with calf. It is
believed to be best to follow nature's law — let them go to the bull as
soon as they feel the inclination.

Breeds of cattle are usually much improved by crossing or mixing
difierent kinds together; and it also seems essential, that there should
be no pro-creation between animals which are nearly related. Let
there be little or no consanguinity between the bull and the cow
A\ Inch is put to him. This seems to be agreeable to the laws of na-
ture, and among men, is strikingly exemplified in the degeneracy of
the race where the peasantry of some small secluded districts constant-
ly intermarry with relatives; or where the pride of families has serv-
ed to preclude a due intermixture with others.

But i:i the best breeds of all animals, some of their young will al-
ways be found more promising than others; among cattle, therefore,'
where a selection is (o be made, pains should be constantly taken to
select the most promising for raising, provided they are brought forth
in the projjer season ; and this for calves should be early in the spring.
Those brought forth late will not so well endure the succeeding win-
ter ; and, if heifers, will usually go to the third year, before they are
w ilh calf, while those which were earlier calved, will usually bring
forth a year sooner.

In the selection and improvement of breeds of cattle, a due regard
is to be had to the uses for which they are intended. Thus, if the
best milch cows are desired, select from the breeds of those which
are known to be the best for that use ; that is, admitting the size to
be equal ; those which yield the most of such cream as makes the best
butter in any one year, are generally to be preferred. This is to be
ascertained by keeping the milk of different cows separate, an«! then
the quantify and quality of their products can be easily determined.
The size of cows is not so material ; as, it is found that all cattle eat

148 FARMER^S ASSISTANT.

nearly in proportion to their respective sizes: What wouhl he neces-
sary to feed one of the large Lancashire hreed of cows would be near-
ly sufficient for two of the Alderney breed, before mentioned ; while
the milk of the two latter, would, probably, nearly double that of the
former There is hardly any breed of neat cattle but what are sufh-
ciently large for milch cows, if well kept; for it should be remember-
ed, that all cattle will grow much larger, if well kept, than if kept
poorly, during the winter season particularly.

In Great-Britain, much pains have been taken to select breeds
which should unite the two most valuable qualities, of being the best
for milking, and the kindest to fatten ; but hitherto such breed is said
not to have been found. Sir John Sinclair, however, observes, " It
is probable, that by great attention a breed might be reared, the males
of which might be well calculated for the shambles, and the females
produce abundance of milk, and yet when they reached eight or nine
years might be easily fattened." He further adds, that some of the
English and Scottish breeds have nearly reached this point of per-
fection.

If the object of the farmer or grazier be merely to raise cattle for
fatting, then, perhaps, some of the larger breeds may sometimes be
best. In large towns particularly, a piece of a mammoth ox, when
highly fatted, seems m.ore desirable, and will usually commaud a great-
er |»rice, than an equal weight of equally good beef of a small animal.
The Dishly breed, before mentioned, are highly esteemed in Great-
Britain for this purpose. The most essential points, however, in a
breed for fatting cattle are, that they grow rapidly, in order that they
may soon attain their full size; that they are of comely shape, (or this
will usually enhance their price with the butcher ; that they keep
easily and fatten kindly, and on the best parts, as the English graziers
say ; and that their beef be tender, sweet flavored, and well mixed
ivith fat.

In this country but little has been done in the way of raising cattle
which are only intended for fatting. Our working oxen are usually
bought up at the age of seven or eight years for the purpose. For
the best breed of working oxen, therefore, due attention should be had
as well to their possessing the foregoing requisites for good fatting
cattle, as to their being strong, hardy, quickpaced, and good for the
draft.

The signs of a good ox, says IMr. Deane, are, thick, soft, smooth,
short hair; short thick head: glossy smooth horns; large shaggy

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 149

ears; wide forehead; full black eyes; wide nostrils; black lips;
thiok ne?h} neck; large shoulders ; broatl reins ; large belly ; thick
runi)) and thighs; straight back ; long tail, well covered with hair;
and short broad hoofs. The best colors are brown, dark red, and
brindled.

Young steers which are intended for labor should be early yoked
and taught to draw; for if this be delayed till they have attained con-
siderable growth, they are more ditficult to break. They should be
moderately worked at first with old oxen, till they have acquired suf-
ficient strength, and become enured to labor.

If yokes be used, let that part which rubs against the breast ami
neck of oxen be rubbed with tallow, when worked much in wet
weather, to prevent soreness.

When an ox is eight years old he should be turned off to fatten;
and to promote his fatting, let a little blood be then taken from him.
If kept longer his flesh will not be so good.

Lord Kaimes observes, that among caltle, the strongest rules and
claims precedence by taking the lead; that if the strongest ox be not
therefore first unyoked he is apt to be unruly while his fellow is letting
loose.

At the age of four years, all neat cattle have one circular ring at
the root of their horns, and one additional ring yearly thereafter.
When, however, they become quite old these rings become so indis-
tinct as no longer to be separately perceptible.

For the bull, the finest looking calf, possessing as nearly as can be
judged, the foregoing requisites for a good ox, should be selected, and
from the finest of the breed which he is intended to propagate ; and
he should not be suffered to go to a cow until he has attained a good
growth. Suffering young, or dwarfish, or ill looking bulls to go to
cows, only tends to degenerate the breed ; and, in the two former
rases, the cow by being served with such, frequently misses having-
a calf.

The bull should have good keeping, so that he may be in prime
condition when he is put to cows. When he is about eiaiht years old,
if he grows cross and mischievous, he should be castrated and turned
off to fatten. Bulls may be broke Avhile young, and worked, and then
Ihey prove much less refractory.

In regard to calves, those which are brought forth early, are best
for raising, as they will endure the first winter better ; and, if heifers,
xf\\\ generally be with calf a year sooner than those brought forth late

150 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

The most promisinsj calves should be selected for rearinsr, for the uses
intended, and the rest fatted and killed. In fatting such, >Ir. Deane
advises, that they be taken from the cow the next day after they are
calved, and let them have only two teats of the cow to suck during
the first week, three during the second, ami all during the third and
fourth; and in this wny, he says, they will he fatter in the end than
if they had all at first. The teats which are not given them should
be previously milked.

In Holland, calves are fatted in coop? or pens made for the purpose.
These are merely narrow boxes with bottoms of lattice work, Just so
Tride as to admit the calf to lie down, but not to turn roun<l, and suf-
ficiently high to stand up in. They hold but one calf at a time, which
is kept in darkness. When it is to be fed, a small hole is opened in
front, just large enough to put its head through, which it readily does,
being attracted by the light, and the pail of milk is then presented to
it to drink. A lump of chalk is also hung up by the door for the calf
to lick at. The box or pen is to be kept sweet and clean. In this
way, says the compiler of " The Complete Grazier;' they fatten much
faster than in any other.

AVhefher calvts are kept for fatting, or for rearing, feeding them
three times a day is much preferable to feeding them only twice ; but
whether fed twice or thrice a day, the times of feeding should be re-
gular, and as nearly equi-distant as possible.

Dark coops or boxes, something similar to those above described,
are also provided by some of those who make a business of fatting
calves for market, in the vicinity of the large towns in Fngland. where
they are treated in a manner similar to that above mentioned. Fresh
litter is constantly provided for them to lie on, and jiarticular atten-
tion is paid to their cleanliness. The use of the chalk is lor correct-
ing the acidi'y of their stomachs. Pains are also there taken to have
oalves brought forth at different times during winter for fatting, as the
veal then commands a great price. They are kept five or six weeks
before they are killed ; and a little before killing, an«l also, when
about four weeks old, they are plentifully bled ; taking as much away
as they can well bear, which is usually about a quart at each time.
The principal use of the bleedings is to give a superior degree of white-
ness to the veal. Keeping them in dark places tends to keep them
(]uiet, so that they do not fatigue themselves by too much exercise.
They are fatted with various kinds of food besiile nilk, as that is in
such places too valuable to be much used. The most commoo ar-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 151

tides used are chopped turnips and |)otatoes, grains, bran, sweet hay,
Arc. No doubt, a little flaxseed broth, mixed with hay tea, would be
an excellent addition.

In regard to the best food for rearing of calves, the method pursued
by .Mr. Crook, as mentioned in " The Letters and Papers of the Bath
ami JFest of Endand Society;' deserves to be mentioned. la 1787,
hepnrchased three sacks of linseed, value 2/. 3^. (equal to about nine
dollars,) which lasted him three years. One quart of seed was boiled
in six quarts of water for ten minutes, to a jelly, which was given the
calves three times a day, mixed with a little hay-tea. Thus he was
enabled to rear in 178 7, seventeen calves ; in 1788, twenty-three;
and in 1789, fifteen, without any milk at all : And he states, that his
calves throve much better than those of his neighbors which were fed
with milk. Thus, it seems, that less than eighteen cents worth of
flaxseed, with a tritle of hay, is suflicient for one calf. Linseed-oil
eakes, when pulverized and boiled, make an equally good broth,
or jolly.

The above is nearly similar to the directions of Mr. Clift of this
state. He directs, that after the calf lias been fed for a fortnight upon
sweet milk, give it skim milk, mixed with an equal or larger quantity
of flaxseed broth or jelly, and let it be given to it milk warm. Enough
jell> may he boiled at once for three or four days ; but if the weather
be warm, it will spoil by souring. With this drink, xMr. Clift says,
calves will thrive as well as if fed on sweet milk. For learning a
calf to drink at first, the best method is, to let it suck your finger with
its nose in the milk.

3Ir. Budd, of 3Iassachuselts, directs to take the calves from the
rows when three days old. and feed them with gruel composed of one
thiril barley and two thirds oats, each ground fine, and the mixture
gifted. A quart of this gruel is to be given to each calf morning and
evening. The gruel is made by taking one quart of the flour, and
t\velve of water, and boiling them together for half an hour, and is to
be given when milk warm. In about ten days after commencing the
feeding, tie up and suspend a bundle of sweet hay in the middle of the
pen where the calves are kept, which they will eat by degrees. A
little of the flour put into a trough for them to lick, is also of service.
Feed them till two mouths old, increasing the quantity as they grow
larser. Half a bushel of the above mixture is suflicient for one^calf.
The communication of the above method, obtained for Mr. Budd the
prize from the agricultural society of Massacliusetts.

152 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

When calves are put into pasture, it should he such as i? dry and
sweet. White clover is the best for them ; red clover or trefoil is also
gooil. Mr. L'Honiinedieu recommends, that there be no water in the
pasture, but sufficient of shade. The effect of this is, that the calves
learn to feed at night, or when the dew is on., and lie by in the day ;
and as grass while wet with dew is believed to be most nourishing,
they will, in this way, thrire much better than those which have fret-
access to water; for this, it is contended l»y Mr. L'Hommedieu, tend?
to stunt them and make them pot-bellied. Probably the better way
is to give them a little nourishing drink, at certain times, when the
dews fail, or at mid-day when the weather is very warm.

When the weather is pleasant, after being put to pasture, the males
may be castrated and the females spayed, if they are designed to be
raised for fatting.

During the first winter, calves should be kept in a comfortable
place, and have plenty of good fodder and a little Indian meal, or
other nourishing food. They should have shelter earlier than larger
cattle, as they cannot so well endure the first approach of cold
weather.

Although calves until a year old should have the best of keeping,
let it not be supposed, that they will afterwards thrive well with very
indifferent keeping. It is but too common for farmers to turn their
young 2;rowing cattle into jioor pasturesof stinted growth, or into wood?
•where there is not sufficient for them to eat ; by means of which their
growth is retarded, and what is sometimes worse, they learn to be-
come habitually unruly, from the constant temptation they are under
of breaking into fields where there is plenty.

In the first settling of new countries, the extensive woodlands may
afford plenty of good food for young cattle ; but the woodlands of old
settled countries afford but little food that is well calculated for their
nourishment and growth. In such cases a few cattle are sufficient to
overstock the woods, so as to leave them little to eat, excepting what
is obtained to the great injury of the young growth of timber. Grow-
ing cattle, if their pastures be not of the best, should nevertheless have
plenty to eat of that which is middling good,^nd the same may be ob-
served in regard to their winter food ; they should have plenty of such
fodder as they will eat freely, and they should be well sheltered from
the severity of the weather. When ex|)Osed to cold rains in winter,
they are frequently more injured than when exposed to much colder
snow storms. From eachof these they should be sheltered, as well as

FARMERVS ASSISTANT. 15S

rVom the cold winds. In short, the better and more comfortable young
cattle are kept, the larger and more rapid will be their growth; and
although middling good keeping will answer, they will do better with
better keeping.

The keeping of cows in such manner as to make them give the
greatest quantity of milk, and with the greatest clear profit, is au es-
sential point of economy. Cows are in general very poorly kept in
this country. By better keeping they would afford more clear profit.
Give a cow half a bushel of potatoes, carrots, or other good root, per
day, during the six winter months, beside her hay, and if her summer
feed be such as it should be, she will give nearly double the quantity
of milk she would afford, if only kept during winter in the usual man-
ner, and the milk will be richer and of better quality. The carrots,
or other roots, at nineteen cents per bushel, amount to about eighteen
dollars. The addition of milk, allowing it to be only three quarts per
day, for three hundred days, at three cents per quart, amounts to
tW'enty-seven dollars. It should be remembered too, that when cows
are thus fed with roots, they consume less hay. They are also
less liable to several diseases, which are usually the effect ol poor
keeping.

The feeding of milch cows, cattle for fatting, and for labor, with
roots and cabbages, is a very prominent part of the employment of
the British graziers, and of farmers who attend to the dairy. For this
pur{)Ose, fields of turnips, cabbages and carrots are yearly raised, and
fed out to the cattle during the fall, winter and early spring. Beets,
potatoes, and the Jerusalem artichoke, are also found to be good for
this purpose.

Our winters, however, being much severer than those of Great-
Britain, renders the feeding of cattle with roots, <fec. less practicable
than it is in that country. It is more suitable to the climate of the
states south of Pennsylvania. Much more, however, might be profit-
ably done in this way, even in winter, than is generally imagined. If
the farmer, or grazier, were first to provide himself with a cellar or a-
partmeot under ground, sufficiently large for storing away his roots,
and sufficiently warm to prevent their freezing, with a place in it also,
for a sleam-boUcr, for steaming the roots, he would then find but little
difficulty in dealing out this food to his cows, &c. even in the coldest
weather. In this ca-^e, however, they must be kept in stalls, with
troughs suitable for this kind of food. Nor is there any additional ex-
jvnnsp in fliis : as it 1? well ascertained that this is the most economi-

20

154 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

cal method of keeping milch cow?, working, and fatting of cattle, a»
well during winter as during summer. In winter, as the> c i tie
kept warmer, ainl more comfortably, less fodder is requisite to keep
them well and much less is waited.

See article Soiling for the reasons why stall feeding is also to be
pTeferred in summer.

Su also, article Stable, &.'e.

For a description of a stcam-boiUr, su article Swine.

If milch cows be pastured in summer, they should have the best or
first feeding of each pasture lot.

S(e article Pa-'Tlre.

See also, article Grasses, as it respects those which are best for
pastures.

They should hare plenty of water and that which is good. It is
also good for them to have plenty of shade to which they can retire
during the heat of the day. They should be kept quietly, not suf-
fered to be worried with dogs, or by having stones or clubs thrown at
them as is but too common ; nor should they he forced to travel too
far, by hariDg their pastures at too sreat a distance; for these are
idl matters which are essential, in order to their giving the greatest
possible quantity of milk.

In regard to milking and the proper treatment of the milk, see ar-
ticles Dair\. Cream, Chi rn, Bluer. Cheese, 6cc.

"\\ hen cows are kept very fat they will not give so much milk.
The proper state to keep them in. during winter and summer, is that
In which they are usually found when ted in good pastures during the
latter season. On the contrary, where they are suffered to grow poor
daring winter, and particularly about the time of calvine, their milk
^vill be greatly lessened in quantity during the following season. If
they are plentifully supplied with food as nutricious as that of green
grass, they will usually give plenty of milk until very near the
time of calving.

Some cows are naturally barren, and this is said to be always the
case where a male and temale calf are brought forth together ; the
male in such cases is perfect, but the female is incapable of pro-
pagating.

Particular attention should be paid to cow s in regard lo their keep-
ing for some weeks before calving. They should have plenty of good
hay. and other succulent food, such as roots of the kinds before men-
tioned, or cabbages with the decayed leaves taken off; or, if in the

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 155

growing season, they should have plenty of good sweet pasture, or
other good green food. The day and night after a cow has calved,
she should be kept housed, and her drink should be lukewarm when
given to her. Let her be kept up for three or four nights thereafter,
so as not to be exposed prematurelj^ to the cold or dampness of the
atmos[»here, for this tends greatly to weaken her. If she does not
clean well after calving, Mr. Deane directs to give her a pail of warm
water with some wood-ashes in it. Particular attention should be
paid to this, for if the after-birth be suffered to remain in the uterus, it
will become putrescent, and the smell will sometimes communicat^
an infection among other breeding cows. They will also sometimes
incline to eat the after-birth, which should be prevented.

For cleansing the cow, the directions in " The CempUie Grasier"
are, to put about three quarts of water over the fire, and when warm,
stir in as much oatmeal as will make a strong gruel ; stir it till it boils;
then stir in a quart of ale, or two of table beer, and a pound of treacle,
, and give it to the beast when lukewarm. This will also prevent their
taking cold.

To regulate the state of the bodj', give a mash of bran, wetted with
warm water. Where the udder is hard, it should be milked three or
four times a day ; or the calf should be allowed to suck at pleasure;
and care should be taken that it sucks all the teats, for when any of
these are sore the cow will sometimes prevent their sucking them. If
the kernel of the udder is hard, the hardness may be removed by rub-
bing it three or four times a day.

The natural position of the calf in the uterus, is, with its forefeet
and head foremost ; the forefeet lying parallel on each side of the
head, and the back uppermost. When found in any other position, it
is unnatural, and the extraction of the calf then frequently requires
more than ordinary skill. I have known them safely extracted by
fixing a hook with a cord to it, in the under jaw of the calf, and gent-
ly drawing them away. If the flesh of the cow be torn in the opera-
lion, it should be carefully sewed up, and if afterwards swollen, wash-
ed with warm milk and water. If the cow disowns or refuses to lick
the young calf, a little salt sprinkled upon it will have the desired
effect.

Sometimes, cows, from abusive treatment, violent exercise, or that
unnatural appetite, called longiti^, slink their calves ; and in such
case they should be carefully treated, and kept warm and clean till
they recover. If they exhibit previous symptoms of this, it may fre*
ijuently be prevented by bleeding them two or three times.

156 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

It would be a great improvement of our husbandry, if our farmers
and graziers, stimulated by the exam[)le of those in Great-Britain and
elsewhere, would enter largely into the culture of roots and cabbages
for feeding milch cows and fatting cattle; as the business when well
conducted is very profitable. In Norfolk, and other countries of
Great-Britain, great quantities of turnips are raised and mostly used
for fatting. During the fall they are put into carts and scattered over
the stubble of the last harvested wheat-field, and pains is taken to
scatter them over every part of the ground successively, in order that
each part may have equal benefit from the manure thus bestowed oii
the land. The turnips are raised with an iron instrument fixed to a
handle ; on the other side of which instrument are edges set crossways
to cut each root in four pieces as they are raised. After the cattle
have eat their allowance, which should be no more than they can eat
at once, they should have some hay given them. Part of the crop
of turnips are also gathered and stored away for winter feeding, and
some are left in the ground for spring feeding.

Other farmers and graziers, again, feed their fatting and other cat-
tle, in stalls, where cabbages and roots of different kinds are fed out
to them ; and this is believed to be the most economical way. These
various articles of food are much more efficacious by being steam-
boiled.

For the various roots, &c. to serve as articles of food, see articles
Carrot, Parsnip, Potatoe, Jekusalem Artichoke, Mangel-
WuRZEL, Beet, Tlrmp, Tlrnip Cabbage, Cabbage, &c.

In stall-feeding, as well as in soiling, great attention should be paid
to the comfort and cleanliness of the cattle. Dr. Anderson says, they
shoidil not only be kept clean and well littered, but they should be
currieil daily in the manner of horses, and that they will fatten much
faster, and keep better for this. He also says, that particular atten-
tion should be paid to their having pure water, and such as they are
fond of. It is obvious, that if such water be not given to cattle, they
will not drink as much as they want, and will, therefore, remain in
a sufifering condition, which is repugnant to good keeping or easy fat-
ting. They should also have water often, so as not to be at any lime
euPering for want of it. Dr. Anderson states, that he knew a man
whf» anained great opulence by attending strictly to these matters,
particularly to the important point of having a continued supply of
the purest water lor his milch cows ; nor would he suffer the animah
to put a foot in it, or even to be tainted by their br»aih.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 157

In addition to the various roots there used for feediijg and falling
cattle, meal of different kinds is used to advantage, either when mix-
ed with steamed or saw chopped roots, or with chopped hay, or straw.
Instead of wasting the straw, as is but too common liere, it is all
eaved, and used lor littering, and for chopping up with straw-cutting
machines, for the purpose of mixing with other food, and thus a great
saving is made of hay. It would also be a great improvement to chop
up our corn-stalks in the same manner. The kinds of grain which
might be used here to most advantage for grinding up and mixing, as
before meutioned, are probably Indian corn, rye, and buckwheat.
Machines are also used in Great-Britain for grinding different kinds
of grain by hand, with which a man may grind a bushel or more in h
quarter of an hour.

In addition to the above articles for fatting and feeding are the
grains of breweries and distilleries, and the refuse or wash of starch
factories, which, as they are all in a state of acidity are considered by
some to be the better on that account for fatting. Mr. Young particu-
larly recommends, that all meal should be in a state of iermentation
before it is fed out. The grains of breweries, &c. may be kept during
summer in vats under ground, being first well trod down, and then
well covered with a sufficient depth of earth. Oil cakes are also of
great use for fatting, and for feeding to cows before calviog, for the
purpose of increasing their milk. It however makes the beef which
is fcitted solely with it, of a loose flabby texture, which is not so agree-
able. Flaxseed broth, or jelly, is also much recommended for fatting.
It is made by putting about a quart of flaxseed to seven of water, and
then let stand about forty-eight hours ; after which it is to be boiled
gently for two hours, minding to stir it frequently, lest it burn. After
it is cooled, it is to be mixed with n^eal, bran, or cut straw, and fed
out at the rate of about two quarts a day to each beast, and it is said
to make a great saving in the article of food.

It is stated in " The ComjjUte Grcizier" that an intelligent farmer
of this country, but of what part is not mentioned, tried fatting with
turnips from October until February, and that his cattle rather lost
flesh; but that on his substituting hay, chopped potatoes, and Indian
meal mixed together, they soon fattened. Probably a difference in
climates may produce different results in regard to roots which are
used for fatting. But as the cattle in question were fed entirely ou
turnips, which might have produced too great a degree of laxity or
scouring, it is probable, that had the turnips only constituted the same

158 FARMER'S ASSISTAIST.

proporHou of food which the potatoes did, they might have proved
equally nourishing. In regard, hciwever, to raising the different ar-
ticles for feeding and fatting, those should be cultivated which yield
most in the different soils and climates of this country : and which at
the same time, are found most efficacious lor fatting, or in |>roducing
the most, and the richest and best flavored milk.

On the experimental farm of the Marchioness of Salisbury, TGreat-
Britain,) parsnips are preferred, as well for feeding as for fatting: and
(br the latter use are esteemed almost equal to the oil-cake. The
milk of the cows fed with them, is also very |)lenlirul, rich, and well
tasted. Next to the parsnip, is, perhaps, the carrot. Mr. Yuung
states, that four bullocks, six milch cows, and twenty working horses
were fed a few years since at Partington, in Yorkshire, for above five
months with carrots, which were the protiuce of three acres only, and
with no other food than a little hay during that time. He adds, that
the milk was excellent in quality and flavor ; and that the refuse or
waste, with a small quantity of other food, fatted thirty swine.

The hay used for feeding and fatting is greatly im|)roved by the
addition of a little salt. I\Ir. Darke, of Breedon, (Great-Britain.) says,
that by adding only eight pounds of salt to a ton offloaded mouldy
hay, he found that his oxen did better on it than others which were
fed on the best.

The proprietors of the Bolingbroke distillery, near London, says
the compiler of " The Complete Grazier,'''' have erected stalls for fat-
ting about three hundred and fifty head of cattle at a time. The stalls
are paved with brick, and great attention is paid to keeping them
clean. The food for fatting is the wash or grains of the stills, and haj*,
and occasionally, chopped oat or barley-straw. The hay or straw it
given twice a day, that they may ruminate as usual; and they
!iave as much grains as they can eat. In general, they come
readily to this food ; though some are four or five days before they
become fond of it. They are usually fatted in about sixteen weeks.
The grains are conveyed to the stalls in tight bodied carts, made for
the purpose, and turned into vats fitted for their reception. Others
again, practice chop|)ing the hay and straw fine, and mixing it with
the grains in the vats, and letting the mass lie two or three days, in
order to give the taste of the hay to the whole. The cattle thus kept,
afford great quantities of excellent manure. Particular attention is
paid to their littering, in order, that when done eating, they may lie
down and repose comfortably ; for comfortable and quiet repose, as
well as cleaulineps. i? deemed essential to their speedy fattin'.'

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 1^9

It would seem, that the saccharine parts of vegetables contribute
very essentially iu Tatting, and for this reason, molasses has been suc-
cessfully used in the West-Indies for fatting the poor old worn out oxen
that are used there. About half a pint is given them twice a day,
mixed with other food for this purpose.

A beast will eat more in a cold day than in a warm damp one; and
therefore, where messes are dealt out in stall feeding, regard should
be had to this circumstance when the food is such as may cloy the
cattle, and thus weaken their stomachs ; for in that case they are lia-
ble to fall back until the tone of the stomach is recovered. Regula-
rity in the times of feeding, and that Ihose times be as nearly equi-dis-
tant as possible, are also essential points to be observed.

The quantity of food to be given to fatting cattle should be in pro-
portion to the weight of each. An ox will eat a little less than a fifth
of his weight per day of cabbages, and about a third of his weight of
turnips, beside a little dr}-^ food to counteract the super-abundant mois-
ture of the roots. For middle sized animals from a bushel to a bushel
and a half of brewers or distiller's grains, with some dry food, will be
consumed in a day. About a sixth part of the animal's weight, with
the addition of some dry food, is the proper alioAvance, per day, of
carrots or potatoes. About a pound of powdered oil-cake, and another
of hay, for every hundred weight of the animal, is the usual allow-
ance per day of this food ; but the quantity of the former is to be gra-
dually increased as the fatting progresses, until it is one half more
than at first.

It is stated in the work last mentioned, tliat every load of hay and
litter given to beasts fatting on oil-cake, will make seven loads of dung;
and, that one load of this is more efficacious, as a manure, than two of
common barn dung. It is also there stated, that Mr. Moody littered
forty-five oxen, while fatting, with twenty waggon loads of stubble,
and that the product of dung, when rotted and fermented, was six hun-
dred tons. Another trial is also there mentioned, of Blr. White, who
tied up thirty-six cows and four horses, and while they ate fifty tons
of hay and had twenty acres of straw for litter, made three hundred
tons of rotten dung, in good order for the land.

In addition to gathering stubble for the purpose of littering, our
farmers may supply themselves with ample quantities of dry leaves
every fall ; as they may be easily raked up and gathered in the woods,
lor the purpose. Mr. Livingston makes mention of his having used
fbi^ substitute, in his valuable essay on »he«p.

160 FARMER'S ASSISTArsT.

It may not be amiss to observe, in concluding our remarks on feed-
iog and I'attinc, that as the larger English breeds require richer pas-
tures for thriving well than the smaller, many of the best English
graziers hare latterly preferred the best selections of the latter, as
being on the whole most profitable.

When a beast is well fatted, outwardly, it is indicated by its plump
and comely appearance ; its skin on the lowermost ribs will leel kindli^
and mellow^ as the English graziers say — that is, soft and yet (irm to
the touch ; the part where the tail is set on, will feel plump and »oft ;
and the natch bones, as they are called, which lie on either si<le of the
root oi" the tail, will feel loose and nell covered. When also the cod
of the ox, or the navel of the cow fe*'! thick, round and plump, and
the hips are well covered, these are indications of their being well
lined with tallow.

As the grazier is usually less skilled in judging of the weight of live
cattle than the butcher, Lord Kaims advises selling them by weight.
This may be done in a manner very similar to that commonly iirac
tised for weighing loads of hay. The beast is to be suspended by
being put in a box made for the purpose.

The weighing of cattle, T-,ord Kaims well observes, is also ustfjl in
order to ascertain whether each beast fattens in proportion to the va-
lue of the food bestowed on it; as it may, in some instances, l>e bes*
to dispose of such as do not.

The four quarters, says Lord Kaims, are aI>out half of the whole
weight of the beast when alive, and when its !>elly is moderately lull;
the skin is about the eighteenth part: the tallow aI>oul the twelfth;
the remainder is composed of the head, feet, tripe, bloo«l, 6cc. which
offals never sell by weight, but in proportion to the weight of the beast-
With a knowledge, therefore, of these particulars, aud of the market
price of the beef, tallow, skin, <fcc. the farmer or grazier can ascertain
%vhat his beasts are worth when alive.

By weighing fatted calves when alive, says the same author,
and deducting eight pounds from every twenty, the remainder will
prove to be about the weight of the four quarters.

The diseases of neat cattle are various : and frequently new and
uncommon diseases occur. A farmer in this vicinity, (llerkinur,)
informs me that he lost eleven head during the last winter. (1813.) by
a new, and till then, unknown ilisease. When hiscattle were attack-
ed with this disorder, it was indicated tty small protu!>eranccs api>ear-
ing round the neck ; and after the beasts died, some of these were

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 161

opened, and were found to be full of worma or maggots. Probably, if
these liim|)3 or protuberances had been opened and cleansed, whea
they first appeared, the cattle might have been saved.

A disorder prevails among neat cattle in the northern parts of this
state, which is usually termed the hooJ-aiL It has ruined many hun-
dred cattle in this county. It would seem that the feet of the cat-
tle first become diseased, and then they are frozen during the course.
of the winter, after which they are of no further value except for
their skins.

There is probably something in certain soils which is calculated to
injure the feet of cattle in the fall, and thus render them more liable
to the frosts of winter. In Herkimer county, those cattle which are
kept on farms of moist rich soil have been most liable to this disorder;
and it is believed, that such as are fed on sandy, sandy loam, or grav-
elly farms, have seldom suffered in this way. Probably it would be
found, that pursuing the soiling husbandry, feeding the cattle with
plenty of rich food, as has been before directed, and keeping them
well littered in warm stables* would at once be the most profitable
and effectual method of avoiding this disordes.

In the spring, our cattle which have been ^poorly kept through the
winter, are subject to a wasting of the pith ol«the horn, which is usu-
ally called the horn distemper. It is sometimes in one horn only and
sometimes in both. The indications of the disease .are coldness of
the horn, dullness of the eyes, sluggishness, want of appetite, and a
disposition to lie down. When the brain is affected, the animal will
toss its head, groan, and exhibit indications of great pain. To cure
the disease, bore a hole with a small gimblet in the lower side of the
horn, about an inch from the head, and the corrupted matter in the
hdrn will run out. If this does not complete the cure, Mr. Deane di-
rects, that the horn have a mixture of rum, honey, myrrh, and aloes
ihrown into it with a syringe ; and tliat this be repeated till the cure
be effected. Probably warm water thrown in would answer just as
■well ; as the essential point seems to be to cleanse the horn of the cor-
rupted matter.

Another disease, to which our poorly kept cattle are subject in
the spring, is commonly called tlie tail .sickness. In this case the tail
becomes hollow and relaxed. The cure is effected, says Mr. Deane,
by cutting of a small piece of the tail, which will be attended with a
small discharge of blood; or when the hoilovv part is near the end,
cut a slit in it one or two inches long ami this will effect a cure.

21

162 FARMER'S ASSlSTAN'r.

The gripes or cholic, is mostly troublesome to young cattle. Wheu
attacked with K, they lie down aud rise up incessantly, and keep strik-
ing their horns against any object that presents. It is attended either
with costiveness or scouring. In the former case, they are to be treat-
ed with purgatives, and in the latter w rth restringents. To stop the
purging, give them half a pint of olive oil sweetened with sugar; ora
quart of ale mixed with a few drops of laudanum, and two or three
ounces of oil of sweet ahnomls. To promote purging, give them five
or six drachms of fine Barbadoes aloes, and half a pint of brandy,
mixed with two quarts of water-groel, in a lukewarm state. These
are the directions of" The Complete Grazier " but it is believed, thai
Other purgatives and restringents would answer as weH. In either
case speedy attention to the beast is necessary, in order to prevent aa
inflammation of the intestines, which most prove fatal.

The scourmg is known in neat cattle by the frequent disoharge of
gTimy excrement, loss of appetite, loss of flesh, increasing paleness of
the eyes, and general debility. The beast should be immediately
housed and put to dry food, and this in the early stages of the disease,
will generally effect a cure. Should it, however, fail, it b directed in
the work last mentioned, to bort a pound of mutton suet in three
quarts of milk, till tlie former is dissolved, and give it to the beast Id
a lukewarm state; or, in obstinate case?, boil half a pound of pow-
deretl chalk iu two quarts of water, till it is reducetl to three pints ; add
four oaoees of hartshorn shavings, one of casia, and stir the whole to-
gether; when cold, add a pint of lime water and two drachms of the
tinctuf e of opium ; keep the whole in a corked bottle, and after shak-
ing it before using, give one or two hornsful two or three times a day,
as the nature of the case may require. Sometimes, however, thi?
disease proves incurable.

Cattle sometimes become hovcn, as it is termed, owing to eating too
much when first turned into rich pastures, to swallowing potatoes, or
other roots without sufficient chewing, and to other causes. The
stomach of the animal becomes distended with wind, and if a vent
for this cannot be afforded the beast must die.

The usual remedy is to open a hole with a sharp pointed knife,
with a blade three or four inches long, between the hip and the short
ribs, where the swelling rises highest, and insert a small tube in the
orifice, till the wind ceases to be troublesome. The wound will
soon heal again.

But some of the English graziers have adopted an improved method
oT obviating this con>i>laint; this is by providing a flexible tube, with

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 163

d knob at one end ; the tube with the knob-end foremost, is run down
the throat of the beast into its stomach, and then the confined air
escapes through the tube. The operation is repeated if necessary.
The tube for a large ox should be upwards of six feet long, as that is
about the length requisite to reach to the bottom of his stomach.

The method recommended by Mr. Young for curing this complaint,
k, to take three fourths of a pint of olive-oil, and a pint of melted but-
ter, or hog's-lard, and pour this mixture down the throat of the beast j
and, if no favorable change be produced in a quarter of an hour, re^
peat the dose. For sheep, about a gill should, in like manner, be giv-
en, and the dose repeated, if necessary. Mr. Young asserts this to
be a specific which will not fail of a cure in half an hour.

To prevent this disorder, cattle should not be turned at first with
empty stomachs into rich pastures ; nor should they be allowed to feed
on potatoes and some other roots, without their being first cut in pieces.
Where a beast, however, hapi)ens to get one of these in its throat,
which cannot be forced down, take a smooth pliable rod and make a
knob on the end, by winding and tying rags round it, and run this
«lown its throat into the stomach, which will force all I?efore it into
that receptacle.

The staggers are easily known by the drowsiness, lethargy, and
staggering gait of the animal. This disorder is sometimes occasioned
by plethora, or fullness of blood, and sometimes it is seated on the
brain ; in which case it is incurable, unless by trepanning. In the
former case, the remedy is to keep the beast housed and bleed and
pqrge it sufficiently.

For wounds of cattle, see article Wounds.

The ovcrfiomng of the gall, which is also sometimes called the yel-
loivs or jaundice, is known by the yellow tinge in the mouth and eyes,
and sometimes the whole body assumes a yellowish cast. The nose
is dry ; the udder of the cow becomes swollen, aod yields but little
milk, which also becomes yellow and curdled on being boiled, and
sometimes the fore teeth become very loose.

The beast affected with this disorder should be housed and have
two or three gentle purges ; then give it, twice a day, a pint of beer
in which has been iafused, for three or four days, about an ounce to
each quart of the filings of iron, and a small quantity of hard soap.
Let the beast be well kept during the time with warm messes of bran,
and other nourishing food, to which some olive-oil, or other purgative
medicine should be added, if the beast be costive.

164 far:mer's assistant.

For curing this ili-onler. Mr. Deane directs-, to take an eg« aotl
empty it of its white, retaining it? jo'ik, and fjli the cavity wiih equal
quantities of soot, salt, and black pe|>|»er; draw out the tongue of the
beast, and with a smooth stick push the egg down its throat. Repeat
this two or three mornings, and he says, it will seldom fail of a cure.

Sometimes^ however, this disonler does not jield to the power of
medicine, but at length turns to the black Jaundice, which la in-
curable.

The disorder called red reeuer, or Toiding blootly urine, it is believ-
ed, has seldom or never prevailed in this country. Its attacks are
mosiiy on young beasts, which in that case are seen leaving the herd
and exhibiting freqaent ineffectual attempts to void uriue.

The British practice has been to house the beast and give it two
doses of glauber-sa Its, of a f>ound each, in two succeeding days; but
this practice is condemned in •' Thf CompUtc Grazier,''' and instead
of purgatives, strong decoctions of Peruvian or wliite-oak bark and
alum, are recommended to be given, in such quantities, and at such
time?, as the violence of the disease maj' require.

The pantane is known by the jianting or heaving of the animal'^
flanks, which is accompanied with trembling and a decay of flesh.
House the beast, and give it, every six hours, during the continuance
of the chilly symptoms, a quart of warm strong beer, in which a table
spoonful of laudanum, another of ground ginger, and two of the spirits
of hartshorn have been infused. The beast should be fed on sweet
hay, and well littered. Its drink should be warm water, with a little
nitre dissolved in it, if there be symptoms of fever. As it gains
strength, let it out in the middle of the day, until such time as it
has fully recovered.

The inflammanan of the liver is indicated by ferer, difficult breath-
ing, a sweliiog near the shorter ribs, and in cows, a remarkable dis-
tension about the womb. Cattle affected wiih this disorder will never
fatten. It ii sometimer hereditary in certain breeds; in which case,
it b incurable. In the work last mentioned, it is recommended to
house the beast, bleed it profusely, aodgiveit the following meJicine
in a tepid state, vii :

Saltpetre and glauber''s salts, of each two ounces; Venice treacle,
mithridate and white gineer, pulverize-d. of each one ounce; let these
be boiled in three pints ot water, in which may be gradually added,
one gill of oilof sweet almonds, the whole being stirred together. This
13 rj5&cieat for one dose, which should be repeated the succeeding day.

FARIMER'S ASSISTANT. ]65

Warm messes of bran shoaid be the principal diet of the beast till it
has recovered.

The injlammarion of the lungs is known by a shortness of breath,
and a painful cough. The animal looks dull ; the skin is hot and
harsh ; and a copious discharge of thick ropy phlegm issues from its
inouth. House the beast, bleed it plentifully, and give it a dose com-
posed of the flour of sulphur, balsam of sulphur, syruj; of colt's-loot
and oil of sweet almonds, of each an ounce, blended together. If the
above treatment produces no visible alteration in eighteen hours, re-
peat it. Probably any other purge would answer as well as the above.
Let the beast be kept comfortable and have some exercise every day
till it recovers.

The lockcd-jaw is similar to that in the human frame, is caused by
similar means, and requires a similar treatment. If the beast be hardy
opiate frictions, and dashing on of cold Avater is recommended. If it
be of slender constitution, opiate frictions and warm fomentations of
the part affected is directed. As the beast cannot swallow, let gruel
be poured down its throat with a horn till the disorder is removed.

The indications of colds in cattle, to which they are mostly liable
in the spring, are hollowness of the flanks, roughness of the coat, he^t
of the breath, and running at the eyes. House the beast, keep it
■warm, and if it be very feverish, bleed it pretty freely, and let its
drink be warm, and have some nitre dissolved in it. Expose it to
the air, at first, in the middle of pleasant days, when recovering.

Cattle are sometimes poisoned by eating poisonous plants, or by
being bit with mad dogs, ic. In the latter case, if the wounde(' part
be cut away shortly after the bite, and then be kept open for some
time, it is, perhaps, the only eflectual remedy. Dr. Grouse's prescrip-
tion for curing the bite of mad dogs, as made public in pursuance of
a law of this state, is believed by many to be effectual, and is certainly
worth the trial. It is believed, that any medicine which is very
strongly anti-spasmodic, if given plentifully, and in proper season.
Mill counteract the effects of the bite of mad animals.

For the bite of rattle-snakes and most other vipers, a plentiful dose,
and repeated when necessary, of olive-oil, has been found effectual in
most cases.

Other diseases of neat-catlle, it may not be amiss to mention, which
have, at times, prevailed in particular places. Some years since, a
very fatal disease, which principally attacked calves in the fall, and
yearlings in May and June, and Bometimea older cattle, prevailed in

166 PARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Connecticut. It was called tiie mortification. Those in the ben
eonclition were most liable to it. Its symptoms were ao aversion to
move, a swelling most commonly in the region of the kidney, but
sometimes in the shoulder, leg, flank, or side, 6cc. ; and in a short
time the beast died with little pain, but with a very foetid smell. On
examining the swellings, they were found to contain a jelly and black
blood. The cause was ascribed to fulness of habit, and a too sudden
change from indifferent pastures into such as are very rich. Bleeding
was recommended as a preventive. No cure was discovered.

A disease, something similar to the above, prevailed, about sixty
years since, in the north of England, which was commonly called the
black quarter. Bleeding was found a preventive; but in very few in-
stances was a cure effected, after the beast was seized with the dis-
order. This was ascribed to too much succulent food when given to
beasts of full habit.

It would seem, generally, that cattle in a plethoric state, when
overfed with rich food, or when too suddenly surfeited with it, are
suddenly indisposed and carried off before relief can be given. Ther«
are, however, epidemics among cattle, as well as among men, the pre-
cise causes of which may oftentimes be difficult to ascertain. Gene-
rally speaking, it is believed, that among the horned race eilher plen-
tiful bleeding, or purging, or both, will be found a preventive, and in
inost instances, a cure, of the maladies which are usually most fatal to
them from too full habit.

When oxen are long and hardly drove in rpuddy roads, particularly
where the soil is calcarious, they are liable to a soreness between
their claws. This will make the beast lame; and when diecovered,
the part should be cleansed and healed with some pro|)er ointment.
Sometimes, from inattention to this, the part becomes horny ; in this
case, the hard parts must be cut avvay and the wounded flesh cured.

A general indication of health in neat cattle is a moist or wet nose,
and when this is found dry, it is a certain symptom pf disease of some
kind or other.

Cows have some diseases which are peculiar to them, such as those
attendant on calving, and such as affect the udder, 6:c.

The udder is divided into as many apartment? as there are teats, so
that if one or more of these are diseased, this docs not affect the rest.
The milk of one teat may be gootl and that of another bad. The udt
ders of cows may be injured in various ways, and swellings and inflam-
mations are the usual consequence. These must be removed, or the

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 167

beast will be in danger. Mr. Deane, speaking of hard swellings in the
udder, which he calls the garget, recommends making a rowel or se-
ton in the dewlap, and inserting therein a piece of the root or77ifc/M>a'
can, as large as a nutmeg, with a string fastened to it, so that it may
be drawn out when the cure is efifected ; and this, he says, will cause
a revulsion of the humor in the udder into the orifice in the dewlap,
where it will be discharged. When the cure is effected, the piece of
root is to be drawn out by the string. Probably a common rowe!
placed in the breast or dewlap, would answer the same purpose.
Where hard tumors have formed, the compiler of " The CompUlt
Qrazier"' recommends, to take of common hemlock, (conium macula'
turn, J dwarf or round leaved mallow, (maha rommUfolia,) and com-
mon millilot, (trifolium miUilotus,) of each a handful, and boil them in
water; with this wash the tumor, after it has opened ; the water to be
as warm as the beast can bear it; and after thus cleansing the part,
cover it with a plaister of basilicon ointment. The following is also
recommended in the last mentioned work, in obstinate cases of ulcer-
ated udders; take gum ammoniac, gum galbanum, castile-soap, am!
extract of hemlock, of each one ounce; form them into eight boiusses,
and give one every morning and evening. It is observed in the
same work, that internal remedies are always necessary where the
fidder and teats are considerably inflamed, and for this purpose another
internal medicine is mentioned, viz: Four ounces of nitre mixed
with a pound of common salt ; give two table spoonsful of this, pow-
dered in a gallon of thin water-gruel, every three hours.

Where the inflammations are less violent and exliibit no symptom
of increasing rapidly, it may answer to anoint the udder frefjuently
during the day, with fresh butter; or with a salve made of an ounce
of castile-soap, dissolved in a pint of sweet milk over a gentle fire:
or with an ointment made with the juice of the leaves of the thorn;
mixed with hogslard ; or the tumor may be anointed with a little
mixture of camphor and blue ointment ; and let about half a drachm
of calomel be given, in a hornful of warm beer, if the malady in-
crease.

Where the teats are only sore, they may be washed with soap-suds^
and rubbed with an ointment made of white-lead and goose-grease,
or fresh butter would perhaps do as well.

The proper position for tlie calf to lie in the calf-bed has already
been mentioned ; where, therefore, it is not presented in this position,
s»t the time for its birth, and by reason of this the cow cannot deliver

168 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

her burden, it becomes necessar}-, if posjible, to place it properlyi
Where this cannot be done, the niethoti of extracting it by a hook
fixed in the under jaw, as before mentioned, may l)e frequently suc-
cessfully practiced. Sometimes the hind [)art5 of the call are fore-'
most ; and in this case it is best to extract it in that position, by pro-
per force used for the purpose. Whatever assistance, however, may
be requisite in these cases, it should be given with care and judgment,
minding to hurt the cow as little as possible.

Another impediment to calving, as noticed in the last mentione'd
work, is owing to a part of the natural passage becoming of so horny
or 6rm a texture, that it will not yield or distend. When on tlue ex-
amination this is found to be the case, insert a sharp pointed penknife
with the forefinger to the back of it, to guide it correctly, and with
this carefully cut the horny circle through, which will immediately
give the animal the requisite relief, if proper assistance be also given.
In this case, as in others where the passage is wounded, or torn, it
should be bathed with a pint of camphorated spirit of wine, injected
with a syringe ; the beast should be housed and ke[)t moderately
warm, and well and dryly littered, and l)e fed with wholesome nourish-
ing food, and with drink a little warmed.

