ee rte wv fis : a od a Sane are Pea eee ere ree iw ee wm eS EESTI ERA vsY yueerves wt = srw f ‘ ; vet esrrer , | “set oo : - : : 5 ; . " —o7et srs 9 “ eet petty . Seas . : ae 2 NO nih ‘ ipa See en oe ne mere" ert ade “oe wey ; Riias - ae veneers ovyeeve Prreere ee c: te 1% ¥. 4 PRS ay) =) ve Ee: ty ie vs a Eq rr ae ss ee oe send V7, erie ii oer ¢ aS nes or] ae an So wee ¢ N iy - A Z| Dy wae Cod mer BOs A A a ne LAS ety 1 | K _ pean % ae ae we a) 4 ve! C2 . mat eS [ \ c= J ey a alge x a ‘. aha ORC DEK eee nee ae es maces Says raw aoe ae Eee ye Pe eT " ay Se ia et Bi 4 a ror ie et 325 ay k i ei ss LA <7 eo aoe was \ <3 se oA : ON S g LON poe ate ohn Re rg — atl oe cs ‘ J (Original.) The line for 1908 includes all outer part of the infested area very few weevils are to be found. This applies to a belt from 5 to 25 miles wide bordering the line for 1908 on the inside. Tig. 1.—Map showing area infested by the boll weevil in 1908 and during various preceding years. territory in which any infestation has been found. Toward the i 8 Another tangible indication of the manner in which the weevil has affected cotton production is revealed by a comparison of statistics from Louisiana and Texas. From 1899 to 1904 the acreage in Texas and Louisiana increased at about the same proportion, but the crop in Texas decreased at the same time that the crop of Louisiana was increasing. There is an exception to this statement in the years 1900 and 1904, in which the production in Texas did not decrease, but these years were exceptionally unfavorable for the weevil and at the same time very favorable for the general growth of the cotton. In 1907 the yield per acre in Texas (0.24 bale) was the smallest in her history. This followed a winter so mild that more than the usual number of weevils overwintered. Undoubtedly for several years the boll weevil has caused a loss of about 400,000 bales of cotton annually. Although farmers in older regions, in many cases, are increasing their production, there is loss in the newly infested. regions which offsets that gain. A conservative estimate shows that since the weevil has invaded this country it has caused a loss of 2,550,000 bales of cotton, at a value of about $125,000,000. PROSPECTS. Reference has been made to the greater damage inflicted in moist regions and where the shelter for hibernation is best. The records of the Weather Bureau show that the annual precipitation increases very rapidly from the West to the East in the cotton belt. This is especially the case during the early growing season of cotton, namely, April, May, and June. The precipitation in the greater part of the cotton-producing area in Texas is normally about 40 inches. In Louisiana, Mississippi, and the eastern States of the cotton belt it is more than 50 inches, and sometimes exceeds 60 inches. The records that have been kept in Texas show that the damage has always been greatest in wet seasons and that the insect has affected land values most where the general conditions approach those of the eastern part of the cotton belt. Without the assistance that is furnished by cli- matic conditions, especially dry weather during the spring, the farm- ers of Texas would not have been by any means as successful in pro- ducing cotton during the last few years as they have. The system of control outlined in this bulletin increases greatly in effectiveness when assisted by weather conditions. Fortunately in Texas this as- sistance is given under normal conditions. When this assistance is above the normal, as in 1904 and 1906, the crops will be exceedingly large. On the other hand, it is clear that the problem of the control of the boll weevil will be more difficult as the pest continues its invasion 344 9 of the cotton belt. It can not be considered, therefore, that the problem is as yet completely solved. Better means of control must be devised for the region that is becoming invaded, and, if possible, means must be devised that will reduce the enormous loss that is suffered, especially during unfavorable seasons, in Texas. The prin- cipal work of the Bureau of Entomology at this time is in attempting to devise means for this requisite additional control. For the present there is no occasion to lose hope. Though the eastern planter must expect a more serious problem than that which confronted the farmers of Texas, the means of control outlined in this bulletin, especially the destruction of the hordes of weevils about to enter winter quarters, will enable him to continue production, though probably at a reduced profit. The sooner he adapts his plan- tation management to the necessary changes the less the loss will be. WORK UPON WHICH THIS BULLETIN IS BASED. As has been stated, the danger from the boll weevil was appreciated from the beginning by Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology. For about ten years, more or less continuous work on the vulnerable points in its life history and the possibility of control in various ways has been done. At first this was not extensive, although it showed the essential steps necessary in the control of the pest. Later Congress made available large appropriations for the exhaustive investigation of the insect and of means of reducing its damage. Work was begun under the first large appropriation by the establishment of a laboratory at Victoria, Tex., and the beginning of extensive field experiments. It has been the practice from the be- ginning to carry on field experimental work in direct connection with the laboratory investigations. All means of control suggested by the laboratory work have immediately been tested on large field areas. Later the headquarters of the investigation were moved from Vic- toria, Tex., to Dallas, Tex., on account of the continued spread of the insect and the necessity for a central location. The Bureau of Ento- mology has conducted experiments during several seasons on a total of more than 10,000 acres of cotton. This experimental work has been located on well-known plantations throughout the infested territory. The special requirements in different regions have been given particular attention. Almost invariably successful crops have been produced, although special damage, due to local conditions in different regions, has sometimes interfered with the success of the experiments. The present bulletin contains a very condensed report of the results of all this work. The recommendations have all been placed in practical operation under the actual conditions prevailing on different cotton plantations. 65114—Bull. 344092 10 Aside from the work directly relating to the boll weevil, which has been conducted by the Bureau of Entomology, the Bureau of Plant Industry of this Department has carried on investigations in its province. These have dealt with the breeding of cottons to obtain earliness and productiveness and with the extensive demonstration of the efficiency of the system of control devised by the Bureau of Entomology as the result of careful studies in the field and laboratory. In addition to the work done by the Department of Agriculture the States concerned have done their part. Several entomologists have been employed by the State of Texas, namely, F. W. Mally, E. D. Sanderson, A. F. Conradi, and C. E. Sanborn. They have dealt with the boll weevil in connection with the numerous other ento- mological problems of the State and have contributed valuable results that have been made use of in this bulletin. The State of Louisiana has also done very notable work. Prof. H. A. Morgan and, later, Mr. Wilmon Newell, have added considerably to our knowledge of the weevil and the means of controlling it. In many ways their results are incorporated in this bulletin. DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY. The adult boll weevil is about one-fourth of an inch in length, varying from one-eighth to one-third of an inch, with a breadth about one-third of the length. This measurement includes the snout, which is about one-half the length of the body. Variation in size is due to the amount of food the insect has obtained in the larval stage. In- dividuals from bolls are there- fore nearly always larger than those from squares. The color (grayish or brownish) depends upon the time that may have elapsed after transformation into the adult stage. The re- cently emerged individuals are light yellowish in color, but this passes to a gray or nearly black shade in a few weeks’ time. The general appearance of the in- Fic, 2—Cotton boll weevil: a, Beetle, sect will be evident from the ac- from above; b, same, from side. About . ° : ves natural size. (Author's illustra- companylng Ulustrations (fig. 2). Many insects resemble the boll weevil more or less closely. In fact, there are hundreds of species of weevils in this country that may easily be mistaken for the enemy of cotton. Many mistaken reports about the occurrence of weevils far outside of the infested area have been due to mistakes that have arisen on account of this similarity. The only safe way to determine 344 11 whether any insect is the boll weevil is to send it to an entomologist for examination. In the field the most conspicuous indication of the presence of the boll weevil is the flaring (fig. 4) and falling of great numbers of squares. How- ever, unfavorable climatic conditions and careless cultivation frequently cause great shedding. If excessive shedding be noticed and the squares upon being cut open show a white, curved grub (fig. 5) that has fed upon the contents, there is little Gonberthat “the boll weevil. is the “Yar pasa at meee Abe ae insect causing the damage. pe eure aie.) teuthor's alae. The boll weevil passes the winter in the adult stage. In the spring and throughout the fruiting season TF AOA — ITE Sa Fic. 4.—Cotton square showing egg puncture of boll weevil and “ flaring’ of bracts. Natural size. (Author's illustration.) of cotton the eggs are deposited by the female weevils in cavities formed by eating into the fruit of the plant (see fig. 4). An egg 344 bt bo hatches under normal conditions in about 3 days and the grub im- mediately begins to feed. In from 7 to 12 days the larva or grub (fig. 3, at left) passes into its pupal stage (fig. 3, at right), corre- sponding to the cocoon of butterflies and moths. This stage lasts from 3 to 5 days. Then the adult issues and in about 5 days begins the production of another generation. Climatic conditions cause considerable variation in the duration of the stages, but on an aver- age it requires from 2 to 3 weeks for the weevil to develop from the egg to the adult. Males and females are produced in about equal numbers. The males feed upon the squares and bolls without moving until the food begins a | \ to deteriorate. The fe- ny . males refrain from de- positing in squares vis- ited by other females. This apples through- out most of the season, but late in the fall, when all the fruit has become infested, sey- eral eggs may be placed in a single square or boll. As many as 15 larvee have been found ina boll. The squares are greatly preferred as food and as places for depositing eggs. As long as a large supply of squares is present the bolls are ic. 5.—Cotton square showing boll weevil in position. not damaged to any Natural size. (Author's illustration.) serious extent. The bolls, therefore, have a fair chance to develop as long as squares are being formed. Whenever frost or other unfavorable weather causes the plants to cease putting on squares the weevils attack the bolls. A conservative estimate of the possible progeny of a single pair of weevils during a season beginning on June 20 and extending to November 4 is 12,755,100. The cotton boll weevil, as far as known at present, has no food plant other than cotton. This has been determined by planting various plants related to cotton in the vicinity of infested cotton and in cages in which weevils were placed. It has therefore been demon- strated beyond any doubt whatever that the insect is restricted to the 344 13 cotton plant for food. When confined in bottles, the weevil will par- take of various substances, such as apples or bananas; but this is only under the stress of starvation. Under natural conditions they would pay no attention to these substances. The boll weevil is strictly diurnal in its habits. Repeated obserya- tions made in the field at night have shown that it is not active after sundown. Unlike some related insects, it is not attracted to lights. The fact that somewhat similar species do come to lights in great numbers at times has frequently caused unfortunate confusion. An interesting habit of the boll weevil is to feign death; that is, to “ play possum ” or “ sull,” as it is popularly called. When disturbed, the insects generally contract their limbs and drop to the ground. This habit is not equally strong in all individuals. It has been taken into consideration in plans of control, as will be described beyend. The age to which weevils live varies under different conditions. During the winter the longevity is much greater than in the summer. During the summer season the majority of weevils do not live longer than 60 days. During the cooler part of the year many of them live as long as 6 months. The longest-lived weevil on record lived from December 10 to the following October, a period of about eleven months. Undoubtedly such prolonged life is exceptional. HIBERNATION. As has been pointed out, the boll weevil passes the winter in the adult stage. In the fall when frosts occur, immature stages may be found in the squares or bolls. Provided the food supply is sufficient, many of these immature stages continue their development at a very slow rate and adults finally emerge. Thus there may be a somewhat continuous production of adults during the winter. Ordinarily, how- ever, this is not conspicuously the case, since the frosts that destroy the cotton generally kill practically all of the immature stages of the weevil. With the advent of cool weather in the fall the adult boll weevils in cotton fields begin to seek protection against the winter. They fly from the fields in every direction, although their movements are gov- erned partially by the prevailing winds. They may fly into hedges, woods, cornfields, haystacks, farm buildings, or other places. Speci- mens have been found in such situations, and also in considerable numbers in Spanish moss growing from trees some distance above the ground. A number of weevils also obtain hibernating quarters without leaving the cotton fields. These may crawl into cracks in the ground under grass, weeds, and other trash, and into the burrs from which the cotton has been picked. In some cases several thousand weevils per acre have been found hibernating in such situations. Here, however, the mortality is greater than where the protection is 344 14 better. The majority of weevils that hibernate successfully do not pass the winter in the cotton fields. This has been shown by many experimental observations, and is demonstrated every year in the infested territory by the appearance of the first damage in the imme- diate vicinity of weeds and other places where conditions for protec- tion are favorable. During the winter the weevils take no food and remain practically dormant. On especially warm days they may move about to a cer- tain extent. During the very mild winter of 1906-7 hibernating weevils were found moving about more or less throughout the period from November to March. The number of weevils hibernating successfully has been deter- mined very accurately for different conditions. Out of 25,000 weevils 2.82 per cent survived the winter of 1905-6. These weevils were placed in a variety of conditions that must have approached those which weevils must naturally encounter. The winter referred to was practically a normal one as far as temperature and precipitation were concerned. In extensive work during the winter of 1906-7, out of 75,000 weevils 11.5 per cent survived. As in the preceding case, these weevils were placed under diverse conditions in different cages. These conditions ranged from the most favorable to the least favor- able, i. e., from an abundance of protection to practically none. The survival obtained is undoubtedly very close to that occurring under diverse natural conditions of that winter. It must be emphasized that the winter of 1906-7 was abnormally warm. It is undoubtedly true that the rate of survival was much higher than usual. It is supposed that the results of the previous year must approach the average. In other words, less than 3 per cent of the weevils entering hibernation can be expected to survive the winter under average con- ditions. The tremendous importance of still further reducing this percentage must be evident. Emergence from hibernation depends primarily upon temperatures in the spring, although there are other minor factors concerned. Generally, from the first to the middle of March the temperature has become high enough to cause weevils to begin to emerge. Naturally, the individuals under the heaviest protection are affected latest by the temperature. The consequence is, that emergence from hibernat- ing is a prolonged operation. During one season (1906) it extended from the middle of March to the 28th of June; during another (1907) from the middle of February to about the first of July. During each of these periods there was a comparatively short time—about ten days—of rapid emergence, preceded by an initiatory movement and followed by a period during which the number emerging day by day decreased with rapidity. 344 15 HOW NATURE ASSISTS IN DESTROYING THE BOLL WEEVIL. In the preceding paragraph attention was called to the possible production of 12,755,100 offspring in a single season by one pair of weevils. As a matter of fact, nature has provided a number of agen- cles that serve to prevent such excessive multiplication. The most conspicuous of these agencies are heat and insects that prey upon the weevil. Effects of heat—When infested squares fall to the ground they may become so heated that the larvee are killed in a very few minutes. The insect in this stage can not leave the square, as it has no means of locomotion whatever. Where the infested squares are subjected to the unobstructed rays of the sun the mortality is very high. This explains the well-known fact that dry seasons are unfavorable to the weevil, and indicates great difficulty in controlling the insects in regions where the precipitation is heavy. The more rankly the plants grow and the more the ground is shaded, the less effect in weevil con- trol can be expected from heat. Nevertheless, in many cases in Texas the enormous total of 40 per cent of all the immature weevils in cot- ton fields inspected have been found to be destroyed through this agency. It was also found, from examinations in many quarters, that the extent of destruction held a direct relation to the amount of shade. When there was no shade practically all of the larve and pupz were killed outright. Some of the important means of control, to be de- scribed later, are based upon this consideration. Insect parasites.—The second of the important agencies provided by nature for the control of the weevil is a large number of predaceous insect enemies. These consist of a variety of forms which prey upon the boll weevil. Forty-five species of these enemies are known. Of these, 23 are parasites, which by means of their ovipositors place eggs on the immature stages of the weevil within the square or boll. The young of the parasite develops by feeding upon the immature boll weevil, which it ultimately kills. A parasite instead of a boll weevil emerges from the injured fruit. Special studies on these parasites have led to many suggestions for practical control. Moreover, the parasites seem naturally to be increasing in numbers and effective- ness against the boll weevil. In one instance in 1907 the mortality due to parasites in a field near Robson, La., was 77 per cent. About the same time 61 per cent of the weevils in a certain field near Victoria, Tex., were killed by parasites. These enemies of the weevil have existed in the country for an indefinite time. Their natural habit has been to prey upon weevils more or less related to the boll weevil that have occurred in this country for many years. They never feed on vegetation. It is undoubtedly true that they are 344 16 now turning their attention from the original hosts, which are gen- erally not very numerous, to the boll weevil, which offers abundant and favorable opportunities for reproduction. They thus ally them- selves with the farmer for the protection of the cotton crop. In the following pages numerous suggestions will be made regarding the means that the farmers may take to increase the effectiveness of the work of these parasites in reducing the numbers of the boll weevil. Other insect enemies.—In addition to the true parasites described above, the boll weevil suffers from a number of insects which are not parasites in a strict sense but prey upon it as food. The principal ones of these predatory enemies are ants. Of these, 12 species are known to attack the weevil. They are the minute brown ants and yel- lowish ants that occur frequently in cotton fields and are observed running over the plants or on the ground. Their work is not against the adult weevils, but against the immature stages in the squares. Some species devote their attention principally to the squares that have fallen to the ground, while others habitually seek the insects within the squares that remain hanging on the plants. The larva of the weevil, incased in a thin covering, offers a source of food that the ants are not inclined to overlook. They gnaw through the thin shell inclosing the weevil larva and the latter is soon destroyed. In some cases more than half of the immature stages in fields have been found to be destroyed by ants alone. To find 25 per cent so destroyed is not a rare occurrence. In this bulletin methods will be pointed out for making use of these friends of the farmer and increasing the im- portant effect they naturally have in reducing the numbers of weevils. Other factors in natural control.—In addition to the principal factors in natural control which have been mentioned there are several of minor importance. Among these may be mentioned proliferation, which sometimes crushes the immature weevils, and determinate growth, which may prevent the development of the fall broods of the weevil. Attention is also called to the agency of birds in the destruc- tion of the boll weevil, which has been given full attention in the publications of the Biological Survey of this Department. DISSEMINATION. The boll weevil moves from place to place by flight. Although it is a weak flyer compared with many insects, it has been known to cover a distance of more than 40 miles in a very short time. Its flight can not be prolonged, but successive short flights, especially in connection with favorable winds, often carry the insect to consid- erable distances. This is the case, however, only during the so-called dispersion period, which extends from about the middle of August to the end of the season. During the rest of the year the weevil is 344 ave little inclined to fly. There is always a movement from fields in all directions in search of hibernating quarters in the fall and a corre- sponding movement from such quarters to the cotton fields in the spring. Nevertheless, when the insects reach cotton fields in the spring there is little further movement until the general dispersion begins. Ordinarily between the middle of August and the first of September the weevil seems to be seized with an instinct to migrate. Tt was thought at one time that this movement was forced by ex- cessive reproduction and took place only when all squares and bolls, or the majority of them, became infested. Investigations have shown, however, that the dispersion takes place frequently when the fields are only slightly infested. In other words, the insect has a well- developed instinct for extending its range into new territory. It is this instinct that has caused the extension of the infested area in the United States year by year. The weevil does not fly in any particular direction except as governed by the wind. If there is no wind or only a light one, a weevil is as likely to fly in one direction as in another. The individuals carrying the infestation into new regions have been those that happen to radiate in the direction of previously uninfested territory. The fact that the weevil moves about but little except at one season is of great benefit to the farmer. As the movement referred to does not begin until after the time when a crop is normally made, it amounts to but little after a region has become infested. On the other hand, the limited movement at other times of the year makes it possible for any individual farmer to obtain the best results from his own efforts in fighting the pest. The danger of his efforts being thwarted by the arrival of weevils from fields where no precautions have been taken is not as important as is sometimes considered. In fact, it is not important enough to warrant any farmer in deferring action on account of the indifference of his neighbors. The above statements give only an outline of the life history and habits of the boll weevil. More complete information can be ob- tained from Bulletin 51 of the Bureau of Entomology, which may be obtained for 15 cents upon application to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. In this connection the writer wishes to emphasize the following four im- portant points that have a direct bearing upon control: (1) It has been demonstrated that the boll weevil subsists on no other food than cotton. (2) The weevil moves about but little until late in the cotton-grow- ing season; in fact, not until the time when the crop is normally set. _65114—Bull. 844—09—3 18 (3) Winter conditions naturally reduce the number of weevils enormously ; indeed, the winter is the critical period in the life history of the pest. (4) Natural agencies operate to destroy a very large percentage of weevils. These agencies are increasing in effectiveness and already are of very great importance to the farmer in reducing his loss. Otherwise it would often be practically complete. MEANS OF CONTROL. It will be evident from the preceding statements regarding the life history and habits of the weevil that its control is beset with many difficulties. In fact, it is probably the most serious insect pest that is now known. Its insidious methods of work in the immature stages within the fruit of the cotton plant, the habit of the adult in seeking protection for the greater part of the time under the bracts of the squares, and its enormous power of reproduction and adaptability to new conditions, all tend to place the boll weevil in a class by itself. The difficulties are increased by the necessary procedures in raising cotton. In spite of these difficulties fairly satisfactory means of con- trol are known. A large share of the reasonable success of the war- fare against the pest is due to the assistance furnished by natural agencies, which commonly destroy many more weevils in a cotton field than the farmer could by any known method or methods. Burning infested plants in the fall.—lForemost among the methods of control is the killing of the hordes of adult weevils that are ready to enter hibernation in the fall and the prevention of the development of millions more that would later emerge to pass through the winter. This is accomplished by burning the infested plants in the fall after the weevils have become so numerous that there is no prospect of the maturity of any additional crop. There are many vital reasons why the wholesale destruction of the weevils in the fall should be practiced by every cotton planter in the infested region. Some of these are stated below: . First. Hordes of adult weevils, many for each plant in the field, are killed outright. Second. Many more weevils that are in the immature stages, possibly as many as a hundred for each plant in the field, are also killed. Third. The few adult weevils escaping will be weakened by starva- tion and the great majority will not have sufficient strength to pass through the winter. Fourth. The development of the late broods, which experiments have shown furnish the vast majority of weevils that pass through the winter, is cut off immediately. In this way hundreds of weevils 344 19 that would develop from each plant are absolutely prevented from so doing. Fifth. The removal of the infested plants with the weevils facili- tates fall or early winter plowing, which is the best possible procedure in cotton raising. Moreover, this plowing assists greatly in the pro- duction of an early crop the following season. In short, in the fall the weevil is at the mercy of the planter as it is at no other time. If the planter desires to kill the insect he can do so. Work in weevil destruction at that time far outbalances all remedial measures that may be applied at all other times of the year. Many hundreds of cases are on record showing the benefit from the fall destruction of plants in the control of the boll weevil. The proc- ess has not been taken up as generally as it should, but individual instances everywhere show its value. A large amount of experimen- tal work done by the Bureau of Entomology has all pointed clearly toward the supreme importance of this essential method in control. In an experiment performed by the Bureau of Entomology in Cal- houn County, Tex., the stalks growing on 410 acres of land were de- stroyed early in October. Careful records kept during the following season showed that this work had increased the production more than a quarter of a bale per acre over the crop on the check area where such work was not done. Computing the increase in the crop at the cur- rent prices, the advantage from the work in the experiment amounted to $14.56 per acre. This was about 29 times the cost of uprooting and burning the plants, as shown by the amount actually paid by the Department for the work. Circumstances surrounding the experi- ment, referred to in Circular 95 of the Bureau of Entomology, show that the advantage was probably considerably greater than has been indicated here. At any rate, the estimate given is most conservative. In this instance the cotton destroyed was isolated and the results are perhaps somewhat more conspicuous than would have been the case where there were hundreds of cotton fields in the neighborhood. Nevertheless, experience with fields surrounded by others that have been given no attention has shown a great advantage from taking the proper step in the fall. Of course, concerted action will add to the effectiveness of the work and should be followed in every community. In addition to the field work by the Bureau of Entomology and by many practical planters, a great deal of work has been done in large cages, where the conditions could be studied most carefully. In this way the exact relative advantage of fall destruction at different dates has been determined. It has been shown in this connection that the earlier the work can be done the better the results will be. For instance, seven times as many weevils survived the removal of the in- 344 20 fested plants on November 12 as survived after similar work on Octo- ber 13. Mr. J. D. Mitchell, of the Bureau of Entomology, calls attention to a striking example of the value of the fall destruction of the wee- vils that came to his attention in 1908. On opposite sides of the Guadaloupe River near Victoria, Tex., were two farmers, each hay- ing about 40 acres in cotton. In one case the stalks were uprooted and burned in September, 1907, and in the other they were allowed to stand until shortly before planting time in the spring of 1908. They were equally good farmers, and the soil was the same on the two places. In the first case the crop of 1908 was 15 bales and in the other 34 bales. The work done during the preceding fall plainly increased the crop about fivefold. No definite rule can be laid down as to the proper time for de- stroying the weevils upon and in the fruit of the plants in the fall. In general, the proper time is whenever the weevils have reached such numbers as to infest practically all of the squares that are being set. This may occur a month or more earlier in some sea- sons than in others. Fall destruction as late as November will ac- complish much, but several times the number of weevils can be de- stroyed if the work be done in October. Therefore the rule should be to destroy the infested plants at the earliest possible date in the fall. It is much better to sacrifice a small amount of cotton than to defer the operation. The loss will more than be made good by an increase in the next crop. Some objections to the work of destroying the weevils in the fall are frequently raised. The principal one is that the labor supply is insufficient to enable planters to have the crop picked out in time for such fall destruction as is recommended. One of the respects in which the boll weevil will make revolutionary changes in the system of producing cotton is that smaller areas than formerly must be cul- tivated by each hand. The production can best be kept up or increased by more intensive methods on smaller areas. If this principle be put in operation on plantations in so far as it is practicable, the objection to fall destruction on account of the scarcity of labor will tend to disappear. A minor objection raised is that the process tends to im- poverish the soil. As a matter of fact, the burning of the stalks re- moves only a small amount of the fertilizing elements, and, more- over, the practice now is to burn the plants a few months later. In “Tn this connection attention is directed to one of the many advantages of having the crop picked out early. The earlier this is done the cleaner the lint will be, and the better the price. Moreover, the longer the unpicked cotton remains in the fields the greater will be the amount that falls to the ground and soon passes beyond recovery. From every standpoint the cotton should be picked as rapidly as possible, 344 21 most cases the humus is more important than the fertilizing elements themselves. The use of commercial fertilizers in one case and the practice of green manuring in the other will solve both of these difficulties. METHODS OF DESTROYING WEEVILS IN THE FALL. The reader is referred to Circular 95 of the Bureau of Entomology for particulars regarding methods of destroying the weevils in the fall. In this connection it will be stated that the proper method, in general, is to uproot the plants by means of plows, and to burn them as soon as possible. Other methods are applicable to different condi- tions. As soon as the plants are uprooted they should be placed in piles or windrows, which will utilize the leaves in the burning. The difficulty in one method of removing the plants—that of cutting them off near the surface of the ground with a stalk cutter or ax— is that during mild seasons many sprouts soon make their appearance to furnish food for weevils that would otherwise starve during the fall or winter. If the ordinary stalk cutter be followed immediately by plows, some of the desired results will be obtained. The great objection is that the innumerable weevils in the bolls and squares will be allowed to develop. Nothing but uprooting and burning will come near meeting the exigencies caused by the weevil. Grazing.—In some cases the grazing of the fields with cattle, sheep, or goats can be practiced. This is only a local measure, however, since the supply of live stock in regions where the bulk of the cotton crop is produced is insufficient for the purpose. Sprout cotton.—A most important result of the proper manipulation of the plants in the fall is that no stumpage or sprout cotton is allowed to grow. The occurrence of such cotton in southern Texas and occasionally in southern Louisiana is there the most important local difficulty in the control of the boll weevil. Sprout plants are sometimes encouraged on account of the production of a small but very early crop. This may have been defensible before the advent of the boll weevil, but at the present time the practice is undoubtedly the worst that could possibly be followed. The sprout plants serve only to keep.alive myriads of weevils that could easily be put out of existence by the farmer. Volunteer cotton.—In addition to stumpage cotton, volunteer cotton, in the strict sense, is of considerable importance in weevil-infested areas. The seed scattered about seed houses and gins frequently give rise to plants, both in the fall and in the spring, that furnish food and breeding places for weevils. It is needless to call attention to the fact that all such plants should be destroyed. They are merely aids to the enemy. 344 pi DESTRUCTION OF WEEVILS IN HIBERNATING PLACES. After the weevil-infested plants have been removed from the field in the fall the farmer can add strength to the blow he has given the insect. As has been stated previously, many of the hibernating weevils are not to be found within the cotton fields nor in their im- mediate vicinity. Nevertheless, most of those remaining in the field can be destroyed, and this is undoubtedly well worth the effort that it will cost. In many cases surprising numbers of weevils have been found hibernating in the trash and rubbish on the ground in cotton fields. In January, 1907, in one instance, 5,870 weevils per acre were found, of which 70 per cent were alive. This was undoubtedly ex- ceptional, but most of the many examinations made showed more than 1,000 live weevils per acre in old cotton fields. The insects so found are largely at the mercy of the farmer. He can destroy many by carefully raking up the trash and burning it. Plowing and subse- quent harrowing of the land will add to the destruction. This work would well be worth while on general agricultural principles if no weevils whatever were destroyed. With the weevil present, that farmer invites loss who does not clean the fields to the best of his ability. Of the multitudes of weevils that fly out of the cotton fields for hibernation not all are beyond the reach of the farmer. Many are to be found along turn-rows, fences, hedges, and old buildings. The cleaning and burning of hedges, fence corners, and in general the removal of trash from the vicinity of fields will destroy many weevils that would live to assist in the destruction of the crop. Old sorghum fields, on account of their roughness and the fact that the heavy stubble catches trash moved about by the wind, have been found to furnish very favorable winter quarters for the weevil. The farmer should pay special attention to such fields. They have fre- quently been found to be the source of the first weevils to damage the cotton in the spring. A little work in the fall or winter will result in the destruction of practically all of the weevils found there. Old cornfields, while not as important as sorghum fields, also furnish favorable hibernating quarters and should be carefully cleared by the farmer who desires to minimize the weevil damage. on his place. A very practical illustration of the danger of trash in aiding in the hibernation of the weevil has occurred repeatedly on the experimental farm of the Bureau of Entomology near Dallas, Tex. Across a narrow lane on one side of the experimental cotton field of 40 acres is a small peach orchard in which the weeds have been allowed to grow unchecked from year to year. Every season the first weevil infestation in the cotton is found in the immediate vicinity of the orchard. In fact, the infestation always starts at that point and 344 23 radiates into the field. If it were possible to eliminate the hibernat- ing quarters across the lane—and this means only the prevention of the growth of weeds—there would evidently be a considerable reduc- tion in weevil damage, especially early in the season when it is most critical. LOCATING FIELDS TO AVOID WEEVIL DAMAGE. The illustration just given emphasizes a method of averting dam- age by the weevil that can be followed in many individual cases. All planters that have had experience with the weevil know that the por- tions of their properties near the timber or other hibernating quarters show the first damage by the weevil and consequently the least pro- duction. Of course, it is not always possible to plant other crops in such situations. Nevertheless, very frequently farmers can avoid damage by devoting the particular fields known to be most susceptible to weevil injury to other crops. This is not pointed out as a general recommendation. In many cases it would be entirely impracticable, but its importance should be realized by planters in regions where every possible precaution must be taken. CROP ROTATION. Save in very exceptional cases the boll weevil never does as much damage on land where cotton follows some other crop as on land where cotton follows cotton. This is due to the fact, as has been pointed out, that the weevils do not fly very far from their hibernat- ing quarters in the spring. Therefore it is evident that a proper rotation of crops may be followed to assist in the fight against the boll weevil. As in the case of the location of the fields referred to above, the recommendation here made is no panacea. Nevertieless, rotation can be made to assist in fighting the weevil, aside from the many other advantages that are known to come from it. PROCURING AN EARLY CROP. Although the destruction of the weevils in the fall is the great essential step in controlling the insect, it can not be depended on exclusively. The full benefits of the fall work and the maximum crop can not be obtained unless the next great step, procuring an early crop, is also taken. In fact, the success of the farmer in pro- ducing cotton in regions infested by the boll weevil will depend di- rectly upon the extent to which he combines the various methods de- scribed in this bulletin. There are certain localities where the conditions cause the soil to be “late” or “slow.” For instance, the planters on the Red River in 344 24 Louisiana state that they can procure early crops on their “ front ” land, but that such is difficult or impossible on the fields back from the river. This is largely a matter of drainage. In some sections in Louisiana and Mississippi the essential step in obtaining an early crop will be largely a question of drainage. Lands so situated that they can not be drained economically to the extent that allows an early crop must be devoted to crops other than cotton. The advantage of early planting has been demonstrated in every one of the numerous experiments made by the Bureau of Entomology and has now become the general practice among farmers. The rea- sons for the efficiency of early planting are not far to seek. The small numbers of weevils passing through the winter must have con- siderable time to multiply. They are unable to breed until squares are put on by the plants, since the food obtained from the fruit is required before reproduction can begin. Moreover, at the time the first squares are put on, the development of the immature stages is comparatively slow, not reaching the very rapid rate that obtains during the warm days and nights of the summer. For these reasons it is possible for the farmer to rush his crop in such a way that a large number of squares and bolls will be formed before the weevils have multiplied to a serious extent. Of course, under usual condi- tions the weevils will ultimately multiply so that the crop put on after a certain date will all be destroyed. This, however, is of no importance, since a top crop in weevil regions is entirely out of the question. The time it takes the weevils to recuperate after the vicis- situdes of winter, especially after the entirely feasible destruction of multitudes in the fall, can thus be taken advantage of in the produc- tion of a crop. Removal of plants.—The first step in the procuring of an early crop is the early removal of the plants, so that the land may be plowed during the fall or winter and the seed bed given thorough and early preparation. In fact, such preliminary preparation should be fol- lowed for the production of the best cotton crop under any condi- tions. The recommendation made is therefore neither onerous nor revolutionary. The tendency has often been to neglect the cotton fields until spring or at least until “after Christmas.” It would repay the farmer many times if he would take the slight additional trouble of plowing the fields before that time. Not only a plowing, but one or more harrowings should be given the land during the winter. Use of commercial fertilizers—An important step in procuring an early crop under many conditions is the use of commercial fertilizers. 344 20 In many large areas in the cotton belt the land is not impoverished to the extent that it actually needs fertilizers under normal conditions. It has been demonstrated many times by the different experiment stations in the South that the maturity of cotton can frequently be hastened materially by the use of fertilizers, especially those con- taining a high percentage of phosphoric acid. The recommendation for the use of fertilizers in weevil regions, therefore, does not imply the exhaustion of the soil. It merely means that fertilizers place in the hands of the farmers an important means of averting damage by the boll weevil. The proper use of fertilizers is a very complicated matter. In fact, in the hght of all present knowledge only the most general rules can be laid down. Each farmer must experiment with the soil or different soils upon his own place and study the results to obtain the greatest benefit from fertilizers at the smallest cost. In the eastern portion of the cotton belt most of the farmers have ac- quired this experience. In the West, however, this training is lack- ing. Farmers interested should communicate with the State experi- ment stations and obtain the latest bulletins regarding experiments with fertilizers in their own regions. Use of early varieties of cotton. Next in importance to early prepara- tion, and fertilization (where necessary), in obtaining an early crop of cotton comes the use of early varieties. In all experiments that have been undertaken the advantage in the use of early varieties has been conspicuous. As in other cases, the greatest advantage in this instance comes with the joint use of the other expedients recommended for weevil control. By far the best method for obtaining seed of early maturing cotton is for the farmer to carry on the selection him- self. In many cases, however, this is impracticable. Under such cir- cumstances the farmer should obtain seed of improved varieties from dealers or such individual farmers in the locality as have been able to carry on careful seed selection. A valuable publication on the selection of cotton varieties has been published by this Department as Farmers’ Bulletin No. 314, “A Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape Boll Weevil Damage,” by R. L. Bennett. A copy may be obtained by any planter by application to the Secretary of Agri- culture. Standard early varieties of cotton—There are a number of standard varieties that have been found of value in weevil-infested regions the seed of which may be obtained from seed dealers. Among them are the Rowden, Triumph, Cleveland Big Boll, Cook’s Improved, and King. All of these except the King have either medium-sized or large bolls. The King has a small boll, about 80 being required to make a pound, but is remarkably early and has given the best yields 26 in most of the experiments of the Bureau of Entomology.*. Hawkins’ Early Prolific and Simkins have given good results in recent experi- ments of the State crop pest commission of Louisiana. In all cases it will pay the planter to exercise care in obtaining seed. Wherever possible it should be obtained from the originator. Heavy cotton seed.—The Department of Agriculture has called at- tention to the advantage of planting heavy cotton seed (see Farmers’ Bulletin No. 285). This should be taken into consideration along with other means of obtaining an early and vigorous stand. Another recent suggestion of assistance in obtaining an early start in the spring is that the planting be facilitated by covering the seed with paste. This method will make it possible to use an ordinary corn planter in putting in cotton seed and facilitate the work of check- rowing. This matter is discussed fully in the Farmers’ Bulletin just referred to. Early planting—Another step to be taken in obtaining an early crop, and fully as important as those that have been mentioned, is early planting itself. Naturally no set rule can be laid down as to the proper date for planting. There is much variation in the seasons, and it is sometimes impossible to place the fields in readiness as early as is desirable. Much of the effect of early planting is lost unless the seed bed is in good condition. Rather than plant abnormally early it would be better to improve the seed bed. It is not recommended that planting be made at dangerously early dates. Nevertheless, with proper preliminary attention to the fields it would be possible for farmers in most localities to plant from ten to twenty days earlier Some of the early maturing varieties of cotton happen to have small bolls, although the plant breeders hold that there is no necessity of an early maturing cotton having small bolls. In view of the fact, however, that some of the best known early maturing varieties at the present time have undersized bolls, occa- sional objections have been made to planting them. It is true that the picking of cotton from these varieties sometimes involves difficulties. In some cases it is known that pickers have refused to pick small-boll cottons while any other cotton was available despite the offer of additional payment on account of slow picking in the fields of the smaller bolled cotton, This is an actual, practical difficulty that must be taken into consideration. At the present time it is suffi- cient to call attention to the fact that the practical disadvantage of small bolls may not be as important as appears at first glance. For instance, if small-boll varieties yield 100 pounds of seed cotton per acre more than ordinary cotton, this gain would permit the farmer to pay 10 per cent more for picking, with profit. Thus: 750 pounds small-bolled cotton per acre picked at $1 per ewt., cotton at $3: per cwt.; Det profit <2_-) SS ee ee eee $15. 00 650 pounds large-bolled cotton per acre picked at 90 cents per ewt., cotton sold) at-$3 per ewt., net. profits: -- eee .13. 65 Difference in favor of small-boll cotton eae lees 344 27 than they are accustomed to at the present time. This, therefore, is the general recommendation that is made. It is much better to run the risk of replanting, provided the seed bed is in good condition, than to defer planting on account of the danger of cold weather. Of course it is possible to plant entirely too early, so that the plants become stunted during the early days of their growth. It is not intended that planting should be made early enough to have this effect upon the plants. ADDITIONAL EXPEDIENTS IN HASTENING THE CROP. It was pointed out in connection with the enemies of the boll weevil that under natural conditions a large percentage of the weevils is killed by heat and parasites. The wide spacing of the cotton plants augments the action of both these agencies working against the boll weevil. The effect of the sun heat has been studied in many cotton fields. The mortality becomes remarkably high during the hot days of summer. The farmer can take advantage of it, and even increase it. It is very conservative to state that the weevils will be able to mul- tiply only half as fast in fields where there is plenty of distance be- tween the plants as in fields where plants are close together and the branches cross from row to row. It should therefore be the rule of the planter in weevil regions to give considerably more distance to the plants in the drill and to the rows than he would give under ordinary conditions. On land that produces under normal conditions from 35 to 40 bushels of corn per acre the rows should be 5 feet apart. Even on poor soil it is very doubtful, except in dry regions of the West, whether the distance should ever be less than 4 feet. Check-rowing.—Considerable attention has been attracted in some localities in Texas to the practice of check-rowing cotton to assist in the control of the weevil. Undoubtedly from this standpoint the practice is to be recommended highly. By following it each plant is given the maximum soil that it can use with consequent beneficial results upon its growth. The greatest possible amount of sunlight is allowed to fall upon the ground where the infested squares are found, to destroy many weevil larve outright and at the same time to facilitate the work of the numerous enemies of the weevil that occur in every cotton field. Check-rowing, moreover, saves much labor, thereby reducing the cost of production, and also makes easy the control of noxious weeds. The only important objection is that in some localities it may interfere with drainage. Cultivation—During the growing season of the crop the fields should be given very careful cultivations. Most of the benefits of early preparation, early planting, and fertilization may be lost in case the fields are not given the utmost attention subsequently. In 344 28 case of unavoidably delayed planting the best course to pursue is to cultivate the fields in the most thorough manner possible. Under most conditions the old plantation rule “ once a week and one in a row ” should be made to apply. This will not result in the direct destruction of many weevils, but it causes the plants to continue unin- terruptedly in their growth. By all means such operations as deep cultivation, and cultivation close to the plants, which causes shedding, should be avoided. In many instances a fair crop already set and beyond danger from the weevil has been lost by running the plows so close that the side roots were cut and the plants have shed practi- cally all the fruit. When this happens during the middle or latter part of the season the weevils will certainly prevent the putting on of any more fruit. The general practice of laying by, by scraping the middles with a wide sweep, leaves a hard surface which causes loss of moisture. and shedding. Where the weevil occurs, every precaution must be taken to avoid shedding, as the insect will certainly prevent the maturity of the later fruit and, moreover, will be forced to attack bolls which would otherwise not be injured. Effect of late cultivation—A very conspicuous illustration of the disastrous effects of careless late cultivation came to the attention of the Bureau of Entomology during the present season (1908). It was learned that some planters in the Red River Valley below Shreveport, La., were making fair crops (in one case 600 bales on 900 acres), while others were making very small yields as, for instance, in one case 200 bales on 800 acres. Upon investigation it was found that all the planters in the neighborhood were compelled to put all their hands on levee work for five weeks to save their places. During that time the cotton remained uncultivated. After the subsidence of the flood the fields were plowed. Where this work was done carefully the good crops were being produced. In cases where the plows were run too deeply and too close to the plants excessive shedding had taken place and the weevils prevented the putting on of any more fruit. Careful investigation on several places where the essential conditions were identical left no doubt that the cause of the difference in yields was primarily the difference in summer cultivation. Occasionally a farmer is found who has obtained better yields on fields where cultivation has been discontinued early. In fact, the writer has seen fields full of grass that were outyielding perfectly clean ones on the same plantation. Such situations have caused erroneous conclusions. As a matter of fact, the explanation is that the late, careless cultivations had done more harm than good. The importance of careful shallow summer cultivations can not be too strongly emphasized. 344 29 SPECIAL DEVICES FOR DESTROYING WEEVILS. The impression is more or less general that the only important way in which weevils may be killed is by the removal of the infested plants and that all other steps in the system of control are merely to avoid damage by the weevils that have survived that destruction, and their offspring. In spite of this impression, however, it is urged that the destruction of myriads of weevils can be accomplished during the growing season. This is to be done by working in cooperation with the natural agencies that destroy the weevil. In making examinations of many thousands of infested squares from different localities and different situations in cotton fields it was found that mortality was conspicuously greatest where the sun- light was least obstructed and the heat, consequently, the greatest. The mortality in infested squares in the middles was many times Fic. 6.—Chain cultivator, side view. (Original.) as great as in the case of squares which remained under the shade of the branches. The temperature at the surface of the ground during warm days runs considerably higher than at a few feet above the sur- face. For instance, it was found that when the temperature was 100° F. in the regular Weather Bureau shelter about 4 feet above the ground the thermometer registered 140° F. on the surface. Likewise 90° F. in the shelter was accompanied by 120° F. on the ground and 85° F. in the shelter by 110° F. on the ground. It is not surprising, therefore, that the cotton squares that fall to the ground and are not shaded are very quickly baked, so that the weevils perish—if not from heat, then from the hardening of the food supply. In most vases they are simply roasted, their bodies assuming the appearance of larvee that have been placed in a flame. Chain cultivator— When the foregoing facts came to light efforts were made to perfect a device that would bring the infested squares 344 30 out of the shade of the plants to the middles of the rows. After much experimental work one of the writer’s former associates, Dr. W. E. Hinds, devised an implement that accomplishes the desired work in a satisfactory manner. This implement is known as the chain cultivator or chain drag. The following specifications should enable any blacksmith to con- struct an effective chain cultivator. (See fig. 6.) The draft bar (7 m), made of 4 by 3; inch tire steel, about 52 inches long, is designed to be about 16 inches above the ground, and this is the height of the rear arch (f 2 m), which is of this size and form to allow old cotton roots, ete., to pass through freely without clogging at the rear. The distance between the rear ends of the chains (g g, 7 f) is in each pair fixed at about 10 inches. The distance between a chain of one pair and that of the other at their front ends should be about 9 inches. The chains used are of the size known as “ log chains,” hav- ing short, close links of 2-inch iron. This style of chain can be cut to the length needed in each case. The chain is easily attached by sim- ply making the hooks at d, e, 7, and g so that the end of the hook is as wide as will pass through the length of the link and narrow enough at the middle of the bend to allow the link to turn and bag the other way. So long as the chains are kept tight they can not become un- hooked. The hooks should also be turned, or faced, in such a way that they will not be likely to catch the passing plants or rubbish. The clevis (0 p) is simply hinged, so that there will be no tendency to pull the front of the machine off of the ground, and it is also broad enough in front to allow of the point of draft being moved from one side to the other, so that the front of the machine may be thrown closer to one row if desired. The front guard on each side (a b ¢ d) is made of one piece of spring steel, ? by 3; inch. This size seems sufficiently strong and best adapted to carry the tension of the chains (d g) while still yielding to the pressure against the bases of the plants as they may strike the outer, sloping ends near d. The inner ends of these guards (a 6) are horizontal, about 18 inches each in length, and serve to carry the front guard above the draft bar (” m) and, passing through the keeper (7), guide in the adjustment for width. The machine can not be extended beyond the bent ends at a or closed beyond the angles at 6. The vertical section between 6 and ¢ is about 12 inches long, so that the remainder of the front guard from c to near d will be about 4 inches above the ground. This prevents the pushing of dirt and squares toward the plants and allows the chains to catch them where they lie. The hooks at d and e are therefore bent downward and somewhat backward through about 5 or 6 inches. Care must be taken 344 31 especially in forming the outer ends between ¢ and d to secure best results. The downward bend for the hook at a should not be abrupt, as a gradual slope helps to prevent catching on any obstacles. The hooks at # and g are formed so as to hold the chains firmly and yet not interfere with the passage of rubbish. The method of carry- ing the rear ends of the outer chains is shown at 7h g. The piece k 1 is nearly parallel with the chains and may be used for their proper ad- justment as to tension by several holes near the end where it is bolted at %. The chains are between 30 and 36 inches long. The stand s upon which the handles are pivoted by a 4-inch bolt is made of a piece of boiler plate bent and cut so as to have a horizontal top surface about 4 inches square and standing about 24 inches above the draft bar, to which it is securely bolted. The handles are bolted, as at r, to the heavy pieces of iron (about 2 by $ inch tire steel) which are bent to receive them just behind the pivotal point at a, at such an angle as to bring the handles to the proper height and position. In front of w these pieces bearing the handles need not be so heavy and may therefore be tapered and welded to smaller steel running forward to b, where it is bolted to the front guard. The operation of this arrangement is similar to that of a huge pair of shears—when the handles are pushed apart the front of the machine is spread wider, and vice versa. The braces j ¢ e serve to support, strengthen, and carry the front guard. ‘They are riveted to the adjusting irons at j, one above and one below the “shear” pieces, to prevent their interference with the closing of the machine. At ¢ this iron is bent to conform to the front guard, to which it is riveted between ¢ and /, at which point it is bent downward and forms the hook e. Ordinary tire steel about 1 by 4 inch may be used for all parts like the clevis (0 p), rear arches (f h m and i h g), and braces (k 1 and j ¢ e). The front guard (a b ¢ d) should be of spring steel, as specified. The rivet heads on the front guard should be round and fit smoothly. In nearly all other places the irons are fastened together by 4-inch square-headed bolts, with washers as needed. In operation the implement is drawn by a single animal. The chains at d and e pass under the branches of plants and close to the stems. The forward motion of the machine causes these squares to be drawn inward by the chains, which must be kept taut, and leaves them in a narrow pathway where the chains approach within a short distance of each other at the opposite end of the machine. (See figs. 7, 8.) The two chains are provided so that squares that may pass over the first are taken up by the second on either side. In actual practice it has been found that more than 90 per cent of squares may be brought to the middle of the rows. This means that the natural mortality among the weevils due to the effects of sun- shine can be at least doubled. 344 32 Although the chain cultivator was designed primarily for bringing the squares to the middles, it was found in field practice to have a most important cultural effect. The chains (so-called “ log chains”) are heavy enough to establish a perfect dust mulch (see figs. 7 and 8) and to destroy small weeds that may be starting. In fact, it is believed that this cultural effect would more than justify the use of the ma- chine, regardless of the weevil. With the effect against. the insect and the important cultural effect it is believed that this implement or Tic. 7.—Work on the chain cultivator: Cotton row before use of cultivator, showing fallen squares, crack, and rough condition of ground. (Original.) one similar to it should be used by every farmer in the weevil territory. In order that the use of this machine could be obtained by all farm- ers at the smallest possible cost, a patent has been taken out in the name of the Department of Agriculture and for the benefit of the people of the United States. Under this patent it is impossible for anyone to manufacture the machine exclusively and to charge unnec- essarily high prices. 344 Attachments for ordinary cultivators—Some of the effects of the chain cultivator may be obtained by attaching chains to ordinary cultivators by the use of special attachments. In this way some of the effect of the chain drag would be added to the work of the culti- vator. Wherever for any reason it is impossible to obtain chain drags, it is suggested that the principle be incorporated in some simple attachments to cultivators. Fic, 8.—Work of the chain cultivator: Same row shown in fig. 7, after cultivator has oon of squares brought to middle, crack filled, and dust mulch established. The use on ordinary cultivators of an arm or projection that will brush or agitate the plants in passing will assist to a certain extent in destroying the weevil. The squares will be knocked to the ground earlier than they would fall, and this would naturally increase the effect of heat. At the same time a very few adult weevils will be knocked to the ground, but this has been found to be unimportant. In repeated experiments in jarring and beating cotton plants on which known numbers of weevils were found it was ascertained that 344 B4 very few, if any, left the plants by reason of any agitation that would not break the. branches or bark the stems. Occasionally, however, a weevil passing over a leaf is jarred to the ground. Often entirely too much stress is placed upon the importance of jarring the adult weevils to the ground. When specimens are collected by hand and thrown on the surface of the ground, especially if it be finely pul- verized, the great majority will be killed almost instantly by the heat. This has caused the mistake on the part of careless observers of supposing that many weevils could be killed by jarring them to the ground. The difficulty, as pointed out, is that it is totally out of the question to jar more than one weevil out of many hundreds to the ground by any process that would not injure the plants severely. Nevertheless, the effect of a cross-arm of wood or iron whip- ping through the tops of the plants is recommended for the reason that the squares are thrown to the ground, where the heat has its earliest possible effect upon them. HAND PICKING OF WEEVILS. Gathering the weevils by hand is an operation of limited appli- cability. Where the fields of cotton are small and there is an abun- dance of labor it is sometimes practicable to pick the early emerging weevils from the plants and later to pick up the early fallen squares. Everything depends, however, on the conditions being favorable. On large places it will undoubtedly not often be found practicable to carry on this process. In an experiment performed by the Bureau of Entomology on a plantation worked by convict labor, giving the optimum conditions for the experiment, no results whatever followed thorough pickings twice each week for two months in the spring, begutining with the appearance of the first weevils. In another in- stance, at Gurley, Tex., more than 40,000 weevils were picked on an area of 8 acres by means of paid labor, beginning in April and con- tinuing until July. On the 8 acres where this work was done a crop of about 50 pounds per acre in excess of that on other areas was ob- tained. This was not sufficient, however, to pay for more than a very small fraction of the work done. From these and other experi- ments the Bureau of Entomology recommends in a guarded manner the picking by hand of weevils and squares. Undoubtedly good may be accomplished under certain conditions, but planters should be careful not to depend too much upon it and not to make too great an outlay for it. Disposition of adult weevils and infested squares When adult weevils are picked by hand they should be killed by means of oil or fire, or buried deeply in the ground. When infested squares are picked, how- ever, an entirely different procedure should be followed. Many of the 344 30 weevil larve in the infested squares will be found to harbor parasites. It is entirely practical, as has been pointed out by Mr. Wilmon Newell, of the Louisiana crop pest commission, to let these parasites develop and continue their work against the weevils in the fields. This is done simply by placing the infested squares in wire cages. The parasites, on account of their small size, will escape, while the weevils soon die from a lack of food. The meshes of the wire of the cage should be at least 16 to the inch. However, some weevils will escape through this mesh, and about 5 per cent through a 14-mesh screen. Even if the finer wire can not be obtained, it is advisable to use what can be had. sions sew ee = Sa Re TORIC ROsE EMV AMIE ter een SAL SI i telas note Sitin = 2G es laltbrat oat ope Specifications and materials for a dipping vat......-......----------- Bullet materials for vat and draining pens. -...-:-.2225-3.-22. 2-2 --4<- 378 3 “I ot or’ Fig. OIA TRON 10. » Male-tiek: . i322 2262 s3-utlo ee wee ita sere oe er . Female'tick after second molt. +: 0.2.22 2.22-- 2-42 455 se . Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring four . Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring . Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation; feed-lot or . Pail spraying pump for small herds)-2222-- 22. 4. =-2- 5-2 oe ae eee . Spraying cow from pail with hand pump-.-----2.23------2 += ee eee . Spraying cattle with hand pump from barrels on wagon.....-.-------- 5. Drawings for wood or concrete dipping vat.......:--....------------ ILLUSTRA LIONS: . Full-grown female tick ready to drop to ground and deposit eggs... --. “Wok laying ogee... 252200 essaus doe ee eee ee Larve or seed ticks after emerging from eggs..........-..------------ Young ticks. before and after first molt_:-.-.---222---..,-2.-+--se eee Young tick (nymph) near second molt: -.....22-2.- 2< 222222 52--ee eee and'-one-halfimonths2o 2244-25 2428 22 o hoe cee se aes eee elght mothe’ 2.3195.) 8 ae oar ire Cre terete ra CN ane eae Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from oe by rotation, requiring four months, with mew pasture) 2) 5..2. 4... 2-2 - Ree ee ose soilixio method? 22222. .0.52 2h fe see eye haere = ate 378 4 METHODS OF EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK, INTRODUCTION. The eradication of the cattle tick (Margaropus annulatus) from the Southern States is a problem of prime importance to the agricultural interests of that section. Moreover, the good that would result from the elimination of the tick would not be entirely confined to the region directly concerned, and thus the matter assumes to a certain degree a national importance. A number of valuable papers on the life history of the cattle tick, its habits, and methods for its eradication have been published by the United States Department of Agriculture and by various investi- gators in the States included within the infested region. Some of these publications are rather extensive and include much that is only of scientific interest, while others, of a more practical nature, are not available for general use. The present bulletin is prepared with the view of bringing together from these various sources information of practical value relating to the tick and its eradication, for the use of the farmer or stockman who has begun or who contemplates under- taking the complete extermination of this pest from his farm. Some unpublished results of investigations carried on by the writer in con- nection with the cooperative work between the Zoological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the veterinary department of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute have also been taken into consideration. REASONS FOR ERADICATING THE CATTLE TICK. There are various kinds or species of ticks occurring on cattle in the Southern States, but the one that chiefly concerns us here is that commonly called the “cattle” or ‘‘Texas-fever”’ tick ( Margaropus an- nulatus). It is the one most frequently found on cattle and is much more abundant than the other species. When the losses occasioned by this parasite are once thoroughly understood by farmers and stockmen there will be little need for arguments in favor of tick eradication. Some of the losses are not directly noticeable and consequently make little impression, while other losses properly chargeable to the tick are frequently attributed to other causes. 378 5 6 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. It is hardly necessary to emphasize the important fact that the tick is something more than a simple parasite drawing blood from its host, it being the carrier of a dangerous micro-organism or germ, which it transmits to the blood of cattle, thus causing a disease known by many names, among which are Texas fever, tick fever, splenetic fever, and murrain.? Without the tick there can be no Texas fever, and it is by preventing the spread of the tick beyond its natural bounds that the fever has been prevented from waging destruction among northern cattle, which are especially susceptible to the disease. In order to restrict the distribution of the tick the National and State governments maintain a quarantine line extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, marking the boundary between the States or portions of States harboring this pest and those that do not. Cattle of the quarantined area can not be driven across this line, and may be shipped only in accordance with the regulations of the Suere: tary of Agriculture to prevent the spread of splenetic fever of cattle. The more important losses for which the tick is responsible are as follows: 1. Deaths from tick fever among native cattle and purebred cattle imported from the North for breeding purposes. 2. Deaths of cattle north of the quarantine line from fever following the occasional accidental introduction of the tick. 3. The temporary and permanent arrest of growth and develop- ment resulting from attacks of the fever. 4. The decrease in weight and the lessened rate in putting on flesh in the case of beef cattle, and the decrease in the amount of milk produced by dairy cattle, as the result of the irritation and loss of blood occasioned by great numbers of ticks. 5. The prevention of southern breeders from exhibiting their stock in the North. 6. The decreased price that southern cattle bring on the market on account of the restrictions placed upon them. 7. The considerable expense incurred each year by the Federal Government and the infested States in establishing quarantine lines and in enforcing regulations to prevent the spread of Texas fever. Various writers have estimated the annual loss due to the tick at from $40,000,000 to $100,000,000. These figures should be ample argument, even to the most conservative, for the eradication of the tick. The South needs more and better live stock and a larger and better dairy industry, and these objects would both be greatly promoted by the destruction of the tick. Furthermore, the increased produc- a For information as to this disease and how it is transmitted by the ticks the reader is referred to Farmers’ Bulletin 258, ‘‘ Texas or Tick Fever and Its Prevention.”’ 378 ee ped dl EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. fj tion of live stock, by reason of its important bearing in maintaining and improving the fertility of the soil, would be of distinct benefit in increasing the yield of field crops. An incidental though important advantage of stock raising and dairying would be found in the dis- tribution of the farmer’s income throughout the year, enabling him to live on a cash basis. It can thus be seen that the benefits which would accrue to southern agriculture from the extermination of the cattle tick would be very great and far-reaching. LIFE HISTORY OF THE TICK. Before methods of eradication can be carried out intelligently and successfully, it is necessary to know the life history of the tick, and the influence of temperature, moisture, and other climatic conditions on the various stages of its existence. These matters will therefore be taken up first, it being understood that whenever the term ‘‘tick”’ or ‘‘cattle tick”’ is used, it refers to the one species or kind, Marga- ropus annulatus.* The usual host for this tick is the cow or ox. Frequently, however, horses, mules, deer, and sometimes even sheep serve as hosts. But none of these latter animals, with the possible exception of deer, are susceptible to tick fever, consequently they suffer from the tick as a simple parasite and not as a transmitter of disease, although they must be considered in plans for eradication. Only a part of the development of the tick takes place on the host; the rest of the development occurs on the pasture occupied by the host. : DEVELOPMENT ON THE GROUND. In tracing the life history of the cattle tick it will be convenient to begin with the large, plump, olive-green female tick (fig. 1), some- what more than half an inch in length, attached to the skin of the host. During the few preceding days she has increased enormously in size as a consequence of drawing a large supply of blood. When fully engorged she drops to the ground, and at once, espe- cially if the weather is warm, begins to search for a hiding place on moist earth beneath leaves or any other litter which may serve as a protection from the sun and numerous enemies. The female tick may be devoured by birds or destroyed by ants, or may perish as the result of unfavorable conditions, such as low temperature, absence or excess of moisture, and many other conditions; so that many which fall to the ground are destroyed before they lay eggs. @ The reader desiring fuiler information as to the life history of the cattle tick is referred to Bulletin 72 of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, which may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 15 cents. 378 8 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. Kgg laying (see fig. 2) begins during the spring, summer, and fall miontian in from two to twenty days, and during the winter months in thirteen to ninety-eight days. The eggs are small, elliptical- shaped bodies, at first of a light amber hie i eos to a dark brown, and are about one-fiftieth of an eich in length. i the eggs are laid they are coated with a sticky secretion which causes them to adhere in clusters and no doubt serves the purpose of keeping them from drying out. During egg laying the mother tick gradually shrinks in size and finally is reduced to about one-third or one-fourth her original size. Egg laying is greatly influenced by temperature, being retarded or even arrested by low temperatures. It is com- pleted in from four days in the summer to one hundred and fifty-one days beginning in the fall. During this time the tick may deposit from a few hundred to more than 5,000 eggs. After egg laying is completed the mother tick has fulfilled her purpose al dies in the course of a few days. After a time, ranging from nineteen days in the summer to one hundred and sence sidn: days during the fall and winter, the eggs begin to hatch. From each egg issues a small, oval, six-legged larva or seed tick (fig. 3), at first amber colored; later changing to a rich brown. The seed tick, after crawling slowly over and about the shell from which it has emerged, usually remains more or less quiescent for several days, after which it shows great activity, especially if the weather is warm, and ascends the nearest vegetation, such as grass, other herbs, and even shrubs. Since each female lays an enormous mass of eggs at one spot, thousands of larvee will appear in the course of time at the same place and will ascend the near-by vegetation and collect on the leaves. This instinct of the seed ticks to climb upward is a very important adaptation to increase their chances of reaching a host. If the vege- tation upon which they rest is disturbed, they become very active and extend their long front legs upward in a divergent position, waving them violently in an attempt to seize hold of a host. The seed tick during its life on the pasture takes no food and conse- quently does not increase in size, and unless it reaches a host to take up the parasitic portion of its development, it dies of starvation. The endurance of seed ticks is very great, however, as they have been found to live nearly eight months during the colder part of the year. DEVELOPMENT ON CATTLE. The parasitic phase of development begins when the larve or seed ticks reach a favorable host, such as a cow. They crawl up over the hair of the host and commonly attach themselves to the skin of the escutcheon, the inside of the thighs and flanks, and to the dewlap. They at once begin to draw blood and soon increase in 378 —— ee EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 8) Figs. 1 to 7.—Cattle ticks in various stages. 1. Full-grown female tick, engorged and ready to drop to ground and deposit eggs. (Magnified 3 times.) 2. Tick laying eggs. One tick may lay as many as 5,000 eggs. (Magnified 3 times.) 3. Larve or seed ticks after emerging from eggs. (Magnified 9 times.) 4. Young ticks before (a) and after (b) first molt. At this stage the ticks have attached themselves to a host (cow, steer, etc.), and have changed from a brown color to white. It will be noticed that the tick has six legs before molting and eight afterwards. (Magnified 9 times.) 5. Young tick nearly ready to undergo the second molt. The tick at this stage is known asa nymph. (Magnified 6 times.) 6. Male tick. (Magnified 6 times.) 7. Female.tick after second molt. This tick is now sexually mature and slightly larger than the male, but will later greatly increase in size until ready to drop to the ground and deposit eggs. (Magnified 6 times.) 7703—Bull. 378—09——2 10 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. size. In a few days the young tick changes from a brown color to white (fig. 4, @), and in from five to twelve days sheds its skin. The new form has eight legs instead of six, and is known as a nymph (fig. 4, b, and fig. 5). In from five to eleven days after the first molt the tick again sheds its skin and becomes sexually mature. It is at this stage that males and females are with certainty distinguishable for the first time. The male (fig. 6) emerges from his skin as a brown, oval tick, about one-tenth of an inch in length. He has reached his growth and goes through no further development. He later shows great activity, moving about more or less over the skin of the host. The female (fig. 7) at the time of molting is slightly larger than the male. She never shows much activity, seldom moving far from her original point of attachment. She still has to undergo most of her growth. After mating the female increases very rapidly in size, and in from twenty-one to sixty-six days after attaching to a host as a seed tick she becomes fully engorged (fig. 1) and drops to the pasture, to repeat the cycle of development. SUMMARY OF LIFE HISTORY. To sum up, on the pasture there are found three stages of the tick—the engorged female, the egg, and the larva; and on the host are found four stages—the larva, the nymph, the sexually mature adult of both sexes, and the engorged condition of the female. METHODS OF ERADICATION. In undertaking measures for eradicating the tick it is evident that the pest may be attacked in two locations, namely, on the pasture and on the cattle. In freeing pastures the method followed may be either a direct or an indirect one. The former consists in excluding all cattle, horses, and mules from pastures until all the ticks have died from starvation. The latter consists in permitting the cattle and other animals to con- tinue on the infested pasture and treating them at regular intervals with oils or other agents destructive to ticks and thus preventing engorged females from dropping and reinfesting the pasture. The larve on the pasture, or those which hatch from eggs laid by females already there, will all eventually meet death. Such of these as get upon the cattle from time to time will be destroyed by the treat- ment, while those which fail to find a host will die in the pasture from starvation. Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be treated with an agent that will destroy all the ticks present, or they may be rotated at proper intervals on tick-free fields until all the ticks have dropped. 378 EE EE EOE oe eel EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 1a TIME REQUIRED TO KILL TICKS BY STARVATION. The time required for the ticks to die out after all animals have been removed from infested fields and pastures varies considerably, depending principally on climatic and weather conditions. The dates when pastures will be free of ticks, begimning during each month of the year, are given in the following table: Time required to free pastures from ticks by starvation. Date of removal of all animals from pasture. | Date when pas- | ture will be free from ticks. PIPTLOM DELGE ei i a coe cw ete ns vee October 1 to November 1, inclusive. March 1. May 1. July 1. August 1. Date of removal of all animals from pasture, Date when pas- ture will be free from ticks. | September 1. September 15. October 15. November 1. DOME OI an tetera coe amano August 15. The above table is based on investigations by Hunter and Hooker @ at Dallas, Tex., and by the writer at Auburn, Ala., under cooperation between the Bureau of Animal Industry and the veterinary depart- ment of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute. All the periods ob- tained by Newell and Dougherty (1906)° in work carried on at Baton Rouge, La., which is much farther south, are shorter. The above periods should be found ample for all localities lying no farther north than Dallas, Tex., or Auburn, Ala. The periods necessary to starve out an infestation for many localities in the southern part of the infested region are no doubt somewhat shorter than those given above. In general, moisture and cold prolong and dryness and heat shorten the duration of an infestation. If various portions of the same pasture differ with regard to temperature and moisture, as is frequently the case, some parts become free of ticks before others do. Other things being equal, high, dry, unshaded land becomes tick free sooner than low, damp, shady land. The simplest and safest plan in most cases, however, will be to follow the foregoing table in the region indicated for it. It is prob- able that the periods given in the table should be lengthened a little for the northern part of the infested region. The experiments con- ducted thus far in various places indicate this and it will place the eradication work in that region on the safe side. For example, E. C. Cotton’ obtained at Knoxville, Tenn., records for September and April somewhat longer than those given above. They are as follows: Cattle removed April 15; pasture free of ticks November 13. Cattle removed September 15; pasture free of ticks July 18. In localities with temperature and other conditions similar to those at Knoxville, Tenn., these periods should be followed. @ Bulletin 72, Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 6 Circular 10, State Crop Pest Commission of Louisiana. ¢ Bulletin 81, Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Tennessee. 378 1 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. TIME REQUIRED TO RENDER CATTLE FREE OF TICKS WHEN PLACED ON UNINFESTED FIELDS. Before discussing plans for rendering farms tick-free, involving the use of the information given in the foregoing table, it will be neces- sary to indicate how animals may be entirely freed from ticks by placing them on uninfested fields. This is based on the fact that the female tick must drop from the host to the ground before eggs can be laid and before young ticks will develop. The shortest time in which seed ticks will appear after engorged females have been dropped is twenty days. Consequently cattle placed on a tick-free field during the warmer part of the year are not in danger of becoming infested again with young ticks until twenty days have elapsed. The time required for all the ticks to drop after cattle have been placed on uninfested land varies with the temperature. It is much longer during the winter than during the summer. The time required, beginning at various times of the year, Is given in the following table: Time required for all ticks to drop from cattle placed on tick-free land. : All ticks will - 5 All ticks will When ticky cattle are placed on = When ticky cattle are placed on = tick-free land during— hay Sereue? | tick-free land during— Hay pa ed ANIGUSE tae sk eee ee ee Six weeks. Marchi:257. a. cce- sca= aceene settee Seven weeks. September. soc Sasa ies eee seas 0. DTI) eos Sen Seen eee ..-.-| Six weeks. Octobers ss = scan: Se Geecae auc Eight weeks. IM@Yes 2.5)25e pods Ket oe eee ee Do. Novemiberss¢e 522.2 cieeen-aeeeene Nine weeks. JUNG: aes bee eel cease seme Do. VANUATY te ee ieee eee oe ee Ten weeks. JY ete cee ose eae eee ee amb eee Five weeks. MeDruary : 2 25 ise) Saeco ces Seven weeks. FREEING CATTLE OF TICKS BY ROTATION ON TICK-FREE LAND. The plan of freeing cattle of ticks by rotating them from one iot or field to another is as follows: Beginning at any time of the year from February to September, inclusive, the cattle are removed from the tick-infested pasture they have been occupying to a tick-free lot or field, and continued there for not more than twenty days. During this time a considerable number of ticks will drop. In order to pre- vent the cattle from becoming reinfested (by seed ticks resulting from eggs laid by females that have dropped), the herd is then changed to a second tick-free inclosure for twenty days longer, and if they are not free of ticks by that time they are placed in a third tick-free inclosure for twenty days more. Should the two changes at intervals of twenty days have been made, sixty days will have elapsed, which is ample time for all ticks to have dropped during the portion of the year indicated, and the animals are ready to be placed on a tick-free pasture or field without danger of becoming reinfested. The periods to free cattle (given in the above table) are believed to 378 —e es oe a EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 13 be ample. It will, however, be a wise precaution to make a careful examination of the cattle for ticks before placing them in the non- infested field they are to occupy. During the part of the year from October to January, inclusive, the time required for seed ticks to appear after females have dropped is much longer than the time necessary for all the ticks to drop from cattle. Consequently, if it is desired, the herd may be continued on the same field for the required length of time without danger of becoming reinfested. FREEING BOTH CATTLE AND PASTURES OF TICKS BY THE ROTATION METHOD. The particular scheme of rotation to be followed on a farm depends much on the conditions which have to be met. In figures 8 to 11 four plans of rotation are represented. In these diagrams no attempt has been made to indicate, except in a very rough way, the relative size of the fields, since this depends on the number of cattle and on various conditions of a more or less local nature. It rests with the farmer to select his fields with regard to location and size so as to carry out properly and successfully the plan which he adopts. The matter of the dissemination of ticks deserves particular attention in considering rotation methods. The engorged females which drop on a pasture will crawl at most only a few feet. The same may be said of the larve or seed ticks. It is possible, however, for seed ticks to be passively carried considerable distances at times. Dogs, cats, and other animals which ordinarily pass unhindered over farms may become covered with seed ticks while gomg through one field, and later some of these may be brushed off the animal while passing through the herbage of an adjoining field. Even though the danger of ticks being spread in this manner is not great, it will be well, when practicable, to take precautions against it. Again, engorged females, eggs, and seed ticks may be carried by run- ning water from a pasture without being injured in any way. The danger from this source is probably greatest where there are many small streams subject to frequent floods of short duration and on hill- sides where the water runs off with great force during heavy rains. This will, no doubt, in some localities present a rather serious problem in tick eradication. Ticks may crawl from the edge of one pasture into an adjoining pasture, or engorged females may. drop from the heads of animals reaching through a dividing fence. These difficulties are best over- come by constructing a double fence with an intervening space of 15 feet. Such a double fence, if the land does not slope greatly, will also greatly reduce the danger of ticks being washed from one pasture to the other during rains. 378 4 14 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. Plan requiring four and one-half months.—The plan of rotation represented in figure 8 requires four and a half months for its com- pletion. Some time during the spring the pasture is divided in the middle by two lines of temporary fence 15 feet apart. The herd is first confined in field No. 1A. On June 15 it is moved from this por- tion of the pasture to the other portion, designated field No. 1B, and on September 2 is moved to field No. 2A. The cattle are permitted to remain twenty days on each of the fields designated 2A, 2B, and 3. At the end of this time (November 1) all the ticks on the cattle have dropped, and the herd is returned to field No. 1A, which in the mean- time has become free of ticks. Later, if it is desired, the cattle may be placed in field No. 4. They should not, however, be returned to any of the other fields or driven across them, since these are infested with ticks. Field No. 1B will be free from ticks July 1 of the follow- ing year, at which time the temporary double fence may be removed and the cattle allowed to graze over the entire pasture. The rest of the farm will be free of ticks by August 1. If found desirable, the herd may be continued longer in field No. 3, even as late as February 15, the only objection to this being that it will break the crop rotation by preventing the sowing of oats in the fall. It is well, when practicable, to have double fences with an inter- vening space of 15 feet between the different fields in order to prevent the ticks getting from one field to another. If this is not possible on account of the expense and time required to build the extra line of fence, the next Lest thing is to throw up with a plow several furrows on each side of the dividing fences. When there are streams running through the farm or the slope of the land is considerable, so that ticks may be washed from one field to the other during rains, the fields should be so arranged or selected that the drainage is from field No. 1A to No. 1B, and from field No. 3 toward fields Nos. 2A and 2B. Plan requiring eight months.—The plan indicated in figure 9 is begun fifteen days later than the preceding one and requires eight months for its completion. The pasture is divided as before. The herd is moved July 1 from field No. 1A to No. 1B, and on October 15 is moved from there to field No. 2. The herd may be continued on fields Nos. 2 and 3 until February 15 in any way found most con- venient, since there is no danger of young ticks hatching during that time. The herd is moved not later than February 15 to field No. 4. All the ticks on the cattle will have dropped by December 20, consequently the herd may be moved to field No. 4 as early as that date, if found desirable. By March 1 the original pasture is free and the cattle are returned there. Field No. 1B will be free of ticks by August 1, at which time 378 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 15 the double fence separating the two parts of the pasture may be removed. The rest of the farm will not be certainly free of ticks until September 1. The drainage in general should be from field No. 1A toward No. 1B, and from field No. 4 toward field No. 2. FIELD NO.2B. OCT. 12. MOVE THE HERD TO FIELD NO.3. _OATS FOLLOWED BY | __ FIELD N03. FIELD NO. 4 COWPEAS OR OTHER CORN. COTTON. FORAGE. COWPEAS. RYE OR CRIMSON CLOVER. FIELD NO.2A. NOV.1. MOVE he tS TO SEPT.22.MOVE THE FIELD N HERD TO FIELD NO 2B. ,AND BUR CLOVER. FIELD NO.I B. SEPT. 2. MOVE THE HERD TO FIELD NO.2A. KEEP OUT ALL ANIMALS UNTIL JULY |, WHEN THIS FIELD WILL BE FREE OF TICKS AND THE TEMPORARY DOUBLE FENCE MAY BE REMOVED. FIELD NO.1 A. JUNE 15. MOVE THE HERD TO FIELD NO.1B. KEEP QUT ALL ANIMALS FROM THIS DATE UNTIL NOV. 1, WHEN THIS FIELD WILL BE FREE OF TICKS. ! | PASTURE: BERMUDA, VET,C ! l | l l | I l | | H | | | | | | | l | l Fic. 8.—Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring four and one-half months. Plan requiring four months, with a new pasture.—The plan of rota- tion represented in figure 10 involves changing the location of the pasture. The oat field (field No. 4) after the grain has been harvested is reserved for this purpose. It should be sown in cowpeas, Bermuda 378 16 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. grass, and bur clover. The herd is moved October 15 from the original pasture, field No. 1, to field No. 2, where it may be kept for a month or two, or until the feed becomes short, then moved to field No. 3, where it is kept until February 15, when it is moved to the FIELD NO. 2. OATS. COWPEAS AND BURCLOVER. MOVE HERO TO FIELD NO.3. FIELD NO.3. CORN. COLWPEAS. CATTLE WILL BE FREE OF TICKS BY DEC. 20. FIELD NO,4 COTTON. RYE AND WINTER LEGUMES. MAR.I.MOVE THE HERD TO FIELD NO. 1A. BETWEEN THIS DATE AND. FEBR.15 MOVE-THE HERD TO FIELD NO.+. PERMANENT PASTURE. FIELD NO.1 A. FIELD NO.IB. OCT.15. MOVE THE HERD TO FIELD \JULY I, MOVE HERD TO PASTURE NO. B. NO.2. \KEEP ALL ANIMALS OUT OFTHIS [FIELD UNTIL MAR.1, WHEN IT. WILLBE 1FREE OF TICKS. Faq. 9.—Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring eight months. new pasture, field No. 4. The old pasture may be planted in oats. The drainage should be from field No. 4 toward field No. 2. The feed-lot or soiling method, requiring four and one-half months.— In the plan given in figure 11 the feed-lot or soiling method is made 378 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. UZ use of to free the cattle of ticks. In the spring field No. 3B, located near the farmyard, is sown in corn for a soiling crop. The area de- voted to corn should be sufficient to supply feed for the herd for five or six weeks. Field No. 3A, after the oats are harvested, should be FIELD NO.2. FIELD NO.3. FIELD NO.4- CORN. COTTON FOLLOWED OATS, COWPEAS. BY CRIMSON CLOVER, VETCH, COWPEAS, BUR CLOVER OR RYE. BERMUDA, BUR CLOVER MOVE THE HERD FROM FEBR. 15, MOVE THE HERD BECOMES THE NEW THIS PEED TO FIELD TO FIELD NO. 4. PASTURE. 0.3. FIELD NO.1. PASTURE. OCT. 15. MOVE HERD TO FIELD NO.2. PLANT IN OATS ANO FOLLOW WITH COWPEAS. Fic. 10.—Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring four months, with new pasture. sown in sorghum and cowpeas or millet and cowpeas, and should be large enough to furnish feed for the herd until November 1. These fields should not have had cattle on them for at least ten months. ’ Previous to June 15 three lots, each large enough to accommodate the herd, are fenced off in field No. 3B. These lots should not be 378 18 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. located on a stream, and the drainage should be from field No. 3A toward field No. 3B. There should be a space of 15 feet or more between the lots. On June 15 the herd is moved to lot No. 1, and afterwards to lots Nos. 2 and 3 at intervals of twenty days. After the cattle have spent the required time in lots Nos. 1 and 2, if it is found FIELD NO.4- CORN. COL/PEAS. FIELD NO.3A. FIELD NO.3B. OATS. may UM AND COWPEAS. R MILLET AND COWPEAS. DRILLED CORN FOR SOILING CROP LOT NO3 LOT NO.2. LOT NO.I. NOV. RETURN HERD TO PASTURE. heb To JULY 25,MOVE| | JULY 5S MOVE NO. 2 FIELD NO.2. COTTON. COWPEAS. FIELD NO.1. PASTURE. JUNE 15. MOVE HERD TO L KEEP ALL ANIMALS OUT OF Pers FieLO UNTIL Nou. 1, WHEN IT WILL Fia. 11.—Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation; feed-lot or soiling method. after a careful examination made by some one familiar with such work that the cattle are free of ticks, they may be turned directly into field No. 3A. If they are not free they should be placed in lot No. 3 until they are free, or, if this can not be determined with certainty, until fifteen or twenty days more have elapsed, which will be much longer than necessary for all ticks to drop during July and August. 378 ee ee ee ee se ee ee — = EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 19 If desirable, the corn in each lot may be cut and removed before the cattle are placed in it. As soon as possible after the cattle are removed from a lot the female ticks and eggs present on the ground should be plowed under and the ground along the fence sprayed with crude petroleum or some other disinfectant to prevent any seed ticks which may hatch from getting beyond the area of the lot. Another valuable precaution will be to use for feed, as far as possible, the corn opposite or in advance of the lot in which the cattle are located, since this is less likely to harbor seed ticks. The pasture will be free of ticks by November 1, and the cattle may then be returned there if desired. The herd may, however, be con- tinued on field No. 3A as long after that date as the forage lasts, or, in case of a shortage of feed previous to November 1, it may be moved to either field No. 2 or 4, provided one of these is ready for pasturage. These fields may be used for fall and winter pasturage in any way that may be found desirable. DIPPING, SPRAYING, AND HAND DRESSING. Ticks upon cattle may be destroyed by using various ‘‘tickicides,” such as oils, arsenic, etc. These may be applied in three ways, namely, by hand, by the use of spray pumps, and by means of the dipping vat. Hand application is practicable only when a few animals are to be treated. The substances of value in this method are a mixture of lard and kerosene, cotton-seed oil, or a half-and-half mixture of cotton-seed oil and kerosene, and finally, crude petroleum, which in general has proved the most effective, although it has some draw- backs, chief of which are the difficulty of obtaining oil of the proper quality, its expense, its bulk, which makes its transportation costly, and the liability of injury to cattle when the treatment is applied in hot weather. Any of these may be applied with a mop or a good- sized paint brush, but unless great pains are taken this method of treatment is not thorough, and even at the best some portions of the body where ticks may be located will be missed. Spraying is adapted for small-sized herds. The arsenical mixture or the crude petroleum or emulsions of the same may be applied by means of an ordinary pail spraying pump (fig. 12). There are also pumps on the market designed for making a temporary mechanical mixture of oil and water. Cotton-seed oil, or cotton-seed oil and kero- sene in a half-and-half mixture, or crude petroleum, may be used in these pumps, and a 20 per cent mixture of any one of these will kill most of the ticks. A large spraying machine which is now on the market and which has met with considerable favor in the treatment of large herds of cattle for mange is equally adapted to the application of remedies 378 20 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. for ticks, but on account of its expense is not likely to come into general use, and dipping in a vat is therefore on the whole the best and cheapest method of applying remedies when large herds are to be treated. Farms and pastures may be freed of ticks by treating all cattle at regular intervals with an effective tick-destroying agent. If the treatment is applied with such success as to destroy all ticks Fic. 12.—Pail spraying pump for small herds. that reach the cattle from time to time, thus preventing any engorged females from dropping on the pasture after the beginning of the treatment, the pasture will become free of ticks after the same period of time has elapsed as would have been required if all animals had been excluded, beginning on the same date; that is, a per- fectly successful treatment would be practically the same as the complete exclusion of the herd. The dates on which the starving 378 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 21 out of an infestation will be effected when begun at various times of the year have already been given in the table on page 11. In actual practice, however, the best treatment will in many cases not be absolutely successful, as some ticks will escape and may reinfest the pasture and thus prolong the time necessary to accom- plish eradication. This method offers the advantage that the pasture may be used continuously. Dips, their preparation and use.—Crude petrolewm.—Various kinds of crude petroleum have been used with more or less success in destroy- ing ticks. The heavier varieties of oil are very injurious to cattle. On the other hand, the very light oils are so volatile that their effects last but a short time, thus rendering them less efficient. The petro- leum known as Beaumont oil, obtained from Texas wells, has given the best results. The best grade of this oil to use is one that has a specific gravity ranging from 225° to 243° Beaumé, containing 1} to 14 per cent of sulphur, and 40 per cent of the bulk of which boils between 200° and 300° C. The oil may be applied by employing a spray pump or a dipping vat. Animals that have been dipped in crude oil, especially during warm weather, should not be driven any great distance immediately after- wards, and should be provided with shade and an abundance of water. Unless these precautions are observed serious injury and losses may result. . Emulsions of crude petrolewm.—In the majority of cases the best agent to use is an emulsion of crude petroleum, preferably Beaumont crude petroleum. The use of the emulsion makes the treatment less expensive than when the oil alone is used. The emulsion is not so injurious to the cattle and is almost if not quite as effective as the oil alone. The formula for preparing an emulsion of crude petroleum is as follows: LSE [SDN 0 RE SS Oe hee a ge ee ee eee Be pound.. 1 SOMiOrImeegtONe walelsascsece a c.2 sone coe Seis ke oc see Sees gallon.. 1 beapmont crude petroleums: 5 s.-..2oss4. 4422s. e60.264.-'42 gallons... 4 Making 5 gallons of 80 per cent steck emulsion. When a greater quantity of stock emulsion is desired, each of the quantities in the above formula should be multiplied by such a number as to furnish the required amount. Jor example, if it should be con- venient to mix 10 gallons at one time, the quantities would have to be multiplied by 2, and if 15 gallons were desired, they would have to be multiplied by 3, and so on. In preparing the emulsion the soap should be shaved up and placed in a kettle or caldron containing the required amount of water. The water should be brought to a boil and stirred until the soap is entirely dissolved. Enough water should be added to make up for the loss by 378 99 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. evaporation during this process. The soap solution and the required amount of oil are then placed in a barrel or some other convenient receptacle and mixed. The mixing may be effected by the use of a spray pump, pumping the mixture through and through the pump until the emulsion is formed. A convenient and time-saving method is to do the mixing in a barrel by first pouring in one part of hot soap solution and then four parts of crude petroleum and repeating this until the barrel is filled. |The oil should be poured in with as much force as possible and the mixture stirred constantly with a long paddle until the oil is completely emulsified. The mixing is facilitated also by dipping up the mixture and pouring it back with a pail. If made properly, this stock emulsion is permanent and will keep indefinitely. To prepare the stock emulsion for use, it is diluted with water to a 20 or 25 percent emulsion. In order to obtain a 20 per cent emulsion of oil, it is necessary to use one part of the stock emulsion to 3 parts of water, and for a 25 per cent emulsion one part of stock emulsion to 21 parts of water. The stock emulsion is permanent, but the diluted emulsion does not remain uniformly mixed, so that if allowed to stand it should be thoroughly mixed by stirring before using. Only rain or freestone water should be used for diluting, and if this is not available, the water should be ‘‘softened” by adding a sufficient amount of concentrated lye, sal soda, or washing powder. Care should be observed in this process not to use an excess of these prep- arations. An 80 per cent stock emulsion is on the market, and much time and labor can be saved by obtaining this instead of making the emulsion. To prepare it for use, it should be diluted in the same manner as indi- cated above for the homemade stock emulsion. The arsenical dip.—This dip is used considerably on account of its cheapness and the ease with which it is prepared. In general it has proved very effective in destroying ticks, and is less likely than crude petroleum or emulsions of the same to injure cattle when dipping has to be done in hot weather. Some injury to the skin is, however, likely to occur when the arsenical mixture is used, and this injury, which will be so slight as to be scarcely noticeable if the cattle are properly handled, is liable to be serious if the cattle are driven any distance, especially if allowed to run while being driven within a week after treatment. The formula given below for making an arsenical dip is the one most commonly used in this country: Sodium carbonate’ (sul. soda)=t.i< 3.2822 825922 ete eee pounds.. 24 Arsenic trioxid (white atsenic).=-- «J s2scsso Acne see dou. es Pine tari. 2s cde aera s Soe See ie ee gallon.. 1 Sufficient water to make 500 gallons. 378 Po ee ee ee eee ee EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 23 If a stronger arsenical dip is desired, 10 pounds of arsenic may be used in place of 8 pounds, but in general the stronger solution should not be used. In warm weather particularly it is not advisable to use a solution stronger than that given in the above formula, if the animals are to be treated every two weeks. In preparing the dip, a large caldron or galvanized tank is required for heating the water in which to dissolve the chemicals. Thirty or forty gallons of water should be placed in the caldron or tank and brought to a boil. The sodium carbonate is then added and dis- solved by stirring. When this is accomplished, the arsenic is added and dissolved in a similar manner. ‘The fire is then drawn and the pine tar added slowly in a thin stream and thoroughly mixed with the dip by constant stirrmg. This strong stock solution is diluted to 500 gallons before using. If one desires, double or triple the amount of stock solution indi- cated above may be prepared at one time, provided a large enough vessel is available. In case a small vessel holding 20 to 25 gallons must be used, half of the stock solution indicated may be prepared. This will, however, consume so much more time in preparing large quantities that when possible it is advisable to provide a large vessel for dissolving the chemicals. The stock solution, if it is to be used for dipping, may be placed in the vat as fast as it is prepared, or, if it is to be used for spraying, may be stored in barrels. The most convenient way of diluting the dip is to run the water into the vat through a hose or pipe. The capacity of the vat, if not known, should be calculated, and for convenience the water line marked at several places on the sides. After the exact amount of stock solution necessary to furnish diluted dip to fill the vat has been prepared and placed in the vat, all that is necessary is to allow water to flow into the vat until the surface of the dip reaches the marks made on the sides of the vat. For example, if the capacity of the vat is 2,000 gallons, then four times the amount of the stock solution necessary to make 500 gallons of the dip should be prepared, placed in the vat, and the latter filled with water to the 2,000-gallon mark. When for any reason it is not convenient to follow the above method of diluting the dip, a stock solution may be prepared in which the quantity of ingredients for 500 gallons of diluted dip are dissolved in 50 gallons of water. Nine parts of water to one part of this stock solution will then give the proper dilution. This stock solution is found very convenient when small amounts of diluted dip are required from time to time for spraying cattle. Fifty gallons of the stock solution can be placed in a barrel and just the amount required each time taken out and diluted. 378 94 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. The diluted arsenical solution may be left in the vat and used repeatedly, replenishing with the proper quantities of water and stock solution when necessary. When not in use the vat should be tightly covered with a waterproof cover to prevent evaporation on the one hand and further dilution by rain on the other hand. Securely covering the vat when not in use also lessens the risk of accidental poisoning of stock and human beings. Precautions in use of arsenic.—On account of the fact that arsenic is a dangerous poison, great care must be observed in making and using the arsenical dip. From the time the arsenic is procured from the druggist until the last particle of unused residue is properly disposed of, the most scrupulous care should be taken in handling this poison. Guessing at weights or measures or carelessness in any particular is liable to result in great damage, and not only may valuable live stock be destroyed, but human beings may lose their lives as well. In the use of arsenical dips care should be taken not only to avoid swal- lowing any of the dip, but persons using the dip should also bear in mind the possibility of absorbing arsenic through cuts, scratches, or abrasions of the skin, and the possibility of absorbing arsenic by inhalatioa of vapors from the boiler in which the dip is prepared, or by the inhalation of the finely divided spray when the spray pump is used. It should be remem- bered that the absorption of even very small quantities of arsenic if repeated from day to day is liable ultimately to result in arsenical poisoning. Cattle should always be watered a short time before they are dipped. After they emerge from the vat they should be kept on a draining floor until the dip ceases to run from their bodies ; then they should be placed in a yard free of vegetation until they are entirely dry. If cattle are allowed to drain in places where pools of dip collect, from which they may drink, or are turned at once on the pasture, where the dip will run from their bodies on the grass and other vegetation, serious losses are liable to result. Crowding the animals before they are dry should also be avoided, and they should not be driven any considerable distance within a week after dipping, espe- cially in hot weather. If many repeated treatments are given the cattle should not be treated oftener than every two weeks. In addition to properly protecting vats containing arsenical dip when not in use, another precaution must be observed when vats are to be emptied for cleaning. The dip should not be poured or allowed to flow on land and vegetation to which cattle or other animals have access. The best plan is to run the dip in a pit properly protected by fences. The dip should also not be deposited where it may be carried by seepage into wells or springs which supply water used onthe farm. The same pre- cautions should be observed when animals are sprayed as when they are dipped. Method of spraying.—Spraying is probably the most practicable and convenient way of treating cattle on the majority of farms. A 378 ~~ =.) = EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 25 good type of pail spray pump (fig. 12), costing from $5 to $7, will be found satisfactory for treating small herds. About 15 feet of {-inch high-pressure hose is required, and a type of nozzle furnishing a cone- shaped spray of not too wide an angle will be found satisfactory. A nozzle with a very small aperture should not be used, because the spray produced is too fine to saturate properly the hair and skin of the animals without consuming an unnecessary amount of time. The animal to be sprayed should be securely tied to one of the posts of a board or rail fence, or, better still, when convenient, to the corner post in an angle of the fence. This will facilitate the spraying by preventing the animal from circling abcut to avoid the treatment, and will reduce the amount of help necessary. Every portion of the body should be thoroughly treated, special attention being given to Fra. 13.—Spraying cow from pail with hand pump. the head, dewlap, brisket, inside of elbows, inside of thighs and flanks, the tail, and the depressions at the base of the tail. Crude oil alone may be used, but in general a 20 to 25 per cent emulsion will be found more satisfactory. All the cattle on the place should be sprayed every two weeks with this emulsion. The horses and mules should be kept free of ticks by picking or other means. If on account of heavy rains or other causes the oil disappears rather rapidly from the skin of the cattle, spraying should be carried out oftener. The interval should never be greater than two weeks, and spraying should not be discontinued simply because the ticks have become scarce or seem to have disappeared. This is a great temptation to the busy farmer, on account of the labor and expense incident to spraying, but in the long run it is short- 378 2°26 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. sighted economy, since in most cases it will increase the time necessary for eradication. If the ticks have entirely disappeared from the cat- tle during the fall and winter, this does not necessarily mean that eradication has been accomplished, because there may be present on the premises dormant seed ticks, live females, and eggs that will hatch with the coming of warm weather. It can not be determined until the next summer whether eradication has been entirely accomplished. In localities where ticks commonly occur on cattle in considerable numbers during the winter time it will be advisable to continue spraying. In localities where ticks disappear or are present in very small numbers during the winter, the cattle should be inspected Fig. 14.—Spraying cattle with hand pump from barrels on wagon. carefully each week to remove and destroy any ticks that may be present. When warm weather comes, it will be well in all cases in which spraying has been discontinued during the winter to begin spraying and continue until it can be determined with certainty that eradication has been accomplished. The spraying should not be delayed until ticks show again in considerable numbers. One tick destroyed in the early spring will save the trouble of destroying thousands a few months later. At the time of the first spraying all the large ticks should be removed by hand and destroyed. This will also be a very helpful thing to do at each spraying, when it is possible, because large females are likely to drop in a few hours after the cattle have been treated, and consequently may not suffer a great deal from the oil. The 378 —-_ EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 27 farmer who has a small herd which is handled every day should be constantly on the lookout for large ticks. A few minutes spent each day in removing and destroying these ticks will materially aid any treatment employed to eradicate the tick. Eradication will also be much facilitated if at the beginning of the work all litter and manure are removed from stables, sheds, and yards that have been occupied by the cattle, and deposited on land where cattle are not permitted to run. After this is done the buildings should be thoroughly disin- fected to destroy any eggs or ticks that may be there. For this pur- pose the following substances may be used: A mixture made with not more than 13 pounds of lime and one- fourth pound of pure carbolic acid to each gallon of water. 2. Any coal-tar creosote dip permitted by the United States Department of Agriculture in the official dipping of sheep for scabies, diluted to one-fifth of the maximum dilution specified for dipping sheep. A spray pump should be used to apply the disinfectant, and the walls, floors, and various fixtures of the buildings should be thor- ughly sprayed. Specifications and materials for a dipping vat.—A vat constructed according to the accompanying plans will hold 2,088 gallons when filled to a depth of 5 feet. Excavation.—Excavate for the vat, as shown by the drawings (fig. 15), to the proper depth. Level the bottom of the pit for the sills. After the vat is completed fill in around it, using the surplus earth to bring the grade at the sides of the vat a little above the natural grade and slope the surface away from the vat. Dig the holes required for all posts, ete. Carpenter work.—The drawings show the vat constructed according to two methods. One method is to make the sides of 4 by 4 inch posts spaced about 3 feet apart and lined with 2 by 8 inch dressed, sized, and bevel-edged plank, using 20-penny spikes to fasten chen to the posts and braces. All the joints are to be calked with oakum well driven in with a calking iron and pitched. The floor of the vat and the inclines are to be made of 2-inch plank with joints calked, the exit incline to have 2 by 4 inch cleats spiked to the plank flooring. The slide should have an angle of about 25° and should be covered with No. 16 galvanized iron. The other method is to build the sides of the vat of 2 by 4 inch posts and 2 by 4 inch braces spaced about 16 inches on centers. The 2 by 4 inch posts and braces are to be lined with % by 8 inch tongued-and- grooved flooring, blind nailed at every bearing with 10-penny nails. All the joints are to be laid in white lead paste and the boards firmly driven up. 378 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 28 Lumber.—The lumber used in the construction of the vat must be thoroughly dried and seasoned stock, free from large and loose knots, straight grained, and free from sap. ‘qed Sutddtp 9401009 IO POOA\ IO} SSUIMCIG—'CT “DI an is eT tr----=-4 SSeS Seer yee neeei eee a a (ema ai mE ti ait uit oa ~e . mi A Hi is im i a = ‘ar wr "7 TH 17 He ' ‘ Sree 4 91 f "POOL Word NI] Wey WOLL0FT H i Ey ake a oC el moe Operate a ont — SS 40597 --— ss oeeneea — 9-8) SS SS Se f ' SPP SIV TINA H i H SS aS Seas Se Se eee SRW a yp a-- = == 2mm anna =n = ane ana nnn nn nen fo ' ' Sk eel ‘ ' ; 1 4 a i! o. ' | ' x: tH tt st Bt gi WY Regine S O:o 2 ; | ; RIS SENDS UE OO BX Site 202/5€4/ Civ97D ‘GRLWTTD woury o-c/x0e7 NId INidalay WMO e— ME MILI OL VOOM O:2/ x 0-27 Nid INad/ag Gutters.—The gutters for the dripping pens should be made of sound stock, the bottom plank housed into the sides and ends, and All the joints are to be laid in white the ends housed into the sides. EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. 29 lead paste and thoroughly nailed. Gutters are to have 3-inch fall in 11 feet. Concrete vat.—The concrete vat should be made of concrete com- posed of 1 part by measure of good Portland cement, 3 parts of clean sharp sand, and 5 parts of broken rock, the broken rock to be not larger than will pass in any direction through a 2-inch ring. The rock should be washed free of dust. Concrete should be mixed wet and well tamped into place. Bill of materials for vat and draining pens.— Vat.—Lumber for vat when constructed of 2-inch material and 4 by 4 inch posts: SHE scone Beene eee ne SeSeaee 8 pieces 4 by 4 inches by 10 feet long. 1 piece 4 by 4 inches by 16 feet long. 1 piece 4 by 4 inches by 14 feet long. 6 pieces 4 by 4 inches by 12 feet long. 5 pieces 4 by 4 inches by 10 feet long. | piece 4 by 4 inches by 16 feet long. 6 pieces 4 by 4 inches by 12 feet long. 1 piece 4 by 4 inches by 10 feet long. 1 piece 4 by 4 inches by 6 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 8 inches by 18 feet long. 1 piece 2 by 8 inches by 16 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 8 inches by 12 feet long. 1 piece 2 by 8 inches by 10 feet long. bs pieces 2 by 8 inches by 20 feet long. LSVEEWOXEIE ERT a (Cire Rios Se ae a ee 25 pieces 2 by 8 inches by 18 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 8 inches by 16 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 6 inches by 18 feet long. Dressed one side and two edges. Edges bevelled for calking. 3 pieces 2 by 10 inches by 20 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 10 inches by 16 feet long. 1 piece 2 by 10 inches by 14 feet long. T1KG Tbe te. ea 1 piece 2 by 10 inches by 7 feet long. 1 piece 2 by 12 inches by 12 feet long. Dressed one side and two edges. Edges bevelled for calking. Cleats...................-.--.-- 4 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 12 feet long. Sir KGS ee Ae ET ee | Lumber for vat when constructed of flooring and 2 by 4 inch posts: SRE ee cee Ak oh se 5 7 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 14 feet long. Pokis is pieces 2 by 4 inches by 18 feet long. 0 eee "~"~"" 4 pieces 4 by 4 inches by 11 feet long. 15 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 12 feet long. 1b LOE ss ee 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 10 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 16 feet long. Guards....................-.-.-. Materials the same as specified above. Sides.........................-. 550 feet b. m. $ by 8 inches tongue and grove floor- ing. al ciliate Seo rest anes 3 Se 2 Materials the same as specified above. Cleats............--.........--- Materials the same as specified above. 378 30 EXTERMINATING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. Lumber for draining pens: Mud, sulla: 20 1. vate Cees 10 pieces 4 by 12 inches by 2 feet long (cedar or cypress). PlOOpers. -.- 2-1. 2. eee oes 4 pieces 6 by 6 inches by 12 feet long. JOSS oe et. oe eee eee 13 pieces 2 by 12 inches by 12 feet long. lefoies esac ear berc ont, 26 Sooke 360 feet b. m. tongue and grove flooring { by 8 inches—12-foot pieces. Deas. ooo 522 cn eae as po 265 linear feet 1 by 3 inches. Sides: 4 pieces 2 by 12 inches by 11 feet long (dressed). Bottom and ends: 2 pieces 2 by 12 inches by 12 CONG ee ao Soe Bs Se pp feet (dressed). Bottom housed into sides and ends. Ends housed into sides. All joints calked and white leaded or pitched. 11 pieces 4 by 4 inches by 7 feet long. PORtSeeeies Soir geen Sects if pieces 4 by 4 inches by 8 feet long. 2 pieces 4 by 4 inches by 9 feet long. ; 2 pieces 2 by 8 inches by 18 feet long. RAT Rech Sees see ae, Aa Ret ea F pieces 2 by 8 inches by 16 feet long. 18 pieces 2 by 8 inches by 12 feet long. Braces sco 5. Moe ca, eee ae 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 10 feet long. ae {7 pieces 1 by 6 inches by 12 feet long. ge Oe tae Se ae. 6 pieces 1 by 6 inches by 10 feet long. Hardware for vat and draining pens: 4 pairs 12-inch heavy T hinges and screws. 4 wrought-iron hooks and staples. 1 pair wrought-iron hook hinges, 12-inch, wood screw hooks, and screws. 50 pounds 20-penny wire nails. 15 pounds 10-penny wire nails. 12 square feet No. 16 galvanized iron. When vat is constructed of flooring and 2 by 4 posts, the following additional hardware will be required: 19 pounds 20-penny wire nails. 12 pounds 10-penny wire nails. Material for concrete vat: Concrete, | part Portland cement, 3 parts sand, 5 parts broken rock or gravel. 19 cubic yards broken rock or gravel. 18 cubic yards sand. 30 barrels Portland cement. 378 ee ee Se es eee . The followin tion. experiments performed b are self-explanatory. FARMERS’ BULLETINS. Bulletins in this is a list, by number, of the Farmers’ Bulletins available for distribu- The pallebing entitled ‘‘Experiment Station Work” give in brief the results of the State experiment stations. Vist will be sent free to any address in the Titles of other bulletins United States on application to any Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Numbers omitted have been discontinued, being superseded by later bulletins. . The Feeding of Farm Animals. . Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. . Flax for Seed and Fiber. . Weeds: And How to Kill Them. . Grape Diseases on the Pacifie Coast. . Silos and Silage. . Peach Growing for Market. . Meats: Composition and Cooking. . Potato Culture. . Cotton Seed and Its Products. . Facts About Milk. . Commercial Fertilizers. . Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. . The Manuring of Cotton. . Sheep Feeding. . Standard Varieties of Chickens. . The Sugar Beet. . Some Common Birds. . The Dairy Herd. . Experiment Station Work—I. . Bee Keeping. . Methods of Curing Tobacco. . Asparagus Culture. - Marketing Farm Produce. . Care of Milk on the Farm. . Ducks and Geese. . Experiment Station Work—II. . Experiment Station Work—III. . Essentials in Beef Production. . Experiment Station Work—lIV. . The Liming of Soils. . Experiment Station Work—V. . Experiment Station Work—VI. - Corn Culture in the South. . The Culture of Tobacco. . Tobacco Soils. . Experiment Station Work—VII. . Fish as Food. 5. Thirty Poisonous Plants. - Experiment Station Work—VIII. . Alkali Lands. . Potato Diseases and Treatment. . Experiment Station Work—IX. . Sugar as Food. }. Raising Sheep for Mutton. . Experiment Station Work—X. . Suggestions to Southern Farmers. - Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. . Hog Raising in the South. . Millets. . Experiment Station Work—XI. . Notes on Frost. . Experiment Station Work—XII. . Breeds of Dairy Cattle. . Experiment Station Work—XIII. - Rice Culture in the United States. . Bread and Bread Making. . The Apple and How to Grow It. . Experiment Station Work—XIV. . Grape Growing in the South. . Experiment Station Work—XV. - Insects Affecting Tobacco. - Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food. - Experiment Station Work—XVI. . Experiment Station Work—XVII. . Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. . Important Insecticides. . Eggs and Their Uses as Food. - Household Tests for Detection of Oleomarga- rine and Renovated Butter. . Inseet Enemies of Growing Wheat. . Experiment Station Work—XVIII. . Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. . Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. - The Angora Goat. 378 . Irrigation in Field and Garden. . Emmer: A Grain for the Semiarid Regions. . Pineapple Growing. . Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. . Experiment Station Work—XIX. . Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. . Experiment Station Work—XX. . Clearing New Land. . Scabies of Cattle. 54. The Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. 5. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. 3. The Home Vineyard. . The Propagation of Plants. . How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. . Experiment Station Work—X XI. . Rape as a Forage Crop. . Silkworm Culture. }. Cheese Making on the Farm. . Cassava. . Experiment Station Work—X XII. . Principles of Horse Feeding. . Seale . Primer of Forestry. . Broom Corn. - Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented nsects and Mites on Citrus Trees. Part I: The Forest. Grape Juice. . Cranberry Culture. . Squab Raising. - Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. - Horseshoeing. Pruning. . Poultry as Food. . Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, and Keeping. . Beautifying the Home Grounds. ). Experiment Station Work—X XIII. . Drainage of Farm Lands. . Weeds Used in Medicine. . Experiment Station Work—X XIV. 2. Barnyard Manure. 3. Experiment Station Work—X XV. . Alfalfa Seed. . Annual Flowering Plants. }. Usefulness of the American Toad. . Importation of Game Birds and Eggs for Prop- agation. . Strawberries. . Corn Growing. . Turkeys. . Cream Separator on Western Farms. 2. Experiment Station Work—X XVI. . Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. . The Cultivation of Mushrooms. . Pig Management. }. Milk Fever and Its Treatment. . Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries. . Experiment Station Work—X XVII. . The Use of Paris Green in Controlling the Cot- ton Boll Weevil. . Raspberries. 7. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton. . The School Garden. . Lessons from the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904. - Tomatoes. . Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. . Experiment Station Work—X XVIII. . Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas. . Canadian Field Peas. . Experiment Station Work—X XIX. . Experiment Station Work—X XX. . Forest Planting and Farm Management. I LIST OF FARMERS’ . The Production of Good Seed Corn. . Spraying for Cueumber and Melon Diseases. 2. Okra: Its Culture and Uses. 233. Experiment Station Work—X XXI. 4. The Guinea Fowl. 5. Preparation of Cement Concrete. 5. Incubation and Incubators. . Experiment Station Work—X XXII. . Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States. . The Corrosion of Fence Wire. . Butter Making on the Farm. . An Example of Model Farming. 3. Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Dis- eases of Fruits. 4. Experiment Station Work—XX XIII. 5. Renovation of Worn-out Soils. }. Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. 8. The Lawn. . Cereal Breakfast Foods. . The Prevention of Wheat Smut and Loose Smut of Oats. . Experiment Station Work—X XXIV. 2. Maple Sugar and Sirup. . The Germination of Seed Corn. . Cucumbers. . The Home Vegetable Garden. 5. Preparation of Vegetabies for the Table. . Soil Fertility. . Texas or Tick Fever and Its Prevention. . Experiment Station Work—XXXV. . Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. . Experiment Station Work—XX XVI. . Practical Information for Beginners in Irriga- tion. . The Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. }. Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. . Experiment Station Work—XXXVII. . Industrial Aleohol: Sources and Manufacture. . Industrial A.cohol: Uses and Statisties. . Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. . Forage Crop Practices in Western Oregon and Western Washington. . A Suecessful Hog and Seed-corn Farm. . Experiment Station Work—X XXVIII. . Flax Culture. . The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. 76. Experiment Station Work—XXXIX. . The Use of Alcohol and Gasoline in Farm En- gines. . Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. . A Method of Kradicating Joonson Grass. . A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm. . Experiment Station Work—XL. . Celery. . Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling Mot. in the Ozarks. . Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East ofthe Rocky Mountains. . The Advantage of Planting Heavy Cotton Seed. - Comparative Value of Whole Cotton Seed and | Cotton-seed Meal in Fertilizing Cotton. . Poultry Management. 8. Nonsaccharine Sorghums. Bea ns. . The Cotton Bollworm. . Evaporation of Apples. . Cost of Filling Silos. 3. Use of Fruit as Food. . Farm Practice in the Columbia Basin Uplands. . Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. . Experiment Station Work—XLI. . Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. . Diversified Farming Under the Plantation Sys- tem . Some ‘Important Grasses and Forage Plants for the Gulf Coast Region. . Hlome-grown Tea. . Sea-Island Cotton: Its Culture, Improvement, and Diseases. . Corn Harvesting Machinery. . Growing and Curing Hops. 378 305. 306. - Roselle: Its Culture and Uses. . Experiment Station Work—X LIII. . A Successful Alabama Diversification Farm. . Sand-clay and Burnt-clay Roads. - A Successful Southern Hay Farm. . Harvesting and Storing Corn. . A Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape . A Primer of Forestry. BULLETINS. Experimen Station Work—XLII. Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds. Boll-weevil Damage. . Progress in Legume Inoculation. . Experiment Station Work—XLIV. . Experiment Station Work—XLV. Cowpeas. . Demonstration Work in Cooperation with Southern Farmers. . Experiment Station Work—XLVI. . The Use of the Split-log Drag on Earth Roads. . Milo as a Dry-land Grain Crop. . Clover Farming on the Sandy Jack-pine Lands of the North. . Sweet Potatoes. . Small Farms in the Corn Belt. 3. Building up a Run-down Cotton Plantation. . Silver Fox Farming. . Experiment Station Work—XLVII. Deer Farming in the United States. . Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Okla- homa. . Nuts and Their Uses as Food. . Cotton Wilt. . Experiment Station Work—XLVIII. . Harmful and Beneficial Mammals of the Arid Interior. . Game Laws for 1908. . Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms. . Macadam Roads. . Alfalfa. . The Basket Willow. . Experiment Station Work—XLIX. . The Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky and Tennessee. . The Boll Weevil Problem with Special Refer- ence to Means of Reducing Damage. . Some Common Disinfe: tants. ). The Computation of Rations for Farm Ani- mals by the Use of Energy Values. . The Repair of Farm Equipment. 8. Bacteria in Milk. . The Dairy Industry in the South. . The Dehorning of Cattle. . The Tuber: ulin Test of Cattle for Tuberculosis. £2. The Nevada Mouse Plague of 1907-8. 3. Experiment Station Work—L. - Onion Culture. . A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 5. Peanuts. . Methods of Poultry Managements at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. Part II: Practical Forestry. . Canning Vegetables in the Home. . Experiment Station Work—LI. . Meadow Fescue: Its Culture and Uses. 2. Conditions Affecting the Value of Market Hay. . The Use of Milk as Food. . A Profitable Cotton Farm. . Potato Growingin Northern Sections. 5. Experiment Station Work—LII 17. Lightning and Lightning Conductors. . The Eradiction of Bindweed, or Wild Morn- ing-Glory. . How to Destroy Rats. . Replanning a Farm for Profit. . Drainage of Irrigated Lands. . Soy Beans. . Irrigation of Alfalfa. . Experiment Station Work—LIII. . Care of Foodin the Home. . Game Laws for 1909. . Harmfulness of Headache Mixtures. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ; Issued June 15, 1910. ’ | FARMERS’ BULLETIN No. 397. eer Ss. BY Peewee LiPs, Pa. Ds In Charge of Bee Culture, Bureau of £-ntomology. 4 ; i be] f I BBs Nant NUE er, BR AGRICULTURE gS S40 COMMER NZ Session 3% iain NRCS insomlan instity > / 0, JUN ZU iil Nyy; ; WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, en Ue _ = LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau OF ENTOMOLOGY. Washington, D. C., March 8, 1910. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled “Bees,” by E. F. Phillips, Ph. D., in charge of bee culture in this Bureau. In the preparation of this paper, which is intended to supersede Farmers’ Bulletin No. 59, the aim has been to give briefly such information as is needed by persons engaged in the keeping of bees, and to answer inquiries such as are frequently received from correspondents of the Department. No attempt has been made to include discussions of bee anatomy, honey plants, or the more special manipulations sometimes practiced, such as queen rearing. The discussion of apparatus is necessarily brief. I respectfully recommend the publication of this paper as a Farmers’ Bulletin. Respectfully, L. O. Howargp, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. 397 2 CONTENTS. 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Dy) DEGKs2 i c- aes sess. Sis an dG ont ee ee 42 Peete an DOU KH.OM DCO KEGPINe: |. 2 2. «Soa Oe. a ed eae ate 43 Publications of the Department of Agriculture on bee keeping. ..-.---..-- 43 397 3 TLL See Tae Page. Bre. 1, Awell-arranged apiary..--- 0-2. e.:-¢c-2-+--.---5-2=2225--0- eee 35 397 BE) EB: S.. INTRODUCTION. Bee keeping for pleasure and profit is carried on by many thousands of people in all parts of the United States. As a rule, it is not the sole occupation. There are, however, many places where an ex- perienced bee keeper can make a good living by devoting his entire time and attention to this line of work. It should be emphasized that it is unwise for the average individual to undertake extensive bee keeping without considerable previous experience on a small scale, since there are so many minor details which go to make up suc- cess in the work. These must be thoroughly understood before there is any hope for continued success. It is, therefore, most desirable to begin on a small scale, make the bees pay for themselves and for all additional apparatus, as well as some profit, and gradually to increase as far as the local conditions or the desires of the individual permit. Bee culture is the means of obtaining for human use a natural product which is abundant in almost all parts of the country, and which would be lost to us were it not for the honey bee. The annual production of honey and wax in the United States makes apiculture a profitable minor industry of the country. From its very nature it can never become one of the leading agricultural pursuits, but that there is abundant opportunity for its growth can not be doubted. Not only is the honey bee valuable as a producer, but it is also one of the most beneficial of insects in cross-pollinating the flowers of various economic plants. Bee keeping is also extremely fascinating to the majority of people as a pastime, furnishing outdoor exercise as well as intimacy with an insect whose activity has been a subject of absorbing study from the earliest times. It has the advantage of being a recreation which pays its own way and often produces no mean profit. It is a mistake, however, to paint only the bright side of the picture and leave it to the new bee keeper to discover that there is often an- other side. Where any financial profit is derived, bee keeping re- quires hard work and work at just the proper time, otherwise the 397 5 6 BEES. surplus of honey may be diminished or lost. Few lines of work re- quire more study to insure success. In years when the available nectar is limited, surplus honey is secured only by judicious manipu- lations and it is only through considerable experience and often by expensive reverses that the bee keeper is able to manipulate properly to save his crop. Anyone can produce honey in seasons of plenty, but these do not come every year in most locations and it takes a good bee keeper to make the most of poor years. When, even with the best of manipulations, the crop is a failure through lack of nectar, the bees must be fed to keep them from starvation. The average annual honey yield per colony for the entire country, under good management, will probably be 25 to 30 pounds of comb honey or 40 to 50 pounds of extracted honey. The money return to be obtained from the crop depends entirely on the market and the method of selling the honey. If sold direct to the consumer, ex- tracted honey brings from 10 to 20 cents per pound, and comb honey from 15 to 25 cents per section. If sold to dealers, the price varies from 6 to 10 cents for extracted honey and from 10 to 15 cents for comb honey. All of these estimates depend largely on the quality and neatness of the product. From the gross return must be deducted from 50 cents to $1 per colony for expenses other than labor, including foundation, sections, occasional new frames and hives, and other inci- dentals—not, however, providing for increase. Above all it should be emphasized that the only way to make bee keeping a profitable business is to produce only a first-class article. We can not control what the bees bring to the hive to any great ex- tent, but by proper manipulations we can get them to produce fancy comb honey, or if extracted honey is produced it can be carefully cared for and neatly packed to appeal to the fancy trade. Too many bee keepers, in fact the majority, pay too little attention to making their goods attractive. They should recognize the fact that of two jars of honey, one in an ordinary fruit jar or tin can with a poorly printed label, and the other in neat glass jar of artistic design with a pleasing, attractive label, the latter will bring double or more the extra cost of the better package. It is perhaps unfortunate, but nevertheless a fact, that honey sells largely on appearance, and a progressive bee keeper will appeal as strongly as possible to the eye of his customer. LOCATION OF THE APIARY. The location of the hives is a matter of considerable importance. As a rule it is better for hives to face away from the prevailing wind and to be protected from high winds. In the North, a south slope is desirable. It is advisable for hives to be so placed that the sun will strike them early in the morning, so that the bees become active 397 Vs BEES. t early in the day, and thus gain an advantage by getting the first sup- ply of nectar. It is also advantageous to have the hives shaded during the hottest part of the day, so that the bees will not hang out in front of the hive mstead of working. They should be so placed that the bees will not prove a nuisance to passers-by or disturb livestock. This latter precaution may save the bee keeper considerable trouble, for bees sometimes prove dangerous, especially to horses. The plot on which the hives are placed should be kept free from weeds, especially in front of the entrances. The hives should be far enough apart to permit of free manipulation. If hives are too close together there is danger of bees entering the wrong hive on returning, especially in the spring. Fic. 1.—A well-arranged apiary. These conditions, which may be considered as ideal, need not all be followed. When necessary bees may be kept on house tops, in the back part of city lots, in the woods, or in many other places where the ideal conditions are not found. As a matter of fact, few aplaries are perfectly located; nevertheless, the location should be carefully planned, especially when a large number of colonies are kept primarily for profit. As a rule, it is not considered best to keep more than 100 colonies in one apiary, and apiaries should be at least 2 miles apart. There are so many factors to be considered, however, that no general rule can be laid down. The only way to learn how many colonies any given locality will sustain is to study the honey flora and the record of 397 8 BEES. ‘that place until the bee keeper can decide for himself the best number to be kept and where they shall be placed. The experience of a relatively small number of good bee keepers in keeping unusually large apiaries indicates that the capabilities of the average locality are usually underestimated. The determina- tion of the size of extensive apiaries is worthy of considerable study, for it is obviously desirable to keep bees in as few places as possible, to save time in going to them and also expense in duplicated appa- ratus. To the majority of bee keepers this problem is not important, for most persons keep but a small number of colonies. This is per- haps a misfortune to the industry as a whole, for with fewer apiaries of larger size under the management of careful, trained bee keepers the honey production of the country would be marvelously increased. For this reason, professional bee keepers are not favorably inclined to the making of thousands of amateurs, who often spoil a location - for a honey producer and more often spoil his market by the inju- dicious selling of honey for less than it is worth or by putting on the market an inferior article. Out apiaries, or those located away from the main apiary, should be so located that transportation will be as easy as possible. The primary consideration, however, must be the available nectar supply and the number of colonies of bees already near enough to draw on the resources. The out apiary should also be near to some friendly person, so that it may be protected against depredation and so that the owner may be notified if anything goes wrong. It is espe- cially desirable to have it in the partial care of some person who can hive swarms or do other similar things that may arise in an emergency. The terms under which the apiary is placed on land belonging to some one else is a matter for mutual agreement. There is no general usage in this regard. EQUIPMENT IN APPARATUS. It must be insisted that the only profitable way to keep bees is in hives with movable frames. The bees build their combs in these frames, which can then be manipulated by the bee keeper as neces- sary. The keeping of bees in boxes, hollow logs, or straw ‘‘skeps”’ is not profitable, is often a menace to progressive bee keepers, and should be strongly condemned. Bees in box hives (plain boxes with no frames and with combs built at the will of the bees) are too often seen in all parts of the country. The owners may obtain from them a few pounds of inferior honey a year and carelessly continue in the antiquated practice. In some cases this type of bee keeping does little harm to others, but where diseases of the brood are present the box hive is a serious nuisance and should be abolished. 397 BEES. 9 HIVES. It is not the purpose of this bulletin to advocate the use of any particular make of hive or other apparatus. Some general state- ments may be made, however, which may help the beginner in his choice. The type of hive most generally used in this country (fig. 2) was invented by Langstroth in 1851. It consists of a plain wooden box holding frames hung from a rabbet at the top and not touching the sides, top, or bottom. Hives of this type are made to hold from eight —_—==_—— frames upward. The size of frame in general use, known as the Langstroth (or L) frame (91 by 172 inches), is more widely used than all others combined. The num- ber of frames used depends on the kind of honey pro- duced (whether comb or ex- tracted), and on the length of honey flow and other local factors. There are other hives used which have points of superiority. These will be found discussed in the vari- ous books on bee keeping and in the catalogues of dealers in bee keepers’ supplies. Whatever hive is chosen, there are certain points of importance which should be insisted on. The material should be of the best; the parts must be accurately made, so that all frames or hives in the aplary are inter- Fig. 2.—A ten-frame hive with comb-honey super and changeable. Allhives should ES Soe gio ea be of the same style and size; they should be as simple as it is pos- sible to make them to facilitate operation. Simple frames diminish the amount of propolis, which will interfere with manipulation. As a rule, it is better to buy hives and frames from a manufacturer of such goods rather than to try to make them, unless one is a good wood worker. 36827—Bull. 397—10 Sy a 10 BEES. The choice of a hive, while important, is usually given undue prominence in books on bees. In actual practice experienced bee keepers with different sizes and makes of hives under similar condi- tions do not find as much differ- ence in their honey crop as one would be led to believe from the various published accounts. HIVE STANDS. Generally it is best to have each hive on a separate stand. The entrance should be lower than any other part of the hive. Stands of wood, bricks, tile (fig. 2), concrete blocks, or any other convenient material will answer the purpose. The hive should be raised above the ground so that the bottom will not rot. It is usually not necessary to raise the hive more than a Fig. 3.—Smoker. few inches. Where ants are a nuisance special hive stands are some- times necessary. OTHER APPARATUS. In addition to the hives in which the bees are kept some other apparatus is necessary. A good smoker (fig. 3), consisting of a tin or copper receptacle to hold burning rotten wood or other material, with a bellows attached, is indis- pensable. Fic. 8.—Spring bee escape. Fic. 9.—Bee brush. 7 Ss etter epecp teas Tt ae ee ee ee BEES. 13 The Italian bees, the next introduced, are the most popular race among the best bee keepers in this country, and with good reason. They are vigorous workers and good honey gatherers, defend their hives well, and above all have been more carefully selected by Ameri- can breeders than any other race. Especially for the last reason it is usually desirable to keep this race. That almost any other race of bees known could be bred to as high a point as the Italians, and per- haps higher,.can not be doubted, but the bee keeper now gets the benefit of what has been done for this race. It should not be under- stood from this that the efforts at breeding have been highly success- ful. On the contrary, bee breeding will compare very unfavorably with the improvement of other animals or plants which have been the subject of breeding investigations. Italian bees have been carefully selected for color by some breeders to increase the area of yellow on the abdomen, until we now have what are known as ‘‘five-banded” bees. These are very beautiful, but it ean scarcely be claimed that they are improved as honey pro- ducers or in regard to gentleness. They are kept mostly by amateurs. Some breeders have claimed to select Italians for greater length of tongue, with the object of getting a bee which could obtain the abundance of nectar from red clover. If any gain is ever made in this respect it is soon lost. The terms ‘‘red-clover bees” or ‘‘long- tongued bees” are somewhat misleading, but are ordinarily used as indicating good honey producers. : Caucasian bees, recently distributed throughout the country by this Department, are the most gentle race of bees known. They are not stingless, however, as is often stated in newspapers and other periodicals. Many report them as good honey gatherers. They are more prolific than Italians and may possibly become popular. Their worst characteristic is that they gather great quantities of propolis and build burr and brace combs very freely. They are most desirable bees for the amateur or for experimental purposes. Carniolan and Banat bees have some advocates, and are desirable in that they are gentle. Little is known of Banats in this country. Carniolans swarm excessively unless in large hives. Cyprians were formerly used somewhat, but are nowrarely found pure, and are unde- sirable either pure or in crosses because of the fact that they sting with the least provocation and are not manageable with smoke. They are good honey gatherers, but their undesirable qualities have caused them to be discarded by American bee keepers. ‘‘Holy-land,’’ Egyptian, and Punic (Tunisian) bees have also been tried and have been universally abandoned. 397 14 BERS. BEE BEHAVIOR. The successful manipulation of bees depends entirely on a knowl- edge of their habits. This is not generally recognized, and most of the literature on practical bee keeping consists of sets of rules to guide manipulations. This is too true of the present paper, but is due to a desire to make the bulletin short and concise.. While this method usually answers, it is nevertheless faulty, in that, without a knowledge of fundamental principles of behavior, the bee keeper is unable to recognize the seemingly abnormal phases of activity, and does not know what to do under such circumstances. Rules must, of course, be based on the usual behavior. By years of association, the bee keeper almost unconsciously acquires a wide knowledge of bee behay- ior, and consequently is better able to solve the problems which con- stantly arise. However, it would save an infinite number of mis- takes and would add greatly to the interest of the work if more time were expended on a study of behavior; then the knowledge gained can be applied to practical manipulation. A colony of bees consists normally of one queen bee, the mother of the colony, and thousands of sexually undeveloped females called workers, which normally lay no eggs, but gather the stores, keep the hive clean, feed the young, and do the nehes work of the hive. During part of the year there are also present some hundreds of males or drones (often removed or restricted in numbers by the bee keeper) whose only service is to mate with young queens. These three types are easily recognized, even by a novice. In nature the colony lives in a hollow tree or other cavity, but under manipulation thrives in the artificial hives provided. The combs which form their abode are composed of wax secreted by the workers. The hexagonal cells of the two vertical layers constituting each comb have interplaced ends on a common septum. In the cells of these combs are reared the developing bees, and here are stored honey and pollen for food. The cells built naturally are not all of the same size, those used in rearing worker bees being about one-fifth of an inch across, and those used in rearing drones and in storing honey about one-fourth of an inch across (fig. 10). The storage cells are more irregular, and gen- erally curve upward at the outer end. Under manipulation, the size of the cells is controlled by the bee keeper by the use of comb founda- tion—sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of cells and on which the bees build the side walls. In the North, when the activity of the spring begins, the normal colony consists of the queen and some thousands of workers. As the workers bring in early pollen and honey, the queen begins to lay eggs in the worker cells. These in time develop into white larve, which grow to fill the cells. They are then capped over and transform 397 oA BEES. 15 gradually into adult worker pees. As the weather grows warmer, and the colony increases in size by the emergence of the developing bees, the quantity of brood is increased. The workers continue to bring in pollen, and nectar to be made into honey. After a time the queen begins to lay eggs in the larger cells, and these develop into drones or males. Continued increase of the colony would result in the formation of enormous colonies, and unless some division takes place no increase in the number of colonies will result. Finally, however, the workers begin to build queen cells over certain female larve. These are larger than any other cells in the hive and hang on the comb vertically. In size and shape they may be likened to a peanut and are also rough on Fig. 10.—Piece of comb showing worker and drone cells with irregular transitions. Reduced. the outside. When the larve in these cells have grown to full size they too are sealed up, and the colony is then ready for swarming. Swarming consists of the exit from the hive of the original queen with part of the workers. They leave the hive to seek a new home and begin the building of combs, storing of honey and pollen, and rearing of brood in a new location. They leave behind the honey stores, except such as they can carry in their honey stomachs, and the brood, some workers, and no adult queen, but several queen cells from which will later emerge young queens. By this interesting process the original colony is divided into two. The swarm finds a new location either in a hollow tree or, if cared for by the bee keeper, in a hive. The workers build new combs, the queen begins laying, and in a short time the colony is again in normal condition. 