'Yhe falling down of the calf-bed frequently happens after a labori-
ous birth ; though some cows are naturidly ili3[)0ied to this disorder.
Where this is apprehended, it is directed in the last mentioned work,
that the cow should be carefully watched, and the placenta, or clean-
ing, removed without effusion of blood : afler which the operator may
gently replace the calf-bed, taking care not to withdraw his hand till
the former begins to feel warm. The following draught may theif be
given : Of baj'-berries, pulverized gentian-root, and corriander-seeds,
each an ounce; of aniseed and juniper-berries, each two ounces ; to-
gether with half a pound of treacle, and the whole put into three pintfi
of strong beer. After this, it is advisable to lead the beast gently
down a hill, if one be near, which will assist much in placing thecalf-
l>ed in its proper place, and render the application of stays to the
womb unnecessary. Where the calf-l>ed, however, comes down, and
no immediate aid can be had, the parts exposed should be laid on,
and kept covered with a linen cloth ; and when replaced, bathed with
a mixture of new milk and spirits ; alter which the above treatment
may be pursued.

Some cows have a peculiar shape of the binder parts which tends to
produce this malady ; and in such ca?e. it is perhaps difficult to pre-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 169

Vent it, unless it can be done by keeping their hinder paHs higher
\han usual, while confined to their stalls, about the period of ges-
tation.

The pxierperal fever is caused by taking cold while calving. Cows
thus affected should have housing and good treatment, as has been
directed in other cases, and the head should be placed highest, in or-
tfer to assist the natural discharges. In other respects they should be
treated as in cases of violent colds, except that no blood should be
taken, unless, perhaps, in violent cases, and then only at the com-
mencement of the disorder.

Close attention should be paid to cows, as well as to the females of
other kinds of cattle, about their periods of gestation. They often
then stand in need of some skilful aids, which, if rendered in due sea-
son, may save their lives ; and which if not thus afforded, may be of
essential loss to the owner.

Calves are also liable to some diseases, and in some countries, to
such as do not prevail in others. In this, it is believed, they are sub-
ject to but few. One, however, which frequently attacks them is
looseness or scouring. It is sometimes caused by their having the
milk of the dam too soon; sometimes by too frequent changes of the
milk which is given it. One method of cure is to stint the animal of
its food, and give it once or twice while fasting, a hard boiled egg»
mashed fine and well mixed with its milk. Another directs that pow-
dered chalk, mixed with wheat flour, and made into balls with gin,
(brandy would seem to be better,) be given the animal as a safe
medicine.

Calves are also liable to coMs, in which case they should have a
treatment similar to older neat cattle.

In the foregoing observations, which are rather miscellaneous in
point of form, no attention has been paid to the various terms which
many English farmers and graziers apply to cattle of different kinds,
ages, and conditions, further than such terms are usual in this country.
We have plain English enough for every purpose of this kind ; and
there is no need of farmers having a vocabulary for cattle, con-
sisting of barbarous words, which none but themselves would be like-
ly to understand.

NEW HORSE-HOEING HUSBANDRY. In the year 1731,
Mr. Tu!!, an ingenious farmer of Great-Britain, published a book un-
der this title, and aftei wards further supplementary essays on the

0<>

170 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

same subject, the object of which was to introduce a new" system ti^
husbandry, particularly in the culture of wheat. His method is this r
The ground is ploughed into ridges of about five, six, or seven feet
wide, and then smoothed with the harrow ; then the seed is sown in
straight lines by a drill in small furrows, about two inches deep; two
of these furrows being placed together at the distance of about nine
inches, with au interval between these and the next two of about two
feet; so that a horse-hoe, or a horse-plough can be run between them.
As the seeds are dropped by the drill-plough, they are covered by
little harrows, which are fastened to the plough, and follow after it.
The horse-hoe has already been mentioned ; it is the invention of Mr.
TuU ; but 1 imagine the one horse plough is just as good. After the
plants of wheat have got to a proper size in the fall, the horse-hoe, or
plough, is run close to the plants, on each side of the double rows, and
the furrows are turned from them ; and thus, Mr. Tull says, the grow-
ing grain should be left during winter; it being, by this process, laid
so dry, that it will be in no danger of being thrown out of ground by
the winter frosts.

Early in the spring the earth is to be turned to the rows, then in
May, from them, and in June to them again. Some weeds which will
rise between the double rows and round the stalks, must be taken out
by hand.

This culture, Mr. Tull says, is equally well applied to barley, anrt
some other kinds of grain. For barley, it has been found to answer
very well here; but for wheat, in particular, it will not answer. It
makes this grain grow so rank and thrifty, and continue so much be-
yond the usual time in the green state, that it generally becomes
blasted or mildewed. Probably the same fate would, in some mea-
sure, attend this kind of culture with regard to rye, if a culture so ex-
pensive could, in this country, be atTorded to that grain.

Mr. TulTs leading principle is, that fr€(juent ploughings have the
same effect on lands as manuring; and this, in general, is believed tO'
be correct tl>ough not e(iually in all soils ; that by this constant plough-
ing or horse-hoeing, the lands will be sutficiently and constantly ma-
nured ; that soils not very rich can, in this way, be made to produce
very large cro[>s ; and what is sometimes important, they can thus be
made to produce the same crops every year; as the ground is plough-
ed up again as soon as the grown crop has been harvested.

Although the husbandry of Mr. Tull will probably never come into
general use in Great-Britain, where, from the coolness of the sum-.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 171

men it will always answer best ; yet, the drill plough, and the me-
thod recommended by him, of ploughiug among plants, are each
founded in an accurate knowledge of good husbandry, and the latter
will ever be found best in the cultivation of many plants ; such as
beans, Indian corn, carrots, cabbages, potatoes, Sec. ; and, no doubt,
barley, and probably, some other kiuds of grain may in this manner be
successfully cultivated.

Mr. Dean says, he has cultivatetl barley in this way and never had
less than forty bushels to the acre.

NURSERY. It is not advisable to make a nursery on too rich a
spot, because if the trees be afterwards transplanted into poorer ground
they will not thrive so well. It is better that the change by trans-
planting, be from a poorer to a richer soil. A gravelly loam, or sandy
loam, should be preferred for a nursery.

Let the ground be ploughed very deeply, early in the fall, and be
well mellowed ; then lay the seeds, or stones, along in straight rows,
and let them be laid plentifully, in order that enough may come up.
The next year they are to be thinned, so as to stand at proper dis-
tances, and the ground is to be kept hoed, and clear of weeds and grass.
After they have had one summer's growth, they may be cut oflf near
the ground for grafting.

•See article Grafting.

Inoculation, may also, at this growth, be successfully performed
on them.

See article LvocrLATiox.

They should afterwards be kept clear of weeds and grass, by hoe-
iog among them, until they are transplanted.

Where snows fall deep, they are apt to bend down the young trees,
and make them crooked; the best remedy for this, is, to drive down
stakes, proportinate to the height of the young trees, and tie them to
these in such manner, that the bark will not be injured by the string,
nor by rubbing against the stakes. This is to be done after graft-
ing them.

Some sow the seeds, or stones, on a small spot, and afterwards
plant them out in the nursery. This may be best for stone fruit : but
for apple-trees, sowing the seeds in the pumace is the easiest methodr
and answers as well as any ; and for other seeds, or for acorns, if oaks
are to be raised in a nursery, the above method will answer very
well.

172 FARMEH^S ASSISTANT.

Many trees are propagated from the slips, or cuttings, Buch as iht
Lomliardy ))oplar, mulhtrry, and others.

For raising apple- trees in this way, see article Slip?.

O.

OAK; CQuercus.) European writers mention many more species
of the oak than we have iu this country. We have the live-oak, which
is a native of the southern states; the black-jack, which is found in the
middle stales; the black ■ oak i the chesnut-oak ; the shrub- oak ; and
the red-oak, of which hotanists reckon three varieties; the red, the
yellow, and the swamp-oak. All the dififerent species, except the two
first, are to he found in each of the states.

The white-oak. which grows in moist uplands, is generally of the
most rapid growth, and the firmest timber ; and, therefore, such
grounds ou^ht to be chosen for cultivating it, as it is the oak that h
generally preferred for cultivation.

For an approved method of cultivating it, see article Forests.

The oak is also cultivated in nurseries, and then transplanted at
pleasure.

Mr. Forsyth, in speaking of those which are raised in nurseries^
tays, it is a generally received opinion, that when an oak looses its
tap root in transplanting, it nevtr produces another; but this he found
to be a mistake. He transplanteil a be*l of oak plants into a fresh bed,
cutting off the tap roots near the small fibres shootini; from them; the
second year afterwards he headed dfiwn one half of the plants, and the
other half he left to nature.

For his method of heading down, see article Frtit-Tbees.

During the first season, thos-e which were headed down made shoola
fix feet in length, and covered the tops of the old stems, leaving only
a slight cicatrix, and produced new tap roots upwards of two feet long

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 173

The others which were not headed down, did not grow to one fourth
of this length. He iurther says, that when the former were eighteen
feet higli, the latter were only five. This case is cited by him as a
striking instance of the superiority of his method of heading doivn over
the common method of managing trees.

His method of curing, or restoring old hollow and diseased trees,
which are partly dead, is also generally applicable to the oak.

For the method of doing this, see also article Fruit-Trees.

The farmer who finds his stock of good oak timber growing more
scarce, should turn his attention to the means of replenishing his farm
with this valuable timber. When planted on little heights and de-
clivities, he may find the growth of oaks ornamental to his farm, as
well as profitable, by raising its value ; and it may afford him much
pleasure, in his more advanced years, to observe their increased di-
mensions, Avhile in his mind he rolls back the wheels of time to that
period when they were but acorns in his hand.

The bark of the white oak is best for tanning. The inner bark of
it when reduced to a powder, and administered in the manner of the
Peruvian bark, answers nearly the same purpose, but the doses must
be larger.

The juice of the galls of the shrub-oak, is excellent for making the
best ink, and is also a component part in black dies. They are form-
ed by an insect's depositing its eggs in the tender rind of the twigs of
the tree ; and through the wound thus made, this black juice oozes«
and forms a tumor, sometimes as large as a walnut, in the heart of
which the young insect is to be found.

OATS : (Avena.) The clear profit which can be obtained from
a crop of oats is at best but small. They exhaust the soil, and render
it unfit for bearing a good succeeding crop of wheat. Their principal
recommendation is, that they are an excellent food for horses, par-
ticularly in travelling, being of a loosening nature, while most other
grains are binding.

Carrots and potatoes maj' be made good substitutes for oats ; and of
these, an acre will produce an abundance, without esseulial injury to
the soil.

Oats, like most other kinds of grain, require the ground to be pretty
well prepared and to be in good heart. It is a mistaken notion, (hat
they will do well with indifferent culture. If the ground be suitable
for gypsum, that manure applied to the crop will greatly increase it.
Two bushels are generally sowed to the acre, but whether «o mw\\

174 PARMER'S ASSISTANT.

seed be necessary, is doubtful. 1 have seen very heary cropf raisej,
where but one bushel to the acre was sown.

A moist soil and a moist climate is best for oats ; in order, there-
fore, that they may not be cut short by the early droughts which fre-
quently prevail, it is advisable to sow them as early as the ground can
be well prepared. They will, however, do rery well when sowed
late, provided they have moisture suflBcient during the beat of
summer.

Oats, like most other grains, "will degenerate, if the seed be not fre-
quently changed.

OLIVE ; (CHia.) This tree is famous for the production of oil.
It thrives well in Italy and the southern parts of France, and it is be-
lieved, it would grow well in some of the southern states. The winters
here are too severe for it. We have, however, a plant which is said
to be an excellent substitute.
S(e article 5i>-Flower.

It has been found, in France, that immemngthe olive frvit in vine-
gar, before pressing out the oil, will improve the quality, and add a
tenth more to the quantity.

ONION ; fjllium.j In the northern parts of this state, onions
may be raisetl on soils which are suitable, at the rate of 500 bushels
to the acre, and perhaps more. They require a warm, rich, mellow
foil; and if it be somewhat s^rwly, it uill be the better. They will
grow year after year in the same soil.

To prepare the ground at first for this crop, it is well to plougn it
in the fall, but not deep. It is said, that they will grow well, yearly,
©n the same soil, without ploughing or digging, but by merely loosen,
ing the ground to the depth of two inches by a heavy iron rake. Be
this as it may, the ground ought to be well mellowed on the top, and
then marked out into beds about four feet wide ; then with the end of
a stick draw lines across the beds, about ten inches apart and strew
the seeds evenly along in these, and cover them over by hand. They
may also be sowed with a little band drill. For fear the seeds may
not all come up, it b beet to sow them pretty thick, and if they come
up too thickly, they can afterwards be thinned. Some jdant then) in
boles, about ten inches distant from each other, in straight rows, each
way like hills of corn, putting about eight seeds in each hole. This
method is attentled with the least trouble in weeding, as the wee»Jing
boe can t>e run each way between the bunches while growing, though
it is believed, that the other method will give the greatest prodact

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 175

After the plants have come up, all that is requisite is to be vigilant in
destroying the weeds by the hoe and hand-weeding, as often as they
appear. It is essential to keep the weeding hoe well ground, as it will
not cut off the weeds unless it be kept sharp. Its edge should be of
well hardened steel.

When the stalks have become dead and dry, the onions will have
ceased to grow, and then they should be pulled, and laid on the ground
some days, to dry and harden, before they are carried in. Those
w hich have thick necks and the bulbous part small, and are common-
ly called scallions, may as well be left in the ground during the winter,
as they will continue green till that time ; they will stand the frosts,
and the next spring will grow in their places to be good onions; or
they may then be taken up and set in a bed made for that purpose.
At all events, they are good for nothing without a second year's
growth.

There is a kind of onion, which, instead of bearing seed, bears
bunches of small onions on its top, and these being preserved and set
out the next year, grow to be large, and their tops again bear the
small ones. Probably these are best calculated for more southerly
climates, though they grow very well in this.

In the fall, after the onions have been dried, and the tops cut off,
they are to be carried in and spread over a t!oor; and, at the com-
mencement of cold weather, put into casks, and set in a place where
Ihey will not freeze. A little freezing, however, will not essentially
injure them. The place where they are kept, should not, at all
events, be too warm anil moist, as this wil^ cause them to rot. If
they be kept where they are somewhat frozen, they should not be dis-
turbed in their frozen state; but the better way is, not to suffer them
to be frozen, but to keep them in a temirerature a little above the
freezing point.

Those which are slnjjped from New-England^ for market, are usually
tied up in wisps of straw, and if they be hung up in this way, they
will, perhaps, keep longer than any other. If they incline to sprout,
sear the roots with a hot iron, which will stop their growth.

To obtain seed from the onions, plant them in the spring in bed?,
about nine inches apart. Take the largest and soundest for this pur-
pose, and keep them clear of weeds while growing. When they have
come to a head, tie them loosely to stakes drove down for that pur-
pose; otherwise they will fall to the ground, and then the seeds will
not come to perfection.

176 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Soot is said to be the best manure lor this root, aud aslies are also
said to t>e good. It dung be use<l, it should be such as is well rotted,
and in which there is no seeds of weeds.

Some practice beating down the tops when the onions have acquir-
ed a pretty good size, for the purpose of making the roots grow taster;
but it is doubtful whether this be any service to them.

OKCHARD. Farmers olten make use ol their most level pieces
of land for planting their apple-orchards, l)ui this is sometimes bad
management, as such grounds should be reserved lor the plough. Un-
even grounds ought rather to be applied to this purj»ose, if the soil be
good. The best soil is a fertile sandy loam, or gravelly loam. A
fertile sandy soil will do much better than a stiff soil, though it be ever
90 rich.

The first step toward making a good orchard is to prepare a nursery
of the best grafted fruit, of such kinds as are suitable to the different
uses to which they are to beapnliei'. Cyder being the principal, the
scions for grafting should be taken from trees which have the follow-
ing qualifications; that bear every year and plentifully, of apples that
ripen in the right time for making this liquor, and which are mellow,
of a rich juice, and make a fine tasted cider. Trees possessing all
these qualifications in the highest degree, are not perhaps to be found
in every orchard : but they should be sought after; and, wherever
found, they alone should be used for obtaining a supply of scions.
The mere grafting indiscriminately from other trees, without any re-
gard to the goodness of their fruit is of no use to an orchard. Trees
may be found which yield, on an average, forty bushels of good cider
apples every year, which is sufficient to make five barrels of cider:
Sixty of such trees may stand on an acre, and would give three hun-
dred barrels of cider; which is, probablj-, trn times the product that
is usual!}' obtained from that extent of ground. Say, however, that
trees can be selected, which, after they have grown to a good size,
will, on an averaee, each yield, yearly, twenty bushels of apples ;
this will he sufficient to shew the vast importance of grafting from
the best selected fruit-trees, in preference to planting orchards in
the common way. '

It is well for the farmer to have four or five different kinds of cider
apples in his orchard, and some that ripen sooner than others, in order
that he may have more time allowed him for making all his ciiler;
but it is believed to be much the best not to mix different kinds of ap-
ples together in making it.
See article Cidfk.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 177

^ht sattie pains ougiit to be taken in the selection of scions from
proper trees, to afford yearly, a sufficient stock of winter apples. The
like attention should be paid to having a proper selection of early ap-
ples for summer use.

Some very fine apples, of diflferent kinds, for cider, and other uses,
are extensively cultivated in New-Jersey, which may be found well
Worth the attention of the farnrer in procuring scions from the differ*
-ent trees.

In planting an orchard, it is advisable to set the trees pretty close*
ly ; and if they are found, when they are well grown, to be too close,
(he poorest ones may be then taken down to afford more room for the
test. The distance, therefore, of from twenty to twenty-five feet, be-
tween the trees, will not be found too close at first. For the first five
or six years, the ground should be well manured and cultivated with
hoed crops; taking care to have the rows of trees in a line with the
different rows of these crops, so as to be out of the way of the plough.
The ground about the roots should be kept clear of grass and weeds,
and the plough should not come so near as to injure them. A strong
growth of grass immediately round every kind of young fruit-tree, is
injurious to their growth, and therefore, should never be sufiiered.

Mr. Forsyth obs/»rres, that much the greater part of the wood of
fruit-trees, grows on the north side; and, that therefore, the young
trees when set out in the orchard, should be set with the same side to
(he north as when they stood in the nursery. For this purpose, the
north side of the tree may be marked, before it is taken up.

Farmers should attend more to the cultivation of the pear-tree ia
their orchards. They are, perhaps, as profitable for cultivation as the
apple-tree; they suit a stiff soil better ; they may be equally improv-
ed by grafting ; they are less liable to the ravages of insects ; and the
liquor called perry, which is made from them, is, perhapss, in no way
inferior to cider, and is capable of the same improvements, by refine-
ing, freezing, «fcc. The cultivation of peach orchards, extensively,
where the climate is suitable, is also Avell worth the attention of the
farmer ; besides their being fine for eating, and for various family uses,
they are excellent for feeding and even fatting hogs, and the liquor
made from them, when distilled, has considerable resemblance in.
taste to brandy. They are at the same time easily cultivated, and
require but little ground. The best kinds, however, like the apple..
wid pear, are only to be obtained by inoculation.

f^c articles Inoculation and PF..\CH-TRr.E.

23

i7ft FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

The practice of pruning large apple-trees so severely as 'n done by
many fanners, is absurd ; as such a profuse mangling of the limi's can-
not but lessen the quantity of fruit and injure the tree. The practice
Is not warranted by any writer on the subject. The suckers, the dead
limbs, and those which rub against another, or that cross each other,
should be taken away ; but not many more. The proper time for
doing this is early in the spring, or late in the fall.

I know a farmer who has a beautiful thrifty young orchard, grow-
ing on a- fertile sandy soil, who every spring whitewashes, with lime,
the bodies and some distance up the limbs of his trees ;. this is believ-
ed to be effectual in keeping off all inseetsand preventing the growth
of moss. Mr. Forsyth recommends, for the same purpose, a mixture
of fresh cow-dung, old urine and soap-suds.

It sometimes happens, that wood-packers will fall upon apple-trees
and pick the bark full of holes, which \'^ry much injure?, and iume-
times kills the trees. It is said, that cow-dung plaistered round the
tree will cause them to desist.

Sheep sometimes get into orchards, in the winter, and eat off the
bark from the trees. In such cases, if they have not cut off quite
round^lhe tree, Mr. Forsyth's composition might he successfully used
in giving it a new coat; minding in the first instance to prepare the
tree, agreeably to his directions, for receiving the wash.

See article Frvit-Tree?.

To make the orchard complete, says Mr. Forsyth, there ought to
be, in addition to the apples, a due assortment of pears, plumbs, cher-
ries, quinces, 6cc. &:c. He also recommends, planting a row of nut-
trees round the whole, as being not only ornamental, but highly use-
ful in breaking off the high winds.

OVERFLOWING of the GALL. See article Neat-Cattlf.,

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 179

P.

fATNTING OF BUILDINGS, &c. For painting the roofs of
buildings, Mr. Patterson, of New-Jersey, has, some years since, given
the following directions, which have been highly approved, as the
best composition known for preserving the roofs of houses ; as it is
found, that it hardens by time, and is an effectual preventative against
the roof taking. fire from the sparks of the chimney.

" Take three parts of air slacked lime, two of wood-ashes, and one
of fine sand ; sift these through a fine sieve, and add as much linseed
oil as will bring it to a consistence for working with a painters brush.
Great care must he tak-en to mix it perfectly." I believe grinding it
as a paint would be an improvement ; two eoats are necessary ; the
first rather thin, the second as thick a^ can be conveniently worked.
Painting of wooden buildings, of every kind, is not only ornamental,
but the owner is weU repaid for this extra expense, by the greater
durability which the paint gives to t?iem. The wooden fences also,
which are intended to be ornamental, round, and near builtUngs,
should never be destitute of a good coat of paint.

A patent wash may be had of Oliver AVhipple, of Columbia Dis=^
trict, which is very cheap, having no oil in it, and which answers
pretty well for coarse outside ^lainting.
The patentee says it will last six years.

PARSNIP; (Pastinaca.J The cultivation proper for parsnip?,
is very similar to that of carrots, and the same kind of soil and ma-
nures are suitable for each. They, however, require the soil to be
very deeply dug ; eighteen inches is not too deep. They are full as
good for feeding and fatting cattle as carrots, and are about equally
productive. They might be cultivated to advantage for feeding in
the spring, when the stoct of carrots have become exhausted ; as the
best way to keep them over winter is to let them remain in the
ground during that season. When dug in the fall for family use, the
best way to keep them through the winter, is, to bury them in dry
sand. In spring, those left in the ground and wanted for that use,
should be taken up before they begin to sprout.

im FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Probably the farmer would find the culture of parsnips ue^riy a»
profitable as that of carrots, particularly for spring feeding. They arc
planted in beds and sown or drilled in rows across the beds, having
the rows about ten inches apart. The plants in the rows should, at
the last hoeing, be thinned to the distance of about four inches. Those
which are pulled out in thinning will then be good food for swine.

Freezing does not injure this root; and, therefore, those which are
kept in winter for family use, had better be kept in rather a frozen
state than otherwise; becaase, if kept too warm, they will sprout, and
this spoils them for eating.

PASTURE. The subdivisions of land that is kept for the sole
purpose of pasturing, shouW depend as well upon its fertility, as u|>on
the number of the different kinds of cattle that are to be fed on it.
Fifty acres of land that would only feed three cows during the season
would not pay the expense of subdividing. 0« the contrary, if the
farmer has but three cows, and has three acres of the best pasture
land, he ought to divide this into at least two parts, so that the one
can be grewine while the other is feeding. Again, if he keeps twen-
ty cows, and has twenty acres of the best pasture, he will find his ac-
count in having it divided into four parts, and pasturing each enclo-
sure three or four days alternately. In this way pasture lands will
keep at leaat one fourth more of cattle, and will keep them much bet-
ter, than if the whole pasture were in one field-
Not only a change of pasture is beneficial, but a change of different
kinds of cattle in the same pastures should be attended to. Thus let
the milch-cows take the first cropping of each field, in rotation; then
the horses and oxen, and the sheep next ; in this way the last feeder
will eat much grass that has been rejected by the former.

Wet, miry spots in pastures should be drained off, either by open,
or hollow drains ; for by this means, the grass in such spots w ill be
doubled in quantity, and much improved in quality. Bushes should
be cut out and destroyed ; thistles, and other noxious weeds should be
mowed down before they go to seed, and every means taken to eradi-
cate them.

It is never advisable to pasture lands too closely, particularly in the
fall, as this only tends to diminish the quantity the next year. In this
respect it is the same with pastures as with meadows ; the closer they
are cropped the less w ill be the next year's supply.

Where the pasture has yielded much feed, there will, of course, be
much dung dropped ; to heat it to pieces, and scatter it over the field.
v\l\ tend constantly to recruit it=

FARMER*S ASSISTANT. 181

Sheep require no water in their pastures ; it is also the better opi-
nion, that calves should have none ; and, generally speaking, that
horses should have little or none, except when they are worked. The
effect of this treatment is, that they become habituated to lie by ia
the heat of the day, and feed at night, when the dew is on the grass,
which renders it more nourishing. Cows, however, ought to have "
water; and where their pastures afford none, the better way is to sink
a well at that spot where the pasture lots corner together ; and then
with a little machinery, which will be but a trifle of expense, suffi-
cient of water may usually be raised every day by the winds, for the
purpose of filling the troughs as often as they are emptied. The
methods of doing this are so simple and easy, that they are hardly
necessary to be described.

See further, article Wind-Machinery.

In place of wells, however, artificial ponds are recommended by
Ecme.

See article Ponds.

In pastures which are on side hills, water may be easily obtained in
another way ; that is, by digging horizontally into the hill till you
come to it, and then carrying it out in a pipe, or conductor, made for
the purpose. Another method is to dig a well on a steep part of the
hill, and place a syphon in it, with so small a pipe that it will not let
off the water fast enough to exhaust the water in the well.

Another method of making a well, as recommended by M. Cadit
de \ aux, is to bore a hole into the earth, with an augur or borer made
for the purpose, until sufficient of good water is found. If that which
is first found is not good, bore deeper, until you come to better; and
bore sufficiently deep to afford a full supply. Let the hole be about
eight cr nine inches in diameter. As the augur gets filled with earth
it is taken up, emptied, and let||own again. After the hole is made.
a wooden tube is inserted in it, and the water is raised by pumpino-.

This is a very cheap and safe method of making wells, and migh^
be advantageously performed where the earth is free of stones ami
rocks.

Lastly, as a matter ef ornament and of profit, let your pasture lamb
be planted with some useful trees, and probably, lor tliis purpose, the
locust will be found the best.

Sec article Locust.

The sugar-maple may also be found very advantageous, where the
soil is suitable (o it, and where a yearly supply of maple sugar is de-
sired, which will be found an article of no small profit.

182 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

See article Sycamore.

For the best grasses for pastures, see article Grasses.

PASTURE OF PLANTS. Every plant requires a gi?eu quan-
tity of earth to Dourisb it, into which its roots extend for that purj)ose;
and the quantity thus required is called the requi-ite pasture of the
plant. Some require more earth and some less. Some require a
greater superficiai extent with less depth ; while others require a
greater depth with less superficial extent. For instaoce, a plant of
Indian corn requires a superficial extent, of say, three feet in circum-
ference, and a depth of six inches ; while a root of the beet, carrot, or
parsnip kind, requires a superficial extent of, perhaps, only twelve in-
ches in circumference, but a depth of, say, fifteen inches. A plant of
flax, on the contrary, will not require more thau six inches in circum-
ference and five inches in depth.

It will probably be found, that the greater depth is given to all
plants, the less circumference they will require ; that the roots will,
in that case, shoot further downwards; and, therefore, the deeper you
plough, the thicker you may sow. This is is a matter of nice calcu-
lation, and well worth the attention of the ingenious farmer.

In order to illucidate this, the proper metho<l is to try various
plants in beds of the same soil, culture, and dimensions, but dug of
different depths, and the plants set at different distances, and then the
results will lead to the truth. Thus, for instance, make four beds of
earrois, which shall be dug equally well eight inches deep ; let the
roots in the first bed stand at the distance of four inches from each
other; those of the second at the distance of six ; those of the third
at the distance of ';ight ; and those of the fourth at the distance of
twelve inches ; and then lot it be ascertained which bed has the great-
est weight of carrots. In the meantime, have four other bedsduc twelve
inches deep; and four more duj eighteen inches deep ; and plant one
of each of them at the respective distances above mentioned, and as
certain what are the results of each. The same experiments can be
tried with equal exactness on most other plant?, and the results equal-
ly well ascertained.

PEACH-TREE; (Aviegdalus.) Peaches are of two kinds, the
clear-stone and the cling-stone ; but there are good varieties of each.
The same sorts can only be raised by grafting or innoculatiou ; this
may be on apricots, or on plum-trees, and will make the grafted trees
longer lived-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 183

The trees should have a warm, dry, fertile soil ; a sandy loam is best.
If the spot where they are planted be sheltered from the northerly
winds, it will be the better.

To raise the young trees, take stones that are fully ripe, and plant
them in October, they will come up and grow to a good size in the
course of the summer. They are to be kept clear of weeds while ia
the nursery. At a year's growth they may be grafted, or ionoculated,
and after two summer's growth, they may then be transplanted. This
may be done when the leaves have fallen in autumn, or in the spring.
Take plants with one strong clean stem, or if they have two, cut one
away, however fair. Let the downward root be cut ofiT, in order that
the tree derive its nourishment from earth nigh the surface, which will
make the fruit less crude and finer tasted. Be careful not to plant the
trees too deep, for this is injurious to all fruit. Let the pruning of
the new planted trees be omitted till they have taken root.

Mr. Forsyth gives some particular directions for training, pruning,
&c. the trees, to make them good bearers; all of which may be well
enough for the climate of England, but does not seem necessary to be
observed here. Where the climate is suitable for peaches in this
country, that is, where the frosts of the winters do not kill them, they
generally bear so much that the trees are frequently broken with the
fruit, if part of it be not taken off.

Mr. Forsyth also gives a list of the best peaches raised in England,
which ripen at the different months of the season for peaches; but
no doubt, this country is capable of affording varieties equal, and per-
haps superior, if sought after.

In making a proper selection of trees from which to graft, or inocu-
late, a due regard should be had to three essentials :

1. To obtain the grafts or buds, from trees bearing the finest
fruit.

2. That this fruit should ripen at different times, from the earliest
to the latest of the season for peaches ; and,

3. That the grafts or buds be taken from trees which are plentiful
bearers, but not such as bear so plentifully as to be broken by
their fruit.

But perhaps the too plentifnl bearing of trees is a quality not proper-
ly descendible to those which are raised from them by grafting or
otherwise. It would be well to ascertain this point by experiment.

See further, articles Frvit-Tree3, Nc7R8ert, Transplanting,
Sec. ice.

184 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

PEAR-TREE; (Pjinis.) This tree will grow belter on a stiff
clar than most other fruit-trees; but the soils which best suit tiie ap-
ple-tree are also most suitable for it. A scion of this tree may be
j;raftedon an apple-tree : but it does not answer so well as when graft-
ed on a quince, for dwarf-fruit : and a quince answers well to be graft-
ed on a pear-tree. The pear w ill also grow on the white-thorn. The
best »Tay, bowerer, is to graft the pear on ita own natural stock, se-
lecting scions from the best trees as in the case of apple-trees.

Let some part of the selection also, as in the case of peach-trees,
last mentioned, be made from trees whose fruit ripens at different times,
in order to have a full supply for family use. Generally, it may be
observed, that the culture which is proper for an ajiple-tree, is also
proper for a pear- tree.

See articles Apple-Tref.s, Orchard. Fri iT-Trees, Ncrsert,
Transplanting, <i:c.

PEA ; (Pysum.) There are a variety of peas, some of which are
more and others less valuable for cultivation. Those most valuable
for garden culture, are the small early peas, and the marrow fat peas,
as they are commonly called. The former do not grow more thaB
three feet high ; they ri[ten early, but are not very productive. The
latter ripen later, but are much more productive. They require a
double row of bushes to each double row of peas, setting the bushes
firmly in the ground on the outside of the tovc?. The bushes should
be of sood length, as the stalks will grow five feet high, in a tolera-
ble rich soil. The other kind, also require bushes, which may be
shorter.

Peas of every kind for family use, may also be sown in the field, ic
the broad cast way, and this is the cheaper way of raising them, as the
trouble of raising them in ganlens is very considerable.

The culture of field-peas b considerably attended to among our
German farmers. The product is generally about eighteen bushel-
to the acre; but in addition to this. th*^re is the haulm, which serves
to keep their homed cattle alive until the return of better times ; for
with such food the winter must to them be a dreary season indeed.
In favor ot this culture, it should, however, be observed, thai the crop,
though of trifling value, does little or no injury to the crop of wheat
which always succeeds it. A change of seed, would, no doubt, be
productive of larger crops.

Peas are subject to a bug which eats into the heart of them. 1.
does not, however, hinder them from growing, but if they be not df-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 11^

stroyed, they will infest the next crop. To kill them let the peas be
thrown into hot water, and kept in it a few seconds, and then be
taken out, dried, and sowed immediate!}. The same method is to be
taken to fit such peas for cooking ; as by such treatment the bugs will
drop out after they are dead, and may then be easily separated Irom
the peas. In such case, they are, however, to be kept longer in the
hot water.

The time for sowing field-peas, or planting garden-peas, is as early
as the ground can be well prepaf-ed. A dry soil is the best for them.
The usual quantity sowed to the acre is two bushels, though some say,
that the farmer will he gainer in sowing three ; as the thicker they
are sowed the less liable they are to fall flat on the ground, which
prevents the filling of the pods.

PERRY. To make good perry, manage the pears in the same
manner that apples are directed to be managed to make good cider,
with this difference, that the pears need not be sweated so long as the
apples, by being laid in heaps for that purpose.

See article Cider.

A drink called pcrkin, is also made from the pressed cheese, of
pears in the same manner as ciderkin is made from that of apples.

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. In constructing a plough, the es-
sential point b to make it run as easy through the ground as possible,
and at the same time do its work effectually. In order to run easy
it should run flat, not be raising up behind ; and the share and mould-
board should be so shaped as to assist jointly in turning over the
sward. For this purpose the sward should be gradually raided by the
share, as soon as it is cut by the coulter, till it comes in contact with
the mould-board, and by it as gradually turned over. The share may
also be so contrived, and shaped, as to cut the sward itself, and this is
probably the better way.

The shorter the beam of the plough, and the higher it is raised from
the cliip, the more it w ill raise up behind in ploughing : and the longer
the beam and the lower it is placed, the more evenly it w ill run. la
very rough grounils, however, the beam must be placed pretty high,
to avoid the stones, &:c. that come in its way ; but in smooth grounds,
as all grounds ought to be made, the beam may run very close to the
ground.

For the purpose of gaging the plough, when turning over a sward of
smooth surface, instead of the whole plough, one small wheel of cast-
iron, properly fixed imder the end of the beam, would be found much

]86 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

better. This can be so contrived as to be raised or lowered, so as to
make the plough run deeper, or shallower, at pleasure.

Cast-iron plough-shares have been found to answer well in smooth
lands, and are much cheaper than those of wrought iron. They may
be had in New- York. The chip and the share may also be cast to-
gether. The mould-board may also be of the same material , or the
share and it may all be cast together, and the chip cast by itself, and
fastened to the share underneath.

Under different articles of this work the necessity oi frequent and
effectual ploughings — of ploughing when the dew is on, as being pre-
ferable to ploughing at other times — and of [>loughiDg after the first
turning under the sward, when the ground is neither too wet nor too
dry, particularly in clay lands — have been duly insisted on, and need
not here be re[»eated.

For Trencii-Ploughijtg, see that article.

In breaking up the sward of a side-hill, it should be ploughed hori-
zontally, with the furrows turned downwards, and at the next plough-
ing the hill should be taken diagonally, having the furrows when aS'
scending to turn downwards, and when descending to turn upwards-
In this way pretty good work can be made; but in ploughing diagon-
ally in the opposite direction, nothing can be done with the plough
while ascending the hill.

Sir. Livingston describes a " double-finned" plough which he saw
in different parts of France, " which has a moveable mould-board fix-
ed on hook at the share, and by a pin at the broad end Avhich passes
through the mould-board and into the beam ; when they come to the
end of the furrow, instead of makiog a land, they shift the mould-board,
which is done very quickly, and has the advantage of throwing the
furrows all one way." Such a plough would, no doubt, be useful
in ploughing side-hills, where the ground was not too rough and
stoney.

A field was summer fallowed, one part of which was ploughed
three times, the other part was ploughed eleven times, and a crop of
rye was all harrowed in at once. That part of the field which was
ploughed but three times did not produce half the crop which the
other part yielded.

All sward grounds which are designed for spring crops, should be
ploughed up in the fall, in order to be more easily mellowed in the
spring; and all ])loughed grounds of a wet or stiff soil, which are in
like manner designed for spring crops, should be thrown up in high

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 187

ridges in the fall, in order that the soil be kept drier than it otherwise
would be, and of course more easily fitted for a crop in the spring.
Where grounds, however, are liable to be washed by heavy rains,
care ought to be taken to run the furrows, or the ridges, not up and
down the descents, but gradually slanting, or diagonally, so that the
waters will not incline much to follow the furrows, but soak away into
the soil.

PLUM-TREES ; (Prunus.) Mr, Forsyth recommends the fol-
lowing selection of plum-trees for a small garden :

The white prismordian, small, yellow, mealy; ripens latter end of
July.

Early damask, middle sized, flesh good ; ripens early in Augusts

Red Orleans, large, rich juice ; ripens latter end of August,

Green-gage, several varieties, fine tasted, distinguished by its size
and colour; ripens in August and September.

La royal, equal to the green-gage, but a shy bearer; red colour;
ripens late in September.

Drap d'or, a good plum, and plentiful bearer ; ripens late in Sep-
tember.

Saint Catharine, one of the best ; rich juice and good bearer ; fruit
hangs very long on the tree.

hnperatrice, has an agreeable flavor ; ripens middle of October |
should not be gathered till it begins to shrivel, when it tastes like a
sweetmeat.

The management proper for raising this tree is the same as that for
peaches.

See article Peach-Tree.

3Ir. Forsyth particularly directs the tap roots and the fine hairy
roots to be taken off before transplanting ; and that the lateral roots
should be spread near the surface, in order to make the fruit fine fla-
Tored. He directs that the ground should be deeply dug before plant-
ing. Where the trees bear too heavily, part of the fruit should be
taken off before it is half grown,

A good sandy loam, well manured, is the best for this tree. Stiff
clays are very unfit for it. Mr. Livingston mentions a drap d'or which
stood fifteen years in a stiff clay, and had not grown to the height of
nine feet; when, on removing it into his garden, which is a loam on
sand, well manured every year, it grew more in two seasons than in
the preceding fifteen years.

See further, articles Fkuit-Trees, Nursery, Transplanting, &c.

188 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

POLL-EVIL. An im|)Ostliume on the poll of a horse. At lir&K
says Mr. Gibson, it requires no other methot! of cure than is proj)er
for l)oils and inflamed tumors, hut il sometimes, from neglect, or mis-
Dianngement, becomes a sinuous ulcer. He says, the niittier is apt to
lodge in a small sinus which is under the poll-bone, unless care be
taken to keep the part firm with a bandage; thai it the tumor has a
large cavity it should be laid open, and if it acquires an ulcerous dis-
position, it should be treated as such.

Sec further, articles Timor and Ulcer.

PONDS. Those which may have no natural outlet may never-
theless, in most cases, be drawn off by sinking a well, or hole, through
the stratum of clay, or other close earth which holds the water, until a
stratum of gravel shall be found, into which the water of the pond may
becarried, where it will sink away. The well, orhole, should be filled
up with stones, and the waters of the pond directed by ditches iatoil.
Frequently the bottoms of ponds are found to be fine rich earths, and
well worthy of cultivation. The draining of such ponds is also highly
requisite for the purpose of avoiding the miasma which proceeds from
them and which is so productive of fevers.

Artificial pnals are sometimes made at the comers of two or more
pasture lots for supplying cattle with water. One of an hundred and
twenty feet circumference should be about five feet deep in the cen-
ter. To make it retentive of water, it must be lincdi with a thick lay-
er of tough clay and fresh slaked lime, mixed well together, and beat
down hard with woo<len beetle? or sledges ; and on the top of this beat
in a good layer of coarse sravel. The edges, and for some distance
down the sides of the pond, should then be faced with a solid pave-
ment of stones, so large as not to be moved by the treading of the cat-
tle. Moist places, and such as where water can be collected together
after rains, are best for ponds of this kind.

POPPY ; (Pciparer Somniferum.j There are two species of this
plant, the double |u>nny and the single.

Doctor Ricketson says, that either of the species yield Lhe same
quantity and quality of opium. He directs the see<ls to be planted in
beds, about the middle of May, in rich moist ground, the plants to
stand at the distaoce of a foot apart. They are to be kept clear of
weeds with the hoe.

The plants, he says, yield the most juice during their flowering,
and immediately before and after. At this time he directs thestilks
to be cut off about an inch below the heads, and as the juice exudes.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 189

to take it off with a penknife. The part cutoff will at first yield juice
as well as the standing stalk. When this ceases to run cut it off a
little lower, and so on, till all the juice is extracted.

Thejuice is to be evaporated in the sun till it is sufficiently dried.

POTATOE; fSolamim.J This is a native of America, and was
first introduced into Europe by the famous Sir Walter Raleigh.

This root, when boiled, is found to be wholesome and nourishing
food for man and beast. IMany families of the peasantrj' of Ireland
have little else for subsistence than potatoes and milk, and frequently
nothing but potatoes with a little salt ; yet these are as healthy, vigor-
ous, and well made, as any people in Great-Britain.

Potatoes are usually propagated by the roots; but they tnay also
be raised from the cuttings of the top branches when set in the ground,
and these will even strike root if planted bottom upwards. The
sprouts taken from the potatoes in the spring will also grow, and it is
said, that a piece of the heart of a potatoe will also do the same.

From the seeds contained in the apples, potatoes may also be raised
of various kinds, differing from that which bore the apple ; and this is
the way in which new kinds of potatoes are to be obtained. For this
purpose, let the apples be gathered after the seeds are fully ripe ;
mash them together in some water till the pulp becomes all washed
away and separated from the seeds ; then dry the seeds, and the next
spring sow them in a bed, which is to be kept clear of weeds, until the
young plants shall have acquired their growth. The potatoes raised
of this year's growth will be small; but let Ihem be sorted, and
the next year planted, each kind by itself, and the products will be
full grown, or nearly so. Farmers should frequently attend to this
method of acquiring new sorts of potatoes: as those which have been
planted for several years are always found to have degenerated, and
eventually, will produce little or nothing. Some of the new sorts,
thus produced, will be found to excel in size and greatness of product,
and others again in dryness and superiority of taste; and thus, the
farmer can be accommodated with such as are best for the table, and
with such as are best calculated for feeding swine, &c. For this latter
use, I have lately seen a new kind which grow to the length of eight
inches, and Avill probablj' yield double of most other kinds now in
cultivation. One potatoe of this kind when cut into as many pieces
as there were eyes, and planted in four hills, gave upwards of a bushel.
Arthur Young, Esq. makes mention of a thousand bushels haying beeij

190 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

raised to the acre in Great-Britain; and I think it not improbable,
that this amount could be raised here of this kind of potatoe.

The best soil for potatoes is a mellow sandy loam, or gravell} loam,
a fertile sandy soil, or a rich black earth : Any soil, indeed, except
claj", can be made to produce pretty good crops, with proper manures,
if it be not too wet and cold. The kind of dung used, ought to be
adapted to the soil ; such as cow-dung and hog-dung for more light
and sandy grounds, and horse and sheep-duog for more moist soils.
Let the ground be turned over in the fall ; in the spring, immediate-
ly before planting, plough in a plentiful supply of suitable dung; run
very light furrows about three and a half feet apart ; drop the pota-
toes, whble, along the furrows, at the distance of about eighteen in-
ches apart, or, if cut in two, at the distance of a foot apart, and cover
them with a light furrow run along on one side, or with the hoe.
When the plants have grown to the height of six or eight inches, run
the plough along on each side of the rows, as close as possible, without
injuring the plants, turning the furrows from them, then immediately
turn the furrow back to them, and thus the soil becomes sufiBciently
re-mellowed to keep up a due degree of fermentation about the roots.
Let this ploughing be followed with the hoe; then indue season give
them another ploughing, sufficiently deep, turning the furrows to the
rows. Follow again with the hoe, destroying all the weeds, and if
any afterwards arise, let them again be destroyed by the hoe, so that
none shall be suffered to go to seed. From the first to the tenth of
May is the best time to plant potatoes in order to obtain the largest
crops.

The digging may be performed with the plough, running a furrow
first on each side, and then through the middle of the rows; but per-
haps, as good a method as any, is, to take a broad spade, or shovel, and
ron it under the bunches of potatoes, for w hen planted, as above di-
rected, they will grow in bunches; raise up the whole mass, shake it,
and the earth will fall first, leaving all the potatoes on the top of the
ground.

I have seen it stated in some of our newspapers, that plucking off the
blossoms, just before the apple is formed, will tend very considerably
to increase the crop. The farmer will do well to ascertain the truth
of this.

If dung is to be applied to the rows, it should be placed under the
potatoes. The process, however, of dunging in this way is tedioi^?

FAHMfiR'S ASSISTANT. 191

and by running the loaded cart so often over the ground, as is neces-
sary for this pur[)ose, it becomes so much hardened, and of course, in-
jured for goo4 cultivation afterwards, that ou the whole, it isdoubtl'ul,
if any thing be gained by this method of manuring the crop. In light
sandy grounds, however, it may be best.

Last spring, I planted about twelve square rods of ground in my
garden with potatoes in hills. In each hill, of about half this ground,
was put one whole potatoe, and dung was put under them. For the
four first rows the very largest potatoes, and they were uncommonly
large, were selected to plant ; and for the four next rows the very
smallest were selected, and planted one in a hill. The weight of po-
tatoes planted in the latter rows was not a fourth of that of the former.
On the rest of the ground the dung was scattered, and two whole po-
tatoes, of ordinary size, were planted in each hill. The result of all
this was as follows : The four first rows produced nearly double the
quantity of stalks which was produced by the four next. The stalks
of the remainder of the piece were not so large as those of the first
four rows. When the potatoes were dug, no essential difference was
observed between the product of the four first rows and the next four
planted with the smallest potatoes. They Avere all fine large ones.
The remainder of the piece produced about an equal quantity to the
hill, but there were a greater proportion of small ones among them.

I also planted two small beds after the Irish fashion. They wer6
cut in the usual manner and set about ten inches apart. When dug
they were sufiiciently numerous, but much smaller than those which
were planted whole.

On the whole, I am rather of opinion, that cutting potatoes is of no
service to the crop, but perhaps an injury ; and I am also further of
opinion, that this is the principal, and perhaps the only cause of their
degenerating so rapidly as they are found to do. The laws of vege-
tation do not indicate a necessity of cutting them to pieces to make
them grow better. It would also seem by the above, that there is no
necessity of planting the largest potatoes, but that at least those of a
moderate size will answer as well as any.

Potatoes will answer very well when fed raw^ to horses; that is,
they will keep them sleeck and in good condition ; but for fatting any
animal, particularly swine, they should be boiled.

For the best method of boiling them, see article Swine.