397 16 BEES. The colony on the old stand (parent colony) has the advantage of the bees which emerge from the brood. After a time (usually about nine days), the queens in their cells are ready to emerge. If the col- ony is only moderately strong the first queen to emerge is allowed by the workers to tear down the other queen cells and kill the queens not yet emerged, but if a ‘“‘second swarm” is to be given off the queen cells are protected. If the weather permits, after from five to eight days the young queen flies from the hive to mate with a drone. Mating usually occurs but once during the life of the queen and always takes place on the wing. In this single mating she receives enough sperma- tozoa to last throughout her hfe. She returns to the hive after mating, and in abeut two days begins egg laying. The queen never leaves the hive except at mating time or with a swarm, and her sole duty in the colony is to lay eggs to keep up the population. When the flowers are in bloom which furnish most nectar, the bees usually gather more honey than they need for their own use, and this the bee keeper can safely remove. ‘They continue the collection of honey and other activities until cold weather comes on in the fall, when brood rearing ceases; they then become relatively quiet, remaining in the hive all winter, except for short flights on warm days. When the main honey flow is over, the drones are usually driven from the hive. By that time the virgin queens have been mated and drones are of no further use. They are not usually stung to death, but are merely carried or driven from the hive by the workers and starve. A colony of bees which for any reason is without a queen does not expel the drones. Many abnormal conditions may arise in the activity of a colony, and it is therefore necessary for the bee keeper to understand most of these, so that when they occur he may overcome them. If a virgin queen is prevented from mating she generally dies, but occasionally begins to lay eggs after about four weeks. In this event, however, all of the eggs which develop become males. Such a queen is commonly called a “ drone-layer.”’ If the virgin queen is lost while on her flight or the colony at any other time is left queenless without means of rearing additional queens, it sometimes happens that some of the workers begin to lay egos. These eggs also develop only into drones. It also happens at times that when a queen becomes old her supply of spermatozoa is exhausted, at which time her eggs also develop only into drones. These facts are the basis of the theory that the drone of the bee is developed from an unfertilized egg or is partheno- genetic. ! | f Se Or aed Mi Ayn < oN Bem FARMERS’ BULLETIN 440. meeavING PEACHES FOR THE CONTROL OF BROWN-ROT, PSe Ab. AND CURCULIO. BY Wei sscoryT, OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, AND Ao lL SOUAINTANCE, OF THE BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY. M3 e KS N ‘\= U2 fr yt Ni WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. Oden: LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Washington, D. C., February 18, 1911. Str: We have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for publication as a Farmers’ Bulletin, a manuscript entitled “‘Spray- ing Peaches for the Control of Brown-Rot, Scab, and Curculio,” by W. M. Scott, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and A. L. Quaintance, of the Bureau of Entomology. The loss to the peach growers of the United States from brown-rot, scab, and curculio amounts to millions of dollars annually, and until recently there has been no effective means of preventing this great shrinkage. Experiments conducted by this department during the past four years, however, have abundantly demonstrated that these troubles can be thoroughly controlled at a small cost. The results of experiments and demonstrations conducted during 1910 and instructions for the application of the treatment are contained in the accompanying manuscript. Respectfully, Wm. A. TAYLor, Acting Chief, Bureau of Plant Industry. L. O. Howarp, Chief, Bureau of Entomology. Hon. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. 440 9 “ CONTENTS. rua atat icra ea es et Oe i a og oe No eatin e sie ose eicle ss 5 IDROWTHIROL. Sante esec gece ogethe 756 Reon R bo ORB ee aD eee See ee aaa aioe 7 etme ware (ease Oke Ne Mise ABO. a= act core sais a0 oii yn e aisle ch aie fale ''s < 7 i asentGnTe EAC fiom At: Sheet anttsiatie Senos 6a > Hadise eee atis = 2! 5 8 Mintrerisiace ane source Ol MmleChONe ass 5-402 skeen S =< 2225 eee eee ee Se 9 Eminence ol.tne weather and imsecis. 2.22222. 2.2 2.2 eas bs sees 9 {ERGOT TNS oe Sates Rs he tees ee a Seat ac ee i ea eee 10 LP GE21 REED cnc See Gees Pn ge i gg 10 Meonomir importance of theudisease.. 2.2% 22. 222 hiss. e+ esse test - 10 iacmiavene aindicatuseren tnexdiseases225 2 $3225 Sse/sicix!a elcie so scs Slap sm eee bine o- 11 Teeruneeminiility ob. wahiehless 0.222222 aslo os = Qos been ee eee hee se 11 Recent e eicrge aes eS i het ea eta cameos bee 12 COTE By SCLULERE eT S ag s S ey a i 13 UNSBSH SHOVEY CG bn 61g TG)M YS yee Sy in gc ea eo 13 Pomdimmanin-and character Of aajilky, 02554. oec. vod tee ay) anes eese ek hss - 14 Paccuieencnusani hain ers = care tees Ue eee). kok Dol Giows ote genie 15 Hawathe curcitiiospassessthe: WIMten: S226 Le) cies = bie ete ese 15 ie ein fem Wenn MAL Ses cart 5. oe crete ne eters oe oe PA eee Se aes 2 15 Bl eeriens cin ouive ics Pena ee Sieg? iam reine. SP oR a AEs Fw SS Seles oye 18 Period of oviposition and number of eggs laid.................------- 18 AVAPER@ fey Slave ite Mtl Ove) UU genre ee eget ne Bese, eo gon 19 Pier soe Nipi hemor ares. Grtoeres te ene ets eee. ts ostey 20 Time required for transformation from egg to adult............-..--.-- 20 Habits of beetles from emergence until hibernation..........-..-.----- 20 Results of spraying experiments and demonstrations during 1910............-- ak Peaapeeimeninime Weot Virsa 1O1OS = 2522. 22k cos doe os ee ee 26 Bieta CLO uns pTOWCIen et 200 so ees on os ks debe eee eabe St 29 Pech ousprayin= on the quality of the fruit. -..........2-.-..2s22s2ec5l eee 31 Effect of the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash on scale insects......-.--....------ 32 Eee avOn AN tse Ol LB PRAM ack soo eci ih. ie aw states eet ets et Gees 33 Directions for the preparation of self-boiled lime-sulphur wash............ 34 Pirectious for usine arenate of lead: 2--56).£255: 6.2. -e- ols 2 2622s 22+ 35 Eicon iry: (rommaprayino. 23 Sane Me ale cated wapineeeemee ce 35 CIES GH REET) OR 0 2 en ee 37 PS abecioleraiea pralieaionneee os eek << scant ee) te Dep le Seon sees ae 38 WUT SENSE STS ESP = pS ro cae ee ee 39 LES ST GUESS ais — Set EN ET pt ON en lk a 39 EeePC TCR. |) em A aero cree eee ae PALEY odie ies ie dieig 8 40 440 3 Fic. ILLUSTRATIONS: . Peaches entirely destroyed by brown-rot, showing gray masses of spores ofthe funpiss.. 42: - i255 2S be ele ee. ce eee eee . Peach scab on Elberta peaches, showing spots and cracks caused by thie Giseases..+ 2c-2<.2 ds ces ae ns ene 4 OE ee eee . Two adult curculios ona young peach. ....+:-.- 25 -225--e 5. eee . Deformed ripe peaches resulting from feeding and egg-laying punc- . Peaches showing the exudation of gum from curculio punctures......- . Peach infested with curculio larva, or grub... :....0¢ Secs. does oss ee ee . Plan of a block of peach trees jarred for the curculio, showing the . Crop from four Salway trees sprayed twice, Okonoko, W. Va. Scabby fruit in single basket; remainder of the crop sound..........-....- . Crop from four unsprayed Salway trees, Okonoko, W. Va. Sound fruit in three baskets; remainder of the crop scabby.......-.---.- . Crop from four Salway trees sprayed twice, Okonoko, W. Va. Rotten fruit in upturned basket; remainder free from rot ..........----..- 2. Crop from four unsprayed Salway trees, Okonoko, W. Va. Fruit in six baskets affected with brown-rot; the remainder free from rot, but . Elberta peach sprayed three times with arsenate of lead, showing the browning and cracking effect of the poison.................----.-- . Young peaches, showing the earliest and latest stages at which the first arsenate of lead treatment should be made..................- Page. 37 39 B. P. I.—654. SPRAYING PEACHES FOR THE CONTROL OF BROWN-ROT, SCAB, AND CURCULIO. INTRODUCTION. The peach-growing industry in the United States at the present time has become a very important one, being second in extent among fruits only to the cultivation of the apple. According to the 1900 census there were in the territory east of the Rocky Mountains, which is subject to the troubles treated in this bulletin, approximately 91,000,000 bearing peach trees. Since that time the number of bearing trees has increased by perhaps one-fourth, making a possible total of 113,750,000 trees. Careful estimates indicate that the quantity of fruit annually harvested by peach growers in this terri- tory is not less than 10,000,000 bushels. Thus the crop for 1910, although an unusually large one, was for the territory mentioned, probably not less than 12,000 000 bushels, with a gross valuation of about $12,000,000 to $16,000,000. Although many insects and parasitic fungi occur on the peach, comparatively few are of much economic importance. Of the dis- eases of the peach, the brown-rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.) Schrét.) and scab, or black-spot (Cladosporium carpophilum Thiim.}, are responsible for practically all of the damage to the fruit crop and the insect injury is limited almost entirely to the attack of one species, the plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.). The brown-rot probably causes more loss to peach growers than all other maladies of the peach combined, with perhaps the exception of “yellows,” which kills the trees outright. In the South the brown- rot often causes the destruction of half or even practically all of the crop, and throughout the territory under consideration the annual shrinkage in yield is perhaps 25 to 35 per cent of the crop, representing a valuation of about $3,000,000 to $4,000,000. Although the brown- rot is always present in the peach orchards of humid sections, causing a rotting of a certain proportion of the fruit, it becomes notably destructive only under certain weather conditions, when within a period of 10 days or two weeks it will spread so rapidly as to result in the destruction of practically the entire crop. Such disastrous 440 b) 6 SPRAYING PEACHES. outbreaks are likely to occur during moist, humid weather as the fruit begins to ripen. The brilliant prospects of the orchardists are thus within a few days obliterated as if by fire. The peach scab is the only other destructive disease of the fruit in the eastern United States, and, while it does not occur in such sud- den and disastrous outbreaks, the sum total of the injuries caused by it are very important, resulting in a shrinkage in crop values of perhaps $1,000,000 annually. This disease occurs all over humid America where the peach is grown and is especially troublesome east of the Allegheny Mountains. It not only renders much of the fruit unfit for market, but so mars the appearance of the marketed fruit as to reduce its value. The plum curculio is of scarcely less importance in its relation to the successful production of the peach than the diseases above men- tioned. By its punctures of the fruit in feeding and egg laying and the injury resulting from the larve, or grubs, within the fruit it brings about a reduction in yield of a valuation amounting to perhaps not Jess than $3,750,000 annually. The puncturing of the fruit also greatly favors the brown-rot, and curculio control is a prime essen- tial in preventing losses from this malady. Although the plum curculio is very generally distributed eastward of the Rocky Moun- tains, it is especially abundant in the Middle and Southern States. During years of full fruit crops its injuries are less important, sim- ply more or less thinning the fruit; but when the crop is light little fruit may escape its ravages. The troubles mentioned have more than kept pace with the devel- opment of the peach-growing industry, and the cultivation of this crop, especially in the South, has become more and more hazardous, Practical means for their control have, therefore, been most urgently needed, and much attention has been given by investigators of the Department of Agriculture and of the various agricultural experi- ment stations to supply this want. While it has been possible by the use of certain sprays, such as Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, to effectively reduce these troubles, the sensitiveness of the foliage and fruit of the peach has practically prevented their employment, and the peach grower has been almost helpless against them. A spray effective in the control of these troubles and which at the same time may be used with perfect safety on the trees and fruit has been the most important requirement to place the industry on a reason- ably secure foundation. Experiments begun by the Bureau of Plant Industry some three or four years ago and carried out under varying climatic and other conditions in different parts of the eastern United States have estab- lished beyond question the effectiveness of the self-boiled lime- 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. iF sulphur wash for the control of the fungous troubles mentioned. Earlier experiments by the Bureau of Entomology had already shown that by the proper use of arsenate of lead the curculio could be largely controlled, though on account of danger of foliage injury its use had not been unqualifiedly recommended. Cooperative experiments between the two bureaus have shown that the fungicide and arsenical may be used as a combined spray with satisfactory results in controlling these troubles and without injury to the fruit and foliage of the peach. Hence, there is now available a satisfactory method for the control of these three serious obstacles to successful peach culture. In the following pages the brown-rot, peach scab, and curculio are treated with reference to their occurrence on the peach, and results are given of experiments and demonstrations in their control con- ducted jointly by the Bureau of Plant Industry and the Bureau of Entomology during 1910. The writers were assisted in this work by E. L. Jenne and E. W. Scott, of the Bureau of Entomology, and by Leslie Pierce and G. W. Keitt, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. BROWN-ROT. NATURE AND CAUSE OF THE DISEASE. Brown-rot is a fungous disease which affects the stone fruits, such as the peach, plum, and cherry, and to a less extent some of the pome fruits, such as the apple, pear, and quince, producing a so-called rot of the fruit and blight of the twigs. It is caused by a fungus known to botanists as Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.) Schrét. Brown-rot is the common name usually applied to the disease, but monilia, the generic name of the imperfect stage of the fungus, is often used by some of the older fruit growers. The disease appears on the fruit as a small circular brown spot, which under moist, warm conditions enlarges rapidly, soon involv- ing the entire fruit in decay (fig. 1). The spots do not usually become sunken, and the fruit remains plump until almost entirely decayed. The fungus growing in the tissues of the fruit breaks through the skin, forming small, grayish tufts of spore-bearing threads. These tufts, although few on young spots, soon become so numerous as to give the diseased area a grayish, moldy appearance, which is responsible for the term ‘‘peach mold”’ sometimes applied to the disease. The spores which are produced in great abundance by these fungous tufts are blown by the wind and carried by insects and birds from fruit to fruit, tree to tree, and orchard to orchard. Finding lodgment on the fruit under favorable conditions of tempera- ture and moisture, these spores germinate, producing a fungous . 440 & SPRAYING PEACHES, growth, which ramifies and kills the tissues. These dead tissues turn brown, and the fungus breaks through the surface, producing another crop of spores. The process is very rapid, only a few days interven- ing between one generation of spores and another. DAMAGE TO THE PEACH. Although the young fruits soon after the petals are shed may become affected, as a rule no marked outbreak occurs until the fruit is half grown or larger, and the greatest destruction is wrought at harvest time. The fruit crop may reach maturity in perfect condi- tion and yet be destroyed before it can be picked. Moreover, the fruit may become affected in transit or after reaching the market. It is no uncommon experience among peach growers to have a car- load of peaches leave the orchard in apparently good condition and Fria. 1.—Peaches entirely destroyed by brown-rot, showing gray masses of spores of the fungus. arrive on the market specked and practically worthless, owing to the brown-rot fungus. Through handling by pickers and packers some fruit in every package may become contaminated with spores from a few diseased fruits in the orchard. Enough moisture usually develops in the car to germinate the spores, and if the refrigeration is poor the fruit is likely to go down in partial or total decay before reaching the consumer. The fungus also attacks the blossoms and extends from these into the fruit-bearing twigs, often girdling them. In a wet spring the fruit crop may thus be materially reduced, although this form of attack is only occasionally serious. In like manner the fungus may 440 / SPRAYING PEACHES. 9 extend from diseased fruits into the twigs. Following an outbreak of brown-rot on the fruit, these twig infections may become so severe as to give the trees a blighted appearance. WINTER STAGE AND SOURCE OF INFECTION. The affected fruits largely drop to the ground, although many of them hang on the trees for months. They become dried and shriv- eled, and at this stage are known as brown-rot mummies. The fun- gus passes the winter in these mummies, which form the chief source of infection for the new fruit crop. When moistened by spring rains, the mummified fruits on the trees and on the ground become cov- ered with fruiting tufts of the fungus, producing countless numbers of spores. After 18 months, or at the end of the second winter, about the time peach trees are in bloom, there arise from the mummies on the ground, partly or entirely covered with soil, fruiting bodies repre- senting the perfect stage of the fungus. These are dark-brown somewhat bell-shaped disks, resembling toadstools. In them are produced an abundance of ascospores, which rise in the air and are walted by the wind. These, as well as the summer spores (conidia), serve to infect the blossoms and young fruits. The propagation of the fungus being thus so abundantly provided for, it is not surprising that a crop of fruit may be destroyed without much warning. INFLUENCE OF THE WEATHER AND INSECTS. In sections where the brown-rot is prevalent the spores are prac- tically omnipresent, and only favorable conditions for their germi- nation and the rapid growth of the fungus are required to start an outbreak of the disease. The most important factor is excessive moisture in the form of rain, which not only favors the production and germination of the spores and the growth of the fungus, but ren- ders the fruit soft and watery, and therefore more susceptible to the disease. High temperatures also favor the disease, although the fun- gus grows readily in mild summer temperatures. Prolonged cloudy weather with frequent light showers is more dangerous than a hard rain followed by clearing. Warm, muggy weather, when the fruit is maturing, is often disastrous to the crop. Insects, especially the curculio and certain plant bugs, play an important part in the distribution of the spores and the infection of the fruit. Although the fungus under favorable conditions is appar- ently able to pass readily through the unbroken skin of the fruit, it is greatly aided by insect abrasions. In the process of feeding and egg laying, the curculio punctures the skin of the fruit, opening the way for the fungus and in many cases perhaps actually inserting the spores. This insect may render spraying for brown-rot partially 82291°—Bul. 440—11——2" 10 SPRAYING PEACHES, ineffective by breaking the sprayed skin of the fruit, thus exposing the flesh to attack. In the treatment of the disease it is, therefore, important to combine an insecticide with the fungicide so as to destroy the beetles. TREATMENT. Experiments conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry during the past four years have shown conclusively that this disease can be controlled by the use of self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture.! A schedule of applications for the combined treatment of brown- rot, scab, and curculio is given on pages 38—40 of this bulletin. PEACH SCAB. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE DISEASE. Of the diseases affecting the fruit of the peach, scab is second only to brown-rot in economic importance; in fact, it is more destructive Fic. 2.—Peach scab on Elberta peaches, showing spots and cracks caused by the disease. than brown-rot in some of the mountain districts. It dwarfs the fruit and causes premature dropping, thereby reducing the yield; it ruptures the skin, opening the way for brown-rot attacks; and it mars the appearance of the fruit, thus lowering the grade and reducing its market value. The disease is common wherever peaches are grown east of the Rocky Mountains, scarcely an orchard being entirely free from it. In some cases, especially in a dry season, only a small per- centage of the fruit may become affected and with only a few small harmless spots, while in other cases the entire crop may become so badly affected as to be unmarketable. If the loss in the orchard 1 Circulars 1 and 27 and Bulletin 174, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 11 and the reduction in market value are both considered, it seems evi- dent that a loss of 10 per cent of the total value of the peach crop in the eastern United States is caused by peach scab. THE NATURE AND CAUSE OF THE DISEASE. The name commonly applied to this disease is ‘‘peach scab,” but it is also known as ‘‘black spot” and ‘‘freckles”’ and in some districts it is often improperly called ‘‘mildew.” It is caused by the fungus Cladosporium carpophilum Thiim., which grows in the skin of the fruit, producing small, circular dark-brown spots. When numerous, these spots give the fruit a smutty or blackened appearance and ‘ause the skin to crack (fig. 2). Fruit badly affected does not reach normal size and often drops prematurely. The fungus also attacks the twigs, producing brown spots, in which it passes the winter. These spots are very common in peach orchards, Fia. 3.—Two adult curculios on a young peach. (Considerably enlarged.) but they apparently do little damage to the twigs. During the spring or early summer the fungus growing in the spots produces olive-brown spores which serve to infect the young peaches. Simi- lar spores are also produced on the fruit spots. THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF VARIETIES. There is a considerable difference in varieties as to their suscepti- bility to peach scab. In general, the late varieties are much more susceptible than the early varieties. This is due, in part at least, 440 iI SPRAYING PEACHES. to the fact that the fruit of the late-maturing varieties is exposed to infection over a longer period and the opportunity for the develop- ment of the disease is greater. Of the commercial varieties, the Heath is perhaps the most susceptible; in fact, the disease has almost prohibited the growing of this variety except in a small way. The Bilyeu variety is also badly affected and the disease has restricted its culture to high, well-drained locations. The Salway, Smock, and most of the other varieties that ripen after the Elberta usually Fic. 4.—Deformed ripe peaches resulting irom feeding and egg-laying punctures. suffer rather severely from this disease, while the Elberta may be considered somewhat less affected, although the crop of this variety often becomes badly diseased. The varieties that ripen earlier than Elberta are as a rule only slightly or moderately affected. This is especially true of the Carman, Hiley, Champion, and Belle. On the other hand, the Mountain Rose and Early Rivers are quite suscepti- ble to the disease. TREATMENT. The development of the self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture as a fungi- cide has made possible the control of the scab without injury to the fruit or foliage. The injury produced by this disease may be almost 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 18 entirely prevented at a small cost. This has been abundantly dem- onstrated through experiments conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry during the past three or four years.'| The schedule of ap- plications for the control of this disease, together with the brown-rot and curculio, is given on pages 38-40 of this bulletin. LHE PLUM CURCULIO. WHAT THE CURCULIO IS. The curculio is a small snout beetle of the family Curculionids», which contains many species of economic importance. The adult Fic. 5.— Peaches showing the exudation of gum from curculio punctures. insects vary somewhat in size, but will average about three-sixteenths of aninch in length. Figure 3 illustrates two beetles on a newly set peach, all considerably enlarged. In the course of its growth the insect passes through four stages, namely, the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The larva, or grub, is the small whitish worm frequently found in ripe peaches, plums, and cherries and is well known to lovers of these fruits. There are many common names for this insect, such as the ‘‘plum curculio,” “plum weevil,” ‘peach curculio,”’ ‘‘peach worm,” “‘fruit ‘ 1 Circulars 1 and 27 and Bulletin 174, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 440 14 SPRAYING PEACHES, weevil,” “‘little Turk,” ‘‘curculio,’”’ ete. The name here used, how- ever, is perhaps best fixed in literature on economic entomology and has been adopted for this species by the American Association of Economic Entomologists. The plum curculio is a native American insect and fed originally, as it feeds at the present time, on wild plums and other wild fruits, especially Crataegus. Its injuries were noted as long ago as 1736, and it was the subject of an extended article published in 1804. Our early horticultural litera- ture abounds with refer- ences to its depredations, especially to plums, which were apparently grown with the greatest diffi- culty. So far as is known, the plum curculio is still con- fined to North America, ranging from southern Canada south to Florida and Texas and west to about the one hundredth meridian. It appears to be restricted in its west- ward spread by the more arid climate of the Great Plains region. It is prob- ably present throughout its entire area of distribution, but is especially abundant in the Central and Southern States. Fia. 6.—Peach infested with curculio larva, or grub. FOOD PLANTS AND CHARACTER OF INJURY. Practically all stone and pome fruits, such as peaches, plums, apri- cots, nectarines, cherries, apples, pears, etc., are used by the curculio for feeding and egg-laying purposes. Injury is done by both the adult and larva. The former punctures the fruit in feeding and in ege laying, and the grubs live within the fruit and spoil it for market or other purposes. The character and extent of injury vary with different fruits, and while the present paper deals with the insect as an enemy of the peach the statements here made are fairly applicable to other stone fruits, such as plums, cherries, apricots, and nectarines. 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 15 Most of the peaches punctured while small soon fall from the effect of the injury or on account of the presence of the developing grubs. After a peach is of some size, about one third grown, most of the larve apparently are unable to develop successfully in it, owing to its vigorous growth. There is a considerable period, therefore, when the curculio is able to inflict but little damage to vigorous- growing peaches, though the fruit may be more or less scarred by the feeding and egg punctures, from which gum may exude, espe- cially during moist weather (figs. 4 and 5). As stated elsewhere, these punctures and the exudation of gum greatly favor the brown- rot, forming a nidus for spores of the fungus and furnishing an easy point of infection. After the period of rapid growth of peaches has passed and the ripening process has begun, the curculio larva is able to develop readily in the fruit and, as the beetles are still ovipositing when early and midsummer varieties are ripening, wormy ripe peaches are often to be noted at picking time. The loss caused by worminess of fruit (fig. 6), while often quite important, is perhaps less so than that resulting from the ‘‘stings” which deform and scar the fruit. Wormy fruit and that which is scarred to any extent ripen prematurely, as a rule, and in untreated orchards may consti- tute a considerable proportion of the crop. LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS. How the curculio passes the winter.—The curculio passes the winter in the adult or beetle stage under trash in orchards, along fences, terraces, etc., but especially in woods adjacent to orchards. The beetles come out of hibernation in the spring at about the blooming period of the peach, feeding at first upon the buds and foliage and later also upon the fruit. Occurrence in orchards.—The invasion by the beetles of orchards in spring and the effect on their abundance of neighboring woods have been several times investigated. Much may be done to reduce their number by keeping the orchards and surroundings free from trash. Where practicable, it will be desirable to burn over in early spring woods adjacent to orchards in order to destroy the beetles hiber- nating there. Jarring records of considerable areas of peach or- chards have been made which show the occurrence of the curculio first in large numbers adjacent to woods, terraces, or other favoring places. Table I shows the results of a jarring record made by Messrs. E. W. Scott and E. L. Jenne, at Barnesville, Ga., during 1910. Figure 7 illustrates the arrangement of the trees with respect to their surroundings. 440 16 SPRAYING PEACHES. Considering the results of the jarring records for the individual rows, the influence of the woods is very evident. A total of 476 beetles was taken from rows 1 and 2, adjacent to woods, up to March 23, as compared with a total of 61 beetles from the remaining eight rows. Fifteen days after the emergence from hibernation of the beetles began, namely, by March 25, their diffusion had become quite general all over the orchard, though the first one or two rows always showed on a given date a greater number of individuals than any other row. During the season a total of 3,197 beetles was taken from row 1, or 42.64 per cent of all captured. The first three rows adjacent to the woods gave for the season 4,813 beetles, or 64.19 per cent of the total for the entire plat. Between rows 9 and 10, as shown in the diagram, there was a terrace covered with grass and trash, and its influence on the abundance of the insects is also to be CONTINUATION OF PEACH ORCHARD.— SPRAYED BY OWNER S Me t VJARRED BLOCK 396 TREES A, ° oo \ GOW 19-307EES, “oo 600 6.0.0.0 0-60 00 0 0 : OTe Ca WT Tn ARR oo OO O00 0 © 00000 © 0” © 28000000 ° © 0 0 0 00 © 6 15 4 3 4 HOUSE ano LOT eG eLore oo 0 © @@°e°°eceer0e 8 Oo , Bid o \GMCOPSTET bo 0 0 coc g 0 © 0 010 0 cleo © A ~ 3927) 2 1 10 ° 8 Neos Sic 1p OOOO 0 910 ce seo ao 3°) 2s © 0.00000 © © 000 © © © 0 CONTINUATION OF PEACH ORCHARD PP set es NG tor CE ORCI CHG O OI Oo Uno OL On OG ns ool B Guo NG cases 0 O1G1G'O 010! elec) ello aliejia) o/c) ele) oy” ore)" ero . AOAD wooos WHEAT FIELO Fic. 7.—Plan of a block of peach trees jarred for the curculio, showing the arrangement of the trees. noted, more individuals being taken on these respective rows than from any one of the rows 4 to 8, inclusive. | The Georgia record also shows that beetles were out in maximum numbers from March 25 to April 3, or about 10 days to 2 weeks after the trees were in bloom. During this period, 4,108 individuals were captured, or 54.79 per cent of the catch for the season. How- ever, during all of May and June the beetles were fairly abundant, but they diminished perceptibly during July and August. The increase in numbers, evident with the third week in August, is per- haps due to the appearance of beetles developing from ripe peaches or those of a second generation, for the development of which some evidence was obtained under laboratory conditions. Apparently all of the beetles had left the trees for hibernation by October 11, as after this date no more individuals were captured. 440 SPRAYING PEACEIES. ay Taste I.—Jarring record for the plum curculio on the peach, Barnesville, Ga., 1910. Dates of jarring. Apr. ees: Wey yes ees ume lees bie ce = July A, 2S = DE Diss oe ee Oct. Total. Number of curculio caught, by rows and dates. ; Total. Row 1.| Row 2.| Row 3.| Row 4.| Row 5.| Row 6.| Row 7.| Row 8.| Row 9.|Row 10. 16 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 19 5 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 i 9 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a 15 il 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 20 406 27 10 6 0 6 7 1 5 15 483 460 140 56 45 32 13 14 15 16 49 840 550 125 95 58 38 33 30 33 35 74 1,071 206 Til 57 36 21 24 29 2 38 54 563 186 74 54 33 18 19 23 18 54 55 534 92 38 45 39 32 29 37 21 45 49 427 93 36 38 17 10 3 2 6 10 28 243 71 23 21 5 3 4 3 6 9 21 166 54 30 16 6 9 10 13 7 if 17 169 34 13 14 4 3 2 5 3 6 “all 95 31 8 8 3 0 3 3 1 3 9 69 22 10 8 4 3 3 5 2 5 10 72 5 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 12 9 11 5 5 2 2 1 3 7 8 53 5 0 1 3 1 0 0 1 2 2 15 3 4 1 1 0 3 2 0 1 1 16 23 8 9 4 2 2 2 4 10 26 90 41 21 13 3 “i 3 7 6 10 14 125 33 5 5 4 4 2 6 2 6 15 82 12 iB 5 1 3 3 0 2 10 13 52 7 5 1 2 0 1 0 0 8 5 29 39 14 3 6 4 2 8 8 9 8 101 13 3 1 0 1 1 1 0 5 6 31 4 1 3 0 il 0 1 0 0 0 10 6 1 0 2 0 0 2 1 2 4 18 37 11 9 5 2 4 6 4 9 11 98 23 6 6 3 3 it 2 J 4 12 61 18 2 3 4 3 0 1 2 4 4 41 15 10 3 3 2} 3 1 2 4 6 49 17 10 2 4 3 2 3 2 8 7 58 4 1 0 2 2 1 0 0 2 3 15 10 1 1 1 0 2 3 0 6 5 29 81 46 14 7 8 7 8 8 16 36 231 55 14 by 10 6 3 i) 11 30 31 189 21 M1 6 ff 2 4 2 3 3 4 63 44 vi 8 2 5 6 5 8 15 17 127 36 25 13 7 4 4 3 4 16 19 131 35 21 9 8 4 7 6 5 21 6 122 15 6 7 2 2 1 4 1 8 8 54 8 2 3 1 2 2 0 0 8 8 34 16 ai 2 4 2 3 2 2 8 3 49 16 5 5 4 2 3 3 3 2 8 51 6 Tf 3 1 3 0 0 1 0 8 29 4 3 2 1 1 0 2 1 2 1 17 13 3 2 P 0 1 0 1 0 2 24 6 4 0 | 0 0 1 0 il 0 4 16 4 3 ib} 4° 2 0 3 il 0 5 23 13 5 3 3 2 0 0 1 3 4 34 12 6 5 3 0 0 0 0 2 1 29 10 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 5 3 24 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 8 5 2 Y) 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 10 65 10 4 8 1 1 3 0 2 25 119 a6 13 § 3 il 2 2 0 5 8 73 7 1 3 0 1 0 2 0 0 4 18 32 3 4 0 4 1 1 1 2 9 57 14 4 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 24 16 5 4 1 2 0 0 0 1 3 32 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 9 8 0 | 1 0 0 0 0 0 i 11 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 oe 2 ij 0 2 0 0 0 1 2 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,197 975 641 393 269 229 275 227 503 788 7,497 82291°—Bul. 449—11——3 18 SPRAYING PEACHES, Egg-laying habits.—Peaches are less suitable for the egg-laying purposes of the curculio than smooth-skinned fruits, such as plums, apples, etc. Observations by Mr. Jenne indicate that the fuzz may be so copious on young peaches as to prevent the puncturing of the skin by the beetle. He observed that eggs were frequently deposited at the bottom of a tubular boring excavated down in the fuzz as far as the skin of the peach, which was usually scraped somewhat, later resulting in a russet spot on the fruit. In older fruit, however, the female is able to place her eggs under the skin in about the usual manner. In ovipositing, a hole is first excavated through the skin and into the flesh, about as deep as her snout will reach. Turning around, an egg is inserted by means of the ovipositor. Once more turning around, the snout is used to push the egg into the egg cavity and to fill it with bits of sur- rounding tissue. The next step is to cut the characteristic crescent slit at one side of the ege cavity, the excavation extending back un- der the egg to prevent its being crushed by the rapid growth of the fruit. Egg and feeding punctures on a newly set plum are shown in figure 8, much enlarged. Period of oviposition and number of eggs laid.— Egg laying begins as soon as the young fruit is of sufficient size and may continue for several months, depend- ing upon the vitality of the individual beetles. Most of the eggs, how- ever, are laid during the first six or eight weeks after egg laying begins. Many records of the number of eggs deposited by the curculio in plums, peaches, apples, ctc., have been made in different localities. Some of these data are shown in Table II. A total of 12,602 eggs is shown from the seven localities. Fria. 8.—Egg and feeding punctures of the curculio on a young plum. TaseE I1.—Combined weekly egg-laying records of the plum curculio for various localities and the percentage cf eggs deposited within two, four, six, and eight weeks from con- finement. | Totalnumber ofeggs laid each week by all beetles of the respective localities. | Num- ss | ber of Locality. | beetles | ; co For re- |ovipos-| First |Second| Third |Fourth} Fifth | Sixth Ane Eighth} main- | iting. | week. | week. | week. | week. | week. | week. wanie week. | derof | a period. ; : College Park, Md.... »| 496 760 414 289 192 98 46 23 153 Youngstown, N.Y..- 8 | 192 186 201 234 204 140 68 37 32 North East, Pa..... 10)|) 9 28h 183 197 94 54 48 18 66 46 Washington, D.C... 4 232 213 242 153 128 108 81 21 46 Myrtle, Ga....... 9 8 62 41 176 50 83 48 40 130 Siloam Springs, Ark. 29 254 300 343 673 619 545 536 350 1,104 Douglas, Mich....... 18 | 72 259 329 423 229 89 ey names tase -- Total..........| $7 | 1,385 | 1,963°| 1,767 | 2,042) 1,476) 1,111 810 537 1,511 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 19 TABLE II.—Combined weekly egg-laying records of the plum curculio for various localities and the percentage of eggs deposited within two, four, six, and eight weeks from con- Jinement—Continued eecrae Percentage of total eggs deposited Total Number of eggs per individual. reentes by end Race P . num- t aud ae | Ss d | Fourth Sixth | Eighth of eggs. - ani Secon Four Six ig Maximum. Minimum. | Average. week. week. week. week. College Park, Md....| 2,471 436 62 274. 56 50. 83 91.02 93. 81 Youngstown, N. Y..| 1,294 257 72 161.75 29. 21 89. 40 97.53 North East, Pa..... 787 122 48 78. 70 33. 55 83. 48 94.17 Washington, D.C...| 1,224 557 126 306. 00 36. 36 87.91 96. 24 Mirtle; Gao 2s. =. 688 154 1 76. 44 17. 44 68. 31 81.10 Siloam Springs, Ark.| 4,724 388 d 162. 97 11.73 57.88 76. 63 Douglas, Mich.......| 1,414 201 25 78. 56 23. 41 99.08 | 100.00 UNM ga ob el | LEO: WER AA ees Se Se ee ete ce te SACs ats a Reno Meee pane esemcac Average for all IeAHES 5 Salles eoencc|acopaocespcy| Heaceecsneee 144.85 26. 57 56.79 77.32 88.01 | At College Park, Md., the greatest number deposited by any one female was 426 and the minimum 62, with an average of 274.56 eggs for the individuals under observation. At Youngstown, N. Y., the maximum is 257 and the minimum 72, with an average of 161.75 eggs. At Washington, D. C., under laboratory conditions,.a single individual deposited 557 eggs, which is the highest of all records thus far obtained for this insect; the lowest number deposited was 126 and the average for the 4 beetles under observation was 306. At Myrtle, Ga., this range was from 154 as a maximum to a minimum of 1, with an average of 76.44 per individual. At Siloam Springs, Ark., the records include an unusually large number of eggs, namely, 4,724, from 29 beetles. These records show a maximum of 388 and a minimum of 4 eggs, with an average for all pairs of 162.97 eggs. At Douglas, Mich., the records show a range from 201 to 25, with an average for the 18 individuals of 78.56 eggs. The final average number of eggs per female for all localities above mentioned is 144.85, with a range of from 1 to 557. As shown under the heading ‘‘Percentage of total eggs deposited by end of second, fourth, sixth, and eighth week,”’ the proportion deposited by a given time varies for the different localities. There is, however, a general agreement in that the great majority of the eggs have been placed by the end of eight weeks. Approximately, one- fourth of the total eggs are deposited during the first two weeks; one-half have been deposited by the close of the first month; three- fourths within six weeks; and about 88 per cent of the total within eight weeks after the oviposition begins. Time spent in the fruit.—Records of the time spent in the fruit as the egg and larva have been determined for many individuals and in various localities, including Illinois, District of Columbia, western New York, Georgia, Arkansas, and Michigan. 440 20 SPRAYING PEACHES, In all localities the majority of the larve emerged within three weeks after the eggs were laid, and, with one exception, emergence had practically ceased by the close of the fourth week. Time spent in the soil.—When full grown the larva deserts the fruit and burrows below the surface of the soul. Practically none of the larve go deeper than 3 inches and the great majority penetrate not more than 2 inches. A small cell is made where the pupal stage is passed and where transformation to the adult or beetle occurs. Some days are spent in the soil by the larva before changing to the pupa, and the newly formed adult may not emerge for several days or even weeks, especially if the ground be dry. The effect of a shower, however, is to bring the new-generation beetles out in numbers. A large number of observations have also been made on the length of time spent in the soil by different individuals, including a total of several thousand and from about the same localities as already mentioned. All of these observations go to show that comparatively few insects complete their underground transformations in less than three weeks from the time of entering the soil as larve. In from four to five weeks, however, the great majority of the beetles are out and by the close of the sixth week emergence has practically ceased. Time required for transformation from egg to adult.—The average time spent in the fruit for the numerous localities investigated proved to be 19.48 days, and the average time spent in the ground was found to be 30.89 days, giving an average life-cycle period for the insect of 50.27 days. Complete life-cycle observations were also made on a total of 597 individuals from many parts of the country, which gave a final average for the period per individual of 50.71 days, differing only a fraction of a day from the time determined in an essentially different manner. Approximately 50 days would therefore appear to be the average life-cycle period for the plum curculio for the country as a whole. The range though, will vary considerably and as actually determined in the case of the individual records was from 37 to 58.45 days. Habits of beetles from emergence until hibernation.—After emer- gence, beetles of the new generation feed upon various fruits and plants until fall, when they enter hibernation quarters, appearing the following spring, as already stated. While there is some evidence to indicate that there may be a small second generation in the South, this will be comparatively insignificant and for practical purposes the insect produces but one generation annually. The beetles which develop one summer live over the following winter, ovipositing during the spring and summer, and gradually die off, until by early fall practically all of them have disappeared. The life of the more hardy beetles is thus seen to be some 12 or 14 months - 440 SPRAYING PEACHES, at RESULTS OF SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS AND DEMONSTRA- TIONS DURING 1910. During the season of 1910 the same experiments were carried out as during 1909, which were reported in Circular 120 of the Bureau of Entomology and in Bulletin 174 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and in addition the recommendations given in these publications were put in effect on a commercial scale to serve as an object lesson for growers. During 1909 the experiments made in the Hale orchard at Fort Valley, Ga., included the treatment of 1,100 Elberta trees for the control of peach scab, brown-rot, and curculio. The self- boiled lime-sulphur mixture (S—S—50) plus 2 pounds of arsenate of lead was used. This combined treatment gave the following results: At picking time 95.5 per cent of the fruit on the sprayed block was free from brown-rot, 93.5 per cent free from scab, and 72.5 per cent free from eurculio. On the unsprayed block only 37 per cent of the fruit was free from brown-rot, 1 per cent free from scab, and 2.5 per cent free from curculio injury. In packing the fruit for market it was found that the yield of merchantable fruit on the sprayed block was ten times as great as from the unsprayed block containing the same number of trees. During the season of 1910 neither the brown-rot nor the, plum curculio was so abundant in Georgia as the year previous, and the contrast between the sprayed and unsprayed blocks was, therefore, not so striking. Nevertheless, the very satisfactory results obtained fully substantiated the conclusions previously reached as to the value of spraying. The work in Georgia was carried out at Fort Valley, Barnesville, and at Baldwin. At Fort Valley a block of 1,064 nine-year-old Elberta trees was treated in the orchard of the United Orchard Company. In addition to numerous experiments planned to show the effect of treatments at different times and with different mixtures, the demon- stration treatment was put in effect on a block of 848 Elberta trees, a similar number being left unsprayed for purposes of comparison. The trees were sprayed (1) as the calyxes were shedding, April 1, with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead and 3 pounds of lime in each 50 gal- lons of water; (2) two to three weeks later, April 19 and 20, with 8-8-50 self-boiled lime-sulphur and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead; (3) on June 17, about a month before the fruit ripened, with self- boiled lime-sulphur alone. In order to determine the effect of the treatments, the fruit at pick- ing time (July 12 to 15) was gathered from 68 trees in the sprayed block and from 63 trees in the unsprayed block. This fruit was 440 22 SPRAYING PEACHES. carefully graded into ‘‘merchantable”’ and ‘‘culls,’’ with the results shown in Table III. TaBLE III.—Results of demonstration spraying in the peach orchard of the United Orchard Company, Fort Valley, Ga., 1910. Fruit af- Plat. Yield. | MGrehant- | culls. _ | fected with : brown-rot. Bushels. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. GSiirees\(Sprayed)!- | otic ac hoscmcaiemnaeaeecee seca 101 | 86. 2 ab eel Be Gatirees (NOt SPIayed) |! wciee we cee Jets secre ae we accel 92 54. 6 46.4 20.0 It will be noted that from the 68 sprayed trees there was a total yield of 101 bushels, of which 86.2 per cent was merchantable and 13.7 per cent was culls. On the unsprayed block of 63 trees there was a total yield of 92 bushels of fruit, of which 54.6 per cent was merchantable and 46.4 per cent was culls, a gain in merchantable fruit due to the treatments of 31.6 per cent. In the orchard of Mr. S. H. Bassett, also at Fort Valley, Ga., a block of 700 seven-year-old Elberta trees was sprayed as a demonstra- tion and a like number of trees left unsprayed for comparison. The trees were sprayed as the calyxes were shedding, April 5, with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons of water and again on April 22 with self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead. Owing to the difficulty of getting water, this block received no further treatment. On July 7, when the first picking of the crop was being made, the sprayed and unsprayed blocks were carefully examined for the purpose of making an estimate of the results of the treatment. The fruit on the sprayed block was highly colored and practically free from scab, brown-rot, and curculio. No specimens of fruit affected with these troubles could be found in a search of two hours throughout the block. The crop was decidedly heavier on the sprayed trees than on the unsprayed, the fruit from the latter having dropped from the effect of these combined troubles. In looking over the unsprayed block, it was estimated that 50 to 60 per cent of the crop had been destroyed or rendered unmerchantable by curculio, brown-rot, and scab. In the operations at Barnesville, Ga., the same plan of spraying was carried out on a commercial scale in two different orchards. The improved condition of the fruit on the sprayed blocks in both of these orchards was a matter of much comment by the fruit growers in that section. Owing to the almost complete absence of the curculio and the small amount of brown-rot in these orchards, the results were not as well marked as those obtained elsewhere. The peach scab, however, was quite abundant on the unsprayed fruit and practically absent on the sprayed blocks. 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 23 In the orchard of Mr. S. M. Marshburn, the demonstration treat- ment was given to 926 Elberta trees, 212 trees being left untreated for comparison. From the sprayed trees the yield was 209 crates of extra fancy fruit, 587 crates of fancy fruit, with 513 bushels, or 96 crates, of culls, the total merchantable fruit bemg 92.02 per cent. On the unsprayed trees the yield was 15} crates of extra fancy fruit, 1354 crates of fancy fruit, with 214 bushels, or 282 crates, of culls, the percentage merchantable being 84.02. In the A. O. Murphy orchard, the yield from 485 sprayed Elberta trees was 211 crates of extra fancy fruit, 272 crates of fancy fruit, with 684 bushels, or 914 crates, of culls, the total percentage mer- chantable being 84.09. On the 110 unsprayed Elbertas in this orchard the yield was 84 crates of extra fancy fruit, 109 crates of fancy fruit, and 454 bushels, or 603 crates, of culls, the percentage merchantable being 66.07. In the orchard of Mr. A. M. Kitchen, at Baldwin, Ga., experiments and demonstrations were conducted on the Carman, Hiley, Elberta, and Summerour, or Atlanta, varieties, 2,000 trees in all being treated and a similar block left untreated. The trees were 7 years old and bore a fair crop of fruit, although the crop was rather light in por- tions of the orchard. The Elberta and Summerour varieties were sprayed (1) as the calyxes were shedding, April 7 and 8, with arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water; (2) on April 27 and 28, with 8-8-50 self-boiled lime-sulphur and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead; and (3) on June 17 and 18, about a month before the fruit ripened, with 8—8—50 self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Carman and Hiley varieties received the same treatment, with the omission of the third applica- tion. At picking time the fruit from 5 to 11 sprayed trees and a like number of unsprayed trees in each variety was sorted and the results are shown in Table IV. TaBLeE 1V.—Results from spraying the Carman, Hiley, Elberta, and Summerour varieties of peaches at Baldwin, Ga., 1910. Fruit : Fruit . Fruit : ; affected | .-. badly Z Varieties and dates of spraying. ppetel with | fected | omectea | Merchant-| Guns, ruits. Saar with ee able fruit. brown sie | with rot. Sea scab. Sprayed. Number. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Cannan Apr. 7 and: 273228. 2. o=- 1, 884 0.1 15.9 0. 00 97.6 2.4 Eley PAPE AMG 27; ono sere se ee 1, 446 ee 28.0 - 00 96.3 3.7 Elberta, Apr. 7, 27, and June 17 ...| 3,443 ail 41.4 03 97.7 2.3 Summerour, Apr.7,27,and June 17.! 4, 360 9.3 NTT - 80 82.6 17.4 Unsprayed: Gamo Mase elie saree ere eee 1,417 31.8 92.9 16. 40 40.2 59.8 PM Ces ee Ses ores ee hk ney. eee 739 28. 1 99.4 19. 00 51.5 48.5 BIND eN Gan cies a ee ee nee ee | 1, 291 70.0 100.0 16.00 16.9 83.1 SUMMELOUTEE 222s ote as a eee eee 5, 308 54.8 191.7 72.50 7.5 92.5 | 1 Tn sorting this variety, fruits that showed only a few inconspicuous spots were not counted as scabby, while all the affected fruit of the other varieties was counted. 440 24 SPRAYING PEACHES, It will be seen from Table IV that the brown-rot was thoroughly controlled, even where 70 per cent of the unsprayed fruit rotted, as was the case with the Elberta. The scab was also held down so that it was commercially negligible. The Summerour is particularly sus- ceptible to scab, and has been unprofitable in Mr. Kitchen’s orchard on account of this disease. On the unsprayed trees 72.5 per cent of the fruit was badly affected with scab, while less than 1 per cent of the sprayed fruit was badly affected. By referring to the column showing the percentage of merchantable fruit in Table IV it will be seen that from 82.6 to 97.7 per cent of the sprayed fruit was mer- chantable and from 7.5 to 51.5 per cent of the unsprayed fruit was merchantable. The difference between these two sets of figures rep- resents the difference between success and failure. In Table V are shown the results from 12 sprayed and 12 unsprayed Elberta trees in the same orchard and given the same treatment as those considered in Table IV, but located in a different section of the orchard. The fruit was picked from July 26 to August 1 and sorted with reference to brown-rot, scab, and curculio. To determine the presence or absence of the curculio all the fruit was sliced into several pieces. TasLe V.—Results from 12 sprayed and 12 unsprayed Elberta peach trees at Baldwin, Ga., 1910. Fruit | Fruit | Fruit Total a ae badly | affect- | affect- oe Plats. rrnits sal arith affect- |ed with|ed with Bhai Culls. iaiigecst ed with} brown-| curcu- fruit eal SCais rot. i s No. Pe .cts |) Pe ct \ SPA Gin i ech e ee iGhen eeiaetere SHOR NG see ac po OcanocopssuseSaass svesabseeuc 5,197 39. 26 0.03; 0.90 13; 15 97.61 2.39 \Uhatspoeh hte esos sSnnpoocogscasocuanee eanse. 3,907 | 100.00 9. 29 18. 04 51.19 46.49 53.51 It will be seen from Table V that 0.9 per cent of the sprayed fruit was affected with brown-rot, 39.26 per cent with scab (practically none of which was bad), and 13.15 per cent with curculio, while 18.04 per cent of the unsprayed fruit was affected with brown-rot, 100 per cent with scab, and 51.19 per cent with curculio. It is iso shown that 97.61 per cent of the sprayed fruit was merchantable, as against 46.49 per cent of the unsprayed fruit. Had all the fruit infested with curculio been thrown out the percentage of merchantable fruit from both the sprayed and the unsprayed trees would not have been quite so high. Much of the infestation consisted of young worms just hatched, and in such cases the market value of the fruit had not been materially affected. In addition to these 12 trees the crop from a block of 70 sprayed and 70 unsprayed Elberta trees was sorted and packed for the market. It was found that 97.04 per cent of the fruit of the sprayed block was merchantable, leaving 2.96 per cent as culls. From the unsprayed block only 54.11 per cent of the crop was mer- chantable and 45.89 per cent unmerchantable, a gain of 42.93 per cent. A block of 1,000 Summerour trees, which is a late-maturing vari- ety, ripening at Baldwin last season, August 27 to 31, was given 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 95 the same treatment received by the Elbertas. In order to deter- mine the commercial results the crop from 70 sprayed trees and the same number of unsprayed trees was graded at the packing house. It was found that 85 per cent of the sprayed fruit was merchant- able, leaving 14.98 per cent unmerchantable. Only 6.49 per cent of the unsprayed fruit from 70 trees was merchantable, 93.51 per cent being totally unfit for market. This shows a gain from spraying of 78.53 per cent. This great loss was due to the combined effect of the curculio, brown-rot, and scab, although the latter was the most. prominent trouble. These commercial results show conclu- sively that even under severe conditions the combination treatment will effectually control these troubles. It will be understood that the combination treatment for these diseases and curculio is in effect a compromise. Considered only from the insect standpoint, an additional application of arsenate of lead would be desirable, but a third application of the poison is as arule unsafe. Nevertheless, the benefits from two applications of arsenate of lead has been very marked. In order to show more in detail the effect of two such treatments on the curculio, Table VI is presented, showing the results of an examination for curculio in- festation of the dropped fruits during the season, as well as those on the trees at picking time, 12 trees in the sprayed block and 12 trees in the unsprayed block being examined. TaBLE VI.—Results of spraying Elberta peaches for plum eurculio, Baldwin, Ga., 1910. | ec Fruit from tree. Total a I * Eis Total | num- at ; 7 num- | berof | Sound No. | Treatment. Tree No Total | Num- | Total | Num- | ber of | fruit fruit.l num- | berin- | num- | ber in- | fruits. in- ber. | fested. | ber. | fested. fested. lainey Per cent. | 1 447 7 589 26 | 1,036 33 96.81 : Eph a 2 119 8 465 45 | | 584 53 90. 92 1 | First application, Apr. 7-8, 3 177 10 388 63 565 75 86.72 arcuate cf lead, pounds 4 363 24| 606 76| 969 100 88. 63 to~50 gallons of water, 5 161 10| 335 61 496 71 85.68 second application, 2 6 96 12 409 96. || 505 38 92. 47 ounds of arsenate of 7 99 9 358 38 457 40 91.23 ead in self-boiled lime- 8 999 29 993 Be 515 55 89. 39 sulphur wash (8-8-50), 9 702 25 412 123 | 1,114 148 86.71 Apr. 27-28; third appli- 10 224 6 476 83 700 89 87.28 cation, lime-sulphur il 68 7| 410 50| 478 57 88. 07 A Oa One 12| 348 17| 456 re 0 90. 67 Total .| 3,026 150 | 5,197 684 | 8,223 ror Aen 1 188 115 324 78 512} 293 42.77 2 187 83 385 132 572 215 62. 41 3 147 85 280 155 427 240 43.79 4 839 14 648 939 | 1,487 353 76.26 | 5 76 56 129 79 205 135 34.14 | 6 605 165 471 189 | 1,076 354 67. 10 - 7 192 71 177 94 369 165 55.28 Pa iUet ren ted a a= enna 8] 318 55| 299| 147] 617| 202 67.26 9 68 67 388 251 456 318 30.26 10 143 67 176 137 319 204 36.05 ia 214 110 347 231 561 341 39.21 12 274 100 283 168 557 268 51.88 Total .| 3,251 | 1,088 | 3,907| 2,000| 7,158] 3,088 |.......... 1 The average of sound fruit on treated trees was 89.85 per cent; on untreated trees, 56.85 per cent. 440 26 SPRAYING PEACHES, In the sprayed block 8,223 fruits were obtained, of which 834, or 10.15 per cent, were infested. From the unsprayed block there was a total of 7,158 fruits, of which 3,088 were infested, the percentage of sound fruit being 56.85, a gain in yield of 33 per cent of fruit free from curculio infestation. EXPERIMENTS IN WEST VIRGINIA, 1910. In order to demonstrate the control of peach scab and to deter- mine how much spraying is required on late varieties, an experiment was conducted in the orchard of L. P. Miller & Bros., at Okonoko, W. Va., during 1910. There are about 600 acres of 12-year-old trees in this orchard, and it is composed of a large number of varieties, beginning with Southern Early and ending with Bilyeu. Until summer spraying was undertaken in 1908 the peach scab had been most disastrous to the crops in this orchard, about one-half of the fruit being lost every year. Spraying, however, largely overcame the trouble, and in 1910 the loss was comparatively small, notwith- standing the difficulty of thoroughly spraying such a large orchard at the proper time. The spraying experiments were confined to the Elberta, Salway, and Bilyeu, and about 500 trees each of these varieties were used. The Bilyeu set a good crop, while the crop of Elberta and Salway was only medium to light, but ample for an experiment. For the most part the weather was unfavorable for good work. During the time the first and second applications were being made it was cloudy and showery and the day following the second application it rained rather hard all day. The Elberta trees were sprayed according to the following plan: Plat 1.—Self-boiled lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead, one month after petals fell, May 11. Plat 2.—Self-boiled lime-sulphur with arsenate of lead, one month after petals fell, and self-boiled lime-sulphur alone, one month later, May 11 and June 15. Plat 3.—Self-boiled lime-sulphur, one month after petals fell and one month lass May 11 and June 15. Plat 5.—Self-boiled lime-sulphur six weeks after petals fell and one month later, May 26 and June 28. Plat 6.—Commercial lime-sulphur, 1 to 100 with arsenate of lead and lime, one month after petals fell, and with lime only one month later. Plat 0.—Check; untreated. At picking time, August 22 to 26, the crop, including windfalls, from four trees in each sprayed plat and six unsprayed trees was sorted to determine the percentage of fruit affected with scab and the percentage of merchantable fruit. The results are shown in Table VII. 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. a7 Taste VII.—Results of treatment for peach scab on the Elberta variety, Okonoko, W. Va., 1910. Fruit : ie Mer- Total | affected | .-.74.2 chant- 1 IBUEES friilts:, | with’ | Muected | apie.) Cus. scab. teal). fruit. | ira Number. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Ll, arene hOB OC EB OS IC OCROOOROOCHE DOS ren ope operas 1,322 65. 2 3.0 86.1 13.9 Rete hel stra oe iaiarcla ema "Sae etn Sia ais stare Oe aysrelnecresatemiaie ese c 1, 566 | 20. § 0.1 95.5 4.5 a) 5 bo COL DAR GS DEE COED SO OS CO Boo SACO eeEE AOC eee ee res 2,277 20.2 1.4 93.1 6.9 es oe Sat ES Ce Ce Serge ae ae as ar 1,819 | 55.8 0.9 93. 6 6.4 Geemarc aera eS Sere eis. we be ctethe otal cloc ee aicmr scene a\eiere eve 1,924 49.3 U5 93.9 6.1 (CG eG ee ee ne ee ee eee 2,918 99.6 41.1 Dont 46.3 The third column of the above table shows the percentage of fruit affected with scab, including fruit so slightly affected that its market value was not materially reduced, while the fourth column shows the percentage of badly affected, unmerchantable fruit. The fifth column shows the percentage of good, merchantable fruit obtained from each plat, while the sixth column shows the percentage of culls due to scab, brown-rot, curculio, and other causes. Plat 1 received only one application, and the results were all that could be expected in a wet season, such as last spring. Although 65.2 per cent of the fruit was affected with scab, only 3 per cent of it was badly affected. Plats 2 and 3, which were sprayed twice, gave the best results, only a little more than 20 per cent of the fruit in each being affected with scab. Most of this scab infection was commercially negligible, the spots being small and rather inconspicuous. In plat 2 less than 1 per cent of the fruit was badly affected, and in plat 3 only 1.4 per cent was so affected. The only difference in the treat- ment received by these two plats was the use of arsenate of lead with the self-boiled lime-sulphur in the first application on plat 2. This made no difference in the control of scab. It apparently raised the percentage of merchantable fruit, plat 2 having 95.5 per cent and plat 3 having 93.1 per cent. This difference would certainly have been greater had there been more curculio in the orchard. The good results obtained from the treatment of these two plats may be better appreciated by comparing them with the results from the unsprayed trees. Practically all (99.6 per cent) of the unsprayed fruit was affected with scab and 41.1 per cent of it was badly affected. Only 53.7 per cent of the fruit was suitable for market, leaving 46.3 per cent of culls. Plat 5 received the same treatment as plat 3, except that both applications were delayed two weeks. The results indicate that one month after the petals fall is a better time to begin spraying for scab than two weeks later. ) 430 28 SPRAYING PEACHES, ~ Plat 6, which was sprayed with commercial lime-sulphur solution, 1 gallon to 100 gallons of water, had only 1.5 per cent of fruit badly affected with scab, although 49.3 per cent of it was affected more or less. These results indicate that the scab can be held in check by a very dilute solution of the lime-sulphur solution. It burned the foliage considerably and caused some of the leaves to drop, but the injury almost disappeared as the season advanced and the fruit matured in good condition. A similar test was made on the Salway variety, which ripens some four weeks later than the Elberta. There were four sprayed plats, consisting of about 80 trees each, and 17 trees were left untreated for the purpose of comparison. The self-boiled lime-sulphur (8—8—50) was used in each application, and arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to each 50 gallons was added in the first application only. On September 22 and 23 the crop from four trees in each plat was sorted for scab and brown-rot, and the results are shown in Table VIII. In this case the classification of scabby fruit was made on a commercial basis; that is, the fruit having only a few small specks of scab, which did not materially detract from its market value, was not classed as scabby. The figures given in the table therefore represent the percentage of fruit so badly affected as to have but little value on the market. Tape VIII.—Results of spraying on the Salway variety in the Miller orchard, Okonoko, W. Va., 1910. | Plat eee aoc | Total | Seabby | Rotted No. SE SESTONS SL SU: fruits. | fruit. fruit. | 8 | (1) One month after petals fell, May 12; (2) June 17; Number. | Per cent. | Per cent. (S)inly lds a co eesee nce ee eee see mee ee ees | 1,557 | 5.5 2.5 9 | (1) One month after petals fell, May 12; (2) June 17...-.-... 1,599 | 5.3 129 10 | (1) One month after petals fell, May 12.-.............-....-- 1,132 27.2 6.8 11 | (1) Six weeks after petals fell, May 26; (2) June 28......-.. 1,065 5.8 tes: 1th Check ot. Sprayed s..- aa ee ee te ree eter 2,349 | 87.5 37.6 | It will be observed that the results from plat 8, which had three applications, are about the same as those from plat 9, which had two applications, the scab and brown-rot having been almost com- pletely controlled in both cases. The results of the treatment of plat 9 are shown in figures 9 and 11. The superiority of two treatments over one may be seen by comparing plats 9 and 10. The latter received only one application and 27.2 per cent of the fruit became affected with scab, while only 5.3 per cent of the crop on plat 9 was affected. Plat 11 received the same treatment as plat 9, except that the applications on plat 11 were delayed two weeks, the object being to determine the best time to begin the spraying. In this case there was very little difference in the results from the two plats. 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 29 Of the fruit from the unsprayed trees, 87.5 per cent was rather badly affected with scab and 37.6 per cent was affected with brown-rot, as shown in figures 10 and 12. In other words, the unsprayed crop was almost a total loss. The Bilyeu variety was given the same treatment as that applied to Salway and the results were about the same. In this case the fruit was not sorted and counted, but at picking time comparative notes were made, attempting to show the estimated percentages of brown- rot and scab. Fully 50 per cent of the unsprayed fruit was lost on account of these diseases, while there was a loss of only about 5 per cent of the fruit sprayed twice, although much of it showed some Fic. 9.—Crop from four Salway trees spraved twice, Okonoko, W. Va. Scabby fruit single basket on the left; remainder of the crop sound. slight spotting with scab. On the plat sprayed three times the scab was almost entirely prevented. Jn most cases three treatments will be necessary for the best results against scab on late-maturing varieties like the Bilyeu. EXPERIENCE OF FRUIT GROWERS. Following the recommendations of the United States Department of Agriculture, a considerable number of fruit growers have adopted the combination treatment, and in Georgia during 1910 perhaps not less than one-fourth of the peach orchards were sprayed for the curculio, brown-rot, and scab. In connection with the department’s experiments at Fort Valley, Barnesville, and Baldwin, Ga., an effort was made to give personal instruction to as many orchardists as pos- 440 30 SPRAYING PEACHES. sible in order to start them in the work, and by visits and by corre- spondence assistance was rendered to growers in other parts of the State. Thus at Fort Valley the Hale Georgia Orchard Co. sprayed three times its entire bearing orchard of about 100,000 trees. The same schedule of treatments was also adopted by Mr. W. C. Wright in his orchard of 60,000 trees and by others in the immediate neighborhood. Also at Marshallville, Ga., the treatment was adopted by Mr. S. H. Rumph and other leading growers, the total number of trees sprayed in this general section aggregating about a million. At Barnesville, Ga., practically all of the large orchardists used the combined spray, aggregating not less than 500,000 trees. At Bald- win, Ga., some of the leading growers sprayed not less than 100,000 Fic. 10.—Crop from four unsprayed Salway trees, Okonoko, W. Va. Sound fruit in three baskets on the left; remainder of the crop scabby. trees. Messrs. Stranahan Bros., of Warm Springs, Ga., have been spraying for the past three years and were among the first large peach orchardists to adopt the lime-sulphur treatment even before it was out of its experimental stage. Also around Adairsville and at num- erous other points in Georgia spraying was adopted by the leading crowers, at least 2,000,000 trees for the State as a whole being sprayed. Considering all of the Southeastern States it is probable that in this territory 3,000,000 trees were sprayed during 1910. Considerable spraying has also been done by peach orchardists in West Virginia, western Maryland, and Pennsylvania, including a total of perhaps 1,000,000 trees. The treatment has also been adopted by some growers in Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, aggregating about 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 31 500,000 trees, making on a conservative estimate a grand total of 4,500,000 to 5,000,000 trees sprayed during 1910 with the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash and arsenate of lead. We have been able to personally examine some of these orchards, and have had reports from many of the orchardists regarding the results of the treatment. So far as it has been possible to determine, the results have been uniformly satisfactory and the slight injury from the spray comparatively unimportant. It seems rather remark- able that so many growers in different parts of the country should be so successful in using a new treatment for the first time. This may be taken to indicate the entire practicability of the recommendations. EFFECT OF SPRAYING ON THE QUALITY OF THE FRUIT. The good results from the treatment do not end with the control of the curculio, scab, and brown-rot. The sprayed fruit is as a rule Fic. 11.—Crop from four Salway trees sprayed twice, Okonoko, W. Va. Rotten fruit in upturned basket on the left; remainder free from rot. somewhat larger, much more highly colored, and firmer than unsprayed fruit. It keeps longer, carries to the market in better condition, and brings better prices. A carload of Elberta peaches shipped from Baldwin, Ga., on July 29 contained 166 crates of sprayed fruit and 324 crates of unsprayed fruit. This fruit was sold on the New York market on August 2, the 166 crates of sprayed fruit bringing $2.50 per crate, while the 324 crates of unsprayed fruit brought an average’of $1.75 per crate, a difference of 75 cents per crate in favor of the sprayed fruit.” 440 ao SPRAYING PEACHES. The effect of the treatments is to fairly clean the fruit from disease and to put it in a more or less sterilized condition, adding greatly to its keeping quality. This superiority of sprayed as against unsprayed fruit is one of the marked benefits and has been noted by all growers who have adopted the treatment. On July 14 sprayed and unsprayed Elberta fruit in the Hale orchard at Fort Valley, Ga., was picked and packed for a shipping test, but owing to a car shortage was not shipped. There were 64 crates of unsprayed fruit and 400 cratesof sprayed fruit. This fruit was stacked out on the ground where it remained in the sun and during occasional showers of rain until July 18 (4 days) and then 6 crates of each lot Fig. 12.—Crop from four unsprayed Salway trees, Okonoko, W. Va. Fruit in six baskets on the right affected with brown-rot; the remainder free from rot, but scabby. were examined for brown-rot. It was found that 62.7 per cent of the unsprayed fruit had rotted, while only 8 per cent of the sprayed fruit was so affected, showing conclusively the better keeping quality of the latter. EFFECT OF THE SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR WASH ON SCALE INSECTS. Observations and experiments go to show that, when used as a sum- mer spray, the effect of the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash on the control of scale insects which may be present on the trees, especially the San Jose scale, is important. While to secure the best results in the con- trol of scale insects it would be desirable to coat the limbs and twigs more thoroughly than is accomplished in ordinary summer spraying, 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 33 nevertheless in the course of the work as practiced against the cur- culio, brown-rot, and scab noticeable good is accomplished. Although the spray is not strong enough to kill many of the adult scale insects, it is effective to an important extent in bringing about the death of the young scales. Experiments made by the Bureau of Entomology in the use of the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash as a summer spray for the San Jose scale! have shown that two or three applications will result in a marked improvement in the condition of the trees by fall. The effect of the wash is to prevent the settling of the young scales upon the twigs and branches, so that by the close of the season the trees are largely free from the insects. Further observations are necessary to determine just how much benefit will result from these applications in the control of scale insects, but it seems probable in peach orchards regularly sprayed for the curculio and for scab and brown-rot that the usual winter treat- ments for the San Jose scale may be reduced to perhaps one applica- tion every two or three years. Any observant orchardist should be able to determine for himself the necessity for winter treatments, depending upon the abundance of the scale insects. The lime-sulphur wash is furthermore effective against numerous other sucking insects, especially plant lice, which may be present on the trees. PREPARATION AND USE OF THE SPRAY. Spraying for the brown-rot, scab, and curculio does not differ in principle from the usual spraying practices. It is essential that an efficient spraying outfit be employed, so that the work may be done expeditiously and with thoroughness. Where the orchard interest is at all important it will be desirable to employ a power sprayer, such as a gasoline or compressed-air outfit. Excellent work, however, may be done with the ordinary barrel sprayer, which is suitable for orchards of a few hundred trees. In applying the spray, all parts of the tree should be reached. This is especially important in the first appli- cation, which is directed principally against the plum curculio. The purpose should be to coat thoroughly the foliage, twigs, and young fruit to insure to the fullest extent possible the poisoning of the beetles. The same precautions as to poisoning the foliage, fruit, and buds are also essential in making the second application, as the beetles are still very numerous, feeding and ovipositing freely. (See Table II.) This is also the most important application for the pre- vention of scab infection, which is prevented only by thoroughly coat- ing the young fruits. In subsequent applications the efforts should be directed more to coating the fruit with the spray to protect it from brown-rot infection, espeuially as it begins to ripen. 1 Reported in the Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 2, p. 130 440 84 SPRAYING PEACHES, The schedule of applications (pp. 38-40) takes account of the ripening period of the principal commercial varieties of peaches. Applications made later than a month or six weeks before picking time are likely to result in the fruit being more or less spotted with the spray when harvested, somewhat marring its appearance for market purposes. This danger can be largely avoided by using nozzles which throw a mistlike spray, coating the fruit with very fine dots rather than with large blotches. DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF SELF-BOILED LIME- SULPHUR WASH. The standard self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture is composed of 8 pounds of fresh stone lime and 8 pounds of sulphur to 50 gallons of water. In mild cases of brown-rot and scab a weaker mixture con- taining 6 pounds of each ingredient to 50 gallons of water may be used with satisfactory results. The materials cost so little, how- ever, that one should not economize in this direction where a valu- able fruit crop is at stake. Any finely powdered sulphur (flowers, flour, or ‘“‘commercial ground”’ sulphur) may be used in the prepa- ration of the mixture. In order to secure the best action from the lime, the mixture should be prepared in rather large quantities, at least enough for 200 gal- lons of spray, using 32 pounds of lime and 32 pounds of sulphur. The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water (about 6 gallons) poured on to almost cover it. As soon as the lime begins to slake the sulphur should be added, after first running it through a sieve to break up the lumps, if any are present. The mixture should be constantly stirred and more water (3 or 4 gallons) added as needed to form at first a thick paste and then gradually a thin paste. The lime will supply enough heat to boil the mixture sey- eral minutes. As soon as it is well slaked water should be added to cool the mixture and prevent further cooking. It is then ready to be strained into the spray tank, diluted, and applied. The stage at which cold water should be poured on to stop the cooking varies with different limes. Some limes are so sluggish in slaking that it is difficult to obtain enough heat from them to cook the mixture at all, while other limes become intensely hot on slaking, and care must be taken not to allow the boiling to proceed too far. If the mixture is allowed to remain hot for 15 or 20 minutes after the slaking is completed, the sulphur gradually goes into solution, combining with the lime to form sulphids, which are injurious to peach foliage. It is therefore very important, especially with hot lime, to cool the mixture quickly by adding a few buckets of water as soon as the lumps of lime have slaked down. The intense heat, 440 SPRAYING PEACHES. 35 violent boiling, and constant stirring result in a uniform mixture of finely divided sulphur and lime, with only a very small percentage of the sulphur in solution. It should be strained to take out the coarse particles of lime, but the sulphur should be carefully worked through the strainer. DIRECTIONS FOR USING ARSENATE OF LEAD. Many experiments have shown that well-made arsenate of lead is much the safest of all available arsenicals for use on the peach. Arsenate of lead is to be found on the market both as a powder and as a putty-like paste, which latter must be worked free in water before it is added to the lime-sulphur mixture. The paste form of the poison is largely used at the rate of about 2 pounds to each 50 gallons of the lime-sulphur wash and is added, after it has been well worked free in water, to the lime-sulphur spray previously prepared. As there are numerous brands of arsenate of lead upon the market, the grower should be careful to purchase from reliable firms. . hie <<. a REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. INTRODUCTION. Since the discovery that mosquitoes are not only nuisances, but are also conveyers of malaria, yellow fever, filariasis, and dengue fever, a great deal of remedial work has been done by individuals and communities. Many remedies and plans of action have been tested on a large scale, and what follows is a summary of the results. PROTECTION FROM BITES. PROTECTIVE LIQUIDS. Spirits of camphor rubbed upon the face and hands or a few drops on the pillow at night will keep mosquitoes away for a time, and this is also a well-known property of oil of pennyroyal. Neither of these substances is durable; that is to say, a single application will not last through the night. Oil of peppermint, lemon juice, and vinegar have all been recommended, while oil of tar has been used in regions where mosquitoes are especially abundant. Oil of citron- ella is one of the best substances to be used in this way. The odor is objectionable to some people, but not to many, and it is efficient in keeping away mosquitoes for several hours. The best mixture tried by the writer was sent to him by Mr. C. A. Nash, of New York, and is as follows: Oirlkotxeit ron ell aes ass = es ek Pe ee eee 1 ounce Spiritscot camphor 22-2 ee ee ee 1 ounce One teen hip er ee ee ee ees 4 ounce Ordinarily a few drops on a bath towel hung over the head of the bed will keep the common house mosquitoes away. Where they are very abundant and persistent a few drops rubbed on the face and hands will suffice. Even this mixture, however, loses its efficacy toward the close of a long night. It is the habit of the yellow-fever mosquito, Aédes (Stegomyia) calopus Meig., to begin to bite at day- light. By that time the average person is sleeping very soundly, and the effects of the mixture will usually have largely passed away. It follows that in the Southern States where this mosquito occurs these protective mixtures are not supposed to be as effective as they are in the North. As a matter of fact, however, this last mixture, could 444 <4 0 6 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. it be applied shortly before dawn, would be as effective as under other circumstances. A mixture recommended by Mr. E. H. Gane, of New York, is as follows: Castor oiet a. se ee pe ee Se PAE Wee he ee Ree eee ee 1 ounce Alcohol 22422253255 = Je Figo je 8 BBS eS Se eee a ee 1 ounce OTOL Laver Cl ae ee 1 ounce This mixture was prepared for fhe purpose of avoiding the odor of the oil of citronella. Oscar Samostz, of Austin, Tex., recommends the following formula: Onkof Citronella = ea ee pemet Sule 1 ounce Liquid vaseline__-——----—-- metas Piel 2 ere ene eee ees 4 ounces This mixture greatly retards the evaporation of the oil of citron- ella. Mr. B. A. Reynolds has used successfully in New Orleans 20 minims of oil of citronella to the ounce of vaseline or lanolin. A 5 per cent solution of sulphate of potash has been recommended, as also the oil of cassia. Pure kerosene has also been used extensively in the Philippines. SCREENS AND CANOPIES. Such obvious measures as the screening of houses, the use of netting for beds, and the wearing of veils and gloves after nightfall in badly infested regions need no detailed consideration. Screening of houses can not be too carefully done, and adjustable, folding, or sliding window and door screens seem never to be tight; even with well-fitted screens there are often opportunities for mosquitoes to enter; constant care and vigilance alone will prevent this. In cer- tain seasons in mosquito regions mosquitoes will attempt to make their way through screens and are often able to do so. When they are very numerous wire screens should be painted lightly with kerosene or oil of citronella. With bed canopies there should be ample material to admit of a perfect folding of the canopy under the mattress, and the greatest care should be taken to keep the fabric well mended. It often hap- pens in mosquito regions that little care is taken of the bed nettings in the poorer hotels, and it is necessary for perfect protection that a traveler in the Southern States should carry with him a pocket “ housewife” and should carefully examine his bed netting every night, prepared to mend all tears and expanded meshes. Veils and nettings for camping in the Tropics or other regions where mos- quitoes abound are absolutely necessary. Light frames are made to fit helmetlike over the head and are covered with mosquito netting. Similar frames, readily folded into a compact form, are 444 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. 7 made to form a bed covering at night, and every camping outfit for work in tropical or malarial regions should possess such framework and plenty of mosquito netting as an essential part of the outfit. The size of the mesh in mosquito bars and window screens is important. Twenty meshes to the inch can be relied upon to keep mosquitoes out, but 15 to the inch admits some of them. SCREENING BREEDING PLACES. Where the rain-water supply is conserved in large tanks, as in cities in the Gulf States, screening is necessary and is now rather generally enforced. Rain-water barrels everywhere should be screened in the same way, except where fish are used to kill the early stages of mosquitoes. A cheap cover for a water barrel can be made by covering a large iron hoop with a piece of stout calico or sacking, free from holes, in such a manner that a good deal of sag is left in the material. SMUDGES AND FUMIGANTS. Anything that will make a dense smoke will drive away mosquitoes, and various smudges are used by campers. For household use a number of different substances have been tried. PYRETHRUM POWDERS. Pyrethrum powders, known to the trade as Dalmatian insect powder, Persian insect powder, buhach, and otherwise, are very effective when fresh and pure. Pure powders are the finely ground flower-heads of two species of composite plants of the genus Pyreth- rum. The essential principle seems to be a volatile oil that dis- appears with age and exposure. Many powders for sale in the drug stores are apparently diluted by the grinding of stems as well as flower-heads and in other ways. These powders are not so effective as pure powders. Pyrethrum powders are usually used dry, and are puffed or blown into crevices frequented by insects, or puffed or blown into the air of a room in which there are mosquitoes. The burning of the powder in a room at night is common practice. The powder is heaped up in a little pyramid which is lighted at the top and burns slowly, giving out a dense and pungent smoke. Often the powder is moistened and molded roughly into small cones, and after drying it burns readily and perhaps with less waste than does the dry powder. Mosquitoes are stupefied by the smoke and fall to the floor, where they may be swept up and burned. With open windows and constant currents of fresh air this fumigation is not especially effec- tive, and it is necessary, for protection, to sit in a cloud of smoke. 444 8 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. The powder may be placed upon a metal screen above the chimney of a kerosene lamp, with the result that the vapor of the volatile oil will be dissipated. This is said to be very effective. It is economical in powder, and the odor is slight. Another method of burning the powder is to puff it from an insufflator into a burning gas jet. In New Orleans it has been found that in order to thoroughly clear houses of mosquitoes pyrethrum must be burned at the rate of nearly 1 pound of powder to every 1,000 cubic feet of space. MIMMS CULICIDE. This mixture is made of equal parts by weight of carbolic acid crystals and gum camphor. The acid crystals are melted over a gentle heat and poured slowly over the gum, resulting in the absorp- tion of the camphor and a final clear, somewhat volatile liquid with an agreeable odor. This liquid is permanent, and may be kept for some time in tight jars. Volatilize 3 ounces of this mixture over a lamp of some kind for every 1,000 cubic feet of space. A simple apparatus for doing this may be made from a section of stovepipe cut so as to have three legs and an outlet for draft, an alcohol lamp beneath and a flat-bottom basin on top. The substance is inflam- mable, but the vapor is not explosive. The vapor is not dangerous to human life except when very dense, but it produces a headache if too freely breathed. Rooms to~be fumigated should be made as nearly air-tight as possible. SULPHUR DIOXID. Burning of sulphur, or lump sulphur, in a small pot, at the rate of 2 pounds of sulphur for each 1,000 cubic feet of space, is efficient against mosquitoes where fumigation in the case of possible disease- bearing mosquitoes is desired. OTHER FUMIGANTS. According to Dr. John B. Smith, powdered jimson weed (Datura stramonium) can be burned to advantage in houses. He recommends 8 ounces to fumigate 1,000 cubic feet of space. He states that it should be made up by the druggist into an amount with niter or salt- peter 1 part to 3 of Datura, so as to burn more freely. He states that the fumes are not poisonous to human beings, are not injurious to fabrics or to metals, and can be used with entire safety. He sug- gests that it be burned in a tin pan or on a shovel. The burning of dried orange peel has been recommended as a de- terrent against mosquitoes by a Japanese physician. 444 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. 9 APPARATUS FOR CATCHING ADULT MOSQUITOES. An interesting homemade apparatus in common use in many parts of the United States is very convenient and effective. It consists of a tin cup or a tin-can cover nailed to the end of a long stick in such a way that a spoonful or so of kerosene can be placed in the cup, which may then, by means of the stick, be pressed up to the ceiling so as to inclose one mosquito after another. When covered over in this way the captured mosquito will attempt to fly and be caught in the kerosene. By this method perhaps the majority of the mosquitoes in a given bedroom—certainly all of those resting on the ceiling— can be caught before one goes to bed. Mr. H. Maxwell-Lefroy, of India, makes a trap consisting of a wooden box lined with dark-green baize and having a hinged door. The trap is 12 inches long, 12 inches broad, and 9 inches deep. A small hole, covered by a revolving piece of wood or metal, was pre- pared in the top of the box. Owing to the habit of mosquitoes to ° seek a cool, shady place in which to rest, such as a dark corner of the room or a book shelf, or something of that sort, they will enter the trap, which is put in the part of the room most frequented by mos- quitoes, all other dark places being rendered uninhabitable so far as possible. They are driven out of book shelves with a duster or with tobacco smoke, and go into the desirable sleeping place for the day. The door is then closed and fastened, and into the small hole at the _ top of the box a teaspoonful or less of benzine is introduced. This kills all of the mosquitoes inside, and the box is then thoroughly aired and replaced. In this way Mr. Lefroy is very successful in catch- ing mosquitoes. At one time he averaged 83 a day. REMEDIES FOR MOSQUITO BITES. The most satisfactory remedy known to the writer, from his per- sonal experience, has been moist soap. Wet the end of a piece of ordinary toilet soap and rub it gently on the puncture, and the irri- tation will soon pass away. Others have enthusiastically recom- mended household ammonia, or alcohol, or glycerin. One corre- spondent marks the puncture with a lump of indigo; another with one of the naphthaline moth balls; another, iodin. Rev. R. W. Ander- son, of Wando, S. C., states that he has found that by holding his hand to a hot lamp chimney the irritation of mosquito punctures will be relieved instantly. ABOLITION OF BREEDING PLACES. It has been found that, taking the group of mosquitoes as a whole, their breeding places are of the most diverse character. Some species, however, are restricted in the character of their breeding places. 444 1) . REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. Certain forms, for example, breed only in tree holes; others in accu- mulations of water in epiphytic plants; another species breeds only in the crabholes on sea beaches. Others are of more general breeding habits and will live in almost any chance accumulation of water. Certain species breed only in the salt marshes and may lay their eggs on mud, and most others lay their eggs upon the surface of water. Certain of the species, especially those occurring inland, in the more northern States, seem to breed only in the pools formed by melting snow, and as these occur at only one time of the year there is but one generation, and the eggs are laid in midsummer or later in such hollows in the earth as will be filled by the melting snow the ensuing spring. Another species, which is frequently very annoying in certain of the northern States, breeds only in the stems of certain aquatic plants. Still another breeds in the pitchers of pitcher plants (Sarracenia). Culex pipiens L. in the North and Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Aédes (Stegomyia) calopus Meig. in the South, however, breed in every chance receptacle of water about residences, and their destruc- tion means the abolition or treatment of all such receptacles. Where the rain-water barrel and rain-water tank are necessary they should be screened. About a given house the waste places in the immediate vicinity should be carefully searched for tin cans, bottles, and wooden or tin boxes in which water can accumulate and all such receptacles should be destroyed or carried away. The roof gutters of every building should be earefully examined to make sure that they are not clogged so as to allow the water to accumulate. Where the branches of tall trees overhang roofs this is especially likely to occur by the agency of falling leaves or twigs. The chicken pans in the poultry yard, the water in the troughs for domestic animals, the water cup of the grindstone are all places in which these mosquitoes will breed and water should not be allowed to stand in them for more than a day or so at a time. In the South the water accumulating under water tanks should be treated or drained away. The urns in the cemeteries in New Orleans have been found to breed mosquitoes abundantly. The holy-water fonts in churches, especially in the South, have been found to breed mosquitoes abundantly. In slightly marshy ground a favorite breed- ing place is the footprints of cattle and horses. In one country village, which contained many small vegetable gardens in clay soil, during a rainy season mosquitoes were found breeding abundantly in the water accumulating in the furrows in the gardens. Even in the house these mosquitoes breed in many places where they may be overlooked. Where the water in flower vases is not frequently changed mosquitoes will breed. They will breed in 444 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. 11 water pitchers in unused guest rooms. They will breed in the tanks in the water-closets when these are not frequently in use. They will breed in pipes and under stationary washstands where these are not frequently in use, and they will issue from the sewer traps in back yards of city houses during dry spells in the summer time when the sewers have not recently been flushed by heavy rains. In ware- houses and on docks they breed abundantly in the fire buckets and in water barrels: Of course such places as these can not be abolished, but should be treated in accordance with measures indicated in another section of this bulletin. In country houses in the South, where ants are troublesome, and where it is the custom to insulate the legs of tables with small cups of water, mosquitoes will breed in these cups unless a small quantity of kerosene is poured in. Where broken bottles are placed upon a stone wall, water accumulates in the bottle fragments after rains, and mosquitoes will breed there. Old, disused wells in gardens are frequent sources of mosquito supply, even where apparently carefully covered, and here the nuisance is easily abated by the occasional application of kerosene. The same thing may be said of cesspools. Cesspools are frequently covered with stone and cement, but the slightest break in the cement, the slightest crack, will allow the entrance of these minute insects, and unlimited breeding often goes on in these pools without a sus- picion of the cause of the abundance of mosquitoes in the neigh- borhood. Fountains and ornamental ponds are frequent breeding places, and here the introduction of fish, as indicated in another place, is usually all-sufficient. It frequently happens, however, that the grass is allowed to grow down into the edges of ornamental ponds and mos- quito larve find refuge among the vegetation and so escape the fish. Broad-leaved water plants are also often grown in such ponds, and where these broad leaves lie flat on the surface of the water, as they frequently do, one portion of a given leaf may be submerged so that mosquito larve may breed freely in the water above the submerged portion of the leaf, protected from the fish by the leaf itself, the fish rising from below. It is necessary, therefore, to keep the edges of such ornamental ponds free from vegetation, and to choose aquatic plants whose growth will not permit of mosquito-larve protection. In these latter localities not only the house mosquitoes, previously mentioned, or the rain-water barrel mosquitoes will be found, but also some of the other forms, and particularly the malaria-breeding mos- quitoes of the genus Anopheles. Some of these breed in all sorts of water accumulations. 444 12 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. In many small country towns, even where there is a water supply, tanks are to be found under the roofs to supply bathrooms. Such tanks should be screened, since mosquitoes gain entrance to the tank room, either through dormer windows or by flying up through the house from below, in search of places to lay their eggs. About a large old house or a public building there are so many of these chance breeding places that only the most careful and long- continued search will find them all. As an example, in a State hospital, after a search which lasted for many days, and after a treatment of all possible breeding places found, mosquitoes still con- tinued to annoy the patients. Finally in the darkest part of a disused cellar was found a half-barrel with standing water in it, which was giving out mosquitoes at the rate of hundreds per day. Frequent change of water or the use of kerosene will render all such breeding places harmless. In community work in cities all of the points mentioned must be borne in mind, and in the portions of the community where the resi- dences are for the most part villas, in the absence of swampy suburbs the householders are in the main responsible for their own mosquitoes. There are, however, breeding places for which the municipality may be said to be responsible, and these entirely aside from public foun- tains, reservoirs, or marshes. Roadside open gutters or ditches may breed a generation of any one of several species of mosquitoes, includ- ing malarial mosquitoes. On a pasture or common, where sod has been removed, water accumulating in the excavation thus formed may breed a generation of malarial mosquitoes. All such accidental breeding places should be abolished by filling in. It seems unlikely that in any general sewage system mosquitoes may breed in the sewers proper. That they do breed in the catch basins is well known. The purpose of the catch basin is to catch and retain by sedimentation sand and refuse which would otherwise enter the sewer and deposit in it. It is intended to be water tight and to hold a considerable body of water, which stands in it up to the level of the outlet pipe. Such catch basins are very commonly used in back yards and at the crossings of streets. The water is removed only by rain or when the street or yard surfaces are washed. In dry seasons the period of stagnation may last several weeks, certainly long enough for mosquito breeding. As a matter of fact mosquitoes in mid- summer do breed in such traps or catch basins by millions. These basins may be treated with petroleum, or the municipal authorities may flush them once a week, carrying away such larve as may have hatched. Kerosene treatment, however, is best. Public dumps are great breeding places, because here accumulate old bottles, cans, boxes, bits of tin or iron vessels, and other objects 444 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. 13 in which water may accumulate for a time. Even a very small amount of water will make a breeding place for very many mosqui- toes. It is quite possible for a half of a beer bottle to contain enough water to give out literally thousands of mosquitoes. The writer knows of one instance where a veritable plague of mosquitoes’ was traced to a case of empty beer bottles allowed to remain in a back yard for some weeks in midsummer. There is a possibility that under certain circumstances mosquitoes may breed in water accumulating in the troughs of underground-con- duit electric railways. There is abundant opportunity for water to accumulate in these troughs, but no exact observations upon mosquito breeding in such situations have been made. Search carefully for all such places, and either abolish the standing water by carting away chance receptacles, by turning over vessels, by filling in excavations, or by treating other receptacles with a film of kerosene, or by introducing fish into fountains and artificial pools. DRAINAGE MEASURES. Drainage measures really form a part of the consideration of the treatment of breeding places. The drainage of swamp areas for agricultural or industrial reasons needs no argument. The value of reclaimed swamp land for various purposes is well known. The drainage of swamp areas primarily in order to improve sanitary conditions and to reduce the scourge of mosquitoes which in itself often prevents the proper development of nearby regions is in opera- tion and needs no argument. Drainage on a small scale for the pur- pose of doing away with mosquitoes has been practiced for a long time, and in many parts of the country large-scale drainage with mos- quito abolition in view is going on, notably in New Jersey and in California. Methods of draining can not be entered into in this bulle- tin, but it should be pointed out that in case of salt-marsh land the operation is inexpensive, and results of great value have been reached both in California and in New Jersey. DESTRUCTION OF LARVA BY TREATMENT OF BREEDING PLACES. While it is obviously best to abolish breeding places in the ways mentioned, it often happens that it is not possible to drain, and at least as a temporary expedient it becomes desirable to treat the water so as to kill the mosquito larve. Many substances have been tried, and, aside from certain proprietary mixtures, nothing has given such good results as the use of oils. Efforts to find oils that can be used to better advantage than petroleum have failed. Common kerosene 444 14 REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. of low grade, or of the grade known as fuel oil, is the most satisfac- tory as regards efficiency and price. In choosing the grade of oil two factors are to be considered: First, it should spread rapidly; second, it should not evaporate too quickly. The heavier grades of oil will not spread readily over the surface of, the water, but will cling together in spots and the coating will be unnecessarily thick. The rapidity of spread of the film is also im- portant. As to quantity, under still conditions, an ounce of kerosene to 15 square feet of surface space is about the right proportion, and in the absence of wind such a film will remain persistent for 10 days or slightly longer. Even after the iridescent scum apparently dis- appears there is still an odor of kerosene about the water. In a wind the film of kerosene is frequently blown to one side, but with a change will go back again, so that larve are destroyed. Not only are larve and pup destroyed by the kerosene film, but many adult mosquitoes alighting on the surface of the water to drink or to lay their eggs are killed by it. In California, Mr. H. J. Quayle has used a combina- tion of heavy oil of 18° gravity and a light oil of 34° gravity, in the proportion of 4 to 1, respectively. This mixture made an oil that was just thin enough to spray well from an ordinary spray nozzle and yet was thick enough to withstand very rapid evaporation. It was ap- pled by a barrel pump where this could be used, and by an ordinary knapsack pump in other regions. A single application was found by Mr. Quayle to be effective sometimes up to four weeks. The army of occupation in Cuba used oil every two weeks. The use of a spray pump has been mentioned. Small ponds can be sprinkled out of an ordinary watering pot with a rose nozzle, or for that matter pouring it out of a dipper or cup will be satisfactory. In larger ponds pumps with a straight nozzle may be used. A straight stream will sink and then rise and spread until the whole surface of the pond can be covered without waste. The English workers in Africa advise mopping the kerosene upon the surface of the water by means of cloths tied to the end of a long stick and saturated with kerosene. In Panama a larvicide is being used which is made as follows: 150 gallons of carbolic acid is heated in a tank to a temperature of 212° F., then 150 pounds of powdered or finely broken resin is poured in. The mixture is kept at a temperature of 212° F. Thirty pounds of caustic soda is then added and the solution is kept at the same temperature until a perfectly dark emulsion without sediment is formed. The mixture is thoroughly stirred from the time the resin is used until the end. One part of this emulsion to 10,000 parts of water is said to kill Anopheles larve in less than half an hour, while 1 part to 5,000 parts of water will kill them in from 5 to 10 444 'REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES AGAINST MOSQUITOES. 15 minutes. At a larvicide plant at Ancon 4,600 gallons of this mixture were made at a cost of $0.1416 per gallon. Although this mixture has been used to a large extent in Panama, crude oil was also used for streams having a fair velocity. THE PRACTICAL USE OF NATURAL ENEMIES OF MOSQUITOES. The common goldfish and silverfish destroy mosquito larve and should be put in artificial ponds. Top-minnows of several species have been introduced successfully in several localities and are great feeders upon mosquito larve. Certain species introduced from Texas into Hawaii have been successful; and a small top-minnow of the genus Girardinus, known in the Barbados as “ millions,” has been carried with success to others of the British West India Islands. In Rio de Janeiro another top-minnow has been used by the public health service for placing in tanks and boxes where it was impossible to use petroleum. There are many predatory aquatic insects that feed upon mosquito larve; others that catch the adults. Certain birds prey upon the adults, and they are also eaten by bats. An experiment is being carried on near San Antonio, Tex., in which a bat roost has been con- structed with the dual purpose of gathering the bats to kill mosquitoes of that region and of collecting the bat guano. DETERRENT TREES AND PLANTS. A great deal has been published concerning the properties of cer- tain growing plants which are said to keep away mosquitoes. Among these may be mentioned several species of Eucalyptus, the castor-oil plant, the Chinaberry tree, and others. Although the evidence in regard to these plants is contradictory, all observations made by scientific men in different parts of the world negative their value; claims that they are valuable are confined to people who have not made thoroughly scientific tests. [A list showing the titles of all Farmers’ Bulletins available for distribution will be sent free upon application to a Member of Congress or to the Secretary of Agriculture. | 444 O Issued May 23, 1911. (essere lake MENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS’ BULLETIN 447. Sok ten BY Be PAIS; a. D. In Charge of Bee Culture, Bureau of FE-:ntomology. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. “ 2] 163) 1911. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BurEAv OF ENTOMOLOGY, Washington, D. C., March 4, 1911. Srr: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled _ ‘“Bees,”’ by E. F. Phillips, Ph. D., in charge of bee culture in this bureau. This paper will supersede Farmers’ Bulletins 59 and 397. A few new illustrations which add greatly to the value of the paper and some minor alterations in the text are the only changes in this from Farmers’ Bulletin 397; but since it is not now the policy of the depart- ment to issue revised editions, it is recommended that this bulletin be issued under a new serial number. In the preparation of this paper the aim has been to give briefly such information as is needed by persons engaged in the keeping of bees, and to answer inquiries such as are frequently received from correspondents of the department. No attempt has been made to include discussions of bee anatomy, honey plants, or the more special manipulations sometimes practiced, such as queen rearing. The discussion of apparatus is necessarily brief. Respectfully, L. O. Howarp, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. 447 CONTENTS Jeranniingye Gtin Gin 5.8 oo Se Gs Bierce eee ET Se ee ae ok LET RET ETT GH GOCE ET AY Se Sy ec I a HG uapIMenit: 1 APpATAtUS. 0.051.224.4205 neh ote. sche ee beh essen WQS) Gaede Saeco ree aes RO eee Gp ah i ce LEUTRECE 2 OO aL SPI Se Ree are es ge ee SE aac eres eT lie ees a ee tte pe aie crate cecdys ata Sn Ss Ree DD ARMOME Sens cae ar, nee ae gh ele eas chee MiMRTINEHTE INN OGd Ee aie ee ee ha se ahs bektden Pee JUS, (DLL Sg 8 ge oe Se ee Directions for general manipulationsy.......-..52.)..06.2----2-: PIRFCRTRSTOMTL TG OP eae ee Bawa Rnd Bw apse So nee jamin S Sprmomanseement...2-. 522-0.) .ss22565e wees eens Bs AE oe SwaLmsmamacement and INCrease: 2.2 - sles. shoe wesc wise see eee eee ee ee eee PATU TI GIA eer Oe eeee oer ee aor er NTA RN SEM 2. RE Te ee Een O MOMS WATIIINO ee Le reels Mee hie ei ete Se he alt ae Bre paral OMB OM UNO MAT VES (mets sae ee tenn ee eee yas aL Ne Se Pree ate MLOUROMN OME Yrs ns eee Sate an tye ee nM a vale so dye BE eee wes 2 LESS Cesalt Oe N Rae 3 Satter ee ete SEN ne Se Seay ats, Sande eae an Sie eee (CLAD) INDIGO cose B AE oe 5 Ge Se oe ete oe eerie ete ek a ae ae en “ON ee. {OLE MICRO Ole OER 2 aie coe A ee a ere paralOms mM OLs wall ETI Os San oes rates eicleee to caretaker 8 evarepeyezi< IU Te 2EES: ATG ESTO CET TONG) eee eter ene Ae ea See aan Meme reumMOnNIAtOM nee 5 01) este Sects Ss olen se 2 eet awe Se - Breed ersOmolWleeMaee sree es eee ae nate te oo aoe eee es | Introducing queens. . Btne Aaa terns Se! Dealers in bee feces manne Sy es Eee RS Ge ee eae Ae beeskeeners sAssOClAblONSS 145 ee Ae ac «rs an ence bays antec tin oubeekee pilin hae om wee yn ee Se 2 Sere Wiest OuNs PECiIOn Ne ey 8 te se hey es tore A Ueto Laws against spraying fruit trees while in bloom.....--.-.---- Laws against the adulteration of honey :-:-:.-2-2.-....--:+---1-24::: INVenDCesIAaTe a AUNSANCEWc Ss. eee ee ce Se es eh ead Supposed tnjuby of crops by ibees.<-- =. .-..-:..--%--.+-:- Publications of the Department of Agriculture on beekeeping 447 LAsL WS Ree Osase Fre; 1., A well-arrangedapiary .. 3.22...) 22s ce ek eee ee 2. A ten-frame hive with comb-honey super and perforated zinc queen exchider. 222242 s424¢ Teal oe ee ee See ee tee ee S-SMOKGE: 00 wid bog oce 65.2 SSeS) ee er a ene a Bee Bee veil with silk-tulle front: . 2.2) sche. oe ee ee ae Hive tools-2'o. ca)eeen nose oe eee ee ee eee 2 ee a . Drone and queen trap.on hive entrance. -2 2.2222 = 2 s2oe sa ee Bee escape for removing bees from supers........-------------------- ,"Spting bee escape. s os. eee eee ee eee eee eee ee (Bee. brush... 2) cia. tines Ss ee deci ce een a een et nee - Worker! queen,tand drone: S22. 5 oc a tere ee Soe ee eee . Combiarchitecttires_2 2042. ~/20 3 Ss re eee ie a 12 Boe. Jarvee, andypu passe cc bre. See ee ee 13: w@ ween: cells. - esos eS ns ks Soe eS eee as 14.-Handling the irime: (First position--:... 2-2. sete 15. Handling ‘the frame: Second position: =.-- 22. 22a: 22 ae ee ee 16. Handling the frame:* Third position: 7345255026 e. es eee 17. Division-board feeder to be hung in hive in place of frame............ 18. Feeder set in collar under hive body... .-. pe a a tres re on 19. ‘‘Pepper box” feeder for use on top of frames. .-..:.....-.2+----:.--- 20. Pan insuper arranged ‘for feeding. =. 25 225 Shee eee ee 21. Knives for amcapping homey. .s220.) 2. Sos tee ee eee eee 22. Honey extractor. j7id once tent ee 22 eine eee oc eee 23. ‘Perforated zinc queen, excluder. .2-22520 = = Soe tn ee 24. Shipping.cases for comb honey. =. 5245) 2-22 - sabi. eee 25. Queen mailing capes -.\25 5 see seeae seco sens see eee eee eee 447 4 a ic BEES. INTRODUCTION. Beekeeping for pleasure and profit is carried on. by many thou- sands of people in all parts of the United States. As a rule, it is not the sole occupation. There are, however, many places where an experienced bee keeper can make a good living by devoting his entire time and attention to this line of work. It is usually unwise to undertake extensive beekeeping without considerable previous expe- rience on a small scale, since there are so many minor details which go to make up success in the work. It is a good plan to begin on a small scale, make the bees pay for themselves and for all addi- tional apparatus, as well as some profit, and gradually to increase as far as the local conditions or the desires of the individual permit. Bee culture is the means of obtaming for human use a natural product which is abundant in almost all parts of the country, and which would be lost to us were it not for the honey bee. The annual production of honey and wax in the United States makes apiculture a profitable minor industry of the country. From its very nature it can never become one of the leading agricultural pursuits, but that there is abundant opportunity for its growth can not be doubted. Not only is the honey bee valuable as a producer, but it is also one of the most beneficial of insects in cross-pollinating the flowers of various economic plants. Beekeeping is also extremely fascinating to the majority of people as a pastime, furnishing outdoor exercise as well as intimacy with an insect whose activity has been a subject of absorbing study from the earliest times. It has the advantage of being a recreation which pays its own way and often produces no mean profit. It is a mistake, however, to paint only the bright side of the pic- ture and leave it to the new bee keeper to discover that there is often another side. Where any financial profit is derived, beekeeping requires hard work and work at just the proper time, otherwise the surplus of honey may be diminished or lost. Few lines of work require more study to insure success. In years when the available nectar is limited, surplus honey is secured only by judicious manipu- lations, and it is only through considerable experience and often by 447 5 6 BEES. expensive reverses that the bee keeper is able to manipulate properly to save his crop. Anyone can produce honey in seasons of plenty, but these do not come every year in most locations, and it takes a good bee keeper to make the most of poor years. When, even with the best of manipulations, the crop is a failure through lack of nectar, the bees must be fed to keep them from starvation. The average annual honey yield per colony for the entire country, under good management, will probably be 25 to 30 pounds of comb honey or 40 to 50 pounds of extracted honey. The money return to be obtained from the crop depends entirely on the market and the method of selling the honey. If sold direct to the consumer, extracted honey brings from 10 to 20 cents per pound, and comb honey from 15 to 25 cents per section. If sold to dealers, the price varies from 6 to 10 cents for extracted honey and from 10 to 15 cents for comb honey. All of these estimates depend largely on the quality and neatness of the product. From the gross return must be deducted from 50 cents to $1 per colony for expenses other than labor, includ- ing foundation, sections, occasional new frames and hives, and other incidentals. This estimate of expense does not include the cost of new hives and other apparatus needed in providing for increase in the size of the apiary. Above all it should be emphasized that the only way to make bee- keeping a profitable business is to produce only a first-class article. We can not control what the bees bring to the hive to any great extent, but by proper manipulations we can get them to produce fancy comb honey, or if extracted honey is produced it can be care- fully cared for and neatly packed to appeal to the fancy trade. Too many bee keepers, in fact, the majority, pay too little attention to making their goods attractive. They should recognize the fact that of two jars of honey, one in an ordinary fruit jar or tin can with a poorly printed label, and the other in a neat glass jar of artistic design with a pleasing, attractive label, the latter will bring double or more the extra cost of the better package. It is perhaps unfortunate, but nevertheless a fact, that honey sells largely on appearance, and a progressive bee keeper will appeal as strongly as possible to the eye of his customer. LOCATION OF THE APIARY. In choosing a section in which to keep bees on an extensive scale it is essential that the resources of the country be known. Beekeep- ing is more or less profitable in almost all parts of the United States, but it is not profitable to practice extensive beekeeping in localities where the plants do not yield nectar in large quantities. A man who desires to make honey production his business may find that it does 447 BEES. i not pay to increase the apiaries in his present location. It may be better to move to another part of the country where nectar is more abundant. The location of the hives is a matter of considerable importance. As a rule it is better for hives to face away from the prevailing wind and to be protected from high winds. In the North, a south slope is desirable. It is advisable for hives to be so placed that the sun will strike them early in the morning, so that the bees become active early in the day, and thus gain an advantage by getting the first sup- ply of nectar. It is also advantageous to have the hives shaded during the hottest part of the day, so that the bees will not hang out in front of the hive instead of working. They should be so placed that Fig. 1.—A well-arranged apiary. the bees will not prove a nuisance to passers-by or disturb live stock. This latter precaution may save the bee keeper considerable trouble, for bees sometimes prove dangerous, especially to horses. Bees are also sometimes annoying in the early spring, for on their first flights they-sometimes spot clothes hung out to dry. This may be remedied by having the apiary some distance from the clothes-drying yard, or by removing the bees from the cellars on days when no clothes are to be hung out. The plot on which the hives are placed should be kept free from weeds, especially in front of the entrances. The grass may be cut with a lawn mower, but it will often be found more convenient and as efficient to pasture one or more head of sheep in the apiary inclosure. 447 8 BEES. The hives should be far enough apart to permit of free manipu- lation. If hives are too close together there is danger of bees entering the wrong hive on returning, especially in the spring. These conditions, which may be considered as ideal, need not all be followed. When necessary, bees may be kept on housetops, in the back part of city lots, in the woods, or in many other places where the ideal conditions are not found. As a matter of fact, few apiaries are perfectly located; nevertheless, the location should be carefully planned, especially when a large number of colonies are kept primarily for profit. As a rule, it is not considered best to keep more than 100 colonies in one apiary, and apiaries should be at least 2 miles apart. There are so many factors to be considered, however, that no general rule can be laid down. The only way to learn how many colonies any given locality will sustain is to study the honey flora and the record of that place until the bee keeper can decide for himself the best number to be kept and where they shall be placed. The experience of a relatively small number of good bee keepers in keeping unusually large apiaries indicates that the capabilities of the average locality are usually underestimated. ‘ The determination of the size of extensive apiaries is worthy of considerable study, for it is obviously desirable to keep bees in as few places as possible, to save time in going to them and also expense in duplicated apparatus. To the majority of bee keepers this problem is not important, for most persons keep but a small number of colonies. This is perhaps a misfortune to the industry as a whole, for with fewer apiaries of larger size under the management of careful, trained bee keepers the honey production of the country would be marvelously increased. For this reason, professional bee keepers are not favorably inclined to the making of thousands of amateurs, who often spoil the location for the honey producer and more often spoil his market by the inju- dicious selling of honey for less than it is worth or by putting an inferior article on the market. Out apiaries, or those located away from the main apiary, should be so located that transportation will be as easy as possible. The primary consideration, however, must be the available nectar supply and the number of colonies of bees already near enough to draw on the resources. The out apiary should also be near to some friendly person, so that it may be protected against depredation and so that the owner may be notified if anything goes wrong. It is espe- cially desirable to have it in the partial care of some person who can hive swarms or do other similar things that may arise in an emergency. The terms under which the apiary is placed on land belonging to some one else is a matter for mutual agreement. There is no general usage in this regard. 447 BEES. 9 EQUIPMENT IN APPARATUS. It can not be insisted too strongly that the only profitable way to keep bees is in hives with movable frames. The bees build their combs in these frames, which can then. be manipulated by the bee keeper as necessary. The keeping of bees in boxes, hollow logs, or straw “‘skeps”’ is not profitable, is often a menace to progressive bee keepers, and should be strongly condemned. Bees in box hives (plain boxes with no frames and with combs built at the will of the bees) are too often seen in all parts of the country. The owners may obtain from them a few pounds of inferior honey a year and care- lessly continue in the antiquated practice. In some cases this type of beekeeping does little harm to others, but where diseases of the brood are present the box hive is a serious nuisance and should be abolished. WORKSHOP. It is desirable to have a workshop in the apiary where the crop may be cared for and supplies may be prepared. If the ground on which the hives are located is not level, it is usually better to have the shop on the tower side so that the heavier loads will be carried down grade. The windows and doors should be screened to prevent the entrance of bees. The wire cloth should be placed on the outside of the window frames and should be extended about 6 inches above the opening. This upper border should be held away from the frame with narrow wooden strips one-fourth inch in thickness so as to provide exits for bees which accidentally get into the house. Bees do not enter at such openings, and any bees which are carried into the house fly at once to the windows and then crawl upward, soon clearing the house of all bees. The windows should be so arranged that the glass may be slid entirely away from the openings to prevent bees from being imprisoned. The equipment of benches and racks for tools and supplies can be arranged as is best suited to the house. It is a good plan to provide racks for surplus combs, the combs being hung from strips separated the distance of the inside length of the hive. HIVES. It is not the purpose of this bulletin to advocate the use of any particular make of hive or other apparatus. Some general state- ments may be made, however, which may help the beginner in his choice. The type of hive most generally used in this country (fig. 2) was invented by Langstroth in 1851. It consists of a plain wooden box holding frames hung from a rabbet at the top and not touching the sides, top, or bottom. Hives of this type are made to hold eight, ten, or more frames. The size of frame in general use, known as the 86707°—Bull. 447—11——2 10 BEES. Langstroth (or L) frame (9% by 173% inches), is more widely used than all others combined. One of the best features in hive manu- facture developed by Langstroth is the making of the spaces be- tween frames, side walls, and supers accurately, so that there is just room for the easy passage of bees. In a space of this size (called a ‘‘bee space”) bees rarely build comb or deposit propolis. The number of frames used depends on the kind of honey produced (whether comb or extracted) and on the length of honey flow and other local factors. There are other hives used which have points of superiority. These will be found discussed in the va- rious books on beekeeping and in the catalogues of deal- ers in bee keepers’ supplies. Whatever hive is chosen, there are certain important points which should be in- sisted on. The material should be of the best; the parts must be accurately made, so that all frames or hives in the apiary are inter- changeable. Allhivesshould be of the same style and size; they should be as simple as it is possible to make them, to facilitate operation. Sim- ple frames diminish the amount of propolis, which will interfere with manipu- lation. As a rule, it is bet- ter to buy hives and frames Fig. 2.—A 10-frame hive with comb-honey super and from a manufacturer of such perforated zinc queen excluder. goods rather than to try to make them, unless one is an expert woodworker. The choice of a hive, while important, is usually given undue prominence in books on bees. In actual practice experienced bee keepers with different sizes and makes of hives under similar condi- tions do not find as much difference in their honey crop as one would be led to believe from the various published accounts. 447 BEES. Lt Hives should be painted to protect them from the weather. It is usually desirable to use white paint to prevent excessive heat in the colony during hot weather. Other light colors are satisfactory, but it is best to avoid red or black. HIVE STANDS. Generally it is best to have each hive on a separate stand. The entrance should be lower than any other part of the hive. Stands of wood, bricks, tile (fig. 2), concrete blocks, or any other convenient material will answer the purpose. The hive should be raised above the ground, so that the bottom will not rot. It is usually not nec- Fig. 3.—Smoker. essary to raise the hive more than a few inches. Where ants are a nuisance special hive stands are sometimes necessary. OTHER APPARATUS. In addition to the hives in which the bees are kept some other apparatus is necessary. A good smoker to quiet the bees (fig. 3), Fic. 4.—Bee veil with silk-tulle front. consisting of a tin or copper receptacle to hold burning rotten wood or other mate- rial, with a bellows attached, is indispensable. A veil of black material, preferably with a black silk-tulle front (fig.4), should beused. Black wire-cloth veils are also ex- cellent. Even if a veil is not always used, it is desirable to have one at hand in case the bees become cross. Cloth or leather gloves are some- times used to protect the hands, but they hinder most manipulations. Some sort of tool (fig. 5) to pry hive coy- ers loose and frames apart is desirable. A screwdriver will answer, but any of the tools made especially for that purpose is perhaps better. Division boards 447 Le BEES. drone traps (fig. 6), bee escapes (figs. 7 and 8), feeders (figs. 17, 18, 19, 20), foundation fasteners, wax extractors, bee brushes (fig. 9), queen- rearing outfits, and apparatus for producing comb or extracted honey (figs. 2, 21, 22) will be found described in catalogues of supplies; a full discussion of these implements would require too much space in this bulletin. A fewof these thingsare illustrated, and their use will be evident to the bee keeper. It is best to have the frames filled with foun- dation to insure straight combs composed of worker cells only. Foundation is made from thin sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of the cells of the comb. On this as a guide the worker bees construct the combs. When sheets of foun- dation are inserted they should be sup- ported by wires stretched across the frames. Frames purchased from supply dealers are usually pierced for wiring. It should be remembered that manipulation based on a knowledge of bee behavior is of far greater importance than any particular style of apparatus. In a short dis- cussion like the present it is best to omit descriptions of appliances, since supply dealers will be glad to furnish whatever information is desired concerning apparatus. Fig. 5.—Hive tools. EQUIPMENT IN BEES. As stated previously, it is desirable to begin beekeeping with a small number of colonies. In purchasing these it is usually best to obtain them near at home rather than to send to a distance, for there is considerable lia- bility of loss in ship- ment. Whenever pos- sible it is better to get bees already domiciled Fic. 6.—Drone and queen trap on hive entrance. in the particular hive chosen by the bee keeper, but if this is not practicable then bees in any hives or in box hives may be purchased and transferred. It isa matter of small importance what race of bees is purchased, for queens of any race may be obtained and introduced in place of the original queen, and in a short time the workers will all be of the same 447 BEES. ie race as the introduced queen. This is due to the fact that during the honey season worker bees die rapidly, and after requeening they are replaced by the offspring of the new queen. A most important consideration in purchasing colonies of bees is to see to it that they are free from disease. In many States and counties there are inspectors of apiaries who can be consulted on this point, but if this is not possi- ble even a novice can tell whether or not there is any- thing wrong with the brood, and it is always safest to refuse hives containing dead brood. The best time of the year to begin beekeeping is in the spring, for during the first few months of ownership the bee keeper can study the subject and learn what to do, so that he is not so likely to make a mistake which will end in loss of bees. It is usually best to buy good strong colonies with plenty of brood for that sea- son of the year, but if this is not practicable, then smaller colonies, or nuclei, may be purchased and built up durmg the summer season. Of course, no surplus honey can be expected if all the honey gathered goes into the making of additional bees. It is desirable to get as little drone comb as pos- sible and a good supply of honey in the colonies purchased. The question as to what race and strain of bees is to be kept is important. If poor stock has been purchased locally, the bee keepershould send to some reliable queen breeder for good queens as a foun- dation for his apiary. Queens may be purchased Fia. 8.—Spring bee escape. for $1 each for “untested” to several dollars each for ‘“selected”’ breeding queens. Usually it will not pay beginners to buy “selected” breeding queens, for they are not yet prepared to make the best use of such stock. “Untested” or “tested”? queens are usually as good a quality as are profitable for a year or so, and there is also less danger in mailing “untested”? (young) queens. 447 Fic. 7.—Bee escape for removing bees from supers. 14. BEES. Various races of bees have been imported into the United States and among experienced bee keepers there are ardent advocates of almost all of them. The black or German race was the first imported, very early in the history of the country, and is found everywhere, but usually not entirely pure. Asa rule this race is not desirable. No attention has been paid to breeding it for improvement in this country, and it is usually found inthe handsof careless bee keepers. As a result it is inferior, although it often produces beautiful comb honey. The Italian bees, the next introduced, are the most popular race among the best bee keepers in this country, and with good reason. They are vigorous workers and good honey gatherers, defend their hives well, and above all have been more carefully selected by Ameri- can breeders than any other race. Especially for the last reason it is usually desirable to keep this race. That almost any other race of bees known could be bred to as high a point as the Italians, and perhaps higher, can not be doubted, but the bee keeper now gets the benefit of what has beendone for this race. It should not be understood from this that the efforts at breeding have been highly successful. On the con- trary, bee breeding will y compare very unfavora- : Pbise hc St, WD rae es bly with the improve- fi i : i it | Ai i AN ment of other animals or AN i! lH | iM MAR plants which have been the subject of breeding investigations. Italian bees have been carefully selected for color by some breeders to increase the area of yellow on the abdomen, until we now have what are known as ‘‘five-banded”’ bees. These are very beautiful, but it can scarcely be claimed that they are improved as honey pro- ducers or in regard to gentleness. They are kept mostly by amateurs. Some breeders have claimed to select Italians for greater length of tongue, with the object of getting a bee which could obtain the abundance of nectar from red clover. If any gain is ever made in this respect, it is soon lost. The terms ‘‘red-clover bees”’ or “‘long- tongued bees’’ are somewhat misleading, but are ordinarily used as indicating good honey producers. Caucasian bees, formerly distributed throughout the country by this department, are the most gentle race of bees known. They are not stingless, however, as is often stated in newspapers and other periodicals. Many report them as good honey gatherers. They are more prolific than Italians and may possibly become popular. Their worst characteristic is that they gather great quantities of propolis and build burr and brace combs very freely. They are most desirable bees for the amateur or for experimental purposes. 447 Fia. 9.—Bee brush. BEES. 15 Carniolan and Banat bees have some advocates, and are desirable in that they are gentle. Little is known of Banats in this country. Carniolans swarm excessively unless in large hives. Cyprians were formerly used somewhat, but are now rarely found pure, and are unde- sirable either pure or in crosses because of the fact that they sting with the least provocation and are not manageable with smoke. They are good honey gatherers, but their undesirable qualities have caused them to be discarded by American bee keepers. ‘‘Holy-land,” Egyptian, and Punic (Tunisian) bees have also been tried and have been universally abandoned. The Department of Agriculture does not now distribute or sell queen bees or colonies of bees of any race. BEEK BEHAVIOR. The successful manipulation of bees depends entirely on a knowl- edge of their habits. This is not generally recognized, and most of the literature on practical beekeeping consists of sets of rules to guide manipulations. ‘This is too true of the present paper, but is due to a desire to make the bulletin short and concise. While this method usually answers, it is nevertheless faulty, in that, without a knowledge of fundamental principles of behavior, the bee keeper is unable to recognize the seemingly abnormal phases of activity, and does not know what to do under such circumstances. Rules must, of course, be based on the usual behavior. By years of association the bee keeper almost unconsciously acquires a wide knowledge of bee behay- - jor, and consequently is better able to solve the problems which con- stantly arise. However, it would save an infinite number of mis- takes and would add greatly to the interest of the work if more time were expended on a study of behavior; then the knowledge gained could be applied to practical manipulation. A colony of bees consists normally of one queen bee (fig. 10, 6), the mother of the colony, and thousands of sexually undeveloped females called workers (fig. 10, a), which normally lay no eggs, but build the comb, gather the stores, keep the hive clean, feed the young, and do the other work of the hive. During part of the year there are also present some hundreds of males (fig. 10, c) or drones (often removed or restricted in numbers by the bee keeper), whose only service is to mate with young queens. These three types are easily recognized, even by a novice. In nature the colony lives in a hollow tree or other cavity, but under manipulation thrives in the artificial hives provided. The combs which form their abode are composed of wax secreted by the workers. The hexagonal cells of the two vertical layers constituting each comb have inter- placed ends on a common septum. In the cells of these combs are 447 16 BERS. reared the developing bees, and honey and pollen for food are also stored here. The cells built naturally are not all of the same size, those used in rearing worker bees being about one-fifth of an inch across, and those used in rearing drones and in storing honey about one-fourth of an inch across (fig. 11). The upper cells in natural combs are more irregular, and generally curve upward at the outer end. They are used chiefly for the storage of honey. Under manipulation the size of the cells is controlled by the bee keeper by the use of comb founda- tion—sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of cells and on which the bees build the side walls. In the North, when the activity of the spring begins, the normal colony consists of the queen and some thousands of workers. As the outside temperature raises, the queen begins to lay eggs (fig. 12, a) in the worker cells. These in time develop into white larve (fig. 12, Fia. 10.—The honey bee: a, Worker; 6, queen; c, drone. Twice natural size. b, c), which grow to fill the cells. They are then capped over and transform first into pupe (fig. 12, d) and then into adult worker bees. As the weather grows warmer, and the colony increases in size by the emergence of the young bees, the quantity of brood is increased. The workers continue to bring in pollen, nectar to be made into honey, and water for brood rearing. When the hive is nearly filled with bees and stores, or when a heavy honey flow is on, the queen begins to lay eggs in the larger cells, and these develop into drones or males. Continued increase of the colony would result in the formation of enormous colonies, and unless some division takes place no increase in the number of colonies will result. Finally, however, the workers begin to build queen cells (fig. 13). These are larger than any other cells in the hive and hang on the comb vertically. In size and shape they may be likened to a peanut, and are also rough on the outside. 447 BEES. 17 In preparing for swarming the queen sometimes lays eggs in partly constructed queen cells, but when a colony becomes queenless the cells are built around female larve. The larve in these cells receive special food, and when they have grown to full size they, too, are sealed up, and the colony is then ready for swarming. The issuing of the first swarm from a colony consists of the depar- ture of the original queen with part of the workers. They leave behind Wg \ ANI A 55 oS «\ YY \\ ‘ NN. AY ‘in A NAVAN Li AANA ANNAN \ a \\\ \ \ Zz: Z A A A \ \\ A\ Zz Fig. 11.—Comb architecture: a, Vertical section at top of comb; b, vertical section showing transition from worker to drone cells; c, horizontal section at side of comb showing end bar of frame; d, horizontal section of worker brood cells; ¢, diagram showing transition cells. Natural size. ~ the honey stores, except such as they can carry in their honey stom- achs, the brood, some workers, drones, several queen cells, from which will later emerge young queens, but no adult queen. By this interesting process the original colony is divided into two. The swarm finds a new location in some place, such as a hollow tree, or, if cared for by the bee keeper, in a hive. The workers build new 86707°—Bull. 447—11——3 18 BEES. combs, the queen begins laying, and in a short time the swarm becomes a normal colony. The colony on the old stand (parent colony) is increased by the bees emerging from the brood. After a time (usually about seven or eight days) the queens in their cells are ready to emerge. If the colony is only moderately strong the first queen to emerge is allowed by the workers to tear down the other queen cells and kill the queens not yet emerged, but if a “‘sec- ond swarm” is to be given off the queen cells are protected. If the weather permits, when from 5 to 8 days old, the young queen flies from the hive to mate with a drone. Mating usually occurs but once during the life of the queen and always takes place on the wing. In mating she receives enough Fig. 12—The honey bee: a, Egg; 6, spermatozoa (male sex cells) to last ee ee =. throughout her lifes, Sheweturms to sane hive after mating, and in about two days begins egg laying. The queen never leaves the hive except at mating time or with a swarm, and her sole duty in the colony is to lay eggs to keep up the population. When the flowers which furnish most nectar are in bloom, the bees usually gather more honey than they need for their own use, and this the bee keeper can safely remove. They continue the collection of honey and other activities until cold weather comes on in the fall, when brood rearing ceases; they then be- come relatively quiet, remaining in the hive all winter, except for short flights on warm days. When the main honey flow is over, the drones are usually driven from the hive. By that time the virgin queens have been mated and drones are of no further use. They are not usually stung to death, but are merely carried or driven from the hive by the workers and starve. A colony of bees which for any reason is without a queen does not expel the drones. Many abnormal conditions may arise in the activity of a colony, and it is therefore necessary for the bee keeper to understand most of these,so that when they occur he may overcome them. If a virgin queen is prevented from mating she 447 Fig. 13.—Queen cells. Natural size. BEES. 19 generally dies, but occasionally begins to lay eggs after about four weeks. In this event, however, all of the eggs which develop become males. Such a queen is commonly called a ‘‘drone layer.” If the virgin queen is lost while on her flight, or the colony at any other time is left queenless without means of rearing additional queens, it sometimes happens that some of the workers begin to lay eggs. These eggs also develop only into drones. It also happens at times that when a queen becomes old her supply of spermatozoa is exhausted, at which time her eggs also develop only into drones. These facts are the basis of the theory that the drone of the bee is developed from an unfertilized egg or is partheno- genetic. ears eee eee 5. Anopheles quadrimaculatus: Larva in resting position............---.-- 6.. Anopheles quadrimaculatus: Pupa-.-< 222-2 2r- o-c 2-2 --— ee 450 4 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA. INTRODUCTION. It is a noticeable fact that in most parts of the world where anti- mosquito measures have been undertaken on a large scale the work has been done with the direct end of doing away with mosquito-borne diseases. In the United States, however, such antimosquito work as has been undertaken has almost invariably been done with the direct incentive of simply ridding communities or localities from a great nuisance. Almost the only exception has been the work done on Staten Island by Dr. Doty, the health officer of New York. There are, however, many localities in the United States where malaria is prevalent, and some in which the existence of the disease in an aggravated form is a serious barrier to agricultural or indus- trial development. It has been shown, for example, that, agricul- turally speaking, the lands of the Delta region of Mississippi and adjoining States are the richest in the whole world, with the possible exception of the delta of the Nile, and yet, on account of the extraor- dinary prevalence of malaria in this region, it is sparsely settled and land prices are low. The advance of the cotton-boll weevil into this section has had its customary effect of driving a consid- erable proportion of the negro labor into other regions not yet invaded, and unless the country is to become impoverished it will be necessary to import white labor. Negroes are more or less resistant to malaria, but this will not be true of the white labor coming into this region, which will undoubtedly become rapidly infected with the disease. Malaria is not a difficult disease to fight. This has been shown in many parts of the world—in Italy, in Cuba, in Panama, in West Africa, in India, in Egypt, and elsewhere. People, generally, should know the exact truth about the disease and what is to be done. The efforts of individuals, after they have acquired the proper know]- edge, wiil have an effect upon the malaria rate, while with a general knowledge of these facts community work must come sooner or later. In the pages which follow, the statements regarding the disease itself are partly drawn, with the permission of the American pub- lishers, from an admirable summary prepared by Dr. Ronald Ross,t 1 See Ronald Ross, The Prevention of Malaria. London and New York. 450 6 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA. of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, who was the first dis- coverer of the relation between malaria and mosquitoes, something over 12 years ago, in India. His results were soon confirmed by workers in many parts of the world, and the statements here made are accepted by the best physicians of all countries. THE DISEASE AND ITS CAUSE. The disease known as malaria, or fever and ague, or chills and fever, or marsh fever, and the varieties called intermittent fever, remittent fever, and pernicious fever, are caused by parasites in the blood which feed upon the red blood cells. Malaria occurs more or less in all warm climates, especially in the summer after rains and near marshy ground. It is said to cause one- fourth or more of all the sickness in the Tropics. The parasites in the blood are microscopic one-celled animals called plasmodia. These minute parasites are introduced into the blood through the proboscis of certain mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. On being introduced in this way, each parasite enters one of the red blood cells, in which it lives and grows. When full grown, each parasite divides and thus produces a num- ber of spores, which escape from the blood cell and enter fresh cells. This method of propagation may continue for years. Although only a few of the parasites may have been introduced originally through the beak of the mosquito, they rapidly increase until millions upon millions of them may exist in the blood. At first, when the number of parasites is still small, an infected person may remain apparently well. When, however, the number is large enough, he begins to suffer from fever. The parasites tend to produce their spores all at the same time, and it is at the moment when these spores escape from the blood cells, almost simultaneously, that the fever begins. The fever is probably caused by a little poison which escapes from each parasite with the spores. After from 6 to 40 hours or more this poison is eliminated from the patient’s system and his fever tends to leave him. In the meantime, however, a new generation of parasites from the spores is approaching maturity; and when this is reached they in their turn break up and cause another attack of the fever like the first, and so on indefinitely for months and months. In this way the attacks of the fever follow each other at regular intervals. But it often happens, as the result of repeated infections, that a new attack has commenced before the former one has ceased, so that they overlap and the fever continues. 450 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA, 7 After a time, even without treatment, the number of parasites may decrease until not enough of them are left to produce fever, in which case the patient improves temporarily. It generally happens, however, sooner or later, that the number of parasites increases again, and the patient again suffers from a series of attacks, Such relapses are frequently encouraged by fatigue, heat, chill, wetting, dissipation, or illness, and they may occur at intervals for a long time after the patient was first infected by the mosquito, and even after he has moved to localities where there is no malaria. Besides fever, these malarial parasites often produce anemia and enlargement of the spleen, especially with patients who have suf- fered many relapses. Death is often caused in malarial patients by other diseases, such as pneumonia or dysentery, the system being already weakened by the malarial parasites. If the patient survives, the parasites tend to die out of themselves, without treatment, after a long period of illness, leaving him more or less immune. The parasites are of at least three kinds, which can be easily dis- tinguished in the blood if placed under the microscope. These are (1) a parasite which produces its spores every three days and causes what is called quartan fever; (2) a parasite which produces its spores every other day and causes tertian fever; (3) parasites which cause the so-called malignant fever or pernicious malaria, which is of an irregular type and in which dangerous complications most frequently occur. Quinine kills the parasites when administered at the proper time; but generally it will not destroy all the parasites in the body unless it is given in sufficient doses and continued for several months. As long as a single parasite remains alive in the blood, the patient may be subject to relapses. Ross advises that at least 5 grains of sulphate of quinine should be taken by an adult patient every day without fail for four months, but he should consult a physician regarding the details of the treatment. METHOD OF INFECTION. The malaria parasite has several different stages. Aside from those forms which produce spores in the body, there are other stages—male and female. When one of these anopheline mosquitoes, which carries malaria, happens to feed on a patient whose blood con- tains parasites, these are sucked, with the blood, into the mosquito’s stomach. If the sexual forms of the parasites are present, those of opposite sexes at once unite. The parasite now undergoes certain changes in 450 8 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA. the mosquito’s stomach. It passes through the stomach wall and finally affixes itself to its outer surface. Here it grows very considerably and, after a week under favorable conditions, produces a large number of spores. These spores, thus entering the general body cavity of the mosquito, find their way into the salivary glands. These glands secrete the irritating fluid injected under the human skin when the mosquito begins to feed. Thus, when one of these mosquitoes, which has fed upon a malarial patient containing the sexual forms of the parasites, bites, after a week, another person, it injects these spores together with its saliva under his skin and generally into his blood. These spores now cause or may cause infection or reinfection in this second person. Thus the parasites of malaria pass from men to certain mosquitoes and back from these mosquitoes to men. Malarial fever is then an infectious disease, which is carried from the sick to the healthy by anopheline mosquitoes, and only in this way can it be contracted. It has always been known that malaria is most prevalent in the vicinity of marshes, and it was formerly supposed that the air or exhalations from these marshes produced the disease. Parasites of malaria have not been found in the water or air of marshes, nor in decaying vegetation, nor in the soil, although they have been dili- gently searched for. Attempts to produce infection by these agencies have always failed. The mosquitoes which carry these parasites, however, breed in marshes or in marshy pools and streams. Issuing from these breeding places, they enter nearby houses and feed upon the inmates, mostly at night, biting first one person and then others, and living for weeks or months. If an infected person happens to be present in any of these houses, the anopheline mosquitoes biting him will also become infected, and the disease is likely, ultimately, to be carried by these mosquitoes to others and to neighboring houses. Thus a whole neighborhood soon becomes infected and the locality is called malarious. In such localities it is easy to find the parasites of malaria in the proper mosquitoes. Sometimes 25 per cent or more of them are found to be infected. In malarious localities the anopheline mosquitoes bite the healthy new-born children and infect many of them. Such children if not thoroughly treated may remain infected for years. They may become anemic and possess enlarged spleens, and of course may spread the infection to others. In malarious localities almost every child has been found to con- tain the parasites of malaria or to possess an enlarged spleen. 450 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA, 9 In such a locality, therefore, the infection is constantly passed on by means of the mosquitoes from the older children or from adults to the newly born infants, so that the locality may remain malarious for very many years, in fact indefinitely. In the same way a newcomer arriving in such a locality will very probably become infected, especially if he sleeps in an infected house, even for one night, at a time when mosquitoes are flying and biting. A locality is malarious only when it contains persons infected with the parasites, and also sufficient numbers of the proper species of mosquitoes to carry the infection to the healthy persons. Fic. 1.—Anopheles quadrimaculatus: Male and female mosquitoes. Greatly enlarged. (Original. ) THE MALARIAL MOSQUITOES. There are in the United States only three species of mosquitoes which commonly carry malaria, namely, Anopheles quadrimaculatus Say, Anopheles crucians Wied., and Anopheles punctipennis Say. Several other species of Anopheles are occasionally found, but are not important malarial factors, Anopheles quadrimacylatus (figs. 1, 4, 5, 6) is commonly found in the more Northern States, and A. crucians (fig. 2) more abundantly in the Southern States, particularly in the coastal region. A. punctipennis (fig. 8) occurs in both Northern and Southern States. It has been found to carry quartan and tertian malaria in 450 10 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA. the South, but not in the North. A number of experiments have been made with this species in the North, and especially at Baltimore and New York, to see if it will carry malarial parasites, but without success. The anopheline mosquitoes are distinguished from most other mos- quitoes of the United States by the fact that their wings are more or less spotted, and that in resting on the wall their bodies incline away from the wall at an angle, while with most others the body is parallel Fic. 2.—Anopheles crucians: Female mosquito. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) to the wall. The females also have palpi which are nearly as long as the proboscis, or beak. The Anopheles mosquitoes above mentioned pass the winter as adults. In the autumn they enter houses, stables, barns, or other out- houses, or seek other sheltered hiding places, and remain there until spring. They are often found in the winter in numbers in the cellars of houses, where they may be killed by fumigation. These mosquitoes, as a rule, bite only after sundown. Anopheles crucians has on rare occasions been known to bite during the day, as 450 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA. 11 has A. punctipennis. This has not been recorded of A. guadrimacu-, latus. They do not fly far. It is doubtful whether any of these species ever flies for more than half a mile. These Anopheles mosquitoes breed in all sorts of accumulations of standing water, in pools, springs, watering trouglis, in the footprints of cattle in marshy land, and in marshes where fish are not abundant, in drains and gutters choked with grass or weeds, in old boats along the waterfronts, in hollows in rocks, in the backwaters of even rapid — Fic. 3.—Anopheles punctipennis: Female mosquito. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) streams, in earthenware vessels, in water barrels and tubs, in cess- pools, and all places carrying water accumulations, whether pure or foul. Anopheles crucians and A. quadrimaculatus have even been found breeding in brackish water along the seacoast. The minute, blackish eggs (fig. 4) are laid on the surface of the water and are found floating on their sides singly or in groups. Their larve do not hang from the surface of the water by the tail, as do other mosquito larve or “ wrigglers ” when at rest, but le flat at the surface, with their heads turned upside down, feeding upon minute floating particles at or near the surface (fig. 5). 450 12 SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA. Their growth is rather rapid, and they may in midsummer reach full size in two weeks after hatching. When full grown these larve transform to pupe (fig. 6) and re- main in this stage at the surface of the water for three or more days, when the adult mosqui- toes issue. PREVENTION AND CURE. There are now three recognized means of war- fare against malaria: (1) The mechanical protec- tion of individuals from the bites of malarial mos- quitoes; (2) the destruc- tion of the Anopheles mosquitoes in any or all of their different stages of growth; (3) the system- atic treatment of the pop- ulation of a malarious lo- cality with quinine until Fic. 4.