For preserving potatoes for family use, in winter, the best way is io
mix them with alternate layers of dry sand ; and when spring a,rrive8

192 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

let ihem be taken out of the sand, well dried, acd stowed a^ay ia a
close chest, or l>ox, iuto which the light cannot penetrate, and i»ut in
the garret or some other dry place. It is also said, that lor keejiing
them during summer, a slight scalding with boiling water, and then
drj'ing them again, is very serviceable in preventing their sprouting,
which always very much injures them lor eating. If, however, ihey
be entirely deprived ol light and kept entirely dry, they will sprout
but very little, if any; but it light be let iu at any small holt the
sprouts will directly start, when the weather is warm, anil point thtir
Avay to the spot I'rom whence the light issues. This is a very striking
case to shew how necessary light is to vegetation.

To raise potatoes with a mere covering oi straw, lay them on a cleatt
eward, and cover them over with straw to Uie depth oi' about eight
inches. In due season they will be lound nturly as M'ell grown as
ir they had been buried in the ground, and will be drier, and tjetter
tasted lor early eating.

From this root an ardent spirit can be distilled ; but this is not pro-
perly the business ol the tarmer. Starch of the best kind can also be
made from it in abundance, and it is believed, that the manufacturing
of this would be found very profitable.

The method ol raising potatoes in beds, as is ptactbed by the pea-
santry of Ireland, is calculated to produce more to the acre, but is at-
tended with more manual labor; the spade being used instead of the
plough. But tnough there be more labor in getting the seed into the
ground, still there is less in attending to them afterwards : as in .hia
uay there is no ploughing and hoeii.g the croji, but merely weeding
it a little and keeping the trenches chan. 'J'he young [dants so soon
cover the Ijeds, that but very few weeds have a chance of growing.
For raising a crop in this way, a piece o! sward ground, or any other,
is first well covered with dung, then the ground is marked out for
beds about five or six feet wide, leaving a sufficient space between
each for digging the tranches. The potatoes are then cut, and set in
rows across the beds, about ten inches from each other, and they are
then covered to the depth of about two inches or more, by the earth
which is dug out of the trenches.

In this way good cro[)s of potatoes can be raised on any wet meadow
grounds, that have a sufficient depth of good soil ; as by means of the
trenches thf ground is laid sufficiently dry. It would also seem, that
some kinds of noxious weeds might be destroyeil in this way; lor by
covering thesj over w bile iu their growing state, they would be snioth-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 1D3

(fed and completely killed. Beds, made in this way, roued thfe bor-
ders of fields, might often be useful for destroying many growths of
weeds, briars, bushes, &c. which frequently encumber such parts of
the field.

Great crops of potatoes are sometimes raised in the following man-
ner, and this is probably the best, where the ground is well prepared.
Manure the ground well ; have it well cleared of the seeds of weeds,
and make it sufficiently mellow ; then begin on one side of the piece
and run a light furrow, and set that with cut potatoes, at the distance
of ten or twelve inches apart : The next furrow which is to be rua
along side of this covers these, and that is again set with potatoes as
before, which are covered by the third furrow, and so on till the whole
ground is planted : Then run furrows through the whole, eight feet
apart, for the purpose of walking in when weeding. When the po-
tatoes are to be gathered, run a furrow through them, beginning on
one side as before; pick up what potatoes are thrown out; then run
another furrow, and again pick up what are thrown out by it ; then a
third, and so on till the whole ground is gone over. Then harrow the
ground and pickup what potatoes are disclosed by this operation ; and
again harrow and pick up, by which time the ground will be pretty
well cleaned.

The farmer will find the cultivation of potatoes very profitable, if
be duly attends to the selection of such kinds for planting as are most
productive, and at the same time cultivates them in an effectual man-
ner. They are equally good for feeding and fatting all sorts of cattle
when boiled, and the expense of this is but trifling, it a steam-boiler
be used for the purpose. It is said that planting in the full of the moon
will increase the crop.

POULTRY. Mr. AVakefield, a spirited farmer near Liverpool,
say the compilers of " The Gomplcte Grasier," keeps a large stock of
poultry in the same enclosure with singular success. He has nearly
an acre enclosed with a close slab-fence, about seven feet high : The
top of the fence is every where sharp pointed, like pickets, though
perhaps this is not necessary. Within this enclosure are put up slight
small sheds, well secured from rains, however, for the different kinds
of poultry, and it is supplied with a small stream of water. The
poultry are regularly fed three times a day with boiled potatoes,
which is their only food, except what grass may srow within the
ffiwlo'snte.

194 FARMER^S ASSISTANT.

The dung of the poultry, which is exceedingly rich, is earcfulty
saved for use ; and the turf of the enclosure is occasionally pared off
for mixing with coni|)Ost3.

It would seem, that in the vicinity of large towns particularly, thi*
might be made a profitable emptoyment. But it is believed, that the
better way woutil be to keep the different kinds of poultry separate,
as they are not apt to agree well together. Something shall now be
said of eaeh sort separately.

Of the dKmktil foTvls, as they are usually called, there are various
breeds, which if is perhitps imnecessftry to designate. When well kept,
a good hen will lay from one hundred and fifty to two bumlred eggs in
a seasoB, which may be at Feast consi<lered worth a cent each. If
lier eggs be not taken from her she will bring forth three broods in a
year, if well kept, and each brood may be estimated at, say, eight
grown chickens.

Guiiua fonts, also, lay many eggs in the coujse of the season ; but
as they are natm^Fly fond of wandering away and laying them where
they are not easily to be fouml, it is not probable they could be con-
fined to an enclosure like the one in questiofi. Their flesh is of a lit-
tle value.

The young brood of turkies, might probably, be most advantageously
brought forth in an enclosure like this, and alter they had acquired
sufficient strength, let go abroad to shift for themselves.

The black turkey is the most hardy. The young of this fowl are ten>-
der and apt to die. The Swedish method of making them hardy, is
to take them as soon as they are hatched, or as soon thereafter as they
are found, and plunge them in cokl water, and force each one to
swallow a pepper-corn.

After this they are subject to another fatal malady which must be
removed. In order to this, when any of them are found droo|)ing,
pull out such feathers of the tail as are filled with blood, and the chick-
en will presently recover.

This fowl is profitable to raise inmaay situations. They are also of
great use in destroying insects, particularly grass-hojipers.

The turkey derives its name from the country from whence it was
originally imported, it appears, however, to be the same with that
which runs wild in the interior of our country-.

Of gttse there are two sorts, the wihl and the tame. In general,
they breed but once a year, but frequently twic«, if well kept. Three
geese should be allotted to one gander; fur if the number be increased

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 195

the eggs will usually be rendered abortive. About twelve or thir-
teen eggs are enough for a sitting. While brooding, the goose should
have corn and water placed by her, and the gander should at this
time have free access to guard her. The nest should be sufficiently
high round the sides to prevent the eggs from rolling out, as they are
turned by the goose every day. It is well also to break the egg
slightly near the beak of tlie young gosling when they are about to
jnake their way out.

Geese are particularly profitable for their feathers ; and although
(lie plucking of them so often, as is practised by some, appears barba-
rous, yet it is found that they thrive better by repeated pluckings thaa
wliere they are permitted to shed their feathers in the natural way,
which is at the time of moulting.

In Lincoln county, (Great-Britain,) where they are raised in the
greatest numbers, they are plucked five times a year; the first time
at Lady Day, for feathers and quills, and four times afterwards, be-
tween that and Michaelmas, for feathers onl3%

Tame ducks, of which there are varieties, are the same as the wild.
They begin to lay early, and afford a considerable number of eggs,
which are nearly as good as those of dunghill fowls. About twelve
is enough for a duck to sit on. Ducks are greedy feeders, but not
nice as to their food. They are quickly fatted on animal food, of
which they are fond, and their flesh then tastes like that of the wild-
duck. They are useful in turnip fields while the young plants are
liable to be preyed on by insects.

Poultry is most easily fatted when kept in a dark place ^ and boiled
grain is generally best for the purpose of fatting.

PYRITES. See article MANUREi.

196 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

^'

QUINCE-TREE; (Cydonia.) This tree is easily raised frum
layers or cuttings. A mobt soil suits it best. Let the cuttiogs be
planted early in the spring and be watered in dry warm weather.
They require bat little pruning, except to keep them clear of suckers,
dead, and cross limbs ; and where they bare too many luxuriant up-
right shoots in the top these should be taken out,

Mr. Forsyth says, they are apt to have rough bark and to be bark-
bound. In this case, he directs to shave off the rough bark, scarify
them, and then to brush them over with his composition.

He says, they should be planted at some distance from apple and
pear-trees, lest their farina should mix, which would cause the apple*
and pears to degenerate. But perhaps this is msre theory.

R.

RADISH. This root being liable to be eaten by worms, the foK
lowing method is recommended for raising them: Take equal quanti-
ties of buck-wheat bran, and fresh horse-dunsr, and mix them well and
plentifully in the ground, by digging : Suddenly after this a great fer-
mentation will be produced, and numbers of toad-stools will start up in
forty-eieht hours : Dig the ground over again and sow the seed, and
the radishes will grow with great rapidity and be free from the attacks
of insects. They will grow uncommonly large. Buck-wheat bran
is an excellent manure of itself.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 197

RED-TOP ; (Poa Triviaiis.) This grass is suitable for dry up-
land, or for moist soils. It makes good pasture and good hay, but is
not so productive as herds-graes.

See article Grasses.

ROLLER AND ROLLING. The roller is useful in smoothing the
surface of meadows that have become uneven, and for passing over
grounds newly sown with grain, or that are to be laid down to grass.
They are further useful in breaking the lumps of baked earth in a
clay soil ; but for this purpose, a roller filled with iron spikes has been
preferred.

See article Spiky Roller.

The use of the roller on grounds sowed mth different kinds of grain,
particularly barley, w hich is dry and husky, is to cause the mould to
enclose the seeds ; much of which, by laying in cavities that seon
become dried, would otherwise fail of vegetating. It is also useful in
light dry soils for preventing their moisture to evaporate too easily.
Perhaps the roller is as uselul for this purpose as for any other, in re-
gard to its application to crops of grain. It is also useful in depriving
certain insects of their hiding places in the cavities of the soil.

The rolling of land in tillage, should be done when the ground is
$0 dry that it will not stick to the roller ; and in grass lands it should
be performed in the spring when the ground is soft and wet.

A wooden roller shouhl be about twenty inches or two feet in dia-
meter, and about six feet in length. It should be round and of an
uniform surface. Where the roller is made of stone, it should be
about fourteen inches in diameter, and of the length above men-
tioned.

ROOTS. The most essential divisions of these, are those of the
tap, the hulhoji}), and the fibrous kinds. The carrot, parsnip, beet,
clover, &c. are tap-rooted ; the potatoe, onion, turnip, 6zc. are bulb-
ous ; the plants of wheat, barley, oats, herdsgrass, &c. have fibrous
roots. Tap roots have also fibrous roots, which like all others of that
kind, extend horizontally, far in every direction, and become so fine
that they are imperceptible to the naked eye. The bulbous have
also such fibrous roots, and one kind, the turnip, has also a tap root in
addition to its fibrous roots. Trees have alse tap and fibrous roots.

Some tap roots will extend downward, as far as they can find the
soil sufficiently opened to receive them. I have known an instance
of a parsnip taken from the ground, three feet in length. This shews
»he necessity of having the soil deeply mellowed for tap roots; and

198 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

the ibrous roots exteoding horizontally eo far in eyery direction,
where they can fiml mellow earth to penetrate, shews the necessity of
having the grounj well mellowed to a gufficitnl depth to receive
them.

ROTATION. Su Chance of Chops.

RUN NET, OR RENNET. A good method of making thb is as
follows: Take the maw of the calf; empty it of its curd ; wash it;
toak it in strong brine till it is well salted ; dry it on boughs madt- for
the purpose ; then take two quarts of strong brine that will bear an
eg<:, blood warm, and let the maw steep in this twenty-lour hours,
when the liquor will be 6t for u»e ; bottle it up, aud cork il tight, and
it will keep for a twelvemonth. About a tea-cup full will be sufficient
for ten cows. Some direct spices, and a lemon sliced, to be put into
this liquor.

Another method is to take the maw% emptied as before, and fill it
with an artificial curd made of new cream ; into which put three egge
beat fine; a nutmeg grated fine ; and three tea-cup fulls of fine salt;
mix the mass well together; tie up the mouth of the bag; lay it uo-
der a strong brine for three days, turning it over daily; then hang it
up in a dry cool place for six weeks, when it will be fit for w»e.
When used it is first to be dissolveil in warm water.

The acid contained in the maw is very apt to become rancid, and
to putrify, if a sufficiency of salt be not applied; care must therefore
be taken to prevent thb by a due supply of this article. No good
cheese can be made unless the runuet l)e g»K>d.

The ruunet-bag may also l»e salted and dried, as before directed,
and pieces of it occasionally used, by being previously soaked in
warm water, and a quantity of Ihb water used in proportion to the
quantity of milk to be turned.

In Holland the cheese-makers use no runnet, but instead of this thej
use a small portion of spirit of sea-salt, (imtriatic acid, J for formmg the
curd. This gives the cheese a taste somewhat different from that
nade with runnet. The acid should probably be diluted. The
quantity, which is just sufficient, may be ascertained by a few ex-
periments.

KYE; (Sccalc.) There is hot one kind of rye, altboueb it b dis-
tinguifhed by the names of winter rye and 8j>rin^ rye. Take winter
rye and sow it later and later, each year, in the fall, and it m .y at
length be sown in the spring, and then it b spring rye : Or take
spring rye and sow it at first very late in the fall, and then a Utile

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 199

earlier every succeeding fall, and it will become confirmed in the habit
of winter rye.

A sandy or gravelly soil will produce as good rye as any other. It
will, however, grow pretty well on almost any soil that is not too wet.
It will grow year after year on the same soil without exhausting if,
provided the stubble be constantly ploughed under, immediately after
taking off the crojjs. It will grow very well on a poor soil, and on the
very richest, Mr. L'Hommedieu makes mention of twenty square
rods of ground, of gravelly soil, which a neighbour of his manured with
four thousand fish, called monhadcn, and sowed with rye. In the
spring, the piece was twice successively eaten off close to the ground,
by sheep breaking in, after it liad acquired a height of nine inches the
first time and six inches the latter. These croppings, however, only
served to make it grow thicker antt stronger than before? and whes
harvested, it produced sixteen bushels, or at the rate of one hundred
and twenty-eight bushels to the acrej giving to the proprietor, ac-
cording to the calculation of Mr. L'Hommedieu, a clear profit often
dollars sixty-two cents, after deducting the cost of manuring, tillage,
&c. ; or at the rate of eighty-tive dollars to the acre of clear profit.

Mr. L'Hommedieu, however, supposes the crop would have been
lost by lodging, had it not been ibr the two successive croppings of
the sheep. Would it not be well to try eimilar experiments with
wheat ?

Winter rye may be sowed early in the spring and used as pasture
during the season ; or it may be sown at the usual time ami serve for
a sheep pasture a while during the next spring without injury t» the
crop. It may aiso be mowe<l for hay two or three times during the
summer, when sown in the spring. For such uses, ,however^ the
ground should have more seed than the usual allowance, winch for
early sowing in the fall, is about a bushel to the acre, or a bushel and
a half for later sowing. Spring rye should also have this latter allow-
ance, and be sown as early as the ground can be well prepared.

Rye is subject to rr.st, but seldom or never to smut. It is also lia-
ble to a distemper called the sjnir.

See article Spir.

That which is intended for" family use ought, if the weather he good,
to be harvested even as early as when the rye is yet in the milk, and
let lie on the ground for some days to dry and harden. By thi- means
the grain will make a much whiter flour, though the product will not
be quite so heavy as when it stands till it is fully ripe.

200 FARiAIER'S ASSISTANT.

Rye, as it is usually cultivated, is not an article of much clear profit-
Yet, it may be well enough for the farmer to cultivate some of his
gravelly or saudy lands in raising this grain, particularly in parts of
the country where wheat is not natural to the soil, or where he can
make his ground yield him yearly as much as fifteen bushels to the
acre. In order to acquire this yearly product, he ought to plough the
stubble under as soon as the crop is taken off, which helps the ground,
and serves to destroy the seeds of weeds. Let it lie till about the
first of September; then plough the ground again, and harrow in the
next crop. Some assert, that in this way the crops will increase in
quantitj'. Allowing, however, the average product to be fifteen
bushels an acre, and allowing seven bushels of this to pay all the
expenses of ploughing, &c. ; harvesting and threshing, &c. ; then al-
lowing four bushels more to pay for the rent of the land, the clear pro-
fit would be four bushels, equal to about three dollars an acre. This,
indeed, would not be sufficient to tempt the'farmer to go largely into
the cultivation of rye ; but if by manurings, applied every olheryear,
which should cost him not more than the value of ten bushels of rye
to the acre, he could make his lands give a yearly average of thirty
bushels an acre; he would have a yearly clear profit, equal to four-
teen bushels an acre, which would make the business of raising rye a
little more respectable. If the ground, however, becomes too weedy,
it must be summer fallowed.

Bread made entirely of rye is laxative and good to prevent costive-
ness. It is usual to mix some flour of Indian corn with that of rye,
in making bread, which serves to prevent its clamminess.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 261

R.

CONTINUED.

{Note, — Tlie following articles were furnished by the Author^ after
ihe sheet containing the preceding articles under the letter R. had been
put to press — which rendered it inconvenient to arrange them in the at-
phabetical order in which the other parts of this work are rfont .]

RABBITS. *' In some situations these animals may be kept to
advantage, as they multiply exceedingly, and require no trouble in
bringing up. They delight in the sides of sandy hills, which are ge-
nerally unproductive when tilled, but level ground is improper for
them. The fur of the rabbit is worth thrice the value of the carcase.
Therefore, supposing the rabbit to consume a quantity of food in pro-
portion to its carcase, it is a species of stock nearly three times as va-
luable as either cattle or sheep. Rabbit warrens ought to be enclos*-
ed with a stone or sod wall ; and at their first stocking it will be ne-
cessary to form burrows for them until they have time to make them
for themselves. Boring the ground horizontally with a large augur is
perhaps the best method that can be practised. Eagles, kites and
other birds of prey, as well as cats, weasels and polecats, are great
enemies of rabbits. The Norfolk warreners catch the birds by traps
placed on the tops of stumps or trees, or artificial hillocks of conical
form, on which they naturally alight." Encyclop.

Would not the rearing of rabbits be profitable in this country t
We have no eagles or kites to molest them ; they breed very rapid-
ly ; their food is cheap and easily provided; a fence to enclose a
warren can be made of boards, at no great expense, which will keep
out cats and polecats; and as for weasels, we have but very few of
them in this country.

26

202 FARIMER'S ASSISTANT.

RATS. These are a very unprofitable stock for the farmer to
maintain, and the sooner he disposes of them the better. For thi«
purpose the most effectual method is to give them arsenic. Set some
plates where the rats frequent, with a Httle ■wheat-flow or other food
which they like, pot into them; let them bait on this for two or threr
nights ; then add a little arsenic to the flour, mix it well together,
and place it as before, and they will eat it very readily, which will
soon dispatch them. When this dose is administered, care should be
taken to cover the milk-pans and whatever else they c»n drink at ;
as the arsenic occasions a burning thirst, which induces them to go
in quest of whatever will quench it. Perhaps it would be as well to
set some water for them to drink at.

A trap for catching rats is made as follows, and is much recom-
mended : — Take a barrel, or keg, with one head out ; put in it water
enough to cover the bottom about two inches deep ; in the middle of
this set a piece of brick or stone; cover the head of the cask with ft
piece of smooth dried sheep-skin, or perhaps good smooth stiff paper
will answer; in the middle of this cut two slits about six inches long,
at right angles, so as to form a cross ; immediately over this suspend
the best kind of bait for the rats, placed sufficiently high; — now when
the rat comes to take the bait, in reaching up to it be slips into the
hole, by the four corners of the parchment or paper giving way.
Be now gets upon the brick in the middle of the water, and begins
to utter signs of his distress; this brings others to him, who fall in ia
the same manner. Presently they begin to fight for the possession of
the brick, and the noise of this brings others, who fall in in like man-
ner ; and thus all within hearing of this scene of confusion follow oa
and share the same fate.

Another good method is, by suitable baits to draw them into a large
box, or cage, by means of an entrance guarded within with sharp-
pointed wires, similar to those of the mouse cage.

While the farmer is divesting himself of his rats, let him not negiect
bis mice, for they, too, are quite expensive in keeping.

REED; (Arumlo.) A species of this plant is wonderfully pro-
ductive in the rich bottom lands of the Missisippi and elsewhere in
that direction. Many of the plants are said to grow twenty fert
high, and they grow so thick that it is diflficult to get through them.
Cattle are very fond of them, and subsist almost entirely upon them
in the latter part of the season. But where they are fed off year afHr
year they at length disappear.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 203

Would not this plant be valuable for cultivating as an artificial
grass, particularly for soiling ? See article Soiling. If this reed, or
cane as it is usually called, would grow after repeated mowings dur-
ing the summer season, it would probably be found very valuable as
an article of food for cattle. By cultivating it, and sowing it thicker
than it grows in its natural state, it would be much improved as an
article of food. It would be dearable to have some trials made of
this plant. If it would start again after every mowing, it would pro-
bably yield double of any artificial grass now cultivated.

There are smaller species of this plant which infest low grounds
where the soil is good which are not relished by cattle for food.
These are easily destroyed by draining the land, or by ploughing it
up in ridges. Soot and ashes will also kill them.

RI OGLING : A name given to a half castrated animal. A horse
of this descripUoa is as troublesome as a stallion, and yet not fit to be
relied on as one, « A ridgling hog," says Mr. Deane, « will never
be fat, nor grow so large as a barrow, till his castration be complet-
ed ; as it may be by making an opening in the belly, when the case
is most difficult. They should either be killed young or completely
castrated. The flesh of a ridgling pig is good, but that of an old one
brawny and disagreeable.'*

204 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

s.

SALT. See article Manures.

SALTS. Various kinds of salts are foutHi iii plants: They are.
therefore, essential ingredients in their composition ; of course, if any
soil contains but little of the requisite salts, the plants which most re-
quire any of the dififerent kinds must languish for want of them : In
such case, a mere trifle of such as may be wanted, properly distributed
in the soil must have a surprising 0|)eration as a manure. In short,
■whatever the soil is deficient of, which is an essential part of the food
of plants, a little of that given to the soil will have a tenfold greater
effect than any other manure would have, though that manure might
produce equally beneficial eflects in another soil where it is most
wanted.

Probably common sea salt is, in general, more wanted in soils which
are out of the reach of the sea atmosphere than any other. A little,
therefore, of this, where it is most requisite, may have a great effect ;
and more might be injurious; for if this article be too plentifully a;;-
plied to the soil, it destroys all vegetation.

An intelligent farmer once observed to me, that during our revolu-
tionary war, when common salt was so dear that he could not afford
to give it to his cattle, his barn dung seemed to do his lands but little
service; but that he had found the case much altered since, when by
the cheapness of this article he was enabled to deal out sufficient ofit
to his stock.

I lately saw a small pamphlet, published in Maryland, describing
the surprising effects which common salt, mixed with a small quantity
of rich mould, and thus sown on the soil, produced ; particularly in
crops of flax and wheat. The lands on which these experiments
had been made, were sufficiently remote from the sea; hut few cattle
were ever raised on them ; of course the soil has had little or no salt
since it was cleared. This soil had also been exhausted with the cul-
"ture of tobacco and Indian corn. All these circumstances may

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 205

have contributed to render a little of this manure of singular use
to it.

Mr. Deane says, he has always found common salt much more
beueticial to the soil when mixed with composts than when sown
in its crude state. He also mentions some trials made of this ma-
nure on onions, turnips, and carrots, the latter only of which he
found benefitted by it; but, perhaps, the manner of the application
lo the two former, and the quantity given, were both unsuitable.

Mr. Elliott mentions five bushels of crude salt being sown on an
acre of flax, which had a surprising effect; and that he found it
very beneficial when sown on wheat. Let the farmer make various
trials of this manure, and use it as he finds it best.

See further, article Sea-Water,

SALTING OP MEx\T. In packing down pork, sprinkle in what
is equal to four quarts of rock-salt to a barrel ; then make a pickle suf-
ficient to cover all the meat, as strong as it can be made with salt,
and when cold, pour it on. When the pickle becomes much coloured
with the blood of the meat draw it off, beil it, take off the scum, till it
becomes clear, and apply it again. Repeat this, if the pickle again
becomes coloured too much, and add more fresh brine, if necessary.
In this way, pork will keep sweet throughout the ensuing summer, and
will be free of rust.

This method is also good for preserving beef, though the following
19 better.

For a barrel of beef, says Mr. Deane, take four quarts of rock-salt
pounded fine ; eight ounces of saltpetre, and five pounds of brown
fiugar; mix them well together, and with these ingredients pack the
meat down very closely, so as that they will of themselves cover the
whole with brine. The next spring draw off the brine, clarify it, as
before directed, adding a little salt to it, and apply it again, and the
beef will keep very sweet and fine tasted during the whole summer
following.

This method of curing meat, it will be seen, is something similar to
the best method of curing butter, and it is also an excellent method
for curing pork and hams. The ham of some of the southern states is
allowed to be equal to that of Westphalia ; but whether this be owing
to this method of curing, to the climate, or to the manner of keeping
hogs there, is perhaps uncertain. When hams have been sufficiently
cured in this, or any other way, they should be smeared over with
molasses — smoked sufficiently and suddenly — the quicker the better :

206 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

and let them then be well sprinkled over with slaked lime and put
away in casks filled with bran, to keep during the summer. The lim?
ivill serve to keep all insects from them.

SAND. Considerable has been said of this earth. See articles
Earths and Manures.

Pure sand is entirely barren. What are usually called sandy soils
must contain a mixture of other earths, if they possess a greater or
less degree of fertility.

The diflBculty with sandy soils is, that they do not sufficiently rs-
tain moisture, unless they have a close understratum. Where this is
not the case, they are only permanently benefitted by carting earth*
on them which are most retentive of moisture.

SAP. Plants derive their sap principally from the roots. Before
it has entered these, it is called the food of plants. It is supposed to
be absorbed by the capillary roots in the form of va|>or, which, being
rarified by the heat of the atmosphere, ascends, and extends through
all the pores of the plant ; and here is imperceptibly carried on that
chemical process which eventually serves to bring it to perfection.

SCRATCHES. This is a disease in the legs of horses, occasion-
ed by bad blood, or too hard labor. The skin of the legs becomes
cracked open, emitting a reddish coloured humor. To cure the dis-
ease, wash the cracks with soap-suds, and then rub them twice a day
with an ointment of hog's-lard, mixed with a little sublimate mercury.

SEA-WATER. This fluid is said .to contain nitre, sulphur, and
oil, besides common salt, and is therefore preferable to that article for
manuring, either when put in composts, or otherwise.

Mr. Deane meotions one hundred hills of potatoes which had two
quarts of this water applied to each, immediately after planting, and
that the quantity of potatoes in these hills was half as much again as
the same number of adjoining hills produced. Probably half the quan-
tity of water applied to each hill would have had a better effect. He
mentions also a piece of flax, one side of which was short and yellow,
but which by being sprinkled with this water, in ten days equalled
the other side, and eventually outgrew it.

The above was on clay ground adjoining the sea-shore. The wa-
tering of the potatoes cost about an hour's labor of one man. Mr.
Deane says, its effects when applied to sandy land appeared to be
equally great. He recommends steeping the seeds in the water be-
fore sowing or planting, and applying it to the grouod immediately af-.
ter they have been committed to the earth-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 207

It would be easy to carry this water some distance on the land to ad-
vantage. For instance, take a one horse cart, and suspend a tight box,
rightly shaped, under the axletree, the box having a hole in the upper
side : You then drive this cart into the water, so as to cover the box,
and it fills through the hole : When it is carted out to where you want
it, it may be sprinkled out, evenly over the ground, as the cart moves
along, in the following easy manner : You take a tube, say twelve
feet long, and, say an inch square within ; on one side of it bore small
holes, say three inches apart, and close the ends of the tube : You
then attach this tube to the under side of the box, crossways, at either
end of it ; then the water is let out of the box into the tube by an
aperture for the purpose ; and as the cart moves along, the water runs
out of each of the small holes in the tube, and thus sprinkles over a
piece of ground of twelve feet wide, till the whole is exhausted : With
the next load you begin where the water ceased running before, and
thus continue the watered strip across the field. You then take ano-
ther strip of twelve feet wide adjoining that last watered, and thus
you proceed.

With this machine, a man with a horse, could probably draw out,
and spread, twenty-five loads per day, to the distance of half a mile :
and this quantity would perhaps be sufficient at one time Cor an acre
of ground. At the same rate he could draw out enough for half an
acre to the distance of a mile.

Perhaps the better way would be to have a valve in the under side
of the box, which would press open to let the water in, and close
again when the box had filled. The wheels of the cart which carries
it should be pretty high, so as to have the under skle of the box as
much as a foot from the ground.

It has, I believe, been generally supposed, that salt or sea- Water ha«
not much effect as a manure, on soils lying near the sea ; but if thii
be a mistake, and the cases above reported by Mr. Deane be found a
Standard specimen of the effects to be constantly produced from this
manure, it would perhaps be found profitable to adopt means for carry-
ing the water as far into the interior as possible. This, where the
country is level, and rises but little above the sea, would be attended
with no difficulty, save the expense of the aqueduct for carrying the
water. This could be made of wood, and as it would be constantly
filled with salt water, this would probably preserve it for a century.
The water is (o be forced up the tube of the aqueduct by the aid of a

208 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

plunger and valves, which is to be drove by a little wind machinery,
whix;h it is unnecessary here to describe.

Whether the profits to be derived from putting a plan similar to the
foregoing into operation would warrant the expense, must depend up-
on the results of experiments to be proi)erly and faithfully made. Our
sea-coast, and the contiguous islands, offer millions of acres to l)e be-
nefitted by such a method of fertilizing lands, if the plan should be
found advantageous.

SEEDS. Many seeds will retain their vegetative faculty for seve-
rcil years; others again cannot be made to germinate after the first
year, unless uncommon pains be taken for that purpose.

Sfe article Germination of Plants.

All seeds require fresh air, and if long deprived of this they will
lose their vegetative quality. If some kinds be buried deeply under
ground, however, they will retain this quality for twenty or thirty
years.

Some seeds will lie a year, sometimes two or three years, before
they will come up; and for this reason, when seeds are brought from
a distant country and sown, the ground should not be disturbed during
that length of time.

Seeds of the dry kinds are best preserved in their pods, or natural
coverings ; but those of all soft fruits, &c. should be taken out, clean-
sed and dried.

SHEEP. Mr. Livingston has treated this subject with so much
research and ability, that the reader need require little or no further
information than what his essays contain ; but as this work would be
imperfect without treating of this important article, and as the writ-
ings of Mr. Livingston and others are too voluminous for insertion, it
becomes necessary to condense the subject, so as to present it in a
small compass.

Animals undergo changes by domestication. Qualities which they
possessed in the wild state, but which are no longer useful in the do-
mestic, become less and less visible; and owing perhaps to this cir-
cumstance and to others, even their appearance becomes more or less
altered. The ears of wild animals are erect, which enables them to
hear with more acuteness; but some of the sheep of Sicilj' and of
Italy, says Mr. Livingston, have been so long under the protection
of man, where this quality is not so requisite, that their ears have be-
come pendant. Lord Kaims ebserves, that when sheep run wild they

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. 209

go in droves; that the males are the protectors of the flock, and that
the strongest claims precedence of the rest ; that when they lie down
at night, some stand as sentinels while the rest sleep ; but these traits
of instinctive sagacity they in a great measure losie when man be-
comes their protector.

M. Buffon and others have supposed the monjlou inusmou^ or argali,
which is still found in the wild state, to be the original stock of the
present sheep. This animal is swift of foot, and in cold climates has
merely a coat of wool under a coat of hair. In warm climates it has
nothing but a coat of hair ; and such is the case with sheep Which
have been long accustomed to such climatesi It would seem to be
Ihe economy of nature that some graminivorous animals when do-
mesticated, but still exposed to the rigors of the seasons, become
more inert, of course possess less animal heat, and therefore require a
more woolly coat : While others of the carnivorous kind, which are
more sheltered by man, but whose habits still require their wonted ac-
tivity, and of course retain their animal heat, require less clothing, ot
a mere coat of coarse hair. This perhaps may be the reason why
sheep have more wool and less activity than the argali ; and why
dogs have coarser hair than wolves* If this, however, be thought
sufficient to account for the difference between the argali and such
sheep as shed their coats yearly, it is still difficult to assign a reason
why the merino sheep never sheds its coat 5 for this, if left on for
years, does not fall off, but constantly increases in length and quan-
tity. Probably different climates and soils have done much in pro-
ducing marked differences among sheep; and probably different kinds,
as we now find them, have descended from stock which were of the
same genus, but possessing properties different from each other*

Mr. Livingston observes, that "as this quadruped has probably
been found throughout all the mountainous parts of Europe and Asia,
and perhaps even in Africa; as its young are easily tamed; as its
milk, its flesh and its skin, are extremely valuable to man in a savage
state, it is highly probable that it was amongst the first quadrupeds
that were domesticated ; and from this citcumstance it has perhaps
wrought no less a change in man, than man has in it," — that it " is
highly probable we are indebted to it for the conversion of man from
the wild wandering savage to the inild and gentle shepherd."

It may be found equally true that different soils are best suited to
different breeds of sheep, and that the soil often serves eventually to

27

2m FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

produce a difference in slieep. " Fat pastures," says Mortimef,
*' breed straisht, tall sheej), and the barren hills short, square ones."
The island called SmiiJi'ii Island, lying off the eastern cape of Vir-
ginia, has been found remarkable for producing a breed of sheep of
uncommonly fine wool. The large long-uooled sheep of Great-Bri-
tain require rich pastures ; and a moist soil will suit them better per-
haps than it will any other sheep. A wet soil, salt marshes except-
ed, is, however, unfriendly to sheep of all kinds. The merino sheep
require good pastures, and such as is produced on dry soils. Farm-
ers, in stocking their farms with sheep, ought to pay attention to the
selection of such as are best suited to their soil. Much of the high
moist lands of this and the neighbouring counties, it is believed,
would be found tolerably suitable for raising the large long-woolled
English sheep.

It is highly desirable that our country should be stocked with sheepf
of various kinds, iu order to supply itself with the various sorts of
cloths which are necessary in different uses. In England they have
the Tccs-watcr, the Lincolnshire, and the Dartmoor breeds, wliich
yield fleeces of long coarse wool, weighing on an average from eight
to eleven pounds; and the average weight of their carcases per quar-
ter is from twenty-five to thirty pounds. The wool of these sheep,
and of the Heath, Exmore and Berkshire breeds, which are smaller,
and have still coarser wool, is proper for the manufacture of blankets,
carpets, Sec. The Nc7v- Leicestershire, or Bakervelt breed, and the
Cartjvold and Romney marsh breeds, have also long wool, but some-
what finer, being better fitted for the manufacture of worsted fabricks;
and the average weight of their fleeces is from eight to nine pounds
— the average weight of their carcases |)er quarter is from twenty-two
to twenty-four pounds. The Bakewell is an improved breed, which
was engrafted upon some of those before mentioned, and are highly
esteemed for the fatness of their carcases and the fine taste of their
mutton. In addition to these the English have various other breeds,
besides the merino, yielding fleeces of short wool of various quanti-
ties and qualities, the finest of which are the Dunjaced and Shetland
breeds; the next finest is the Hereford ox Rj/eland breet), and the next
the Smith-Down. Mr. Livingston says the latter very much resemble
our conmion sheep, having wool about equally fine, and that in Eng-
land they are esteemed next to the Bakewell breed.

Mr. Custis, of Virginia, is rearing a new breed, which he calls the
Arlington sheep, that yield fleeces of long wool, well fitted for the

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 213

manufacture of worsted fabricks. They are a mixture of the Bake-
well breed with a long-woolled Persian ram, which was imported by
General Washington. They promise to be a valuable acquisition to
our country. In adtiition to these are the Smith's Island sheep, be-
fore mentioned, which are also the property of Mr. Custis, and which
on account of the fineness and lareeness of their fleeces, promise to be
highly valuable, provided the breed do oot degenerate in a few years
when taken from that island. They are shorn twice a year, and some
of the fleeces weigh four pounds at each shearing.

Another breed of sheep ought to be noticed, as being peculiar to
this country ; these are the otter sheep, so called on account of the
length of their bodies and the shortness of their legs. They wer»
first found in some of our Atlantic islands, and are indeed a rickety,
crippled looking race. Their wool is of a medium fineness, and of a
medium length ; it is neither of a proper length for combing, nor yet
for broadcloths. The advantages of this breed consist chiefly in their
inability to be mischievous, in leaping fences, <tc. and their disadvan-
tages consist in their proportionate inability to escape from dogs, &:c.
But the man of taste and feeling will make another objection to them
— their form is not pleasing to the eye, and their rickety, hobbling
gait, is calculated to excite pity instead of pleasure.

Another breed of sheep, which are found in almost every quartet
of the globe, are the broad-tailed sheep. These are of different kinds,
and yield fleeces of diSerent qualities in different climates. In the
Levant their wool is fine, at the Cape of Good-Hope it is coarse, and at
JMadagascar it is mere hair. They are generally larger than the Eu-
ropean sheep, and the tails of one kind weigh in many instances fifty
pounds; being "so weighty that the shepherds are compelled to
place two little wheels under each to enable the sheep to drag them."
" The composition of this excrescence," sa)'s Mr. Livingston, " is
said to be a mixture of flesh with a great proportion of fat, and to be
very delicate food : but the animal has little other fat, the tail being
in him the repository of that fat which lays about the loins of other
sheep."

As it is hardly probable that this excrescence couW have been in-!
herent in the original stock from whence these sheep descended, but
has most probably been produced either by accident or by art, it ia
perhaps one of the most extraordinary instances to be found of an a I
deration produced in the form of an animal by domestication.

212 PARMER'S ASSISTANT.

A yearling sheep has at its first ghearing two broad teeth befbnT)
beside its narrow teeth; when sheared the second Ume, it ha* four;
the third time, six; and the fourth, eight. They are then said to be
JitU vwidked. The teeth of ewes begin to decay at the age of fire
years, those of wethers at seven, and of rams at eight. At this age &
ram should be castrated, and turned oflf to fatten with other old sheep.
Ewes \nll fatten faster during pregnancy than at any other time. If
properly kept, and do accident befalls them during pregnancy, thejr are
capable of yeaning till the age of ten or twelve; bat they frequently
become barren much sooner, by reason of poor keeping, or by injuries
received during pregnancy. When this is the case, aod they grow-
weakly, they should be fattened with other old sheep. Those set
apart for fatting should be kept separate, on good feed, and have some
Indian meal daily. It is said that a sheep is never made very fat
but once, and that then is the proper time to kill it ; but perhaps this
is not founded in truth.

The proper time for shearing is when the weather has set in pretty
varm, but sooner where the wool is falling oflf. The wool of merino
sheep must be washed after shearing, as it cannot l>e washed to any
effect while on their backs. The shearing of these may be later, aa
4heir wool never falls off. Sheep of the common kinds may have
their wool washed while on their backs : but in that case they should
be kept some days previous lo shearing in a clean pasture, io order
that their wool may again imbibe some of the oil which is lost by
irashing, which will render the shearing more easy, and require les»
oil to be afterwards added for spinning.

In shearing, care should be taken not to cut them; and this is moro
particularly necessary with the merino sheep, whose fleece is so close
as to render this operation much more slow and difficult, double the
time at least being requisite for shearing one of these that is neces-
sary for one of the common kind. Would not shears with blades
much narrorvcT than those of the common kind be much the best for
gihearing these sheep ? In England it is a common practice after
shearing to smear the bodies of the sheep with a mixture of tar and
fresh butter, which serves to cure the wounds in the skin, aod to for-
tify their bodies against the cold. This mixture may be improved
by the addition of a small quantity of sulphur. The sheep should
again be anointed in the month of August, by introducing the oint-
ment from head to tail, and also on the sides aod back, by parting the
wool for the purpose, This composition should, at all events, be a|»-

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. 21 S

plied to the wounds. It serves eCFectually to destroy all the ticks,
ivhSch are very pernicious to sheep. The practice of penning up large
flocks of sheep together in a close place during the shearing is very
injuiiicious; thfy should be penned up in the o[)en air, and but a few
brought together at a time. The common practice of tying the legs
of the sheep together while shearing, is hurtful to them ; as it com-
presses them into a situation which is unnatural and painful. Rather
let each foot be tied by itself, in its natural position, to a small piece
of wood, with cross pieces at each end, which may be easily contriv-
ed and made for the purpose.

During cold rains and cold nights, after shearing, they should be
placed where they can go into their house, or place of shelter, when
they please; as they know best when they want shelter, and when
they become so warm as to require the open air. They should at all
limes, but particularly at this, have plenty of salt, as this is a stimu-
lant which enables them the better to withstand the cold. A warm
sun is hurtful to the backs of sheep after shearing, and for this reason
their pasture should have some shade, to which they can retire dur-
ing the heat of the day. After shearing, their skins should he care-
fully examined to see if they have any appearance of the scab, and
those which have, should be kept apart from the rest till cured, as
this disease is contagious. This, too, is the proper time to examine
them as to their age and health, their hodily defects, and also as to the
quality and quantity of their fleeces : Those which are found old and
broken mouthed — sickly and infirm — ill formed — ewes that are bad
purses, and lose (heir lambs from want of milk — those whose wool is
in small quantities, which is often the effect of age or sickness — and
those whose wool is bad, either by being mixed with short hairs, or
which are rough on the thighs ; these should all be marked, in order
to turn them olT, and be put in good pasture for fatting.

The wool of 5'earling sheep should be kept by itself, because not
having the same texture or strength which the wool of older sheep
has, it will make the cloth shrink unequally if mixed with such wool.
The other fleeces may be sorted at shearing time, making separate
parcels of the thighs, the belly, and the back and sides. Wool should
not be kept long without washing, as in that case it is liable to ferment
and spoil in hot weather.

After shearing, the horned sheep should be examined to see that
their horns do not press on the scull, or endanger the eyes, either of
which may kill the aoimal. Where this is the case the horns are to

214 par:\ier'S assistant.

be taken off, and for this purpose ^Ir. Liringston recommends sawing
them off with a fine stiff-backed saw, then to apply some tar to the
stumps, aod tie a double linen cloth over them o keep off the 6ie5.

At this time also the Iambs should be docked, castrated and mark-
ed. Mr. Livingston recommends the Spanish custom of docking the
tail, as conducive to cleanliness. The castration is best performed
by taking away the testicles at once. This operation may be per-
formed on lambs when not more than ten days old, and the earlier
this is done the finer will be the wool and their flesh. If rain or coW
■weather succeeds this operation before they are cured, they should be
housed, otherwise they will be in danger of dying. Another method
of castration, which is [)robably best for grown sheep, is to tie a cord
tightly round the scrotum, and after five or six days, when the part
below the cord is dead, cut it off just below the string, and tar the
wound. This is, however, a dangerous operation when the weather
is warm; cool dry weather should be chosen for it. " In Spain it is
usual, instead of either of these operations, to twist the testicles AA'ith-
in the scrotum, so as to knot the cord ; in w hich case they decay
gradually, without injuring the sheep."

Splaying ewe lambs increases their wool, makes them fatten bet-
ter, and it is said improves the taste of their f3esh. If this operation
is to be performed, which perhaps will seldom be found advisable, it
should not be attempted before the lambs are six weeks old.

Where ewes are to be turned off for fatting, the lambs must be
weaned early; and then let the ewes have the ram again, which
will make them fatten better. Lambs thus weaned should be put in
a pasture of young tender grass, out of hearing of their dams, and an
old wether or ewe should be put with them. Care must also be taken
to milk the ewes every day or two for the first week, until their milk
dries up. In all other cases the weaning of lambs, before the time
•when they naturally wean themselves, is believed to be by no means
advisable, as the lambs are injured by it at least as much as the ewes
are benefitted. This may, however, be found advisable where it is
wished to have the ewes impregnated earlier than the usual lime, for
the purpose of raising very early lambs. These, ^Ir. Livingston ad-
vises, should be shorn tlie first year: as the divesting them of their
fleece may be a matter of some considerable profit, and it renders
them more comfortable during the summer. Lambs, however, which
do not come until the snow s are gone are always most easily reared ;
and in order to this, the ram must be kept from the ewes in the fall

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 215

flntil about five months previous to that time. Such lambs must be
kept from the ram until the second fall.

lu Spain twenty-five ewes are allowed to one ram. Mr. Livingston
thinks forty by no means too many ; and instances are not unfrequent
where one ram has served double and even treble that number. If
the ram, however, be not well kept, where so many ewes are allowed,
he will be in danger of being injured.

The best time for sheep to feed in pastures is while the dew is on;
abd this they will readily learn if there be no water in the fields
where they are kept. Water is not necessary for them during the
season of pasture, but in winter they should have free access to it, al-
though they can do many days without it.

When sheep are badly kept they take colds, and discharge a mocus
from the nose. Good feeding, together with some pine boughs given
them occasionally, will cure this complaint. If pine boughs cannot
be had, spread some tar over a board, and over this spread some salt,
which will induce the sheep to lick up all the tar, and this will effect
a cure.

According to experiments made by Mr. Daubenton, a celebrated
French agriculturalist, it seems that the sheep of France, which are
generally of the height of about twenty inches, eat about eight
pounds of grass per day, or two pcrunds of hay per day, which is
about the same thing; as eight pounds of grass when dried will make
but two pounds of hay. An acre of pasture, then, which in the season
would yield of grass what would be equal to two tons of hay, would
probably support about eight sheep through the season. It must be
remembered, however, that animals consume food in proportion to
their size, and that the sheep here described are below the common
size of sheep in this country.

Mr. Daubenton also' observes, that when his sheep were fed on dry
fodder during the Avinter season many of the younger ones, and those
which were weakly, dropped off; — that on opening these, he found
the food in the third stomach, or that which receives the food after
the second chewing, to be so dry as to be unfit for digestion, and to
this cause he ascribes their death. This state of the stomach, he
very justly concludes, is produced by the sudden change of food from
grass to that of dry fodder ; and the remedy pointed out, which is
very natural, is merely to feed them with a due proportion of sucu-
lent food. For this purpose, carrots, potatoes, turnips and cabbages,
are all very good : and though cabbages cannot be conveniently used

216 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

in this climate for this purpose, ret the root? above mentioned mtiy
be kept in cellars, buried in dry sand, and occasionally fed out to
sheep to great advantage.

Feeding ^heep with a little Indian com, about half a gill to eacli
per day, b very beneficial ; it keeps the flock in good heart ; it enables
the ewes to rear their young much better: and it serves to prevent
the wool from falling off in the spring. Carrots, potatoes^ 6:c. no
doubt answer the same valuable purpose.