—Anopheles quadrimaculatus: Eggs. Highly the malaria has been magnified. (Original.) stamped out and there are none of the parasites which cause this disease for the Anopheles mos- quitoes to carry. The first of these methods is largely a matter of personal preven- tion, and consists in thoroughly screening all habitations of human beings and, in the summer time, of wearing veils and gloves when out of doors after sundown. This method was systematically en- forced at the stations on the Italian railroads some years since and resulted in a very great reduction in the malaria rate. Fic. 5.—Anopheles quadrimaculatus: Larva in restin osition, Greatly enlarged. The second measure, that of ee ; : destroying the Anopheles, has been practiced with admirable success in Cuba, in Panama, in West Africa, in Egypt, and in certain localities in India. The measures of mosquito destruction used in these localities and elsewhere are de- scribed in a companion Farmers’ Bulletin (No. 444). The quininization method, or cinchonization method as it is called by the Germans and the Italians, has been used by the Germans in’ East Africa and by the Italians and, to some extent, by the English SOME FACTS ABOUT MALARIA, he in India. In Italy, by the means of mechanical protection, the malaria rate was reduced from 65 or 70 per cent down to 14 per cent, but here it held. The quininization method was then introduced, and the general malaria rate for Italy has by its means been reduced to less than 4 per cent. This method consists in the distribu- tion of free quinine to all laborers and to the poor living in malarious locali- ties. The quinine is prepared in its most agreeable form, as confectionery and principally as chocolates, the latter containing tannate of quinine, which is not so bitter. It is more easy to Fic, 6.—Anopheles quadrimaculatus. Pupa. Greatly enlarged. (Origi- nal.) induce children and those adults who can not tolerate the ordinary quinine salts to take the quinine in this form. 450 iia ae SVE A “eb ye Sart al Bo (rect bers, choosing those which are of special interest to them. FARMERS’ BULLETINS. Bulletinsin this list will be sent free, so long as the supply lasts, to any resident of the United States, on application to his Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the Secretary of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C.~ Because of the limited supply, eels are urged to select only a few num- Resi ents of foreign countries should apply to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., who has these bulletins for sale. Price 5 cents each to Canada, Cuba, and Mexico; 6 cents to other foreign countries. The bulletins entitled ‘‘ Experiment Station Work’’ give briefly the results of experiments performed by the State experiment stations. . The Feeding of Farm Animals. . Flax for Seed and Fiber. . Weeds: And How to Kill Them. . Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. . Silos and Silage. . Meats: Composition and Cooking. . Potato Culture. . Cotton Seed and Its Products. . Commercial Fertilizers. . The Manuring of Cotton. . Shee . Standard Varieties of Chickens, . The Sugar Beet. . Some Common Birds. . The Dairy Herd. Feeding. Experiment Station Work—I. . Methods of Curing Tobacco. . Asparagus Culture. . Marketing Farm Produce. . Ducks and Geese. . Experiment Station Work—Il. . Experiment Station Work—III. . Experiment Station Work—IV. . The Liming of Soils. . Experiment Station Work—V. . Experiment Station Work—VI. Corn Culture in the South. . The Culture of Tobacco. . Tobacco Soils. . oe eriment Station Work—VII. . Fis . Thirty Poisonous Plants. . Experiment Station Work—VIII. . Alkali Lands. . Potato Diseases and Treatment. as Food. Experiment Station Work—IX. . Sugar as Food. . Raising Sheep for Mutton. Experiment Station Work—X. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. . Millets. . Experiment Station Work—XI. Notes on Frost. . Experiment Station Work—XII. Cattle. Y How to Grow It. Breeds of Dair The Apple an . Experiment Station Work—XIV. . Grape Growing in the South. . Experiment Station Work—XV. . Insects Affecting Tobacco. . Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food. . Experiment Station Work—XVI. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. . Important Insecticides. . Eggs and Their Uses as Food. . Household Tests for Detection of Oleomar- garine and Renovated Butter. . Experiment Station Work—X VIII. . Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds, . Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. . The Angora Goat. . Irrigation in Field and Garden. . Emmer: A Grain for the Semiarid Regions. . Pineapple Growing. . Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. . Experiment Station Work—xXIX . Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. . Experiment Station Work—XX. . Clearing New Land. . Scabies of Cattle. . Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. . How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. . The Home Vineyard. . The Propagation of Plants. . How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. . Experiment Station Work—X . Rape as a Forage Crop. . Cheese Making on the Farm. . Cassava. . Experiment Station Work—XXII. . Principles of Horse Feeding. . Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. XI. (z) 173. 174, Primer of Forestry. Part I: The Forest. Broom Corn, . Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. . Cranberry Culture. . Squab Raising. . Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. . Horseshoeing. . Pruning. . Poultry as Food. . Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, etc. . Beautifying the Home Grounds. . Experiment Station Work—X XIII. . Drainage of Farm Lands. . Weeds Used in Medicine. . Experiment Station Work—XXIV. . Barnyard Manure. . Experiment Station Work—XXV. . Alfalfa Seed. . Annual Flowering Plants. . Usefulness of the American Toad. . Importation of Game Birds and Eggs for Propagation. . Strawberries. . Turkeys. , Cream Separator on Western Farms. , Experiment Station Work—X XVI. . Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. . The Cultivation of Mushrooms. . Pig Management. . Milk Fever and Its Treatment. . Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries. . Experiment Station Work—X XVII. . Raspberries. . The School Garden. . Lessons from the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904. . Tomatoes. . Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. . Experiment Station Work—X XVIII. . Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas. . Canadian Field Peas. . Experiment Station Work—X XIX. Experiment Station Work—X XX. . Forest Planting and Farm Management. . The Production of Good Seed Corn. Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases, . Okra: Its Culture and Uses. . Experiment Station Work—XXXI. . The Guinea Fowl. . Preparation of Cement Concrete. . Incubation and Incubators. . Experiment Station Work—X XXII. . Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States. . The Corrosion of Fence Wire. . Butter Making on the Farm. . An Example of Model Farming. . Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Dis- eases of Fruits. . Experiment Station Work—X XXIII. . Renovation of Worn-out Soils. . Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. . The Lawn. . Cereal Breakfast Foods. . The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat and Loose Smut of Oats. . Experiment Station Work—XX XIV . Maple Sugar and Sirup. . The Germination of Seed Corn. . Cucumbers. . The Home Vegetable Garden. . Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. . Soil Fertility. . Texas or Tick Fever and Its Prevention. . Experiment Station Work—XXXV. . Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. . Experiment Station Work—XXXVI. . Practical Information for Beginners in Irri- gation. . The Brown-tail Mothand How to Control It. . Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. . Experiment Station Work—XXXVII. 269. Industrial Alcohol: Uses and Statistics. 270. Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. 271. Forage Crop Practices in Western Oregon and Western Washington. . A Successful Hog and Seed-corm Farm, . Experiment Station Work—X XXVIII. . Flax Culture. . The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. . Experiment Station Work—XXXIXx. . Aleohol and Gasoline in Farm Engines. . Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. . A Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass. . A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm. . Experiment Station Work—XL. . Celery. 283. Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling Moth in the Ozarks. . Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. . Comparative Value of Whole Cotton Seed and Cotton-seed Meal in Fertilizing Cotton. . Poultry Management. . Nonsaccharine Sorghums. . Beans. . The Cotton Bollworm. . Evaporation of Apples. . Cost of Filling Silos. . Use of Fruit as Food. . Farm Practice in Columbia Basin Uplands. . Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. . Experiment Station Work—XLI. . Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. . Diversified Farming Under the Plantation System. . Home-grown Tea. . Sea Island Cotton: Its Culture, Improve- ment, and Diseases. . Corn Harvesting Machinery. . Growing and Curing Hops. . Experiment Station Work—XLII. . Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds. . Roselle: Its Culture and Uses. . Experiment Station Work—XLIII. . A Successful Alabama Diversification Farm. . Sand-clay and Burnt-clay Roads. . A Successful Southern Hay Farm. . Harvesting and Storing Corn. . A Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Es- cape Boll-weevil Damage. . Experiment Station Work—XLIV. . Experiment Station Work—XLV. . Cowpeas. . Experiment Station Work—XLVI. . The Use of the Split-log Drag on Earth Roads. . Milo as a Dry-land Grain Crop. . Clover Farming on the Sandy Jack-pine Lands of the North. . Sweet Potatoes. . Small Farms in the Corn Belt. . Building Up a Run-down Cotton Plantation. 328. Silver Fox Farming. 329. Experiment Station Work—XLVII. 330. Deer Farming in the United States. 381. Forage Crops for Hogsin Kansas and OKla- homa. 332. Nuts and Their Uses as Food. 333. Cotton Wilt. 334. Experiment Station Work—XLVIII. 335. Harmful and Beneficial Mammals of the Arid Interior. 337. Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms. 338. Macadam Roads. 339. Alfalfa. 341. The Basket Willow. . Experiment Station Work—XLIX. . The Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky and Tennessee. . The Boll Weevil Problem, with Special Refer- ence to Means of Reducing Damage. . Some Common Disinfectants. . The Computation of Rations for Farm Ani- mals by the Use of Energy Values. . The Repair of Farm Equipment. . Bacteria in Milk. . The Dairy Industry in the South. . The Dehorning of Cattle. 351. The Tuberculin Testof CattleforTuberculosis. . The Nevada Mouse Plague of 1907-8. 353. Experiment Station Work—L. O Il 354. Onion Culture. 355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 357. Methodsof Poultry Management attheMaine Agricultural Experiment Station. 358. A eae of Forestry. PartII: Practical For- estry. 359. Canning Vegetables in the Home. 360. “Experiment Station Work—LI. . Meadow Fescue: Its Culture and Uses. . Conditions A fiecting the Valueof Market Hay. . The Use of Milk as Food. . A Profitable Cotton Farm. . Farm Management in Northern Potato- growing Sections. . Experiment Station Work—LII. . Lightning and Lightning Conductors. . The Eradication of Bindweed, or Wild Morn- ing-glory. . How to Destroy Rats. . Replanning a Farm for Profit. 371. Drainage of Irrigated Lands, . Soy Beans. . Irrigation of Alfalfa. . Experiment Station Work—LIII. 375. Care of Food in the Home. . Harmfulness of Headache Mixtures. . Methods of Exterminating Texas-fever Tick. . Hog Cholera. . The Loco-weed Disease. . Experiment Station Work—LIV. . The Adulteration of Forage-plant Seeds. . How to Destroy English Sparrows. . Experiment Station Work—LV. . Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Clubs. . Potato Cultureon Irrigated Farms ofthe West. . ThePreservative Treatmentof Farm Timbers. . Experiment Station Work—LVI. . Bread and Bread Making. . Pheasant Raising in the United States. . Economical Use of Meat in the Home. . Irrigation of Sugar Beets. . Habit-forming Agents. . Windmills in Irrigation in Semiarid West. . Sixty-day and Kherson Oats. . The Muskrat. . Bees. . Farm Practice in the Use of Commercial Fer- tilizers in the South Atlantic States. . Irrigation of Grain. 400. A More Profitable Corn-planting Method. . Protection of Orchards in Northwest from Spring Frosts by Fires and Smudges. . Canada Bluegrass: Its Culture and Uses. . The Construction of Concrete Fence Posts. 404. Irrigation of Orchards. 405. Experiment Station Work—LVII. 406. Soil Conservation. . The Potato as a Truck Crop. . School Exercises in Plant Production. . School Lessons on Corn. . Potato Culls asa Sourceof Industrial Alcohol. . Feeding Hogs in the South. . Experiment Station Work—LVIII. . The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home. . Corn Cultivation. 415. Seed Corn. . Cigar-leaf Tobacco in Pennsylvania. . Rice Culture. . Game Laws for 1910. . Experiment Station Work—LIX. . Oats: Distribution and Uses. . Control of Blowing Soils. . Demonstration Work on Southern Farms. . Forest Nurseries for Schools. . Oats: Growing the Crop. . Experiment Station Work—LX. . Canning Peaches on the Farm, . Barley Culture in the Southern States. . Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and in the Rural School. 429. Industrial Alcohol: Sourcesand Manufacture. . Experiment Station Work—LXI. 431. The Peanut. 432. How a City Family Managed a Farm. . Cabbage. . The Home Production of Onion Seed and Sets. . Experiment Station Work—LXII. . Winter Oats for the South. | oA ge of Tenant Farming and Its Re- sults. oo ; Issued April 18, 1911 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. q aw FARMERS’ BULLETIN |No.'453. a DANGER OF GENERAL SPREAD OF THE GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS THROUGH IMPORTED NURSERY STOCK. BY Ck. MAREATTY, ENTOMOLOGIST AND ASSISTANT CHIEF, BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. POT. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT oF AGRICULTURE, BurREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, Washington, D. C., March 27, 1911. Sir: I have the honor to transmit, for publication, a paper dealing with the danger of the general establishment throughout the United States of the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth, which have been during the preceding two years, and are again the present year, imported from European countries on nursery stock and widely dis- tributed in the United States. While every effort has been made to examine and disinfect such imported stock, it is by no means certain that all of the infested shipments have been reported and examined by inspectors, especially as, in the absence of any law, all reports and work of this kind are more or less voluntary. There is, therefore, con- siderable danger that the brown-tail moth, or perhaps the gipsy moth, has already become established in one or more interior points. This paper gives a record of the infested importations during the last two years and descriptions of nursery conditions in Europe, showing the nature of the infestation there, and concludes with a - brief description, with illustrations, of the two moth pests which are now being thus imported. The publication is, therefore, a warning to users of such imported stock and gives descriptions and figures enabling the prompt recognition of either of these pests wherever they may become established. The nonexistence of a general law providing for the reporting of all imported stock and for uniform and thorough inspection and dis- infection of such stock makes it highly desirable that the information here given should be made promptly available and widely distributed. I recommend its publication as a Farmer’s Bulletin. Respectfully, L. O. Howarp, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. Hon. James WILsoNn, Secretary of Agriculture. 453 2 ee CONTENTS. Bere CIMOTE t= Sh tenth ac State aan ao nae Sats aia s Sie cro Seles Siok cidwie dloc’ees sibs gabicen Importations of infested nursery stock in 1909-1911.............-.----------- Brown-tail moth nestsimported in. 1909. .: 2... 22... ..0.25. 000% Ac pS ie Brown-tallemothmnestsmmportedmam Ole ss oc cre.cje cals claiccs see eres - esse Sic Brow h-tarhmous nests imported. (91... sc neces cen ements ot oan ee oe Records of distribution of the imported nursery stock incomplete...........--- Sonminonsin the District of Columbia. .o---.clna-sac ee nose sect se seease se Nature of inspection and likelihood of local infestation...............-..-.-.- Eamoticance of importations of 1909—19MN 2). iin0 Joe ee le eis ob See Sele ties eee ce Breet of the, brown-tail moth onvhealtlt’.( 404d. $220 sees 6 ok fee tlse cleo ciee tad Character and value of imported nursery stock.................-2--..-+-++--- Propean nursery CONdIMAONS <2 5 aeciree ieee ee ye Maha abavors ain tat fee agate SReromicitiMotinon TELUSE SLOCK. rat uue sete icclome sc s'wlssccior eve see ssa neeeer ab eniee MPecersiy.olguarantine Lepisiatione 2055 s2i sc assec sth le eT 3 Oso Brief description of the different stages of the oe and brown-tail moths ..-.- LEE SEN RR RS I a Oe Oe Se a ae Description of the different stages of the insect..............--------- Cerise tees eee Cherie eaters S SRG ET Nees kas cee nee MHCMAnvAt ON CALCNPLar tien se ee eels Mow Sn Dee alee weil c ee ee Biive yp upar sees Acoli As Are Seen eRe Sle a ed a ee Aleve calGutn lit Wo msn OL aoa eras ae eatin 2 oe ee Ly ch 2 iy SETS TE UT UC yeah leeet a Sees ne arene ech engl Oat Ee aR ERE ETcinptROUABEC HR PTCACS son is cwia sae fa aso Pree tenia ctela wich ariel eiw nic'acale EMA r eMLOL Lam Usenet ee eemtets ctelae i Se meee ats es echei eee cia,< sate We) brown-tathamoth 2: t- 228 2te eens sence eta s eee cence ane SEROTEC AAO RUE pe aU ESET Sa A te An eB 9a Sg Se Bim Ageia) p PAR tse ses so esr tips ora Sintala iaia'e Sle ajche wisi ecchelealesSalejefajnia 453 3 ae) © nA r) COnNn oO ooo: NOD OR COD EH ILLUSTRATIONS. 453 4 . Egg mass of the gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar L.)..........-20e--e000---- . Full-grown caterpillar of the gipsy . Pupa of the gipsy moth .........-- wMalecipsy moth: ..2-4..-5-— ese ~ Female gipsy moth:...::2.-..--..2- . The brown-tail moth (Huproctis chrysorrhea): Male, female, and caterpillar. . . Winter nest of the brown-tail moth TMOUD! be ee ELE Po ee ak Poe i i i i i iy i ee a Page. 16 DANGER OF GENERAL SPREAD OF THE GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS THROUGH IMPORTED NURSERY STOCK. INTRODUCTION. Winter nests of the brown-tail moth, each filled with hundreds of young larve, and occasional egg masses of the gipsy moth have been brought into the United States, the former in enormous numbers, dur- ing 1909-10 on imported nursery stock, and the importations for the season of 1911 are again bringing in these brown-tail moth nests. This infested stock, coming largely from nurseries in northern France, has been scattered widely over the United States east of the Rocky Moun- tains, and while every effort has been made to trace these importa- tions and inspect and disinfect them the probability of many unre- ported shipments or inefficient inspection is very great. A general warning is therefore gwen to all users of such imported plant stock, namely, to nurserymen, fruit rarsers, and purchasers of ornamentals for city or park planting, to keep all such imported stock under strict watch.to see that these pests do not develop. As an aid in this direction this bulletin has been prepared. It gives a record of the infested importations of the past two years, a review of the nursery conditions in Europe showing the nature of contamination there, and a brief description, with illustrations, of the two moth pests which are now being imported and widely distributed. IMPORTATIONS OF INFESTED NURSERY STOCK OF 1909-1911. Space will not be taken to give the details of the shipment and dis- tribution of infested nursery stock during these years. Some idea of the situation can be gained, however, from the following brief sum- mary of importations, drawn largely from the annual reports of the Bureau of Entomology by Dr. Howard for the two years in question. BROWN-TAIL MOTH NESTS IMPORTED IN 1909. Karly in 1909 it was discovered that nests of the brown-tail moth, filled with hundreds of small hibernating larve, were being introduced into this country on imported European nursery stock—chiefly from 453 . 6 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. northern France—and distributed into many States. These brown- tail moth nests were first reported in connection with a consignment of seedlings shipped from Angers, France, to New York. The nests were discovered by the New York State inspector, and the informa- tion was communicated to the Bureau of Entomology by the com- missioner of agriculture of that State. A little later information came from Ohio that the winter nests of the brown-tail moth had been found on seedlings imported into that State from the same locality in France. Warning letters were promptly sent out by Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the Bureau of Entomology, to the different entomologists, and special arrangements were made with the customs office, through the kindness of theSecretary of the Treasury, and by agreement with the railroads, so that this bureau was to be informed of all cases of plants received at customs or subsequently handled by the principal railroad companies. By this means the receipt and ultimate destination was ascertained of much of the imported stock of that year. This information was transmitted to the State inspectors and other competent persons near the points of ultimate destination of such packages and an effort was made to have all such imported material inspected. Information was secured concerning nearly 800 shipments, divided among 35 different States. In shipments to 15 of these States, namely, Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, lowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Mary- land, Massachusetts, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, nests of the brown-tail moth were found, ranging in number from one nest to many nests in each shipment. These brown-tail nests—little webbed packets of leaves containing the very small hibernating larve to the number of 300 or 400 in each nest—were found on the seedling and other nursery stock in enormous numbers, some 7,000 nests (approximately 2,800,000 larvee) being found in shipments to New York State alone. In one locality in Ohio an egg mass of the gipsy moth was found and Prof. P. J. Parrott, of the New York Experiment Station, at Geneva, N. Y., found another important European fruit pest (Hypo- nomeuta padella), which had probably been introduced on these same French seedlings. BROWN-TAIL MOTH NESTS IMPORTED IN 1910. In view of the dangerous conditions of the shipments of 1909, a strong effort was made on the part of Dr. Howard to have the French authorities provide for the competent inspection and disinfection of material preliminary to the shipping season of 1910. Im spite of promises of the authorities that such inspection would be made, the shipments of nursery stock from France in 1910 again brought to this country enormous quantities of nests of the brown-tail moth, 458 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 7 filled with the one-fourth grown larve. Moreover, one shipment of nursery stock frem Belgium to Louisiana contained an egg mass of the gipsy moth. All of this imported European stock was again followed up as far as possible in accordance with the arrangement of the previous year with the customs officers and by agreement with the railroads, and all reported shipments were inspected at their destination. Of the shipments of 1910 not less than 291 different lots were found to be infested with nests of the brown-tail moth. These went to the following States: Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Virginia. BROWN-TAIL MOTH NESTS IMPORTED IN 1911. As a result of a thorough investigation of European conditions, which will be described later, a much better effort during the last year has been made, notably in France and Belgium, to improve the conditions of export stock, and as a result the importations of the present season of 1911 so far have shown a very notable improvement in amount of infestation. Nevertheless, the imported stock still shows occasional infestation, and such infested stock is being widely distributed. The danger as the infestation becomes less general is perhaps just as great or even greater from the very natural lessening of care or greater haste which will be given to examinations, and one overlooked nest or egg mass is quite sufficient to establish these pests. RECORDS OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE IMPORTED NURSERY STOCK INCOMPLETE. Nursery stock imported by dealers and sent direct in bond to des- tination is probably all reported and subsequently examined. Much of the imported nursery stock is, however, handled by customs brokers or receiving agents in New York, and the different packing cases are so marked that these distributing agents know where to send them, and they are distributed widely over the country, often in bond, without being examined in New York, and often without any record being made of such shipment or final destination. As pointed out by Dr. Howard in his testimony before the House Committee on Agriculture, much of such nursery stock which enters at the port of New York and is thence distributed in original packages the Govern- ment has been able to trace through the courtesy of the railroads, in addition to the regular arrangement with the customs office to advise the Department of Agriculture on the receipt of such stock. Nevertheless, the information gained from the customs office is evi- dently incomplete, as very often the railroad companies report the handling of stock of which no advice has been gained by the customs 453 8 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. office, and, on the other hand, material is reported by the customs office which is not reported by the railroad companies. For this reason there is no certainty that all of the imported stock is reported, and undoubtedly some of it is miscellaneously distributed and never is examined at all. This condition of affairs, from local experience in his State, was strongly brought out by Dr. J. B. Smith, ento- mologist of New Jersey, in his testimony before the House Commit- tee on Agriculture. Dr. Smith also called attention to two other features of the im- portation of nursery stock which have an important bearing on the entrance of such pests as the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth. The first of these relates to the importation by large department stores of New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, and in large interior towns, of inferior stock of ornamental plants, roses, and even fruit trees, massed down under enormous pressure in large boxes, thousands of plants in a single case. This largely worthless and often infested stock is distributed by these agencies at a very low price, or is given to the customers, and goes in small parcels here and there where it can not be followed, and necessarily entails the greatest risk of the introduction of dangerous pests and plant dis- eases. It is almost impossible to make any proper examination of such material even when its importation and destination are reported. Some of these shipments contain hundreds of thousands of plants, so that the chances of overlooking infestation are exceedingly great. The other condition referred to by Dr. Smith is the importation by private persons, owners of large estates, or head gardeners, of greater or less quantities of ornamental and floral stock, such miscel- laneous importations being very difficult to get advice of, and un- doubtedly many of them are never reported or inspected. CONDITIONS IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. A recent and very undesirable development in the introduction of foreign nursery stock has come to light in Washington, D. C., and probably is occurring in other large cities. In the latter part of March it was learned that a large shipment of miscellaneous orna- mental stock had been made by a Dutch nursery firm to a local auctioneer, to be sold under the hammer, and, on the authority of the auctioneer in question, without previous arrangement. This new development seems to have arisen from an experience of the previous year (1910), where a shipment of stock was refused by the consignee and was turned over to this same auctioneer for sale. The results were evidently sufficiently satisfactory to lead the Holland firm to make the shipment of stock this year direct to the auctioneer, on the chance of a profitable sale. 453 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 9 The situation in the District of Columbia is probably the worst in the United States, inasmuch as there is no law whatever which authorizes the examination or inspection of nursery stock imported into the District. Examination of stock imported by local depart- ment stores, by nurserymen, and that sent for auction, as noted above, can be made only by officials of the Department of Agriculture through the courtesy of these different receivers of such stock. Very often such courtesy is scant, or refusal is made to open up the stock or separate it so that it can be properly examined. Such stock, when reported, has, however, been as thoroughly inspected as con- ditions permitted. It is sold to a multitude of purchasers, many of whom reside in near-by points in Virginia and Maryland, and thus finds entry into these States without the knowledge of the State officials. NATURE OF INSPECTION AND LIKELIHOOD OF LOCAL INFESTATION. As already indicated, the principal function of the Bureau of Entomology has been to get as complete information of importations as possible and transmit this information to the State inspectors, where such existed, of the several States. In some instances, where no local means of inspection was available, the imported material was inspected directly by agents of this bureau. In most of the States receiving infested goods the inspection made was con- scientious and thorough. In some instances, however, the inspection was undoubtedly indifferent or worthless. This is illustrated by the fact that material received by a-large Missouri nurseryman, and on his own statement ‘‘carefully inspected,’’ was reshipped by him to Maryland, still infested with the brown-tail moth. The condition of the imported nursery stock is such as to make inspection difficult and also to render it practically impossible to be absolutely sure that the inspection has resulted in the detection and destruction of all larve. The nests themselves are sufficiently prominent to be easily seen if the masses of thousands of plants in a case are properly separated so that each can be given indi- vidual examination. This means, however, a lot of time and abso- lute conscientiousness on the part of the inspector. Many of the nests, however, in the process of packing and unpack- ing become broken and the minute larve are scattered more or less through the seedling stock and also in the packing material. Under these conditions, the chance of larve being overlooked by the inspector is very great. Jt by no means follows, therefore, that even where material is located and inspected the brown-tail moth and perhaps other pests have not been introduced. Furthermore, 87582°—Bull. 453—11——2 10 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. the unpacking is done, in many nurseries, in the open, in close proximity to growing nursery or ornamental stock, and the pack- ing straw and wrappings are piled about and touching growing or heeled-in trees, so that plenty of opportunity may exist for the moth larve, in such packing material or otherwise scattered, to find lodgment and opportunity for development. There is also, in addition to the difficulties experienced in actual inspection, the very large risk, already indicated, that many ship- ments are not inspected at all. The fact that the brown-tail moth or any other pest does not develop immediately in the regions where these infested shipments are opened is no indication that such pests have not been intro- duced and that they will not eventually become established. When in very scanty numbers, they are inconspicuous enough to be easily overlooked for a number of years, as was illustrated in the case of the gipsy moth near Boston, which remained slowly increasing for over 20 years before it came to public notice. The brown-tail moth, brought in on roses, probably from Holland, about 1890, also had become thoroughly established over quite a large area before it was recognized, in 1897, as a new pest. The latter case is all the more instructive because the brown-tail moth was devel- oping in the very region which was then being thoroughly exam- ined every year for the gipsy moth. It may well be possible, there- fore, that either the brown-tail moth or the gipsy moth is now slowly gaining headway at different points in one or more States as a result of the shipments of infested material of 1909 and 1910. SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPORTATIONS OF 1909-1911. It is scarcely necessary to comment on the tremendous danger which the importations of nursery stock of the last three seasons have brought to this country. The enormous cost of the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth in New England is now well known. Throughout the infested districts of New England orchards have been completely destroyed and forests largely obliterated, and even where woodlands and parks have been protected at an enormous expense their beauty and value have been vastly lessened. Massachusetts has spent millions of dollars in an effort to control these pests, and with their spread to other States the work of con- trol has been taken up in these also. The National Government has been asked to come to the rescue, and is now appropriating $300,000 a year in the mere attempt to check the distribution of these pests along the principal highways. Massachusetts and the other infested New England States are now spending more than a million dollars a year in control work. In spite of these efforts 453 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 11 and this enormous expenditure the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth are steadily spreading in New England and great damage is experienced from them yearly. Extermination is entirely out of the question, and all these expenditures must go on indefinitely at a probably increasing rate, unless some natural check by means of parasites can be brought about. In addition to the great destructiveness of these pests to orchards and forests, their establishment in any suburban residential district means an enormous depreciation in property values, as is now illus- trated about the city of Boston, and very notably lessens the attrac- tiveness of coast or mountain summer resorts. The north shore towns of Massachusetts and lower Maine resorts have already felt this influence, and for such regions as the Catskills or Adirondacks the establishment of these pests would be most disastrous, inasmuch as control over such extended forested mountains is practically impos- sible. When itis realized that these two pests have been widely distributed, on imported nursery stock, in 22 States during the years of 1909 and 1910, and are now coming in on imported stock from France and Belgium, the danger to the whole country is fully apparent, and this danger applies to every orchard and to every owner of private grounds and also to our entire forest domain. The tax from these pests, should they gain foothold throughout the country, as measured by the existing cost in New England, is almost beyond estimate. EFFECT OF THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH ON HEALTH. Jn addition to the great monetary loss, the brown-tail moth exercises a very deleterious effect on health. The hairs which cover the caterpillars of this moth are strongly nettling, and not only are they so from accidental contact with a caterpillar which may fall on clothes, face, neck, or hands from an infested tree, but also from the myriads of hairs which are shed by these caterpillars when they trans- form to the chrysalis state. The latter fall and find lodgment on clothing, or collect on the face, neck, or hands, and frequently cause very disagreeable and extensive nettling, the effects of which may last for months. Breathed into the lungs they may cause inflammation and become productive of tuberculosis. The brown-tail rash is well known throughout the regions infested in New England and thou- sands have suffered from it. All of the assistants who have been connected with the Government work with these pests in. the New England States have been seriously poisoned. Two of them have had to give up their work and go to the Southwest to attempt to recover from pulmonary troubles superinduced by the irritating hairs of the brown-tail moth, and the death of one man employed on the work was due to severe internal poisoning contracted in field work against larvee. 453 12 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS, This insect is, therefore, a most undesirable neighbor, even if it were not responsible for great injury to orchards and ornamental trees. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF IMPORTED NURSERY STOCK. The actual value of the importations of nursery stock which is thus jeopardizing the entire fruit and forest interests of this country, as declared at customs during the years 1907 and 1908, of which we have tabulated records, is about $350,000 annually, but little more than the sum which the United States Government is spending every year in an endeavor to eliminate the spread of the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth, and one-third the sum which the New England States are spending annually in an attempt to control these pests. The major part of the imported stock consists of seedling apple, pear, plum, and cherry from north France. There is also consid- erable importation of ornamental and flowering plants, shrubs, and’ trees. The latter is purely commercial, and comes in very largely for the reason that it can be produced more cheaply abroad than in this country. Of the seedling stock, it is claimed by nurserymen that the imported plum, cherry, and quince stock particularly is much better material for grafting purposes than home-grown seed- lings. In the case of the apple seedlings, however, the great mass of such stock is still produced in this country and can undoubtedly be just as well produced here, if not better, than in France or else- where in Europe. The stock of the last two years which has been most infested has come from northern France, accumulated from various smaller or larger nurseries, including a French seedling agency, managed by an American corporation composed largely of New York nurserymen. If, as is claimed, some of this seedling stock is better than any that can be produced in this country, it becomes all the more imperative that such stock, or all imported stock, should be subject to rigid inspection, and that every possible means should be taken to safe- guard this country from the further establishment of these two very dangerous insect pests. EUROPEAN NURSERY CONDITIONS. During the summer of 1909, and also again in 1910, Dr. Howard, who was in Europe principally to supervise the introduction of parasites for the gipsy and -brown-tail moths into Massachusetts, made a careful inspection of the nursery regions of Holland, Bel- gium, and northern France, and also England. The writer was in Europe, on a personal trip, in the summer of 1909, and made an examination of similar conditions in Holland, Belgium, and parts of Germany. 453 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 13 Holland probably presents the cleanest bill of health in the matter of insect pests, and particularly of the gipsy moth and brown-tail moth. This country enjoys a good inspection service, and all Dutch nurseries are carefully inspected twice each year, so there is proba- bly less danger now from shipments trom Holland than from any other country. Belgium, in 1909, was in very bad condition, and the writer found the brown-tail moth more abundant there than he had ever seen it, hedge rows often being plastered with the winter nests. One such row the writer noted was only a few miles from the border of Hol- land and within easy flight of the moths to large Dutch nurseries. Belgium has, however, since September, 1909, established an inspec- tion service, applying only to nurseries exporting to America and limited to field examination, twice yearly, of growing stock. While a distinct improvement, the inspection as indicated is still inade- quate, as shown by much infested stock still coming to this country under official certificate. In France, in 1909, Dr. Howard found no governmental inspec- tion system of nurseries. The certificates attached to shipments of nursery stock received in this country from France were signed, as a rule, by men connected with agricultural schools, and probably in the case of most of the certificates the stock had never been seen by the expert. The general infestation of the stock coming from France to this country during the last two years made it abundantly plain that these certificates were absolutely valueless. Dr. Howard found that nursery stock for export was in many cases grown in the vicinity of hedges and trees infested with the brown-tail moth and gipsy moth and other injurious insects not yet introduced into the United States, and no special precautions were being taken by the nurserymen to prevent the infestation of export stock by injurious insects. The brown-tail moth nests are so char- acteristic and noticeable that it is only by absolute indifference on the part of French exporters that they are packed for shipment without removal. As a result of the agitation of 1909, the French exporters promised to take all possible precautions, and the French ministry of agri- culture promised to found a governmental inspection service. The Chamber of Deputies, however, failed to pass the inspection law proposed by the ministry of agriculture, and, as already noted, the condition of the ‘‘inspected material’? of 1910 was no better than in the previous year. The director of agriculture of France, however, continued to urge the need of a plant-inspection service for export nursery stock, and early in November of 1910 this department was advised, through the Department of State and the ambassador of France to the United 453 14 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. States, of the final establishment of such service. Later the details of the law were communicated to Dr. Howard by Dr. Paul Marchal, — who is charged with its execution. Dr. Marchal’s high reputation gives a guarantee of thoroughness, and a great improvement has actually taken place in the condition of the nursery stock coming from France. The rank infestation of 1909-10 has given place to moderate infestation of 1911, but there is still decided room for betterment. In England Dr. Howard found that, as in France, there was no governmental nursery inspection. The nursery conditions there are somewhat better than in France, but the brown-tail moth and other injurious insects which might easily be imported on nursery stock occur in England. The officials of the Government had the estab- lishment of a governmental inspection service under consideration, and were willing to establish such a service, but stated that the demand for it must come from British nurserymen. An attempt was therefore made by Dr. Howard to get these interests to ask for such service, and, while no action has yet been taken, it seems probable that the English Government will move in this direction. IMPORTATION OF REFUSE STOCK. The fact that all the continental countries of Europe have enacted very strict inspection and quarantine laws relating to the entrance into their territories of nursery stock, or other living plant materials, operates very unfavorably for this country, where there is no bar to the entrance of any stock, however worthless, or insect-infested, or diseased. As a result, the United States receives, in addition to fairly good nursery stock brought in by reliable importers, a great mass of refuse stock, imported under the worst conditions, massed in vast quantities in large packing cases, at best in poor condition and often diseased or insect-infested. The United States thus becomes a sort of dumping ground for material which could not find sale in Europe. Much of this worst-quality stock is that referred to elsewhere as being imported by department stores of our larger cities, and also by unscrupulous nurserymen who are careless of their own reputations and the interests of their customers. NECESSITY OF QUARANTINE LEGISLATION. The necessity of National quarantine to prevent the general intro- duction of such dangerous insect pests as those discussed in this bulletin, and also of equally dangerous plant diseases, has long been recognized. The need of legislation is much increased by the fact that the United States is the only great power without protection from the 453 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 15 importation of insect-infested or diseased plant stock. Referring to European powers only, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Hol- land, Switzerland, and Turkey prohibit absolutely the entry from the United States of all nursery stock whatever. Furthermore, our fruits are admitted to these countries only when a most rigid exami- nation shows freedom from insect infestation. Most of the other European countries have strict quarantine and inspection laws, and the same is true of important English and other colonial possessions. A properly enforced quarantine inspection law in the past would have excluded many, if not most, of the foreign insect enemies which are now levying an enormous tax upon the products of the farms, orchards, and forests of this country. Fully 50 per cent of the insect pests in this country are of foreign origin, and new important foreign pests are becoming established practically every year. It is of the greatest importance, therefore, that an adequate inspec- tion and quarantine law be passed at the earliest moment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. THE GIPSY MOTH. The gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar I.) is an European pest which was accidentally introduced into Massachusetts nearly 40 years ago, and has since spread rather slowly, being still confined to the eastern part of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, the southern part of New Hampshire, and to more or less isolated localities in eastern Connect- icut and southwestern Maine. The presence of this insect was first discovered in Boston in 1889, and the State of Massachusetts for a number of years kept up a vigorous effort to exterminate the insect, making large appropriations therefor. This work was abandoned, however, in 1900, but the con- ditions soon became so bad that appropriations were again made in 1905, and have since been continued annually. In spite of the work of that State, the situation became so serious that the National Gov- ernment, particularly on the ground of the great danger that these pests would soon spread to other States, was called upon to assist, and since 1907 Congress has been making annual appropriations to aid in the work of control. The amount of this appropriation is now $300,000 annually. The destructive work of the gipsy moth has been referred to in the foregoing portions of this bulletin. A brief sketch is here given of the life history and habits of the insect with photographs to aid anyone in promptly recognizing it should it appear in new localities. The gipsy moth has a wide distribution throughout middle and southern Europe, northern Africa, and Asia, including Japan. Ina 453 16 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. large portion of the Old World range of the gipsy moth it is occasion- ally abundant and injurious, but as a rule it is held in check by parasites and natural enemies, and in no instance have there been such continuous and disastrous depredations as those exhibited in Massachusetts and more recently in the adjacent New England States.! Kuropean outbreaks usually terminate in two or three years. Nevertheless in recent years in Europe and Asia exceptional out- breaks have occurred in which thousands of acres of forests have been completely denuded, and where such denudation has been repeated for two or three years in succession enormous areas have been found covered with dead and dying trees. The following description of the different stages and habits of the insect is reproduced from Farmers’ Bulletin 275 (pp. 12 to 15): Description of the different stages of the insect. The eggs.—The eggs of the gipsy moth are laid in masses (fig. 1) of about 500. The individual egg is mi- nute, about the size of a pinhead, and is salmon-colored when first laid, but turns dark in the course of a few weeks. Each egg mass is yellowish in appearance and seems covered with hair. It is somewhat oval, being one-half of an inch long and about three-fourths of an inch wide. During winter, from exposure to moisture in the atmosphere, it becomes dingy white in color. Egg masses have been found on bark of imported ‘stock during the last two years, and inspectors should be on the lookout for them. The larva, or caterpillar.—The young larve or young : caterpillars are dark in. color and well furnished with 3 eae fe ane e, Pb aa dark hairs. The full-grown larva (fig. 2) is between 2 Kirkland.) and 3 inches long, dark brown or sooty in color, with two rows of red spots and two rows of blue spots along the back, and witha yellowish but rather dim stripe between them. The body gen- erally is clothed with long hairs, and sometimes reaches the length of 3 inches. The pupa.—The pupa (fig. 3) is not inclosed within a perfect cocoon, but the full- grown larva spins a few threads of silk as a sort of support and changes to the pupa, which is dark reddish or chocolate in color and very thinly sprinkled with light reddish hairs. - The adult, or moth.—The male moth (fig. 4) is brownish yellow in color, sometimes having a greenish-brown tinge; it has a slender body, well-feathered antenne, and a wing expanse of about an inch and a half. The forewings are marked with wavy zigzag darker lines. It flies actively all day as well as by night. The female moth (fig. 5) is nearly white, with slender black antenne, each of the fore- wings marked with three or four zigzag, transverse, dark lines, and the outer border of both pairs of wings with a series of black dots. The body of the female is so heavy as to prevent flight. as = SINS Se 2-4 5 = HE 5 ‘ “S N x \ ‘ 4, 1 For a more detailed account of the gipsy moth, see Farmers’ Bulletin No. 275 (1907) and Bulletin 87 (1910), Bureau of Entomology, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 4538 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 17 Seasonal History. The moths emerge from the pupz irom the middle of July to the middle of August, the date varying considerably according to the season. After mating they live buta short time, and the female dies after depositing her eggs. The eggs are laid therefore in July and August. They are deposited by the moths on the trunks of the trees upon which the caterpillars have lived, and in fact usually in the vicinity of the place where the female has transformed. The caterpillars before transforming frequently crawl for some distance from the trees upon which they have been feeding, and it therefore happens that the egg masses will be found on fences and in all sorts of protected situations in which the caterpillars hide during the day. The crevices in stone fences often contain very many of these egg masses, and knot holes in old trees will also contain many which would not at first be discovered. The egg masses are found also in hollow trees, in crevices under rough bark, on shrubbery, on buildings, in wood- piles, in barrels, in boxes, and among rubbish in dooryards. The moths seem to choose the inner or lower surface of an object upon which to lay their eggs, and therefore egg masses are placed out of sight perhaps as often as in sight. The eggs hatch about May 1, and the young caterpillars begin immediately to feed, usually upon the lower surfaces of the leaves. As they grow they cast their skins several times, and as they become larger they feed only at night, hiding during the daytime, usually in clusters on the shady side of tree trunks, beneath large limbs, in holes in trees, under loose bark, and in fact under any near-by shelter. It is the habit of most of them to descend before daybreak upon the trunks of the trees and to seek for such shelters as those just indicated, returning after nightfall to resume their nocturnal feeding. The larvee usually become full grown about the 1st of July, and then transform to pupz. The pupe are found in the same situations as those we described for the egg clusters, but are found also in the foliage of trees and shrubs. How the Insect Spreads. Fig. 2.—Full-grown As indicated above, the bodies of the females are so heavy caterpillar of the as to prevent flight. Therefore the insect must be principally needy hes ural size. (From distributed while in the caterpillar or larval condition. The cat- Tuseet Life.) erpillars are active crawlers, but asa rule do not migrate from the localities where they were born except when food is scarce. When young, and when there is hardly enough food, the larvee spin down from trees by means of silken threads and often alight upon vehicles of one kind or another, and are thus carried often for great distances from the place of birth. Trolley cars, carriages, automobiles, and bicy- cles are thus means of transportation almost unlimited in their possibilities. The caterpillars often crawl upon vehicles which happen to stand for any length of time in an infested locality, and thus may be carried great distances. Sometimes even pe- destrians aid unwittingly in this distribution, since the caterpillars may drop by their threads upon the garments of a person passing under an infested tree. The species may be transported, too, in the egg stage on nursery or ornamental stock, as already noted, and it has been shown that the egg clusters are laid upon many different kinds of objects. Cord wood stacked and piled may be carried away in the autumn bearing many egg masses, and, if not burned before summer, larvee may issue in a new locality. - The same may be said for lumber piles near infested trees. Freight ‘ 455 18 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. cars may have been sidetracked near an infested place long enough to pee! laying of the eggs upon them. It is by these methods that the comparatively rapid spread of the insect previously noticed, during the years 1900-1905, is to be explained. Damage to Plants. The larva of the gipsy moth feeds upon the foliage of practically all orchard trees, all shade and ornamental trees, all out-of-door shrubs, and all forest trees. Not only are the deciduous forest trees stripped, but the coniferous trees as well. In June and July patches of forests in the infested territory are stripped of every green leaf and the trees appear as bare as in winter. After several such consecutive strippings, deciduous forest and shade trees are killed, but with a coniferous tree, such as a pine, hemlock, or spruce, one complete stripping will cause death. It is this fact which makes the gipsy moth so much more serious a pest than the brown-tail moth, and the loss which will result from its spread into northern New England will be very great, owing to the enormous coniferous forest interests in that part of the country. In cities and towns the insect does damage not only by destroying all vegetation, but by swarming in numbers upon and about houses, frequently entering them. It has been the experi- ence in eastern Mas- sachusetts that where a locality becomes thoroughly infested the value of real es- tate rapidly depreci- ates, and it becomesa matter of difficulty to rent or sell property. Among its food plants the gipsy moth caterpillar seems to Fi. 3.—Pupa of the gipsy moth. Natural size, (From Insect Life) | prefer apple, white oak, red oak, willow, and elm, but those who have studied it most carefully in Massachusetts say that it will on occasion devour almost every useful grass, plant, flower, shrub, vine, bush, garden, or field crop that grows in the State. THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH. The brown-tail moth ( Huproctis chrysorrhea L.) was imported by a florist in Somerville, a suburb of Boston, about 20 years ago, probably on roses from Holland or France. Its presence was not discovered until 1897, when it had already gained such headway that extermination was out of the question. Since 1907 it has rapidly spread, and its range now includes much of the coastal area of New England, including eastern Rhode Island, the eastern half of Massa- chusetts, the eastern half of New Hampshire, and the southern half of Maine. Both sexes are strong fliers, and the prevailing winds dur- ing the flying season (July) have carried the insect northward and eastward, rather than southward and westward. Moths of this species have been taken as far away from Boston as St. Johns, New Brunswick. 453 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 19 This insect is a very serious enemy of orchard, forest, and shade trees and all ornamental shrubbery. In Europe it has a wide dis- tribution, extending from England to the Himalayas, and as far north as Sweden and as far south as Algeria. It is a well-known orchard pest, and for many years laws have been operative in Europe requiring the property owners to clear their trees of the hibernating nests of this insect in winter. The damage to trees and shrubs by this insect is often very severe. It has. a special liking for pear and apple, but i has a recorded list of over 80 different Fic. 4—Male gipsy moth. Slightly en- food plants. Thousands of fruit trees cece uinereoe cs ae in the vicinity of Boston have been killed by this insect, and serious injury has been done to woodlands and forests, not, however, equal- ing the damage by the gipsy moth. It does not seem to attack coniferous trees. One of the most serious results of the presence of the brown-tail is the poisoning of human beings by the hairs shed by the caterpillars, discussed in an earlier paragraph of this publication (p. 11). The following description of the different stages of the insect and its seasonal history is taken from Farmers’ Bulletin 264, which gives a general account of this pest, with general methods of controlling it.! Description of the Different Stages of the Insect. The eggs.—The eggs of the brown-tail moth are small and globular, and are laid in masses on the underside of leaves in the latter part of July. The egg masses are brown in color and are covered with hair, each mass contain- ing about 300 eggs. They are much smaller than the egg masses of the gipsy moth, with which they are most likely to be confused, and average about two-thirds of an inch in length by about one-fourth of an inch in width. They are thus elongate in form, and are convex. The larva, or caterpillar.— Fic. 5.—Female gipsy moth. Slightly enlarged. (From Insect The full-grown larva (fig. 6 at Life.) right) is about 2 inches long, reddish brown in color, with a broken white stripe on each side and two red dots on the back near the hind end. It carries also patches of orange and is covered with tubercles bearing long barbed hairs. The tubercles along the back and sides are covered with short brown hairs in 1 For a full account of the brown-tail moth see Farmers’ Bulletin 264 (1906) and Bulletin 87 (1910), Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 453 20 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. addition to the longer ones, which give the tubercles when magnified an appearance like velvet. The head of the larva is pale brown with darker mottlings. The young larve are of a blackish color covered with reddish brown hairs. The head is jet black. Close examination will show projecting from the back of the fourth and fifth abdominal segments a large tuft of reddish brown hairs, and on the middle line of the ninth and tenth segments is an orange or reddish tubercle which may be withdrawn into the body. After the second spring molt the larva is about three-eighths of an inch long, the yellow markings on the body are more apparent, and the brown tufts on the back less prominent, while the band of white dashes along the sides, characteristic of the full-grown larva, is noticeable. The pupa.—The full-grown larva spins a cocoon of grayish silk, which is very loose in its construction and is so far from being compact that the pupa may be readily seen through it. The pupa itself is about five-eighths of an inch long, dark brown in color, with a conical spine at the end of the abdomen bearing a cluster of minute hooks at the tip. Smooth, yellowish brown hairs are found scattered over the abdomen and the top of the thorax. The cocoons are apparently spun by preference among the leaves at the tips of branches, and often a dozen or more larve will spin a common web within which each individual forms its own cocoon and trans- forms to pupa. The cocoons are also found under fences and be- neath the edges of clapboards. Mr. Kirkland has seen a mass of co- coons nearly 2 feet across in the cornice of a house in Somerville. The adult, or moth.—The moths (fig. 6, at left) are pure white, the end of the abdomen being brown- ish, and both sexes bear at the tip of the abdomen, more conspicuously with the female, a tuft of brown hairs, almost globular in form, from FANS which comes the name brown-tail Fie. 6.—The brown-tail moth (Zuproctis chrysorrhea): Fe- moth. It is the only moth occur- male moth above, male moth below, larva or caterpillar atright. Slightly enlarged. (From Howard.) wy Med 3 MWgaisons = ‘ ring in America to which this de- scription applies, and is therefore unmistakable. The female expands about 14 inches, and the male is smaller. Seasonal History. The moths fly in New England from the Ist to the 20th of July, the time varying with the condition of the season. In 1898 the height of the flying season is said by Fernald and Kirkland to have been July 16, in 1899 July 8, and in 1902 July 14. It is a night-flying insect, and only a few are ever seen on the wing in the daytime. Soon after sunset a few begin to fly, the number increasing as it grows dark, and from 10 o’clock to midnight they swarm to the greatest extent. They are strong flyers, and are attracted to light. So great have been their numbers in the infested region that the sides of red brick buildings near electric lights have appeared perfectly white. It is at this time that the great spread of the species occurs, and the reason that the direction of the spread has been greatest toward the northeast has been the fact that the prevalent night winds at that time of the year seem to have been from the southwest. Aside from actual flight, the species has spread by being carried in the moth condition on railway trains and on vessels. Captains of vessels have reported 453 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 21 that the moths have alighted upon their ships in great numbers in the vicinity of Boston along toward midnight on several occasions, and the introduction of the species at more than one seaport in Maine has been by means of vessels coming from the infested district rather than by direct flight. Of course, the brown-tail moth is carried in the caterpillar stage, just as is the gipsy moth, upon vehicles of different kinds passing through the infested region and upon the persons of pedestrians as well. In late May, 1906, the writer, in company with three other persons, walked through the woods in a region not far from Boston, and although the most careful efforts were made by each of us to pick the caterpillars from the clothes of the others, an hour or two afterwards, and many miles away by automobile, still others were found under the upturned trousers and lapels of coats and in other hidden places about garments. ’ The eggs are laid by the moths soon after the flight begins, say in the latter part of July. They hatch during August and the young larve feed in clusters on the upper surface of leaves, skeletonizing them and causing the foliage to turn brown asif blighted. At first they feed upon the leaf which bears the egg mass, but soon wander to others, returning at night to the original leaf. When first hatched they are about one-twelfth of an inch long, and in five to six days shed their skin, increasing in length to one-fifth of an inch. Later the second molt occurs, although this sometimes does not take place until autumn within the winter web. Along in September they begin to spin their winter webs by drawing together a number of leaves with silk, and in each of these nests a large number of caterpillars stow themselves away for the winter. These webs or nests, composed of leaves and silk, widl average from 5 to 6 inches in length, and each will contain 200 or more caterpillars. The caterpillars feed until cold weather, and then all enter the web and close the exit holes. They are then about one-fourth grown. These winter webs (fig. 7) of the brown-tail moth are very characteristic, and there are practically no other insect structures common upon trees which may be mistaken for them. There are certain old webs of native species which might possibly, by the untrained eye, be considered to be those of the brown-tail moth, but these are empty in the winter time. Any web of this character and general size found during the winter which contains young caterpillars in any number is the web of the brown-tail moth. The following spring, as soon as the buds begin to appear upon fruit trees, these young, one-fourth-grown caterpillars issue from the overwintering nests and attack first the buds and blossoms and later the foliage. Apparently half starved by their long hibernation, they come out with voracious appetites, and the amount of damage done by them at this time is extraordinary. Old trees may lose all their buds, or, if the leaf buds and blossom buds burst, the foliage itself may be entirely destroyed at a later date. The growth of the larva is rapid, and it reaches full size and begins to spin its cocoon during the last half of June, transforming to pupa and remaining in this condition for approximately 20 days. 453 Fic. 7.—Winter nest of the brown-tail moth, containing 300 or 400 young caterpillars. (Original. ) 22 DANGER OF SPREAD OF GIPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. — Damage to Plants. As just indicated, the damage to trees and shrubs may be very severe. The list of food plants is very extensive. While there seemed at first to be a preference for pear and apple, the larve were found to feed also upon the stone fruits, as well as upon the elm, maple, and several species of oak. Of late years there has been a very extensive infestation of scrub oak and of the larger trees of the genus Quercus. In fact, the cater- pillars feed generally upon all deciduous trees, on many shrubs, and even upon herb- age. A list of over 80 different food plants was published by Fernald and Kirkland in 1903. Thousands of fruit trees in the vicinity of Boston have been killed by this in- sect. Injury to woodlands and forests has not been as severe as that accomplished by the gipsy moth, and coniferous trees do not seem to be attacked, but the damage to oak, maple, and elm in the wooded region has been sufficient to cause the forests to appear brown in June in places, and complete defoliation for a series of three or four years has brought about the death of many trees. Even where the tree survives, its growth has been checked, and there is a timber loss. j 453 bers, choosing those which are of special interest to them. K t the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. FARMERS’ BULLETINS. _ Bulletinsin this list will be sent free, so long as the supply lasts, to any resident of the United States, on application to his Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the Secretary of Agri- culture, Washington, D.C. Because of the limited supply, applicants are urged to select only a few num- Residents of foreign countries should apply to C., who has these bulletins forsale. Price 5 cents each to Canada, Cuba, and Mexico; 6 cents to other foreign countries. The bulletins entitled ‘‘ Experiment Station Work”’ give briefly the results of experiments performed by the State experiment stations. 22. 27. 28, 380. 32. 34. 35. 36. 44. 48. 49, 51. 52, The Feeding of Farm Animals. Flax for Seed and Fiber. Weeds: And How to Kill Them. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast, Silos and Silage. Meats: Composition and Cooking. Potato Culture. Cotton Seed and Its Products. Commercial Fertilizers. The Manuring of Cotton. Sheep Feeding. Standard Varieties of Chickens, The Sugar Beet. . Some Common Birds. . The Dairy Herd. . Experiment Station Work—I. . Methods of Curing Tobacco. . Asparagus Culture. . Marketing Farm Produce. . Ducks and Geese. . Experiment Station Work—II. . Experiment Station Work—III. . Experiment Station Work—IV. . The Liming of Soils. . Experiment Station Work—V. . Experiment Station Work—VI. . Corn Culture in the South. . The Culture of Tobacco. . Tobacco Soils. . Experiment Station Work—VII. . Fish as Food. . Thirty Poisonous Plants. . Experimént Station Work—VIII, . Alkali Lands. . Potato Diseases and Treatment. . Experiment Station Work—IX. . Sugar as Food. . Raising Sheep for Mutton. . Experiment Station Work—X. . Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. . Millets. , . Experiment Station Work—XI. . Notes on Frost. . Experiment Station Work—XII. . Breeds of Dairy Cattle. . The Apple and How to Grow It. . Experiment Station Work—XIV. . Grape Growing in the South. . Experiment Station Work—XV. . Insects Affecting Tobacco. . Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food. . Experiment Station Work—XVI. . Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. . Important Insecticides. . Eggs and Their Uses as Food. . Household Tests for Detection of Oleomar- garine and Renovated Butter. . Experiment Station Work—X VIII. . Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds, . Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. . The Angora Goat. . Irrigation in Field and Garden. : . Emmer: A Grain for theSemiarid Regions. . Pineapple Growing. . Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. . Experiment Station Work—XIX. . Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. . Experiment Station Work—XX. . Clearing New Land. . Scabies of Cattle. . Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. . How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. . The Home Vineyard. . The Propagation of Plants. . How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. . Experiment Station Work—XXI. . Rape as a Forage Crop. . Cheese Making on the Farm. . Cassava. . Experiment Station Work—X XII. . Principles of Horse Feeding. . Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees, (1) 178. 174, 175. 176. Ui 178. 179. . Pruning. . Poultry as Food. . Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, etc. . Beautifying the Home Grounds. . Experiment Station Work—X XIII, . Drainage of Farm Lands. . Weeds Used in Medicine. . Experiment Station Work—X XIV. . Barnyard Manure. . Experiment Station Work—XXV. . Alfalfa Seed. 5. Annual Flowering Plants. . Usefulness of the American Toad. . Importation of Game Birds and Eggs for Primer of Forestry. Part I: The Forest. Broom Corn. Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. Cranberry Culture. Squab Raising. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. Horseshoeing. Propagation, . Strawberries. . Turkeys. , Cream Separator on Western Farms, , Experiment Station Work—X XVI. . Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. . The Cultivation of Mushrooms. . Pig Management. . Milk Fever and Its Treatment. . Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries. . Experiment Station Work—X XVII, . Raspberries. . The School Garden. . Lessons from the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904. . Tomatoes. . Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. 2. Experiment Station Work—X XVIII. . Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas. . Canadian Field Peas. . Experiment Station Work—X XIX. . Experiment Station Work—X XX. . Forest Planting and Farm Management. . The Production of Good Seed Corn. . Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases. . Okra: Its Culture and Uses. . Experiment Station Work—X X XI. . The Guinea Fowl. . Preparation of Cement Concrete. 5. Incubation and Incubators. . Experiment Station Work—X XXII. . Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States, . The Corrosion of Fence Wire. . Butter Making on the Farm. . An Example of Model Farming. . Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Dis- eases of Fruits. . Experiment Station Work—X XXIII. . Renovation of Worn-out Soils. . Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. . The Lawn. . Cereal Breakfast Foods. . The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat and Loose Smut of Oats. . Experiment Station Work—X XXIV . Maple Sugar and Sirup. . The Germination of Seed Corn. . Cucumbers. . The Home Vegetable Garden. . Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. . Soil Fertility. . Texas or Tick Fever and Its Prevention. . Experiment Station Work—XXXV. . Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. . Experiment Station Work—XXXVI. . Practical Information for Beginners in Irri- gation. . The Brown-tail Mothand How to Control It. . Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture, . Experiment Station Work—XXX VII. . Industrial Alcohol: Uses and Statistics. © . Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home, . Forage Crop Practices in Western Oregon and Western Washington. . A Successful Hog and Seed-corn Farm. . Experiment Station Work—X XXVIII. . Flax Culture. . The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. . Experiment Station Work—XXXIX. . Alcohol and Gasoline in Farm Engines. . Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. . A Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass. . A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm. . Experiment Station Work—XL. . Celery. . Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling Moth in the Ozarks. . Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. . Comparative Value of Whole Cotton Seed 287. 288. 289. 290. and Cotton-seed Meal in Fertilizing Cotton. Poultry Management. Nonsaccharine Sorghums. Beans. The Cotton Bollworm. 29L. Evaporation of Apples. ~ Cost of Filling Silos. . Use of Fruit as Food. . Farm Practice in Columbia Basin Uplands. . Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. . Experiment Station Work—XLI. . Food Value-of Corn and Corn Products. . Diversified Farming Under the Plantation System. . Home-grown Tea. "Sea Island: Cotton: Its Culture, Improve- ment, and Diseases. . Corn Harvesting Machinery. . Growing and Curing Hops. . Experiment Station Work—XLII. . Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds. . Roselle: Its Culture and Uses. . Experiment Station Work—XLIII. . A Successful Alabama Diversification Farm. . Sand-clay and Burnt-clay Roads. . A Successful Southern Hay Farm. . Harvesting and Storing Corn. . A Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Es- cape Boll-weevil Damage. . Experiment Station Work—XLIV. . Experiment Station Work—XLV. . Cowpeas. . Experiment Station Work—XLVI. . The Use of the Split-log Drag on Earth Roads. . Milo as a Dry-land Grain Crop. . Clover Farming on the Sandy Jack-pine Lands of the North. . Sweet Potatoes. . Small Farms in the Corn Belt. . Building Up a Run-down Cotton Plantation. . Silver Fox Farming. . Experiment Station Work—XLVII. . Deer Farming in the United States. . Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Okla- homa. . Nuts and Their Uses as Food. . Cotton Wilt. . Experiment Station Work—XLYVIII. . Harmful and Beneficial Mammals of the Arid Interior. . Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms. . Macadam Roads. . Alfalfa. . The Basket Willow. . Experiment Station Work—XLIX. . The Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky and Tennessee. . The Boll Weevil Problem, with Special Refer- ence to Means of Reducing Damage. . Some Common Disinfectants. . The Computation of Rations for Farm Ani- mals by the Use of Energy Values. . The Repair of Farm Equipment. . Bacteria in Milk. . The Dairy Industry in the South. . The Dehorning of Cattle. . The Tuberculin Testof CattleforTuberculosis. 2. The Nevada Mouse Plague of 1907-8. . Experiment Station Work—L. II 354, 55. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 357. 361. 362. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367. 368. 369. 370. 371. 372. 373. 374, 375. 377. 378. O Onion Culture. Methods of Poultry Management at theMaine Agricultural Experiment Station. . APrimerof Forestry. PartII: Practical For- estry. Canning Vegetables in the Home. Experiment Station Work—LI. Meadow Fescue: Its Culture and Uses. Conditions Affecting the Valueof Market Hay. The Use of Milk as Food. A Profitable Cotton Farm. Farm Management in Northern Pota growing Sections. Experiment Station Work—LII. Lightning and Lightning Conductors. The Eradication of Bindweed, or Wild Morn- ing-glory. How to Destroy Rats. Replanning a Farm for Profit. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. Soy Beans. : Trrigation of Alfalfa. Experiment Station Work—LIII. Care of Food in the Home. Harmfulness of Headache Mixtures. Methods of Exterminating Texas-fever Tick. . Hog Cholera. The Loco-weed Disease. . Experiment Station Work—LIV. . The Adulteration of Forage-plant Seeds. . How to Destroy English Sparrows. . Experiment Station Work—LV. . Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Clubs. . Potato Culture on Irrigated Farmsof the West. . ThePreservative Treatmentof Farm Timbers, . Experiment Station Work—LVI. . Bread and Bread Making. . Pheasant Raising in the United States. . Economical Use of Meat in the Home. . Irrigation of Sugar Beets. . Habit-forming Agents. . Windmills, oo A hae a aie ES ea cei cere Cee EO RESIS TRIE Sao A CR a meee | 3 ——9g767°—Bull. 459—11 * aS 7 4 * ILLUSTRATIONS. . The common house fly (Musca domestica): Puparium, adult, larva, and Page. Motalles Ws SLs eee, Sc OUR RY eae oe ee 5 . The biting house fly (Stomoxys calcitrans): Adult, larva, puparium, and Pi re aaa Mab et cep ein: eke iam melee: _ 4° “eaiByii es ceaetoe nesenlBat pas. 6 . A stable fly (Muscina stabulans): Adult, larva, and details ...............- 7 . One of the blue-bottle flies (Phormia terrenove): Adult........-..-------- 8 8 9 The preen-botile ny (Laci éesdr): Nault... Sees. oe ee ee eee . The little house fly (Homalomyia brevis): Adults and larva..........-..---- . The fruit fly (Drosophila ampelophila): Adult, larva, puparium, and details... 