For early feeding for the ewes which have lambs, a small field of
rye. thickly sown, is very good. They may be taken off in lime for
the crop to come to maturity, and in that case they will do it no es-
seutial injury. A small field of cabbage-turnips would prol«ah|y be
the best {See article Cabbages.) Vetches, clover, tall meadow-
oats, and other grasses which start early, are also very good for ihif
purpose.

Sheep should have hay during winter of the best quality, and for
this purpose red clover is esteemetl the best. If about a peck of ?alt
vere applied to every ton of hay when carted into the mow. it would
no doubt be found very good for them. The rack in w hich the hay
is put should be upright, so as that, in feeding, the seeds and other
matter will not fall into the wool about their necks. I'nder the rack
a trough should be fixed, whick will serve for catching the seeds of
the hay, as well as for feeding the sheep. They should be kept by
themselves, and not suffered to run among other cattle; their yard
should be spacious, though in proportion to ihe Duml>er in the fiock;
and their shelter should be close over head, but the sides not so close
as to preclude a due circulation of air among them. Perhaps it is
best to have it close on all sides but the south. The shelter ought
also to be spacious, so as not to crowd them too closely together;
and it ought to have some small apartments in which to keep the
ewes a few days previous to yeaning, and for two or three days af-
terwards. These should be fed during this time with succulent food«
and their apartments should be kept well littered. The fence rooadl
the sheep-yard should be such as to keep out dogs.

If the flock be large, so that a separation of it during winter would
be advisable for promoting the health of the sheep, the better way is
to put the full grown wethers by themselves. Thb is the more ad-
risabie l»ecaut^e t^ey do not require so good keeping a? the ewes and
young sbeep ; and whea kept with ibete they are enabled, from their

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 217

'snperior strength, to take the beat and most of the food to them-
selves.

In regard to folding sheep on small or on large pieces of ground, see
article Folding.

Flocks of sheep thrive much better by being changed frequently;
but those will be most benefitted which are taken from poor pastures
and put into better. Their pastures should be clear of weeds, as the
burs [(reduced by some spoil the wool, while others often prove hurt-
ful to them by eating; they should also be clear of all briars and
bushes, for these serve to tear off much of their wool in the spring.
Clover is the best pasture for them. The shrub called Imtrel is
poisonous to them when eaten, and ought therefore to be removed
from their walks.

To prevent wolves from killing sheep, says Mr. L'Hommedieu,
make an ointment composed of gun-powder and brimstone, powdered
fine and mixed with tar and currier's oil, and with this anoint the
throats of the sheep. This must be renewed as often as the ointment
loses its moisture, which will be four or five times in a season. —
Wolves have been seen to seize sheep anointed in this manner,
and finding their throats thus fortified, have left them without do-
ing them any injury.

Having said thus much of sheep in general, something shall now
be said of the merino sheep in particular.

These sheep are certainly much the most profitable to raise, where
the soil and climate are suitable to them. Perhaps it may be found
that some parts of this state may not be so suitable for them as others;
as some farmers of this county (Herkimer) are maldng complaints of
being unsuccessful in rearing them. The climate, and much of the
soil, of the Mohawk country is moist, and this circumstance may per-
haps not prove so favorable for their propagation here. Let experi-
ments, however, be fairly and fully made upon them before any hasty
conclusions are drawn. Most of the sheep of this kind which have
been brought into this part of the state were young, and such as
were probably rejected from the flocks of those who sent them abroad
for sale. The last two winters have also been uncommonly severe
on all sheep.

Mr. Livingston has stated the result of his sheep-shearing of the
spring of eighteen hundred and eight, and this will perhaps serve to
convey as adequate an idea of the importance of the merino sheep as
any thing that can be said.

58

218 rAR:\IER'S ASSISTAIS'T.

From tweuty-cine common sheep he had upwards of one hundred
and fourteen pounds, which he sold at thirty-seven and an half cent?
per pound. This, allowing one dollar and fifty cents for the expense
of keeping each sheep for a year, fell short three cents on each fleece
of paying for their keeping, tightj-three half-blooded ewes gave
ujHvards of three hundred and ninety-three pounds; and forty-seven
half-blooded wethers gave upwards of two hundred and thirty-six
pounds. This wool sold for seventy-five cents per pound. Clear
profits on the fleece of each ewe two dollars and three cents; on the
fleece of each wether two dollars and fifty-five cents. Thirty three-
fourth-blooded ewes gave upwards of one hundred and fifty-six pounds,
and three wethers of the same blood gave upwards of sixteen pounds.
This wool sold for one dollar and twenty-five cents per pound.
€Jear profits on the fleece of each ewe four dollars and seventy-five
cents; on the fleece of each wether two dollars and twenty-five
cents. Seven full-bred ewes gave upwards of tbirty-six pounds, and
one ram, fourteen months old, gave upwards of nine pounds. This
ivool sold for two dollars per pound. Clear profits on the fleece of
each ewe eight dollars and seventy-five cents ; on the ram seventeen
dollars and twenty-five cenrts. This wool was all sold at the above
prices without being washed.

By the foregoing it will be seen (hat if (he farmer expects to derive
large profits from these sheep, he ought not to rest until he has go!
into the full bloods of this breed, or into the fifteen-sixteenths, which
will answer about as well. The profit of the lambs, it wiM be seett,
is not taken into consideration in this statement.

If these sheep are thus profitable for their wool, it is also well as-
certained that they are at least as profitable as any others for fat-
ting.

Mr. Young took a merino, vreight eighty-four pounds — a half South -
down, quarter Bakewell, and quarter Norfolk, weight one hundred
and forty-one pounds — and a Southdown, weight one hnndred and
thirty-six pounds; these were fed abroad together a certain length of
time, and then weighed. The first weighed one hundred pounds ;
the second, one hundred and forty-eight ; and the last, one hundred
and forty-four j)ounds. Thus the merino gained more than double
the quantity of flesh which the other two gained.

He also made another experiment, which served to shew that a
merino only eats in proportion to its size. By this he found that
three merioos may be maintained four per cent cheaper than two of

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 219

the Southdowns. The weight of the merino upon which this trial
was made, was ninety-one pounds ; that of the Southdown, one hun-
dred and thirty-two pounds.

3Ir. Livingston says the size of the ewes, more than that of the
ram, governs the size of their lambs ; that the ewes of a small race
cannot bear large lambs, though the ram be ever so large. For this
reason the lambs which are raised from a merino ram on our common
ewes, will be larger than those raised from one of our common rams
on merino ewes. This is the reason why rams of the large English
breeds, when brought here, do not produce a race any way corres-
ponding to their own size. Mr. Livingston therefore recommends
engrafting a merino stock upon our common ewes, to increase the
size of the breed ; though if they only eat in proportion to their size
this is not so material. In the selection of the ewes take those that
are at least three years old, as large as can be obtained of the sort,
with the belly large and well covered with wool, chine and loin
broad, breast deep, buttocks full, the eyes lively, the bag large, and
the teats long. In addition to these qualifications, they must have
fine short thick wool, their bellies Avell covered, and with the least
hair on. the hinder parts. In the choice of the ram, which we will
suppose to be three-fourth-blooded, and which can be purchased for
twenty-five dollars, select one that is of good size, broad in the chine
and loins, deep in the carcase, the back straight, the ribs well set out
so as to give room for a large belly well covered with wool, the fore-
head broad, the eyes lively, (a heavy eye being a mark of a diseased
sheep,) testicles large and covered with wool ; let him also b€ strong,
close-knit and active, of which you may judge by taking hold of his
hind legs; and lastly, let his wool be of good quality, and as clear of
hair on the hinder parts as possible.

The product of such a ram with common ewes, would be lambs
possessing nine twenty-fourth parts of merino blood ; and twice re-
peating the process on the females of the successive products, would
give three-fourth- biooded lambs. Two further repetitions from a full-
blooded ram, would give lambs possessing fifteen-sixteenths of merino
blood, which is probably sufficient. The ram, however, ought to be
changed at each time ; as it is believed that the rearing of succeed-
ing stocks between which there is the closest consanguinity musl
eventually tend to degenerate the breed. ^
See article Cattie.

220 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

In Spain, where by the extent of the pastures the number of the
merinos are limited, it is usual to kill ofif some of the most indifferent
lambs, and thus two ewes can be given to suckle one of those surviv-
ing. This is usually effected by putting the skin of the dead lamb
over a living one, which commonly intUices the dam of the dead one
to recognize the living as her own. Where this fails, the ewe is held
for the lamb to suck her; and she is confined with it a day or two,
by which time she generally adopts it. This custom is only in part
advisable here; that is, whenever a lamb dies, to accustom its dam,
in this manner, to give its milk to another lamb.

It has been feared by some that these sheep, when no longer mi-
gratory, and changed from their accustomed climate, will degenerate,
and their wool grow coarser, but experience does by no means war-
rant these apprehensions. They have been kept stationary for more
than eighty years past in Sweden, and nearly as long in France, and
yet have suffered no deterioration. Mr. Livingston thinks the wool
of his merino sheep which he has raised here finer than those which
were imported. It ie a general rule with animals which shed their
hair, that the farther north, the warmer, and of course the finer, is
their coats; but as these sheep never shed their wool, the rule does
not necessarily include them. Their wool is in this respect similar
to human hair ; but this is always found the finest in the colder cli-
mates.

Apprehensions have also been entertained that these sheep, having
in Spain been long accustomed to situations where winter is scarcely
felt, would be found unable to stand the severity of our winters; but
the fact just mentioned of their being successfully reared even in the
cold climate of Sweden sufficiently obviates this objection. Mr. Liv-
ingston says, that " like all other sheep they will be found the belter
for good keeping, yet they will not suffer more than others from neg-
lect; and that they will, in every mixed flock, be found amongst the
most thrifty in the severest weather."

Some, again, may suppose that tlie country will soon be stocked
with merinos, and that the price of their wool will then fall to that of
common wool; but such should remember that more than half the
civilized world is destitute of these sheep, and that while they conti-
nue to remain so, the sheep, the wool, or the fabricks made from it,
will be eagerly sought after. In the course of a century. North and
South- America will probably contain two hundred millions of people,
and the wants of these alone will at that time require three hundred

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 221

millions of merinos. There is certainly no danger of the price of
merino wool falling much for twenty years to come.

The ewes of this breed seldom produce twins; though, if necessa-
ry, they may be made, like other sheep, to breed twice a year. Ewes
of the English Teeswater breed have been known to bring five iambs
in a year. The ram, when put to the ewes, should be better kept
than usual ; and for this purpose should be fed two or three times a
day with a slice or two of bread, made of Indian meal, which may be
given to him by hand. When the ewes are not suckling lambs, they
may at any time be brought to take the ram, by feeding some Indian
corn to them. The first lamb of a young ewe will never be so strong
as those succeeding, because she will not have the same strength, nor
the same quantity of milk which she will have afterwards.

There are different breeds of merinos in Spain, says Mr. Living-
ston, and the wool of some is inferior to that of others ; some selling
there for only sixty crnts a pound, while others sell for a dollar.
The best flocks are those of the Escurial, of Gaudaloiipe, of Paular,
of the Duke D'^Infantado, of Monturio, and of the Nigrctii. The first
exceeds for fineness of wool ; the second for fineness of form, and
fineness and abundance of fleece ; the third, with similar fleeces, are
larger bodied. " The lambs of this stock and of that of the Duke
D'Infantado, are commonly dropped with a thick covering, which
changes into very fine wool." The Nigretti are the largest breed.

After merino wool has been sorted as before directed, and is to be
manufactured in the family, let it be covered with soft water, mixed
one third with urine, and let it stand fifteen hours, or longer if the
Aveather be cold. A cauldron is then to be put on the fire, with some
soft water, and let two thirds of that which covers the fleeces be
added to it. When so hot as that the hand cannot bear it, take out
the wool, put it in a basket, press out the liquor, put the basket in the
cauldron, and there wash the wool by pressing, without any wringing
of it, and then cleanse it in running water. If the water in the caul-
dron becomes too dirty, take more water from that in which it was
first soaked. Dry the wool in the shade, not in the sun ; let it then
be beat with a rod, which takes out all seeds, &c. and softens it ; then
pick it, by opening it lengthways carefully, and card it with cotton^
not with wool, cards. Carding-machines are advised not to be used
for this wool, unless particularly fitted for it.

The above is the European method of managing this wool before
carding, &c. but Mr. Livingston thinks that if the wool be carefully

322 far:mer's assistant.

picked and carded, so as to get out most of the dirt, and wore in thU
way. that it will answer without washing, in which case less oil, or
grease, will be necessarj".

Common wool cannot be carded too much — merino wool may. In
spinnin?. the warp must be twisted the opposite way from that of the
woof, which should be spun more loose, or slackly twisted, than that
of the warp. For spinning the woof, the wool is to have one pound
of oil. or grease, to every four pounds; but for the warp, one pound
of oil to every eight pounds of wool is the proper allowance. This is
for very fine spinning ; but for spinning coarser yara less wl is ne-
cessary. Olive oil is the best for greasing the wool ; neat's foot oil
is also very good ; and no doubt the oil which is produced from the
FUD-flower would be found as good as either. See article Sin-
Flower.

The farmer will find a great addition to his profits from his merinft
wool by converting it into fine cloth, in bis own family, if this can
conveniently be done.

Sheep of all kinds are subject to fewer diseases in this coantry
than in most others. This article shall, therefore, be concluded
with noticing those most prevalent here, and the remedies for each,
together with some slight notice of seme which prevail abroad.

Those of grown sheep are as follows : — The scab. This appears
first by the sheep rubbias the part affected, and pulling out the wool
in that part with their tefth, or by loose locks of wool rising on their
backs and shoulders. The sheep infected is first to be taken from
the flock and put by itself, and then the part affected is to have the
wool taken off as far as the skin feels hard to the finger, and washed
with soap-suds and rubbed hard with a shoe-brush, so as to cleanse
and break the scab. Then anoint it with a decoction of tobacco wa-
ter, mixed with a third of lye of wood ashes, as much grease as this
lye will dissolve, a small quantity of tar, and about an eighth of the
whole mass of the spirits of turpentine. This ointment is to be rub-
bed on the part affected, and for some little distance round it, at three
different times, with an interval of three days between each wash-
ing. VTith timely precautions this will always be found sufficient.
In very inveterate cases. Sir Joseph Banks say* mercurial ointment
must be resorted to, with great care, however, keeping the sheep dry;
the wool to be opened, and a streak to be made down the back, and
from thence down the rib? and thighs. Fine wooled sheep, and rams
which have been much exhausted by covering, are most subject ta

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 223

this disorder, and in fine wooied flocks it is most difficult to cure.
It is said that it may be communicated even by a sheep lying on the
same ground on which a scabby one had shortly before lain, or by
rubbing against the same post.

Pelt rot. In this disease the wool falls off, hut the skin does not
become sore, but is merely covered with a white crust. Cure — Full
feeding, warm keeping, and anointing the hard part of the skin with
tar, oil and butter, mixed together.

Tick. As these occasion a constant scratching they prove injuri-
ous to the wool, and they sometimes occasion the death of lean sheep.
Cwre^— Blow tobacco smoke into every part of the fleece, by means
of a bellows. The smoke is taken into the bellows, the wool is open-
.ed, the smoke is blown in, and the wool is then closed — this is re-
peated over every part of the body at proper distances. It is quickly
performed.

Dogs. These often prove more injurious to sheep than all their
other maladies put together. Cure — A fine, say of a hundred dollarsj
upon every man that keeps a female of these animals above eight
inches high ; or a yearly tax, say of twenty dollars, laid upon the
owners. Extirpate the females of this race, and the whole breed
would soon disappear. The legislature may easily enforce a law of
this kind without danger of its being unpopular, which it is said would
be the fate of a law taxing the whole race of dogs.

Staggers. A disease of the brain which renders them unable to
stand : Incurable by any means known which would warrant the
expense. See, however, what Gibson says, article Staggers.

Colds. The principal indication of this is the discharge of mucus
from the nose. The cure has already been noticed. Whenever this,
however, becomes habitual with old sheep they should be killed off.

Purging. If any are severely afflicted in the spring with this,
which sometimes happens after being turned out to grass, house them,
give them a dose of castor oil, feed them with dry food, and give
them some crusts of wheat bread. A slight purging will not hurt
them.

Hove. Sheep, like neat cattle, when put into clover pastures,
sometimes have their stomachs distended by wind, so that they will
die if not relieved. The swelling rises highest on the left side, and
lu this place let the knife be inserted, or other means used, in the
manner directed for neat cattle.
See article Neat Cattlr.

224 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

The disease? of lambs are —

Pinning. When the excrement of the Iamb becomes so glutinous
as to fasten the tail to the vent, it must be washed clean, and have
the buttocks and tail rubbed with dry clay, which will prevent any
further adhesion-

Purpns[. Put the lamb with its dam into a dry place, and give
her some oats, old Indian corn, or crusts of wheat bread. If the dam
has not milk enough, give the lamb cow's milk, boiled, or let it suck a

COM'.

Sometimes it may be found necessary to bleed sheep to allay some
inflammatory disorder. " Daubenton recommends bleeding in the
lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth
is placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on
the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle suffi-
ciently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin of
the cheek is touched. This tubercle is a certain index to the angu-
lar vein which is placed below." The method of bleeding, after find-
ing the vein, it is hardly necessary to describe.

Philip De Castro, a Spanish shepherd, has written a short treatise
on the diseases of sheep in Spain, and of their management there,
and he recommends that bleeding should be performed in a vein in
the fore part of the dug. The essay of this shepherd is believed to
be worthy of some further notice.

He says the merino sheep of Spain are subject to the following dis-
eases : — The scab ; cured by juniper oil when the weather is wet, or
by a decoction of tobacco in i\ry weather: Basquilla ; occasioned
by too much blood ; cured by bleeding in the dug, as before mention-
ed : MocUrez ; (lethargy.) occasioned by jiustules formed on the
brain ; the sheep keep turning, while feeding, to the side where the
pustules are formed ; few recover, and the disease is infectious. Some
get well in part by pricking the part affected with an awl ; but those
attacked with this disorder should be killed off: Small-pox ; being
blisters, which first appear on the flanks, and spread over the body ;
it is produced by drinking stagnant waters. The diseased sheep are
to be kept apart from the rest, as the disease is infectious, and wheu
the blisters break anoint them with sweet oil : Lastly, Icaneness ; this
appears to be the same as is described by Mr. Livingston.

He observes that " the legs of sheep are furnished with a duct
which terminates in the fissure of the hoof; from which, when the
animal is in health, there is secreted a ^^hite fluid, but when sickly

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 225

these ducts are stopped by the hardness of the fluid." He adds, that
he had " in some instances found the sheep relieved by pressing out
the hardened matter with the finger from the orifice of the duct in
each foot ; perhaps it may in some cases be proper to place their feet
in warm mater, or to use a prohc, or hard brush, for cleansing this pas-
sage." He concludes by observing, that probably the ill health oif
sheep, in wet or muddy pastures, may in some measure be ascribed to
the necessity of keeping these ducts free and open.

The compiler of " The Complete Grazier," however, mentions an-
other kind of lameness in sheep which is called the foot-halt. It is
caused by an insect resembling a worm, two or three inches long,
which is found to have entered between the close of the claw^s of the
sheep, and worked its passage upward between the external mem-
branes and the bone. To extract the worm move the claws back-
wards and forwards in contrary directions, and it will ivork its w^ay
out. In Great-Britain this disorder is chiefly confined to wet pas-
tures.

De Castro also mentions diseases to which the merino lambs are
subject, in Spain, when brought forth in wet weather; such as the
hhannillo, (gangrene,) which has no cure : The amarilla, (jaundice,)
which is infectious, the^ flesh and bones of the lamb turning of the co-
lour of yellow wax ; for this a small quantity of the flax leaved daphne
guidium is good : The coviro, a lameness of the feet, which appears
to be the stoppage of the excretory duct before mentioned. General-
ly, he says the lambs are subject to the diseases of the ewes, and that
the same remedies are requisite.

Sheep in Great-Britain are subject to the rot ; but it is believed
that this disease has never been known in this country. Another
disease, however, which the British writers mention, our sheep are
sometimes liable to ; —this is, being maggotty, occasioned by being
fly-blown, and if not timely remedied the maggots will eat into the
entrails in twenty-four hours; cured by corrosive sublimate and tur-
pentine rubbed into the sore. Sheep in Great-Britain are also sub-
ject to diseases called the red-water and white-water, from the colour
of their urine ; no cure known — supposed to be occasioned by eating
poisonous weeds.

Frequently changing flocks of sheep from one farm to another,
where the pastures are equally good, is very beneficial to them. I
know a flocu which for several years past have been pastured on dif-

29

226 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

ferent fflrms, by being let out to different farmers on shares, which are
much the (inest looking sheep to be found any where in the neighbor*
boo4l whert- they belong.

The farmer who would rejoice to see our country so far indepen-
dent as to become stocked uith woollen fabricks of our own making,
roust feel himself im|)elled by his patriotism to endeavor to afford hie
share of supplies of wool, which are so needful to our infant manufac-
tories; and he who is insensit)le to a love of country, may still find a
powerful incentive to the raising of sheep, in consulting his own in-
terest. The raising of merino sheep, in particular, is undoubtedly
very profitable; and the nearer the farmer brings his breed to that of
the full blood, the greater will be his profit. Like every thing, how-
ever, which innovates U|K>n ancient usages, the merino has its preju-
dices to encounter ; and the savage who fir«4 introduced the use of
the bow and arrow to his countrymen, no doubt had the same. But
let the sensible and spirited farmer persevere ; and in the end his me-
rino flock will afford him a rich harvest, the pleasure and profit of
which his weaker neighbor must lorego as a tax on his prejudices.

SILK WORiMS. For raising these worms, (says Mr. De La Bi-
garre,) the first step is to procure the eggs, which should be from a
climate similar to that where they are to be hatched. Gooil egg»
take, successively, the colours of gridelin, purple, and lastly, an ash-
coloured hue; they will crack under your nail, while the bad ones
will make no noise when pressed in the same manner. Leave them
on the cloth where they were laid by the female, and keep them in a
dry place where they will not freeze in winter, nor be too much heat-
ed in spring. When about to be hatched take them off the cloth ;
and when the first buds of the mulberry come out, proceed to hatch-
ing them. Divide them into ounces, and put each ounce into little
fiat iKises, lined and made soft in the inside, and let them be kept in
a constant degree of warmth equal to ninety-six of Farenheit's ther-
mometer- Some put them into little hag?, and carry them under
their clothes in the day time, and under their pillow while sleeping;
but perhaps the better way is to keep them in a small apartment con-
stantly warmed by a stove or otherwise. The bags must be opened
every day to give them fresh air, while hatching. When the eggs
turn a whitish colour it is a sign the worms will soon come out; and
then, if in bags, they must be stirred up five or sis times a day, t»
give the young embryos sufficient air; but if they be in boxes, they

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 227

CTin be thiulj' spread over the bottom, and then opening the boxes
once or twice a day will answer. The time usualij'^ required lor
hatching is about eight or nine days, sometimes longer. If too much
heat be applied in hatching, many of the worms will perish in raising.
An ounce contains about forty-two thousand eges, but among these
may be many bad ones, which, if they do not hatch in two days after
the first hatchings, may be thrown away.

The eggs of the yellow cocoons are to be preferred, as they give
the most and best silk.

If you hatch in hags, as soon as you find some of the worms coming
out, put them all iuto such boxes as before described. When a suffi-
cient number have come out, take a piece of parchment fitted to the
inside, cut it full of holes like a sieve, lay it over them, and on it
spread some tender young mulberry leaves, and the worms will then
come up through the holes to feed on them. When a sufficient num-
ber have thus come up, take up the parchment, by strings fixed to it
for the purpose, and place the leaves and worms in a larger box, or
shelf, lined with white paper. Fill only ahout a third of the bottom
of this box, or enclosed shelf, with leaves ; because as the worms
grow larger they require more room. Here you feed the worms til!
after their first moulting. In the meantime the parchment is to be
laid on with leaves, as before, to take out other supplies of worms;
and if these he taken out on another day they are to be put in another
box or shelf; as those hatched on different days are to \ic ke[»t in
different boxes. At the end of two or three days all the good eggs
will be hatched, and the rest may be thrown a^vay. After they are
hatched they must be kept in about the same temperature of heat for
ten or twelve days. They are to be fed twice or three times a day
■with tender leaves till the time of the first moulting; and let those
leaves previously fed, be eaten before fresh ones are given.

In ahout six or seven days they generally arrive to their first
moulting, if properly kept in regard to warmth, cleanliness. Sec. If
they should be as long as a fortnight before moulting they will not do
well.

In their moultings they lie in a torpid state, in which they leave
their old coats and acquire new ones. They moult four times before
they begin to spin. While in this state they should be kept rather
■warmer than usual, and should not be disturbed. Previous to each of
these times they look dull and weak, they lose their appetite, the
skin becomes bright, and they seek for a place to lie by themselves.

228 FARMER'S ASSISTANl.

They lie motionless for about two days. They will not all moult on
the same days, but in three or four days the business will be over,
which may be discovered by the colour of the skin, and by their ac-
tivity ; and then it is time to change their litter and clean the shelf.
In order to get them out, spread over them some fresh leaves, upon
which they will crawl, so as to enable you to lift them up. Put one
half of these into one shelf of the same size, and the other half into
another; and this enlargement of their room must be repeated after
every moulting, as they are constantly growing larger.

After the first moulting, some of the worms will be reddish, some
ash coloured, and some of a blackish hue. The reddish ones may
be thrown away, as they will not come to any thing. More worms
perish in the third moulting than in any other.

The mulberry leaves must be picked when perfectly dry ; and as
this cannot be done every day, a store of them is to be kej)t on hand,
laid in a cool dry room, and stirred up now and then to prevent their
heating and wilting. The number of meals, after the first moulting,
is to be governed by the appetite of the worms; and if this be not
good it is most probable that they want more heat. Don't deal out
the leaves faster than they are eaten.

In seven, eight, or nine days, they will moult a second time ; and
80 on for the two follomng times. The larger they grow the less
heat they want. After the third moulting, open the windows each
day to give them fresh air. The shelves are to be cleaned after each
moulting; and where the intervals between the moultings are unu-
aually long, let them be cleaned twice. When too much crowded,
take some out on leaves, as before directed, and place them else-
where. They cannot bear to be touched by hand unless very
gently.

The white mulberry leaves are best for feeding the worms ; and
the tender young leaves of young trees are to be preferred at first,
but in their more advanced stages they want older leaves ; and these
may be of older, or grafted, trees. Other kinds of mulberry, how-
ever, will answer. If the leaves cannot be had dry, let them be
dried before they are used, as wet leaves are hurtful.

When they are past the last moulting they eat greedilj', and want
more food than before. At the end of seven or eight days they be-
gin their cocoons. During all this time let them daily have fresh air,
and let their shelves be cleaned.

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. 229

When you find them creeping about without eating, as if in search
of something, with their bodies of a bright straw colour, it is then
time to prepare bushes, fixed on tables, for them to climb on and fix
their cocoons. The bushes are to be dry and clear of leaves, and set
in rows with their tops leaning together. Under these lay some mul-
berry leaves, for the further feeding of those which may not be quite
ready for spinning, and don't let the worms be crowded too much on
the tables. To put them on the tables, you apply your finger, to
which they readily attach, then put them on a smooth varnished
plate, to which they cannot adhere, and empty them carefully on the
table. Those that incline to feed longer will do so, and those that do
not will ascend the boughs. The spinning is completed in three or
four days ; but as they do not all commence at the same time, pick
off the cocoons in about twelve days after they have begun to spin.

The chrysalis contained in each cocoon is killed by placing them,
in baskets lined with brown paper, in an oven heated nearly warm
enough to bake bread ; if this be not done the chrysalis eats its way
out of the cocoon, and thus spoils the contexture of the silk. They
are to be kept in the oven till the ratling noise, which they occasion
while dying, has abated. Then take them out, and wrap them close
in a blanket to suffocate those which may not yet be dead. Previous
to the operation of baking, the outer coat, called tow, is to be taken
off; and the same is to be observed with those which are kept for
seed.

In reserving these, take equal numbers of males and females of the
yellow kind. The male cocoon is sharp pointed ; the female round
at each end. After being divested of their tow, string (hem together,
male and female alternately, upon a coarse thread, letting the needle
go merely through the surface of each, for fear of hurting the chrysalis
within ; hang these in a dry place till the butterfly comes out. One
pound of cocoons will give an ounce of eggs. When the butterfly
has come out, the males are known by being sharp pointed, the fe-
males being larger and full of eggs. Place them all on a piece of
black cloth, and put the males and females together in pairs; let them
remain so three or four hours; and then throw the males away, leav-
ing the females to deposit their eggs. These are to be well dried on
the cloth on which they are laid, and put in a fresh room during sum-
mer, and out of the way of frosts during winter.

Bad management and other causes occasion some disorders among
the worms. Some become fat, and do not moult, but continue eat-

>230 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

hig, having a whiter and more oiljr appearance than the rest. After
the third or fourth moulting some become lean, refuse to eat, turn
soft, and become smaller than formerly. The yellow worms never
appear but a little before spinning, and instead of becoming mature,
swell up with nasty yellow spots on their heads, and at last over their
bodies. All these, when discovered, are to be thrown away.

The other method recommended by the same writer, is to raise
these worms on white mulberry hedges. A hedge of this kind of
three years old, he says, begins to be fit for the worms, but those
which are four or five years old will be better, as they afford the
Tvorm more places of retreat in storm?. Two or three days after the
first moulting, and in a fine warm day, pnt the young worms on the
hedge, by means of leaves as before mentioned. The feathered end
of a goose-quill is very good to raise them, or move them in different
places. Put them on the hedge at the rate of about one hundred to
every two rods, but thicker where the hedge is older. Worms thus
raised in the open air, says the same writer, are free from all disor-
ders ; their only fate depends on the season ; and our summers are
preferable to those in Europe for raising them. la this way, care
must^ however, be taken to keep certain birds from them.

The same writer also rem?»rks, in a note to his observations on the
diseases of this worm, that he was afterwards informed of an experi-
Kjent made in this state, by which it appears that this climate is more
fevorable for raising them under cover than that of Spain or France.
Out of six thousand worms raised by Mrs. Montgomery, hut very few
died; and her success in raising them was equal in preceding yeart-
In Europe, he says, four fifths of them perish before spinning.

SLIPS. These are twigs torn from a tree or shrub, to propagate
by planting in a moist soil. Let two thirds of their length be buried,
and they will strike root more readily than cuttings. This, says Mr.
Deane. should he done as soon as the erround is thawed in the spring.
They should be set. if possible, as soon as they are taken from the
tree; otherwise let their ends be enclosed in wet clay until the time
of setting.

They should he set in fine rich pulverized earth, and should be fre-
quently watered, particularly when the ground is dry.

Some twiffs will in this way grow very readily ; others, again, are
more difficult to stow. Mr. Deaoe advise? to place those most diffi-
cult to grow, in pots, where they can be more carefully attended te.

PARMER'S ASSISTANT. 23i

It is said that some trees which are not natural to be cultivated in this ■
manner, will not grow so large as when raised Irora the seed.

Where fruit trees are cultivated in this way, the trees thus raised
will bear the 'game fruit as those from whence the slips were extract-
ed. It is said that the life of a fruit tree raised from a slip or cutting,
will end nearly at the same time of that from w hence the slip or cut-
ting is extracted ; but this seems very doubtful, and in most instances
unworthy of belief.

SMU r. The cause of smut in wheat has been productive of muck
investigation and speculation ; but since the means have been disco-
vered of preventing it, we may well rest satisfied with this.

In the year seventeen hundred and eighty-seven Mr. Young sowed
fourteen beds with the same wheat seed, as black with smut, he says,
as he ever saw any. The first bed was sown with this wheat without
washing, and this had three hundred and seventy-seven smutty ears:
That washed in clean water, had three hundred and twenty-five :
That iu lime water, had forty-three : That in lye of wood ashes, had
thirty-one : That in arsenic, had twenty-eight. Again — That steep'
ed in lime water four hours, had twelve : That in lie four hours, had
twelve: That in arsenic four hours, had one. And again — That
which wa? steeped in lie, as before mentioned, twelve hours, had none
— and that which was steeped in the same kind of lie twenty-four
hours, had none : That also which was steeped twenty-four hours ia
lime water, had none : That steeped in arsenic twenty-four hours,
had five.

Thus it appears as a matter of certainty that steeping the seed
wheat twenty-fours in lie will efTecinally prevent smut. Let the lie
be made pretty strong, and if the wlieat is steeped longer than this
length of time it will not injure it, unless it be kept too warm. Lime
water, and salt hrine, applied in the same manner, will no doubt an-
swer the same purpose.

If steeping in arsenic a longer time should prove effectual, this
would also be an excellent antitoile to birds; or to prevent them from
picking up the seeds, the lye water and arsenic might be used to-
gether.

It has been observed that seed wheat which has been well ripened
before harvesting is much less liable to smut than that which has
been cut early. Let the wheat for seed be the last harvested, and
let it be kept by itself, perfectly dry, until it is threshed out. Per-
haps the better way would be, to thresh it out in the field when in a

232 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

very dry state. The reason assigned for this is, that smut is believed
to be somewhat infectious; and that therefore if wheat entirely free
of this disorder be put in a mow with smutty wheat, the whole mass
will become more or less infected with smat, by reason of the sweat-
ing or heatins; of the mow.

Wheat that is very smutty in the field should not be harvested
ontil the crop is so fully ripe and dry that it will shell out considera-
bly in harvesting; by this means the grjuns of smut are mostly bro-
ken and dissipated by the harvesting and threshing. Threshing in
the field would no doubt in this case be preferable; as the drier the
crop is when threshed the more readily woold the smut grains be
broken.

S-NOS^'. In the northern states snow is very useful in protecting
■winter grain and grass from the severity of the frosts. Winter grain
or grasses which have been covered through the frosty season, will
grow much more rapidly in the spring than those which have lain
bare. Snows may, however, fall too soon, and lie too long for winter
grain, as in that case it is apt to be smothered.

Snow is useful in preserving all fresh meat during the cold season.
Let the meat be first a little frozen on the outside, then put it, on a
cold day, into casks filled with snow, laying the snow between each
piece so that they will not touch each other, nor the sides of the cask.
The whole is to be constantly kept liable to the action of the frosts ;
and in this way the meat will neither grow dry, nor lose its colour,
during the frosty season.

SOILING ov CATTLE: Feeding cattle in stalls during the
growing season, with grass cut and carried in to them. It is partic-
ularly recommended for milch cows, working horses and oxen, and
for fatting rattle; and Mr. Young also recommends that swine be
soiletl in a yard for the purpose.

The advantages of this method of husbandry have been experienc-
ed in Europe; and it is strongly recommended by Mr. Young, by
the compiler of " The Complete Grazier," and by other eminent
farmers of Great-Britain. A communication of Dr. Thaer, physician
to the Electoral Court of Hanover, to the Enslish Board of Agricul-
ture, as to the result of the experience of the Baron de Bulow and
others, lays down the following as facts which are incontroverti-
ble :—

1. A sfK)t of ground which, when pastured, will yield only sufficient
food for OTU head, will abuudautly maintain /our when kept in the
stable.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 2i^33

2. Soiling affords at least double the quantity of manure from the
same number of cattle ; for the best summer manure is produced in
the stable, and carried to the fields at the most proper period of its
fermentation; whereas when spread on the meadow, and exhaust-
ed by the air and sun, its power is entirely wasted.
-3. Cows which are accustomed to soiling will yield much more milk
when kept in this manner ; and fatting cattle will increase much
faster in weight.
4. They are less subject to accidents and diseases ; they are protect-
ed from the flies which torment them in the fields during warm
weather ; and they do not suffer from the heats of summer.
There are other advantages attending this method of husbandry.
The trouble of driving the milch cows to and from the pastures, three
times a day, is saved ; the working horses and oxen are always at
hand, so that no time is lost in going after them ', and, what is of no
small importance, when the cattle are housed the growing crops are ia
more safety.

For the most profitable cultivation of the earth, it is requisite that
it should be in the highest state of fertility. Some manures will en-
rich a soil to a certain extent, while others will make it still richer.
Generally speaking, barn dung is the only manure to which every
farmer is accessible, with which grounds may be fertilized in the high^
est degree. But how is a sufficiency of this to be had ?

If all vegetables were buried while green in the soil where they
grew, the manure thus afforded by them, together with what additions
the soil receives from the air by the requisite ploughings, would be
constantly increasing its fertility. The vegetable mass produced on
a farm is indeed left on, but with much waste, not only in the drying
of the vegetables before they are put into the barn, but in the drying
and washing of the dung, and the evaporation of its best parts, when
left in the barn-yard, before it is mixed with the soil; and by the still
greater waste when dropped in the fields.

The essential point, then, is to make and save the greatest possible
quantity of barn-dung manure from a given quantity of ground; and
this is only to be accomplished by soiling.

For this purpose, therefore, some of the most intelligent European
farmers have barns with cellars under them for the purpose of receir-
ifig the dung of the cattle, and into these the dung and litter is con-
stantly thrown, where it is prepared, by a due state of fermentation,

30

234 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

for mixing with the soil. Suitable earths are also laid behind the
cattle to absorb their stale as it runs backward, anil these, when sa-
turated, are also thrown down and mixed with the dung. Others,
however, object to cellars as the receptacles of the dung, on the
ground of their being too cool for the process of its fermentation dur-
ing summer, and prefer sheds adjoining the barn, to keep the dung
under cover to protect it from the rains. Where cellars are used they
should not be too deep, and should be well opened for the admission
of warm air during summer.

The quality of the dung of cattle depends much on their food ; that
therefore which is made from green grass will be found superior to
that made from dry hay ; that which is made from fatting cattle is the
best of any.

Having observed thus much, I will proceed to lay down a system
of field husbandry, in connection with the plan of soiling cattle, which
I presume will be found far more profitable than the usual method of
field culture.

Take a field of proper extent, say for instance forty acres, as near^
]y square as may be, and of as nearly uniform soil as can be had, of a
gootl gravelly loam, sandy, sandy loam, or other good arable soil, and
sufficiently level : Clear it of stones, so as that it can be tilled in the
most com|)lete manner : Build a barn in the centre of this field, with
a walled cellar under it, with a door to drive in with a cart on one
side, and another to drive out at the opposite side. The barn is to
be proportioned to the size of the field, and a communication to be
made to it on the side most convenient, by a lane. For a more mi-
nute description, a plan of the whole is here laid down.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

23^

D

5

:E.

IB:

10

11

12

A. The lane to the barn,

B. The barn with a fence round it, communicating with the lane.

C. D. E. Divisions of the field into four equal parts, where strips
of land are left unploughed wide enough for a cart to go upon.

1.2. 3. <fcc. Subdivisions of the field, on which are cultivated
crops of roots, grain and grass, in rotation.

In this barn stables are to be fixed for keeping a number of milch
cows, working horses and oxen, or fatting cattle, proportionate to the
size and products of the field. They are to be kept on grass, cut and
carried iu to them during the growing season, and on haj and other
food during winter. The cows should be let out each day during
the three milking times, and all the cattle should have a constant
supply of water from a well made near the barn for the purpose. —
During summer the water may be carried to the cattle in troughs in
the stable, but in colder weather the cattle must lie let out to troughs
of water in the yard. As Lucerne starts early in the spring, and
grows late in the fall, it will probably be found one of the best grasse*
for early and late feeding. Perhaps some other grasses may be found
best in particular soils, and for particular purposes.

See article Grasses,

236 far:mer's assistant.

The common trefoil, or red clover, which is mostly cullivated
in this country, is very good for soiling. The morning's supply of
gr.iss should be brought in the afternoon, and that for the after-
noon in the morning; though if it be a fact that dew is nourishing
to cattle, it would seem the better way to bring in the whole supply
for the day in the morning. A light hand cart is to be used for bring-
ing in the grass from the parts of the field nearest the barn.

After such a field has been brought under complete cultivation,
and enriched by this mode of culture, it will probably keep, winter
and summer, about tueuty-five head of cows, and fatting or working
cattle. The Lucerne may be made to yield sufficient for soiling about
six head per acre, or six or seven tons of hay per acre, if used for
that purpose. Some other grasses will |)erhaps yield nearly equally
well. The common red clover may be made to yield four tons of
hay per acre at two mowings, and is excellent as a lay for other
crops. About four hundred loads of the best barn-dung would pro-
bably be afforded yearly from such a field, which would be at the rate
of ten loads per acre each year.

The extra labor required for cutting and carrying in the grass, and
cleaning the stalls of the cattle twice a day during summer, would
probably employ one hand two thirds of his time. In return for this,
the farmer saves the rent of at least twelve acres of the best pasture
land, which may be put at five dollars an acre, and his cows give
more milk, and his fatting and working cattle keep better and thrive
faster. Here, then, the farmer is amply repaid for his extra lalx)r.
But the great superiority of the soiling system lies in this — by the
great quantity of excellent manure thus afforded the farmer is enabled
to carry on a system of field culture that will be found to average one
half more of clear profit than can be expected in the usual mode.

It will be seen by the drawing of the field that it is to be divided
into twelve parts, and that the divisions are long and narrow; this
renders them more convenient for ploughing, as will be presently in-
sisted. We will begin with division number one.

This is to be turned over in the fall to rot the sward, and well
jmellowed in the spring. All the dung made during Avinter is to be
ploughed in, and the ground planted with potatoes. See article Po-
tatoes. If properly cultivated, between three and four hundred
bushels of this root may be expected from the acre. As no soil can
be too rich for Indian corn, give the ground another dunging from the
i»tock of dung made during summer, plough it in, and next season

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 237

plant it with this. See article Indian Corn. Nearly one hundred
bushels to the acre may be expected of this. The next season it may
be sown with hemp, and a large crop expected. See article Hemp.
After the hemp has come off, let the ground be lightly ploughed, and,
after all seeds have come up, harrowed or drilled in with wheat. See
article Wheat. Of this crop a hundred bushels may be expected.
If it grows too rank in the spring let it be mowed off at a proper time.
Let red clover be sown on the wheat in the spring, and lightly brush-
ed in with a brush harrow. Some gypsum may be advantageously
applied to the clover every spring. After the second crop is taken
off the second year, let the sward be well turned under and harrowed
in again v/ith wheat, with clover sowed the next spring, and gypsum
applied as before ; and after two years more of clover crops let the
ground be turned up in the fall to begin again with potatoes.

In the mean time other courses of crops may be occasionally pur-
sued, so as to have a due supply of Lucerne constantly on hand. —
Probably it might be found most advisable to cut up tlie crop of Indian
corn as soon as the ears have become sufficiently hardened, carry it
off to the sides of the piece, there set it up in shocks to ripen, and in
the meantime sow the ground thus cleared ; as in this way, the grouud
being well manured, and, by two hoed crops, well cleared of weeds,
would afford the largest crops of this grass. Gypsum, or other good
top-dressing, should also be applied to it, as might be found requisite.
Other grasses should also be tried, for soiling particularly ; as some
of these may be found best for some soils, especially for light sandy,
or hard dry gravelly ones. Where carrots are to be raised, after the
ground has been properly prepared, it would be found most advi-
sable to keep it under this culture for several years. See article Car-
rots.

The above is merely an outline of the method of managing the di-
visions of the field ; and this man;igement, or something similar, each
is in turn to undergo; varyins the cro()s, however, to suit the soil,
and so as to have at all times a due supjily of those which are neces-
sary for carrying on the business of soiliug to its requisite extent.

It has been before mentioned that the divisions of the field are long
and narrow, which are unfit for convenient cross-ploughing. No
cross-ploughing is iutended here; it is only useful in tearing tough
swards to pieces. Here there can he no tough sward formed ; and as
it is only requisite to re-mellow the groimd, it can lie as effectually
done by ploughing one way as by cross-ploughing. lu order to keep

238 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

the vegetable mold of an even depth over the surface, the furrows
should be turned first the one way and then the other; beginning to
back-furrow where the last parting furrows were made, and then the
next parting furrows will be where the last back-furrows were
made.

In ploughing the lengthway of each division, and having no short
furrows, the work will be much accelerated, as no time is lost by too
frequent turnings. The same may be ol)served in regard to hoeing
the rows of hoed crops, and cutting the swarths in reaping and mow-
ing. With long furrows, long rows and long swarths, the work goes
on more rapidly than with short ones.

Any calculation is here omitted of stating the probaljle expense of
these crops, and from thence shewing the clear profit of each, as eve-
ry intelligent farmer can do this for himself; but on an average it may
safely be affirmed that the clear profit will average at least twenty
dollars an acre. The plan it will be perceived is best calculated for
having a dairy combined with it, and tbis naturally includes the rear-
ing of swine. Sec article Swine. It will also be perceived that it ia
best calculated for particular pieces ot land of greater or less extent
as they may be found. Small pieces may, however, be advantage-
ously cultivated in this way, even of as small extent as ten acres;
and in such case it uouhl be most advisable to set the barn on one
side of the field, and run the narrow divisions quite across it. This
plan of husbandry appears to be peculiarly calculated for redeeming
from barrenness many light sandy, or poor gravelly tracts of land j
and generally it seems well adapted to almost all lands that are to-
lerably level.

See further, article Improvement of Lands.

It has been observed, however, that those cows which have beea
always used to be kepi by soiling during the growing season, are usu-
ally more profitalile than those which have but newly been put to this
method of keeping.

SOOT. Forty bushels of this to an acre, is a good top-dressing
for almost every kind of summer croj), or for winter crops, when sowed
on them in the spring. Let it be powdered fine before it is applied.
It is also very good for cold grass lands.

It is recommended to be sown over turnips, not only for the pur-
pose of manuring the ground, hut for keeping off insects. For this
purpose let it be finely pulverized and sown in the morning while the

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 23^

dew is on, and let it be in moderate quantity, lest it should injure the
young plants, to which it will adhere and repel the insects.

See article Manures.

SOWING. There are three methods of committing seeds to the
ground.

1. In hills, which is usually called planting.

2. In drills, or continued rows: And,

3. In the hroad cast method, or a cast of the hand.

For making seeds vegetate more readily, sec article Germinatiox
OF Plants.

By the drill method of sowing, about one half, at least, of the seed
requisite for sowing may be saved ; which with regard to wheat, par-
ticularly, is a matter of some consequence.

Sec Rutherford's essay on this subject, article Drill.

For the proper time of committing each kind of seed to the ground
and the quantity to be sown of each, see the articles of which the seeds
are to be sowed.

A general rule which prevails in regard to sowing seeds, is, that
the largest and most full grown be sown. It is said that small seeds
produce small stalks and small seeds, and large seeds the contrary.
This, it is believed, is a matter well worth attending to, particularly
as it respects the different kinds of grain which are not wholly natu^
ralized to our climate or to our soil.

So\ving too early in the spring may be as injurious as sowing too
late ; for if the ground be not well pulverized, and sufficiently warm*
ed before sowing, the seeds Avill come up slowly, and be stunted in
their growth.