10 . The dung fly (Sepsis violacea): Adult, puparium, and details.............. Ly . The house centipede (Scutigera forceps): Adult...............2.222-222202 4 459 A HOUSE FLIES. INTRODUCTION. There are several species of flies which are commonly found in houses, although but one of these should be called the house fly proper. This is the Musca domestica L. (fig. 1) and is a medium-sized, grayish fly, with its mouth parts spread out at the tip for sucking up liquid substances. It is found in nearly all parts of the world. On account of the conformation of its mouth parts, the house fly can not bite, yet no impression is stronger in the minds of most people than that this insect does occasionally bite. This impression is due to the- Fic. 1.—The common house fly ( Musca domestica): Puparium at left; adult next; larva and enlarged parts at right. Allenlarged. (Author’s illustration.) frequent occurrence in houses of another fly (Stomozys calcitrans L.) (fig. 2), which is called the stable fly, and which, while closely resem- bling the house fly (so closely, in fact, as to deceive anyone but an entomologist), differs from it in the important particular that its mouth parts are formed for piercing the skin. It is perhaps second in point of abundance to the house fly in most portions of the North- eastern States. It breeds in horse manure, cow manure, and in warm decaying vegetation like old straw and grass heaps. A third species, commonly called the cluster fly (Pollenia rudis Fab.), is a very frequent visitant of houses, particularly in the spring and fall. This fly is somewhat larger than the house fly, with a dark- colored, smooth abdomen and a sprinkling of yellowish hairs. It is not so active as the house fly and, particularly in the fall, is very 459 5 6 HOUSE FLIES. sluggish. At such times it may be picked up readily and is very subject to the attacks of a fungous disease which causes it to die upon window panes, surrounded by a whitish efflorescence. Occasionally this fly occurs in houses in such numbers as to cause great annoyance, but such occurrences are comparatively rare. It is said in its earlier stages to be parasitie on certain angleworms. A fourth species is another stable fly, known as Muscina stabulans Fall. (fig. 3), a form which almost exactly resembles the house fly in general appearance, and which does not bite as does the biting stable fly. It breeds in decaying vegetable matter and in excrement. Several species of metallic greenish or bluish flies are also occasion- ally found in houses, the most abundant of which is the so-called blue- bottle fly (Calliphora erythrocephala Meig.). This insect is also called the blow-fly or meat-fly and breeds in decaying animal material. A Fig. 2.—The stable fly or biting house fly (Stomorys calcitrans): Adult, larva, puparium, and details. Allenlarged. (Author’s illustration.) smaller species, which may be called the small blue-bottle fly, is Phormia terrenove Desv. (fig. 4); and a third, which is green or blue in color and a trifle smaller than the large blue-bottle, is Luctha cesar L. (fig. 5). There is still another species, smaller than any of those so far men- tioned, which is known to entomologists as Homalomyia canicularis L., sometimes called the small house fly. A related species, H. brevis Rond., is shown in figure 6. H. canicularis is distinguished from the ordinary house fly by its paler and more poimted body and conical shape. The male, which is much commoner than the female, has large pale patches at the base of the abdomen, which are translucent when the fly is seen on a window pane. It is this species that is largely responsible for the prevalent idea that flies grow after gain- ing wings. Most people think that these little Homalomyias are the 459 HOUSE FLIES. 7 young of the larger flies, which, of course, is distinctly not the case. They breed in decaying vegetable material, in the excreta of animals, and in dead insects. Still another fly, and this one is still smaller, is a jet-black species known as the window fly (Scenopinus fenestralis L.), which in fact has become more abundant of later years. Its larva is a white, very slender, almost thread-like creature, and is found in cracks of the floor in buildings, where it feeds on other small insects. In the autumn, when fruit appears on the sideboard, many speci- mens of a small fruit-fly (Drosophila ampelophila Loew) (fig. 7) make their appearance, attracted by the odor of overripe fruit. A small, slender fly is not infrequently seen in houses, especially upon window panes. This is Sepsis violacea Meig., shown enlarged in figure 8. All of these species, however, are greatly dwarfed in numbers by Fig. 3.—A stable fly ( Muscina stabulans): Adult, larva, and details. Allenlarged. (Author’s illustration.) the common house fly. In 1900 the writer made collections of the flies in dining rooms in different parts of the country, and out of a total of 23,087 flies 22,808 were Musca domestica—that is, 98.8 per cent of the whole number captured. The remainder, consisting of 1.2 per cent of the whole, comprised various species, including those mentioned above. LIFE HISTORY OF THE TRUE HOUSE FLY. Musca domestica commonly lays its eggs upon horse manure. This substance seems to be its favorite larval food. It will oviposit on cow manure, but we have not been able to rear it in this substance. It will also breed in human excrement, and from this habit it becomes very dangerous to the health of human beings, carrying, as it does, 459 8 HOUSE FLIES. the germs of intestinal diseases such as typhoid fever and cholera from excreta to food supplies. It will also lay its eggs upon other decaying vegetable and animal material, but of the flies that infest dwelling houses, both in cities and on farms, a vast proportion comes from horse manure. It often happens, however, that this fly is very abundant in locali- ties where there is little or no horse manure, and in such cases it will be found breeding in other manure or in slops or fermenting vegetable material, such as spent hops, or bran, or ensilage. At Salem, Mass., Packard states that he reared a generation in 14 days in horse manure. The dura- tion of the egg state was 24 hours, the larval state from 5 to 7 days, and the pupal state from 5 to 7 days. At Washington the writer has found in midsummer that each Fic. 4—One of the blue-bottle flies (Phormia female lays at one time about 120 pelle ae ay Saar (Authorsillus ees, which hatch in 8 hours, the larval period lasting 5.days and the pupal 5 days, making the total time for the development of the gen- eration 10 days. This was at the end of June. The periods of development vary with the climate and with the season, and the insect hibernates in the puparium condition in manure or at the surface of the ground under a manure heap. It also hibernates in houses as adult, hiding in crevices. The Washington observations in- dicate that the larvee molt twice, and that there are thus three distinct larval stages. The periods of development were found to be about as follows: Egg from deposition to hatching, one- third of a day; hatching of larva to first molt, 1 day; first to second molt, 1 day; second molt ‘to pupa- tion, 3 days; pupation to issuing of , Pace or aiaie tiene adult, 5 days; total life round, ap- proximately 10 days. There is thus abundance of time for the development of 12 or 13 generations in the climate of Washington every summer. 459 HOUSE FLIES. 9 The number of eggs taid by an individual fly at one time is undoubt- edly large, averaging about 120, and a single female may lay 4 such batches, so that the enormous numbers in which the insects occur is thus plainly accounted for, especially when the abundance and universal occurrence of appropriate larval food is considered. In order to ascertain the numbers in which house-fly larve occur in horse-manure piles, a quarter of a pound of rather well-infested horse manure was taken on August 9, and in it were counted 160 larvee and 146 puparia. This would make about 1,200 house flies to the pound of manure. This, however, can not be taken as an average, sitice no larvee are found in perhaps the greater part of ordinary horse-manure piles. Neither, however, does it show the limit of what can be found, since about 200 puparia were found in less than 1 cubic inch of manure taken from a spot 2 inches below the surface of the pile where Fic.6.—The little house fly (Homalomyia brevis): Female at left; male next, with enlarged antenna; larva atright. Allenlarged. (Author’s illustration.) the larve had congregated inimmense numbers. The different stages of the insect are well illustrated in figure 1 and need no description. CARRIAGE OF DISEASE. In army camps, in mining camps, and in great public works, bring- ing together large numbers of men for a longer or shorter time, there is seldom the proper care of excreta, and the carriage of typhoid germs from the latrines and privies to food by flies is common and often results in epidemics of typhoid fever. And such carriage of typhoid by flies is by no means confined to these great temporary camps. In farmhouses in small communi- ties and even in the badly cared-for portions of large cities typhoid germs are carried from excrement to food by flies, and the proper supervision and treatment of the breeding places of the house fly become most important elements in the prevention of typhoid. In the same way other intestinal germ diseases are carried by flies. The Asiatic cholera, dysentery, and infantile diarrhea are allso carried. 459 10 HOUSE FLIES. Nor are the disease-bearing possibilities of the house fly limited to intestinal germ diseases. There is strong circumstantial evidence that tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws, ophthalmia, smallpox, tropical sore, and parasitic worms may be and are so carried. Actual labo- ratory proof exists in the cases of a number of these diseases, and where lacking is replaced by circumstantial evidence amounting almost to certainty. REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. A careful screening of windows and doors during the summer months, with the supplementary use of sticky fly papers, is a pre- ventive measure against house flies known to everyone, and there seems to be little hope in the near future of much relief by doing away with the breeding places. A single stable in which a horse is kept will supply house flies for an extended neighborhood. People living Fig. 7.—The fruit fly (Drosophila ampelophila): a, Adult; b, antenna of same; c, base of tibia and first tarsal joint of same; d, puparium, side view; ¢, puparium from above; /, full-grown larva; g, anal spiracles of same. Allenlarged. (Author’s illustration.) in agricultural communities will probably never be rid of the pest, but in cities, with better methods of disposal of garbage and with the lessening of the number of horses and horse stables consequent upon ‘electric street railways, bicycles, and automobiles, the time may come, and before very long, when.window screens may be discarded. The prompt gathering of horse manure, which may be variously treated or kept in a specially prepared receptacle, would greatly abate the fly nuisance, and city ordinances compelling horse owners to follow some such course are desirable. Absolute cleanliness, even under existing circumstances, will always result in a diminution of the num- bers of the house fly, and, in fact, most household insects are less attracted to the premises of what is known as the old-fashioned house- keeper than to those of the other kind. 459 HOUSE FLIES. 11 Not only must all horse stables be cared for, but chicken yards, pig- geries, and garbage receptacles as well, and absolutely sanitary privies are prime necessities. Directions for building and caring for such privies will be found in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 463. The dry-earth treatment of privy vaults is unsatisfactory. Kerosene should be used. During the summer of 1897 a series of experiments was carried out with the intention of showing whether it would be possible to treat a manure pile in such a way as to stop the breeding of flies. The writer’s experience with the use of air-slaked lime on cow manure to prevent the breeding of the horn fly (Hematobia serrata Rob.-Desv.) suggested Fig. 8.—The dung fly (Sepsis violacea): Adult, puparium, and details. All enlarged. (Author’s illustration.) experimentation with different lime compounds. It was found to be perfectly impracticable to use air-slaked lime, land plaster, or gas lime with good results. Few or no larve were killed by a thorough mixing of the manure with any of these three substances. Chlorid of lime, however, was found to be an excellent maggot killer. Where 1 pound of chlorid of lime was mixed with 8 quarts of horse manure, 90 per cent of the maggots were killed in less than 24 hours. At the rate of one-fourth of a pound of chlorid of lime to 8 quarts of manure, however, the substance was found not to be sufficiently strong. Chlorid of lime, though cheap in Europe, costs at least 34 cents a pound in large quantities in this country, so that the frequent treat- ment of a large manure pile with this substance would be out of the question in actual practice. 459 12 HOUSE FLIES. Experiments were therefore carried on with kerosene. It was found that 8 quarts of fresh horse manure sprayed with 1 pint of kerosene, which was afterwards washed down with 1 quart of water, was thoroughly rid of living maggots. Every individual was killed by the treatment. This experiment and others of a similar nature on a small scale were so satisfactory that it was considered at the close of the season that a practical conclusion had been reached, and that it was perfectly possible to treat any manure pile pconlamaialilse and in such a way as to prevent the breeding of flies. Practical work in the summer of 1898, however, demonstrated that this was simply another case where an experiment on a small scale has failed to develop points which in practical work would vitiate the results. The stable of the United States Department of Agriculture, in which about 12 horses were kept, was situated about 100 yards behind the main building of the department and about 90 yards from the building in which the Bureau of Entomology is situated. This stable was always very carefully kept. The manure was thor; oughly swept up every morning, carried outside of the stable, and deposited in a pile behind the building. This pile, after accumulating for a week or 10 days, or sometimes 2 weeks, was carried off by the gardeners and spread upon distant portions of the grounds. At all times in the summer this manure pile swarmed with the maggots of the house fly. It is safe to say that on an average many thousands of perfect flies issued from it every day, and that at least a large share of the flies which constantly bothered the employees in the two buildings mentioned came from this source. On the basis of the experiments of 1897, an attempt was niadee beginning early in April, 1898, to prevent the breeding of house flies about the department by the treatment of this manure pile with kero- sene. The attempt was begun early in April and was carried on for some weeks. While undoubtedly hundreds of thousands of flies were destroyed in the course of this work, it was found by the end of May that it was far from perfect, since if used at an economical rate the kerosene could not be made to penetrate throughout the whole pile of manure, even when copiously washed down with water. A consider- able proportion of house-fly larves escaped injury from this treatment, which at the same time was found, even at an economical cost, to be laborious, and such a measure, in fact, as almost no one could be induced to adopt. There remained, however, another measure which had been sug- gested by the writer in an article on the house fly published in 1895, namely, the preparation of an especial receptacle for the manure; and this was very readily accomplished. A closet 6 by 8 feet had been 459 HOUSE FLIES. 13 built in the corner of the stable nearest the manure pile. It had a door opening into the stable proper, and also a window. A door was built in the outside wall of this closet, and the stablemen were directed to place no more manure outside the building; in other words, to abolish the outside manure pile, and in the future to throw all of the manure collected each morning into this closet, the window of which in the meantime had been furnished with a wire screen. The preparations were completed by the middle of June, and a barrel of chlorid of lime was put in the corner of the closet. Since that time every morning the manure of the stable is thrown into the closet, and a small shovelful of chlorid of lime is scattered overit. At the expiration of 10 days or 2 weeks the gardeners open the outside door, shovel the manure into a cart, and carry if off to be thrown upon the grounds. Judging from actual examination of the manure pile, the measure is eminently successful. Very few flies are breeding in the product of the stable which formerly gave birth to many thousands daily. After this measure had been carried on for two weeks, employees of the department who had no knowledge of the work that was going on were asked whether they had noticed any diminution in the number of flies in their offices. Persons in all of the offices on the first floor of the two buildings were asked this question. In every office except one the answer was that a marked decrease had been noticed, so that the work must be considered to have been successful. The account of this remedial work has been given with some detail, since it shows so plainly that care and cleanliness combined with such an arrangement as that described will in an individual stable measur- ably affect the fly nuisance in neighboring buildings. With the combined efforts of the persons owning stables in a given community, much more effective results can undoubtedly be gained. In the consideration of these measures we have not touched upon the remedies for house flies breeding in human excrement. On account of the danger of the carriage of typhoid fever, the dropping of human excrement in the open in cities or towns, either on vacant lots or in dark alleyways, should be made a misdemeanor, and the same care should be taken by the sanitary authorities to remove or cover up such depositions as is taken in the removal of the bodies of dead ani- mals. The box privy is always a nuisance from many points of view, and is undoubtedly dangerous as a breeder of flies which may carry the germs of intestinal disease. No box privies should be permitted to exist unless they are conducted on the kerosene principle. With a proper vault or other receptacle, closed except from above, and a free use of kerosene and water, the breeding of house flies can be pre- vented. ; 459 14 HOUSE FLIES. A Parisian journal, the Matin, during the winter of 1905-6, estab- lished a prize of 10,000 francs for the best essay on the destruction of the house fly. The jury of competent scientific men awarded the prize to the author of a memoir in which it was proposed to use resid- ON a a BK ya f SS ee SS Fic. 9 —The house centipede (Scutigera forceps). Adult naturaisize (Atter Marlatt.) uum oil in the destruction of the egos andlarveofthe fly. Thisoilis to be used in privies and cesspools. Two liters per superficial meter of the pit is mixed with water, stirred with a stick of wood, and then thrown into the receptacle. It is said to form a covering of oil which kills all the larve, preventing the entrance of flies into the pit and, at the same time, the hatching of eggs. It makes a protective covering for the excrement, and this is said to hasten the development of anerobic bacteria as in a true septic pit, leading in this way to the rapid liquefaction of solid matters and rendering them much more unfit for the development of other bac- | teria. For manure it is recom- mended to mix this residuum oil with earth, with hme, and with phosphates, and to spread it at dif- ferent times, in the spring by pref- erence, upon the manure of farms and stables and so on. There seems to be a definite pe- riod of perhaps 10 days between the issuing of the adult flies and the laying of eggs. During this period, and especially in the early spring, it becomes important to trap as many flies as possible. With this end in view, Prof. C. F. Hodge, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., has devised certain flytraps which he attaches to garbage cans and to screened stable windows, and which he places in the neighborhood of possible fly- breeding places. So many cheap flytraps are on the market that it is unnecessary and undesirable to specify any particular kind. Many of them are good. 459 “HOUSE FLIES. 15 NATURAL ENEMIES. The house fly has a number of natural enemies. The common house centipede (fig. 9) destroys it in considerable numbers, there is a small reddish mite which frequently covers its body and gradually destroys it, it is subject to the attacks of hymenopterous parasites in its larval condition, and it is destroyed by predatory beetles at the same time. The most effective enemy, however, is a fungous disease known as Empusa musce, which carries off flies in large numbers, particularly toward the close of the season. The epidemic ceases in December, and although many thousands are killed by it, the remarkable rapidity of development in the early summer months soon more than replaces the thousands thus destroyed. WHAT CITIES AND TOWNS CAN DO. It would appear, from what we know of the life history of the com- mon house fly and from what remedial experimentation has already been carried on, that it is perfectly feasible for cities and towns to reduce the numbers of these annoying and dangerous insects so ereatly as to render them of comparatively slight account. The health departments of most of our cities have the authority to abate nuisances dangerous to health, and it is easy for the health authorities of any city to formulate rules concerning the construction and care of stables and the keeping and disposal of manure which, if enforced, will do away with the house-fly nuisance. Such a series of rules was formulated in the spring of 1906 by the Health Department of the city of Asheville, N. C., and an effort is being made during this summer to see that they are enforced. On the 3d of May, 1906, the Health Department of the District of Columbia also issued a series of orders of this nature, on the authority of the Commissioners of the District, and these orders, which may well serve as a model to other communities desiring to undertake similar measures, may be briefly condensed as follows: All stalls in which animals are kept shall have the surface of the eround covered with a water-tight floor. Every person occupying a building where domestic animals are kept shall maintain, in connec- tion therewith, a bin or pit for the reception of manure, and, pending the removal from the premises of the manure from the animal or ani- mals, shall place such manure in said bin or pit. This bin shall be so constructed as to exclude rain water, and shall in all other respects be water tight except as it may be connected with the public sewer. It shall be provided with a suitable cover and constructed so as to pre- vent the ingress and egress of flies. No person owning a stable shall 459 16 HOUSE FLIES. keep any manure or permit any manure to be kept in or upon any por- tion of the premises other than the bin or pit described, nor shall he allow any such bin or pit to be overfilled or needlessly uncovered. Horse manure may be kept tightly rammed into well-covered barrels for the purpose of removal in such barrels. Every person keeping manure in any of the more densely populated parts of the District shall cause all such manure to be removed from the premises at least twice every week between June 1 and October 31, and at least once every week between November 1 and May 31 of the following year. No person shall remove or transport any manure over any public highway in any of the more densely. populated parts of the District except in a tight vehicle which, if not inclosed, must be effectually covered with canvas, so as to prevent the manure from being dropped. No person shall deposit manure removed from the bins or pits within any of the more densely populated parts of the District without a per- mit from the health officer. Any person violating any of the pro- visions shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished by a fine of not more than $40 for each offense. As with all such measures, the test comes with the enforcement, and these regulations have not been well enforced, owing to the extremely small corps of inspectors allowed to the Health Department, and to other more pressing work. They can be made effective, however, and it is earnestly hoped that not only Washington but other com- munities as well will very soon be brought to a realization of the ease of house-fly eradication and its very great desirability. The insect we now call the ‘“‘house fly’’ should in the future be termed the ‘‘ typhoid fly,’’ in order to call direct attention to the danger of allow- ing it to continue to breed unchecked.—L. O. Howard. 459 O Sy Issued August 22, 1911. u.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FARMERS’ BULLETIN 463. THE SANITARY PRIVY. BY C. W. STILES, Professor of Zoology, United States Public Health and Marine-Hos pital Service, ' and Consulting Zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry, AND L. L. LUMSDEN, Passed Assistant Surgeon, United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. d''31853! WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911. Unirep Srates DrrparTMENT or AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, Washington, D. C., June 6, 1911. To the farmers of the United States: Nothing is-‘more important to the farmer than good health. Good health can not be preserved if the sanitary conditions of the farm are bad. Among the worst conditions ever to be found about any home is a soil that has become polluted with excrement from the human body. A number of widely prevalent diseases have been spread by means of such polluted soil, simply because the facts have not been generally known. This bulletin treats of such soil pollu- tion and certain simple plans for avoiding it. Having at heart the best interests of the American farmer and his family, I consider it my personal duty to appeal to every American farmer to weigh well the facts here presented, to do all in his power to remove any insanitary conditions that he may find on his farm or in his neighborhood, and thus, by protecting the members of his family, perform one of his highest patriotic duties. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 463 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Unitep States Treasury DEPARTMENT, Pusiic Hearty anp Marine-Hospirar Service, Washington, D. C., April 20, 1911. Str: With the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled “ The Sanitary Privy,” prepared by C. W. Stiles and L. L. Lumsden, of the Hygienic Laboratory of this service. Professor Stiles is also consulting zoolo- gist in the Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture. For some years past these two officers have been making a special study of certain diseases which are particularly incident to farm hfe and of the methods by which these infections are spread, and their reports thereon have appeared in the publications of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. These have been revised, and the manuscript, with the description of additional research work, is submitted, that it may become available through the Department of Agriculture to those living on farms, who naturally look to your department for such information. Respectfully, Watrer WrMan, Surgeon General. Hon. James WIitson, Secretary of Agriculture. 463 4 CONTENT. ol] gL LEAD os SRSA OA SOBRE eS 5 Ooo n eee ale eee Se Seer aor Seem cnc reine iieesses spread from man by soil pollution..-...-..:-..-..-....+++-.+--2+=-: Paar Apread (TOM. MAN GO. MAM. 225.60 --5 2-225 Ss ae eee eee Bocreninlt diseaseseenane i. Saseiae- 5 (Oat Seiad meee ae soar INOW REN) acmindneteco cd > Son Bone a See one ORE ace ans a anne Dysentery and diarrhea (“summer complaint’’).........-..------ SE ee THROU ere wy clciac los Sree dereteer ees cao aa = sre sap n, 5c eyapere tel ta creme aa ICRGIBCABES., en OMe eee eee cel Sete Gate Snes acm ae PEL awOninl Tcl IR GaN Ge ta SUM ENS Rote ie eee lata ee mee a RO Cowhin=-Churtaydiarrheas eee: sire aaete 2 rot es yeeros eee BiehmonMmylMrechigu tis aae 4a ere anes See are eat se pels nannies Yin] SUVONCG nuiste) al 21 een ee Oe a a ee eee ee A Parasitic diseases spread from man to live stock and then back to man.... peel mens Cmte WORUNe a7. ve 5 esse tasers were «cele eras Se ween ipork-moanlonape wOrllos ogni 2 cae Hos ane acme Soe cin ee Human excrement, asa breeding place for flies.....-...-.-.~-.<---/--£)-5-4---- Privy cono.itions on some American farms. 4... . 2 << ~~ jas ~ 2-H )> = =i Bar merimalen sil PRNVICE 46 eco sees Oe St aah os a aise ee te is ap ihe popular idea of the purpose of a privy...---.--=-.<---<+.---45--+:-.5- PEEERBE Mpa palterOl a) PRIVY) aay 2 Jee ciesa ss oe ees yee cree eos oe The essential problems in constructing a privy......-..-------------+---- @he kinds of privies that are not sanitary... -..---.... 02-02 40%--.++2 43 - ierkands @: privies that aresaMltary. oo -- <-2.-/-- == ee decane Se inray OG SAG RT S00 0p Re a Ri Pa MS Se 2 ea meer ae ubomeWwel BYNTCMN |. 2-2/5 ane ect eos - LPR TEN, © 26S MO Re Ae ee ince Le INGUS IS chalia gaa de 8 os Nae eae RR eae en cle ee ree eraetical workine ofthe apparatuss...- 2252252. 222s Ss. e sn ee Directions for building a-sanitary privy ..-..--.--------------+-+.22 7 ee ee rie JN SIDA PASSE 570 0 oath a aa ee a ee ee oO ROLES SS es oO aes re eee Cele Se eee Scien SEMIS) eS ah oP im a AS nae Pa RRO ep er REN Sei Peas aay Se TO ae: Pa Nn i BOS al a EPS wah raloa te re are eR TOG irs SS es |, Si Rc ee ge A Bo RE SES TESOL Gs oh Rete pt OS TR ec OU Sn DIRE epee ie rR a PA DEMO DI BO ASE ATE OS CRS OEE BIE eC EN err ROS ck JL EPR oe RS Ae i on lot ee aetna ee era cee Ten (l% tins] 0(0late1 Oe te en ee ee = ome een rete CPSRSEEE GUAT SS so ee agg ee a ei Ce \WeinilGiee, Se he Bees eet re ee ees AR See eee ete aoe TLS 5 oe ree ee eae eee Pe oP er ARMS ate oe ee ING GTO ENGI), ous BB ge ae eee Oe eae AA ee SORE See ain Ara S Ens She Wren toma temas. 22-52 aaccscitt is so oe wei ssi 2 eae <2 eens eran Estimate of material for school or church privy.-.---------------------------- PRMRORCOO ia DEW Visalia ys <2. Janis: oe acl eis Sayae responsibility im respect to privies_-........--.----=2ss62+s-e-cee sees es 463 5 29 Ww WwW bv bo bo bh bd wb bo CS) CO) (CO! GON GOs ST ST (STi (Sp! (So) OU Or bo bow Fic. ILLUSTRATIONS: 1. A fly with germs (greatly magnified) on its legs....................--- ZOAn insanitary privy, open in ‘back--2...-.--.2+-sneeee ee eee eee eee Ssuimproved*h:aa8. privyoie 222222 oe Se ee ee ee 4. Inside view of Ta. RisS. privy =. sac. ces oes ate aan eee eee 5; Rear view of iL... 8. pElyy-: seen c 3oecee sees oe Ae Se ee 6. A single-seated sanitary privyst..--co-sn¢ ttewcenso- are eee eee 7. Rear and side view of a single-seated sanitary privy........---------- 8. The scantling necessary for the framework of a single-seated sanitary 4635 6 THE SANITARY PRIVY. SOIL POLLUTION. It is common knowledge among intelligent farmers that in many instances when live stock, suclr as horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs, are pastured year after year in the same field, the animals do not thrive; in fact, that, sooner or later, many sicken and die; this is especially true of the young animals. The explanation of this fact is clear. Animals harbor parasitic worms and germs in their intestines; the worms lay eggs, which are passed in the droppings; the eggs develop into young worms, which in turn reinfect the live stock. If a pasture is in constant use the ground becomes heavily infested with young worms and other germs; the smaller the pasture in proportion to the number of animals kept in it, the more intensified the soil pollution becomes. Warmth and moisture are especially favorable to the hatching out of worms from the eggs passed in the droppings, hence, during warm, moist seasons, or in warm, moist localities, the infection of the stock is hkely to be more severe. The more heavily the animals are infected with para- sites, the less they thrive; their digestion is weakened and their blood becomes watery, so that a considerable proportion of the food given them is wasted in that it does not go to make meat; their growth is retarded and their fertility is lessened; and finally infec- tion reaches such a degree that many of the animals can no longer withstand it, and they sicken and die. Thus, the soil pollution of a field by the live stock eventually renders the pastures unfavorable for raising animals. The practical farmer, having observed this fact, moves his stock to other ground in order “ to give the old pasture a rest; ” by so doing he removes his animals from exposure to infec- tion, allowing the infectious germs and young worms in the old pasture to die out. The foregoing facts regarding the effects of soil pollution upon the health of animals, such as horses, sheep, cattle, swine, and chick- ens, apply with equal force to human beings, because human beings also harbor parasitic worms and germs, which are discharged in the excreta, pollute the soil, are again conveyed to people, and thus con- tinue the round of infection at an increasing rate. Soil pollution by Nore.—A list giving the titles of all Farmers’ Bulletins available for distri- bution will be sent free upon application to a Member of Congress or the Secre- tary of Agriculture. 463 7 8 SANITARY PRIVY. - human excreta endangers the health of a family, just as soil pollu- tion of a pasture by the droppings of animals eridangers the live stock. In order to prevent the evil effects of soil pollution from extending to his live stock, the farmer must resort to more or less expensive methods, such as purchase of additional pasture lands or burning the pasture. But since human beings, on account of their superior intelligence, can be taught to frequent an appointed place to deposit their excreta, it is possible (by the expenditure of a few dollars for a Sanitary privy) to prevent soil pollution with human excreta, thereby protecting the family, and enabling it to live year after year on the same premises (family pasture) without danger, at the same time saving doctors’ bills and avoiding unnecessary sickness and death. DISEASES SPREAD FROM MAN BY SOIL POLLUTION. It is especially the diseases caused by parasites (both animal and bacterial) of the intestine, lungs, liver, kidneys, and bladder that are spread by soil pollution. Some of these diseases are spread from human being to human being; others are spread from human beings to the farm animals. Therefore, in preventing soil pollution by per- sons, both families and live stock are protected. The proper disposal of human excreta is recognized by sanitarians as the most important measure needed to prevent the spread of typhoid fever, hookworm disease, the dysenteries, and certain other widely prevalent diseases. DISEASES SPREAD FROM MAN TO MAN. Some of the diseases which come under this heading are caused by microscopic parasites known as bacteria; others by animal parasites, which are considerably larger than the bacteria. BACTERIAL DISEASES, Among the most important diseases under this heading may be mentioned typhoid fever, dysentery and diarrhea (“summer com- plaint”’), and tuberculosis (‘‘ consumption”). Typhoid fever.—Every person who contracts typhoid fever does so because he has recently swallowed some typhoid germs that have been passed in the stools or urine of some other person, who either (as a patient) was suffering from typhoid or (as a “ carrier”) was carrying the germs without showing symptoms. The germs (bacilli) of typhoid fever are of very minute size, a gingle germ (bacillus) being only about zz49> of an inch in length 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 9 and only about ssés0 of an inch in thickness. Like molds and yeasts, they are plants, and under favorable conditions (as in milk, for instance) they multiply at a very rapid rate, so that in a few hours a single germ may increase to thousands. Thousands of these little germs may be contained in a particle of feces no larger than the head of an ordinary pin, or in a small drop of urine, and hundreds may be carried on the leg of a fly (fig. 1). A person suffering from typhoid fever discharges myriads of these germs in the stools and urine. Therefore, the excreta from typhoid patients should be re- garded as highly poisonous, and everything which may become soiled with the smallest quantity of feces or urine should be thoroughly disinfected by heat or chemicals. After being discharged in the excreta from the bodies of persons, typhoid germs gradually die out, but the length of time during which they will survive in the excreta is affected by a number of conditions; im some instances they have been found to live for over a year in the contents of privies and privy vaults and in excreta mixed with earth. Therefore, excreta which have been passed through a septic tank or which have been stored for months in a privy or privy vault should not be regarded as being free from typhoid germs. Persons in the early stages of typhoid fever, before becoming ill enough to take to bed (and some Fie. 1.—A fly with germs (greatly mag- time perhaps before the physician oe eee: is called in), may discharge typhoid germs in their excreta. Some persons contract infection and though having symptoms of the dis- ease in a mild form ({‘ walking cases of typhoid fever ”) never be- vome ill enough to give up and take to bed. Other persons contract and harbor the infection for a few days or weeks without showing any symptoms whatever (“temporary typhoid-bacillus carriers”). In many instances the excreta from such persons are as heavily charged with typhoid germs as are those from persons suffering with the severest attacks of the disease. Some persons recovered from attacks of the disease continue to discharge typhoid germs in their stools or urine, or both, for weeks, months, or even years (“chronic typhoid-bacillus carriers”). In view of all these now thoroughly established facts, it is evident that to prevent the spread of typhoid infection from persons it is necessary to dispose properly of the excreta from all persons at all times. This can be done by the use of sanitary privies. If the excreta are not properly disposed of it is readily under- stood that the germs may be carried in a number of ways to the 100836°—Bull 463—11——2 10 SANITARY PRIVY. water or food supplies, and then be swallowed by and cause infec- tion in persons. They may be carried by drainage or seepage or tracked on the feet of persons, live stock, and poultry to the well or spring. They may be carried directly by flies from the excreta to the foods in the kitchen or dining room. If spread about the place they will from time to time get on the hands of persons, and thence into the water or foods. . Some of the ways in which typhoid germs in the excreta from infected persons may be conveyed to other persons are shown in the following diagram: Diagram of modes of spread of typhoid fever. Typhoid ing erases ade patients or Excreta from ..., Typhoid} to Water -.-.- Sette ek germ MANS. age 52 eR. of carriers Raw vegetables and persons Roods 220 (irunts: 235 oe The foregoing diagram shows that the easiest way of protecting against typhoid fever is to dispose of the excreta in such a manner that the germs contained therein can not be spread. This can be done by using sanitary privies. Dysentery and diarrhea (“summer complaint ”).—Dysentery and similar infections can be prevented in the same way as typhoid fever, as their method of spread is the same. Tuberculosis—Although the danger of spreading tuberculosis by spitting must be constantly held in mind, it is important to remem- ber also that many tubercle bacilli may be discharged in the feces, because persons with lung tuberculosis (“‘ consumption ”) frequently swallow their sputum, and also because some persons have tubercu- losis of the bowels. The spread of tuberculosis by soil pollution may be prevented by using sanitary privies. PARASITIC DISEASES. Among the diseases caused by animal parasites, and spread by soil pollution from man to man, there may be mentioned, especially, hook- worm disease, Cochin-China diarrhea, eelworm infection, pinworm infection, blood-fluke infection, amcebic dysentery, and many other diseases. In some of these maladies the infection is spread in much the same way as is that of typhoid fever, the germs being swallowed ; in others the infection may take place through the skin. All of these diseases can be prevented by using sanitary privies. 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 11 Hookworm disease—There are in this country at least 2,000,000 cases of hookworm disease. The parasites, which are about half an inch long, attach themselves to the wall of the bowels, which they wound, and from which they suck blood. The worms lay eggs which are passed in the stools and which escape from the body in no other way. If the ground is polluted by the human excreta, this disease spreads, but if the excreta are depos- ited in a sanitary privy, and properly disposed of, the disease can be easily prevented. Under favorable conditions, from these eggs, which are too small to be seen with the naked eye, hatch out within a few hours tiny worms; these worms grow and shed their skin, much like a snake; when about one to two weeks old, but still only about one-fortieth of an inch long and therefore scarcely visible to the naked eye, they may be swallowed, or they may burrow through the skin, especially of bare- footed children, and cause that condition known as “ground itch,” “ dew itch,” “ dew sores,” “toe itch,” etc. Wherever “ground itch” exists, it is proof that somewhere in that locality soil pollution has occurred, because there is a privy which is either not properly built, or not properly taken care of, or not properly used, or because there is no privy at all. - From the skin these tiny worms get into the blood and gradually make their way to the bowels, where they grow to adult worms, and in their turn lay eggs. If any member of the family or any person on the farm is pale, weak, or sickly, and has had=“ ground itch” within 10 years past, the family physician should be consulted as to whether the trouble is due to hookworms. In many of the States the State board of health will either make or have made a microscopic examination, free of charge, to determine the point definitely. Although hookworm disease may have serious effects, even result- ing in death, it can be easily cured at a slight expense, and it can be ~ entirely eradicated if sanitary privies are built and used. Cochin-China diarrhea.—This is a disease which is spread very much in the same way as hookworm disease. It is very difficult to treat successfully, but it can be absolutely prevented by the use of sanitary privies. Eelworm infection.—The eelworms are about as large as a lead pencil, and are found among children. Whenever found they prove that there is something wrong with the sanitary conditions. Amebic dysentery.—This is a very serious disease. It may cause death, but its spread can be prevented by the use of sanitary privies. 463 12 SANITARY PRIVY. PARASITIC DISEASES SPREAD FROM MAN TO LIVE STOCK AND THEN BACK TO MAN. At least two kinds of tapeworms are spread from man to live stock and back to man because of lack of sanitary privies. Beef-measle tapeworm.—This tapeworm, when harbored in the in- testine of man, lays thousands of eggs, which are discharged in the stools, and if scattered about may be swallowed by cattle. Here they cause “beef measles,” reducing the value of the beef. By eating measly beef man may become infected with this tapeworm. Pork-measle tapeworm.—The eggs of this tapeworm are passed in the stools of man and swallowed by swine, in which they cause “pork measles.” By eating such pork man may become infected with tapeworms. This tapeworm is especially dangerous, because if a person harbors it and pollutes the soil with his excreta containing the eggs, these eggs may be swallowed by persons and cause a serious disease known as “ pork measles” in man, which may cause blind- ness, insanity, and death. Both of these tapeworm infections can be prevented by the use of sanitary privies. HUMAN EXCREMENT AS A BREEDING PLACE FOR FLIES. Flies and many other insects feed upon and breed in filth, such as manure and human excrement. Whenever a fly is seen it is posi- tive proof of the existence of some filth in the neighborhood. It is much more filthy and much more dangerous to have flies in the kitchen and dining room than to have bedbugs in the bedroom. Flies can carry various disease germs to man. By so doing they kill thousands of people, especially babies, every year; therefore kill the flies and save the babies. Tf flies have access to human excrement, they not only feed upon it, but they lay their eggs in it. After a few hours the egg hatches out ‘ a maggot; this feeds in the filth for several (about five) days and then forms a pupa; after about five days the adult fly comes out of the pupal case, feeds on the filth, and carries disease germs from the filth to the house, depositing these germs on the foods. Thus flies carry disease to people. A fly drops his excrement about once every 41 minutes and may spread germs not only in this way, but also with his feet, wings, and mouth parts. Even if excrement containing fly maggots is buried under as much as 6 feet of sand, the maggots can crawl to the surface, bringing disease germs with them. Thus it is clear that if flies are kept away from human excrement, not only will they decrease in numbers, but they will be prevented from spreading certain diseases, such as typhoid fever. This can be done by the use of sanitary privies. 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 13 PRIVY CONDITIONS ON SOME AMERICAN FARMS. The privy on the American farm possibly has not received the at- tention that its importance deserves. Some American farms have no privy at all. This means that some farm families are being need- lessly exposed to sickness and death. It means that these families are following a custom which not only needlessly increases sickness and death, but which decreases the value and productiveness of their farms. ‘The warmer, more moist, and more shaded the locality, the greater is the danger resulting from lack of sanitary privies. City health authorities are gradually awakening to the dangers connected with the supplies of milk, fresh vegetables, and fresh fruits from insanitary farms; hence not only from the standpoint of pre- serving the health of persons living on farms and increasing the pro- ductiveness of the farms, but also from the standpoint of marketing farm produce, it is important for farms to be provided with sanitary privies. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PRIVIES. The popular idea of the purpose of a privy.—To the popular mind a privy (as indicated by its name) is a structure to which a person may retire in private when responding to the daily calls of nature. In the minds of most persons modesty and privacy are the chief con- siderations which lead to the construction of a privy. As such privacy may be secured by a clump of bushes or a grove of trees, some persons consider a privy unnecessary. Modesty and privacy are laudable objects, but all must agree that they are of infinitely less importance than the great object of saving human life by preventing the spread of disease. The essential parts of a privy—A privy should consist of two chief parts, namely: First, a receptacle for the excreta; secondly, a room to insure privacy. The essential problems in constructing a privy—F rom the foregoing it is clear that the two great problems to be held in mind in con- structing a privy are: First, to protect the receptacle for the excreta in such a way that the germs can not be spread; secondly, to con- struct the entire outhouse in such a way that persons will seek to use it and not to avoid it—in other words, not only must it insure privacy, but it must not be a disagreeable place in which to be pri- vate. This latter point is especially important in warm climates, for many a privy is so disagreeable in warm weather that people, especially men, very frequently avoid it. Still another point must be considered, namely, the cost of construction and maintenance must be brought within the purse limits of the poor as well as of the well- to-do family. 463 14 SANITARY PRIVY. The kinds of privies that are not sanitary.—If the excreta are scat- tered broadcast, the infection they contain is also scattered far and wide. If the excreta are deposited in one place, the infection they contain is more restricted. Therefore, any kind of privy is better than none. From a faulty privy, however, much infection may be spread in various ways, as, for instance, by drainage and seepage, or by chickens, swine, and dogs, or by the feet of persons, or by insects, especially flies. M& SSX \ SSS SK SS Ss Fic. 2.—An insanitary privy, open in back. (Stiles, 1910.) Figure 2 represents a dangerous type of privy. On a systematic rating it should not be marked higher than 10 on a scale of 100, there- fore it is 90 per cent below perfect. The protection afforded by this privy depends in great measure upon the frequency with which the excrement is removed. But even if this privy is cleaned every day, chickens, hogs, and flies have access to the fresh night soil for a 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 15 number of hours, and, besides that, the ground under and around the outhouse becomes polluted. Even if such a privy is provided in the back with a tightly fit- ting trapdoor, so as to exclude domesticated animals and to prevent the toilet paper from being blown about, its efficiency is increased by only about 15 points, so that it should not be ranked more than 25 on a scale of 100. Insects, such as flies, ants, and roaches, still have access to the night soil, which also pollutes the ground under and around the privy. The kinds of privies that are sanitary.—A sanitary privy must meet the following requirements: (1) The excreta must not touch the ground; hence some kind of water-tight receptacle (box, pail, tub, barrel, tank, or vault) for the excreta must be used under the seat. (2) Domesticated animals must not have access to the night soil; therefore the privy should have a trapdoor in the back to exclude them. (3) Flies and other insects must not have access to the excreta; therefore the entire privy must be made rigidly flyproof, or some substance must be used in the receptacle to protect the contents from insects. Two types of sanitary privies are generally recognized, namely, the so-called “ dry system” and the so-called ‘“ wet system.” THE “ DRY SYSTEM.” In the “ dry-system ” privies dry earth, road dust, wood ashes, or lime is kept in the privy, and is scattered on the excreta every time the privy is used. The dry system, if properly managed, presents the following advantages: (1) It decreases the offensiveness of the privy contents. (2) It is cheap. (3) It decreases the chance of spread of infection by insects. (4) It is an easy system to manage. The disadvantages of the dry system are the following: (1) It is very difficult to make a dry privy rigidly fly proof, hence flies usually do have more or less access to the excreta, on which they feed and on which they lay their eggs. (2) Its efficiency depends upon the careful and faithful coopera- tion of all persons (including children) who use the privy, and experience shows that such cooperation can not be relied upon. (3) It increases the amount of material to be removed; hence it increases the labor and frequency of necessary cleaning. 463 16— SANITARY PRIVY. (4) Experience shows that it is exceptional that the excrement is properly covered with dry earth or lime; hence the system is not so efficient as is popularly supposed, (5) Neither dry earth nor lime, in practical usage, can be relied upon to destroy all disease germs which may be in the excreta; hence their use is likely to give rise to a false sense of security in the public mind. (6) If the dejecta at the time of burial contain fly grubs these larve may crawl through the earth to the surface, where they can complete their development into adult flies and spread infection from the buried night soil. ; Privies of the “dry system” should not be marked more than 75 points on a scale of 100. Figures 6 and 7 (pages 22 and 23) represent an SUE which may te used as a dry privy. THE “ WET SYSTEM.” In the “ wet-system ” privies some fluid is used in the receptacle either (1) to disinfect the excreta, or (2) to act as an Insect repel- lent, or (3) to increase the destruction of disease germs in the ex- creta by natural fermentation. Figures 6 and 7 represent outhouses which can be used as “ wet-system ” privies. The advantages of the “wet system,’ when applied to outhouses shown in figures 6 and 7, are (1) It decreases the ue maaiaee of the privy contents. (2) It is cheap. (8) It greatly decreases the chances of spread of infection by flies because they can not breed in the excreta; hence rigid fly screen- ing is not so necessary. (4) It kills or renders harmless a considerable proportion of cer- tain infections contained in the excreta. (5) Its efficiency does not depend upon the intelligence or coopera- tion of all persons using: it. The disadvantages of the shown in figures 6 and 7, are: (1) It is more difficult to keep clean than the “dry system,” be- cause of the danger of soiling the floor when the receptacie is emptied. (2) Unless the receptacle is very deep there is likely to be more or less splashing. (3) The labor and frequency of cleaning are about the same as in the case of the “dry system.” If the wet system is used it is best to fill the receptacle about one- fourth full of water, on the surface of which a cup of petroleum is poured. The petroleum acts as an insect: repellent. 463 “wet system,” as applied to outhouses SANITARY PRIVY. 5 ky Two sets of receptacles should be provided. While one set is be- ing used under the seat, the other set is covered and permitted to stand so as to lengthen the period of fermentation. THE L. R. S. PRIVY.* On account of the various objections raised against the different styles of privies now in use, an effort has been made to construct a device which will decrease the disadvantages and at the same time increase the advantages connected with the older types of outhouses. The results ob- tained from various j experiments have been applied to an apparatus known as the L. R. S. privy (figs. 8, 4, and 5). This apparatus consists of the fol- lowing parts: (1) A water-tight barrel or other con- tainer to receive and liquefy the excreta. (2) A covered water-tight barrel, can, or other vessel to receive the efflu- ent or outflow. (3) A connecting pipe about 23 inches in diameter, about 12 inches long, and provided with an open T at one end, both openings of the T being covered with wire screens. _ (4) A tight box, preferably zinc lined, which fits tightly on the top of the liquefying barrel. It is provided with an opening on top for the seat, which has an automatically closing lid. (5) An antisplashing device consisting of a small board placed horizontally under the seat about an inch below the level of the transverse connecting pipe; it is held in place by a rod, which passes through eyes or rings fastened to the box, and by which the board is ¢ Ob tee Cee Fig. 3.—Improved L. R. 8. privy. 1 Lumsden, Roberts, and Stiles: Preliminary note on a simple and inexpensive ap- paratus for use in safe disposal of night soil. Public Health Reports, 1910, Nov. 11, v. 25 (45), pp. 1619-1623, fig. 1. 18 SANITARY PRIVY. raised and lowered. The liquefying tank is filled with water up to. the point where it begins to trickle into the effluent tank. . As an insect repellent a thin film of some form of petroleum may be poured on the surface of the liquid in each barrel. Practical working of the apparatus.—When the privy is to be used, the rod is pulled up so that the antisplashing board rises to within about 1 inch below the surface of the water. The fecal material Z A Fic. 4.—Inside view of L. R. S. privy. falls into the water, but this board prevents splashing, and thus overcomes one of the greatest objections thus far raised to the wet system. After use, the person sinks the antisplashing board by pushing down the rod, and the fecal matter then floats free into the water. Although some of the fecal matter floats, it is protected both from fly breeding and fly feeding in the following ways: First, by the 463 ‘ SANITARY PRIVY. 19 automatically closing lid; second, by the water; third, by the . film of oil; and, fourth, by having the apparatus located in a screened place, which should be done for additional safety. ‘Ihe film of oil also prevents the breeding of mosquitoes in the barrel. Accordingly, so far as the privy as a breeding or feeding place of flies and mosquitoes is concerned, the model in question com- pletely solves the problem. The fecal material becomes fermented in the water and gradually liquefies; as the excreta settle, the level of the liquid is raised and the excess flows into the effluent tank, where it is protected from insects by the cover and by a film of oil. This effluent may be allowed to collect in the tank until it reaches the level of the con- necting pipe, when it may be safely disposed of in various ways to be discussed later. _ It is thus seen that this device appears to meet the following requirements: (1) It solves the fly prob- lem and the mosquito prob- lem, so far as the privy is concerned. (2) It liquefies fecal ma- terial and reduces its vol- ume, so that it may be safely disposed of more easily and cheaply than the night soil from other types of privies. (3) It reduces odor. (4) It reduces the labor of cleaning the privy and makes this work less disagreeable. (5) It is of simple and inexpensive construction. This device has been in constant operation in one of the work- rooms on the main floor of the Hygienic Laboratory at Washington for 8 months and has been found entirely satisfactory. From July 12, 1910, to April 1, 1911, namely, 262 days, it has been used 738 times, giving an average of 24 defecations. (with urination) per 463 \ CGN Rian \\ \ x aE \ Se \ nN NEN w VK KAD nae Cee ae WENN NEN \ : Nine \ \ \ Fic. 5.—Rear view of L. R. 8S. privy. 20 SANITARY PRIVY. day. The amount of overflow (effluent) from the liquefying tank has been 59 gallons. The liquefying tank itself consists of an ordinary water-tight 40-gallon whisky barrel, and it has not been necessary thus far either to add. water or to empty it. Tests of this device are now being made in out-of-doors privies in order to determine the effect upon it of varying conditions of tem- perature and humidity. Tests are also being made to bring out whatever objectionable features may arise in connection with its general use and to determine the simplest methods of managing the device so that, any family will have no difficulty in keeping it in proper working order. The handle of the antisplasher should come up through the seat board at the side of the hole. By this arrangement the antisplasher can be raised entirely out of the water and-thus used to sink the toilet paper and fecal matter if too much floats on the surface. As an effluent tank, various receptacles can be utilized. If an iron pot is used, place on stones or provide with legs so that a space is left under it to permit the building of a fire as the effluent can be easily and cheaply disinfected by heat. As a liquefying tank one may use either a barrel or an iron tank, or a box, or a brick vault, or a concrete vault. Whatever is used for this purpose must be strictly water-tight. Iron or concrete will ~ cost more than wood, but on account of greater durability willbe more economical in the long run. ; The larger the family the larger the liquefying tank must be. A 40-gallon barrel, such as a whisky or oil barrel, seems sufficient for a family of 3 adults. For a larger family, the capacity should be in- creased by using two or more barrels or one:larger receptacle, in the proportion of about 40 gallons capacity to every 3 to 4 adults in the family. . One advantage the device possesses is that with very little expense it can be put in the outhouses already in use; in fact, it can be placed in any of the outhouses on the farm, such as barn or woodshed, and thus save the expense of building for this special purpose. Wher- ever put, it is very important to have it in a place screened against flies. From the out-of-door experiments thus far it can be readily fore- seen that two factors come into consideration which have not been found important in the indoor privy, namely, evaporation and changes of temperature. In cold weather the fermentation is not so rapid as in warm weather, and on this account the contents of the liquefying tank may gradually thicken. 463 SANITARY PRIVY. vali The evaporation out of doors will vary greatly with the wind, humidity, and temperature in different regions, and the greater the evaporation the thicker the material in the liquefying tank becomes. Should such thickening occur, the odor will increase, and it will be necessary to add water to the liquefying tank. In order to prevent such thickening, it may be found necessary in some instances to add water from time to time. Just how often and how much water should be added, under adverse conditions, has not yet been determined, but, so far as can be foreseen at present, probably a bucketfull (about 2 gallons) added once a week will be sufficient for a single barrel used by a family of 3 or 4 adults. Experiments have conclusively demonstrated that the principle of the L. R. S. privy is good. The details regarding the addition of water must be determined experimentally in different localities. Any intelligent farmer should be able to determine this point for his own locality." If this type of privy is managed fairly intelligently, the indica- tions are that the liiquefying tank will rarely need cleaning, probably not oftener than once in several years. When cleaning does become necessary, this can be done in several ways: The barrel may be > taken out, and its contents burned; or the contents may be pumped or dipped out, and burned; or a considerable amount (several bar- relfils) of water can be poured gradually into the liquefying tank, | and the sludge thoroughly stirred until it runs over into the effluent tank. In the experimental L. R. S. privy the only paper used has been the regular toilet paper. This has liquefied with sufficient prompt- ness. If heavier paper (such as newspaper) were used, this would break up more slowly, and allowance for it might have to be made by increasing the capacity of the tank. It is well to bear in mind that the ink on newspaper is likely to irritate the skin. Corncobs and similar objects would certainly interfere materially with the successful working of any apparatus of this kind. DIRECTIONS FOR BUILDING A SANITARY PRIVY. There are many different ways that a privy building can be con- structed. The details of construction are here appended for only one of the many different styles. In order to put the construction of a sanitary privy for the home within the carpentering abilities of boys, a practical carpenter has been requested to construct models to conform to the general ideas expressed in this article and to furnish estimates of the amount of 1Tt should be understood that the L. R. S. privy is described simply as a type, and may be modified to suit varying conditions. 463 99 SANITARY PRIVY. 1a. 6.—A single-seated sanitary privy. Front view. (Stiles, 1910.) 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 23 lumber, hardware, and wire screening required. Drawings of these models have been made during the process of construction (figs. 8, 9) and in completed condition (figs. 6, 7). The carpenter was re- quested to hold constantly in mind two points, namely, (1) economy and (2) simplicity of construction. It is believed that any 14-year- Fic. 7.—Rear and side view of a single-seated sanitary privy. old school boy of average intelligence and mechanical ingenuity can, by following these plans, build a sanitary privy for his home at an expense for building materials, exclusive of receptacle, of $5 to $10, according to locality. It is further believed that the plans submitted cover the essential points to be considered. They 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 24 Be fad “spue 4B ‘Uy 9 XT *spus ye ‘Uy XS ‘Zuol “ut € “8143 OATI Bso0yd g “Pe 4 - : Ss "spue 38 ocUNbs ‘Uy F Pue BUCTUT H°93 C'STY SATT BedeTd Bg B) ( *Zuot "as v BTU} ATL seoerd g | _ + 3 ty ‘epue 4B erenbe‘uy f pues Zuo0T ‘spuo 4B "UE 9 X T ‘BuoT*uy ZL “95 P'BTYF EXIT Sa0eTd g > | “opus 98 “UT # Ee “BUCT “UT HAs f ‘eTUI ATT sooeTd gf ‘spus ye ‘uy px g ‘BuoT “ut 4°93 9 “BIN aATT Seoetd g j ‘spe 4B “UT } XZ “BuoT‘uy G'S L “STUD OATT Sa0eTd Z (| “Uy OT'9Z © ‘STUR OATT GOaTd / g “Ule UTS ‘UTe 2 Fig. 8.—The seantling necessary for the framework ofa single-sea'ed sanitary privy, fig. 6. (Stiles, 1910.) » > 46: SANITARY PRIVY. 95 can be elaborated to suit the individual tastes of persons who prefer a more elegant and more expensive structure. For instance, the roof can have a double instead of a single slant, and can be shingled; the sides, front, and back can be clapboarded, or they can be shin- gled. Instead of one seat (figs. 6, 7), there may be two, three, four, five, or six seats, according to need. A SINGLE-SEATED PRIVY. Nearly all privies for the home have seats for two persons, but a single-seated privy can be made more economically. Framework.—The lumber required for the framework of the out- house shown in figure 6 is as follows (see figs. 8, 9) : A, two pieces, 6 by 6 inches, 4 feet long. B, one piece, 4 by 4 inches, 3 feet 10 inches long, C, two pieces, 4 by 4 inches, 3 feet 4 inches long. D, two pieces, 2 by 4 inches, 7 feet 9 inches long. H, two pieces, 2 by 4 inches, 6 feet 7 inches long. IF, two pieces, 2 by 4 inches, 6 feet 3 inches long. G, two pieces, 2 by 4 inches, 5 feet long. H, one piece, 2 by 4 inches, 3 feet 10 inches long. J, two pieces, 2 by 4 inches, 3 feet 4 inches long. J, two pieces, 2 by 4 inches, 3 inches long. K, two pieces, 1 by 6 inches, 4 feet 7 inches long. The ends of K should be immed after being nailed in place. L, two pieces, 1 by 6 inches, 4 feet long; ~ First lay down the sills marked A, and join them with the joist marked B; then nail in position the two joists marked C, with their ends 3 inches from the outer edge of A; raise the corner posts (D and IF), spiking them at bottom to A and C, and joining them with L, I,, G, and K; raise doorposts E, fastening them at J, and then spike I, in position; H is fastened to K. Sides.—Each side (fig. 7) requires four boards (a) 12 inches wide by 1 inch thick and 8 feet 6 inches long; these are nailed to K, L, and A. The corner boards must be notched at G, allowing them to pass to bottom of roof; next draw a slant from front to back at G-G on the outside of the boards, and saw the four side boards to correspond with this slant. Back.—The back (fig. 7) requires two boards (6) 12 inches wide by 1 inch thick and 6 feet 11 inches long, and two boards (c) 12 inches wide by 1 inch thick and 6 feet 5 inches long. The two longest boards (b) are nailed next to the sides; the shorter boards (c) are sawed in two, so that one piece (c1) measures 4 feet 6 inches, the other (c?) 1 foot 11 inches; the longer portion (c') is nailed in position above the seat; the shorter portion (c*) is later utilized in making the back trapdoor. 463 26 SANITARY PRIVY. Floor.—The floor (fig. 6) requires four boards (d) which (when cut to fit) measure 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and 3 feet 10 inches long. ; ; mitt aii a i | il ] MII NWR i Fic. 9.—The framework (assembled) for a single-seated Sanitary privy. (Stiles, 1910.) Front.—The front boards may next be nailed on. The front (fig. 6) requires (besides the door) two boards (e), which (when cut to 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 27 fit) measure 1 inch thick, 9 inches wide, and 8 feet 5 inches ney these are nailed next to the sides. Roof.—The roof (fig. 7) may now be finished. This requires five boards (7) measuring (when cut to fit) 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and 6 feet long. They are so placed that they extend 8 inches boyand the front. The joints (cracks) are to be broken (covered) by laths 4 inch thick, 3 inches broad, and 6 feet long. Box.—The front of the box (fig. 6) requires two boards, 1 inch thick and 3 feet 10 inches long. One of these (vy) may measure 12 inches wide, and the other (A) 5 inches wide. These are nailed in place, so that the back of the boards is 18 inches from the inside of the back boards. The seat of the box requires two boards, 1 inch thick, 3 feet 10 inches long; one of these (¢) may measure 12 inches wide, the other (j) 7 inches wide. One must be jogged (cut out) to fit around the back corner posts (F). An oblong hole, 10 inches long and 74 inches wide, is cut in the seat. The edge should be smoothly rounded or beveled. An extra (removable) seat for children may be made by cutting a board 1 inch thick, 15 inches wide, and 20 inches long; in this seat a hole is cut, measuring 7 inches long by 6 inches wide; the front margin of this hole should be about 3 inches from the front edge of the board. To prevent warping, a cross cleat is nailed on top near or at each end of the board. A cover (x) to the seat should measure 1 inch thick by 15 inches wide by 20 inches long; it is cleated on top near the ends to prevent warping; it is hinged in back to a strip 1 inch thick, 3 inches wide, and 20 inches long, which is fastened to the seat. Cleats (m) may also be nailed on the seat at the sides of the cover. On the inside of the back board, 12 inches above the seat, there should be nailed a block (2), 2 inches thick, 6 inches long, extending forward 34 inches; this is intended to prevent the cover from falling backward and to make it fall down over the hole when the occupant arises. On the floor of the box, underneath the seat (fig. 7), two or three cleats (7) are nailed in such a position that the tub will always be in the center; the position of these cleats depends upon the size of the tub. Back trapdoor—In making the back of the privy (fig. 7), the two center boards (c) were sawed at the height of the bottom of the seat. The small portions (c?) sawed off (23 inches long) are cleated (0) to- gether so as to form a back trapdoor which is hinged above; a bolt or a button is arranged to keep the door closed. Front door.—The front door (fig. 6) is made by cleating (p) together three boards (7) 1 inch thick, 10 inches wide, and (when finished) 6 feet 7 inches long; it is best to use three cross cleats (p) (1 inch thick, 6 inches wide, 30 inches long), which are placed on the 463 298 SANITARY PRIVY. inside. The door is hung with two hinges (6-inch “ strap ” hinges will do), which are placed on the right as one faces the privy, so that the door opens from the left. The door should close with a coil spring (cost about 10 cents) or with a rope and weight, and may fasten on the inside with a catch or a cord. Under the door a cross- piece (7) 1 inch thick, 4 inches wide, 30 inches long (when finished) may be nailed to the joist. Stops (s) may be placed inside the door as shown in figure 6. These should be 1 inch thick, 3 inches wide, and 6 feet 6 inches long, and should be jogged (cut out) (¢) to fit the cross cleats (p) on the door. Close over the top of the door place a strip 1 inch thick, 2 inches wide, 30 inches long, nailed to I (fig. 9). A corresponding piece (v) is placed higher up directly under the roof, nailed to G. A strap or door pull is fastened to the outside of the door. Ventilators.—There should be 5 ventilators (w). One is placed at each side of the box, directly under the seat; it measures 6 to 8 inches square. Another (12 inches square) is placed near the top on each side of the privy. A fifth (30 inches long, 84 inches wide) is placed over the door, between G and I, (figs. 6, 9). ‘The ventilators are made of 15-mesh copper wire, which is first tacked in place and then protected at the edge with the same kind of lath that is used on the cracks and joints. If the L. R. S. system (p. 17) is used and the barrel or tank brought close to the seat, the ventilators at the sides of the box may be done away with, and the barrel may be ventilated by a pipe (such as a joint of stove pipe), extending through the seat to the roof or through the back of the house; this ventilator should be screened. Lath.—Outside cracks (joints) are covered with lath 4 inch thick by 3 inches wide. Receptacle.—For a receptacle, saw a water-tight barrel to fit snugly under the seat; or purchase a can or tub, as deep (17 inches) as the distance from the under surface of the seat to the floor. If it is not possible to obtain a tub, barrel, or can of the desired size, the recep- tacle used should be elevated from the floor by blocks or boards so that it fits snugly under the seat. A galvanized can measuring 16 inches deep and 16 inches in diameter can be purchased for about $1, or even less. An empty candy bucket of about the same size can be purchased for about 10 cents. This same outhouse may be used for the L. R. S. privy (p. 17), in which case it is not necessary to extend the floor under the seat; instead of doing this, a hole is dug deep enough to receive the barrel or vault; or if preferred, the house can be elevated high enough to make room for the barrel (see fig. 3). 463 SANITARY PRIVY. 29 Order for material—The carpenter has made out the following order for lumber (pine, No. 1 grade) and hardware to be used in building a privy such as is shown in figure 6: 1 piece, 6 by 6 inches by 8 feet long, 24 square feet. 1 piece, 4 by 4 inches by 12 feet long, 16 square feet. 5 pieces, 2 by 4 inches by 16 feet long, 54 square feet. 38 pieces, 1 by 6 inches by 16 feet long, 24 square feet. 2 pieces, 1 by 9 inches by 9 feet long, 14 square feet. 3 pieces, 1 by 10 inches by 7 feet long, 18 square feet. 15 pieces, 1 by 12 inches by 12 feet long, 180 square feet, 12 pieces, $+ by 3 inches by 16 feet long, 48 square feet. 2 pounds of 20-penny spikes. 6 pounds of 10-penny nails. 2 pounds of 6-penny nails. 7 feet screen, 15-mesh, copper, 12 inches wide. 4 hinges, 6-inch “ strap,’ for front and back doors. 2 hinges, 6-inch T, or 3-inch “ butts,” for cover. 1 coil spring for front door. According to the carpenter’s estimate these materials will cost from $5 to $10, according to locality. There is some variation in the size of lumber, as the pieces are not absolutely uniform. The sizes given in the lumber order represent the standard sizes which should be ordered, but the purchaser need not expect to find that the pieces delivered correspond with mathe- matical exactness to the sizes called for. On this account the pieces must be measured and cut to measure as they are put together. ESTIMATE OF MATERIAL FOR SCHOOL OR CHURCH PRIVY. The following estimate of building materials has been made, by a carpenter, for the construction of a six-seated school or church privy. The estimated cost of these materials is $25 to $50, accord- ing to locality ; this does not include the pails or barrels: 3 pieces, 6 by 6 inches by 20 feet, 180 square feet. 1 piece, 6 by 6 inches by 8 feet, 24 square feet. Scantling, 2 by 4 inches, 165 square feet. Boards, 1 by 12 inches, 600 square feet. Boards, 1 by 10 inches, 185 square feet. Boards, 1 by 8 inches, 100 square feet. Boards, 1 by 6 inches, 80 square feet. Boards, 4 by 3 inches, 100 square feet. Flooring, 80 square feet. 40 feet 15-mesh copper wire screen, 12 inches wide. 12 pairs of hinges, 6-inch “ strap.” 6 pairs of hinges, 6-inch T. 3 pounds of 20-penny spikes. 15 pounds of 10-penny nails. 8 pounds of 6-penny nails. 6 coil springs for front doors, 6 knobs or latches. 