Duhamel found by experiments, that few seeds will come up if
buried more than nine inches in the soil ; that some will rise very weI5
at the depth of six inches; and, that others again will not rise if
buried two inches. Those seeds which, in vegetating, are thrown out
of the ground, such as beans, &c. ought to be buried lightly ; and, in
general, it may be observed, that very few seeds require to be very
deeply buried. In light soils they should be buried deeper than in
stiff and cold ones. When the ground is rolled after sowing, seeds
will come up with a lighter covering of earth than where this is not
done.

Much depends on having the seeds sowed as evenly as possible;
and for this purpose they ought to be sowed when the weather is not
■windy, particularly those which are light or easily wafted away. In

240 FAR.MER'S ASSISTANT.

sowing some seeds, it is adrisable to go over the ground twice ; soir-
injr one Iialf of the intended allowance or seed one waj, and the other
halt" crosswise.

Previous to sowing, the most seeds should be steeped in some fer-
tilizing liquor, and then dried, either with lime, ashes, or gypsum-
For the prevention of smut, lye, d;c. has already been mentioned.

Sec article Smut.

Mr. Johnson recommends, adding about six ounces of saltpetre, to
be dissolved in as much lye as w ill immerse a bushel of grain. Thi?
be advises more particularly for Indian corn and wheat ; and he men-
tions an instance where it made a part of a field of wheat, the seed of
"which had been steeped in this way, as much as twenty-five per cent
better than the rest of the same field. Let the seed be steeped about
twenty -four hours.

Grain that is designed for sowing should always be kept well aired,
for if deprived of this for a considerable length of time, it will not ve-
getate. IMr. iNIiller took fresh seeds of different kinds, a part of each
he jnit into phials, and sealed them so as to exclude the air. and the
rest he kept exposed to it. After a twelvemonth he sowed each oa
different parts of the aame bed, when all of those came up that were
exjKJsed to the air, but none of those which were excluded from it.

Where land is very rich, it ought generally to have more seed than
if it be poor ; and if the size of the grains be large, the quantity sowa
should be greater than where they are small.

SPAVIN. A swelling about the joints of horses, causing lamenes?.
There are two kinds of this disorder — a bloo<l spavin and a bag spavin-
The former is a swelling of tlie vein that runs along the inside of the
middle joint of the hind legs, which is frequently attended with a
lameness of thejoint.

To cure it, says Mr. Gibson, first apply restringents and a bandage
tightly drawn round thejoint ; for these, if early applied, will general-
ly effect a cure ; but if by these means the vein is not reduced to itf
usual dimensions the skin should be opened, and the vein tied with a
crooked needle and wax-thread, passed underneath, above ami below
the swelling, and the turgid part will then digest away with the liga-
tures. Let the wound be daily dressed with a mixture of turpentine,
honey, aou spirit of wine.

The bag spavin is merely a cyst, or bag, filled with the gelatinous
matter of the joint, irrupted from its proper place. To cure this, cut
iiito the bag, and let the matter discharge ; then dress tbe sere witli

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 241

lint dipped in oil of tiirpentiue, puttin? into it, once in three or four
days, a powder made of calcined vitriol, alum and bole. By this me-
tho<l of dressing, the bag will come away, and a cure will be effected
without any visible scar.

Should this fail of a cure, the hot iron is directed to be applied ;
and in that case, if the joint becomes inflamed, apply a poultice over
the dressings till the swelling is reduced.

SPAYING. It is recommended to spay sows, as this prevents
conception, and will cause them to have more fat than the barrows.
Heifers are also splayed in Great-Britain where they are raised mere-
ly for fatting. The method of performing this with effect is best learn-
ed by practice.

SPELT. This is a grain much used for bread in Germany. It is
said to have been the ancient frumentacious tribute which the Romans
formerly exacted from that country. It resembles wheat, but is
smaller, and darker coloured, and is bearded, with only two rows on
an ear.

It may be sowed in autumn, or in the spring, and delights in a
dry soil.

SPIKY ROLLER. This instrument is much recommended by
some English writers for mellowing clay ground that is baked in clods.
It is also recommended to be passed over fields of wheat in the spring,
for the purpose of loosening the ground, and then to be followed by a
brush-harrowing. This would no doubt be very useful ; and would
afford a fine opportunity for sowing clover-seed on the crop. Its fur-
ther use is to tear and loosen old grass-bound meadows, for the pur-
pose of making the grass grow more thriftily again.

It is merely a wooden roller with iron teeth, or spikes, drove into
it. They are to be about seven inches long, and drove three inches
into the wood, and set four inches apart, in diagonal rows round the
roller. The outer ends are not to be sharp but square.

SPIN' AGE. Sec article Greens.

SPROUTS. Where woods are cut off which are apt to sprout, the
best way is to persevere in destroying the sjirouts as fast as they ap-
pear, because the longer they are suffered to grow, the more di3icult
it becomes to extirpate them, particularly in wet meadow lands. la
these the difficulty is increased on account of their taste being less pa-
latable than those of uplands, aiul therefore cattle are less inclined to
pat them. In such giounds, the best way is to cut off the sprouts

M

242 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

four or five times in the first season, and this will pretty much destroy
them. If a swamp can be floo<led two or three years, it will effectu-
ally destroy sprouts and every other growth; or if it can be drained
dry, it so alters the nature of the soil, that its growth of wood soon in-
clines to die for want of its usual moisture.

The best method of destroying sprouts, is to beat them off from the
stumps. This can be done with the pole of an axe, and the more the
stump is battered, and its bark beat off round the roots, the more ef-
fectually will the further growth ol sprouts be prevented.

SPUR. A disease in rye. The grains which are affected with it
are larger than the rest, mostly crooked, bitter to the taste, projecting
beyond their husks, dark coloured, rough, and deeply furrowed from
end to end.

This kind of diseased grain sometimes proves \ery destructive to
those who eat it. In some parts of France, where the disease mostly
prevails, the peasants who eat it are liable to be attacked with a dry
gangrene in the extreme parts of the body, which causes those parts
to fall off, almost without pain. " The Hotel Dieu, at Orleans," says
Duhamel, " has had many of these miserable objects, who bad not
any thing more remaining than the bare trunk of the body, and yet
lived in that condition several days."

It is not every year that the sjiur produces these effects ; and if the
grain be kept a certain time belore it is eaten it will not he hurtful. It
is believed, however, that no very bad effects have been known in this
country from eating this kind of rye.

STABLE AND STALLS. The stable should be so well in-
closed as to defend the beasts from the winds and storms, and at the
same time it should not be too warm, lest it make them tender when
exposed to the weather.

The stable should have a good floor, descending a little backwards,
so that the stale will run off iiehind. It should be divided into sepa-
rate .ipartments, or stalls, for each beast to stand by itself. There
should be a good manger for horses, and the rack which holds their
hay should be upright and not too high. Some p-efer putting the hay
into a very large manger, or trough, made for the purpose, and what
is left by horses can in this way be given to other cattle, as they will
eat it very readily.

Stables should be kept clean and well littered, to keep the beasts
comfortable when they lie down. Some advise boring holes through
the floor to let off the stale more readilv. For horses there should be

FAR.AIER'S ASSISTANT. 243

sufficient room in the stalls to turn llieir lieads to every part of their

bodies, and to raise them as high as tliey please.

STAGGERS. A disease in some kinds of cattle. If the sta*-

gering of a horse be owing to hard usage, Gihson directs to take a

innt of blood from his neck, and then a quart from some vein in his
hmder parts, and that he be then kept on moderate cleansing diet.

When the disease arises from an apoplectic disorder, he must be
treated as before, and exercised every day with chewing assafoetida,
savin, and all other noisome things, which will keep him in constant
action, and forward the circulation of the blood in the small vessels.
Afterwards, recourse must be had to clysters, strong purgatives, rub-
biug and exercise.

When it arises from a swimming of the head, the animal reels, turns
round, and falls. For this, take an ounce of senna, boiled in five pints
of water, with four ounces of common treacle, and the usual quantity
of oils or lard, to throw ia as a clyster, and repeat this for two or three
days; after this he may have a drench of beer, in which the roots of
peony, angelica, rue, rosemary, and flowers of lavender have been
steeped. If the disease continues obstinate, balls of cinnibar, and as-
safoetida, with bay-berries, will be proj.er here, as in apoplectic
cases.

Mr. Gibson condemns the practice of putting ginger and other
stimulating things into the ear as dangerous, though it may sometimes
prove beneficial.

STALE. It is believed the stale of cattle is almost as valuable as
a manure, as their dung, and that pains ought therefore to be taken to
prevent its being lost.

For the best method of preserving it in stables, see article New
Husbandry.

The Hollanders, it is said, are as careful in saving the stale of their
cattle as their dung. The older it is, the better, as a manure. Old
urine is also said to be an excellent application to the roots of trees ;
but too much ought not to be applied, for in that case it sometimes'
kills them.

See article MANaTRES.

See further, article Urixe.

STOCK. Vv'hen an English farmer speaks o^stockino- a farm, he
means the requisite number of ploughs, harrows, carts, and oth,r' im-
plements of husbandry, beside cattle of different kinds, for carrying on
the business of husbandry on that farm to advantage; in the same

244 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

way that a merchant or manufacturer speaks of the stock, or capital,
w^hich i? requisite to carry on any I»ranch of trade or manufacture.
But farmers in this country. t>ein^ Hut little used to renting farms, do
but seldom enter into calculation? of tbi? kind : and hy tlii:; means the
word stock has here acquired a different meaoins in regard to farniing
business; it means merely the number of cattle of different kinds
•which a farmer keeps on hi? farm. It would, nevertheless, be well
for those who are obliged to rent farms in tbi? countr}", to examine
Srst whether they can acquire the requisite aiock for any farm, agree-
ably to the English meaning, before they attempt to hire ; as by not
having this they olten injure themselves, as well as their landlords.

Young stock are always more profitable than old; as these, whea
turned off to fat. do not answer so well as those which are but little
past their prime. It costs more to fatten old cattle, and their meat i?
not so valuable.

Stock should be suitable to the soil on which they are fed. If their
pastures be chiefly dry hills, sheep is the best. If they be grounds
fit for the cultivation of clover, and various other grasses, the dairy,
or fatting of cattle, may he best : and if ihey he wet grounds, which
only produce coarse grasses, the raising of horses will be found most
profitable.

The profit of raising horses depends much on the breeding mares,
and also on the price which can be obtained for horses. Generally
speaking, the farmer will do better in turning his attention to the l»est
breeds of sheep, if his pasture lands be suitable. The dairj^ is also
profitable, where properly managed uith regard to the milk ; and also
irith regard to raising a due proportion of swine, with the aid of clo-
Ter, and the skim-milk, whey, aud butter-milk together.

See articles Dairy and Swine.

But as stocks of cattle are found to degenerate, unless pains be
taken to prevent it. an essential |>oint of husbandry lies in taking the
proper steps lor improving the breeds. Some cows will give double
the quantity of milk which others give, and of better quality. Some
bulls beget much finer and larger calves than others. Some sheep
bear more wool, and of better quality than others; and some rams be-
get lambs possessing these qualities in a superior degree to others.
Similar observation* may be made of some breeds of horses and of
swine. The essential point, therefore, is, for the farmer to be diligent
in selecting those breeds which are found to be most valuable, a^well
from those raised in his own stock, aa from those which may be ob-

FARMER'S AF^SISTANT. 245

talned elsewhere. Let him persevere in constantly selecting the best
breeds for a stock, rejecting all others, and he will presently find his
stock very greatly improved.

In Great-Britain much pains are taken to improve the breeds of
cattle and the success attending such exertions are very encouraging.
In some of their agricultural publications mention is made of prodigi-
ous prices being given for certain animals of superior breed : Such as
a bull of Mr. Paget, having been sold in the year 1793 for four hun-
dred guineas : Heifers belonging to him for eighty-four guineas
apiece; and ewes for sixty-four guineas a piece. In Monicas Ag-
ricultural Dictionary, there is also mention made of a Mr. Richard
Ashley having swine, the boars of which he let to sows at ha!f-a-gui-
nea each ; and of a Rlr. Bishop who sold his pig?, at weaning time,
lor two guineas a piece. Such examples might also be produced
here, if the requisite pains were taken, and the profits attending them
are surely sufficient to gratify even avarice itself.

Above all, let the farmer keep no greater slock than he can sup-
port well. The half of any given number of cattle, wl'.ere tJiey are
well kept, will ahvays be found to yield as much clear profit to the
owner, as the whole when kept in [>oor condition. Poor keeping also
ie?irns cattle to be unruly ; and when they have learned this efiectu-
ally, they only prove a bill of expense, instead of an article of profit,
to the owner.

STONES. Where arable lands particularly abound M'ith these,
no good culture can be carried on. The first step then is to clear
such lands of the stones, and let this be tlone effectually ; carrying oft"
the small ones and digging out the large ones, so that there be no ob-
structions to the plough.

Some lands may indeed be too stony to be cleared of them to any
present advantage. Let such be left to the prowess of future genera-
tion'?; they will undoubtedly find their account in clearing such, and
find use for the stones. If they be not all wanted for fences, buildings,
&c. they maybe (bund useful in making hollow drains, 6:c.

If stones be very badly shapen, so that they will not lie in a wall,
perhaps the better way may be to throw them aside, and make hedge
fences; but if they be chiefly well shaped, let them be made into
walls; for these, if properly made, will last an age, with some trifling
repairs. The best method of making these, is to dig a trench where
the wall is to he made, to the dejjth of about eighteen inches ; into
this throw all the small and bad shaped stones, until the trench is fill.

246 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

ed ; then on the top of these build the wall, in a mason-lUce manner,
to the height of about five feet, and throw the earth dug out of the
trench uj) against the wall on each side; and in this way it will stand
for a length of time beyond the memory of man. If a trench iie not
dug in this manner, the next best method is to plough deep trenches
close on each side of the wall, after it is built, and throw the earth
thus ploughed up, against the wall.

Where stones arc very large, and cannot be removed wilhoul break-
ing them, the best way is to split them to pieces. For this pur|)Ose,
drill two hofes in opposite sides, according to the grain of the stone ;
then fill each hole mih two half cylindrical pieces of iron, and be-
tween these drive a long steel wedge. In this way large stones or
rocks may be split out into proper shapes for good building stones, or
for other purposes. Building fires on large stones will also render
them liable to be broken to pieces while they are thus heated.

By experiments accurately made, it is found, that small stones on
the surface of the ground, are beneficial, in a small degree, in increas-
ing its products; but they are too troublesome in good cultivalion to
be desirable on account of all the benefit to be derived from them.

Where ground is full of small stones, they may be drove down so
as to be out of the way of the scythe, by having a roller passed over
the ground in the spring, when it is very soft, as the stones are then
easily pressed into it.

STOCKING OR SHOCKING. Let ten sheaves be disposed in
two rows, each leaning against the other; then let two sheaves be
laid on the top, so as that the but of one lies under the but of the otlier,
having the heads hanging dj^vnwards. In this way, wheat or other
grain will keep very well. Another method is to make little stacks
of an hundred sheaves or more, in each. They are made with the
heads inmost and uppermost, and over the top of the whole, a large
>sheaf is tied close to the but end, and the other end spread all round
the top of the stack, to preserve it from the rains. This is, no doubl,
the best method for saving the grain from the effects of long and
heavy rains.

STRAIN OR SPRAIN. Horses are liable to strains, partictilarly
.in their shoulders. Anointing them with spirits of turpentine in the
part injured, will help them for a while, but will not afford a perma-
nent relief. Washing the shoulder when that part is affected, with
brine, as warm as it can well be borne, will effect a cure in a lew
days. Let it be done twice a day; and letting the animal rest from

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 247

labor will generally perform a cure in a few weeks at farthest. If
these will not answer, let warm poultices be applied, of bran, boiled
in vinegar, with a sufficiency of hog's-Iard to prevent its growing hard;
let this be repeated, if necessary, until the cure is completed ; and
then mind to keep that part covered a while, so that it shall not be
afifectetl by colds.

STRAWBERRY; (Fragaria.) The Chili; the haut-boy; the
rvood; and the scarlet strawberry, are each esteemed ; but the latter
is mostly cultivated. A light loamy soil is best for raising them ; and
it should not be dunged much, lest they should run too much, and of
course be less fruitful.

They are first to be sown from the seeds, in a bed, which is to be
kept clean of weeds. In this they are to be kept three years before
transplanting. They are to Joe transplanted in September or the be-
ginning of October. The ground into which they are to be trans-
planted, is to be laid out into beds four feet wide, with alleys between
each, of the width of two feet. The plants are to be set fifteen in-
ches apart, in rows each way. Mr. Miller says, " the plants should
never be taken from old neglected beds, where the plants have been
suffered to run into a multitude of suckers ;" that those should be
avoided which are not fruitful ; " and those offsets which stand near-
est to the old plants should be preferred to those which are produced
from the trailing stalks at a greater distance."

When they become unfruitful, which is generally at the end of
three years, they must be again transplanted.

Mr. Miller directs, that the vines be kept clear of weeds during
summer, and that all the runners, or suckers, be pulled off as fast as
they appear, which will be productive of a plentiful crop the next
spring after planting. The old plants produce the fruit; the suckers
yield none until after a full year's growth ; and they serve to rob the
old plants of that nourishment which is so essential to their fruit-
fulness.

In autumn, let the plants be again divested of their strings and run-
ners, and the beds be again cleared of weeds. Mr. Miller directs,
that some tanner's bark be then spread over the ground, and that this
when afterwards buried in the soil will serve as a dressing for the
vines. He further directs, that some moss, or straw, perhaps, will do
as well, be spread round under the vines to keep the fruit from the
ground.

L'48 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Ad improved method of cultivating the Al|)ine strawbefry, is as
follows : —

'' Sow the seed on a moderate hot-bed in the beginning of April,
and as soon as the plants have acciuired sufficient strength, transplant
them in oi)en beds. They will begin to blossom after midsummer,
and afford an abundant autumnal crop."'

Mr. Knight, who reports the foregoing method of treatment, thinks,
that this plant should always be cultivated as an annual one.

STUBBLE. Where the stubble is large, as it will be where the
o-rain is large, and is reaped, the ground will be very considerably be-
nefitted by ploiiching it under as soon as the grain is taken off; where-
as if it be suffered to stand until it is perfectly dried, and all the juices
evajwrated. it Avill then do the ground little or no good. In this way
too the seeds of many w eeds are prevented from ripening.

SUNFLOWER; (HcUanlhwf.) It is found, that the seeds of this
plant afford an oil equal to that of the olive-tree; and it is said, that
seventv bushels of this seed may easily be raised from an acre. The
jilant will grow in almost any soil that is sufficiently strong; and it
is bv no means difficult to cultivate. It is believed, that the cultiva-
tion of this plant for making oil, might be found verj- profitable. The
seeds are also very good for feeding poultry during the winter
season.

From a bushel of this seed, says the Editor of '• Tlie JVatdiman," a
crallon of oil, as fine as that which we import from Florence, may be
obtained at any time, quite soft, bland, and fresh; and tJie mass that
remains, after pressing out the oil, is of excellent u?e to feed hogs,
poultry, «S.:c. He further observes, that the inhabitants of unwholsome
places should be diligent in cultivating this plant, on account of the
vast quantity of oxygene gas which it produces ; it having been prov-
ed, that near twenty times as much of this gas is {)roduccd in twenty-
Ibur hours by one plant, in light and clear weather, as a man respires,
in an impure atnx)sphere, in that space of time.

The plants should be raised in rows and cultivated in the manner
of hoed crops.

SURFEIT. A disease to which cattle, and particularly horses,
are liable. In horses it is generally the effect of intense labor, or
overheating. The skin becomes dry and full of dander, or of scabs.
if the disease be more inveterate. The hair of the animal stands out,
and he has a dull sluggish look.

FARiMElVS ASSISTANT. 249

Some have merely Ibis look and appearance of the hair, while they
grow lean and hide- bound, without any irruptions of the skin. Some
have what is called a wet surfeit, in which case sharp thin humors
run from the scabs. This is often attended with great heat, inflam-
mations-, and sudden swellings of the neck, which causes great quan-
tities of briny liquor to issue from that part, and if not allayed will
collect on the withers, and protluce the fistula, or about the head, and
produce the poll-evil.

To cure the dry surfeit, the author of " The Complete Farmer'* dir
rects, first, to take away three or lour pounds of blood, and then give
the following purge, w hich will work as an alterative, and should be
repeated once a week for some time.

" Take succotrine aloes, six drachms, or one ounce; gumguaicum,
half an ounce; diaphoretic antimony, and powder of myrrh, of each,
two drachms, and make the whole into a ball with syrup of buckr
thorn."

!n the intermediate days, an ounce of the following powder should
be given, morning and evening with his feed.

" Take native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony, finely powdered,
half a pound ; crude antimony in fine powder, four ounces ; gum
guaicum in powder, four ounces : make the whole into sixteen doses,
for eight days."

The medecine must be repeated till the horse coats well, and the
symptoms of the disease disappear. If the scabs do not come off,
anoint them with mercurial ointment. This ointment alone well pub-
bed into the blood, and aided by purges, will also commonly eflfeci
a cure.

For the wet surfeit, bleed plentifully, avoiding externally all re-
pellers, and in the morning while fasting, give cooling physic twice
a week, composed of four ounces of lenitive electuary, four of cream
of tartar, and four of Glauber's salts, quickened with a little jalap.

After three or four of these purgings, give two ounces of nitre,
made into a ball with honey, everj'' morning for a fortnight; and if
successful, repeat this a fortnight longer. The above may also be
given with the horses food ; or a strong decoction of logwood may be
given alone, at the rate of two quarts a day. Where the disease proves
obstinate, the medicine must be continued a considerable length of
time, lo prove effectual.

The horse should be kept dry, and his food should be cool and opeu-
iflg. If he is hide-bound, give him fenugreek seeds for some time.

32

250* FARll^R'S ASSISTAPsT.

Where the disorder proceeds from worms, give the mercurial physic-
and afterwards the cinnabar powder, as al>OTe directed.

The author, from whose work the above directions are taken, ob-
serves, however, ihat as this disease is not alwars original, but attend-
ant on others, in the cure, regard should be had to the first cause, and
thus the removal of the complaint may be variously affected.

SWARD. A stiff sreen sward is an infallil)le indication of the
ground being in good condition for bearing a good crop ; but it is not
an equally certain indication of a good soil ; as the sward may be the
effect of strong manuring. Some soils again which incline to moss,
when they have lain untilled for some time, exhibit a greater degree
of poverty than they really possess. Earths, however, which, without
manuring, bear a stiff green sward, may always be pronounced good,
whatever may be their colour ; but perhaps only good for certain pro-
ductions.

A stiff sward, well turned over, will generally bear a pretty good
crop, of any growth which is suitable to the soil ; as the rotting of the
sward keeps up a fermentation in the soil nearly equal to that which
is produced by repeated ploughings. This remark, however, more
properly applies to rich mellow soils; those that are naturally stiff or
bard, generally will not sufficiently ferment to bear a good crop by
the mere rotting of the sward.

A clover sward, that has been mowed and well turned over, makes
a very fine lay for wheat, where the soil is not too stiff or hard; but
where the clover has been fed off, it is not considered quite so good ;
as in that case the ground becomes harder by the treading of the cat-
tle. Much, however, in that case, depends on the natural mellow-
ness of the soil.

Clover forms but a crumbly s^vard ; Timothy is stjffer; but the
English blue-grass, (poa,) forms one of (he strongest. This, where it
is very strong, and the soil full of vegetable matter, may be cut and
used as turf.

Strong swards usually accumulate along the sides of fences, anii
where cattle much resort, which may be used to sulvautage is
composts.

Sec article Manures.

When the sward of mowing ground binds too much, it is usually
most advisable to break it up and till the ground. If this be not done
scarifying, and compost manures are to be resorted to. The binding
of the a^varU in mowing, or in pasture grounds, is principally the effect

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. SM

«f close feeding. Let a sufficiency of fog, or after-grass, be left on
such lands, and they will not be apt to Wnd.

Generally speaking, there is no method so easy, and cheap, of
covering dry soils, which are poor or exhausted, with a fresh green
sward, as with the use of gypsum ; and this should always be done be-
fore such grounds are broken up ; as in that case, double, or per-
haps, treble the crop may be expected from them that they will yield
if broken up with a light, poor sward on them. Let the gypsum be
sown on such lands *arly in the spring, and by the ftrst of the follow-
ing July they will be covered with a fine sward of white clover; and
when land is well covered with this grass, it is in good condition,
with the aid of good tillage, to bear a plentiful crop.

SWARTH-RAKE. This is a rake about two yards long, with iron
teeth, and a bearer in the middle ; to which a man fixes himself with
a belt, and when he has gathered as much as his rake will hold, he
raises it and begias again, — Complete Farmer.

For another kind of rake, see article Hav-Makinc,

SAVINE. " The Cattle Society of Pennsylvania,''' recommend cross-
ing the Guinea breed oi hogs with the best kinds of our common swine,
which, they say, forms a breed the most profitable of any.

The Chinese breed are very good. The large long bodied hogs
with long ears, leaning forward, are most profitable to fatten the
second year.

Particular pains should be taken to select and improve the breed of
hogs, as some kinds are much more profitable for raising than others.
After a projjer improvement of the breed, the next point is to select
the finest for breeding sows, and for boars.

The marks of a good hog are, a moderate length, ia proportion to
the size of the body ; the head and cheek plum and full ; neck thick
and short; quarters full; carcase thick and full; hair fine and thin;
with a symmetry adapted to the respective breed to which he belongs.
Above all, it is essential, that he be of a kindly disposition to fat-
ten early.

The sow will bring forth a stronger and better litter, if she be kept
till she is a year old before she goes to the boar; and he should be kept
till that age before he is put to sows. He should be kept in good con-
dition for the purpose, and as the author of " The Complete Grazier'''
€ays, should not serve more than ten sows in a year. The sows
should also be kept in good condition, but not too fat ; as in that case
they will not produce an abundant litter of pigs. As they will usually

252 FARiNIER'S ASSISTANT.

pig twice a year, they should be put to the boar at such times as wil}
brinp: forward one litter in April auil another earl) in September. To
cause them to go to the boar, it they mifS the right season, give them
some parched oats in their wash, or the small end of a runnet-bag. If
well kept, ho^vever, they will seldom require any stimulus to coition
at the proper times. Those are reckoned the best breeders which
have about ten or twelve paps. They should be kept clean and well
littered, but should not have too much litter at the time of pigging,
lest they overlay their pigs in it. At the end of a week or ten days»
they should be let out of their sties into their yartl, for three or four
hours each day. Where several sows are farrowing, about the same
time, they must be kept in separate apartmeuts in the sty, lest they
devour the pigs of each other. Young sows will sometimes eat their
own offspring, which may be prevented by washing the backs of the
pigs in an infusion of aloes; and, for this purpose, the sows must 1)6
•watched when bringing forth. It is said, that supplying them with
plenty of water at this time will prevent any mischief taking place of
this kind.

The sucking pigs intended for market, should be killed at the end
of about three weeks. The finest ones should be saved. By this
time the rest will be able to follow the sows, when the males may be
castrated, and at the end of another week the females may be spayed.
This latter operation will greatly promote the growth and fattening
of the females. The castration and spaying may as well, however,
be deferred till the age of six weeks.

Where the pigs are to be weaned, Mr. Young says, it should be at
the age of two months ; and they should be kept in the sty by them-
selves and suffered to run into a yard. They should be ke|)t clean,
and well littered, and should have plenty of food, which may be boil-
ed potatoes, or carrots, for a fortnight, when raw ones will (irove good
food. They should also be baited every day for a month with oats,
and after this may have a thin drink of pea, or buck-wheat meal, (In-
dian-meal will no doubt answer as well,) l)oiled in water, unless there
be a dairy ; in which case, a messof milk or whey may be substituted.
Too much should not, however, be given them at once, as Mr. Deane
says it is known sometimes so to inflate them with wind as to kill
them. Mr. Young says, their being kept very cleanly, so as to have
fine clean coats, is as essential to their growth as good feeding, until
the}' are turned out with the larger hogs into the clover field, which,
after the age of three months, ^\ill keep them very well during the
rest of the growing season.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 253

It has been uniformly remarked, that though these animals are na-
turally filthy, if left to themselves, yet the cleaner they are kept, the
belter they will grow and fatten.

Boiled or steamed clover hay will serve to keep hogs during winter;
but, perhaps, the addition of some potatoes or carrots boiled with
the hay, would be a very proper addition. The clover should be cut
a little sooner than usual, and should be well cured, and have about
a peck of salt to each ton, when laid down in the mow. For boiling
in this case, as well as for boiling roots, and for other purposes, a
wooden vessel full of holes at the bottom is placed over the boiler,
which holds the water, and which is heated underneath; being set in
a brick stove or furnace for the purpose. The steam from the boiler
rises through the holes in the bottom of the vessel Avhich holds the ar-
ticles to be boiled, or steamed, and after passing through them, is let
off at the top ; not faster, however, than is necessar}', being partly
confined by a lid. If the hay, or other articles, are to be boiled in
water, the steam is conducted by a tube into the bottom of a^essel
holding the water, into which the articles are put. The steam-boiler
is a very essential article in the rearing of swine and for other pur-
poses, and no good farmer should be without it.

The sows may be allowed to breed till they are sis years old, and
the boar until he is five. After this the former is to be spayed and
put up to fatten, and the latter is to be castrated, as being no longer
fit for use. His flesh will make good bacon when fatted.

In preference to feeding swine on clover in the field, during sum-
mer, Mr. Young prefers soiling them in a yard for the purpose; and ia
this case he makes use of Lucerne, cichorj, clover, tares, and other
green food, cut and carried in for feeding them. The water crow-
foot (rununculus aquaiilis,) is also highlj^ recommended for this pur-
pose. This method, however, though it may save some ground in
pasture, and may afford the means of making considerable manure,
does not seem so apparently beneficial as the practice of soiling some
Other cattle. Mention is made by Mr. Young, of his having fed sixty-
four hogs, great and small, on two acres of clover alone, during one
season, and that they all grew very well. The pasture in which they
are kept should have a supply of water. Before they are turned into
the pasture, and while they are young, let the top of the gristle of the
nose be pared off with a sharp knife, which will ever afterwards pre-
vent their rpoting up the sward. It answers the same purpose as ring-
ing them.

254 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Perhaps the best method of keeping swine duriDg summer is to have
two small enclosures ; the one to be kept for feeding them, while the
other is under tillage for a fresh supply of clover, or other good grass,
^hen that in the first has failed. And as they are fond of sweet ap-
ples, which not only serve for food, but will even help to fatten them,
let the enclosures be planted with a few trees of these, of the best
yearly bearers, selected for the purpose ; some being early ripe and
some later; in order that a constant supply may be afforded during
the season. The trees should, however, not stand so closely as ma-
terially to injure the groimd for cultivation. Peach-trees may also be
advantageously used for the same purpose till the apple-trees have
sufficiently grown.

Boiled clover has been mentioned as afifording a good food fer hogs
during winter. In Great-Britain boiled carrots, potatoes, &c. are
mostly used for the purpose by those who go largely into the raising
of swine ; but here the greater severity of our winters is not so favor-
able tbr this practice; the farmer here, must, therefore, consume most
of his stock of roots before the frosts set in, and must principally rely
on his boiled clover, with some small addition of roots preserved from
(he frosts, for food during the winter season. No doubt a little Indian
meal sprinkled among the hay, and boiled with it, will be an excellent
addition.

Hogs for fatting should be ia a healthy state ; and to increase their
appetite let a dose or two of sulphur be given them in their food.
Change of food is also good to increase their appetite; but laxative
food should be avoided, as they are seldom costive, ^'hen found so,
a little rye will help them. Probably changes of boiled roots, and of
meal and water at intervals, would be found best. Mr. Young says,
the best method of feeding all kinds of grain to hogs, is to grind it to
xueal, and mix it w ith water, in cisterns made for the purpose, in the
proportion of five bushels of meal to a huadred gallons of water; the
mass to be well stirred several limes each day, until it has fermented
and become acid, when it will be ready for use. In this way two or
Ihree cisterns must be kept for fermenting io succession ; l)ut he says,
the profits will amply pay the expense. For the same reason the
grains of distilleries, and the refuse of starch factories are excellent
for fatting swine. Mention is made of one of the latter at Lambeth*
(Great -Britain.) affording sufficient to fatten 10,000 hogs in a year.
Pea-soup is also accounted excellent for fatting; but in this case the
expense of boiling the peas is incurred. Boiled Indian corn is also

FARMER^S ASSISTANT. 25^

xery good, or this grain may be soaked so as to answer well, though
perhaps it is better ground into meal. Indian corn of a former year's
growth is much the best.

In recommendation of peas, together with a mixture of barley meal
being used for fatting, the author of " The Complete Grasier" asserts,
that the pork fatted with this grain will rather swell in boiling and have
an improved flavor, while that fatted with beans will shrink much in
boiling, will loose much of its fat and be of inferior taste. The cause
of meat sometimes shrinking very much, and loosing much of its oils
in cooking, seems not to be well understood ; though the knowledge
necessary for preventing it would be highly desirable. Generally
speaking, it is believed, that the more fully any animal is fatted the
less its meat will shrink and part with its oil in cooking.

Whatever method of fattening swine may be adopted, it is essential
that they be kept jvarmand clean, by having plenty of litter, particu-
larly when the weather becomes colder and by keeping the sty fre-
quently cleaned ; and, that they should have as much solid food and
drink as they require. Their meals should also be regular, and as
nearly equi-distant in point of time as [xjssible.

It is observed by the author of" The Complete Graskr" that where
many hogs are put up together to fatten, they will fall away at first, if
ever so well fed ; which he attributes to the noise and confusion pro-
duced among them by this new state of keeping : He observes too,
that in such cases it is not unfrequent for one of the family to become
30 much the object of hatred to the rest, as eventually to be killed by
them; and from all this he infers, that it is much the better way to-
have them in a number of small companies, detached from each other,
so that the noise and bustle will be less, and in order that they may-
more unmolestedly enjoy that repose which is most suitable to their
drowsy faculties. For this purpose the sty should have a number of
distinct apartments, separated by close partitions from each other, andt
where the inmates of each can come Ibrward separately to the general
feeding trough, and retire separately again to rest.

Where a hog has surfeited itself by eating too much, the same au-
thor recommends giving it half an ounce of flour of sulphur in some
wash, once or twice a day, for two or three days; by which time its
appetite will be restored. Mr. Deane advises, that posts be set up in
the sty for them to rub against, as they are usually much inclined to
rub themselves.

^56 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

The business of fatting hogs shouki be begun so early in the fall
as to be com;ileted before the cold weather sets in ; as after thi; they
vill fatten very slowly. Let it be commenced by the mitUlle oi Sep-
tember, and then the killing may commence about the middle of No-
vember.

Sw ine are liable to some diseases, which are here noticed, w ith the
best remedies for them.

Mcns,hs. — This disorder is mostly in the throat, which is filled with
small pustules, and sometimes these a|>|iear on the outside of the neck.
The animal affected looks languid, with red eyes, and looses flesh.
Cure. — Give him small quantities of levigated crude antimony in
his food.

The manse, like the scab in sheep, is a cutaneous irruption of the
skin, occasioned by want of cleanliness in the hogsty. It is known by
the violent rubbing of the animal till he tear? the pustules, and thus
produces scabs. The cure, as directed by Dr. Norford, is first to
wash the animal well with strong soajHsuds; then anoint him with an
ointment formed of an ounce of flour of sulphut ; two drachms of fresh
pulverized hellilwre ; three ounces of hogslard ; and half an ounce of
the water of k ili. This is to be rubbed in at one time, and is suffi-
cient for a hog weighing an hundred. I: [iroperly applied, no repeti-
tion will be necessary, if the hog be afterwards kept clean. Where'
he h.ts a slight cough, he directs doses of antimony, from half an ounce
to an ounce and a half, accordins to the size of the animal, to be fine-
ly pulverized and mixed with his food for ten days or a Ibrtnight.
But where from long neglect, the neck, ears, and other parts necorae
ulcerated, they should be anointed every third or fourth <lay with an
ointment made of equal parts of tar and mutton suet, melted together,
till the cure is completed.

Thi murrain, or lepro?y in swine, is known by the shortness and
heat of the breath, hanging down of the head, staggering, and secre-
tions from the eyes. It is said to be caused by hot seasons, when the
blo(Kl becomes inGamed.

Remedy. — Boil a handful of nettles in a gallon of small beer ; add
half a pound of flour of sulphur, a quarter of a jiound of anniseeds, pul-
verized ; three ounces of liquorice and a quarter of a pound ol ele-
campane, and give this mixture in milk at six doses.

Tlie s^anrut is an inflammation of the udder, by l>ein£ filled with
coagulated milk. It chiefly happens where sows are too fat at litter-

FARIMER'S ASSISTANT. 257

ing; and where they are thus affected the pigs will not suck. In slight
cases the udder may be bathed with camphorated wine; but the milk
must be squeezed out by hand, if possible. If relief cannot thus be
given, it is liest to kill the animal.

Dri/ cous^h and wasting of the flesh, is best remedied by a dry warm
sty, with a regular su|)ply of tboil that is calculated to keep them cool,
and to allay the irritation of the lungs.

Fever, or rising of the ligfds, seems to be caused by over feeding,
and may be removed by doses of sulphur and oil

Like many other employments, that of rearing and fatting swine
will be found more profitable the more largely and spiritedly it is en-
tered into; and in order to this the farmer must have hishogsty of an
adequate construction ; his pastures adjoining; his steam-boiler ; his
oloverhay ; together with a due supply of roots and grain for feeding
and fatting. The business is most ailvantageous when connected with
a proportionate dairy ; but by following the plan above laid dowa
may answer very well without.

tiYCA.AIORE; (Acer.) This tree is commonly called maple.
There are but three kinds in this country, the white-maple, the red-
maple, and the rock or sugar-maple. The latter kind is excellent for
fuel, even when green, but it is most valuable lor its juice in making
sugar, and of this kind only something shall be said.

Where the farmer wishes to save his sugar-maple trees, he ought
not to tap them in the common way, but instead of this, bore a hole
two or three inches into the tree, out of which the sap can be drawn,
and let it be plugged up after the sap has done running. The me-
thod of making the sugar is too well known to need any minute de-
scription. It would be often well, however, if those who make this
sugar, were to observe more cleanliness in regard to the vessels in
which the sap is gathered. Old troughs which have lain for years
exposed to the weather, are not very proper receptacles for the sap,
if regard be had to the cleanliness of the sugar, and of course to its
value. Some make use of vessels made in the form of pails, which
they keep for the purpose, and this is certainly at least more cleanly.
The vessels can be laid up ever>- year, after the lime of using them is
past, and be preserved many years.

Where farmers are clearing uff pasture lands which abound with,
sugar maple, it would be well to preserve these trees, as they do no in-
jury to the pasture; but the difijcuity is, that as soon as they become
more exposed to the winds thev are blown down. But let the farmer

33

258 FARINIER^S ASSISTANT.

preserve all the small maples which he finds in such grouutU, and in-
a few _vears these will j^row up with sufficient strensth of root to \\ith-
staiid tiie winds, and lieoojne an arlicle of profit ;ni(l ornamental to hi?^
farm* They may also be very easily du? up in the woodlands, and
transplanted into such pasture?. This is a piece of economy which
the farmer would do well to oljserve, if he wishes his farm to yield
due supplies of sugar when that article shall have become inore scarce.
Twenty tree^ to an acre Avoiild do little or no injury to the pasture :
and ten acre? of such a ma;)!e orchard would in a few years yield no
mconsideralile quantity of sugar. By horing the trees as above di-
rected, no essential injury is done to them, so that they might be in-
creasing in growti; or half a cenuiry, or perhaps double that length-
of time.

The trees may he propagated by cutliogs or by the seeds..

FAttiVIEa'S ASSISTANT. 259

T.

TAIL-SICKNESS. S'£« article Neat Cattle,

TALL OAT-GRASS. Sec article Grasses.

TAI L MEADOW OATS. The Rev. Mr. Muhlenburg, of Lan-
caster, Pennsylvania, speaking of this grass, in 1793, says, that he
lound it the earliest, latest, and best for green fodder and hay, which
he had tried. It blossoms in the midtile of May and the seed ripens
about a month after. It grows hest in a clover soil, and the leaves
are from two to four feet high before it blossoms- In the blossom the
stalk rises from five to seven feet.

He says it should be cut in the blossom, about the beginning of
June. The seed may be sown in the spring or fall, and should be
lightly harrowed or brushed in. It miy be mixed with clover to ad-
vantage. He observes, howover, that horses do not like it green, but
oat it when made into hay.

No doubt this is a very good grass, but it is inferior in quality to
Lucerne.

TEAMS- Our teams are of three kinds ; teams of horses, of oxen,
and of oxen and horses together. In Spain and Italy they have
teams of cows, and sometimes of cows and bulls together. In the
northern parts of Europe the rein-deer has been subjected to the har-
ness, and 3Ir. Livingston is of opinion that the elk and the moose
might also be brought under the like subjection to advantage in this
country-.

The advantages of horses in teams are their superior docility and
quickness of motion ; and their disadvantages are their greater ex-
jjense iu raising and keeping, and their being of no value after their
time of service is over. On the contrary, the advantages of oxen are
iheir cheapness in raisuig and keeping, and their value for beef after
their proper time of service has expired; and their disadvantages are
tlieir slowness of motion and their greater untracta'.Ieuess. Probably
they might be rendered more tractable if some effectual method were

!8eO PARMER'S ASSISTANT.

devised for driTins; them with line?; in that ca=e the exfra expeuec of
a hand to drive them in ploughing would be saved, and the ploughing
better performed.

Say that a goo<l span of farming horses are worth, at four years old,
one hundred dollars : At fourteen years from that time they are worth
little or nothing; of course, another sum of one hundred dollars, must
at the expiration of that time be expended iti the purchase of a new
span. This sum to be jtaid at the end of fourteen years is about equal
to fifty dollars paid down. In order, therefore, to keep good the span,
a capital of one hundred and fifty dollars is necessary ; which is
equal to an expenditure of ten dollars and fifty cents a year. A yoke
of oxen at four years old, are worth, say, sixty dollars; and allowing
thtm not to depreciate in value till turned off for fatting, they require
an expenditure of four dollars and twenty cents a year, as the interest
of the capital laid out for them. Say that the horses will cost fifteen
dollars a year more than the oxen to keep them, and provide harness
for them : Say also, that they do an hundred day's work in a year, and
that the oxen, working a quarter slower, require one hundred and
thirty-three davs to perform the same lalior: Then if one hand only
is employed with the oxen, his wages and board during the extra
thirty-three days, at fifty cents per day, would still leave a balance in
favor of the oxen of four dollars and eiehty cents for the year's work;
but if they should require a boy to drive, while another hand holds
the plough, then the balance would be very considerably in favor of
the horses.

On the whole, it is believed, that oxen may be found the most pro-
fitable team in some situations, particularly in new countries, and in
roueh lands; and in other situations again, such as in smooth lands,
and where the best cultivation is required, probably, horses ought, for
most uses, to have the preference.

Lord Kaims, however, expresses an 0[)inion very different from this.
He says that oxen are preferable for husban<lry in many respects.
They are cheaper than horses, as it regards their food; the method of
keeping them ; the superiority of their duns; their being subject to
fewer diseases ; and their suffering no deterioration liy age. He says,
that a couple of oxen in a ploueh require not a driver more than a
couple of horses ; that the Dutch at the Ca[»e of Good Hope plough
with oxen, without a driver, and exercise them early to a quick pHce,
so Hsto equal horses both i- the plough and in the WMcgon ; that the
people of Malabar use no other animal for the plough, nor for bur

FARMER'S A5-81STANT. 261

vlens; and lliat about PoiuHcherrjr no beasts ol' burden are to be
seen but oxen. He further justly remarlis, that if oxen were more
generally used, that the articles of beef, candles, and leather, three
essential necessaries of life, would become much cheaper.

The compiler of '• The Conipkte Grasier" also says, that Messrs.
Culleys, of Northuraherland, Great-Britain, employ one hundred and
fifty oxen in the draft ; that they are used singly in carts, and two in
a j)lough with cords, or lines, without a driver. He however observes,
that they do not perform their work with the same dispatch as horses.
He further observes, that " in the North of England, it is not an un-
frequent occurrence to to see a light ox saddled, and briskly trotting
along the road, obedient to his rider's voice;" and that " Sussex oxen
have beaten horses at the plough in the deepest clay." He recom-
mends the Hertfordshire and Devonshire oxen as being the most
speedy.

See the description of the Devonshire breed of oxen in article
"Neat Cattle.

The slowness of oxen is partly natural, and partly acquired by-
overloading them. This, therefore, should be avoided. Mhen their
work is easy they may be (juickentd without hurting iLeni, and their
contracting a habit of moving so slowlj , as some do, may be thus pre-
vented. They always become sloAver as they grow older, and for
that reason they never should be kept longer than such age as they
will still make the best beef, which is probably about the age of seren
or eight years.

In a team of part oxen and part horses, either the gait of the oxen
must become quickened, or that of the horses made slower; imt, per-
haps, a little of each would be the consequence, and in this way the
©xen would be the better, though probably at the expense of injuring
th»^ horses for almost every kind of work, when they are worked by
th<Mnselves.

i\lr. Livingston makes mention of a contrivance he had seen in
Italy, that was attached to the noses of the oxen, which v. as princi-
pally used for governing them; and by means of it he thinks he l:ad
seen them drove with lines. " It consists," says he, " of two flat
pieces of iron that turned at the lower ends, an<I funned a forceps,
these bars shut over, and when closed, the ends gently |)ressed upon
the c- Ttilage of the nose of the ox. They were kept cltse ly I eing
tigiitly bound at the top, and strapped against the forehead ol the
oxen."

262 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

•' If we may argue the utility of a practice from its extent, says
Mr. Livingston, " we must prefer drawing by the horus to any other
mode; nine tenths of Europe make their cattle draw in this way, and
from what 1 have seen of their performance, 1 am persuaded that it is
to be preferred to the yoke. A bull's strength appears to be placed
in his neck, and in drawing in this way the whole of it is exerted ; bis
motion is not impeded, or his skin chafed as it is by the yoke."

" In the mountains of Savoy,' says .Mr. Livinsston, " I saw many
cattle, chiefly cows, drawing by the horns, not in carts but in wag-
gons. How far the working of cows is advantageous, deserves con-
sideration. It is observable, however, thnt our cows are in general
much smaller than those usually worked in Europe.'

" Yokes," he observes, " are used in some parts of Ital}', but they
differ from ours. Instead of bows, there are four flat pieces of wood,
which hang from each side of the yoke, and are about ten inches long,
and hollowed so as to fit the sides of the neck : They are so thick as
to admit a rope or chain to jtass through them, b}- which thej- are fix-
ed to the yoke, and each pair of them are united by a chain, or rope,
under the oxen's neck. You will see that the draft b in this case by
the top of the shoulders only, and 1 believe it is to be preferred to our
bows on that account, because the bow by pressing the shoulder
blade impedes the motion of the animal.' For holding back, whe-
ther they draw by these yokes or by the horns, he says, " the end of
the pole projects considerabl}^ beyond the heads of the cattle, and
turns up very much ; to this is Hxed a leather strap that socs round the
horns of the oxen, so that they keep back the weight by their horn?,
and with much more ease than ours do by twisting their necks."