463 80 SANITARY PRIVY. HOW TO KEEP A PRIVY SANITARY. Tt is necessary not only to build a privy properly but also to keep it in proper condition. This involves cleaning out and disposing of the excreta in such a way as to prevent all possibility of the spread of disease germs from the material. The disagreeable labor involved varies according to the kind of privy in use, but is less with the L. R. S. privy than with the other types. Wrong ways of disposing of night soil—(1) The point can not be emphasized too strongly that the use of fresh night soil as fertilizer endangers the health and life not only of every person on the farm itself, but of all people who handle or who consume the fresh vege- tables and fresh milk from such a farm. The custom is forbidden by law in some States. (2) If the fresh night soil is simply buried, germs of disease may later be brought to the surface, and thus infection may be spread. Further, the popular idea that all the fly grubs in the night soil are killed by burial is not correct, for these grubs can crawl up through ws much as 6 feet of sand, reach the surface, develop into flies, and carry filth and disease germs to the food. Further, also, if the fresh night soil is buried, it may infect the water supply (springs, wells, etc.), and thus spread disease. Widespread as is the custom of bury- ing fresh excreta, it is a custom which in the light of present-day knowledge must be viewed as being far from safe, although when done with great care it does decrease the dangers to some extent. (3) Mixing night soil with manure is especially dangerous, and feed- ing it to chickens and hogs is both filthy and dangerous. (4) To leave the night soil on the ground near the privy is de- liberately to expose the family and neighbors to sickness. (5) In some instances farmers collect the fresh night soil from towns and villages, and haul it to their farms, under the impression that if it is promptly plowed under it will enrich the land and no harm can result. Farmers should thoroughly understand that the following of such a practice is attended with great danger, as typhoid fever, hookworm disease, and other infections may thereby be intro- duced from the town to a healthful farm. (6) In some instances, the privy is built over a creek, or the fresh excreta are thrown into a stream or lake. Such practices may en- danger the lives of persons living downstream. The right way to dispose of night soil—Since it is not known, at any given time, which members of a community harbor disease germs in their intestines, the invariable rule should be adopted to consider all fresh night soil as a virulent poison and to dispose of it accordingly. The only safe way of disposing of fresh night soil from the style of privy shown in figures 6 and 7 is to burn it or disinfect it by means 463 SANITARY PRIVY. on of heat. Any other method, such as burial or any practicable treat- ment with chemical disinfectants (lime, etc.), although lessening the danger to some extent, still carries with it risks involving human life. If the wet method (p. 16) be used in the style of privy shown in figures 6 and 7, the excreta had best be heated to 212° F., after which the material may safely be used as fertilizer. A second method is to permit the filth to ferment in water in covered tubs or barrels for not less than a week after removal from the privy; then pour in a disin- fectant (such as chloride of lime, one-fourth pound to the gallon of excreta) ; the material should then be buried. This second method greatly reduces but does not entirely remove the danger of the spread of disease. fluent (overflow) from the L. R. S. privy—F rom what has been said above, it is clear that the proper disposal of night soil always involves some labor and trouble, but it is important constantly to hold in mind the truth that the results obtained, in better health, smaller doctors’ bills, and the saving of human life, more than justify the efforts expended. The L. R. S. privy reduces the volume of the excreta and converts the material into an easily manageable fluid, so that the disposal of night soil from this type of privy is much simplified. The methods of disposal which come into consideration are the following: (1) Heat: If a suitable (metallic) vessel is provided to receive the effluent, a fire may be built under the vessel and the effluent heated to 212° F. Or if a wooden or concrete effluent tank is used, the effluent may be transferred to some other vessc' for heating. After such treatment the fluid may be sateiy «ced for fertilizer under any conditions. Heat disinfection is the only measure which can to- -day be recom- mended unreservedly. (2) Burial: Burial will unquestionably decrease the danger c* spreading infection, but in the present state of knowledge this method of disposal can not be relied upon as safe. If burial of the effluent is practiced, the fluid should be disposed of not less than 300 feet from and downhill from any neighboring water supply and not less than 2 feet underground, and then only provided the soil itself is a good filter. Burial in a limestone region may contaminate water supplies miles away. (3) Chemical disinfection: Chemical disinfectants, such as chlo- rinated lime and certain coal-tar derivatives, have the great advantage of cheapness and can be relied upon to destroy the disease-causing bacteria in the night soil. The knowledge regarding the action of chemical disinfectants upon the eggs and spores of the various animal parasites is at present very rudimentary, but, so far as results are known, their practicable use does not seem to be so efficient in the 463 82 SANITARY PRIVY. destruction of the animal parasites as of the bacteria. Therefore, pending further investigations, the use of chemically treated excre- ment as fertilizer should not be regarded as unqualifiedly safe. (4) Chemical disinfection, with subsequent burial: Inasmuch as chemical disinfection can be relied upon to destroy the disease-pro- ducing bacteria in night soil, and inasmuch as burial greatly reduces the danger from animal parasites, a suitable combination of the two methods (chemical disinfection and burial) can be used with reason- able safety. (5) Sewers: In partially sewered towns the effluent from these privies may be emptied into the sewers. If conditions are such that the addition of this material to the sewage is dangerous, then the entire sewer system needs correction. THE PRIVY AT THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AND CHURCH. Although a farmer may prevent soil pollution on his own farm by the use of sanitary privies, his children may be exposed to the dan- gers of soil pollution at the schools which they attend, and his entire family may be so exposed even when they attend church, unless the schools and churches are provided with sanitary privies. In fact, schools and churches not provided with such outhouses necessarily form distributing centers from which certain diseases spread to clean farms. CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY IN RESPECT TO PRIVIES. Lack of sanitary privies on neighboring farms may be responsible for cases of typhoid fever, hookworm disease, and other infections on farms which are provided with sanitary privies, because disease germs may be carried for considerable distances by flies, by animals, by feet of persons, by wagon wheels, or by drainage from one farm to another. In view of these well-established facts it is evident that among the highest duties that rest upon a farmer, as a father and citizen, is not only to have a sanitary privy on his farm, but to insist that the pollution of soil with human excreta be prevented throughout the entire neighborhood by the use of sanitary privies. In the United States about 400,000 persons suffer from and about 35,000 die from typhoid each year; over 2,000,000 persons have hook- worm disease. Thousands of these deaths and many thousands of these cases of disease might be prevented by the simple use of sani- tary privies. A compulsory sanitary privy law or ordinance should therefore be enacted and be strictly enforced in every locality not provided with a properly maintained sewer system. 463 O —_— CU Issued December 26, 1911. eo, OBPARLMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS’ BULLETIN NO. 476. _ THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES: CAUSE, EXTENT. AND REMEDY. BY As D. HOPKINS, In Charge of Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology. © WASHINGTON: 2\948A0 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911, LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau or ENTOMOLOGY, Washington, D. C., October 8, 1911. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication a paper dealing with the Dying of Pine in the Southern States—Cause, Extent, and Remedy. It censists of a series of revised circular letters which have been used during the present year in an active campaign by this bureau through a forest-insect field station located at Spartanburg, S. C., the purpose of which has been to study the character and extent of the dying pine and to give instructions and demonstrations to the owners within the worst affected areas on the most economical and effectual means of control. The known destructive habits of the southern pine beetle, which is the cause of the trouble, and the threatening character of the pres- ent outbreak render its immediate control of the greatest importance to the people of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It is perfectly capable of killing a large percentage of the young and matured trees of the pine forests of the entire South, as it did in West Virginia and Virginia in 1890 to 1893. The paper gives the essential facts relating to the insect, its work, practical methods of control, and how to protect the pine from its depredations in the future. It is absolutely necessary that the owners of farmers’ woodlots, as well as the individual and organized owners of large areas of growing and matured pine, should be familiar with the essential requirements of locating and disposing of the infested timber in order to meet with success in any effort to control it. Therefore, I recommend the pub- lication of this paper as a Farmers’ Bulletin. Respectfully, L. O. Howarp, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMEs WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. 476 9 “ eee se CONTENTS. Cause of the dying of pine........-- aR RT ee NIE a enn ota agers ie oom neenemimne Weetle aoe eo ace odie pe eee wale 2s BS 2 EAE GEMS ae rae et eer SE ci Soe eee wale ise SS eae ei ee Beret Ere er seen. Sos ae ni Ue ete es abc ctti OO kw eee brgestpaiions ii the Southern States... .: 1... i222. ~'s: fe se- 2-222. Jee Character and range of depredations determined. . Se caae etsy et nat eee Patches of dying pine a menace to the healthy trees........- eee The more important evidences of the presence and work of the Bpectle. ee iewat@loeite the infested trees <1. <2 s22-2-4 6 seb wk oe Sk et. + ee oe es - nen jawidetais mm methods Of Control. 2.2522.) 2 2.2... /2s2--2 oe. 5 2-- B22 ho se Pe qmrersienita torsitecess sash oa & sss Ps bese! 22 aol: eee sk Dk PLE Usd RATIONS. Fic. 1. Egg galleries and larval mines of the southern pine beetle ........--.-- 2. Section of pine trunk with bark removed showing the marks of the egg Pallenion Oumhe SUPACO: 2 sea5. sees < 2550 He inte ohn Mies antes > 3. Bark from pine tree showing galleries of the southern pine beetle which kills the trees, and the larger mines of the ‘‘sawyer” which does not TRU RSS 2 5 a a ee yee ee ara 4, Map showing the distribution of the southern pine beetle......-.-.---. 476 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES: CAUSE, EXTENT, AND REMEDY. During the past few years the dying of pine in the southern Atlantic and Gulf States, from Maryland to Texas, inclusive, has attracted attention and has been the subject of special investigation and extensive correspondence. CAUSE OF THE DYING OF PINE. In the areas designated as the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine belts, as well as in parts of the longleaf pine belt, the death of the pine has been caused by the southern pine beetle, while in Florida and cer- tain other sections it is apparently due to a combination of other but similar bark-boring beetles. THE SOUTHERN PINE BEETLE. The southern pine beetle was described in 1868 under the tech- nical name Dendroctonus frontalis from specimens collected in North Carolina or South Carolina. It is a small brownish or black beetle, somewhat smaller than a grain of rice. It flies in March to December in the more southern sections, and from May to November in its northern range. It - attacks the middle to upper portions of the trunks of healthy pine and spruce trees, causing their death by excavating long, winding burrows or egg galleries (figs. 1, 3), which extend through the inner layers of the living bark and mark the surface of the wood (fig. 2). Eggs are deposited along the sides of these galleries, from which young grubs (larvee) hatch and then feed on the inner bark until they have attained the size of the parent beetles, when they mine into the outer bark and transform to the dormant (pupal) stage, and later to the adult or beetle stage. The beetles then emerge to fly in search of other living trees in which this process of attack and devel- opment is repeated. The winter is passed in the bark of the living and dying trees in all stages of development. The more advanced individuals begin to emerge and fly in March to May and the remainder continue to develop and emerge until about the last of July, so that by: this time all of the trees that were attacked during the previous fall and early winter are completely dead and abandoned by the beetles. 15842°—Bull. 476—11 5 7. ee © eee a 6 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. There are from three to five generations annually. The first generation begins with the eggs deposited by the first beetles that fly and attack the trees in the spring and by those of the overwin- tered broods as they make successive attacks during the spring and early summer. The second generation begins with the eggs deposited by the adults of the first generation and so on until cold weather stops their activities. At all times there is a more or less complex overlapping of gen- erations, so that there is a continuous emergence and attack during Fic. 1.—Egg galleries a larval mines of the southern pine beetle: a, Entrance; 6, entrance burrow; c, egg gallery; d, normal larval mine; e, abnormal larval mine; /, terminal; g, ventilating burrows. Slightly reduced. (Author’s illustration.) the entire period of activity; consequently a continuous dying of trees within the infested areas. Under average or normal conditions of the activities of this beetle a few scattering trees are killed by it each year in nearly every county throughout the Southern States where the pine is common. If, however, there are from any cause favorable conditions for the multiplication of the insect, it is thus able to kill groups of trees, and if these groups Increase in number and size the following year they constitute the danger signal of an outbreak which may result in widespread depredations. Therefore it is a most destructive enemy 476 | ee ee ee ee re 7 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. if, of the pine within its range—in fact, it is, as has been frequently stated during the past 10 years, a constant menace to the livmg pine of all of the Southern States, from Maryland to Missouri and south- ward to the Gulf of Mexico. (See fig. 4.) Evidence of the Destructive Work of the Beetle. The presence of this beetle in dangerous or destructive numbers is plainly indicated by patches of dying and dead pine which show no evidence of injury by fire or other destructive agencies. The trees infested by the devel- oping broods are indicated by the fading green, greenish brown, and yellowish red of the foliage, and positively determined by the re- moval of some bark from the middle of the trunks of a few of the dying trees and the finding of the charac- teristic work in the inner bark and on the surface of the wood, as shown in figures 2 and 3. The trees which have been killed and abandoned by the developed broods of the beetles are indicated by the reddish-brown foliage (aban- doned red tops), the fallen foliage (abandoned black tops), and the decaying standing or fallen trees (abandoned broken tops and snags, fallen trees, etc.). The cause of the death of trees of any of these stages is determined by examining the dead bark for evidence of the work of the beetle. EXTENT OF LOSSES. Extended observations in all of the Southern States during the past Fig. 2.—Section of pine trunk with bark re- moved, showing the marks of the egg gal- leries on the surface. (Author’s illustration.) 20 years lead the writer to conclude that if all of the pine that has been killed during this time by this beetle was living to-day its stumpage value would amount to from $10,000,000 to $20,000,000 or 476 8 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. more. Recent studies of the depredations wrought by it in the South Atlantic and Gulf States during the past three years indicate that at least $2,000,000 worth of pine has been killed. It is also evident that Fic. 3.—Bark from pine tree showing galleries of the southern pine beetle, which kills the trees, and the larger mines of the ‘‘sawyer,’’which does not kill trees. (Author’s illustration.) if active steps are not taken this winter by the principal owners in the infested areas this loss will be increased to another million dollars within the next year. 476 THE REMEDY. Tt has been determined and demonstrated that if the larger part of the infestation within an area of 8 or 10 square miles is disposed of according to the methods discovered and recommended by the experts of the Bureau of Entomology, it will bring the beetle under complete control in that area, and that thereafter control can be maintained with but slight trouble or expense. It is, therefore, evident that if the recommended methods are adopted and properly carried out the beetle can be controlled in any given community, district, county, State, or the entire South. THE METHOD OF CONTROL. Broadly stated, the method of control is to locate the infested trees during November, December, January, February, and March, and Fig. 4.—Map showing distribution of the southern pine beetle. (Author’s illustration.) destroy the overwintering broods in the bark of the main trunks, according to the recommendations on pages 13 and 14 of this bulletin. THE COST OF CONTROL. Experience has shown that while a large amount of timber may be dead in a given locality, it may be an accumulation of several years or months through the continued dying of the trees, so that only a comparatively few infested trees are found at any given time. Therefore, if this small number of dying and infested trees is dis- posed of at the proper time and in the proper manner, the cause will be removed at small cost and the dying of the pines will stop. 476 10 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. The cost for the required treatment will ordinarily average about 16 cents per tree. Protecting the living pine of farmers’ woodlots and small forests of average infested areas of 10 to 15 square miles in the central Southern States, through a direct control of the beetle, will cost from 1 to 10 cents per acre for the first year, and practically nothing thereafter for from 10 to 20 years. The protection of the ling merchantable pine within a similar average area will cost from 5 to 30 cents per thousand feet, board measure, or from 4 cent to 10 cents per cord for the first year and practically nothing during the next 10 to 20 years. If the treated timber can be utilized for fuel, lumber, or any other purpose involving a commercial value, the cost will be reduced to a minimum, and in many cases a direct profit will be derived from the sale of the treated product. INVESTIGATIONS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. From time to time since 1842 there have been reports of more or less extensive dying of pine timber in the Southern States. Extended investigations of the problem were started by the entomologist of the West Virginia Experiment Station in 1891 and continued at intervals in West Virginia until 1901, and by the experts on forest insects of the Bureau of Entomology at different times and in all of the Southern States from July, 1902, until the present time. The results of these investigations have shown that the death of a large percentage of the pine of Virginia and West Virginia in 1890 to 1893 was due to an invasion of the southern pine beetle, which attacked the healthy trees and girdled and killed them by excavating long winding burrows beneath the living bark on the main trunks of the trees. . It has also been shown that this beetle has existed in the Southern States for at least 40 years, and there is good evidence that it has occupied this region from time immemorial, but it is only at com- paratively long intervals that it increases to such numbers as to cause widespread depredations. During the summer and fall of 1910 and the winter and spring of 1911, correspondents of the Bureau of Entomology in different sections of the South, and especially in the Atlantic and Gulf States, reported that the pine was dying in patches, and that in some places the trouble was alarming. Therefore, it was made the subject of special investi- gation in May, June, and July, 1911, which resulted in the location of a forest insect field station at Spartanburg, S. C., for the purpose of studying the character and extent of the depredations and conducting a campaign of instruction and demonstration on the proper methods for controlling the beetle and protecting the remain- 476 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 11 ing living timber. This work has been prosecuted in such a manner as to convince the majority of the owners of pine within the areas covered by the representatives of the Bureau of Ento- mology that the southern pine beetle is a menace to the pine forests of the Southern States. There is now a general and widespread interest manifested throughout the worst affected sections, and there is every prospect that if general action is taken by the owners, in the utilization or treatment of infested trees according to the reeommenda- tions of the experts of the Bureau of Entomology, the beetles can be controlled this winter at slight expense, and that the remaining living pine will thus be protected from further depredations. CHARACTER AND RANGE OF DEPREDATIONS DETERMINED. Since the location of forest-insect field station 7 at Spartan- burg, S.C., on July 5, 1911, the agents of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, detailed to the station have been very active in the study of the character and extent of the depredations by the southern pine beetle in South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, North Carolina, Mississippi, Texas, Florida, Virginia, Louisiana, Maryland, Arkansas, Missouri, and Tennessee. Observa- tions by the agents and information conveyed by correspondents from all sections of the South show that in the aggregate a vast amount of timber has been killed by the southern pine beetle during the past two years. The dying and dead trees occur as scattering individuals or in clumps, large patches, and in some places whole forests. All are more or less conspicuous by their fading, red, black, or denuded tops, plainly indicating the presence of the beetle or the progress of its work. PATCHES OF DYING PINE A MENACE TO THE HEALTHY TREES, Tt has been found that each patch of dying trees with their fading and greenish-brown tops located anywhere in the Southern States is a menace to the living pine within a radius of 3 or 4 miles. The broods of the southern pine beetle developing in the bark of the trees of one such center of infestation may swarm in any direction and settle in the healthy timber. Thus one or more additional patches is killed until nearly all of the large as well as the small pine over an extensive area is dead. When these centers of infestation are numerous within the confines of a county, or even a larger section of territory, they can only be com- pared with the starting of so many forest fires, and, as has been demonstrated, they may lead to far greater destruction of merchant- able pine than has ever been recorded as resulting from fire in the Southern States. Therefore they demand similar prompt and radical action on the part of the owners in order to protect their living pine. 476 12 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. THE MORE IMPORTANT EVIDENCES OF THE PRESENCE AND WORK OF THE BEETLE. (1) If in clumps or patches of pine, where there is no plain evi- dence of serious injury by fire, the foliage fades to pale green and changes to yellowish and pale brown, it indicates that the trees are dying from the attack of the southern pine beetle, and that the bark on such trees is infested with the developing broods of minute white grubs and transforming beetles. Therefore such infested trees are a menace to the living trees. (2) If the trees have reddish brown and partially fallen foliage, or if all of the foliage has fallen, it indicates that the broods of beetles have emerged and that such trees are no longer a menace to the living ones. (3) If the trees die during the period between the 1st of March and the 1st of October, they will be abandoned by the broods of beetles within a few weeks after the foliage begins to fade. (4) If the trees begin to die during the period between the 1st of October and the 1st of December the broods of beetles will remain in the bark until the following March or April. HOW TO LOCATE THE INFESTED TREES. The location of trees that are infested by the southern pine beetle is the first and one of the most important things to do before definite plans are made for the active work of cutting the trees. Some of the essential things to remember are as follows: (1) The southern pine beetle attacks the upper and middle por- tions of the trunks of healthy trees. (2) A freshly attacked tree may show pitch tubes on the trunk, reddish boring-dust around the base, or there may be no external evidence of attack until the leaves begin to fade. (3) By the time the tops are faded and the bark on the middle and upper trunk is dead the broods of the beetles are in an advanced stage of development; yet, at the same time, the bark on the lower third of the trunk may be living and show no evidence of attack, or may be attacked by other kinds of insects which are not responsible for the death of trees. (4) As soon as the bark begins to die on any part of the trunk it is attacked by numerous other insects, including the adults of the “sawyer” borers which do not attack healthy trees. (5) By the time the tops have changed from pale green to greenish brown the broods of the southern pine beetle are nearly all devel- oped to the stage when they enter the outer bark to transform to the adults. “hes (6) By the time the tops have changed to a reddish hue the broods have developed and are either emerging or have emerged. 476 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. Ales: (7) During the warm months the broods will develop and emerge from a tree within about 30 to 40 days after it is attacked. (8) Trees attacked in November will usually carry the broods over winter. The foliage of some trees will fade and reach the red- dish stage before spring; other trees attacked in December or later may not fade until the warm days of February, March, or April. Therefore, in estimating the character and extent of an infesta- tion within any given area, or in locating infested trees and marking them for utilization or treatment, one has only to consider those with fading or greenish brown foliage, or the first stage of the yellowish red tops. ESSENTIAL DETAILS IN METHODS OF CONTROL. There are certain essential details in the recommended methods of combating the southern pine beetle which must be observed in order to avoid not only serious mistakes but possibly ultimate failure: (a) The principal clumps or patches of dying trees which are actually infested by the broods of the destructive beetle, as indicated by the fading and dying foliage, or otherwise, should be located and marked during the months of November, December, January, and Kebruary. In order to do this work, proper experience or special instruction is required. Therefore, some one who has had instruc- tions should have charge of the work in each important area in which control work is to be undertaken. (b) The broods of the beetle in the bark of the main trunks of the medium to larger sized dying infested trees within an area of 8 or 10 square miles or more must be destroyed in order to stop their depredations. (c) The broods may be destroyed by one or more of the following methods, the work to be done between the Ist of November and the 1st of March: (1) Removing and burning the infested bark from the trunks of the standing trees; or (2) Removing and burning the infested bark from the trunks of the trees after they have been cut down; or (3) Scorching the infested bark, or burning the wood with the bark after the trees are cut down; or (4) Placing the infested portions of the trunks in water; or (5) Converting the trunks of the infested trees into cordwood and using the wood for fuel before the beetles leave the bark; or (6) Converting the infested trees into lumber or other products and burning the slabs or bark. (d) It is not necessary to burn the tops or branches of treated trees or to cut and burn small infested saplings 7f the larger infested trees are disposed of. 476 14 THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. (e) It is not necessary to remove or destroy the bark on the lower portion of the trunks or on the stumps if it is not infested with the destructive beetle, and it is not necessary to cut or treat dead trees from which the beetles have emerged. (f) It is necessary and e.sential that the broods of the destructive beetle in the bark of any portion of the main trunks of the medium to larger sized dying infested trees of any given locality should be destroyed. (g) If the wood of the infested trees can be utilized for fuel, lumber, or other purposes, its value should cover the cost of the work. If the work of felling and barking the trees is done at direct expense, the cost will average 10 to 30 cents per tree. (h) The cost of protecting the living timber of any locality with average infestation should not exceed an average of from 1 to 5 cents per acre for the total area of pine-covered land, and if estimated on a basis of volume it should not cost over 2 cents per cord of the living timber protected. (1) The best time to conduct control operations against the south- ern pine beetle is during the period between November 1 and March 1. (7) If a pine tree standing among or near a groove or woods of living pine is either struck by lightning or felled and barked or split into cordwood during the summer and early fall, it will, as a rule, attract the beetles within a radius of 3 or 4 miles and result in the starting of a new center of infestation and in the death of a large number of trees. (k) The principal owners of pine in each community should cooper- ate in the disposal of the required infestation but should not under- take the work until some one or more of the owners is sufficiently familiar with the essential details of the proper methods. REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESS. The requirements for success in any effort to protect the living pine from the destructive attacks of the southern pine beetle are the destruction of the broods of the beetle in the bark of the main trunk of the dying infested trees before they leave the bark. This is accomplished by the adoption of one or more different methods of direct utilization of the infested trunk, or treatment at direct expense in cases where the wood can not be utilized. The attainment of the best success from the practical application of any of these methods will depend on their adaptation to local conditions and requirements for disposing of the infested timber and strict adherence to certain details which are absolutely necessary to the destruction of the broods. The period in which to locate and mark the trees that are actually infested and in which the marked trees should be utilized or treated 476 = o oh ~ THE DYING OF PINE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 1g to kill the broods is between the 1st of November and the 1st of the following March, but in some cases the period may be extended to the 1st of May. The adoption of the method of destroying the broods which in each case is the most economical and effectual can be determined by the owners in each community if they are sufficiently informed on the essential facts. Detailed advice, recommendations, or conclusions as to the most economical and effective method of procedure for any given area should be deferred until certain reliable information is at hand in regard to the local condition as to (a) the character and extent of the infestation, (0) the interest manifested by the people of the com- munity in the value to them of the pine and the importance of pro- tecting it as the source of future revenue, (c) the assurance of the majority of the owners that concerted action will be taken according to a definite plan and purpose, and finally, if a demonstration is de- sired, that local facilities will be offered for its successful prosecution. If the owners of pine will consider the protection of their timber from the standpoint of a common interest and will realize the necessity for concerted action in the control work, success will be assured. [A list giving the titles of all Farmers’ Bulletins available for distribution will be sent free upon application to a Member of Congress or the Secretary of Agriculture. | 476 O " 2 ta oo ¥ Gnas ‘Unie DOME off S v Issued April 24, 1912. Uns. DEPART WENT°“OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS’ BULLETIN 492. THE MORE IMPORTANT INSECT AND FUN- GOUS ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT AND PUGPIGE OPAL APPLE, BY AY L. QUAINTANCE, Of the Bureau of Entomology, AND W: M. SCOTT, Of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 221536 WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1912, LEP TER, OFF TRANS Ma ieels U. 8. DeparTMEeNT oF AGRICULTURE, Washington, D. C., February 3, 1912. Str: We have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for publication as a Farmers’ Bulletin, a manuscript entitled “The more Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the Apple,” by A. L. Quaintance, of the Bureau of Ento- mology, and W. M. Scott, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. During the past few years the summer spraying of apple orchards has undergone important improvements, and many questions of de- tail have thus been raised in the minds of growers. The present paper, based upon results of the department’s investigations of the subject during the past several years, is intended to answer these questions and to furnish information which will enable the orchardist to obtain the maximum benefits for his outlay in time and money in spraying operations. _ Respectfully, L. O. Howarp, Chief, Bureau of Entomology. B. T. -GaLLoway, ' Chief, Bureau of Plant Industry. Hon. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. 492 2 CONTENTS. REMC LOM eke oe ee sete ee LSE ERR Le SL ae t wc ay, Sa So aati ahrercod limon Gass sees - ee = Sexe 270, AG £8 aS UE SIM Ab lg ey Bee? Cliprnclio OniniiinGsene wees SSeS ee ee ee ee eee ee Number of generations..........-- imraemeny ane So Ne rte s et an a cap ed tee ete LM BSiSta yay CON TRETH rio WALT (2 TET 01 RE ee eee on Howeine ansectrpasses-tlre: wiltebe =. a= shee eo. inse = tj de ooesee - SIA Ek n= eee ce tre ae SOARS eR ST eS ty Mak o's Soe ie at § Pieri een at ee yareet ere Be fee he eels Pepe Re ae le fe ira ah thn pia Seen Sim 2 LENE ASTE 2Y oy OU CafEY MOY nN a RSS MeN ae Me ea ce ei IE Cea a es es Ne SPeOnd ap pilcahOMn se. ano ses See once pete se ie ae Ree oe PELE OT ORL Ce OMe ee Poe Se ee ae PEE SSeS Eee cae heme ee The plum eurculioe == 2: - ENR rs BSN TSS Pt Perea SB ee al cate Sebi tn ke WUE AERC ORS OAT 8 a8 os o.2°8 A723 Bing. Vensioece Gitte Wins ig SES = Se ieee ar Be Period of oviposition and number of eggs laid....../.......--......-.-+:- Time required for transformation from egg to adult.........---------.---- Can thecureulio be controlled by sprays?:-.- 22-22 2... 5. S222 essa The lesser POC WORM Maretial hs trent See no Ase os So eet Pelee ee eee fhe < CHEATTiLV SRA RE OURT TOSI OS 5 Bele Ss at aa COS hee PAN a at Un ROP ee a Sa Get hee a eGe be Stata on ec ee UE ee ere Ey a ee ol alee Siete moter Liner beer me tes Mery ers ee Panes Ce ey Uwe Reb es te Wreatmenti=2) 222-922 2. Ea Se Pil ny PEAR R ere eee tueh a aye fn Shes ctl ae ah eee Birtapole-imec toni caterpillars: 22s --Creeai arte oot oS ese ast sae =~ 2 - "TESTO CESAR CE ope ee SI CI Si gta ee Mend Se phat en ee ee oh ie ON MP, “SADDLES SLD Ds eDiets eae a Be le anche Seen pis VIE Ee seca Micononnicyimnportamee sc. jee ae ee ese ee eke Se ee DCE A) i 073 ES RS Se ES Od See ee a ee Pe ee OTP Reme bee OO LIC AINE on, eh eo ie ak er 28 em ay a aS aa oe gee PuMmeds Catlsine the Guseasenn 6600 oe ee Ae ok atoms Se lees Mees Slee ietaie ween etter e iy Ne ee Te. Lea ee Neg Meee. Bitter rot. Meaqnonne dh mportanCee -% 35.720. 2 Wes ot Seno eit oS ene S Ean oe CGharvetenotthe wintry semen pare eee oe Te hee es Cause GlmGN ex SGHSer. wae cere eves eas hE mest Ss ac nae (UN Yl) Swine Segoe RRCPEIMN GV TACUOER nee ts ce ee ae en SR ok ee ee ae BURCALA MCLGs. ct se re cet Chg Lee ee ER hoes Seer ey ee Be ee esse ay mpple, blatch.< . 22s os 022.2 Ss aie Mee By cle tees Sak ST A ae A Sai send pte atin te Bearer ile TOIT sero oe ee ee te eee a ee SAR DGL ACE U TAIN FMR RB Ui teal ADS Teal Mil Bele dak rset gt Rie NGA Su MOPGIEVENVIORS Coe ea ee REN JERR ATR OER Poa SOS 7 We Usa s AEG Onyiheileavestars sere see ek YSN t4e tote gee ey -tenlc peste 7 Sie. tian aS PBCRRON POM pacer sss aot. a ot. Sie pets ete eee Ln ie OD a PaaS ae PPO AE Mietbte tne. § Sees See in eee Meee a bh fb Cedar rust Whrrcren/Oh tne tay tie es eye Oe eee ela oo eet an Ah ye Tufesbistory ol, the-cedar-rust fumeus. 222.222 .3- 2's 5,--dinjn hom =. ass se oe eee eee Lime-sulphur solution...........-.- wasle\. See's See he ae ore eee ae Upeg 2s. g2 DOI Ree 2 lees moe clea gta ee Home-boiled lime-salphur solution. --~ 207.222 22-. fen eee ae Commercial lime-stlphur solution... . 2.) 2S 62 225 ee eee Bordeatx: mixtures eee ee RS ee ee Directions for making. 2.322)... 2. 3-5. ness sen eee ee Arsenate of lead and: other‘arsenicals: - --. .. 22). ses oases eee Schedule of spray applications. 2.3.2.2 2555 Rae eee First applications sees se oe 728 Fa oS eee ae Second application. 2. 2240.50.22. Ss. 52 56-8 SA eee oe Third application/9 2.222 ne ie Sa ee Se ee Bourth application 222i. Joss 50) o isn, paises Se epee nets wien BG Ptih:. Sp Cat OMS ooo arse weno ae ape eimge seo are Be ee Sixth applcatlon 5722 onan cn de 2 oe 3 a nena ee ree Apple-bloteh’ treatment... 25i i. . 2 (50S S22 a epee eee oe Equipment for.spraying:. <0 P22. «42. 240 4. 0aiaek tie ae ee Applying the spray. 27 socc5 = Sasee je Ge cme ae ae See ae ILLUSTRATIONS. Fie. 1. The codling moth larva (Carpocapsa pomonella) and its work........-- 2. Stages of the codline moth yass25320- 40 ee eee eee eee 3. Apple clusters, showing young fruit with calyx lobes spread and in right condition for spraying; apples with calyx lobes closed and too late for satisiactory- spraying <.t.2.0) 2. - + ase tee eee ee . Egg scars of the plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) on young . Duchess apples at picking time, showing deformed condition from egg and feeding punctures of the plum curculio..........-..---...----- . Fall feeding puncture of the plum curculio in ripe apple...-...-----.-- . Injury by the lesser apple worm in calyx basin and end of a ripe apple. . Injury by lesser apple worms to apples after barreling............---- a Spring Cankerworms: «255... sascce— et ceca bs oo ete eee . Work of the spring cankerworm (Paleacrita vernata) on apple ..-.-.---- . Nest and larvee of the apple-tree tent caterpillar (Malacosoma ameri- CONG) 5 So Oy Er Noa ae er . Baldwin apple badly infested with the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus per- WIEUISUB oe ee So SE ee OE Oe ae en Oe ia . Applésafiected with the scab: fungus! )-320.2 2s. we ee . The.scab fanous om apple leat-72- 4... se egeek Oe ee . Apple aftee ted with) bitter Tots<. 292s. 22c20 5 eae ee oe eee ee . Maiden Blush apple affected with apple blotch...............--.------ . Foliage of York Imperial apple affected with cedar rust....-..-------- . Cedar rust disease on the apple..-..-.--..---- Me oie cine oes Soe . Cedar rust disease on the cedar. (Cedar apple)..........-..-.-------- . Apple leaf-spot on leaf of Ben Davis apple............-.------------- . Sooty fungus and flyspeck on the Huntsman apple........-.-.-.------ 492 THE MORE IMPORTANT INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT AND FOLIAGE OF THE APPLE. INTRODUCTION. The spraying of apple orchards has received a great impetus dur- ing the past few years by reason of the increased demand for good fruit and the satisfactory prices received therefor. While most commercial orchardists have been spraying for a good many years, the practice has not been as general among small orchardists as is desirable, and the present profitableness of apple culture has been the principal factor in awakening an interest in a crop heretofore much neglected by them. y A few years ago it was felt that orchard spraying was on a rather definite basis, but recent improvements in spray materials and ap- paratus for their application have contributed to raise many ques- tions of detail in the minds of fruit growers. These questions have to do with the best spray to use; times of making applications; grade of chemicals to purchase; the desirability of preparing sprays at home in preference to use of commercial preparations, etc. It is the aim of the present paper to furnish the orchardist neces- sary information for summer spraying, or spraying trees in foliage, as opposed to treatments during the dormant period of trees, as for the San Jose scale, blister mite, ete. The principal insects and dis- eases affecting the fruit and foliage of the apple are first considered, and with the illustrations should be easy of recognition. This is fol- lowed by a consideration of the sprays recommended, and directions for their preparation and use. Owing to the extended area in the United States over which the apple is cultivated, it is necessary to refer to certain insects and diseases which are of interest in more or less restricted localities, and to indicate the appropriate treatment for the same in the sprays schedule. It is believed, however, that the orchardists in the New England States, as well as the orchardists in the Ozark regions of Arkansas and Missouri, will have no difficulty in determining the particular applications necessary under their respective conditions. THE CODLING MOTH. The larva of the codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella L.), some- times called the apple worm, is well known alike to growers and con- sumers of apples. It is the principal cause of wormy apples, and its 492 5 6 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. control must be secured in profitable apple growing; otherwise from. one-half to three-fourths or even a larger proportion of the crop will be wormy and unfit for market. No orchard insect, perhaps, is more successfully controlled than this one; and by careful spraying the fruit grower may expect to protect from its injuries from 90 to 95 per cent of the crop. Owing to the great extent of the apple-growing industry, there is, however, in the aggregate a large shrinkage in the quantity of marketable fruit, resulting from injuries by the codling moth. This shrinkage in the United States each year represents a loss of about $12,000,000, and some $3,000,000 or $4,000,000 are an- nually spent for sprays and labor in its control. ; Fic. 1.—The codling moth larva (Carpocapsa pomonella) and its work: On the left, mature apple, showing full-grown larva and its work; on the right, frass from calyx end of young apple, infested with first-brood larve. CHARACTER OF INJURY. Wormy apples are shown in figure 1. The presence in apples of the apple worm early in the season is usually indicated by the oc- currence at the calyx end of more or less frass. Fruit injured early in the season and while it is small mostly falls to the ground. Lar- ve of the second and later broods occur when the fruit is more nearly grown, and it is the injuries of these broods that are observed in fruit on the market. The severity of attacks varies somewhat from season to season, and especially in different parts of the country, depending upon the number of broods of larvee produced in the region in question. 492 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. Fi NUMBER OF GENERATIONS. The number of broods of larvee of the codling moth for the country as a whole varies from practically one to three. Throughout the New England States and southward, at least to about the latitude of Washington, there is one full brood of larve each year and a partial second. In the northernmost part of the territory indicated, as in Maine and New York, the second brood of larve will be slight, vary- ing in extent from season to season; while in the southern portion of this territory it is normally quite large, and during certain years there are practically two full broods. In the more southern States, as the Carolinas on the east and Arkansas on the west, there are probably three broods of larve each year. This has been determined to be true for Arkansas and Kansas. In New Mexico it is thought that the insect is three-brooded also. It has been determined that there are two full broods of larve in States of the far West: Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, and Colorado. The effect of such seasonal conditions as drought and temperature on the number of first-brood larve transforming for a given locality is quite marked. Thus, in Erie County, Pa., in 1907, with an abnormally late spring, only 3 per cent of the first- brood larve transformed, as compared with 68 per cent which trans- formed the following year and 23 per cent the next year. DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY. How the insect passes the winter.—Upon leaving the fruit in late summer or fall larve seek protected places upon the trees, such as | holes, cracks, crotches of limbs, or under bark scales, or even under- neath trash on the ground, construct. tough silken cocoons, and here pass the winter in the larval condition. Large numbers of larve are carried to storage houses in apples in the fall, where later they spin cocoons in the boxes, bins, or barrels, or in cracks in the floor or sides of the house. In the orchard large numbers of larve are de- stroyed during the winter by birds, principally woodpeckers, but in storage houses a large proportion doubtless survive, the moths from which fly to the orchards in the spring and constitute an important source of infestation. With the coming of spring the larve enter the pupal stage, and about the period of blooming of the apple, or somewhat later, the moths begin to appear, continuing to emerge for three or four weeks, while belated moths may not emerge until considerably later. The moth.—The adult, or miller (fig. 2, a), is rather variable in size, but the maximum wing expanse rarely exceeds three-fourths of an inch. The forewings above are of a brownish gray color, with numerous cross lines of gray. Near the tip of each wing is a con- 492 8 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. spicuous brown spot, or ocellus, in which are two irregular broken lines of a metallic coppery or golden color. The hind wings above are grayish brown, becoming darker toward the margin, which bears a delicate fringe, at the base of which is a narrow dark line. When at rest on the grayish bark of an apple tree, the moth in color so harmonizes with its surroundings that it is not readily distinguished, and the insect in this stage is perhaps little known to orchardists. The egg.—The eggs are small, flat, somewhat oval in shape, and of about the size of a pinhead. When recently deposited they are of a Fic, 2.—Stages of the codling moth: a, Moth; b, larva; ec, pupa in its cocoon. Much enlarged. pearl-white color, but become darker with the development of the embryo, which after a few days is easily distinguished as a reddish ring within the egg. Under a lens the surface is seen to be covered with a network of ridges, coarser toward the edge. The eggs of the first generation of moths are deposited mainly on the leaves and twigs, comparatively few being placed on the apple, possibly on account of the fine hairs with which this fruit is covered when small. More of the eggs of the second generation, however, are placed on the fruit, which by this time is much larger and presents a comparatively 492 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. 9 smooth surface. The average time required for the egg to hatch is about 11 days, the time varying considerably, however, with the temperature. The larva.—It is in the larval or “ worm” stage that injury is done to the apple. The larva as it hatches from the egg is very small, from one-twentieth to one-sixteenth of an inch in length, but it soon begins to search for the fruit. If hatched from eggs placed here and there on the foliage, the larvee chew more or less into the leaf or other portions of the plant in their wandering around and may thus be poisoned, if poison be present on the plants. If the eggs have been deposited on the fruit itself the larve are much more likely to gain entrance to the fruit. Larve entering the fruit by the calyx end feed within the calyx cavity for a few days before penetrating the fruit. Hence the advantage of thoroughly spraying trees shortly after the petals have fallen and while the calyx lobes are still spread, in order to place in each calyx cavity a small particle of poison to be eaten later by the !arva as it seeks to enter the fruit. After entering the apple the larva feeds and grows rapidly and in the course of about 20 days has become full grown. (See fig. 2, 0.) At this time the * worms” are about three-fourths of an inch long, and the majority of them are pinkish or flesh colored on the upper surface and whitish below. The pupa.—The full-grown larva, upon leaving the fruit and find- ing a protected place, constructs a whitish silken cocoon within which, in the course of a few days, it may change to pupa, or it may remain in the larval condition until the following spring, as already ex- plained. The pupa (fig.2,¢) is about one-half inch long, at first yellowish or brownish, but later becoming quite dark brown, and shortly before emergence of the moth assuming a distinct bronze color. The pupal stage varies much in length, but on the average about 20 days elapse from the spinning of the cocoon until the emer- gence of the month. After emergence the moths, in the course of a few days, begin egg laying, the entire life cycle, from egg to egg, requiring, on the average, some 50 days. TREATMENT. The treatment for the codling moth is limited almost entirely to spraying the trees with arsenicals, such as Paris green or arsenate of lead; the latter is now principally used. In the East the poison is usually combined with a fungicide. In some sections banding of trees is also employed and under special conditions is a valuable adjunct to spraying. From two to five spray applications are given, according to the section of country. First application.—Of all treatments, the first is much the most important; this is given as soon as the blossoms have fallen and has 31336°—Bull. 492—12 2 10 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. for its object the placing of poison in the calyx cup of each little apple. This treatment may be successfully given during the eight or ten days between the dropping of the petals and the closing of the calyx lobes. After the calyx lobes have drawn together it is difficult to force the poison into the calyx cup. (See fig. 3.) Very thorough work is necessary at this time, and carelessness in making the first application can not be counteracted by subsequent. treat- ments. Good: results, in fact, have been obtained where this appli- cation alone has been given; and in portions of the West, where it is unnecessary to spray for fungous diseases, a single treatment is held by some to be sufficient. While excellent results have been obtained in the East from this so-called “ one-spray ” method, yet Fic. 3.—Apple clusters, showing, on the left, young fruit with calyx lobes spread, and in right condition for spraying; on the right, apples with calyx lobes closed, and too late for satisfactory spraying. the necessity of using fungicides in this territory renders the use of arsenicals in addition comparatively inexpensive.’ Second application—The second application for the codling moth is given from three to four weeks after the blossoms have fallen and has for its purpose the destruction of the young larve as they are hatching from the eggs spread promiscuously over the foliage and fruit. Third application. Fight or nine weeks following the dropping of the petals the third treatment is given, at which time the second- brood larve are hatching in numbers. 1Those interested in the one-spray method should obtain copies of Bulletin 80, Part VII, and Bulletin 115, Part II, Bureau of Entomology. 492 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. 11 These three treatments, if properly apphed, should be sufficient to control the insect effectively in any region; but in a territory where bitter rot and apple blotch are prevalent, and where later fungicidal treatments are necessary, it will be advisable to add an arsenical for further insurance against the codling moth, as stated under the caption “ Spraying schedule,” pages 43-44. THE PLUM CURCULIO. The plum cureulio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst), over a great deal of its range, is easily second in importance as an apple pest to the codling moth. It occurs quite generally from Canada south to Florida and west to about the one-hun- dredth meridian. The insect is a small snout beetle, of the family Cur- culionide, and many of its near relatives, as the cotton-boll weevil, strawberry weevil, plum gouger, al- falfa weevil, etc., are very serious enemies of culti- rated crops. The species attacks most cultivated pome and stone fruits, as ap- ple, pear, peach, Wie. 4.—Egg scars of the plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) on young apples. plum. cherry, .etc., and it is especially troublesome to the peach.t In the present con- nection the insect is considered in reference to its injuries to apple. CHARACTER OF INJURY. The overwintering beetles attack the young apples in the spring, shortly after these are well set. Both sexes puncture the fruit with their snout-like proboscis for feeding, and the females also in egg laying. Feeding and egg laying continue for several weeks or months in the case of the hardier individuals. Much of the fruit, punctured while small, falls to the ground, but after it has become about the size of a large marble or larger (see fig. 4), it may remain 1See Farmers’ Bulletin 440, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown-rot, Scab, and Curculio. 492 4 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. on the trees. The effect of the punctures when abundant, however, is to cause the fruit to become knotty and misshapen as it grows, the extent of the deformity varying with the severity of the injury Fic. 5.—Duchess apples at picking time, showing deformed condition from egg and feed- ing punctures of the plum curculio. and also with the variety. Rapidly growing summer or fall varieties of apples show the injury perhaps worst, while in the case of slower- growing winter apples the injury is more likely to be outgrown, the egg punctures showing in the fall as more or less _nail- shaped scars, not affecting the quality of the fruit, though detracting from its appear- ance. (See fig. 5, showing deformed Duchess apples.) When beetles of the new generation appear in _ late summer and fall they feed upon the fruits, producing injuries shown in figure 6. With the snout a hole is ex- cavated in the apple, and the Fic, 6.—Fall hestane punctures of the plum cur- flesh a Tee oul pnd Lae Guilin teh Pipe wned te! 5; skin surrounding the punc- ture as far as this organ will reach. This “ fall” feeding puncture is often very much in evidence in orchards where the insect is abundant, and the injury is at times considerable. Decay of the fruit often starts at the injured place, 492 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. 13 spreading from and enlarging the cavity, as shown in the figure, and soon rendering the fruit worthless, except for immediate use. Fruit thus punctured in the fall will not, as a rule, keep well in storage and should not, of course, be included in the best grades. Although the curculio larva is able to develop on the trees in peaches, plums, and cherries, it does not appear to be able to do so in apples and pears. The larve, however, develop perfectly in apples which fall to the ground, and orchards are thus kept well stocked with the insect. PERIOD OF OVIPOSITION AND NUMBER OF EGGS LAID. The adult beetles are out and ovipositing on plums and other early fruit before apples, as a rule, are of sufficient size to be used. As soon as the apple is grown to the size of a small marble, however, it is attacked by the curculio for egg-laying purposes, and most of the eggs are deposited during the first six or eight weeks after egg laying begins. A large number of records of the number of eggs deposited by the curculio in plums, peaches, apples, etc., has been obtained in different localities, as well as other data on the life and habits of the insect. It has been found that the greatest number of eggs deposited by any one female was 557, and the minimum 1, with an average of 144.85 eggs per beetle for all the individuals under observation. While there is much variation in the number of eggs deposited within a given time in the several localities, there is a general agreement in that the great majority of the eggs are placed by the end of eight weeks; approximately one-fourth of the total eggs are deposited during the first two weeks; one-half have been deposited by the close of the first month; three-fourths within six weeks, and about 88 per cent of the total within eight weeks after oviposition began. The value of these data will appear when it is remembered that the injury to the apple results from the egg and feeding punctures, which it is desired to prevent. To accomplish this best, sprays must be applied with timeliness and be in effect over a considerable period. TIME REQUIRED FOR TRANSFORMATION FROM EGG TO ADULT. Many observations have been made in different localities, which show the time spent in the fruit by the curculio larva, and also the time spent in the ground, before and during pupation, until the emergence of the beetle. Thus the average time spent in the fruit (egg and larval stages combined), for the several localities investi- gated, proved to be 19.48 days, and the average time spent in the ground (as larva, pupa, and adult) was found to be 30.89 days, giv- ing an average life-cycle period for the insect of 50.27 days. 492 14 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. Complete observations of the life cycle have also been made on a total of 597 individuals from many parts of the country, which give a final average per individual of 50.71 days, differing only a fraction of a day from the time determined in an essentially different manner. Approximately 50 days would therefore appear to be the average life-cycle period for the plum curculio for the country as a whole. The variation for different individuals will be considerable, and as actually determined in the case of individual records was from 37 to 58.45 days. For practical purposes there is only one generation of the beetles each year. The adults, developing from fruit during the summer, spend the remainder of the time, until hibernation begins, feeding upon the foliage and fruit. With the approach of cold weather the beetles seek shelter, apparently wherever they may be, under trash in orchards, along fences, and in similar places. They are always abun- dant in woods adjacent to orchards. CAN THE CURCULIO BE CONTROLLED BY SPRAYS? During the past few years much experimental work has been done in the use of arsenical sprays in the control of the curculio on apple, notably by Prof. Stedman in Missouri and Prof. Crandall in Illinois. Prof. Crandall’s investigations extended over two years. In regard to the value of the work he states as follows: To sum up the matter of spraying for the curculio from the standpoint of results obtained during the two seasons of 1903 and 1904, it seems possible, under favorable conditions and with a reasonable number of applications, to control curculios to the extent of from 20 to 40 per cent of the possible injury. There is benefit to be derived from spraying, but not that degree of benefit which would warrant commendation of spraying as the one great panacea of injury done by the curculio. Many experiments by the Bureau of Entomology emphasize in general the soundness of the conclusions of Prof. Crandall. In the following table are given results of spraying for the curculio on apple as carried out by the Bureau of Entomology in different parts of the country. 492 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. 15 TABLE I.—Results of spraying apples for the plum curculio—various localities. Average Number ae Total | percent- | Number Locality. Treatment. of sound | ° oo €S | number age of | of appli- apples. | }iaq_ |ofapples. sound cations. : apples. Anderson, Mo., 1908....| Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) 1,710 1, 867 Dy Iie, 47.81 7 plus + pound Paris green. ID @).2' ge tapes apts he a Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) 3,844 2,846 6, 690 57.45 7 plus 2 pounds arsenate of . lead. DO sncciscteehas es Uintreated(s 2.52 eeeeeaoa--= 193 3,312 3,505 5.51 None. Westfield, N. Y., 1908. .| Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) 10, 506 921 Wl, 427 91.07 4 plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. 10 OSE A SS Cenea comer Untreated. retraces eee 300 761 1,061 25. 44 None. North East, Pa., 1906. .| Bordeaux mixture (44-50) 1,354 359 1,713 79.04 Y) plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. ID ae eee eco Untreated: 222428. =.= 270 791 1,061 25. 44 None. Siloam Springs, Ark., | Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) 37, 304 5, 899 43, 203 86.34 1 1909. plus 1 pound arsenate of lead. Trees drenched. DO ern eect nests Bordeaux mixture (3-3-50) 26, 897 5, 554 32, 451 82.88 5 plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. DOR pat. SAS ereN Ts es Unirettedes. hes c es. --.- =: 2,234 22,212 24, 446 9.14 None. Crozet, Va., 1909 ......- Bordeaux mixture (2-2-50) 15, 406 5, 432 20, 838 73.93 1 plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. @rees drenched. DOF deg s2ih< tee Bordeaux mixture (2-2-50) 12, 231 1,846 14,077 86.89 4 plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. 1D tee ames <6 WUmntreated se) ess. . ee 10,322 8, 785 TOMO Mes cere None. Mount Jackson, Va., | Bordeaux mixture (2-2-50) 11,335 8, 240 19, 575 57.90 1 1909. plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. Trees drenched. DOs ane os vate Se _..| Bordeaux mixture (1-1-50) 6,651 9, 642 16, 293 40.82 3 plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. 1D Xs NE rae ea Wmntredtedss....aAsss2. ose 6, 984 18, 657 25,641 27.23 None. St. Joseph, Mo., 1909. ..| Arsenate of lead, 2 pounds 2,130 3,658 5, 788 36.80 1 to 50 gallons of water. Trees drenched. DORI eoeraccs ...| Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) 2, 480 2,470 4,950 50.10 4 plus 2 pounds arsenate of lead. WOPRe sac sees oe WUnitrested!./33. se-ceens-c = 182 4,307 4, 489 4.05 None. It will be noted that the results of spraying vary widely. It is apparent that account must be taken of other conditions, such as the relative abundance of the insects as compared with the amount of fruit present on the trees. With a small fruit crop and an abundance of curculios the most thorough spraying will not serve to bring through a satisfactory amount of sound fruit, as will be noted in the results of experiments at St. Joseph, Mo. With a large crop of fruit and an abundance of insects, results will likewise be disappointing; pote the results at Mount Jackson, Va. If the curculios for any cause are scarce, and there is a large fruit crop, injury is, of course, much less important. In other words, the degree of success in spray- ing varies with the abundance of the insects. While spraying is un- doubtedly a most important adjunct, and if persisted in from year to year may answer reasonably for its control, yet it is clear that where the insect is abundant other measures should also be employed. In all eases which have come under our observations the insects have always been found most abundant in orchards which are in sod or are poorly 492 16 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. cared for and allowed to grow up more or less in weeds and trash. Orchards adjacent to Bee will also usually suffer severely, espe- cially along the border. As opposed to this condition is the notably less injury in orchards kept free from weeds and trash. In such cases the sprayings usually given for other orchard insects, as the codling moth, serve to keep the curculio well under control. In fact, it may be said as a general statement that this insect will never be- come seriously troublesome in apple orchards given the usual routine attention in cultivation, spraying, pruning, etc., now considered es- sential in successful fruit growing. THE LESSER APPLE WORM. The larva of the lesser apple worm (Lnarmonia prunivora Walsh) and its work have been quite generally confused with those of the codling moth. The caterpil- lar when full grown is about one-half the size of the full- grown codling-moth larva, and is fusiform in shape and usually pink or flesh cojored. A codling-moth larva of this size is rarely, if ever, pinkish in color, but dirty white, and marked with black dots. The injuries of the two spe- cles are in a way quite simi- lar. The first-brood larve of the lesser apple worm enter the fruit mostly at the calyx end. Cavities or holes Fic. 7.—Injury by the lesser apple worm (Enar- from one-fourth to one-half monia prunivora) in ealyx basin and end of a ineh deep are eaten into the ripe apple. flesh, more or less around the calyx lobes and core within. The larva, boring directly through the skin at the base of the calyx lobes, or, more commonly, entering the calyx cavity, excavate mines or short burrows down into the flesh. Frequently also the larve burrow out in the calyx basin just under the skin, producing winding or blotch mines (see fig. 7). Such mines occur on the sides of the apple, especially where two fruits are in contact. Young fruit thus injured usually falls or ripens prema- turely. Later in the season the calyx-end injury is about as described, though the surface injury is more common, the larve eating out the flesh under the skin in large, irregular, more or less linear patches, which are quite conspicuous. Larve of this species apparently do 492 se INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. 17 not reach full development as early in the fall as those of the codling moth, and may find their way to barrels with the fruit, where they continue to feed, often doing considerable damage. Figure 8 illus- trates apples thus injured, as found in barrels on the Washington market. The lesser apple worm is probably a native insect, and it infests other fruits, wild and cultivated. It is recorded from apples, haws, plums, prunes, cherries, peaches, and species of Cratezgus. It has also been reared from the black-knot of plum, and from galls on oak and elm. Its life history and habits probably closely parallel those of the codling moth. It is known to be present quite generally in orchards from Canada south to Georgia and west to the Rocky Mountains. It Fic. 8.—Injury by lesser apple worms to apples after barreling. has been found abundantly in apples in the Puget Sound district in Washington, and is known also from British Columbia. The schedule of treatments recommended for the codling moth will be effective in the control of this species. CANKERWORMS. Two species of cankerworms in the United States are often de- structive pests in apple orchards, the larvae making their appearance shortly after the leaves have put forth. The caterpillars (fig. 9) are rather small, slender, naked creatures with the habit of looping as they crawl, for which reason insects of this habit are commonly designated as “span worms” or “ measuring worms.” The fall cankerworm (Alsophila pometaria Harris) occurs more commonly in the northern United States, as from Rhode Island to Canada and $1336°—Bull. 492—12 3 18 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. westward to Lake Superior, and it is also common in California. The spring cankerworm (Paleacrita vernata Peck) is particularly abundant in the Mississippi Valley from Texas to Lowa, ranging eastward to Maine. It is common in the orchard section of northern Virginia, western Maryland, and West Virginia. The two species thus overlap in their distribution and both may be concerned in the defoliation of an orchard, especially in the northeastern part of the United States. The fall cankerworm deposits its eggs in ringlike masses on the twigs during late fall or in warm periods during the winter. The spring cankerworm oviposits in early spring, before the buds start, in irregular masses under bark scales, along the trunk and limbs, iG. 9.—Spring ecankerworms. Enlarged. or more or less promiscuously. The young larve have hatched and are attacking the foliage by the time the young leaves are well free from the bud scales. They often occur in such enormous num- bers that the trees are quickly defoliated, leaving only the midribs of the leaves (see fig. 10), the orchard from a distance appearing as if swept by fire. After the larvee mature they go to the ground and pupate just below the surface, and are easily destroyed by plowing and cultivations during the late spring and early midsummer. There is only one generation of the insects each year, the adults of the fall species coming out in late fall and winter, and those of the spring species "in early spring, as stated. The adult females of both species are wingless and must crawl up the trunks of the trees to oviposit. 492 ee INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. i TREATMENT. Three methods of control are applicable against cankerworms, and where the insects have been quite injurious the use of all three methods in conjunction may be adopted. The wingless moths, and also the caterpillars, may be prevented to a large extent from reaching the foliage by the use of bands of sticky substances around the trunks of trees, some 12 to 18 inches from the ground. Some excellent prepara- tions for this pur- SIE pose are on the market, or home- made adhesives may be used. A simple plan is first to scrape off the rough bark from the trunk of the tree in a band 8 to 10 inches high, and surround the tree at this place with a strip of stiff paper, tying tightly, so that no moth or larva can work up the trunk beneath it. The paper band should then be coated with a sticky ad- hesive, which should be replen- ished as often as necessary to keep it in good working condition. This method is especially suited to large trees in lawns around the home, or elsewhere, where plowing and spraying are considered impracticable. The larve are readily poisoned with arsenicals, as arsenate of lead and Paris green, used at usual strengths. The first treatment for apple scab, while a little late for cankerworms, will in most cases answer fairly well, and where the insect is troublesome an arsenical should be added, as for the bud moth. 492 “gy bs \E 3 Fic. 10.—Work of the spring cankerworm (Paleacrita vernata) on apple. 20 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. Plowing orchards during late spring and early summer, with a few subsequent cultivations, will destroy most of the pupe in the soil. Care should be taken to stir the soil beneath the spread of the limbs of the trees, as in this soil most of the pupe are located. Yxcept during very unusual conditions of abundance, orchards properly sprayed and cultivated will not be troubled by these insects. Cankerworms thrive in neglected old orchards in sod, and may appear for several seasons in succession, and by devouring the leaves destroy the fruiting capacity of the trees. THE BUD MOTH. The larva of the bud moth (7’metocera ocellana Schiff.) winters in a little hibernaculum or cocoon of silk covered with bits of dirt and bark attached to the limbs and twigs of trees. Early in the spring, as the buds of the apple are opening, the little dark-brown caterpillars, scarcely one-fourth of an inch long, leave thei winter quarters and attack the tender developing leaves, often boring into the bud before the scales have spread apart. When abundant the larve are thus able to do a large amount of injury. Severe damage may result to nursery stock or young trees following attack on the terminal buds of twigs or shoots. In some cases the twig itself is penetrated, the larva boring down into the pith some 2 or 3 inches. After their appearance in spring the larvee continue to feed, mostly at night, for some six or seven weeks, attacking principally the leaf and fruit buds. When full grown they pupate in a tubular fold of a leaf, well lined and securely fastened with silken threads; or two or three partly devoured leaves may be drawn together and within these the cocoon is made. In New York State, and probably in the New England States, in which region this pest is frequently com- plained of, pupation takes place on dates varying from about June 1 to June 25. Moths begin to emerge as early as June 5, and emergence continues somewhat later than July 10. Eggs are deposited for the most part singly on the lower surface of leaves and hatch in from 7 to 10 days. The newly hatched larvee construct a tube along the mid- rib or larger vein of a leaf, from which they emerge to feed on the adjacent tissues, spinning as they go a web of silk for their protec- tion. Feeding continues during July and August, and a few are thus engaged in September, when, deserting the foliage, hibernacula are constructed, as described, in which the half-grown larve remain until the following spring, attacking the buds as stated. The prin- cipal injury results from. the attack to the unfolding buds and to the twigs in the spring, although in neglected orchards considerable injury to foliage may result from the feeding of the young larve during midsummer. In more northern latitudes the bud moth is 492 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. yal single-brooded, though in the central and more southern States it is thought that there may be two broods of larve each year. TREATMENT. The control of the bud moth rarely requires treatments other than those given in the course of spraying adopted by progressive or- chardists. The first treatment for the apple scab coincides fairly well with the time when these larvee are actively feeding in the spring, and where their injury has been noted or is suspected an arsenical should be added to the fungicide used. The spray application after the falling of the blossoms, constituting the first treatment for the codling moth, is effective in further re- ducing the bud moth, and the two treatments should, under ordinary conditions, be suffi- cient to keep it well reduced. THE APPLE-TREE TENT CATERPILLAR. The conspicuous, unsightly nests or tents of the apple-tree tent caterpillar (J/alacosoma americana Fab.) are not often seen in well-cared-for orchards, as this insect is kept well in check by the usual applications of arsenical sprays for the codling moth, curculio, ete. The nests, however, are often in evidence in neglected or- chards and in trees along road- sides, and indicate a lack of interest on the part of the Fie. 11—Nest and larve of the apple-tree landowner in his orchard crops. tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americana). The insect winters in the egg stage, the eggs being placed on twigs in a ringlike mass. The young larve appear as the foliage is pushing out in the spring and at once start their nest in the crotch of some limb or branch, in which they retreat for protection when not feeding. As the caterpillars grow the nest increases in size, until by the time the insects are full grown, it is a conspicuous, unsightly object. (See Fig. 11.) 492 99, INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. TREATMENT. As stated, orchards well sprayed for other fruit pests will rarely be seriously troubled by the tent caterpillar. Nevertheless the insect during certain seasons may become unusually abundant and special treatments may be necessary for its control. The destruction of the nests themselves and the contained caterpillars is comparatively easy. Where the nests are low down on the tree it will be practical to destroy them by hand, or, if the nests are out of reach, they may be destroyed by means of some form of torch on a pole, the torch being made of asbestos or other absorbent mate- rial saturated with an inflam- mable oil, such as kerosene or crude petroleum. THE SAN JOSE SCALE. The use of dilute lime-sul- phur sprays as fungicides on trees in foliage appears to have a distinctly re- tarding effect on rears) the development Baldwin apple badly infested with the San Jose scale of the San Jose ea cers scale. While all orchards infested with this insect should be given the usual dormant tree treatment, for one reason or another considerable numbers of the scale may escape destruction, especially on the terminal twigs, which are more difficult to coat thoroughly with the wash. The seales which thus escape are usually so few in number that no serious damage results during the season to the twigs and branches, but the young “lice” have a tendency to crawl out and settle on the fruit, thereby greatly disfiguring it. (See Fig. 12.) The presence of these scales is very objectionable on apples intended for export trade, as scale-infested fruit is excluded from entry by certain foreign governments, and is discriminated against by buyers generally. The following data (Table IT) on the effect of sulphur sprays in lessen- ing scale infestation of the fruit were obtained by Mr. E. W. Scott, 492 Hie: 12: ae " INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. 23 of the Bureau of Entomology, in the course of some experimental work during 1911, at Fennville, Mich.: TABLE II.—Results of lime-sulphur sprays in preventing marking of frwit by the San Jose scale. Number Percent- Number mesa eMOTAle pies Plat Treatments.! Variety. of apples | °! apple S! number nee oe No. infested. Ba ae Ofappless|i eau ested. apples. 1 | Commercial lime sulphur, 13 to | Rhode Island Green- 137 1, 606 1,743 92.13 50; sprayed May 12, 25, June ing. 14, July 25. A es ORE SRAM Se oaoes See ee eee [Ball dip ee 80 778 858 90. 67 3 | Home boiled lime sulphur, May | Greening. ..-.......--- 79 3,939 4,018 98. 03 12,25, June 14, July 25. Lal ee OSCR Ad ce tomes Ij ARSE Oke Raldiwittessseseee se ot 1,813 1,850 98.00 5 | Commercial lime sulphur, 13 to |..--. (loyal oe Sere eee 13 298 311 95.81 50; May 12, 25, June 14, July 25. 6 | Bordeaux mixture (3-4-50), May | Greening. ...........-- 843 1,055 1,898 55.58 12, 25, June 14, July 25. Weekes GOSS ee Bee Oe pe ss a Baldiwitte. 222s.) 06-.0- 525 500 1,025 48.78 SU PUUS Play CW a asses ones 2 o- a Greening. _-......- : 796 805 1,601 50. 28 24 ee 5 (0 NS Be pt oe Balaiwi. 2 2.9.5 3ae1,02- 809 190 999 19.01 1 Alltreatments had 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons of spray, except in case of plat 5, which had the poison in the application of May 12 only. The influence of the sulphur sprays in checking the settling of the young scales on the fruit is here very marked and furnishes an added reason for the use of sulphur sprays as fungicides. APPLE SCAB. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. Apple seab is a fungous disease of the fruit and foliage of the apple and ranks as the most destructive disease to which this fruit is subject. In unsprayed orchards it often causes the loss of 50 to 75 per cent of the crop, and not infrequently the entire crop of certain varieties is rendered unfit for market by the deformed, cracked. and unsightly condition produced by the fungus. Affected fruit is usually small, unsightly, often cracked, and does not keep well. However, since the practice of spraying has become general among apple growers this condition has been largely relieved. DISTRIBUTION. Apple scab is common practically wherever the apple is grown—in America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere. How- ever, it is essentially, a cool-climate disease, and in the United States it is most destructive in New England, the Middle Atlantic States, the Great Lakes region, the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys, and por- tions of the Pacific Northwest. In the Southern States it is not a serious pest, except on the higher elevations, and then only on very susceptible varieties. 492 24 INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE APPLE. CHARACTER OF THE INJURY. The fungus causing apple scab attacks the fruit, foliage, and to a much less extent the twig. The greatest damage is done to the fruit, on which it produces the scabby spots familiar to most apple growers. These spots are circular, though somewhat irregular, in out- line, dark gray or olivaceous in color, becoming blackish with age, and they range in size from mere specks to spots one-fourth inch or sometimes one-half inch in diameter. (See fig. 13.) The fungus ruptures the epidermis of the apple, forming a gray, jagged ring at the border of the healthy tissues. Two or more spots may coalesce, forming a large scabby area, in some cases covering one side of the apple. The disease prevents the normal development of the fruit, the affected side becoming dwarfed, pitted, and otherwise deformed. It also causes the development of cracks, which may extend half Fic. 13.