In England they arc worked in a harness, which, were it not more
expensive, and more troublesome, ought to be preferred to the me-
thod practised here.

I think it hishly probable, that the great pressure of the bows of our
yokes against the shoulders of the oxen, and the enormous weight
they are often injudiciously made to bear on their necks, when in
carts, are the principal causes of our oxen moving slower tho long-
er they are used.

In all teams, where two animals drav/ against each other, the weak-
er one should have the longer end of the ox-l>ow, or whiffle-tree,
by which they draw, in order that when drawing they may pull
evenly.

If oxen learn to crowd each other, use them to a shorter bow; if
hey draw apart, use them to a longer one.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 263

THISTLE; (Carduus.) The common kind of these are easily-
kept out of the fields, by plucking them out while young, or mowing
them before they go to seed. But there is a species of thistle gaining
ground in the northern parts of this state, called Canada thistle, being
imported from Canada, which threatens to become a serious evil to
t)ur soil.

See article Weeds.
Sec also, article Puller's Thistle.

THORN. The English thorn being liable to be killed by the
severity of our winters, it becomes advisable to make use of that
•which is natural to our climate for making hedges.
See article Hedges.

It has, however, been found difficult to make the seeds of our owa
thorn to germinate ; but it is believed that this may be easily accom-
plished, if the means be ap^^lied wliieh have been recommended in a
preceding article.

S'cc Germination op Plants.

After the seeds have been cleaned, and treated as directed in the
above article, let them be sown in the fall, in beds of warm rich mould
having a southern exposure, at the depth of little more than two inches.
When they come up let them be transplanted into other beds, and
kept clear of weeds till they are fit to set out in the hedge, whick
should be at the height of two feet.

Probably it may be found, that immersing the seeds abont half a
minute in hot water, holding a solution of saltpetre, would be found
sufficient to make them germinate. Hot water and saltpetre, have
each been found to quicken germination.

THRESHING. This, when performed with fiails, is but slow
work. Threshing with horses is considerably more expeditious.
Some of the German farmers of this county and its vicinity, thresh
with a roller, which turns on a centre at one end, which is small
and confined to the floor, at that end, by an iron pivot on which it
turns, and the other end is large in proportion to the increase 6f
the circle which it makes. It is draw n by a horse, and is usually
of the length of about twelve feet. It is set full of little square
pieces of wooden teeth, leaning outwards, with the ends cut off slant-
ing, agreeably to the superfice of the roller. AVith this a man and
horse will thresh out about twelve bushels of wheat in a day-

In Virginia, where the greatest crops of wheat are raised, they
o-enerally thresh them out in the fields, and for this some use patent

261 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

threshing machines, and some make smooth circular earthen (loors
of eighty leet diameter, or more; on this the wheat is set with the
heads upwards, and then waggons and horses are drove round on
it till that floor is threshed; then more is constantly thrown on,
till one hundred bushels, or more, are threshed out, when tluy se-
parate the wheat from the straw, by forking it up, and proceed to
clean the wheat, and then jjroceed as before, till the business is
completed. Threshing machines are, however, the best ; and the
expense of them is but a trifle for those who raise large crops of
wheat and other grain.

TILLAGE. A great part of this work relates to tillage, or the
culture of land ; the reader must therefore refer to the various articles
which treat of this 8ul»ject in all its branches. Any uncommon mode
of culture, however, or any miscellaneous observations relating to the
subject, will naturally form the substance of this article.

Under the article, Soiling of Cattle, is laid down a method of
tilling a small piece of land, wherever such may be found suitable for
the purpose, which the writer of this work has ventured to recom-
mend. The mode of culture there recommended is uncommon; the
land is divided into narrow strips, and these are to be ploughed but
one way. Further, therefore, to assist in convincing the most bigottcd,
that there is nothing extravagant in the plau of cultivating in narrow
strips, and plougliing but one waj-^ ; the mode of cultivating two fields,
which is practised by the inhabitants of Market Weighton, in Great-
Britain, as published in the " Rusticnin Musant:,''^ shall be here no-
ticed.

These pc'0[)!e have five fields, in common, for culture ; three of a
r.layey soil, and two w hich are more sandy. The latter supply them
with rye, hay, and pasture for their sheep, «S;c. ; and are tilled in the
following manner: — The fields are raised in ridges, which are four
mowing swarths wide; the middle, or higlierpart of each rid^e, of the
Avidthof two svvarlhe, is cultivated for rye, and the remainder of each,
or the moister parts, alternately for mowing and pasture: When the
rye is growing the grass strips arc mowed ; and the next season, when
rye strips are fallowed for another crop of that grain, the grass
strips aflbrd pasture for their sheep, &;c. ; the dung and stale of the
the flock serves as a light manuring for the ground every fallowing
year ; and this serves constantly to produce strips of good rye, and
mowing ground the next year. It would seem by the descriptiott
given of these grouuds, that the soil is somewhat wettish though sandy

FARMER'S ASSISTANT* 265

Here, tben, is ground tilled ,to advantage, as is said, in very narrow
strips, and without any cross-plougbiug. It is however believed, that
such fields might be cultivated to much more advantage on the soil-
ing plan, heretofore recommended, or something similar.

In tilling lands, it is essential that it be done in the right season;
that it be done effectually ; and in order to this, it is of the first import-
ance to have the implements of tillage well constructed, and kept ia
good order.

Again, lands should always be applied to that tillage for which they
-are best adapted ; or, in other words, in which they will constantly
yield the greatest clear profit. If, therefore, the farmer has land^
which are only fitted for grass, let him not work against wind and tide
in trying to raise grain on them. If he has broken hills, and decli-
vities, they will generally but poorly repay the unpleasant labor of
cultivating them with the plough and the hoe ; rather let such be kept
for sheep-walks, for orchards, for raising timber, or perhaps for the
culture of the vine, as they may be found best adapted. If his lands
are rocky and stony, to plough and hoe them is a difficult uneasy em»
ployment ; and never can be productive of much profit, till the im-
pediments to the plough and the hoe are removed. If they are too
light and sandy, they may nevertheless be made to yield good crops
©f tap-rooted plants, such as carrots and clover ; or of such as ripea
early, as rye for instance ; or that bear drought well, as burnet, sain-
foin. Lucerne ; or of such trees as flourish in sandy soils, as the locust,
Lombardy poplar, olive, &ic. If the lands be boggy, when well drain-
ed, they will be found very profitable for hemp, which they will beae
yearly, with the aid of small yearly additions of manure; but, if the
lands be moderately level, smooth, and of a good medium soil, that is,
such as is equally adapted for grain and for grasses, there let the
farmer pursue the culture of a rotation of crops, in such manner as he
finds will afford him the greatest clear profit; and in doing this, it is
believed, that he cannot adopt a better plan than that recommended
under article Soiling, &c. or something similar to it.

The expense of any kind of tillage never should be regarded where
clear profits proportionately great may be safely calculated on, as a
general result. Thus, if it costs fifty dollars an acre to till and gather
an acre of carrots, and that acre, upon a yearly average, will give
five hundred bushels, the crop at eighteen cents a bushel, which is
certainly not too high, gives thirty-five dollars per acre as the clear
profit, after taking out five dollars an acre for fhn use of the land j a

34

26& FAR:\IER'S ASSISTAIS'T.

profit much greater than can be realiied by raising any kind of grain.
Neither should the expense of tillage be regartled where the clear
profits will be great, though not to be realized in some years, ii
it may be calculated on as a reasonable certainty, that those profits
will eventually be realized.

TIMBER. The right time for felling trees for timber is in De-
cember ami January, when the sap is down, as in this case it is less
liable to be eaten with worms.

By experiments of >Ir. Baffon, it is fouud that trees which are
stripped of their bark in May or June, while standing, and then
cut down the next winter for timber, are found to make the most
solid, heavy, and strong timber, evea the sap is then good. The
bark of oak, and some other trees, may, at that time, be stripped
off to advantage for the use of tanning.

Soaking timber in salt water is very good to increase its strength
and durability.

In order to preserve timber from cracking while seasoning, let it be
blocked out for the puqioses wanted, and laid in a hay-mow when
Uie hay is cartiug in. When the hay is dealt out the next win-
ter, the pieces may be taken out well seasoned, and free from cracks.
This is an excellent plan for seasoning all kinds of timber for car-
riages, 6:€. When this is to be done, if the trees be felled in winter,
let them lie in logs until hay-time arrives.

The right time for cutting down trees for timber, is, when they are
in their prime ; as the wood will then have arrived to its greatest per-
fection for hardness and durability.

TlMOrHY-GRASS; (Phlnim Pratensc.) This is a coarse
grass, but agreeable to all sorts of cattle, and suitable to low moist
grounds. It is said to be a native of America. The name of Timo-
thy was given it in the southern states, by its having been car-
ried from Virginia to Xorth-Carolina by one Tiowthy Htuiso. It i^
also called lulbetis cat's-tail gi'oss.

Sec article Grasses.

TOBACCO ; (yicotiana.) This plant has its name from Tobago,
one of the Carribee islands. It was first introduced into England, and
from thence into Europe, by the famous Sir Walter Raleigh.

For raising the young plants, burn a piece of ground early in the
spring, rake it well, and sow the seeds. When the plants have
acquired leaves of the size of a shilling piece transplant them. They
require a dry, light £uiJ, and a rich one, well mellowed with plough-

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 267

iflgs. Dung of the hottest kinds are suitable to it, though cow-dung
in sandy soils will do well for raising it. Transplant the young
plants when the ground is wet, as in the case of cabbage plants, and
afterwards hoe them and clean them of weeds as you <lo these, and
destroy the large green worms which feed on them. The plants are
to be set at the distance of about three and a half feet apart.

Cutoff the tops of the plants at the height of about three feet, more
or less, as they may be more or less thrifty, except those designed for
bearing seed, and let these be the largest. The cutting should be
done so early as to let the upper leaves acquire a size equal to the
lower ones, and let them all be cut off at the same time, whatever the
size, in order that good thick leaves may be afforded. Let the suck-
ers which shoot out from the foot of the stalks be also broken or
pinched off as they appear.

The ripeness of tobacco is known by small dusky spots appearing
on the leaves, and by their feeling thicker than usual. Then cut
them down at the roots, on the morning of a sunny day, and let them
lie singly to wither, but be careful not to let them get sun-burnt.
When withered, lay them in close heaps, under cover, to sweat, for
about forty-eight hours or more. After this, hang them up under cover
to dry. The way to do this is by running two stalks on the ends of a
sharp stick, and thus suspending them across a pole, at proper dis-
tances from each other. As the plants become dry and brown, place
.them nearer together, when the air is damp, so that the leaves do not
crumble. When they have hung till all the greenness has left the
leaves, and when they are a little damp, strip the^n off, pack them in
casks, Avell pressed down, and keep them in a dry place. They will
be better for use after the first year.

This climate is too cold for raising tobacco to much advantao-e, ex-
cept in a few favored spots in the warmest parts of this state. In the
colder parts, the leaves grow too thin to be of much value.

Some practice raising crops of this plant in their cow-yards, Avitli-
out much previous mellowing of the soil; but it is genv-ra!ly ill-tasted
stuff, and of but little value in the market.

The above is merely an outline of the method of cultivating this
plant. For a minute and more particular description, 1 would refer
the reader to " Winterhothain's Vicrv of the United States,'" third
volume.

TOP-DRESSINGS. See article Manures.

46S FARMER^S ASSISTANT.

TRANSPLANTING. In performing this operation, Uiees»eDtiai
point is to set the roots in the ground in a eituation similar to thai in
which they were placed before they were taken oul ; not only the
same depth, but, aa Mr. Forsyth says, with the same side to the south
%vhich was the south side t>elore : But as they caunot be got out of
the ground, nor set again into it with their full length of root*, these
must be cut off to a length proportionate to their size. Where they
are very small, let them he cut at the length of six or eight inches,
end where they are pretty large, double that length, or more : Let
them be carefully taken up vithout breaking the roots, cutting o£P
tho?e that get broken, and cutting them all off at their proper length;
and let the hole into which they are to be set, he sufficiently large to
receire the roots without cramping them : Then shake in the earth
gently about them, so as that each one shall retain its proper position.
As it b difficult to give the fibrous roots their proper place, it is gene-
rally best to cut most of these off. In fruit-trees, all the downr^ht
root? should also be cut off.

If the roots have been some time out of ground, it is advisable to
soak them in water for eight or ten hours before they are set in. In
a cold or stiff soil ihey should be set shallower than in a warm mellow
one. After they are properly bedded in the ground, a stake should
be drove in near to each one, leaning towards them, and to these they
should each be tied, to keep them steady ; and some mulch should be
laid round the roots of each.

In transplanting the smaller kinds of plants, a wet time is to be
chf>&en. aod the evening is better than any other time. As much of
the earth should be left round the roots, as possible, in takiug them
out of the ground ; and if they are raised with a little instrument call*
ed a gardener's trowel, by which a bunch of earth can be raised with
thf m, they will be the better for it. The holes where they are set
should he well watered, and the water should previously be weU
warmed by the sua.

For the times of transplanting different plants, and the distanccfs
they are to be set apart, see the different articles which are the sub-
jects of this operation.

TREFOIL. Sf^ article Grasses.

TKENCH-PLOUGHING. This is performed for two purposes ;
8r?t, to stir up the earth deeper than it can be well done with one
plough ; and secondly, to turn under an old exhausted layer of ear|Jr,

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 26»

in order to turn up a new one that is fresh and more fertile. It is of tea
Bset'ul in clay soils, the top of which has been worn out. In deep
rich soils, such as intervales, &c. it may also be found good husbandry,
where the upper stratum has been long under the plough without
manures.

See article Freezing, where a case is mentioned, shewing the good
effects of this culture.

The method is first to run a furrow with one plough the usual
depth, then another follows after in the same furrow, and throws up
the fresh earth as deep as possible ; then the next light furrow ig
thrown into the bottom of the deep one, and the deep one again
follows, and throws up a new layer on the top of the old, and so the
work proceeds,

TUMORS. Mr. Bartlet directs, that when these appear on the
poll, withers, under the jaws, or in the groins of horses, they should
be forwarded by ripening poultices of oatmeal boiled soft in milk,
mixed with oil and lard, and applied twice a day, till the matter is
perceived to grow soft and moves under the fingers; and then it
should be let out by a sufficiently large opening with the lancet.
Let the opening he full as far as the matter extends. After cleansing
the sore apply pledgits of tow, spread with a salve, or ointment, made
of Venice turpentine, bee's-wax, oil of olives and yellow rosin; and
let these be administered twice a day, if the discharge is great, till a
proper digestion takes place, when it should be changed for pledg-
its spread with the red precipitate ointment, applied in the same
manner. •

Should the sore not digest, but run a thin water, foment it as often,
as you dress it, and apply over the dressing a strong beer poultice, and
continue this till the matter grows thick and the sore florid. Should
any proud flesh get into the sore, wash it as often as you dress it with
a solution of blue vitriol in water, or sprinkle it with burnt allum and
precipitate. If these should not prove sufficiently powerful, apply
caustics, by washing it with a solution of half an ounce of corrosive
sublimate in a pint of water. Where the sore can be tightly com*
pressed with a bandage, however, these funguses may be generally
prevented.

Tumors, caused by bruises, should, if necessary, be bathed with hot
vinegar or verjuice; and then a flannel cloth should be wrapjted
round the part, if it can be done. IT this does not ahate the swelling,
especially if it be in either of the legs, poultice it twice a day, after

270 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

bathing it with wine lees, or beer grounds and oatmeal, or with vine-
gar, oil, and oatmeal, till the swelling abates; when, in order to dis-
perse it entirely, let it be bathed twice a day with a mixture ol two
ounces of crude sal ammoniac in a quart of chamber-lie, having rags
dipped in this and laid on.

Where the extravaeated blood is not dispersed by these means, let
an opening be made in the skin, and let the blood out, and then heal
the wound.

TURF AND PEAT. Earth covered with grass is properly a
turf; but that which is here intended to be spoken of is a fossil which
is generally found in low grounds and boggy places. It is sometimes
confounded with peat, but that is a dififerent substance. Where turf
has been dug, the hole thus made will grow up again after a number
of years; but this is not the case with peat. Turf seems generally
to be decayed moss, mixed with rotten or moory earth, and aquatic
grass roots. It is much used for fuel in some parts of Europe, parti-
cularly Holland, where they take much of it from the bottoms of their
canals. It is inferior to peat for fuel, and it yields a much weaker
kind of ashes, which are, however, of considerable value as a manure.
It is prepared for fuel in a manner similar to that of peat.

Peal. — This fossil abounds much in some countries. It is often
found under other layers of earth ; sometimes in grounds where ponds
have formerly been, and sometimes in the banks of intervales. It is
composed of the essence of decayed vegetables, wood, leaves. Sec.
placed in a situation where there is not heat sufficient to produce an
entire decomposition. After it has been <lng up and exposed for
Bome time to the common atmosphere, it becomes hard iike a cinder,
but at length gradually undergoes a further change and turns to dust.
It is valuable for fuel; and, when burned, the ashes it affords are
much superior to common wood-ashes as a manure. Fifteen bushels
are said to aCTord a good top-dressing for an acre, the effects of which
will be perceived for three years. The ashes are to be sown by hand,
and immediately before a rain, in order that the plants may not be in-
jured by its heat. They are said to have a better effect on winter
than on summer grain. For leguminous plants, they make the haulm
too luxuriant.

Mr. Elliot, of Connecticut, says he searched for this fossil and found
it in seven different places, The best way to find if is by Itoring.
The stratum above it is most commonly mud, or moory earth, tt is
known by its being entirely free from grit j by its cutting very easy

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 271

and smooth ; and by its burning very freely when dried. It may be
burned into charcoal; and the red sort, Mr. Elliot says, is better for
this jmrpose than wood. When burned for this purpose, it is to be
with a fire similar to that in which charcoal is made.

Peat is sometimes confounded with turf; but these are different
substances.

When peat is dug for fuel, it is cut with a spade, made for the pur-
pose, having a wing to it at a right angle, so that every time you sink
the spade you cut out a block about four inches square and about fif-
teen inches loog. These are to be laid singly on the ground to dry.
When partly dried, they are to be piled, open, across each other, and
thus in a few days of dry weather they will be fit to carry home
for use.

The method of burning peat to make ashes is similar to that of
burning clay.

See article Burnt-Clay.

After you get the fire going, you may burn a thousand loads if you
choose. But as it burns more readily than clay, you must. keep the
fire sufiiciently smothered by throwing on fresh peat, dug from the pit,
and particularly on any crack that opens. If the fire deadens too
much, which may be known by the heat of the outside, run a pole in-
to the heap and it will give it the fresh air which is in that case
req,uisite.

After the heap has been burned, the ashes should be put under
cover till they are wanted for use ; or if no cover can be had let them
be piled up as high as possible on some very dry spot, and covered
with swards, or with such earth as will keep off the rains as much
as possible.

Trees are very often found in a perfectly sound state in beds
of peat.

The increasing scarcity of wood in many places in this countryj
will render it necessary that more diligence be used in search of
this valuable article.

TURNIP. In England the raising of this root is a part of field
husbandry, and are there fed to sheep, while in the ground, and raised
up for other cattle during the winter season. The culture of them
there, is, however, in part superceded by that of carrots, which i&
found to be more profitable. In this country the severity of our win.
ters presents an obstacle to tht;ir ever being cultivated on the large
scale which they are in Great-Britain. We, therefore, merely raise

2n FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

them for the table, and perhaps a fevr Tor sheep and others of out
cattle.

There are three species of turnips ; the flat or round sort, the long,
and the French turnip. The Tormer are altout as good as any. Ot
this kind there are the green-topped, the red pur[>!e, the yellow, and
the early Dutch turnip. The last are sown early in the spring for a
supply of the market during summer. The green-topped is the most
profitable, as they grow to a larger sire, and are mostly raised for
winter use.

Turnips require a rich soil, especially where they grow closely to*
gether. Raising them on new cleared lands is generally the most
fortunate for escapiug the ravages of insects. The most suitable soils
for them are mellow sandy loams and gravelly loams.

On old ground, the best methoti is to enclose and break up a piece
of sward ground, that is not very full of the seeds of weeds, and fold
it till the time of preparing it for the reception of the seeds ; then
make it fine and mellow, and sow it thickly, in order that in all pro-
bability a sufficient number of the young plants may escape the
insects.

For keeping these off, see article Insects.

If the plants be all destroyed, sow the ground again, and again, un-
til it be too late for a crop. 1 have known a pretty good crop raised
which were sown as late as the twentieth of August.

If a sufficiency of the young plants escape the insects, as soon as
they have got five or six leaves, go through them with the garden hoe,
and thin them while destroying the weeds, until they stand about six
or eight inches apart. If they stand further apart, they will grow
larger, but will not be so good for eating.

I have seen good crops raised without any hoeing, or attention to
them after sowing, particularly in new lamls; but they will produce
a much greater crop by treating them as above directed ; and even the
hoeing ought to be repeated if the weeds again rise amongst them-
Forty-seven tons, equal teas much as sixteen hundred bushels, have
been raised from an acre in Ireland, as is testified liy Mr. Baker, un-
der his culture of hoeing. Those who have made no spirited trials
will hardly conceive how much the hoeings will increase the product
of these crojjs.

In England some of the most spirited farmers apply the drill hus-
bandry' to turnips, as this is found to yieM the sreatest crops. " For
two years past " says Mr. Deane, of Massachusetts, '' I have 80wb

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 273

turnips in tlie drill way, in the poorest part of my garden, where a
Crop of pease had grown the same summer, and never had better tuF-
fiips. They were sufficiently large for the table, though they grew so
near together in the rows that the roots crowded each other, and were
not so«n earlier than about the tenth of August. The earth was
hoed into ridges three feet Apart, and a single channel seeded on each
of the ridges." Probably two rows on each ridge would have been
found more productive.

The same writer observes, that he cultivated them with the drill,
hi a similar manner, in the way of field husbandry, and found his
crops more abundant than those sown in the broad cast way. The
ridges were thrown up with the plough, or cultivator, in May, and
Were kept clear of weeds till aboiit the last of July, when the seeds
Were sown as before, and nothing more was afterwards found neces-
sary, except thinning and once hoeing. This crop prepares the
ground pretty well for a crop of wheat.

If the farmer here enters into the cultivation of this root for feeding
Cattle, he must gather those which he does not feed out in the fall, and
keep them where they will be protected from the frosts. Covering
them over with dry sand will keep them well in a cellar which is not
altogether free from freezing. Those kept for the table should also
be kept in dry sand during winter.

Turuips are excellent for fatting sheep, and they are good for horn-
ed cattle, though milch-cows should not be fed very plentifully on
them, lest they give the milk an ill taste.

For raising turnip-seed, take some good sized turnips in the spring,
and plant them out in beds, at the distance of eighteen inches apart,
and keep them clear of weeds. Surround them with some stakes and
Sath from one lo the other to keep them from falling. One pound of
seed is tlie allowance for an acre ; but let two pounds be sowed, in
order to make allowance for the ravages of insects. In the drill me-
'thod less seed is requisite.

The French turnip ouglit to be cultivated in the same manner as
is above directed, allowing them more room in growing. They should
be sown only about a month earlier than other fall turnips. The
method of sowing them in the spring, and transplanting them, is bad
husbandry ; as the early sowing occasions them to grow hard and
sticky, and the transplanting retards for a while their growtlj, and
therefore leaves them a prey to insects for a much, greater length of
lime.

SU FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

TURNIP-CABBAGE. This is commonly called cabbage-lureip
in this country. The stalk rises from the ground like the cabbage
Btalk, and then extends into a large bulb, or knob, something similar
in shape and appearance to a turnip but longer. It is a perennial
plant, and will withstand the sererity of the frosts of this country. It
5s good Cor table use in the spring and does not grow spongy when
Old, like turnips. On this account it is recommended by Mr. Baker,
for use on sea voyages. It has for some years past been cultivated
to no small advantage in England for feeding cattle ; and I can see
no reason why it might not be raised here to equal advantage for
feeding them in the spring.

It is highly probable that this plant would be found very profitable
to cultivate in this country for spring food for cattle, and particularly
Tor sheep, as it may stand io the field till spring without injury from
the frost3=

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 275

u.

ULCERS. The following are Mr. Bartlet's directions for treat-
ing ulcers, in horses particularly.

The first point is to bring them to discharge a thick matter, which
may generally be effected with the green ointment, or that together
with precipitate. Should the sore still discharge a thin matter, ap-
ply balsam, oil of turpentine, melted down with the common digestive,
and the strong beer poultice over them.

See article Tumors.

The part affected should be well warmed with fomenting, to quick-
en the circulation, &c. If the lips of the sore grow callous, pare
them down with a kife, and rub a little caustic over them.

Where proud flesli appears, let it be carefully suppressed. If it
has sprouted above the surface, pare it down with a knife, and rub the
remainder with caustic. To prevent its rising again, sprinkle the
gore part with equal parts of burnt allum and red precipitate ; or wash
it with sublimate water, and dress it with dry lint, and draw the band-
age tightly over the sore ; for a tight bandage is the most effectual in
dissipating these funguses.

All sinuses, or cavities, should be laid open, as soon as disco vered>
after baudages have been ineffectually tried ; but where the cavity
penetrates deep into the muscles, and a counter opening is imprac-
ticable, or hazardous; or where the integuments of the muscles are
constantly dripping or melting down, these injections should be used.
For tliis purpose, take of Roman vitriol half an ounce, dissolve it in
a pint of water, decant it into another bottle, and add a pint of cam-
phorated spirit of wine, the same quantity of the best vinegar, and two
ounces of Egyptiacum. This mixture is also good for ulcerated
greasy heels, which it will cleanse and dry.

These cavities sometimes become lined within with a callous sub-
stance, and in such case they should be laid open, and the hard sub-
stance cut away. Whore this cannot he done, scarify them, and ap>

27« FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

^ly the precipitate, rubbing them now and then with caustic, buUec
of antimony, or equal parts of quick->ilver and aqua-fortis.

When the bone under the ulcer has become carious, which may be
ascertained by probing it, it should be laid bare, in order that the rot-
tan [)art may be removed. In this case all the loose flesh should be
removed, the bone scraped smooth to the sound part, and then <lres9ed
vith dry lint, or with pledgits dipped in the tincture of myrrh, or
euphorbium.

Where the cure does not properly succeed, mercurial physic should
be given at proper inter^'als: and to correct the blood and juices, the
antimonial and alterative powders, with a decoction of guaiacum and
lime water, are good.

URINE. See article Makuees.

Human urine ought to be preserved, for it is found to be much
stronger than that of beasts. It is eidvisable to have a stcrcoran/ near
the house where the urine should be thrown. This urine whpa throwa
on earth for sime time, and mixed with it. is fwund to make an excel-
lent manure.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 277

V.

VEGETABLE OYSTER. This root is commonly so called, on
account of its having much of the taste and smell of an oyster, when
boiled soft, and then fried after the manner of oysters. It is easily
raised, and requires a culture similar to that of carrpts, &c. The
roots should be dug in the fall, and protected from the effects of win-
ter frosts.

VENTILATOR. M. Duhamel applied the ventilator to grain, in
granaries, with excellent effect in introducing pure air, and excelling
the impure, in order to prevent the heating of the grain.

Mr. Deane recommends a common hand-bellows for the purpose
by carrying the air from it through a tube to the bottom of the grain,
in different parts, and blowing in the pure air, which will of course
expel the foul. Grain that is to be sown should be frequently venti-
lated, if kept long in a confined place, otherwise it will lose most of
Its vegetative power,

VERJUICE. A juice extracted from crabbed unripe grapes, or
apples, too sour for wine or cider. The English crab-apple is much
used for this purpose, and ours, though different from that of the Eng-
lisn, would, no doubt, answer equally well.

VETCH ; (Vicia.) A kind of pulse, the pods being like those of
pease, but smaller, and it is cultivated like field pease. Some vetches
are sown in the fall, and are called winter vetches, and others in the
spring, and are called spring vetches. They do not exhaust the soil ;
and, therefore, Mr. Livingston supposed, that the spring vetches might
be valuable to be sown on summer fallows to precede a crop of wheat.
He accordingly made two trials of them, the seed being brought from
England ; but the results of these not being perfectly satisfactory,
particularly in the product of seed, there is some reason to believe,
that the culture was not such as it ought to be. The produce of his
best experiment was at the rate of about twenty-five hundred weight
to the acre. " The fodder," ho says, " appeared to be rcraarkablv

278 PARMER'S AS8IS1 AiNT.

succulent, and extremely well calculated for cows and sheej).' He
is, however, of opinion, that the cause of his lailing; in the requisite
quantity of seed, which in England is twenty-five or thirty bu.-hels to
the acre, was owing to sowing too thick, (three bushels to the acre,)
and to manuring with gyjisum, which he supposes makes the plant
run more to haulm than it otJierwise wouUl do.

Probably this plant, when the seeds are imported, requires a natu-
ralization to our soil. At all events, if a tou and a quarter of this
fodder could be raised to the acre, as a summer fallowing crop, to-
gether with a due proportion of seed, the culture of it would be toler-
ably advantageous by making this the intermediate crop between the
breaking up of sward land and a crop of wheat, as only one ploughing
is requisite after taking off this crop, for sowing the ground with
uheat.

Vetches which are sown in the fall are used in the spring for feed-
ing sheep and other cattle ; they may afterwards be mowed fur ibdder
and it is said they may he mowed twice a year in warm climates. Mr.
Livingston mowed the crop of his, which grew best, about the iwen-
lieth of August ; but these were spring vetches.

There are different kinds of this plant, and probably each kind may
not be equally well suited to our climate. Probably if further trials
were made of this plant, results of a more favorable nature might be
obtained.

VINE AND VINEYARD. Wherever any kinds of grapes grow
wild, they may be there cultivated to advantage for making wines,
and may be habituated to a colder climate, in the jnore southerly
tjarls of this state there are two si)ecies of grapes, of which there are
varieties; the !>lack-grape, litis lahrusca, and the fox-grape, vitvs
fulpina, In the more southerly climates, particularly on the waters
of the Ohio and Missisippi, there are much greater varieties uf thete
grapes.

The little black grape grov.s in plenty along the 3Iohawk river,
but the higher grou;uls do not produce them. .Aluch of the western
part of this state is also equally well calculated for the large grape as
the southern. But as different kinds of grapes are successfully culti-
vated in our gardens, and yet generally with but indifl'erent culture,
it is but reasonable to believe, that in the greater part of this slate,
spots may be telected in which the vine may be cultivated toad
vantage.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT* 27d

For garden-grapes, Mr. Forsyth selects the rvhiU muscadine, or
chasselas, which is a great hearer ; the white snect-'^vatcr, which is
very fine tasted, and ripens in September; the black sweet-ivatcr,
■which also ripens early ; the large block cluster, which is harsh tasted,
being that of which the Ojjorto wine is made ; and the small black
cluster, which is pleasant tasted.

The spots most favorable lor vineyards are the sides of hills or
mountains, descending southwardly, or to the east, but to the south is
best, and let the soil be loose and mellow, so as not to be liable to be
much washed by heavy rains. Stiff soils are not good ; though by
carting on much sand, ami other loosening manures, they will answer
tolerably well. The ground must be well mellowed by ploughings,
and mixed with sand, if it be not already sandy, and such manures as
will serve to make it rich ant?' keep it mellow. Where the side hillg
are steep, (and such produce the best vines,) it is advisable to cart on
stones of small and middling size to mix with the soil, which help to
keep it moist and warm ; and a part of them are to be laid along ia
ridges on the lower side of each row of vines, to keep the earth from
washing away. Round the vinej'ard let a good substantial fence he-
made, which will serve to keep out both meu and beasts. The north-
erly sides of the vineyard should be well protected from the north-
erly winds.

For a selection of vines far planting, Mr. Johnson recommends the
following as being hardy and best suited to this climate : The black
Axivernat ; the hlcick Orleans; the blue cluster; the miller grape ;
(these make the best Burgundy,) the black Hamburgh ; the red Ham-
burgh ; the white Muscadin ; the Muscadella ; the melie blanc ; the
nhite MorriUon ; the white Auvernat ; and the grey Ajtvernat.

The seven following kinds also ripen' in September, but are no;:
quite so hardy, and should therefore occupy the warmer parts of the
tineyard : 'I'he Chasselas blanc, or royal Muscadine ; the Malvois^
or Malmsey ; the grey Frontinac ; the red Froniinac ; the black Lis-
bon ; the rvhite Lisbon ; and the Chasselas Noir.

In addition to these nineteen kinds, let the fox ant> the black grape*
before mentioned, as being indigenous, be also added to the list, the
former of which is probably inferior to none of them.

The next point is to select the branches for the cuttings with which
to plant the vineyard. These are to be taken from the bearing part
of the vines; and among these such as are short jointed, from which
you may expect vines which will be thrifty and fruitful. They should

t>m FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

be sound, of a healthy appearance, thick set with eyes, aud tJie ueartr
the last year's growth the better. Let them he cut close to tne old
wood, where tl)ey will he more fi m ; and they arc not to be cut to
their proper length, which is alK)ut five inches, uutil you are about to
plant them in the vineyard. Gootl branches, of the length of three
feet, may aCTord four or five cuttings, though those which are nearest
to the old wood are esteemed the best.

Some cut off the branches to be used for cuttings in October, and
others again in March or A|)ril. If at the latter times, they are to be
planted in April or May, and the next winter they must be secured
ttom the frosts by coarse litter piled up round them, which in the
spring following may be strewed over the ground for manure. If the
cuttings be planted in the fall, they are to be in the same manner
preserved frbm the winter frosts ; one methw! is also to set them out
closely in tlie tall, in some warm dry spot, in a trench alx)ut a focft
wide, T\ hich should be well prepared by diggihg, and over them erect
a roof made of straw, well secured, to keep olf the frosts, and the
heads ol the branches to be kept in an upright position, by poles or
laths surrounding them for that purpose, in order to prevent their ly-
ing on tlie ground, an«l thus becoming mouldy.

In planting the cuttings io the vineyard, after the ground has been
well prepared, as before directed, let the thick ends be cut off square
with a sharp knife, and the upper ends oldiquely, about half an inch
above the eye. Plant them at the distance of about eight or ten feet
each way, and let the earth be pressed round them with the toot.
They are to be set in an inclined position, leaving the upper bud or
eve nearly as low as tlie surface of the soil, and be careful not to in-
jure the eye in treading the earth about it. lu the sj>ring, while the
nichtly frosts prevail, let this bud, or eye, be slightly covered with
earth in the evenings, to save it from the frosts, and again uncovered
in the mornings.

Rt member to drive in the stake, on which the shoot is to be train-
ed, at ihe north side, so as to give the shoot all the warmth of the :ud.
When the shoots begin to put forth, for some will rise from under
ground, let them all grow for a certain time, in onler that you may have
an o[iportunity of determining which is likely to be the bc<t ; and
these are the roundest, shortest jointed, and the most thick set with
eyes. Those w hich grow long and spindly, with few eyes, arc not
good. When you have thus ^elected the best, pinch off all the rest ;
for all the nourishment which the roots can afford are requisite for

FARIMEH'S ASSISTANT. S»l

Hi growth. As it advances in gro^vth, fasten it to the sunny side of
the stake, so that it be not beaten about with the winds, and [)inch off
its tendrils, laterals, nephews, and suckers, not closely, however, but
at some little distance from the body of the tnain shoot.

This shoot may rise to the height of eight or t*?n feet in a summer,
if left to grow its full length; but its growth must be checked at the
height of not more than four feet ; otherwise its streugth btecomes ex-
hausted in the production of waste wodd, and the head becomes fee-
ble, and incapable of bearing the lateral branches, which it is destined
to support.

October, or rather when the leaf begins to fall off, is the time kt
trimming; and then the branch should be cut down to two s^ood eye^
not reckoning the lowermost next the old wood, which is called the
dead eye; or you may leave several eyes, which, during the next
spring, will furnish a number of sprouts, and from these select the
ttvo best.

The viae bieing thus pruned. Some direct to open the ground round
the roots, to the depth of three or four inches, and to cut away the
roots to that depth, not closely, however; and let this be repeated for
the first three years ; the use of which is to make the vine take deeper
root,' which it is said makes them more durable, fruitful, and less liable
to be irijured by droughts.

No particular notice is herfe taken of the method spoken of by Mr.
Johnson, of bending the vines down to the ground at the approach of
each winter, during the first three winters, and covering them slightly
with earth, to protect them from the frosts, because it is not believed
that this process is requisite. If it be found so, the head must not be
fcovered with earth, but with chaff, or some such dry stuffy to keep it
cool and dry.

The second year's growth should only exhibit tw6 branches train-
ed. The good eyes will all shoot forth in the spring; and let them
all grow to the length of about eight inches before you select the two
niOst proper. These shouhi have the characteristic? already described,
as necessary for the best branch oi the first years growth. Check
the branches of the second year's growth at about five feet, pinching
oQ'the laterals, 6lc. at about four inches, as before directed. In the
fall when the leaves begin to drop, trim the vines again, as before
Now you have two main branches to trim, and these should be cut
down to within four or fivo <rnod eyes of last y^arV vs-nod, tio^Vinfr: with

282 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

the upper roots as before, and burjing; the Fiaes during wioler, as be-
fore mentioned, if this be found aecessary.

The third year presents two main branches, each furnished with
four or five eyes. Proceed as before in the choice of ebooU to be re-
served, training only two from each branch : Thus you will have four
main branches this year. If you find your vines begin to bear this
year, pluck off nearly all the clusters \rhile young; lor by too early
bearing the vines become debilitated, and materially injured for
bearing afterwards.

With respect to cropping and pruning the vine, be always careful
to check its aspirroe nature, and keep it of humble size, by which
means it i9 always easy to be managed by manual Iat>or, and less euI>
ject to be injured by the violence of winds.

In the fourth year, training again two branches from each trained
branch of the previous year, you wiU have eight branches to each
rine. Tou, therefore, proceed as before in humbling the vine, an^
proportioning its quantity of fruit to its ability to bear ; and remember
not to let the vines bear all the iVuit ihey put forth, oatil ihey are
ftUly able todoit» without injqry to them afterwards.

All this time the ground of the vineyard is constantly to be kept
light an<l mellow, and perfectly clear of weeds and grass. For this
purpose, straw, chaff, 6as-shives, and every tMog of the kind is t9
be carried on, and spread over the ground, to keep it mellow and
moist, and to prevent its washing. Observing this the first lour yean
greatly forwards the vines, and at the same time prepares them for
good crops afterwards; nor should the practice be afterwards whoHjr
dbconlinued.

In planting a vineyard, it is ako requisite to have a nirrsery of the
vines at the same time, to supply those which may die when planted
out. The ground of the nursery should not he so rich as that of the
Tineyard ; it should be kept clear of vveeds and well hoed, and it
should be planted pretty thickly, in order that the roots do not extend
too much.

A vineyard of an acre should contain but two sorts of grapes, and
one of two acres should not generally contain more than four sorts.
Ever}' kind of grape should be made into w ine by itself, and not mix-
ed with others.

The vine, where the climate and soil is most satiable, will grow ta
a prodisious size, and live to a sur-irising length of years. Strabo,
^eaks of a vine which was twelve feet in circumferpnce ; and Pliny

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 283

aAiO mentions one which was six hundred years old ! In the westera
parts ot this state, and elsewhere in that direction, I have seen them>
where frona the size of the trees on which they were supported, and
they must have grown up with the trees, they could not be less than 8,
hundred years old.

Mr. Johnson observes, that from the prices which grapes have beeB
sold for in our largest cities, the income of an acre of vineyard would
amount to six hundred dollars ; but, perhaps, this calculation is rathcf
too large. Be this as it may, it is certain that their cultivatioit>
whether they are to be made into wine, or to be picked, and sent into
our cities, or elsewhere, for sale, must undoubtedly be profitable.

Tht! method of [)reserving grapes to send abroad, is to pack them
up in dry saw-dust, or bran ; and in that situation they may be ex-
ported, if they should not be wanted at home, with the same facility
and safety that they are at present sent from other countries into thifll,
for sale. Probably they ought to be put up a little before they are
fully ripe. In Albany and New-York they sell for as much upon afi
average as 25 cents per pound.

The foregoing is mostly an abridgement of Mr. JolMison,on the cul-
ture of the vine, and very nearly agrees with Mr. Winterbotham oa
the same subject Mr, Forsyth describes a new method of training
the vines for wall or garden fruit, but this does not seem applicable to
the vineyard. His method is exhibited in his drawings, which are
well worthy of examination. Other essays on this culture may also
be wortliy of examination ; such as those of Speechley, Miller, An-
till, and that contained in the Encyclopaedia ; and even the song of
the first of Roman poets on the subject, if it should not aiford ad-
ditional instruction, may nevertheless be found possessed of charms
which may more strongly incline the man of taste to the industri-
ous culture of the vine.

For the method of making the wine, see article Wine.

Mr. Livingston, in describing the beautiful country which lies upon
the Loire, between Nantz and Orleans, in France, notices " the farm
houses surrounded by gardens filled with fruit-trees, with vines, train-
ed up the trees, and extended from one to the other— Every house,
he says, is also covered with a large grape-vine, at least on three
sides." This practice he very justly recommends for farmers, as
being highly ornamental to small bouses, useful as it regards health,
convenient for shade, while the fruit, though not intended for wine,
might be made » source of family comfort and enjoyment. He ob»

284 FAH^MER'S ASSISTANT.

serves too, that the earth round dwellings is always] rich auil warm,
and therefore well adapted to the grape.

VIVES. A swelling, says Mr. Bartlet, of the kernels under the
ears of a horse, heing the part first affected. They seldom come to
matter, but perspire off, if warm clothing, anointiug with marshniallow
ointment, and a moderate bleeding or two be a[)plied. But, should
the indammation continue, notwithstanding these means, a suppura-
tion should be promoted. For this purpose, make an ointment of an
ounce of mercury and half an ounce of Venice turpeutine, pounded
together till the mercury is no longer visible; then add to it two
ounces of hogVlard, and anoint the swellings with this till a supput
ration takes place.

For destroying proud flesh in the sore, see article Ulcers.

Mr. Bartlet says, that when th^e swellings appear in an old horse
Ihey arc signs of great malignity, and often of an inward decay, as
well as forerunners of the glanders. He also says, that in young
horses they are critical and should be managed as above, instead of
applying the al>ove ointment at first to disperse the swellings, as in
that case there is danger that the disease may be thrown on the lungs,
or into the thick flesh of the hinder parts of the horse, where tbej
tvill form deep imposthumes, and sometimes kill him.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. iJ85

w.

WAGGON- iS'cc article Carriages.

WALLS. Stone walls, for fences, have already been spoken of".
See article Stones.

The cellar walls of a house should be laid with stone and lime; not
only for standing more firmly and a greater length of time, but also
to keep out the frosts. If they be not thus laid, it generally becomes
necessary to bank up the outrides with horse-dung, or something that
will kee|) out the frosts which tends to rot the sills, and at the same
time has a very mean appearance.

The stone walls of many ancient castles and other buildings in Eu-
rope are principally held together, not by binding, as is now practised,
but by the force of cement. This cement, it is believed, is nothing
more than a due proportion of sand and lime, made very thin with
water, and poured into the middle of the wall ; not merely plaistered
in among the stones, as is done at present. The advantage of this
method is, that the lime being so plentifully mixed with water, and
for such a length of time before it evaporates, has sufficient time in
part to dissolve and be again crystalized ; and in crystalizing, it ad-
heres to the stones, and thus forms a solid mass. The wall must be
saturated with this cement. Even pebble stones may be thus cement-
ed together in a wall, provided they be ke[)t in tlirir |)Iaces, and the
mortar be kept from running out through them till it has become
hardened.

The due proportions of lime and sand for making the strongest c?-
pient, must, however, be previously ascertained'by experiments made
for the purpose; as (he proportions of each depend on the qualities of
each — that is, if the lime have but little of other earthy matter in it,
\he less of it will answer; and the more sharp and gritty the sand, the
less lime will be requisite.

Mr. Livingston mentions the houses built of earth in the neighbor-
hood of Lyons, in France, which are well worthy of attention fts a

28b FAKMER»S ASSISIANT.

matter of economy. They are built two and three stories hieh, and
many of them have stood a century. The earth used there for build-
ing them is a gravelly loam. A clay or a sand will not answer, but
almost every other earth will. The earth is poimded hard with sharp
edged beetles, being put in frames made for the purpose, so as to give
the masses a square shape proper for being laid up in the wall. These
walls are sometimes plaistered on the outside, but will auswer well
without. The barns, and garden walls there, are built of the same
material. Columns are also formed of the earth, in the same manner,
in moulds made for the pur|)03e. " The extreme cheapness of these
buildings," says Mr. Livingston, " the facility with which they are
made, their warmth, their security against fires, recommend them so
strongly, that I shall make myself complete master of the art before
I come over, and teach it to my countrymen," It is to be hoped that
a design so patriotic has not been frustrated, and that its execution
may be duly appreciated.

WALNUT-TREES; (JuHans.) There are bat five kinds of
these trees in this country, which are —

1. The hickory, with a smooth bark and a firm tough wood, excel*
lent for axe-helves, &c. The nut of this tree is not goo<l.

2. The shas^hark walmit, which is not so hard and tough, but all
the red part of the timber is durable, and excellent for fence rails or
building. The nut of this tree is the best tasted of any other of
the kind.

3. The hlack-rvalnul , is natural to a more southerly climate than
that of this state. The timber of this is valuable in cabinet work,
and is also excellent for rails and other uses. The nut of this is large
and well tasted.

4. The huttcmnt, which is to be found in the more northerly cli-
piates, where it grows very large and high in the forests. It is also
excellent for rails and other uses, and the nut is well tasted.

5. The Paccoji, or Jlliuois nut, which grows on the JMisissippi and
its branches.

The growth of Uie three latter indicates a fine, rich, dark colorerf,
loamy, or sandy loamy soil.

The ihascbark tvafniit is commonly found on a good soil, inclining
more or less to clay ; and Iht* hickory, most con)monly on a warm,
fertile, gravelly soil.

Mr. Forsyth makes mention of fifty walnut-trees, in Grrat-Britaiij,
Tfhicb were rented out for fifty pounds alerlirg a year; and he says,

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 287

that the lessee cleared that amount from them. He states, that they
are best raised from the nut, gathered when fully ripe. They will
be fit to transplant the first autumn after sowing, if they have thriTen
vrell — if not, let them continue another year. They are then to be
put into beds and transplanted every second year, until planted out
for good. This causes their throwing out fine horizontal shoots and
brings them to a bearing state much sooner than when they aiake
deep tap roots.

They are to be trimmed up to the height of seven feet, and by that
time they are fit to be set out. When set out, he says the ground
should be trench-ploughed^ and the trees set in rows at the distance of
six feet, and as they grow larger, those which are found to be the best
bearers are to be preserved and the others are to be cut away. In
trimming the trees, the ends of the wood cut off are to be covered ovet
with his composition.

See article Fruit-Trees.

WARMING ROOMS. As fuel is gradually becoming morescarce,
it becomes essential to devise the best means of making a little
answer every requisite purpose. I shall, therefore, describe a
very cheap and simple method of warming a whole house, leaving
every one to vary from this method, by the use of stoves, or otherwise,
as much as they may think proper.

Take an old potash kettle which is no longer fit for use in a potash-
ery, and which you can usually purchase for ten dollars or less — set
it bottom upwards, on brick-work, built in a circle, suitable to the
size of the kettle, about ten inches high, leaving a place to fix an iron
door, like the door of a common stove : Make a round bole in the
bottom of the kettle, into which insert a stove-pipe, to carry off the
smoke. Build another thin brick wall all round and over this, leaving
a space every where of about three inches between this wall and the
inner brick wall, and the inverted kettle, and leaving also a place for
a door exactly where the inner one is placed. Let holes be made
through the top of this outer wall to insert tubes for carrying off the
heated air into different rooms. Make a fire within the |)art covered
by the inverted kettle, which will burn as readily as it will in a stove,
by having a similar door; and as the kettle l>ecome3 heated, the air
between it and the outer wall becomes also heated and rarified, and
of course ascends through the tubes, and is carried into the rooms,
while fresh air is constantly pouring in through the outer door to sup-
ply the place of that whieh has been heated and carried off. Th»

23a FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

while a constant current of warm air is rushing in below and above, a.
like current of warm air is constantly rushing into the rooms. U hen
the rooms are sufficiently tilled with the warm air, turn a stop-cock,
with which each tube sHouhl be su[)plied, and no more warm air will
be le4 in, until it is again wanted.

In a room warmed in the usual way, about two thirds of the whole
heat of the fire passes out of the chimney. In the mean time all the
air. in the room will have also passed out of the chimney io less than
an hour, and of course cold air from without must rush in to supply its
place. Thus the whole air of siich room has to be hfeated over again
once an hour, and this is to be done with only a third of the heat af-
forded by the fire. Now according to the plan here recommended,
the air in a room would require a degree of heat equal to warming
the whole over again, about once in six hours ; as the heated air is not
to be allowed to pass off out of a chimney ; and for this pur|)ose of
heating, at least two thirds of the heat of a smaller fire can be applied.
Thus a room, to be warmed in the common way, retpjires a fire which
gives twelve times the quantity of heat that is required in the method
above described.

This heating stove may be set in the kitchen, but a cellar kitchen,
or one lower than the dwelling and other rooms, would be best. It
may also be set io a small building adjoining the house, but let it be
set lower than the rooms of the house.

But in order toremler this complete, let the steam-cooking, baking,
and roasting apparatus be attached to it. For this purpose let the
smoke and the heat that goes with it, pass out through a hole about
four inches square, made at the side of the kettle, oj)posite the door,
and let it be carried in a zigzag manner, back and forward, under the
hottom of a boiler, made of sheet iron, and this will sufficiently heat
the water in that to afford the requisite degree of steam for the ves-
sels used for cooking by steam, as well as for heating water in adjoin-
ing wooden vessels of different sizes, to l>e used for different purpose?.
The pipe conducting off the smoke, Sic. after having passed under
every part of the bottom of the boiler, is then to be carried upwards,
and passes round three sides of a small oven, made of sheet iron,
which is to be used for baking and roasting. The outside of the
smoke-pipe is to be coated with plaister, as high as above the ov€n,
to prevent the heat passing off on the outside. Plans of cooking and
boiling api'iratus, of which the above is in part an outline, have been
patented iry two gentlemen of Herkimer county.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 289

li itsliould be found that the heat contained in the smoke-pipe uill
not sufficiently heat Uie oven, after heating the boiler, a part ot the
externally heated air must be carried into the oven for that purpose;
but it must be air heated in an apartment by itself, having no con-
nection with the rest of the heated air ; and it must be let off very
slowly, by means of a very small pipe, into the oven, by which means
it will be sufficiently heated hefore it U let into it. If too much be
thrown in, the door of the oven can be occasioually opened, and let a
part of the heated air pass off.

Thus, with one half of the fuel, which is used in a kitchen fire-
jdace, every room in a house of moderate size, may be warmed ; all
the culinary Ousiness may be performed ; roots may be boiled for cat-
tle in large vessels made for the purpose ; and all this may he per-
formed without half the risk from fires Avhich attend? the usual
methods.

I prefer an old pot-ash kettle for this purpose, on account of its
shape, its thickness, its cheapness, and of its being well tried with
tire. A small sized one, however, will be usually found sufficient for
this purpose.

For close stoves to be set in rooms, it is believed, that the Rus-
sian stoves will be found preferable to those made of iron. They are
built of brick, and may be made of different forms. They should be
supplied with air from without the room they are inten;led to warm ;
as this will be a great saving of the heated air in the room. They
are used entirely in Russia, and they require less fuel than ouV
iron stoves, as less than two cords of good wood will supply one of
them a whole winter. Cooking may also be done in them, as in our
iron stoves, by having an oven fixed in them for the purpose.

WATER. This is found by chemical experiments to be the same
substance as air, but in a more condensed form ; being composed
of about eighty-five parts of oxygene, and fifteen parts of hydro-
gene gas.

See article Air.

This substance, however, in its condensed and in Its gaseous state,
is the essential food of plants ; as no vegetation can be produced
without air, nor without water ; but with these alone, every species
of plant can be made to vegetate to a certain degree.

It is, however, unnecessary to dwell minutely on this article; but
something should be said of its application to meadow lands j of
drawing it off where ton abuHdant; and of applying it to plant?.

290 FARMER^S ASSISTANT.

Where water can be carried over lauds without loo great an ex-
pense it should always be attended to, as great crops of hay maybe
had from such grounds. The means of watering the ground, or ol
taking it off, should be completely under control ; for if too much be
suffered to rim on, it may do more hurt than good. Chalybeate wa-
ters, and such as are jm[>regna(ed with mineral acids, should be avoid-
ed. That which has a rich sediment is best. The quautity should be
proportioned to the nature of the soil; as sandy grounds require more,
and stiff soils less. The chauuels should be so made as to carry tlir
water to everj' part, except where the ground is naturally wet. T\w
main chauuel sliouUIJust have descent enough to cause the water to
run; and tbe lateral branches should l)e run in such directions as that
the descent be very moderate, and at the same lime convey the water
to every |)art of the ground. Sometimes it is necessary to carry off
the surplus water by other channels, where the ground has little hol-
lows running through it.

Wheu the weatlier is lK»t the water should be taken off the ground.
Tlie night, and days that are cool and cloudj, are the best times
for api)lyh>g it.

In the spring, it should not be applied till the ground is pretty dry ;
and after the grass begins to start let the quautity be diniiuished, and
let it also be stopped during rainy weather. When the grass is pretty
well grown no water should be applied, except in cases of drought.
After taking off the second crop, the water may be thrown on more
plentifully, bat it must be taken off some lime before the Avinter frosta
commence.

The foregoing is believed to be the most suitable directions for
watering meadows as practised in this country ; but this falls far short
of the most a|)provrd practice in Great-Britain. There the spots se-
lected for the purpose, are so nearly level, after the ground has rc-
ceivetl its proper shape, that the water, which is let in at one side,
will but barely run off at the other. The ground is shaj)ed exactly
for the purpose by raising it where it is too low, and sinking it when-
it is too high ; it b then made into ridges about nine yards wide, and
a foot in height, with an uniform descent from the middle of each trt
the extremes; a shallow cliannel is then made on the highest part ol
each ridge for conducting the water on them, and another on the low-
est ground l>etween each for carrj ing it off. A canal is made on the
upper side of the piece of ground for supplying the water, and another
on the lower side for carrying it off, after it has served the purpose of

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 291

irrigation. Thus the water is let out of the upper canal into the chan-
nels made ou the higher parts of tlie rulges, which channels it fills
and overflows, just enough to impart a due proportion of water to each
ridge. The water thus gently overflowing soaks away through tlie
soil till it is received in the lower channels, and by them it is carried
into the lower canal, and thence carried oET.

It will readily be seen, that no water should be suffered to run off
into the lower canal from the channels which carry it on the heights
of the ridges. These should be stopped at their lower ends. Tlie
water in the upper canal should be under perfect control ; so that no
more than is necessary to be let into the 'higher channels, and that it
be taken off at pleasure. Where the supply of water is small, a part
of the meadow may be irrigated at a time, and part at another, in suc-
cession, till each part has, in turn, been duly supplied. This is (o be
done by means of flood-gate^, to conGne the water in the upper canal,
to the parts where it is required.

The upper canal is to be supplied from a durable stream, and the
more turbid this is, the better. Clear limpid^streams are not near so
good for the purpose.

This method of irrigation is a beautiful and ingenious part of hus-
bandry ; and seeing that it has been so successfully practised in Eng-
land, it would be desirable that trials of it should be made here ; as in
many spots it might be found, very profitable. For a more full de-
scriptiou of this method of culture the reader is referred to " The Com-
plete Grasicr,'" an exgellent work lately published in England, to
which we have frequently referred.

For raising water to irrigate lands, w^hich are above its level, dif-
ferent kinds of wheels may be useil, which are so well known as to
render a description of them unnecessary. The method of raising wa-
ter by the force of wind, in the manner that it is raised out of the
dykes in Holland, may also be resorted to, if it be found that the pro-
iits w ill warrant the expense. The reader will find in Darrviiis Phi-
:olc<^ia, a description of a very cheap wind-machine for raising water,
which probably might be in some places applied to advantage, but
most particularly in raising water from wells for supplying cattle with

drink.

Water-furrowing lands which are wet, when sown with summer
grain, is of great importance in carrying off the surplus water ; and
the furrows should be made deep, and cleared out with a shovel, and
carried in such a direction as will cause the ground to l)e tlie least

292 FARMER'S ASSISTANl.

gullied by heavy showers. The same may be said of grounds sown
V ilh wioter grain ; but wet grounds, particularly if they He flat,
should never be applied to this use; iot if the ground be ever =o well
ivater-furrowed, the furrows usually become so filled %vith ice ae to
render them useless. Grounds, however, of moderate descent may b«
thrown up into high ridges, so as to answer tolerably well, in most
i\"iuters, for winter grain; but if they be somewhat steep this manage-
ment usually proves injurious by the washing? of heavy rains. Rather
let such grounds be hollow-drained, and then neither ridging uor water-
furrowing will be nccessar}'.

With regard to watering plants, all that is necessary to be said, is,
that cold water, as drawn from wells, should never be applied to them.
The water should always be exposc<l to the sun for such time as will
render it as warm as rain-%vater ; and the quantity applied at once
should never be very great ; but rather like the application of a
gentle rain.

^^'E A THER. It is of great importance to the farmer to be able to
foretel, with some degree of certainty, the future state of the weather ;
but thi? depends on signs, many of which diCTer, more or less, in dif-
ferent places, and at best they are often deceptive. The signs of the
apiiroach of bad weather, have always, however, been deemed more
cert:nn than those of good; but anew discovery has lately been made,
ivhich ought here to be noticed, in regard to the signs of approaching
good weather.

It is found that the common field spider is endued ^ithan intuitive
saeacily in this particular. When the weather is to continue v^et and
unsettled his labors are entirely suspended. When be is found em-
ployed in repairing his works, which the rains have torn to pieces, it
is an indication of the return of good weather; and when he is seen
drawing long lines, in various directions, a lengthy spell of dry wea-
ther may be expected.

When the air becomes surcharged with moisture, it may be known
by the clouds increasing in size ; on the contrary, when the air is dry,
the clouds may be observed gradually to diminish and the small ones
at length disappear.^ In the former case, therefore, rain may be ex-
pected ; the latter is an indication of prevailing clear weather. An
excess of moisture in the air may also be known in warm weather, by
the moisture or wetness of the stones. Contrary currpnls of air in the
atp'osuhere, which is known ity the clouds moving in diiTerent or op~
posite directions, are usually productive of rain.

FARiMER'S ASSISTANT. 293

When stermy weather is approaching, neat cattle ami sheep seem
more than usually industrious in feeding, and seem to leave their i)as-
tures with reluctance; swine are uneasy, grunt loudly, and retire to
their sties ; geese and ducks wash themselves repcatedlj- ; dogs be-
come drowsy and stupid, and seem to have an aversion to food ;
and cats loose their vivacitjs and remain within doors : Swallows at
such times are also observed to fly low, and skim the surface of Ava-
ters, twittering more loudly than usual; and aquatic birds withdraAV
to the sea-coast or to marshes, Arc. A change fronj unsettled weather
to that which is wetter, is indicated by flies stinging and swarming
more than usual.

Circumst mces contrary to the foregoing evince the continuance of
good weath'^r; to which may be added the bees flying abroad and la-
boring with great industry; crows croaking early in tlie morning; the
red-breast and other birds singing early on the higher parts of the
trees; and gnats flying in columual form in the rays of the setting
sun, are all indications of fine weatlicr.

AVEEDS. Generally speaking, most of those which are diflicult
to extirpate b)-^ common culture, will be found to yield to constant
yearly crops of such plants as grow very high and very closelj*. For
this purpose, several crops of hemp in succession would no doubt be
found sufficient to eradicate almost any weed. The tall oat's-geass,
and some other grasses which grow very high and thick, would also
be found very useful lor this purpose.

See article Grasses.

Crops of carrots and other roots, which require close weeding,
would also be found of excellent use in eradicating some weeds. It
is also believed, that planting grounds with potatoes after the Irish
method, will be found sufficient to smother almost every kind of
weed.

Sec article Potatoes.

Something shall now be separately said of some of those weeds
which are most formidable to the farmer.

Tlie Canada thistle flourishes in the close and stiS' soils ; in those
which are dry and gravelly, or sandy, it does not prevail. It is ex-
tremely injurious in all tillage. In lands, however, Avhich have been
elosely pastured for a number of successive years, it will nearly dis-
appear; and in mowing lands, its growth will be constantly retarded,
and lessened, where the grasses grow luxuriantly, particularly those
before mentioned. It is, however, but little injurious in hay, as cat

294 FARMER'S AbSJSTAIST.

tie eat it freely; and they are particularly fond of it when it ha£ \ril>
ed, after being newly mown. In the business of soilina; cattle, it
would, therefore, be of no essential injury; while it would gradually
give place to the tall and luxuriant growth of grasses to be used for
that purj)ose.

See article Soiling.

Pasturing, cultivating tall grasses, and keeping the lands highly ma-
nured, will probably, in general, be found the most effectual method
of getting rid of this thistly, unless the culture of {>otatoes, before
mentioned, should be found suflBcient to destroy it- On dry loams,
however, or those laid dry by hollow drains, or on some dr)' marly
soils, the jearly culture of hemp might, in many instances, be profit-
ably used in subduing this troublesome weed.

The common thistk : (carduu!>,) is easily destroyed by mowing it
when in blossom, or by pulling or digging H up in the spring.

The tfcUojv ivecd ; (rttnunculus,) prevails mostly in weitish mea-
dows, where it roots out most of the grass. It is, however, liighly
relished by cattle in fodder, though its product mil be found small
when compared with that of the grasses which before filled its place.
When eaten green, it is hot and acrid, and cattle do not much
relish it.

Hollow draining the lands where they are wet, and manuring, and
cultivating them with tall grasses, or in some of the methods before
mentioned, which may be most suitable to the soil, will quickly ex-
tirpate this weed.

The nhitc jvced, May-weed, or oi-tye ; (chrysanthemum,) roots out
the grasses in pastures and mowing lands, Avhere the ground is not
very strong; but where it is well enriched with suitable manures it
■gives way to the grasses in turn. It never makes its appearance in a
Tery strong tough sward. Cattle will eat it in hay, if it be cut green,
and well made, but they dislike it in pastures; and at best its jiroduf '
is but small.

To extirpate this weed, manure the land strongly, and cultivate .
yearly with carrots, hemp, or tall grasses, as may be most suitable :
the soil. Common hoed crops, when yearly rei»eatetl, will also r
length subdue it. But where it gro • s in moist meadows, which a:
DOt intended to be hollow drained, the best mean? of destroying it ar.
frequent top-dressings of composts sui'.»ble to the soil, (^scc article
Mam RES.) or pulling it up by hand, which should be done when it i>
in blossom.

FARxMER'S ASSISTANT. 295

The (laisif prevails mostly in upland pastures ; and sometimes,
where the soil is not strong ; it chokes the crops of wheat, flax, &:c.
It is very readily destroyed by yearly hoed crops, by hemp, tall
grasses, Arc.

The wild onion prevails most in Pennsylvania, where it was brought
by the Swedes, and used as an article of pasture. It is very injurious
in crops of wheat, and by no means inoffensive in those of rye. It is
also bad food for milch cows, as it imparts its taste to their milk, but-
ter, and cheese. Yearly hoed crops, hemp, and tall grasses Avill gra-
dually subdue it. Frequent ploughings and harrowings, when the
ground is dry, is also beneficial. Let the Irish method of planting
potatoes be also tried.

The method commonly used in Pennsylvania for thinning this
weed, is one or two hoed crops, and then oats sowed thickly. Long
pasturing or mowing the ground, will tend gradually to extirpate
them, especially if the growth of the grass be luxuriant.

The growth of weeds which are commonly called cockle and steen-
critc, are often injurious to crops of wheat and rye. The seeds of
these weeds are usually carried into the fields in the barn dung, init&
crude state. Dung, therefore, which contains these should not be ap-
plied to the summer fallow, but carted out in the spring and used for
hoed crops ; in this way the seeds will vegetate in the fall, and then
the young growth is effectually killed by ploughing for the next
spring crops.

Darnel; (solium,) says i\Ir. Deane, " sometimes appears among
grain, and is often so fruitful as to spoil a crop. The seeds of it re-
semble grains of blasted rye. These weeds should be pulled up before
they go to seed ; but grain for sowing may be mostly cleared of the
seeds by swimming it in water."

Jolinsrvort grows on such dry soils as are suitable to the application
of gypsum ; and this manure, or any other which is suitable to the
soil, when pretty plentifully applied, and the land laid down with
clover, or other suitable grass, will quickly eradicate every vestige
of this weed.

Burdocks, and some similar weeds, should be cut, or dug up
while green.

Quitch- s^r ass is considerably injurious to the growth of almost every
plant. It prevails in the stiflfer soils, and generally in the IMohawk,
and some other intervales. It starts afresh wherever its large, strong
roots are out with the plough or hoe, particularly when the soil is

296 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

rather moist. When it is quite dry, the roots may be dragged to the
surface by frequent harrowings, where they nill perish; and this, to-
getiier with long pasturing, or mowing the ground, is perhaps Uie only
practicable method of getting rid of this gra?*. It should however be
observed, that this is a tolerable good grass for either pasturing or
mowing, especially when olher grasses are sown to mix with it.

Sheep are much better than any other catile for destroying weeds
by pasturing.

As all weeds are propagated by their seeds, none should be suffer-
ed to go to seed. This remark is no less applicable to the weeds be-
fore enumerated, than to the numerous class of biennials which com-
monly infest the fields. All weeds, by being suffered to grow, ex-
haust the soil. The same ground, therelore, which is kept clear of
weeds will much easier retain its fertility than that which is suffered
to become full of their seeds. Generally speaking, any given quan-
tity of weeds growing with a crop lessens its proiluct in proportion to
the weight of the greon weeds with that of the growing crop. Farm-
ers should therefore be extremely careful in keeping all weeds out of
their grounds, and in destroying the common biennials as fast as they
appear, while the ground is bearing crops : And, in regard to those
perennials, before enumerated, and all others which may infest the'
lands, the prevention of their growths is generally infinitely easier
than their extermination, after they have got fooling in the soil.
When, therefore, the farmer sees new weeds start up in his land, let
him immediately extirpate them, either by taking them out of the
ground, or by smothering them with a sufficient quantity of earth,
straW: chip-dung, or other rubbish; and thus he will find that a pen-
ny's worth of trouble spent in the prevention of the disease, is worth
a pound spent in the cure.

For destroying the common biennial weeds, see article Summer
Fallowing.
WEEVIL. See article Insects.
WELL. See articles Water and Pasture.
WHEAT ; (Triticum.) Under different articles of this work, to
wit: — Change of Crops, Change of Seeds, Drill, Fallowing,
Green-Dressing, Gypsum, Hessian-Fly, Harrowing, Harvest-
ing, Mildew, Soiling, Sowing, Smut, Threshing, and WatePv-
Fubrowing, considerable has been said which regards the culture of
Avheat. and need not here be repeated.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 297

There are several species of this grain, such as the spring wheat,
and of the different kinds of winter wheat ; the bald, the bearded the
cone, the Polish, and the Smifrna nhcat, 6cc. The latter has a central
ear, with several smaller lateral ones, which spring from the lower end
of the large one. It requires a rich soil, and it is probable, that in
this country, the horse-hoeing husbandry of 3Ir. Tull, {Sec New
HoR3E-HoEi>-G HusBAXDRY.) would be more suitable for it than for
any other kind.

"VTiDter wheat, in this state, and in some more southerly, will grow
on almost every dry soil that is sufficiently rich. Very sandy, and
very gravelly soils, are, however, the most unsuitable. Dry red loams,
with a trifle of clay in them, are perhaps the best. Of the old states,
the best wheat, and the greatest crops, are raised in what are called
the middle states. Mr. Gregg, of Pennsylvania, lately raised sixteen
hundred Imshels from forty acres, and crops still larger have been
raised in Virginia. In this state, the greatest products are not quite
so large, and the eastern states are still less favorable for ihe growth
of this grain.

The time for sowing wheat probably depends much on previous
habit. Thus, if it were sown a number of successive years by the
the middle of August, and then the time of sowing were changed, at
once, to October, the crop would probably be much lighter on that
account ; yet where wheat has become habituated to be sown late it
will do tolerably well. The later it is sown, however, the more seed
h requisite. When early sown, a bushel to the acre is sufficient ; but
when sown later, a bushel and an half, or more, may be necessary. In
Ensland they sow a much larger quantity than this ; but it is believed
to be an useless espemUture of seed. Let the farmer, however, try
experiments in this way, by sowing two, three, and four bushels to the
acre, and if he finds himself well repaid, by a suitable increase of his
crops, let him persevere io sowing that quantity of seed which he finds
most advantageous.

Drillinff in wheat will save as much as one third of the seed. If
wheat is found to grow larger in this way than when sown in the
broad-cast, the gain may be much greater. If it be soaked twenty-
four hours in lye or brine, with a proper mixture of saltpetre, its sraut-
tincss will be prevented, which in many instances may be a great
saving ; and according to Mr. Johnson, the saltpetrp will make a very
considerable addition to the crop.

See article Sowinh.

38

298 F AHMER'S ASMSTANT.

Thus, by paying attention to these particulars, and some others,
the clear profits of a crop of wheat may perhaps.be doubled.

Seed wheat should always be run through a screen before it is sown,
to take out the seeds of cockle, dri|)s, and other weeds which infest
tiic crop. Care should also be taken not to let the seed get any mix-
ture of rye iu it ; as the cutting of this out requires considerable labor,
and at tiie same time lessens the crop. The English farmers say, that
seed should never be taken of wheat which has grown on sandy land,
but from that which has grown on soils most natural to it. The
changing of seed should also be atteni!ed to, as this grain is found to
jlegenerate if this be not done. The summer wheat which is brought
from Canada, is found to produce much larger crops in this county,
f Herkimer, J than that wliich has been sown here for some time.
Wheat tliat is carried to a climate much more northerly than that iu
which it has been long sown, will not answer well, as it will be too
late in ri|»ening.

The best preparations for a crop of wheat are summer-fallowing, or
a clover sward turned under and the wheat sown on it. The latter
is good culture. The former ought never to constitute a part of a good
system of farming, on account of its additional expense, unless it be
to recruit exhausted lands, or to destroy weeds. But Avhere lands
require to be fallowed let the work be done effectually, by rejieated
ploughings and harrowings, in order that the ground be enriched, and
the seeds of weeds destroyed. Beside clover, the summer crops
which are found best to precede a crop of wheat, are turnips, peas,
vetches, and barley will do tolerably well, but let Iheground be
ploughed up immediately after the crop is taken off. A potaloe crop
is also very gooil, provided it be got off the ground sufticieutly early
for sow lOg the wheat. Indian corn, where the ground is in good heart,
will do well, by cutting up the crop while green, and selling it up iu
shocks to ripen,

AVhere wheat has lodged so as to fall flat on the ground, the better
way is to harvest it immediately ; for in that situation ii will derive
no further benefit from the earth, or from the air; whereas if it be
cut, and laid to dry, the seeds will derive nourishment from the stalk ;
and though they be small they will be as large as they wouM other-
Avise have been. perha|)s larger, and at the same time will make much
better flour. The treatment in this case ought lo be the same as in
case of mildew.

Sec article Mildcw.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 299

It is believed, that there is nothing gained by letting ^vheat stand
till it is fully riiJe, thai is till the heads turn down, before it is har-
vested. If it stands so long considerable will be shelled out before it
is got into the barn; and even if the bulk should in this case be great-
er, still the weight may not be increased; and as wheat is now sold
by -weight, not by the bushel; and as it is known that the best flour
is made from the earliest harvested wheat ; the farmer, from these
considerations, may i)robably be the gainer by commencing his har-
vest considerably earlier than the usual time. In this ^vay too he will
be less in danger of having his wheat grown by long continued rains ;
lor it is found, that wheat which is harvested early, is less liable to
grow than that which is cut late. Probably, that which is design-
ed for seed, ought, on this account, to be harvested last, as it ^vill ve-
getate more readily when late harvested.

As a matter of curiosity, it may be observed, that by frequently
splitting the plants of wheat, and setting each part by itself, they may
be greatly multiplied. Thus by sowing the wheat in August you may
split it, after it has branched out into a number of parts, and this may
be again repealed in September, and repeated once or twice again in
the spring, until in this w ay you may make one seed produce more
than half a bushel of grain.

AVhere wlieat is likely to grow too large the best way is to feed it
down in the spring for si;ch length of time as may be thought requisite,
and in this way it will grow up with a stronger stalk, and be less lia-
ble to loilge.

See article Rve, for a very extraordinary crop that was raised in
this ^\'ay.

If the wheat cannot be conveniently fed off, let it be mowed off
close, as often as may be found necessary, w hich will ansAver the same
purpose.

In England experiments have been made of transplanting wheat in
the spring, by means of which the crops proved very gootl, and a great
deal of seed was saved. This might be found peculiarly i<seful in wet
lands thrown up in ridges in the sf)ring. The expense of such culture
woubl. [>robalily, however, be too great in this country, and therefore,
need not be minutely described.

Barberry-bushes or cherry-trees, planted in wheat fields, will make
the wheat growing near them blast.

Spring wheat should be sown as early as the ground can be made
mellow : and there is little or bo danger of its being too rich for thi?

30Q FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

crop. It grows best on rich new land?, or on lands which have beeu
well manured and borne Indian corn, or pot;itoes, the preceding year*
The qualify of this wheat is inferior to that of winter wheat, and the
crop is usually smaller. It i?, however, cultivated with more success
than winter wheat in much of the higher lands where the snows fall
deep in the northerly parts of this state. The requisite quantity of
seed to the acre is about one and a half bushels. Like barley, it is
round to degenerate very quickly ; and for this reason, new supplies of
seed from Canada, or some more northerly climate, are found to be
frequently requisite.

A principal difficulty in raising winter wheat on the high lands of
the northerly parts of this state, where the snows fall very deep, is,
thit fhey lie so longin the 8[)ring that the wheat being then, from the
warmth of the jirouud, inclined to vegetate, is prevented from this by
reitson of the snow which lies upon it, and being thus excluded from
the air, it dies of course. The most etTectual remedy against this has
hern round to feed oflFthe wheat closely in the fall, which it would
seem, prevents it from starting in the spring until such time as the
snous have dissolved.

VVHKEZiNG. A disease of horses commonly called broken
wind — caused by surfeits — violent exercise when the belly is full — by
being rid into cold water when very warm — or, from obstinate colds
not cured.

For the cure, Dr. Bracken advises, that the horse should have good
nourishment, much grain, and little hay; and that the water given
him to flrink daily have a solution of half an ounce of saltpetre, and
two drachms of sal ammoniac. It is said that the hay made of white
weed will cure this disorder.

WHITE WEEH. This weed has various names, such as &t//r.v>
eye. May-weed, &x. &c.
Sec article Weeds.

Wli^LO VV ; (Salix.) There are varieties of this tree, though noi
many that were found in this country. The weeping-willow and
Bome other kinds are imported.

borne kinds of this tree grow so rapidly as to be valuable to plant
for fuel. The twigs of one kind are used for making baskets, &c.
Oiher kinds are good for mnking hedges in wet lands. Perhaps the
shrubby kind that grows along the banks of many of our streams
would be veiy good for this i-Mirpoae.

I'or mjikiiiti 'he li<dge, either in the bank of a ditch, or otherwise,
Blakes of a proper length are cut and set a good depth iu the ground.

FAT^MER'S ASSISTANT. 301

about a foot apart, and they will take root and grow, while new twigs
sprouting out Ironi every part soon forms them into a thick bushy
hfdffp. This, when sufficiently grown is to be treated as other
hedges.

Sec article Hedges.

In Great Britain, sonle of the larger sorts of this tree are also raised
for buihiing timber. In this case, says Mr. Miller, they are planted
in rows, and stand six feet apart each way, and are trimmed up the
requisite hei-rht. When they become too thick, every otlier tree, in
each row, is tnken aAvay. They may also be planted along the banks
of ditclies for this purpose. The sets are seven or eight feet long
whed planted. The same author observes, that every kind of willow
is easily raised from sets or cuttings, which readily take root, either
in the spring or fall.

WINDGALLS. These are flatulent swellings on the bodies of
horses, but most commonly they are seated on both sides of the back
sinew above the fetlocks of this animal : Some times they are in the
joints and tendons. They are generally filled with air and thin wa-
tery matter. Where they appear in the interstices of the large mus-
cles, which then appear blown up like bladders, they are principally
filled with air, and may be safely opeucd, and treated as a common
wound.

When they first appear, they are usually cured with restringents,
and bandages drawn very tightly round them; for which purpose let
the swelling be bathed twice a day with vinegar, or verjuice, or fo-
mented with a decoction of oak-bark, pomegranate and allum, boiled
in verjuice, and let the bandage which binds the windgall be soaked
in the same.

If this should fail, the swelling may be drawn ofif by blistering, and
applying the blistering ointment, repeating it at times, till the humor
is all drawn off. Some, however, cut open these swellings, wherever
they be situated, and treat them as a wound. But, perhaps, where
they are in the joints, the blistering is the safer remedy, as the joints
may be stiffened by imprudent management.

WIND-MACHINERY. The saving of labor by the use of the
winds, seems to have been but little attended to; and yet it is be-
lieved that great advantages might be derived to the farmer from
this source.

Suppose, for instance, that an apartment was made under the roof
«f the barn, at one end, in the middle of -which should be properly

302 far:mer'S assistant.

fixed, an upright shaft, extendics^ up through the highest part of the
roof, with lour horizontal arms on the upper end, and on these sails fix-
ed for turning the shaft when ilic winds should hloiv. — Could there
be any doubt, but that this could be made to turn different kinds of
maehines to be used for different purposes.

In this war a threshing-machine and a corn-shelling machine might
be moved with a great saving of manual labor. The cutting of straw
and hay for feeding cattle, could thus be almost entirely performed,
and the no less important lousiness of grinding different kinds of grain
ibr feeding and fatting of cattle could be performed with er^ual ease^
Perhaps also the breaking and cleaning of flax and hemp could be
executed in this way to advantage.

The raising of a constant supply of water from wells, for supplying
cattle, is also easily performed in this way ; and it is a matter ot no
difficult invention so to contrive the machhiery that it will stop raising
water when the trough into which it is emptied, shall be filled to a
certain height. Churnin; may also be thus performed with a very
small expense, when the wind will answer.

It is but a triSing objection against all this, that the winds are in-
constant, and that tliey blow unsteadily. The work required to be
thus performed requires no great steadiness of operation; and days
can always be chosen for performing most of these labors when the
wuifN Mow most steadily.

The machinery for some of the purposes before mentioned sliould
be so contrived as to be turned by hand when the winds should not
«erve. It is immaterial what quarter the winds come from where the
sails are fixed on a horii'ontal wheel, as above intended, as the w heel
will still turn the same way. The sails may be of very cheap mate-
rials, and the cost of the whole machinery need not be much. Any
minute description of the machinery is here omitted, because verbal
descriptions of such are necessarily prolix, and at best diificult to be
uoderstoo<l : and because, any one wishing to test the efficacy o " this
method of saving labor, need not be long ignorant of the best means of
putting his wishes into execution.

It is believed that Pasmore's machine for cutting straw is the best
that is used in Great-Britain. His machine for crushing diiTerent
kinds of grain between rollers, is also good, as being very expeditious ;
but probably those machines which grind the grain, in the manner
th;it coffee is ground in small hand-mills, are the l>est. Descriptions
and plates exhibiting his machines, as well as those of Salmon's and

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 303

M'Doogal's straw-cutters, may be seeu in a new British work, which
has been ofteu mentioned in this, called " The Complete Grazier.''^ —
Either of these machines might be easily adapted to the purpose of
being turned by wind.

WlrsE. The presses used for making this liquor are similar to
our screw-presses for making cider, though they are executed with
much neater workmanship.

To make gootl wine, the grapes of the same vine should be gathered
at different times. The first should be ot the ripest clusters ; and let
them be cut close to the fruit to avoid the taste of the stalks. The
green and rotten grapes are to be rejected.

In due season the secoml gathering takes place, when all that are
ripe and sound are taken as before. The same may be observed of
the last gathering, the grapes of which will be the poorest. To make
wine in the greatest perfection, however, the grapes are all strijiped
from the stems before they are put into the vat.

Wines of different colours are made from the same grape. The
French make their white and red wines from the black grape.

To make white wine, grapes sutlicient lor a pressing are gathered
early in a damp, misty morning, while the dew is on. This increases
the quantity of wine, but rendeis it weaker. When the sun comes
out warm the gathering is discontinued.

The grapes gathered are carefully carried in panniers on horses, to
the press, into which they are immediately put, and the first pressing
is given without delay ; which should be gentle, for fear of discolorio<^
the liquor. The w ine from this pressing is the most delicate, but not
the strongest.

After the first pressing, the pre^s is raised, the scattering grapes are
laid on the cake, and the second pressing is given, in which more
force is used than before. The second running is but little inferior
to the first in flavor, or colour, while it is stronger and will keep lon<^-
er. Sometimes the wine of these two pressings are mixed together.

After these pressings, the sides of the cake are cut down perpendi-
cularly with a steel spade, so far as they exceed the upper part of the
press that is let <lowo on the cake. The cuttings are laid on the top
of the cake, and the third pressing, which is called the first cuttino-, is
given. The juice pressed out at tliis time is excellent. A second
and third cutting is in like manner given the cake, with pressings, till
the juice ceases to rim.

304 FARIMER'S ASSISTANT.

The liquor of Ihe cuttings becomes gradually more red from the
liquor contained in the skin of the grapes. The wine* of these dif-
ferent cuttings are collected se[)aratel)r, and afterwards mixed, ac-
cording as they contain the quality that is wanted.

The pressings for the white wine should be performed quickly,
that the grapes may not have time to heat, and that the liquor may not
remain too long on the murk.

In making red wines of the same grapes, they are to be gathered
when the sun shines the hottest. They are to be selected and gather-
ed in the manner before directed.

When brought home, as before, they are mashed in a vat, and are
then to lie in the liquor for a length of time, which must depend on
the heat of the weather, the flavor of the must., and the height of co-
lour intended to be given. They are to be stirred frequently, the
better to raise a fermentation and redden the liquor.

The authors of the " Maison Rustique" say, that for the Cotdange
nine, four hours is sufficient for the grapes to lie in the liquor, and
that for ihe Burgundy wine a whole day should be allowed. Others
allow a much greater length of time. Perhaps this point will be best
ascertained by experience in different climates.

When the tnust or liquor, has lain as long on the husks in the vats
as is thought proper, it is poured off, strained and put into casks.
Afterwards the murk, or remainder of the grapes in the vat, is put
into the press, and undergoes the pressings and cuttings before men-
tioned. The liquor thus obtained, especially if the pressing be so
hard as to crack the seeds of the grapes, has a stronger body than the
first running; but has not its fine high delicate tiavor. Some of it
is, however, frequently mixed with the other wines to make them
keep better.

Some pour water on the murk in the vat, after the liquor is drawn
off, which should be done without delay lest the murk sour, and leave
it in this situation till they find the water pretty well coloured, and
judge that it has incor|)orated most of the remaining strength of the
murk ; they then draw off the water and press out the murk as dry as
possible, and mix the liquor thus pressed out with the water, and bar-
rel it. It will keep no longer than the following winter, but is brisk
and pleasant while it keeps good.

The vuirk is used to mend w ines, whether old or new, which want
either colour or strength. They are to be turned out of the casks on

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 30j

the iiturk^ after the must has been drawn off, aud then v.ell stirred up,
and let stand twenty-four hours, if new wine, or twelve hours if oldw
When a sufficient colour is thus given the wine, and it is no longer
too sweet, but agreeable to drink, draw it off, barrel it, and put the
mur/c to the press. New and old wines are, however, not to be mixed
in this operation.

The unripeued grapes that were rejected at former gatherings, are
to hang till they become a little frost-bitten, and may then be made
info wine which will answer to mix with other coarse red wines.

When the murk has been lully pressed it will still yield, when
diluted with water, fermented and distilled, a spirit for medical and
domestic uses.

In some [)art3 of Germanj', where the grape does not come to full
maturity, the makers of wine have stoves in their wine cellars, by
which they are kept warm during the fermentation of their wines, and
this, by heightening the fermentation, meliorates them, and renders
them more fine. Exposing the casks to the sun will have the same
effect in wines that are too acrid to ferment sufficiently.

The people of Champaigne and Burgundy supply the want of fer-
mentation, or of an insufficient one, in their late made wines, by roll-
in? the casks. After drawing the wines off from the first lees, three
weeks after being first put up, they roll the casks backward and for-
ward, five or six times a day, for four or five days successively; thea
two or three times a day for three or four days ; then twice a day foe
four days more ; then once a day for a week, and afterwards once in
four or live days. This rolling is continued altogether for about sis
weeks where the grapes were pressed very green, but a less time if
they were tolerably ripe.

The finest wines ^\i[{ work the soonest, and the fermentation will
take ten or twelve days, according to the kind of wine, and the season
of the year. Those that are backward in fermenting may be quicken-
ed by puttini!; into them a little of the froth or yeast that works from
others. During fermentation, the bung-holes of the casks are to be
left open, and should be closed when it at)ates, which is known by the
froth ceasing to rise so fast as before. 'J'he cask is also then to be fill-
ed to within two inches of the top, and a vent hole is to be left open
to carry off all th:il is thrown up by fcrllier fermentation. The filling
of the cask should be regularly done every two days for about twelve
days, in order that the foulness thrown up by the continued fermenta-
tion may be thrown out at the vent hole, or it wiH fall bacli intp the

:}9

"tiOO FAKMEK'S ASSISTANT.

wine and nreveni its becomirMr clear. After this the cask should b*
filled to u iihin an inch ol ihe Ijung e\ ery fifth or sixth day for a month,
and then once a fortnijjht for three months longer. When the fer-
mentation is enfh-cly over, the casks are (o be filled u[», and this is to
be rejieaietl once a mooth as long as they remain in the cellar, in or-
der to prevent the wane growing flat and hea\'j'. They should be fill-
ed ivith wine of the Minie kind uhich they contain, which may be kept
in bottle* for the parpose, an<i the vent hole should be stopped when
the fermentaliort is over.

The first drawine off from lire lees is done about the middle of De-
cember, and the casks containing the liquor drawn off should stand
without the least disturbance by shaking until the midtik of Febru-
ary, when the liquor should be again drawn off' into other casks. If
there be then still so much lees as to endanger their eonlraciing a
putrid taint, let the wine be again drawn off* in due season. Some-
times it may be necessary to repeat the racking several times ; but let
the casks be kept lull, and let no wines of dissimilar qualities be
mixed.

The lees are (o be collected together, and after settKng, the thinner
part may hedirtilled.

• Brandy i» often added to wine when alK)ut to be transported, to pre-
vent any further fermentation. Fumigating the casks with burnt
brimstone will answer this puri>ose better: hut it is said this will de-
stroy the red colour of wines. The colonrs of wine, are, however,
mostly artificial. A deep yellow may be made by burnt sugar, and a
deep red \xj red-wood, elder-berries, Azc.

I Turbid wines are fined by isinglass, by putting a pound or two of
fresh !doo«ly meat into them, and by other means pointed out under
article Cider.

«. Where ivine has become sour, let some salt of tartar be mixed with
it, just bt-fore it is used, which will neutralize the acid.

In summer, cool, clear days, with northerly winds, are the best
times for drawing off wines to prevent their fretting or frothing.

For making currant ivinc, sec article Ci rrams.

Gooi^ihcrn/ truu b made in the same mauoer as csrrant wine.

Raisin nvic is made as follows: Take thirtj' gallons of clear rain
or river water, and put it into a vessel that will hold a third more;
axld a hundred weight of ^Malaga raisins picked from the stalks; mir
the whole well together, and cover it over partly, but not entirely.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 507

with a linen cloth, and let it stand in a warm place, if the season be
act warm. It will soon ferment, ahd must he well stirred about twice
in twenty-four hours, for twelve or fourteen day?- By this time, if
the liquor has lost its sweetness, ami if the fermentation has nearly
abated, which will be perceived by the raisins lying quietly at the
bottom, the liquor mast be strained off, and the juice of the raisins
pressed out, first by hand and afterwards by a press, which may easily
be contrived, by having two boards and weights laid on t-he upper-
most. Ail the liquor is then to be put into a good sound wine cask,
Tsrell dried and warmed, together with eight [lounds of sugar, and a lit-
tle yeast; except that aJittle of the wine should be reserved in bot-
tles, to be afterwards added during the feriftentation, which will take
pla«e again. During this second fermentation the cask must be kei>t
nearly fuH, so that the froth or yeast will run out of the bung-hole.
When the fermentation has ceased, which will be at the end of a
month, the cask is to be stepped tight and kept a year, or more, and
then bottled off.

This wine wril be very good at the end of a year and a half, but
will improve much by being kept four or five years ; as it will thea
be equal to any of the strong cordial foreign wines, and by proper sub-
stances, to give it a color and flavor, it may be made to resemble
trhem.

This is the most perfect of artificial win^, but olliers may be made
clieaper; such, for instance, as supplying the place of every four
pounds of raisins by one pound of sugar, so that only a fo«f(h of the
quantity of raisins above mentioned may be required ; or by adding a
proportion of well rectified whiskey to the ca?k when closed, in which
. case less raisins and less sugar would be requisite.

Any kind of large raieins will answer as well as Malaga ; but the
thinner the skin, and the sweeter the pulp, the better the wine will

prove to be.

To'make Po?»wi« wwf.— The directions published by Mr. Coopei,
of Jersey, for making a wine of cider and other ingredients, which
may properly be called Poimna ivinc, are as follows : Take cider of
the best running of the cheese, and of the best quality, and add to i*
as much honey as will make the li(iuor bear an egg; strain the liquor
through a cloth as you pour it into the cask; fill the cask full, with
the addition of two gallons of French brandy to a barrel; set it away
in a cool place, with the bung-hole open, to ferment ; as the fcj-menta-

308 FARMER'S ASSISTA.NT.

tioo proceed?, it will throw out constderalHe froth aod filth, anJ (a
supply the deficiency thub made in the cask, keep tilling it trequently
with more of the same kind of liquor, kept for the pur|K>>e. until il)€
fermentation has nearly subsided ; then {hji in the hung, ^ut not tight-
ly, in order that the VH\uor may hare some further vent, and as soon as
the fermentation ceases, close up the vessel. The next sowing:, rack
off the liquor into a new clean cnsk ; ami in order to clarify it, Mr.
Cooper directs a mixture of sueet milk, the whites of egg* aqd clean
sand to be beat up and well stirred into the cask. {See article Cides.
for the particular directions for this.) But it b believed, that about
a quart of sweet milk to a barrel, well stirred and mixed with the
liquor as it is poured in, »till answer equally well and perhaps better.
This operation alone w ill not only clarify liquors, but by re{>eatiog it
several times, the highest coloured wiues may be nearly or quite di-
vested of all their colour. After the liquor has been thus clarified, let
it be again drawn off into bottles, or into fresh clean casks, kept in a
cool cellar for use. Mr. Cooper says, that his liquors thus prepare*!,
has often been taken by good judges of wine, for the real juice of the
grape ; and has been pronounced by them superior to most of tbo
xvines in use. Age, however, is essential in perfecliog ihb kind oi
wine, as it is in all others.

Mr. Clark, in his " Travels in Russia." makes mention of his bar-
ing drank mead among the Cossacks of the Don, which ivas sixteen
years old; and this liquor, which is little else than honey and water,
he assures us was equal to good Madeira w ine. 3Ir. Coo er adds, that
the expense of making Pomona wine does not exceed twenty-five ot
thirty cents a gallon.

Wine of a tolerable quality may be made of the juice of ^der ber^
lies, in a manner similar to that of making currant wine.

See article Currant?.

Raspberries, antl blackberries may also be applied to the Fame use,
and less sugar will be found requisite in making wines of these than
of currants.

Under article Perry, the reader will find some digressive observa-
tions, (having been written after most of this work was in the press,^
respecting the pear in Eneland called the Tuznton squash; and that
the juice of this pear had been frequent h* sold iu London for Ctuun-
paisrne. The circumstance is only mentioned here again for the pur-
pose of observing, in this place, tliat no doubt many kinds of the pear.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 309

z» well as of the apple, may be found, by diligent search, and proper
exi)eriment, that would form the basis of as fine liquors, and in as great
varieties as those which are made of the grape. This fact, however,
ought not to discourage the culture of the vine ; for, where the climate
is suitable to its growth, it is believed, ihat the products of the grape^
will afford a wine as cheap to the cultivator as any other, equally-
good, which can be artificially made.

In fiiakiug artificial wines, French brandy is used to add more
spirit, and to assist in imparting to them the requisite taste. But, as
Trench brandy is somewhat expensive, it may not be amiss here to
mention, that a very pleasant spirit resembling that liquor in taste,
may be made of the spirit distilled from cider, by putting into it a suit-
able proportion of dried peaches, baked hrmvn, but not burnt ; about
half a gallon of these, or perhaps less, will impart to a barrel of this
distilled spirit a very pleasant taste, smell and colour, after the liquor
has had time to ripen by age. Whether this liquor, thus prepared,
will precisely supfily the place of French brandy in making artificial
wines, is not particularly known ; certain it is, however, that when it
has age it has much of the brandy flavor, and is full as pleasant as
that liquor. Common whiskey also, when divested of its essential
oil, may in like manner be turned into a pleasant brandy, after it has
acquired sufficient age.

WOLVES. For the method of preventing their killing sheep,
see article Sheep.

Wolves are easily caiigiit in traps, and as many frontier towns are
in the habit of oflcring considerable premiums for every wolf that may
be killed, 1 will suggest a method of destroying them, which apears te
me would be successful. /

Build a close boafd pen out in the Avilderness, where the wolves
most frequent, so high that Ihey cannot get over it : Let it be about
twenty feet square : Leave a hole in each side of it just large enough
for a wolf (o thrust his head into : Put three or four sheep into the pen
and feed them there : Take pieces of tainted meat and drag them along
on the ground, oil' for miles, in different directions from the pen. The
wolves coming across the scents made by these trails will follow them
to the pen, and when there thoy will stick their heads through the
holes to try and get at the sheep. Let the sheep be prevented from
coming too close to these holes.

All then that is further to be done is to contrive traps, which, as
•hey run their heads through the holes, will either kill ^hcm, hano-

310 FARMER'S ASSISTANT.

Hiem, or otherwise hold them fast till they can be killed or takea ;
and the different methods of doing this, I should suppose any hunter
of common ingenuity could easily contrive for himself.

This plan would l>e equally useful where the fafmer folds his sheep
every night to keep ofiFthe wolves.

WOOD-HOUSE. Every farmer should provide himself with this
building, and into this let him every winter store away wood sufficient
for the ensuing year, so that he may have a constant supply of <lry
fuel. Any kind of wood, or even that which is much decayed, will
bum well when dry ; and half of any given quantify of dry wood will
give more heat than the whole where it is wet and green ; so that
there is a considerable saving of wooil in having it dry, to say nothing
of the greater pleasure and convenience which it affords.

A house twenty feet square and ten feet high ivill hold fifty cords of
"ivood ; but if the farmer will be at the pains to have his rooms warm-
ed, and his culinary fiusiness performed in the most approved and eco*
nomical manner, he will find the one half of this yearly quantity ot"
wood sufficient for all his purposes; and thus make a saving in this
article alone to the amount of at least thirty dollars a year, and where
fuel is dear, to perhaps double that amount.

See article Warming of Rooms.

In cutting wood short, af'er it is carted home, a saw should be
used; as this makes a gr«at saving of the wood, and is at the same
time equally expeditious.

WORMS. Sec articles Bots and Ixsects.

WOUNDS. Mr. Bartlet directs, that where horses or other cattle
receive any large wound, the first step is to sow it uj), if it he in such
part of the body as will admit of this ; for in some parts the wound
nvill be drawn open by the lying down, or rising oYthe animal. Where
the wound n deep let the stitches be proportionately deep, so as to
bring the lower parts ©f it together. The stitches may be half an inch
or more apart.

If an artery has be€n opened, let it be secured by passing a crooked
needle underneath and tying it up. If this cannot be done, apply a
button of lint or tow, di[)ped in a strong solution of blue vitriol, close
to the mouth of the bleeiling vessi I, and be careful that it be kept
there by a proper compress and bandage titl an f>c/mr is formed.

The lips of the wound bring Iircught together by the need'r or
bandage, it needs only to be covered with rags <lij)ped in brandy.

FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 311

Where the blood of the animal is, however, in a bail state., which may
soon be known by the aspect of the wouuil, and its not healing, the
blood should be rectified by internal medicines. The wounded part
should be kept as free from motion as possible.

All wounds of the joints, tendons, and meml)raneou3 parts, should
be dressed with terebiuthine medicines, to which may be added honey,
and the tincture of myrrh. All greasy applications should be avoid-'
ed. Fomentations and poultices are also of great use here.

312 FAHMKK'S) AhSISTANi'.

Y.

YEAST. For the best yeast, see article Beer.

A method of making what may be called a portable or durable
yfeast, is as tbiiows :

Take a quantity of hops, suitable to the quantity of yeast you in-
tend to make, boil them well, and strain off the water in which they
are boiled ; into this water stir in a suitable quantity of flour, and
considerable salt, and then add to this a proportionate quantity of
goo<l yeast; let this mass rise as much as it will ; then stir in fine In-
dian meal till it is so thick as that it can l>e made into small cakes of
the size of a dollar or larger. When the cakes are thus madej dry
them in the sun till they are hard, minding to turn them frequently to
prevent their moulding, and then lay them by in a dry place, for fu-
ture use.

When you wish to have yeast, take one of these cakes, crumble it
to pieces, pour warm water on it, and let it stand in a warm place, and
it will soon rise sufficiently to make good yeast. A quantity of these *
cakes may be thus made at once, which will last for six months
or more.

YELLOWS. In neat cattle this disease is usually called fA^ over-
Jlomnic of the gall ; in horses it is called the yellows or jaundice. See
article JNeat Cattle.

\V hen horses are troubled with this disorder, it is known by the
yellowness of the eyes and of the inside of the mouth. The animal
becomes dull and refuses to eat. The fever and the yellowness en-
crease together. His urine is voided with difficulty and looks red
like blood after it has lain some time. The offside of the belly is
sometimes hard and distended. If the disorder be not checked, he
becomes frantic.

In old horses, when the liver has been long diseased, the cure is
hardly practicable, and ends fatally with a wasting diarrhoea; but,
says Mr. Bartiet, when the disease is recent, and the horse youn":-
Ihere is no danger if the following directions are observed :

FARMER'S Assistant. m

First, bleed plentifully and give the laxative clyster, as horses
having this disorder are usually costive ; and the next day give him a
purge of an ounce and a half of cream of tartar, half an ounce of cas-
tile soap, and ten drachms of succotrine aloes. Repeat this two or
three times, giving intermediately the following balls and drink : Take
Ethiop's mineral, half an ounce ; millepedes, the same quantity ; Cas-
tile soap, one ounce ; make this into a ball, and give one every day,
and wash it down with a pint of this decoction: Take madder root,
and turmerick, of each four ounces ; burdock root, sliced, half a
pound ; Monk's rhubarb, four ounces ; boil the whole in a guUon of
forge water down to three quarts ; strain it off and sweeten it with
honey.

Balls of Castile soap and turmerick, may also be given for this pnr-
pose, three or four ounces a day, and will in most cases succeed in ef-
fecting a cure-

Bj-^ these means, the disorder generally abates in a week, which
may be seen in the alteration of the horse's eyes and mouth; but the
medicines must he contin-ied till the yellowness is removed. Should
the disorder prove obstinate you must try more potent medicines, viz :
Mercurial physic, repeated two or three Umesat proper intervals, and
then the following balls : Take salt of tartar two oimces ; cinnabar
of antimony, four ounces; live millepedes and filings of steel, of each,
four ounces; Castile soap, half a jiound ; make these into balls of the
size of hen's eggs, and give one of them night and morning with a pint
of the above drink. On the re«wvery of the horse give him two m
three mild [uirges, and if he be full aiid fat put in a rowcl.

4Q

ii4

FAKMEK'S ASSISTANT*

CONCLUSIOX

To conclude lliis work, a tlescriplioii is privt- u ol' a very s;nall larii!
billable lor any one who wishes to lariii only on a &ina!l scale. Such
a farm may suit the man of small fortune who wishes lo live in an
ecouonncal manner. The culture of such, or something similar, may
aUo aO'ord amusemeut to the man of taste.

Take, for instance, a pice of ground of 15 acres, bounded on some
highnay in front, autl let it be, say, 00 rods ou the highway, and es •
leudixig back 40 rods, and cut into divisions as follows : —

2

12

3

n

iO

i i

1 9

1

<) 1 7 •

1

O

'

The two small divisions whicli ire not numhered, are intended for
the house, &c. and for the barn, «S.c. The two short narrow strips are
for lanes, and the long one is merely a cartway across the ends of tht
btripb 8, 0, 10, <fcc.

1. Orchard ; — say, one acre.

2. Ground for raising Lombardy poplars and locust-trees for fire-

wood ; — say, two and a half acres.

3. G round lor cultivating grasses for soiling, and for other purposes :

say, two and a half acres.
A and 5. Two hog pastures; the one cultivated with potatoes or
carrots, &c. while the other is in clover lor feeding the swine;
Bay, one acre. The hogsty is to be set on the corner between
the two euciosures. See article IIogbtv.

F AR:\IER'S assistant. 31;^

6. Currant, ami of her fruit garden ; — say, half an acre.

7. Kitchen garden ; — sajr, one fourth of an acre.

8. 9, 10, Arc. Divisions of a field, of say, six acres; the 6ve divi-

sions, or strips, are to be cultivated with a rotation of crops,

similar to the method described under article Soiling, &;c. ;

beginning with potatoes, then Indian-corn, then wheat, then

clover two years, and then potatoes again.
This farm is to keep three or four cows and one good strong horse
only. The labor of one such horse, well kept, is sulficient for such a
farm, and for other family uses. To keep two horses will create an
additional expense of about 40 dollars a year. A one horse cart will
be wanted for the farm, and a one horse carriage lor the family. The
horse and the cows are all to be kept on the soiling plan, before de-
scribed ; and about ten or twelve sheep may be kept in the orchard,
and in the woodland (marked 2,) adjoining.

'J'he potatoes and other roots which may be raised from this farm,
Trill serve to keep the hor?e and the cows well, and will also neatly
complete the fatting of hogs. The surplus of the Indian-corn, after
Jeserving what is necessary for the family, will complete the fatting.
About eight good hogs may be raised and fatted every year. Sec ar-
ticle SwiXE.

A plentiful supply of bees may be constantly kept, w hich will be
found very prmluctive. (See article Bees.) A small poultry yard
for ducks and geese, S:c. may also be kept and the fowls fed on boiled
j>otatoes, <tc. (See article Poiltry.) The orchard, if of the best
grafted fruit, will give at least 60 barrel^, of cider, yearly, after the
trees have acquired a good size, and this liquor caa also be converted
to an excellent account, with the addition of the honey of the bee?.
See the manner of making Pomona whu, under article Wine. The
oows will afford milk enough to make three or four firkins of butler,
beside what is wanted for the family. {See article Butter.) The
■woodland Avill afford sufficient fuel, if well cultivated with thick
growths of Lombardy poplars and locust, provided the house l>e warm-
pd and the cooking business, Arc. he performed in the most economical
manner. 'See article Wabming Rooms.) In the enclosure marked
3< a sufficiency of Lucerne, cichory, tali oat-grass, or other good grass
lor soiling may be constantly raised for soiling the cows and horse:
-while some part of the ground may be in turn^ employed in the culture
of roots, «5cr. From the fire divisions of the field may be expected.

316 FARMER^S ASSISTANT.

with the best cultivation, and highest manuring, al>out the iollowing
amount of Oifferent products, viz : 400 bushels potatoes, 80 bushels
Indian-corn, 30 bushels wheat, and 8 tons of ha}'. About one half
of the |)ork ratte<l every year may be sold. The sheep are to be pas-
tured in the woodland lot and in the orchard. With the growth of
the locust, particularly, will always be fouod alconsiderdble growth o?
grass. They may occasionally be soiled a little when requisite.

In addition to the ground cultivated for fuel, it would be well to
have another wood lot of say, five acres, near the farm, in which,
amongst other trees, some that are good for timber should be raised.

Here, then, is a farm of twenty acres altogether, which, if of a good
cultivable soil, and cultivated in the most complete manner, and
agreeably to the directions contained in the different articles above
referred to, will be found amply sufficient to support a common family,
living in a prudent economical manner; and at the same time th«
cultivation of it is calcula^ted to afford pleasure sls well as profit, wliile
the hut too common method of bestov.iag poor slovenly culture on a
large farm is only productive of the reverse. .

The foregoing is merely exhibited as a sprcirr^n of wh.it may be
done on a small scale. The farm, though small, may he still smaller,
and tilled with the same advantage ; or it may he larger, and the ar-
rangement of it may be different, and yet equally advantageous. At
all events, its arrangement and divisions should be suitable to the
ground which is selected for the purpose.

I'HE END.

APPENDIX

THE matter which is arranged under the three foHowiii'r article*^
was intended as additions to those articles in the bod} of this work,
but were received to late for insertion. The next following article
is intended to correct any mistake which might happen by the (all
oat-grass being called by different names. And the article wecf/wr
was intended as a substitute for that which appears in tlie Iwdy of this
work ; but as it also came too late for insertion, it is added by way of
appendix, omitting those parts which are similar to the two last para-
graphs of the same article in the m ork.

CUTTINGS. It has always been said that neither cuttings, siipt,
or scions should be taken from the sprouts of trees. Forsyth parfit-u-
larly insists on this, alledging that sprouts never become good bearers.
Sprouts certainly bear no fruit while they are mere thrifty upri^-ht
shoots ; but it if believed that when they have obtained considerable
size, and shoot out their lateral branches, these will become as good
bearers as any other branches of the tree. For currants in particular
some Avho have tried cuttings of the sprouts for setting, assure me
that they prefer them to the branches; as thej' grow straiffht and
thriftjs and when they have thrown out their lateral branches, bear
exceedingly well.

It has been said, that a cutting, elip, or scion when planted, or o-raft-
ed, will live no longer than the parent stock, if that dies a natural
death. Mention is made in (lie letters of Espreilla, of a very famous
pear-tree at Teignton, in Great-Britain, which, on account of the ex-
cellence of its fruit for making /Jfrr^/, was called the Teignton sqitashj
— that all the neighbouring farmers grafted from this free ; and, that
when it was found in the last stage of decay, all the grafts which had
been taken from it were found in the same condition.

Perhaps it will be found, that cuttings, slips, or scions, will die
when the parent stock dies of natural decay ; but that the same rule
will not hold in regard to suckers, as these appear to be somewhat of
a different kind of growth, and more in the nature of a young tree
They seem to grow with more health and Tiger than the late.''al
branches.

3J8 APPENDIX.

ORCHARD. It has been genrrally undcrsiootl, lliat a peach-
orchard of the l)est selected Iriiil can only l)e had \ty iuuculatiiig the
ywunj orrowing trees with the hejt kinds of frnit ; that the stoues do
not [)roduce tiie ^ame^kinds. Some, however, say, that U the stoiieg
be hurled immediately, without drying, they will produce the same
kin<l.

I; is observed in tlie letters of Espreilla, that in sonje of the best
eider counties of Great-Britain they do not graft their apple-trees at
present : but, for rear'.nc younj: trees they take the lanrest seeds which
are luund in the south aiiie of the Largest apples, ami those of the best
selections '^^ fruit; and that from these tliey raise either H[)ple-trees of
the same kind, or others which are found nearly or quite m good. It
"U'ould be well to make some ex|)eriments to test the efiRcacy of this
practice. Probably it will also be found best to plant the seeds as
«oon as ihey have been taken from the apple and belore they have
Oricd.

PERRY. In the letters 6t Espreilla, which have been before men-
Itoned in this a[)pendix, mention is made that the pcrr}^ made from a
famous pear-tree at Teijjriton, in En;i;lan(l, the fruit of which was
called the Tci<cnton squash, had frequently been sold in London for
Champaignc. Farmers in this country should pay more attention to
the selection and culture of such pear-lrees as bear plentifidly, and
yearly, of the best kind of fruit. Scr articles Orchard, PK.AR-TaEr,,
and Perry, in the body ol this work.

TALL MEADOW OA'J'S. 'I'his is the ar/?;m cZa//or mentioned
under article Grasses. It is cultivated consi(ieral)!y in Pennsvlva-
nia^ and is hislily esteemed there lor soiling or for hay. It is some-
iimes called tall oat-s:rass, as in article Grasses in the body of this
work, sometimes tail meadow oais, Mnd sometimes orchard s[r ass.

WEATHER. It is very esse ntial to the farmer to have a forecast
of the weather; not only in re jrard to summers, whether th«-y will be
generally wet or dry, warm or cool ; but also what are the every day
indications of \. h^t the following; «lays are to be. A knowlege of this
kind enables the farmer to carry on his business to much more ad-
vantage; not only as it regards the products to be raised during a
■ummer, but also as it respects the con<bitting his labors from «Iay (o
day. If he can pretty correctly foretell, that a summer is to be un-
commonly dry, and of course his crops of grass small, this may indi-
cate the necessity of bis lessening his stock of cattle; or if the seasoa
is to he uncommou'y productive of grass, of incre;ising his stock.
The knowlege of what the coming season is to be, will also enable
him better to adapt his culture to it; and the knowlege of the ap-
proaching weather, from day to day, will indicate the necessity of
driving his business to the utmost at times, and at others again, of de-
sisting from his labors.

The indications of the seasons are scarcely to be learned in the life
of man ; even the careful observations of centuries are perhaps requi-
site to attaining a toleraldy accurate knowlege of them ; nor is it
fD be expected, that knowlege thas acquired for one country wouW

APPENDIX. 319

answer for another ; different countries exhibit ditfereut signs, and
thtse musi be learned on the s|)ot and not gleaned from the observa-
tions ol others in «lillerent |»arta of the world.

The Royal Socitly in Great- Britain have lor more than a century
past been making careful daily observations olthe state ol the atmosr
phere, and ol all signs relating lo the weather, by which it is found,
that uncommon sea ons, whether wet or dry, hot or cold, have always
been preceded by certain signs or circumsrances; hence a tolerably
accurate knowledge is derived of what the coming season is to be, by
the recurrtiice of the signs which are found to precede it. Kothiug
of the kind has however been attempted in this country, and the ck-
periijitutal knowlegt ol the British, thus derived, would probably be
found no knowledge Ibrus. Indeed, in a territory so widely extended
as ours, the seasous may be ditierant in different parts; hence the
knowledge we might derive in this way would be very imperfect, un-
less it were founded on the result of similar observations made in dit-
ferent districts of the country.

In regard to some of the signs of approaching wet or dry weather,
they will be found to vary in different places. This may, however,
be generally o!. served, that l.t^iore the approach of wet weather and
(hiring ils continuance, the air is loaded with moisture, and until thi5
has been discharged in rain, or c uried off by the wini's, a return of
perman<nl dry weatlier is not to ie looked ibr. 'i'iie i)resence ot a
moist, or ot a dry air, is ensily to iie known by the clouds : VV hen llie
smallest of these increase in size as they are wafted along, then the
air is surcharged with mv>isture, and, generally, rain may be soon ex-
pected : Oil the contrary, when tht cloiicls are ^eeu gradually lessen-
ing as they pass along, and the small ones disappearing, this is an in-
dication of a dry air, and tht breruimer of a dry s[)e!! of weather. ,
The extremis, indeed, of a ury or of a nvoist almosj)here, are to be
known by the extremes of th.ese cases : M here the clouds increase or
decrease very mpitily, the 'orniei indicates extreme mois.ure, and
the latter extreme dryness in the air; and generally speaking, the
greater these extremes, the mort certainly may the usnai resnlta oi"
"wet or of dry wedtber be e\!>ected to follow.

BuL there is nothing cert;in in tlies<^ things. TJie chemical opera^
lion? of the atmosphere ire olten ex renitly sudden; cool ami warm
cunt nts of air rneetiiig and mingling together, are often quickly
ch:uiged into mist or clouds and |)roduce a storm; and sometin.es
clouds are as su(i<lenly dissipated, and resolved into "thin air aaain."

( hemists have ascertained that air is mere ly water in an exireme
rarifed state, by the operation of caloric or licat. Heat seems (o be
the sotd of Nature— Perhajis something of the essence of Dkity Him-
sell", 4liffusing his presence ihrough bis stujiendous works. Certain it
is, there could be no life or existence, no visible creation without the
presence of beat. This enlivening principle, diffused through the
Avaters of the deep has |)r(»duced the air or aftnos|)here in which we
hre;*tlie; this air at the same time contains water in solution, which
we call moisture ; and this again is susceptible of being chanaed into

320 APPE.NDIX.

miet or clouds; which, in due season, are either dissipated or convert-
ed again into water. Such seems to be the siii;[)Iicity of thrse mighly
opeiations ol xSalure. We have, houerer, but luinl conceptions how
these wonders are performed: au»l therein we have ueverthelets the
pre-eminence over the lower orders of creation; but they in turn,
»eeni to enjoy a capacity superior loours in being able to loreseewhen
the storms or fair weather are at hand.

Thus, the common tield spider seems to possess, intuitively, a
knowledge of what the coming weather is to be; lor this knowledge
seems necessary to his existence : an»l P'ovidence has kindly given
nil his creatures to know as much as their condition requires. When,
therefore, this insect is inactive and is not seen engaged in repairing
the damages done by the rains to his works, more rains may shortly
be expected ; but when you discover him busy in repairing what the
rains have injured, and in extending his lines in various direclions, it
is found an infallible sign that a dry spell of weather is ap|(roaching.

Other animals again, are, perhaps, not so fully gifted with this pre-
science, but have still a sutficiency to be enabled to be pre[iared for
the changes of the weather, {^ee the two las' |)aragraphs ol article
Weather, in the body of this work, for the signs of fair and foul wea-
ther, as indicated by beasts, birds an<l insects.)

Barometrical observations are useful in ascertaining the coming
weather. "In general it may be exi)ected that when the merciirj
rises high, a few days of fair weather will foIk)w; if it falls, rain may
be expected."

Tlie flight of birds of passage to the north pretty certainly indicate
the a{)proach of sjiring, and their return, that of winter.

In some places certain winds generally terminate in rain or snow.
Such is the case with a north ea.st wind on the Atlantic coast; and,
what seems singular, the progress of the storm is in the opposite di-
rection to the wind. This fact was ascertained some years since, by
noting the time, at different places along the coast, w lien a northeast
storm commf'nced ; the result of which was, that it was found to have
commenced af)Out twelve hours sooner at Charlesfown than at Bostota;
and that its jirogress against the wind was at the rate oi" al)OUt sixtj-
miles an hour. This is, however, in conformity with a sign of the
■weather, which but seldom fails; tliat is, when the wind is from one
quarter, and you perceive the skies thickening and becoming gradu-
ally overcast in the ojjposite direction, then a storm is at hand, and
the sky in ihe quarter from whence the wind comes will be overcast
tlie last.

The weather isgenerally unsettled about the times of the equinoxes,
and high winds and storms are then to be expected.

" Falling weather oftener happens about the full and diange of the
moon than at other times, especially if she be near her perigee at the
time of these changes;" as the attraction of vapofs or moisture from '
the earth is then the greatest.

When the skj- is red before the sun rises, it is generally an indica-
tion of rain : bat redness after its setting is a sign of fair weather the

APPENDIX. 321

next day. The setting of the sun behind a black watery cloud be-
tokens rain at hand; and the same may be observed when the ^uq
wades, as it is called, when going down.

"The falling of heavy dews b a sign of (he continiif.iice of fair
weather.

When the sun appears very broad and dim, either at risincror set-
ting, this IS a sign that the atmosphere contains much moisture, which
may soon be expected to condense and fall. On the contrarv, when
that body appears small, brilliant and dazzlinsr. this is an indication of
a dry state of the air. It is also said, that when boilins water evapo-
rates most copiously, this is an indication of approachinc^ rain

A rainbow in the west, and thunder in the nrt)rning, are both pretty
certain indications of stormy weather at hand.

A halo or circle round the sun or moon, is also a pretty certain in-
dication of laliing weather; and the same may be observed when the
stars look dim and appear surrounded with au obtuse Ijtrht

Othor signs might be mentioned, but perhaps, most ot them would
De tound local, applying more to certain places than po^eesinc^ any
general characteristicp. ' °

41

INDEX.

A.

INTRODUCTION,

Page 3

Ash,

Page n

Air,

9

Ashes,

ib.

Apples,

10

Asparagus,

ib.

Apple-Tree»

ib.

Ass.

J2

Apricot,

n

B.

Barley,

Barn,

Barn-Yard,

Bean,

Beer,

Bees,

Beet,

12

Eog-Meado\f8»

21

14

Bot-Worms,

22

15

Buck- Wheat,

ib.

ik

Bull,

ib.

16

Burn-Baking,

ib.

17

Burnt-Clay,

23

20

Butter,

24

c.

Cabbage,

25

Calves,

26

Canker,

ib.

Canker-Worm,

ib.

Carriages,

ib.

Carrot,

28

Caterpillars,

30

Cattle,

ib.

Change of Cropsi

ib.

Change of Soeds,

32

Cheese,

33

<M)urn,

-14

Cider,

ib.

Clay,

3S

Clearing of Lands,

ib.

Climate,

89

Clover,

ib.

Composts,

41

Cows,

ib.

Crab-Apple-Trec,

41

Cream,

ib.

Cucumber,

43

Curr. nt,

ib.

Cuttinge,

45

3:24

INDEX,

D.

Dairy, Page 46

Dew, 47

Ditch, if>.

Divisious of a Farm, ib.

Dressing?, P<%(: 48

Drill, ib.

Drought, ib..

Dun'r, Dunghills, Arc, 40

E.

Earths,

Elder,

Elm,

50
52
ib.

Encloeureg,
Experiments.

52
ib.

F.

Fallowing of Land,

53

Foals, 01- Coalts,

til

False Quarter,

54

Fodder and Foddering,

ib.

Farcy,

55

Folding of Land,

63

Farmers,

ib.

Food of Plants,

C4

Fences,

50

Forest,

65

Fermentation,

57

Foundering of Horses,

67

Fern, or Brakes,

58

Freezing,

68

Flax,

ib.

Fruit-Trees,

ib.

Flooding of Lands*

60

Fuller's Thistle,

72

G.

Gardens,

73

Grain-House, or Granary,

7/

iJarget,

74

Grasses,

78

Germination of Plant?,

ih.

Gravel,

90

Gigs,

ib.

Green- Dressing,

ih.

Glanders,

75

Greens,

9)

Goats,

ib.

Green-Scouring,

ib.

Goose,

ib.

Gripes,

ib.

Gooseberry,

ib.

G roves,

ib.

Grafting,

76

Gypsum,

.02

H.

Harrows and Harrowing,

93

Herd's-Grass,

101

Harvesting,

94

Hessian-Fly,

ib.

Hay- Making,

ib.

Hide Bound,

ib.

Hedges,

96

Hills .md Valleys,

102

Hemp,

n

Uoe and Hoeing.

ib.

INDEX.

325

Hogsty,

Page 102

Horn Distemper,

Page 107

Ho&s,

103

Horse,

ib.

Hollow Drains,

ib.

Horse-Hoe,

no

Hop,

105

I.

[mprovement of Land,

111

Inoculating, of Budding,

119

Inarching,

114

Insects,

120

Indiao Coro,

115

J.

Jaundice,

125 1

Jerusalem Artichoke,

125

K.

Killing of Beasts,

128 1

Lampas,
Layers,
Lice,
Limestone,

126
ib.

127
ib.

Loam,
Locust,

Lombardy Poplar,
Lucerne,

328
ib.
ib.

12a

M.

Mangel Wurzel,
Root,

or Scarcily

129

Methegliu,
Mildew,

141
ib.

Manures,

ib.

Millet,

142

Maple,
Mares,
Marie,

139

ib.

140

Mowing,
Mowing Ground,
Mud,

143
144

ib:

Me-idows,
Melon,

ib.
141

Mulberry,
Mustard,

ib.

ib.

w.

Neat Cattle, 145 j baadry,

New Horee-HoeiDg Hus- j Nuraery,

16a

37!

526

INDEX.

O.

Oak,

Page 172

Onion, Page 174

Oats,

173

Orchard, 1 76

Olive,

174

Overflowing of the Gall, 178

P.

Painting of Buildings,

179

Plough and Ploughing,

185

Parsnip,

ib.

Plum- Trees,

187

Pasture,

180

Poll-Evil,

18»

Pasture of Plants,

182

Ponds,

ib.

Peach-Tree,

ib.

Popi>y,

ib.

Pear- Tree,

184

Potatoe,

180

Pea,

ib.

Poultry,

198

Perry,

185

Pyrites,

195

Q.

Quiuce-Tree,

196

R.

Radish,

106

Rye,

19b

Ked-Top,

197

Rabbits.

201

rtoller and Rolling,

ib.

Rats,

292

Roots,

ib.

Reed,

ib.

Rotation,

198

Ridgling,

203

Ruunet, or Rennet.

ib.

&.

Salt,

204

Soiling of Cattle,

232

Salts.

ib.

Soot,

238

Salting of Meat.

•205

Sowing,

•239

Sand,

206

Spavin,

240

Saf,

ib.

Spaying,

241

S<rratche?,

ib.

Spelt,

ib.

Sea- Water,

ib.

Spiky Roller,

ib.

Seedy,

.:08

Spinage,

ib.

Sheep,

ib.

Sprouts,

ib.

Silk-WorniF

226

Spur,

242

Slips,

380

Stable and Stalls,

ib.

Smut,

231

Staggers,

243

Snow

"2.32

Stale,

ib.

INDEX.

327

stock.

Stones,

Stocking or Shocking,

Strain or Sprain,

Strawberry,

Stubble,

Tail-Sickness,

Tall Oat Grass,

Tall Meadow Oats,

Teams,

Thistle,

Thorn,

Threshing,

Tillage,

Timber,

Timothy-Grass,

Page 243
243
246
ib.
247
248

Clears,

Vegetable Oyster,

Ventilator,

Verjuice,

Sunflower,

Surfeit,

Sward,

Swarth-Rake,

Swine,

Sycamore,

T.

259 Tobacco,
ib. Top- Dressings,
ib Transplanting,
ib. 1 Trefoil,

263 Trench-Ploughing,
ib. 'i'uvjiors,

ib. Turf and Peat,

264 Turnip,

266 I Turnip-Cabbage,
ib. f

275 1 Urine,

Page 248

ib.

250

251

ib,

25?

266
267
20S

ib.

ib.
260
270
2T1

V.

277
ib.
ib.

Vetch,

Vine and Vineyard,

Vives,

2'^

27?
27S
284

w.

Waggon,

Walls,

Walnut-Trees,

Warming Rooms,

Water,

Weather,

Weeds,

Weevil,

Well,

Wheat,

Te«»t

28 &
ib.

"Wheezing,

White Weed,

286

Willow,

287
289
292

Windgalls,

Wind-Machinery

Wine,

£93

Wolves,

296

Wood-House,

U.

Worms,

ib.

Wounds,

Y.

G12

Yellows,

301

ib,

ib.

302

303

304

309

310

ib.

ib.

313

KRRATA.

Page 12, 9tli line from top, for " caiiW' read neat-caUU. — Page 50, 12th Ude from top.
far " has already bten,'' read s/udl htreafUr bt further.— Pa.ze 85, 4th liop from top, for
"grtmrul," read gran — aivi in the same page, 13th line from top lor " Htdy Sarxun,''
read Hedisarum.—P^ge 101, 9th line from bottom, for " Tifrr husbandry.^' re aA so.Unsnf
eatUe.—Pa^e 157, 3d line from top, for " jarr," read rorr.— Page 185. next line f^ bottom,
for '• nAo/€," read nA^e/.— Page 209, 6th line from top, for " mon^u musmou." read
tnmfloTt musmon. — Page 219, last line at bottom, for " cattle,'^ read neat cattle — Page
241. 8tli line from top, for " cons,''' read sans. — Page 283, I'rst line on top, for " ivarm,''
read cold, and strike out the word?, " ffnd a&orc."— Page 291, lltb line from top, striit.
«»Bttlieword"^ft."

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

A.

Asa Aldrich,
James M'Alpen,
Eli Angevine,
Abraham Adriance,
David S. Arnold,
Isaac R. Adriance,
William Allen,
Isaac I. Adriance,
Alanson Austin,
Elii>halet Ackerman,
Casper Ackerman,
David R. Arnold,
Christopher Abeel,
Moses Armstrong,
William M'AuIey.

B.

D. H. Birtch,
Weston Brockway,
John I. Barton,
Enoch Benedict,
Hosea Beebe,
Dr. Thomas Broadhead,
Peter Van Benthuysen,
Peter Brown,
John Z. Bartlett,
Leonard Barton,
Samuel Boyd,
Joel Benton,
Moor Bird,
Thomas Bartow,
Joseph Baldwin,
John Beadle,
David Brown,
Joshua Barnes,
Jonathan Bloom,
Tunis Brinkerhoff,
Derick A. BriQcl(;erhoo£r,

42

William Broom,

Nehemiah Brown,

William Burling,

John Bonnett,

B. I. Bartow,

Robert Brown,

Charles Brown,

Jacob Ten Broeck,

John Babcock, Jua.

Charles Baker,

Seth C. Baldwin,

Isaac Barber,

James Barkley,

Albertus Becker,

Peter Becker,

Storm A. Becker,

John Becker,

John P. Bellinger,

AVilliam Bedell,

Samuel Bennet,

Benjamin Belknap,

Hermanus Bouck,

Joseph Bouck,

Richard C. Broadhead,

Rufus Briggs,

James Brisbin, Jun.

Salmon Britain,

Cornelius Bruyn,

Joshua Boyd,

Thos. L. & John I. Brooke,

Daniel Bull,

Matthew Bullock,

John Burhans,

David Burhans,

H. Burhans, Juo.

Andrew Brown,

Jesse W. Baf!ett,

George Brownell,

Samuel Bowen,

T. Romeyn Beck,

332

SITBSCRIBER'S NAMES.

Ebenerer Haieht,
Ste|)hea Hitchcock,
Thomas Hitchcock,
George W. Healy^
Luther Holley,
Keuhen Hanlia,
Philip Hart,
Benry Hall,
Jonathan Haieht,
Jamee G. Hu^ted,
Isaac HuDtiog,
John C. Havens,
Martin Heermance,
Enoch C. Ham,
Zachariah HofTman,
Peter Hysen,
"Warren Hurlbut,
Kathan Halsey,
I- Hoag,
iiewis Hemck,
J. T. Haight.
Joseph Horsfield,
Andrew Hogenbach,
A. Hammond,
Stephen Hainee,
Thaddeii3 Hait,
Enoch Haskins,
John Haswell,
Cornelius B. Hasbrouck,
Nathaniel P. Hill,
Elisha Hoag,
James Hardenburgh,
Hahner Houghtaling,
Conradt I. Houghtaling,
Thomas C. Houghtaling,
Barent Heughtaliog,
Thomas Holiday,
Ebenezer Hurd,
E. C. Hichcox,
"William Hotcbkiss,
"Warren Hecox,
Joseph I. Houston,

I.

Hector M'lntosh,
Jo^f^'ih I VPS,
Archibald M'Intyre,

George Ingraham,
Thomas Ingraham,

J.

Daniel St. John,
Daniel Johnston,
Samuel Jarvis,
Samuel Jarvis, Junior,
Joseph S. Jackson,
R, James,
Thomas H. Jansen,
Charles Jay,
Samuel Jackson,
Thomas Jervice,
Elishamer Jones,
Thomas Jones,
Milliam Jones,
Michael A. Jones,
William Judson,
Gideon Johnson.
Daniel Jessup,
Richard Jennings, JuD.
Jesse Jayne,
Thos. Jackson,

K.

Saranel Koon,
John Kline,
Abraham Knapp,
Amos Knapp,
Roswell Kinnell,
Isaac A. Kneads,
James Kennedy,
Francis C. Kampmau,
Newcomb Knapp,
Aaron Kellogg,
Herman Khnichbocker,
E|>enetus Ketchum,
Benjamin Van BeureOa
William M'KowD,
Andrew King,
Philip Knapp.

L.

Walter I. Livingston,
H. Livingston,
Peter Laince,

SUBSCRIBER'S NAMES.

333

Edward P. Livingston,
Robert L. Livingston,
Peter Lewis,
James D. Livingston,
Henry B. Livingston,
Francis Livingston,
Jacob Lorillaril,
Robert S. Livingston,
Henry Lyle,
Edward Per Lee,
Martin Lawrence,
Ashbel Landon,
Eber Leet,
Wright Lattin,
Henry Liviugston,
Henry A. Livingston,
William Lattimorei
Daniel Levan,
Ezra Lester,
Gerrit Lansing,
Joseph Lamb,
Isaac Lacy,
Ziiia Lay,
Daniel Lawrence,
William & Samuel Legg,
Cornelius Legg,
Josepn Levens,
R. 3L Livingston,
Nicholas Libolt,
Peter R. Ludlow,
John V. W. Luke,
John Lydle,

M.

John J. Miller,
Deter Merrick,
Bernard Mathewson,
Matthias B. Miller,
Abraham Merritt, Jun.
Pardon Mason,
Daniel Mason,
Preston Mygatt,
Joseph Mead,
Edward Merritt,
Oliver Matthews,
John Maynard,
Gov'. Morris,
Thomas H. Mercy,

Nicholas De Myer,
Arthur E. Mulpollon,
William P. Morrison,
Peter W. Man,
Peter Man,
Robert jMartin,
James Martin,
Samuel Marvin,
Josiah Masters,
Job G. Masher,
Bethuel Mather,
Henry L. Meed,
Joseph Merritt,
Daniel Miller,
Johannes Miller,
Simon Miller,
John L Moak,
Hezekiah Moffett,
Hiel Morris,
Ebenezer Munger,
James Murphy,
Barent MyudersoD,
lo. Miller,

N. ■

fJacob Van Ness,
William Northup,
Henrj^ Nye,
John Newcorab,
Robert New by,
Robert Newlin,
Nicholas Neligh,
Henry Newkirk,

Henry Overing,
John Osborn,
Peter R. Osteroo,
James Odell,
James Oliver,
J. Van Orden,
Peter Overbagh,

P.

Peleg Peckham,
John P. Philips,

334

SUBSCRIBER'S NAMES.

Philip Pitcher,
Abiah Palmer,
Elijah B. Park,
tsath. Pendleton,
Samuel Plumb,
A. h. Prevost,
Daniel Pelion,
Henry S. Peufield,
William 1. Prevost,
Samuel Pine,
Kehemiah Purdy,
William Popham,
Beojamiu Price,
Peter Power,
Abijah Palmer,
Stephen Palmer,
Patrick Parkes,
Stephen Parsons, Jan.
Abraham W. Payne,
Joshua L. Pinny,
John Phimer,
Ezra Preston,
John Preston,
Thomas Powell,
Geo. Philips,

R.

Timothy Rogers,
James Rowley,
Simon Rockfeller,
George Rhoads,
H.W. Rockfeller,
Henry Rockfeller,
Frederick Rockfeller,
Peter A. Ring,
John G. Ring,
Elijah Reed,
John Rouse,
Abraham R. Rapalye,
John C. RadcliCr,
Isaac F. Roe,
Isaac Russell,
Robert Ross,
Darid Rogers,
I. RalstoB,
Owen Dice,
Philetu? Reyuolde,
Henry Van Rensselaer,
Justus Rathbone,
Abraham Randall;

William Ray,

Eliakim Reed,

Roswell heed,

Seth Reeves,

Stephen Van Rensselaer,

Solomon Van Ren;selaer,

Comtlius Van Rensselaer,

P. S. Van Rensselaer,

Schuyler Van Rensselaer,

James Van Rensselaer.

George Richmond,

Aldert Hooea,

A. Rogers,

William Ross,

Thomas Rushmore,

Reuben Rundell,

K. K. Van Rensselaer,

Peter Van Rensaelaer,

Saundf^rs Van Rensselaer,

Nathauiel Roe,

s.

Seymour Smith,
Peter Sharp,
Nicholas Shultz,
Jacob Shultz,
Henry Shop,
Horatio G. Spafiford,
Philip P. Schuyler,
James Stewart,
Willinm Stevenson,
Caleb Sands,
Lemuel Session,
Isaac Smith,
Wareham Shelden,
James R. Smith,
INIartin Strong,
Hon. John Cotton Smith.
Cyrus Swan,
Storges San«lford,
Thomas Swift,
Seth Swift,
Samuel Stevens,
Henry Swift,
James Sleght,
William Sowle,
Abraham Sl'trht,
William Seward,
Thomas G. Storm,

SUBSCRIBER'S NAMES.

335

Eben€zer Sherman,
Andrew Stockholm,
Clark 8an(itord,
Jacob Summers,
Ei>hraim'Smith,
David Sutherland,
G. W. Van Schaick,
Anthony Van Schaick,
John Van Schaick,
Jacob I. Schermerhorn,
Tjerck Schoonmaker,
Phillip Schuyler,
Benjamin Sears,
Gabriel Seely,
William Seymour,
William Sherer,
William N. Sill,
John D. Shafer,
David Skinner,
Abraham Shear,
Storm Slingerland,
Thomas Smith,
Moses Smith,
Stoddard Smith,
Samuel Smith,
Isaac Smith,
John Smith,
Isaiah Smith, Jun.
Benjamin Smith,
Anna Smith,
Juliet Smith,
Henry Seely,
Peter Snyder,
Peter Spawn,
Frederick Spawn,
William S. Springsteed,
Spencer Stafford,
Asa Starkweather,
Archibald Stephens,
Samuel Strong,
Dut}^ Sayles,
Ethan vSweet,
John Swartwout,
William Stevenson,
Joseph Stewart,
Nathl. Sands,
Samuel Sands Seymour,
Samuel S. Seward,
Joseph Sharp,

Walter B. Strong,
Thomas SproulU

T.

William Thomas,
Thomas Tillotson,
Dyer Throop,
John Turner,
Joseph Thompson,
Egbert Thom{)Son,
Stephen Thorn,
Alfred Tardway,
William A. i'ayior,
Joseph Thorn,
William Thorn, Junior,
I^icholas Thorn,
Samuel Thorn,
Daniel Townsend,
Isaac Teller,
Richard Teller,
Thomas Thomas,
Enoch Tompkins,
Allen Thompson,
Henry Townsend,
William Van Tuyle,
Robert Taylor,
Willet Titus,
Otto William Van Tuyle,
John «fe Ziba Taylor,
Daniel D. Tompkins, 2
Phinehas Tompkins,
William Thomi»son.

y.

Moses Vail,
Solomon Vail,
John B. Vanfradenburgb,
George D. Vail,
Gideon Van Valen,
Henry Vanderburgh,
Gabriel Vanderburgh,
Daniel C. Verplank,
William Vankirk,
S. Visscher,
Simon Viele,
Stephen Valentine,
Peter Vroman,
Bareut A. Vroman.

336

SUBSCRIBER'S NAMES.

U.

Joshua Underbill,
Bishop Underhill,
Richard Underhill,

w.

Ellhu Williams,
Jacob Wood,
Bacton White,
Jacob G. Van Wyck,
John G. Wilde,
Richard Whitby,
R. r. Van Wyck,
A. WheelerlK)de,
John WooUey,
Robert Woolley,
Amaziah Winchester,
Thomas Wright,
Martin E. Winchell,
Philo M. Wiuchell,
Peter W ootlan,
Silas Wodell,
John Wight man J
Jeptha Wilber,
R. Westerlow,
Daniel Wagener,
Hugh Willson,
Philip Wolf,
John Weaver,
Joseph Wadsnorth,
Thomas Waiue,
Anthony W aine,
Ino. H. Walsh,
John Wands,
James Wanda,
Robert Wande,

Ichabod Wilber,
G. P. Van Wie,
Thomas Wit beck,
Gerrit U eodell,
Tjerck De Witt,
Absalom Weller,
Daniel Wilson,
James W. Wilkin,
Henry G. Wisner,
G. D. Wickham,
William Williamson,
Jesse Wood,
Fletcher Woodhull,
I. C. Van Wyck,
Frederick Word,
Elijah Welch,
NalM. H. White,
James Wood,
Richard Welling,
B. Woodward,
D. M. Westeoat,
James Wheeler,
John Wood,
William F. Wheeler,
Geo. Wood.

Y.

John W. Yates,
John V. N. Yates,
Abijah Yelverton,
Abimel Young,
Silas Young.

z.

John Zirmlliger

ADDITIONAL SUBSCRIBERS.

MASSACHUSETTS,
Pittsfield.

Phineas Allen,
David Ashiej,
James B. Brown,
Simeon Brown,
Thomas Burt,
Warriiier Sc Cailender,
Samuel D. Colt,
Richard E. Colt,
William Cadweil,
John Dickinson,
Oliver P. Di,ckinson,
Eldad Francis,
William Francis,
Wells Fowler,
Oren "Goodrich, ^

Thomas Gold,
Thomas Melville,
Joseph Merrick,
Moses >Ierritt, " ^-^-^^^
Oliver Bobbins,
John B. Root,
Oliver Root,
Daniel Stearna,
Joel Stevens,
Jesse Sahin,
Caleb Wadham,
Elkanah Watson.

Lenox.

Ezra Blossom,
Caleb Hyde,
Elijah Northrup,
^^illiam walker.

Stockbridge.

Samuel Andrews,
John Baron,
Isaac Curds,
Danie! Fairchild,
John Hunt,
Thad*. Pomeror.

4.'i

Joab Plirmb,
Sewell Sergeant,
Joseph Woodbridge,
Solomon WiHjan,
SolomoD ^V^hiftlesey,
Seth Wiliian.

JVest Sprins:jiel(I.

David Marley.

Lancsboroug^.

Ebenezer Buck,
James Barker, Jan.
Elijah Easten,
Calvin Hubbell,
Caman & Pettibone,
Henry Shaw,
Samuel Terril, Jun.
Samuel H. Wheeler.

Cheshire^

Daniel Brown,
Wells & Pisk.

AJa?ns.

VVells & Howland,
Jo?iah Q. Robinson,
Henry Willmotb,
Elisha Wells.

Jniliamstorvn

Samuel Kellogg,
Diodatus Noble,
Samuel Porter,
Douglass W. Sloane.

CONNECTICUT.

Great-Barrington
George Beckwitb,
William Stevens.

Sheffiell

Horace Bush,
Consider Morgan.

SUBSCRIBERS' NA:MES.

Canaan,

John Adam.
"Billa Buckley,
William M. Burrall,
RusseJl Hunt.

ComnalL

John A- Sedgwick.

Liichfuld.

Samuel Buel,
Lucius Smith,
Frederick Wolcott

BdhUhem.

Billy Ambler.

JVatertonm.

Parid Buckinjham,
John Buckingham,
Samuel Elton,
Charles Meriman,
Willitim 1, Punder50n,
Garrit Smith,
Wells StoddartL

Walcrhicry.

Joseph BurtoD»
James Scoril,
Zeuas Cook,

Cyrus Clark,

John Kineshury,
William K. Lamson-

Che shirr.

John Beach,
S. A. Foot,
Andrew Hull.
An(trew HdII, Jua
Rufus Hitchcock,
Stephen Ives.

HaAfoTd.

Joseph Pratt, Jun.

VERMONT.

Bcnmnston.

Eaweri & tlul)hell,
Anthony Haswell,
Isaac Ticiieoor.

Shaftshury.

Jesse Blackmer,
Ebenezer Clark,
Samuel Cross,
Russell Loo mis,
Thomas Matteson.

Porvnal.

ZaccheuB fioref.

^^ *.,<■-.•.