—Apples affected with the scab fungus, the one on the left showing characteristic spots and the one on the right smaller spots with crack. way around the apple and almost to the core. en oe x © eee + a) ava & i ". : - . rant + , ae Si 5 eye a) oe : A a%, a) Issued August 23, 1912, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: COMB HONEY. BY GEO. S. DEMUTH, Apicultural Assistant, Bureau of Entomology. X SAYS RNS AS ALZSS oa WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1912. LETTER Ol” TRAN SSMU: U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BuREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, Washington, D. C., April 16, 1912. Srr: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled ‘““Comb Honey,” by Geo. S. Demuth, apicultural assistant in this bureau. In view of the increasing demand for the finest grades of comb honey and of a decrease in the amount of comb honey produced, it seems timely to present to professional beekeepers an analysis of the best practice as well as to point out some essentials to the production of maximum crops of the best grades. I recommend the publication of this paper as a Farmers’ Bulletin. Respectfully, L. O. Howarp, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. 503 2 CONTENTS. MePPGTICHONS 2 =. s\s'cis'ed deat ote hore oi hts Pe eee ie a Mea Peon EN apparatus ior camb-honey production.---7----)-- 2-2-2 +---w-----+5---5-2-25= Sto anenomey NOUsCls.. ees eee 2 an 2 na ee ems eee tye 2 a Sie Seciionsiand supersssso ase geen Some) fauk pce aes tee sels fe ane SNe ge om enget) minin SO@MONSO aay ee eRe oa wpa ce ee aos Panna tan "DWUaa yes TVS toy ats prone so cr Ha 01 22 aR aS Se ene bee ye Free communication within the super.....-.....---------------- iRneaise oh sepatabare. Aree emcee ty ok eet =) lee ieee = Shallow extracting supers cst +-2en ce e. - Ft SI a eo Combination SUpelss.cc-s-- 52st eae eos ee ee ee oe ee ae (tha eie ay a en Seer ee aad ie ele hE Be Ne cg a a tS i cise Ere pacino atnpense ste tee ca eee oe en ee te eta se Pe eee ete ets naldine ccctions: ss ste.rat1s 22ers cons ss oF Met ee NIE SS Fapienine iqunudation in-sections<-~/2:4- .++-!2s.-2 5-2" - 2-22 y= Mamupmlartionr ot ine: Pees. ..1e 2+ 2s sce ee ee ote Seencine qvorkers ior the Honey ow--2----- => -62- 2-7 - tess 2-2 se ne Building up the colony in the early spring... ...-....-+-.----------- The produetion of gathermip bese! 2.822092 Psu eee es Providine-cuflicient Storeds 220s MANIA AUF I OAS PIA or Providing available brood-rearing space. ........--..----------- ‘Sid c1s 10 Area age eR et ir ee ee I Lai i Eee srg bare Using available workers to best advantage during the honey flow -....---- SINyeeb Maree Ahearn Seer ee tee tea ueee ko ro eee pe NEE DUM E S Pe eaee oS Preventive measureseeccseco sue Lo SUB tes GE ee ISLE EAL A Control -measurBas Hise sie eis OSES J A Sas 2S OY, PEPE 2AS ok Control of natural swarms.....-.-- O5i Using the removed brood to fest ate ahieazel : SATSpE be -7 i shee ee eee The 7 Super...«.-. 25-22-45 wsee =e eee er or ae eee . Super with section holder for beeway sections.....--.---.----------- . Super with section holder for square plain sections.-....-.---------- 10. Super with section holder for oblong plain sections.-.....-.---------- 11. Combination super with wide frames for oblong plain sections.......- 12. Bee-escape board for removing bees from supers..------------------- 13. Drone and queen trap on hive-.entrance..-<..0.+22--s-e6--5-s8)------ 14. Colony before swarming; supers in place........------sss2<---25-- 15. Brood placed in hive turned 90 degrees from old entrance ...---..--- 16. Hive with brood turned back to 45 degrees from old entrance -.-...--- 17. Hive with brood turned parallel to old entrance........-------------- 18. Hive with brood placed on other side of old entrance. .-....-.--..---- 19.. Arrangement of supers... 2... ----sisHee nse eee 2G ae ee 20, Shipping cases for.combjhoney,-42-bessd-ececser ou6)- saee i - =e eee 503 4 ee bo COONMIDoe Page. COME KONE Y. INTRODUCTION. The present tendency in beekeeping is decidedly toward the pro- duction of extracted honey rather than of comb honey. The recent activity among beekeepers toward specialization, which necessitates the establishing of out-apiaries, and the rapidly increasing demand for extracted honey are among the factors bringing about this condi- tion. Enormous quantities of honey are now used for manufacturing purposes, and this demand is, of course, solely for extracted honey. if the general public finally becomes convinced of the purity and wholesomeness of extracted honey, this will become a staple article of food. Comb honey to command the higher price—proportionate to the greater cost of production—must justify the extra cost to the consumer by its finer appearance. The consumer of extracted honey is not concerned as to the straightness or finish of the combs in which it was originally stored, but by virtue of its appearance there will probably always be a good demand for the finest grade of comb honey where appearance is the chief consideration. Present tenden- cies therefore emphasize the desirability of producing comb honey of the most attractive appearance possible. Well-filled sections of comb honey with delicate white comb and per- fect cappings are obtainable only during a rapid honey flow of sufficient duration to insure their completion. The production of comb honey, the appearance of which is sufficient to justify its extra cost, requires a combination of conditions that are peculiar to rather limited areas, outside of which the beekeeper will find it decidedly advantageous to produce extracted honey. Comb-honey production should not be attempted in localities where the honey flow is very slow or intermittent, where the character of the honey is such that it granulates quickly in the comb while it is on the market, where the honey is dark or “off color,’ or where honeys from various sources are mixed if these different sources produce honey of different colors and flavors. Local market conditions may ef course in some instances be such as to make it seem advisable to produce comb honey in limited quantities in a locality that is not well suited to comb-honey production, but the beekeeper who produces comb honey for the general market should first be sure that his is a 4 203 i 5 6 COMB HONEY. comb-honey locality. Even in the best localities during an occa- sional season conditions are such that it is not possible to produce comb honey of fine appearance. Some comb-honey specialists find it profitable to provide an equipment for extracted honey for such an emergency. In some cases comb honey is produced only during the height of the season, when conditions are most favorable, extract- ing supers being used both at the beginning and close of the honey flow. While the professional beekeeper is thus curtailing the production of indifferent grades of comb honey, bee diseases are rapidly elimi- nating the careless producers. From the present indications, there- fore, it would seem certain that there must be a gradual elimination from the markets of all inferior and indifferent comb honey—grades that must compete directly with extracted honey. This should mark a new era in the production of the best grades of comb honey in the localities that are peculiarly adapted to comb-honey production. The beekeeper who is thus favorably located will do well to consider the possibilities of future market conditions for a fancy grade of comb honey. The following discussion is necessarily but a brief outline of modern apparatus and methods and of course can not in any sense take the place of the broad experience necessary in profitable comb-honey production. It is assumed that the reader is more or less familiar with the more general phases of beekeeping. (See Farmers’ Bulletin No. 447. This bulletin also contains a complete list of publications of the Department of Agriculture on beekeeping.) APPARATUS FOR COMB-HONEY PRODUCTION. Shop and Honey House. A building containing storage space for apparatus, a well-lighted and ventilated workshop as well as a honey room, is a necessity in comb- honey production. The arrangement and location of the shop and honey house will depend upon local conditions and circumstances. The usual mistake is in constructing these too small. In the North the shop and honey house is usually built over the wintering reposi- tory or cellar. Since rats or mice would do great damage to the con- tents of such a storehouse, the construction should be such as to exclude them. If a concrete foundation is used and the sills are embedded in a layer of ‘‘green’”? mortar, no trouble of this kind should be experienced. If a series of out-apiaries are operated for comb honey, the supers, extra hives, etc., are usually kept in one building located near the home of the beekeeper. This serves as a central station and storehouse, the supplies being hauled to and from the apiaries as needed. This building may be supplemented by a 503 COMB HONEY. 7 very small building at each apiary, though in comb-honey production this is not really necessary. The honey room should be so located that it will receive the heat from the sun, preferably an upstairs room immediately under the roof. When so located a small hand elevator should be installed for taking the honey up and down. The room should be papered or ceiled inside to keep out insects and to permit fumigation if necessary and should contain facilities for artificially heating in case continued damp or freezing weather should occur before the honey is marketed. The honey room should be provided with ample floor support for the great weight that may be placed upon it. Hives. A beehive must serve the dual purpose of being a home for a colony of bees and at the same time a tool for the beekeeper. Its main requirements are along the line of its adaptation to the various manip- ulations of the apiary in so far as these do not materially interfere with the protection and comfort it affords the colony of bees. Since rapid manipulation is greatly facilitated by simple and uniform apparatus, one of the fundamental requirements of the equipment in hives is that they be of the same style and size, with all parts exactly alike and interchangeable throughout the apiary. While the hives and equipment should be as simple and inexpensive as possible, con- sistent with their various functions, a cheap and poorly constructed beehive is, all things considered, an expensive piece of apparatus. In this country the Langstroth (or L) frame (9} by 172 inches) (fig. 1) is the standard frame and throughout this paper frames of brood will be discussed in terms of this size of frame. The advantages of standard frames and hives are so great that the beekeeper can not afford to ignore them for the sake of some slight advantage of another size. There is, however, a wide difference of opinion as to the number of frames that should be used in a single hive body. The wide variation in the building up of colonies previous to the honey flow in different localities and seasons, the race of bees, and the skil of the beekeeper are all factors entering into this pfoblem, which make it improbable that beekeepers will ever fully agree on this point. The races that build up more rapidly in the spring are, of course, other things being equal, able to use to advantage a larger brood chamber than the races that are more conservative in brood rearing. It is also noticeable that within certain limits as the beekeeper’s skill in building up his colonies for the flow increases, so the size of the brood chamber best adapted to his purpose increases. In other words, while the careful and skillful beekeeper may succeed in having large brood 503 8 COMB HONEY. chambers well filled with brood at the beginning of the honey flow, the less skillful beekeeper under similar conditions may be doing well to approximate this condition with a much smaller brood chamber. For comb-honey production the brood chamber should be of such a size that by proper management it may be well filled with brood at the beginning of the honey flow, so that the brood and surplus apartments may be definitely separated. A brood chamber may be considered too large if by proper management it is not on an average fairly well filled with brood at the’ beginning of the honey flow, and too small if it provides an average of less room than the colony is able to occupy with brood previous to the honey flow. Unless the beekeeper practices feeding, a brood chamber that does not con- tain sufficient room for both winter stores and brood rear- ing during late summer and autumn may also be consid- ered too small. It may be well to note that by this standard if the brood cham- ber seems to be too large the fault may lie in the manage- ment during the previous au- tumn, winter, or spring. Of course the brood chamber that is barely large enough for one colony will be too large for another in the same Fig. 1.—A 10-frame hive with comb-honey super and per- ae : forated zinc queen excluder. (From Phillips.) aplary or the character of the season may be such that ail brood chambers may be too large for best results one season and too small the next, so an average must be sought. While by manipula- tion good results may be secured by the use of any of the sizes in common use, any great departure in either direction from the size best suited to conditions of a given locality necessitates an excessive increase in labor to give best results. There is at the present time 503 COMB HONEY. 9 a strong tendency toward the use of the 10-frame hive body as a medium-sized brood chamber which may be used as a unit of a larger elastic brood chamber when necessary. The comb-honey producer is more exacting as to certain details of construction of hives than is the producer of extracted honey since it is more necessary for him to handle individual brood frames during the honey flow. The spaces! above and between the top bars of the brood frames must be accurate or they will be bridged with burr and brace combs and these filled with honey. Burr and brace combs make the removal and readjustment of the super and the manipula- tion of frames a slow and disagreeable task, to say nothing of the waste of material, which should have been placed in the sections in the begin- ning. The use of the slatted honey board (fig. 2), while preventing brace combs between itself and the super, does not prevent the building of burr and brace combs between and above the top bars of the frames. This trouble is largely eliminated by properspacing. Most hive manufacturers are at present making the top bars of the brood frames of such a width that the spaces between them is from one- fourth to five-sixteenths inch with the same spacing above them. The difficulty, however, is in maintain- ing this spacing with any great ‘degree of accuracy. Self-spacing frames? are a partial solution of this difficulty. In some localities, Fia. 2.—Perforated zinc queen excluder. (From however, the ordinary self-spacing pS) frames are so badly propolized as to render their removal from the brood chamber difficult as well as materially to interfere with the proper spacing. The advantages of such frames are then nullified, while their disadvantages are retained or even intensified. In such localities metal spacers having but small surfaces of contact are some- times used. Some beekeepers prefer omitting the spacers entirely. However, some of the difficulties arising from the use of self-spacing frames are the result of carelessness on the part of the operator in GUD ALe GED xp (ear GED THO { ) ap SON OP IE] SEP ST AAP ST TE“ Se Gee GS GO Gb Ge tae a) am Gam a mp CED GD CED CP TP CEH SEP TH EE? AT =n aS = Ges aS Gs Ge Gt a a Ge a => TS a en ae axe eS i > GED GEN =e os 6D © © OP OO oD ow ow DS an ar Saas aoa a asa Sim Gib aa Gs Ge Gas an «ar ex orm ar en ams ——— => a 1 A bee space, or that space in which bees are least inclined to put comb or propolis, is perhaps a scant one-fourth inch. In hive construction one-fourth or five-sixteenths inch is usually used. 2 These are so constructed that the end bars are one-fourth or five-sixteenths inch wider thar the top bars throughout a portion of. their length or furnished with projections of metal fitted to the edges of the frame. In either case the adjustment is such that when the frames are crowded together in the hive the spaces between the top bars will be correct. 45222°—Bull. 503—12——2 10. COMB HONEY. not crowding the frames together properly when closing the hive after having handled the frames. SECTIONAL HIVES. The sectional hive in which the brood chamber is composed of two or more shallow hive bodies, making it horizontally divisible, offers some advantages, especially to the comb-honey specialist. Most of the ordinary manipulations can be performed readily with such hives without removing the frames. One of their greatest advantages in comb-honey production is the rapidity with which the apiarist can examine the colonies for queen cells if natural swarming is to be controlled by manipulation. They are also very elastic, the units or sections usually being of 5-L frame capacity, permitting a brood- chamber capacity of 5 or any multiple of 5-L frames. Among the disadvantages of these hives are the extra cost owing to the greater number of parts necessary in their construction and the difficulty in maintaining proper spacing without the use of top bars on the frames heavier than would seem advisable in the middle of the brood nest. Sections and Supers. There is a wide variation in the style of sections and the supers designed to contain them. This, while to some extent brought about by different local conditions, is largely due merely to the notions of individual beekeepers. Comb-honey apparatus could probably be standardized without sacrificing any really vital features. BEEWAY v. PLAIN SECTIONS. There are two general styles of sections in common use differing in the method of spacing—the beeway section in which the spacer is a part of the section itself (fig. 5), and the plain in which the spacer Fic. 3.—Beeway and plain sections, unfolded. (Original.) is a permanent part of the separator (fig. 4). Each style has its advocates and each offers some advantages. Some of the advantages of the plain (fig. 3) over the beeway sec- tions are: (1) They are simpler in construction, therefore costing 503 COMB HONEY. 11 less. (2) The edges being plain with no insets, the plain sections are more easily cleaned of propolis when being prepared for market and are especially adapt- ed to cleaning by machinery. (3) By leaving the spacers in the super, sections of the same honey content occupy less space in the ship- ping case, thus re- ducing the cost of packages. (4) The plain section is adapted to an ar- rangement permitting freer communication lengthwise of the row of sections, especially at the corners (p. 15). Some of the advantages of the beeway sections (fig. 3) are: (1) The honey is some- what less liable to injury by handling. (2) Being wider at the corners where folded, they are stronger. (3) Some markets, being ac- customed to the larger cases neces- sary to contain a given number of beeway sections, ob- ject to the smaller package containing the same number of plain sections, simply be- cause it is smaller. Fig. 4.—Plain section in super, showing method ofspacing. (Original.) Fic. 5.—Beeway section in super, showing method of spacing. (Original. ) DIMENSIONS OF SECTIONS. Sections of various dimensions are in use by beekeepers, but the sizes Wi general use are the 4} inches square and the 4 by 5 inches. Some producers prefer the 4 by 5 sections because of the more pleasing appearance of the oblong package (fig. 6). The standard widths of the 44 by 44 inches section are 1 inches in the beeway style and i} inches in the plain section. The extra width in the beeway style is for the purpose of spacing and does not add to the thickness of the comb. The 4 by 5 is 12 or 14 inches wide in the plain style and not nuch used in the beeway style. The 13 width of the 4 by 5 section contains prectically the same amount of honey when filled as the 503 Lo COMB HONEY. 44 by 44 by 14 plain or the 4} by 4} by 1% beeway; assuming of course that all are used with separators and filled under like conditions. Since there are well-defined limits as to the thickness of the combs most profitable to produce, the area of one comb surface in a section weighing about a pound is usually from 16 to 20 square inches, the exact size and shape being an adaptation to given space in the super. The thinner combs, showing more comb surface, have the appearance of being larger and a greater number can be accommodated on a given hive. loney in such combs may also be ripened sooner and possibly better than in thicker combs. They, however, require more foundation for each pound of honey produced and a slightly greater amount of wax, in proportion to the honey, to complete them. Also EE Fig. 6.—Square and oblong sections. (Original.) the thinner the comb, the greater the difficulty with the sheets of foundation swinging to one side on account of uneven work on the to sides or because the hives do not stand level. SUPERS. The main points of difference between the various types of comb- honey supers are in (1) the method of supporting the sections, (2) the amount of protection afforded to the outside of the section, and (3) the degree of free communication from section to section within the super. The Method of Support. Sections are supported either by means of cross supports under the ends of the sections or by a slat of proper width supporting each row of sections. The T super (fig. 7), so called from the shape of a cross section of the strip of tin used to support the sections, is illus- 503 COMB HONEY. 13 trative of the first, while the supporting slats, section holders (figs. 8, 9 and 10), and wide frames (fig. 11) are illustrative of the second type of support. Protection. The T super and others of this type offer no protection against ‘propolizing to either the top or bottom of the sections, the section Fic. 7—The T super. (Original.) holder or slat (figs. 8, 9, and 10) protects the bottom, while in the wide frame (fig. 11) the entire outer surface of the sections is pro- tected except at the edges. The greater the protection afforded the Fic. 8.—Super with section holder for beeway sections. (Original.) section, the more complicated and expensive the super, and the more complicated supers require more labor in cleaning of propolis and filling with sections. On the other hand, sections of honey produced in properly constructed wide-frame supers are much more easily cleaned of propolis, and ordinarily present a neater appearance when packed for market. 503 14 COMB HONEY. Free Communication Within the Super. The use of closed-top sections (1-beeway) and solid separators, making each section a separate compartment with openings for che bees at the bottom only, illustrates one extreme; while the sections with openings on all four sides (4-beeway) used without soparators Fic. 9.—Super with section holder for square plain sections. (Origina!.) illustrate the other extreme as to free communication; and between these extremes are various intermediate types. It would be desirable so to adjust the sections that when filled with honey a row of them would, so far as the bees are concerned, ee eel ¥1G. 10.—Super with section holder for obiong plain sections. (Original.) be equivalent to a single comb, that the bees might have the same free access to the outside row of cells from all sides as they do the other cells and might pass up or down from any section and the full length of the row, as well as around the ends. While, under the same conditions, such free access to the outside row of cells from all 503 COMB HONEY. 15 sides would result in the sections being slightly better filled than with the ordinary adjustments, such an arrangement presents some mechanical difficulties and would add considerable to the first cost of the supers. If separators were not necessary, such an adjustment of sections could be readily accomplished. In Europe a type of separator having transverse openings corresponding to the upright edges of the sections is used to give free communication lengthwise of the row of sections. In this country some such separators are used as well as a separator made of wire cloth so spaced between the rows of sections as to give free communication along the rows, as well as from one row to another. These, however, are not widely used in the United States. The plain section, when used in connection with the “fence”’ separator (fig. 4), having the upright posts considerably shorter than the height of the section, offers a fair compromise as to free Fic. 11.—Combination super with wide frames for oblong plain sections. (Original.) communication within the super. Most of the comb honey pro- duced in this country, however, is produced in sections which offer no communication from section to section lengthwise of the super, being produced in the regular 2-beeway section, having openings at the top and bottom only (figs. 7 and 8). THE USE OF SEPARATORS. Separators are made of strips of tin or wood and are used between the rows of sections to compel the bees to build the combs straight and all within the section. The thicker the combs the greater be- comes the necessity for separators. While an expert can produce very uniform comb honey without separators during a heavy honey flow by using very narrow sections, it is usually not advisable to do 503 16 COMB HONEY. so on account of the resulting large percentage of imperfect combs, especially during poor and indifferent seasons and at the close of any season. The use of separators results in a much more uniform product. SHALLOW EXTRACTING SUPERS. Some comb-honey producers add to their equipment one shallow extracting super for each colony. These are a great convenience in a comb-honey apiary and may be used for the following purposes: (1) To keep the brood chamber free of honey before the beginning of the main honey flow; (2) to use at the beginning of the honey flow to induce the bees to begin work promptly in the supers; (3) to use at the close of the honey flow instead of the last comb-honey super; (4) to use during any flow of inferior honey or honeydew; (5) to use during very poor seasons when first-class comb honey can not be produced. COMBINATION SUPERS. Other comb-honey producers provide each comb-honey super with two shallow extracting combs. These are placed one on each side of the super with the sections between them (fig. 11). The pur- pose of this arrangement is to induce the bees to begin work in the super promptly without the use of “bait sections” (sections con- taining comb previously drawn) or an extracting super and also to do away with the usual poorly finished sections in the corners and outside rows. One great advantage of this system over the use of an extracting super to start early super work is that the combs are not removed. When shallow extracting supers are used for this purpose, they are removed as soon as the bees have started well m them and a comb-honey super substituted. This brings back much the same conditions existing before giving the extracting super, and while some colonies will begin work in the sections promptly when the change is made, many colonies hesitate about beginning the new work almost as though the extracting super had not been used. Such colonies are thus thrown out of “condition” (p. 19) and may begin preparations to swarm. The use of these combs in supers . that are added subsequently allows the apiarist to place the empty super over the one already on the hive until the bees begin work therein without seriously crowding the super room, because each super thus added contains room in the form of empty comb into which the new nectar may be stored at once (see p. 42). Other Apparatus. Among the other apparatus needed in commercial comb-honey production are a honey extractor, wax press, bee escapes, and escape 503 COMB HONEY. 47 boards (fig. 12), queen-excluding honey boards (fig. 2), feeders, tools, etc. It is not necessary to provide queen-excluding honey boards for each colony unless some special system is followed, yet a few excluders are very desirable for various special manipulations. Good feeders may be had by using tin pans in connection with an empty super. A handful of grass should be placed on the sirup to prevent the bees from drowning. In addition to these appliances in the northern States, if the hives are single walled, some means of protection is necessary if the colonies are wintered out of doors. Preparing Supers. FOLDING SECTIONS. Section presses and foundation fasteners are sometimes combined in one machine by which the section is pressed together square and the foundation is fastened by a single operation. Usually, however, they are separate machines requiring that each section be handled twice be- fore it is ready to be placed into the super. Ordinarily the one-piece sections must be dampened before folding, as otherwise the breakage is con- siderable and the sections are ereatly weakened by folding. A crate of sections as it comes from the factory may bedamp- ened by removing one side so as to expose the V-shaped grooves, then directing a small stream of hot water into these grooves. Careshould be taken that only the thin portion where the section is folded be dampened. Another very satisfactory method of dampening sections is to wrap the crates containing them in a wet blanket the day before they are to be folded. Fic. 12.—Bee escape board for removing bees from supers. (From Phillips.) FASTENING FOUNDATION IN SECTIONS. The use of comb foundation in full sheets filling each section as nearly as possible is considered a necessity in the production of fancy comb honey. This foundation should be as thin as can be used. with- out being gnawed or torn down by the bees. The sheet of foundation is usually fastened centrally at the top of the section, leaving only 45222°—Bull. 503—12——3 18 COMB HONEY. enough space at the sides to allow it to swing freely without binding and about three-sixteenths to one-fourth inch at the bottom to allow for stretching while being drawn out. To secure better attachment of the comb to the bottom of the section, a bottom starter about five-eighths inch wide may be used. In this case the top starter should reach to within three-sixteenths to one-fourth inch of the bottom starter. In some localities the character of the flow is such that but little is gained by the use of the bottom starter, while in other localities it is difficult to produce honey that will stand shipment well without it. The various types of apparatus usually used for fastening founda- tion in the sections make use of a heated metal plate which, after melting the edge of the sheet of foundation, is withdrawn, allowing the melted edge to be brought quickly in contact with the section. This fastens one edge of the sheet of foundation firmly to the wood. Foundation fasteners employing this principle may be simply a hand apparatus consisting of a metal plate of proper size provided with a handle, the operator transferring the tool from the source of heat to the edge of the foundation. Or the principle may be incorporated in amore or less complex machine which provides for the maintenance of the proper temperature of the heated plate, its movement to melt the edge of the foundation and a proper support for the section and foun- dation during the process. For the purpose of securing better filled sections of honey various methods of attaching the sheet of founda- tion to the sides as well as the top of the section have been devised, but are not extensively used by producers. Among these methods are fitting the sheet of foundation in place, then directing a fine stream of melted wax along its edges, or the use of split sections in which a sheet of foundation is continuous through a row of sections, extending through their sides and top. Some super construction is such that the sections may be placed directly into the super by the operator who puts in the foundation. This work is usually done during the winter months when the bees require no special attention. Enough supers should be provided to take care of the largest possible crop, even though it is not often that all are used the same season. The beekeeper who is operating several apiaries can not afford to take time to prepare supers for the bees during a good honey flow. Supers of sections thus prepared in advance should be kept clean by storing them in piles and keeping the piles covered from dust. MANIPULATION OF THE BEES. It is important to note that there are four essential factors enter- ing into the securing of a crop of honey: (1) A sufficient amount of bloom of healthy and well-nourished nectar-secreting plants growing in soil to which they are adapted and within range of the apiary. 503 ‘ COMB HONEY. 19 (2) Weather conditions favorable to nectar secretion and bee flight. (3) A large number of workers in excess of those needed for the rou- tine work of the colony. (4) Conditions of the colony making the storing instinct dominant. If any one of these factors is absent, the effect of the other three is immediately nullified, and the amount of honey secured will vary as these factors are present at the same time in greater or less degree or as the time during which they are all present is longer or shorter. It is therefore possible to have each of these factors present at some time during the season without securing a crop of honey and the period of time during which they are all present at the same time is usually quite short. Grouping the first and second factors we have a combination usually spoken of as the locality and season. These factors are largely beyond the control of the beekeeper except as he may choose a loca- tion in which both are usually present at some time or times during the season, may take advantage of the plants of several locations by practising migratory beekeeping, or may improve a given locality by directly or indirectly increasing the amount of nectar-secreting plants, such as buckwheat, alsike clover, sweet clover, or alfalfa. Grouping the third and fourth factors we have conditions capable of being brought about by manipulation and for which the beekeeper is more directly responsible. The beekeeper’s skill therefore lies in supplying and maintaining these factors throughout the short period during which the bees may store more than they consume. He should know which plants may be expected to furnish the nectar for his crop of honey, that his various manipulations may be properly timed. It should be noted that the shorter the duration of the honey flow, the greater becomes the necessity of having the colonies in proper condi- tion at its beginning and keeping them so until its close. However lavish nature may be with the secretion of nectar and fine weather, it is of little avail if the beekeeper fails to secure a large force of workers to gather and store his crop or, even having provided workers, if he fails to keep his forces together and contented, bending all their energy in the one direction of gathering and storing honey. It is a common occurrence among inexperienced beekeepers to have the colonies become strong enough to work in the supers only after the flowers have ceased blooming or to see strong colonies during a good honey flow doing nothing in the supers simply because conditions are not such as to make the storing instinct dominant. So far as the skill of the beekeeper is concerned in the production of the crop of honey in a given location, every manipulation of the season should be directed (1) toward securing the greatest possible number of vigorous workers at the proper time, and (2) keeping the entire working force of each colony together and contentedly at work throughout the given honey flow. 503 20 COMB HONEY. Securing Workers for the Honey Flow. Of course, the shorter the period for brood rearing previous to the honey flow, the more serious the problem of getting the colonies strong enough. Adverse weather conditions greatly retard brood rearing and thus have the effect of shortening this period. On the other hand, in some localities the main honey flow comes so late in the season that the colonies may even be divided and both divisions built up. In most comb-honey localities the season is short and there is usually during the season only one honey flow that furnishes any considerable surplus suitable for comb honey, with perhaps other honey flows either very meager or furnishing honey unsuitable in color. The early minor flows are in such localities utilized in brood rearing in preparation for the main flow, and those occurring after the main flow may be utilized for winter stores, or if sufficient in quantity some surplus may bessecured. In localities where the season is made up of a series of honey flows of almost equal importance and with sometimes a long interval between, the problem of securing workers for the harvest is rendered more complex, since the process must be repeated for each crop or the colonies kept very strong throughout the season. As a rule such localities are not the best for comb-honey production. The workers that gather and store the crop of honey are those that emerge during the few weeks preceding and during the first part of the honey flow. Unless it is of unusual duration, the eggs that produce these workers are all laid before the honey flow begins, since those which develop from eggs laid later are not ready for work until after the close of the flow. On the other hand, the workers that emerge six weeks or more before the honey flow will have died of old age or be too old to be of much value during the flow. Their services, however, are of great value provided they expend their energy to the best possible advantage in rearing brood. IH brood rearing ceases or is greatly restricted during this period, a colony that has been strong earlier in the season is rendered almost worthless as gatherers, since it begins the harvest with old and worn-out workers. This is exactly what often happens unless the beekeeper is alert and provides conditions such that brood rearing is not re- stricted during this period. In the clover belt, for example, it frequently happens that there is a scarcity of nectar during the period when the workers for the harvest, should be reared and, unless the colonies are abundantly supplied with stores, brood rearing is greatly restricted. This may to some extent justify the saying among beekeepers that if the early flowers yield well the season 503 COMB HONEY. 21 will be good. The progressive beekeeper, however, provides condi- tions favorable to brood rearing even though the early flowers fail to yield nectar. It is therefore highly important (1) that each colony be in a normal condition at a period six or eight weeks pre- vious to the honey flow, and (2) that brood rearing be at its maximum for the entire period of six or eight weeks during which the brood is reared to produce workers available for the honey flow. BUILDING UP THE COLONY IN THE EARLY SPRING. The condition of the colonies in the early spring depends upon many factors not all of which are under the control of the beekeeper. In the white-clover belt for instance, where the honey flow comes early, a large percentage of strong colonies in early spring means of course that they have wintered well, which in turn is largely dependent upon proper conditions the previous late summer and autumn, The manipulations having for their purpose the rapid upbuilding of the colony may therefore have their beginning at or even before the close of the honey flow of the previous year, including late summer and fall management and wintering. Good -queens, preferably young, with enough room for breeding purposes and a supply of stores during the previous late summer and autumn are among the factors favoring good wintering. During the winter the central idea is the conservation of the energy of the bees, the complex details of which can not be presented in this paper. The rapidity with which the colonies build up in early spring depends upon a number of conditions, some of which are: (1) The number and vitality of the workers; (2) the age and fecundity of the queen; (3) the supply and location of stores within the hive; (4) weather conditions; (5) the supply of new pollen, nectar, and water; (6) the conservation of heat within the brood nest; (7) the race of bees; (8) the character of the brood combs, ete. Most of these con- ditions are to a great extent within the control of the beekeeper. By supplying each colony with a young queen the previous autumn, or at least supplanting all undesirable ones, a greater number of young and vigorous workers are reared late in the season, which usually means greater vitality and numbers the next spring. Young queens reared the previous summer or autumn should be in prime condition the next spring. If to this combination is added an abundance of stores within the hives, brood rearing should progress rapidly, even in spite of adverse weather conditions. It is now the general practice among beekeepers to supply enough stores the previous autumn not only for winter stores but for brood-rearing purposes the next spring. Since the amount consumed during the 503 22 - COMB HONEY. winter varies considerably with different colonies, an early examina- | tion to determine the amount of stores may be necessary. Under | some conditions it may be found profitable to stimulate brood rearing i early in the spring by slowly feeding diluted sugar sirup to each | colony, by spreading brood, or by doing both, but any very early | stimulation of this kind should be used with caution. Among extensive beekeepers the tendency is decidedly toward letting the bees alone until the weather is more settled, simply making sure that they have sufficient stores. The apiary should, if possible, be so located that the bees may have access to water without the neces- sity of exposure of a long flight during bad weather. In localities that do not furnish natural pollen, it may be necessary to feed an artificial substitute, such as rye meal. A good hive that will con- serve the heat of the cluster is also a great help in early brood rear- ing. Some beekeepers who winter their colonies in the cellar in single-walled hives find it profitable to give them some additional protection after they have been removed from the cellar. In the northern States double-walled hives are especially advantageous during the spring. A protected location for the apiary in some instances makes a great difference in early’ brood rearing. Some races breed up more rapidly in the spring than others. The Italians are somewhat conservative in this respect, but have so many excel- lent traits that they are generally used in this country. In localities having intermittent honey flows Italian bees may not give the best results because of their tendency to restrict brood rearing during the honey flow by crowding the queen and to curtail the production of brood during a scarcity of nectar. Drone comb within the brood nest in earlyspring isa decided barrier to rapid brood rearing. Many brood combs considered by the average beekeeper to be perfect contain, especially in the upper portion, a large percentage of cells which can not be used for rearing worker brood because of imperfections in shape and size due to the stretching of this portion of the combs during hot weather. This suggests the advisability of the use of a heavier grade of foundation or some method of using vertical wires or wooden splints in the upper half of the sheet of foundation. THE PRODUCTION OF GATHERING BEES. During the six or eight weeks just preceding the honey flow every colony should be encouraged to rear the greatest possible amount of brood. Brood rearing during this period is often restricted by insuffi- cient stores or by insufficient room. Itis therefore of great importance that both stores and available brood-rearing space be supplied in abundance. If stimulative feeding or spreading the brood is prac- ticed, this is the time it should be done. 503 COMB HONEY. 23 Providing Sufficient Stores. If feeding is not practiced during this critical period, the beekeeper should see that each colony is at all times supplied with a reserve of stores, for surprisingly large quantities are consumed when brood rearing is going on rapidly. If any colonies should run short, brood rearing will be carried on sparingly and the colony so severely crip- pled that it may not recover its strength until after the honey flow is over. Whether stimulative feeding or supplying each colony with an abundance of reserve stores is the more profitable depends upon circumstances and must be decided by each beekeeper for his own conditions. Stimulative feeding, if properly done, will undoubtedly result in the rearing of more bees for the harvest. When the bee- keeper is operating several apiaries and must travel some distance to reach them the labor involved is considerable, and the question to be decided is whether this labor would yield greater returns if expended in stimulative feeding or in operating a larger number of colonies. If the brood chamber is large and well provisioned or if the flowers furnish some nectar in early spring the colonies may have sufficient stores for this period of heavy brood rearing. Some bee- keepers save combs of honey of the previous year to supply food for this period. This is one of the most convenient and satisfactory methods of feeding. Providing Available Blood-Rearing Space. There should be no restriction whatever in the room for brood rearing up to the time of putting on the supers, just previous to the honey flow, for a crowded brood nest at this time tends to diminish the number of workers available for the honey flow as well as to encourage swarming. If the space for brood rearing should be restricted by too much early honey in the brood chamber some of the heaviest combs should be removed and empty ones given instead, or an extra brood chamber containing empty combs may be given. In localities where consid- erable early honey is gathered the brood chamber may be kept almost free of honey by placing an extracting super over each colony at the beginning of such a flow. This super should not be removed until the comb-honey supers are given, for the honey may be needed later in brood rearing. Should the brood nest be restricted by a small brood chamber the colonies may be equalized by removing some frames of brood from the stronger colonies, exchanging them for empty combs taken from weaker colonies, or another brood chamber filled with empty combs may be given, thus building the colonies up individually. 503 94 COMB HONEY. The former method has the following advantages: (1) After being built up to approximately the same strength, most of the colonies will be ready for a given manipulation at the same time, thus facili- tating the work. (2) It requires a smaller stock of extra brood chambers and combs, at least previous to the honey flow. (3) The brood is in a more compact form, which is a very desirable condition in comb-honey production. (4) When properly done, the total number of young bees reared in a given time is probably considerably greater, owing to the fact that none of the colonies is strong beyond the capacity of the queen, the workers of the entire apiary being so distributed that all the queens are utilized to the best possible advan- tage. (5) When the honey flow begins the colonies are ready for the supers without additional manipulation, such as removing extra brood chambers, sorting combs of brood, etc. In equalizing colonies combs of hatching brood with the adhering workers, without the queen, are usually drawn from the strongest colonies and given to colonies less strong, but never to very weak colonies. The weakest colonies are left until the last, then built up quickly, provided there is time enough to have all the hives well filled with brood. If this is not possible the very weak colonies can more profitably be used for pur- poses other than comb-honey production. Another plan of equaliz- ing is that of shaking bees from combs taken from strong colonies at the entrance of colonies less strong. The older bees at once take wing and return to their hives, while the younger bees enter the weaker colony. The operator must, of course, be sure that the queen is not on the comb thus shaken. Some of the advantages of building up the colonies as individuals are: (1) The labor required is considerably less, fewer visits being required, so that this method is particularly adapted to out-apiary conditions. (2) It is possible to determine with much greater accuracy which colonies show the most desirable traits for breeding purposes. (3) It can be more safely practiced if brood diseases are imminent. SUMMARY. (1) The workers that take part in storing a crop of honey from any given honey flow are usually those reared within the period of six or eight weeks just preceding the honey flow. The workers reared previous to this period are too old to be of much value as gatherers, while those reared after this period mature after the flow has ceased. (2) It is necessary that the beekeeper know what plants are likely to furnish the surplus honey and their approximate period of bloom, so that he can determine the limits of the heavy brood-rearing period in order to secure the largest possible working force for the honey flow. 503 COMB HONEY. 25 (3) Colonies should be in a normal condition at the beginning of this period. (a) Ifthe surplus is from an early flow, this normal condition can be obtained only by proper management the previous late summer and autumn, together with good wintering. Good queens, preferably young, together with sufficient room for brood rearing and winter stores, are important conditions during late summer and autumn. (6) Stores and protection are important factors in early brood rear- ing. (c) The character of the brood combs and the race of bees each have some influence upon brood rearing. (4) During the time that workers for the harvest should be reared brood rearing should be constantly accelerated. (5) Brood rearing is often restricted during this period (a) because of limited stores and (6) because of limited room in the brood chamber. Using Available Workers to Best Advantage During the Honey Flow. Brood rearing, which is of primary importance during the preceding period, becomes of secondary consideration at about the beginning of the honey flow, because this is nearing the limit beyond which time the resulting bees develop too late to take part in gathering and storing the crop of honey. At this time, therefore, there is a radical change in purpose of the manipulations. Instead of continuing the expan- sion of the brood chamber, the policy of the beekeeper should now be rather a concentration of the workers and brood. There is perhaps a limit to the number of workers that can be profitably kept in a single hive and set of supers, but this limit is seldom reached, the usual mistake being in having too few. Each colony should have its brood chamber well filled with brood in a compact form and be so crowded with young and vigorous workers. that they will immediately occupy the supers when the honey flow actually begins. The brood chamber of colonies occupying more than one hive body should at this time be reduced to one, any extra brood being used in colonies having less than one brood chamber full of brood. After this operation, should there still be some colonies left with the brood chamber but partly filled with brood, they should be filled with combs of brood and adhering bees (without the queen) drawn from some colony or colonies too weak to work well in comb-honey supers. It may be advisable to unite the weaker colonies in order to secure the proper strength for the best work. This massing of the workers in strong colonies, so essential to the production of a fancy grade of comb honey, renders necessary extremely careful and skillful man- agement, since the*efforts of the beekeeper may still be nullified in either of two ways: (1) The bees may divide their forces by swarm- ing into two or more parts, neither of which would be ready to work in the supers until the season is much advanced or perhaps closed 503 96 COMB HONEY. ‘entirely, or (2) being balked in their desire to swarm or from lack of convenient storage space, etc., they may do very poor work even dur- ing a good honey flow simply because the conditions of the colony are such that the storing instinct is not dominant. To bring about the best results in comb honey, the entire working force of each colony must be kept undivided and the means employed in doing so must be such that the storing instinct remains dominant throughout any given honey flow. Any increase made before or during the flow * is made at the expense of the surplus honey unless it be made with brood that would emerge too late for the young bees to be of use during the honey flow (p. 31). In general, however, increase may be made at much less expense by setting aside some of the colonies for that purpose. To keep the forces together and satisfied, with the storing instinct dominant during a good flow, is the most difficult problem with which the producer of comb honey must deal. Swarming. All colonies do not behave alike as to swarming. (1) There are certain colonies that go through the season with apparently no thought of swarming. Such colonies do the very best work in the supers, and their number can be increased by skillful management. (2) Other colonies start queen cells preparatory to swarming, but can be persuaded to give it up by such mild measures as destroying the queen cells and perhaps removing a few frames of brood. (3) Cer- tain colonies are determined to swarm and, unless the flow ceases, nothing short of swarming or some radical manipulation will satisfy them. (4) A certain percentage of queens fail during the honey flow and swarming may occur in connection with the-supersedure. Such colonies usually do very poor work in comb-honey supers. The beekeeper can do much (1) toward increasing the percentage in the first group and discouraging those of the second—preventive measures, and (2) toward making the most of the colonies under the third and fourth groups—control measures. PREVENTIVE MEASURES. Some effort has been made toward the final elimination of swarm- ing by breeding from colonies showing the least disposition to swarm. Although after years of selection bees continue to swarm when con- ditions are favorable, many practical beekeepers testify to having greatly reduced the percentage of swarming colonies by years of care- ful selection and breeding. It would certainly’ seem advisable to 1TJn localities where the main honey flow is so late that colonies may be divided long enough before the flow so that both colonies may be built up to proper strength in time to take advantage of it, of course increase previous to the flow would be advisable. This condition is rare in comb-honey localities. 503 COMB HONEY. : oT replace the queens of all colonies which persist in swarming with young queens reared from colonies less inclined to swarm. The swarming problem has also been attacked from the standpoint of the hive and mechanical attachments, finally resulting in the inven- tion of a ‘‘nonswarming”’ hive. More attention has, however, been paid to the prevention and control of swarming by manipulation than along either of the other lines, probably because proper manipulation gives immediate results and is now available as a means of preventing the losses due to swarming. The success in swarm control attained by the best beekeepers is a result of some effort along all three of the above lines at the same time. Among the manipulations that tend to discourage swarming are (1) the introduction of young queens (preferably reared from selected stock); (2) an abundance of empty comb in the brood chamber at all times previous to the honey flow; (3) prompt work in the supers at the beginning of the flow induced by using “bait sections” or extracting combs in the first super given, thus tiding the colony over one of the critical periods; (4) a judicious manipulation of the supers during the honey flow (p. 41); (5) the use of more nearly perfect worker combs in the brood chamber, since drone comb and imperfect cells (p. 22) have the effect of contracting the brood chamber, thus bring- ing about a crowded condition; (6) an abundance of ventilation dur- ing the honey flow, obtained by means of a large entrance or by raising the hive above the bottom board by means of small blocks; (7) pro- tection of the hive from direct rays of the sun during the hottest portion of the day by some such means as a double cover or shade board; (8) the removal of one or two frames of brood and the sub- stitution therefor of empty combs or sheets of foundation; (9) the destruction of all queen cells provided they contain only eggs or very small larvee. If queen cells are well advanced, their destruction usually has little or no effect as a swarm preventive measure. While destroying queen cells in their early stages can not be relied upon as a preventive of swarming, beekeepers who practice examining the brood chambers once a week for queen cells during the swarming season are usually surprised at the number of colonies that can be induced to give up swarming and turn their attention to storing in this way. Such a result at least partly compensates for the large amount of labor required for these weekly examinations. CONTROL MEASURES. After having taken all precautions as to preventive measures there will still be some colonies that will attempt to swarm when producing ‘comb honey. During poor seasons of course the percentage may_be 503 28 COMB HONEY. quite low, but during good seasons the conditions are sometimes such that a majority of the colonies may make an effort toswarm. Swarm- ing colonies, however, may be controlled in such a manner that practically as much surplus honey is secured as if the colony made no attempt to swarm. If but a single apiary is being operated and the beekeeper is present during the swarming season, the bees may be permitted to swarm naturally without loss to the beekeeper; but if several apiaries are being operated, it is more economical to employ some method by which swarming may be controlled by visiting each apiary at given intervals during the swarming season, rather than to have an attendant at each. Control of Natural Swarms. Natural swarms may be managed (1) by allowing them to cluster naturally, then hiving them in the ordinary manner; (2) by the clipped queen method; (3) by the use of queen traps (fig. 13; see. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 447, pp. 29-30); or (4) by use of the swarm catcher. To keep the forces to- gether -(1) the swarm without the queen may be returned to its hive, Fig. 13.—Drone and queen trap on hive entrance. (From Phillips.) the queen cells de- stroyed a week later, and the colony afterwards requeened (p. 36); or (2) the brood may be removed from the hive while the swarm is out, after which the swarm with the queen is returned. The former method is useful under some conditions (p. 37), but the latter is the one usually preferred. When the swarm is hived back without the brood on its old location in this manner, the colony does not lose any of its flying bees and is back at work with renewed energy in the same set of supers it was but a few minutes before so eagerly deserting. Instead of removing the combs from the brood chamber the usual practice is the removal of the entire brood chamber and the substitution of another whose external appearance is the same. This method of swarm management keeps the bees, queen, and supers together and is one of the most satisfactory known. It is not, however, adapted to out-apiaries or any aplaries not having an attendant, and requires considerable time in watching for and hiving swarms. 1 This is simply a wire-cloth cage large enough to be set over the hive or be fitted over the entrance. If the attendant is provided with a number of these catchers he can avoid the usual confusion ordinarily occurring when several swarms issue at about the same time. After being caught in this manner the swarms may be hived at the convenience of the beekeeper. 503 COMB HONEY. 29 USING THE REMOVED BROOD TO BEST ADVANTAGE. The disposition of the brood that is left when 2 swarm issues should be such that (1) no ‘‘after-swarms’’ (swarms resulting from the emergence of a plurality of virgin queens) are permitted to issue and (2) that the emerging workers may be used to the best advantage. ‘‘After-swarming’’ may be prevented by (1) breaking up the parent colony be- fore any of the young queens emerge, using the unhatched brood elsewhere, (2) by destroying all queen cells but one be- fore any young queens emerge, or (3) by ereatly reducing the population of the par- ent colony! just before the young queens emerge. If swarming occurs at a time when the resulting young bees can take part in gath- yg. 14__colony before swarming: ering and storing the crop of honey, the supers in place. (Original.) usual practice is to allow the brood to emerge in a separate hive and later to add these young bees to the colony from which it was taken. Under such circumstances this reenforcement of the swarm is especially desira- ble, since otherwise its forces are constantly diminishing during the 21 days (the time required for worker brood to develop) immediately following the removal of all its brood. The brood, however, may be used anywhere in the apiary and should be placed where the resulting bees will be most needed. The plans given below make use of at least a part of the emerg- ing bees in reenfore- ing the swarm from which the brood was taken. Fic. 15.—Brood placed in hive turned 90 degrees from old entrance. When hiving nat- (Original.) ural swarms on the old location as suggested above, the old brood chamber is provided with a bottom and cover and set aside, usually with its entrance turned away about 90° from its former position (figs. 14,15). This 1 The term ‘‘parent colony” applies to the one in the hive from which the swarm issues and is in common use, though the correctness of the term is questionable. 503 380 COMB HONEY. is to prevent any field bees returning to the parent colony. A day or so later it is turned about 45° toward its former position (fig. 16) and as soon as the bees have this location of the entrance well marked the hive is placed parallel to the hive on the old stand (fig. 17). So far as the bees returning from the field are concerned, these two colonies are now on the same stand. The further disposition of the remnant of the brood and young bees may be by any one of the following methods: (1) One week after the swarm issues, or just be- fore the parent colony would cast a second or ‘‘after-swarm,’’ it may, when the bees are well at work in the fields, be removed and given a new location. This throws the entire flying force into the colony having the supers, where they are of greatest service, and so depletes the other colony of its flying bees just when the young queens are emerging that ‘‘after-swarming”’ is usually prevented. (2) Before moving it away the parent colony may bemore thoroughly depleted of its young bees by shaking most of them from their combs, adding them of course to the colony with the supers. The comb containing the finest queen cells should not be shaken, since to do so will probably injure the immature queens. ‘Two or three frames should be left with their ad- hering bees in order that the parent colony will stillcontain — Fic. 17.—Hive with brood turned parallel to old en- enough workers to care for the are Py remaining unemerged brood. (8) Instead of moving the parent colony away as in (1) above, the bees may all be added to the swarm by shaking them from their combs, and the combs then distributed among nuclei previously prepared. By successive additions of frames of brood these nuclei are finally built up into fuil colonies and ‘‘after-swarming”’ 503 Fic. 16.—Hive with brood turned back to 45 degrees from old entrance. (Original.) COMB HONEY. ah is prevented. (4) Instead of giving the parent colony a new location, as in (1) above, it may be shifted to the opposite side of the swarm on the old stand (fig. 18) and by thus shifting it from one side to the other at intervals of several days the young bees as they hatch and learn to fly will finally all be added to the colony with the supers. Few beekeepers, however, go to this extreme, as the season usually closes before the latest emerging young bees are thus transferred to the colony with the supers and these later-emerging bees may be used for increase at little if amy expense in-surplus honey. (5) If increase is not desired, the bees may be added to the swarm on the old stand as before, and after 10 or 15 days the combs of the parent colony still containing some unhatched brood may be used on which to hive another swarm. Before being used for this purpose the bees are of course shaken from these combs and added as before to the swarm on the old stand. (6) If the honey flow is of long duration or conditions otherwise such that the storing colony may prepare to swarm again, the brood cham- ber of the parent colony may be left by the side of the swarm (fig. 18) until the young queen begins to lay, then restored to its origi- nal position on the old stand and the supers transferred toit. The brood chamber containing the old queen is moved to one side, its flying bees thus induced to enter the hive containing the Fig. 18.—Hive with brood placed on other side of young queen. ‘The two colonies ole oe OnE my) may afterwards be united or the one containing the old queen may finally be moved to a new location for increase. If, when using this plan, a virgin queen or a ripe queen cell is given the parent colony just after’the swarm issues, this colony is ready to be restored to its original position on the old stand about a week earlier than if left to requeen itself. In case the emerging bees are not to be added to the storing colony the brood and young bees may be used in one of the following ways: (1) They may be used immediately after the swarm issues to build up such colonies as are not strong enough to work in the supers or to build up previously prepared nuclei, as in (3) above. Before being used in these ways the adhering bees are usually added to the swarm. (2) The parent colony may be placed at once on a new stand and given a laying or virgin queen. To allow such a colony to requeen itself usually results in its casting an ‘‘after swarm,” since it becomes quite 503 “32 COMB HONEY. populous again before the young queens emerge. This plan does not make immediate use of the emerging bees but may be useful under some conditions. (3) If the honey flow is of long duration or is followed closely by a second, two parent colonies, as in (2) above, may be placed upon the same stand, one of which is given a queen but with the queen cells destroyed in the other. After two or three weeks the bees may be shaken from the queenless colony in with the queen-right one. Such colonies are in excellent condition for rapid work in the supers. WHAT TO USE IN THE BROOD CHAMBER WHEN HIVING SWARMS. (1) The use of narrow strips of foundation 1 inch or less in width in the brood chamber offers some advantages. (a) When the brood chamber contains only these narrow ‘‘starters” and supers of partiy filled sections are transferred from the parent colony to the new swarm at the time of hiving, there being no cells below in which to store the honey, it is taken to the supers. Under these conditions work in the brood chamber goes on slowly, the work of the colony being largely in the supers. (6) Colonies that are thus required to construct a set of new combs in the brood chamber and that are supplied with suf- ficent storage room seldom attempt to swarm again during the same season, even though the flow be of long duration. (c) The treatment of brood diseases may be combined with swarm control. (See Farmers’ Bulletin No. 442, p. 14.) The greatest objection to their use is in the excessive amount of drone comb usually built when anything less than full sheets of foundation are used, especially if the queen is old or the brood chamber large in proportion to the size of the swarm. (2) The use of full sheets of foundation in the brood frames has the decided advantage of resulting in straight combs having the maximum number of cells of the worker size, but is more expensive than the narrow strips and allows a more rapid building of comb in the brood chamber, which under some conditions is considered a dis- advantage. (3) The exclusive use of either narrow strips or full sheets of foundation in the brood chamber when hiving swarms necessitates the use for a short time of a queen excluder (fig. 2) if the supers are transferred from the parent colony to the swarm at the time of hiving, since otherwise the queen would probably enter the sections and a brood nest be established there. To avoid the use of queen excluders for this purpose, one or more empty combs may be used in each brood chamber, the remaining frames containing full sheets of foundation. This empty comb also serves as a storage place for pollen that may be gathered before the other combs of the brood chamber are constructed. Otherwise this pollen may be stored in 503 COMB HONEY. oo the sections (p. 46). It is also probable that fewer colonies will “‘swarm out”’ or desert their hives if hived in a brood chamber con- taining one or more empty combs than if foundation only is used. A disadvantage of this plan is that the cells near the top bar of the comb may be so elongated as to interfere with the complete drawing out of the foundation in the adjacent frame. Empty combs can not well be used in connection with narrow strips of foundation, since their use favors the construction of drone comb. (4) Empty combs are sometimes used with the idea of saving the bees the work of constructing a new set of combs. Under same con- ditions this is false economy and gives poorer results than starters or foundation. With very strong colonies, or with the brood chamber contracted to five or six frames, empty combs in the brood chamber may give good results. Medium colonies on a full set of empty combs are inclined to store the honey in the brood chamber and neglect the supers. (5) Combs of honey are sometimes used on which to hive swarms. In some instances the beekeeper uses frames of foundation or empty combs above the brood chamber previous to and during the first few days of the honey flow for the purpose of discouraging swarming and afterwards uses these partly filled combs on which to hive swarms. In order to make room for the queen, this honey is rapidly carried above, and stored in the sections. (6) Combs of sealed brood in which no eggs have been laid during the previous 10 days or 2 weeks may be used. Such combs are usually available toward the close of the swarming season from colonies that have swarmed 10 days or 2 weeks before. This plan is especially desirable when the beekeeper runs short of hives during the swarming season. In_ some localities, however, the character of the flow is such that the colonies may later again pre- pare to swarm when hived on either empty combs or combs of sealed brood. EXTREME CONTRACTION OF THE BROOD CHAMBER WHEN HIVING SWARMS. Some beekeepers contract the brood chamber, when hiving swarms, to five or six frames, the remaining space being filled by means of division boards or ‘‘dummies.”” This reduction in the capacity of the brood chamber results in practically all the honey being stored in the supers and also restricts brood rearing at a time when the resulting bees develop too late to become gatherers. This is espe- cially adaptable to locations furnishing an early flow of white honey followed by a later flow of darker honey. The white or more market- able honey is stored in the supers and later the brood chamber is expanded and provisioned for winter with the less desirable honey. 503 34 COMB HONEY. Some beekeepers accomplish a somewhat similar result by hiving two swarms together in a single hive body. When practicing contraction it is best to give the full amount of room at the time of hiving the swarm and to reduce the space three or four days later, as otherwise the bees are apt to ‘‘swarm out” because of their cramped quarters. Since contraction of the brood chamber is but a temporary expedient, it should not be continued beyond the time that its use is of advantage. If there should be a later honey flow, the brood chamber should be expanded in time to rear the bees for it. In any event, contraction should not continue so long as to interfere with securing the proper conditions of the colonies for winter (p. 21). Frames of foundation, empty combs, frames of brood or honey may be used to complete the set of combs when expanding the brood chamber, and these are usually given just before or at the close of the honey flow. Contraction of the brood chamber to less than one hive body, except in hiving swarms, is not usually advisable. Swarm Control by Manipulation. Swarm control by manipulation enables the beekeeper to operate a series of apiaries by visiting each at certain intervals, thus eliminat- ing the necessity of an attendant in each apiary during the swarming season. The fact that bees usually, by the construction of queen cells, indicate about a week in advance their intention to swarm, enables the beekeeper to control swarming by examining each colony once a week during the swarming period and forestalling the colonies that are making preparations to swarm. It is also possible to manipu- late all the colonies before any swarming occurs so that most of them go through the honey flow without swarming, thus eliminating the weekly examinations. Any manipulation for swarm control, whether applied after the colony has acquired the ‘‘swarming fever’’ or applied to all colonies alike previous to the swarming season, is based upon the single principle—a temporary disturbance in the continuity of the daily emergence of brood. This disturbance should occur just previous to or during the swarming season. In natural swarming the brood and the swarm are separated, the swarm being without hatching brood during a period of three weeks. The brood from which the swarm came may be allowed to emerge in a separate hive and the resulting bees may then be returned to the swarm (p. 29). In this way the swarming instinct is satisfied, at least temporarily, without materially decreasing the population of the colony. The beekeeper may antici- pate swarming by removing the brood from the hive, allowing it to emerge in a separate hive and finally returning these young bees to 503 COMB HONEY. 85 the colony in the same manner as is done with the natural swarm. Under the same conditions the subsequent behavior of a colony treated in this way is similar to that of a natural swarm. In either case there has been a break in the continuity of the emergence of young bees in the hive during a period of three weeks. Instead of hiving a natural swarm upon empty combs or frames of foundation, combs of emerging brood (without queen cells) taken from a colony that has been queenless during a period of 10 to 15 days may be used (p. 33) and a similar condition may be had without swarming by removing all of the brood and substituting such combs of emerging brood, thus at least temporarily avoiding swarming. In these cases there is a break of 10 to 15 days in the continuity of the daily emergence of bees. A similar interruption of brood rearing may be accomplished by removing the queen from the hive or caging her within the hive during a period of 10 days or 2 weeks, then returning her to the combs. In this case no queen cells must of course be allowed to mature. A con- dition similar to this may be obtained: without removing the queen by dividing the brood chamber into two parts with queen-excluding metal, for a period of 10 to 15 days. The brood from the division containing the queen is then removed and the bees, together with the queen, shaken into the other (queenless) division, the queen cells if any being first destroyed. The brood thus removed may later be returned to the colony in the form of young bees in the usual manner (p. 29). Even the destruction of the sealed brood by uncapping it has been advised as a means of swarm control. This gives a period of about 12 days during which few or no young bees emerge. These methods are illustrative of the principle employed in the various methods of control by manipulation, which may be classified under three general headings: (1) Taking the queen from the hive. (2) Taking the brood from the hive. (3) Separating the queen and brood within the hive. The following methods of swarm control are given for the purpose of illustrating the various types of control by manipulation. It is not to be understood that all the methods given are equally adaptable to any locality or season, but it is hoped that, presented in this way, the beekeeper may more readily see the principle underlying each plan as well as the basic principle underlying all the plans and thereby be better enabled to elaborate a system of control to meet his particular requirements. TAKING THE QUEEN FROM THE HIVE. The temporary removal of the queen from the colony for the required time (p. 36) and the return of the same queen is a method which has been used in swarm control. Of course, no queen cells 503 36 COMB HONEY. should be permitted to develop in the meantime. _ Stch colonies may. prepare to swarm again, especially if the period of queenlessness is not more than 10 days. The method is a valuable one, however, and may be used at any time during the season on colonies making prepara- tions to swarm. Dequeening in connection with requeening.—Requeening each colony with a young queen early in the season may greatly reduce the per- centage of colonies that attempt to swarm but can not be relied upon as a method of complete control since during a good and prolonged honey flow quite a number of such colonies prepare to swarm. If each, colony is requeened with a young queen at the beginning of the honey flow, after having been queenless for 10 or 15 days, there will probably be very little if any swarming during an ordinary season. This method is not in general use among beekeepers, largely because of the difficulty in so timing the operation that there will be no loss. The following are illustrative of the various adaptations of requeening in connection with a period of no brood rearing. (1) Just previous to the honey flow and at about the time that heavy brood rearing is no longer desirable, remove the queen from each colony. (a) Eight or ten days later destroy all queen cells but one and allow the colony to requeen itself, or (6) destroy all queen cells 8 or 10 days after removing the queen, then after 3 to 6 days supply each colony with a ‘‘ripe’’ queen cell (one in which the queen is ready to emerge), a virgin queen, or a young laying queen. It is usually desirable that the interval of queenlessness be as short as possible without defeating its purpose. Some beekeepers give a young laying queen 10 days after removing the old one, or a virgin or ripe cell considerably earlier, sometimes even at the time the old queen is removed, while others prefer a period of at least 14 days before giving either a laying or a virgin queen. However, colonies with virgin queens sometimes swarm even though no other queen cells or larve from which to rear a queen are present. Another objection to the use of queen cells or virgin queens for this purpose is that some of the queens fail to emerge and some virgin queens fail to mate, thus leaving the colony hopelessly queenless. For these reasons, some prefer to have the young queens mate and begin to lay in ‘“‘nuclei’”’ (very small colonies) before intro- ducing‘ them in the strong colonies. This method may be used for the entire apiary at the beginning of the honey flow or it may be applied only to those colonies making preparations to swarm. (2) Use two hive bodies as a brood chamber before the honey flow, uniting if necessary to secure strong colonies. At the beginning of the honey flow divide each colony, leaving the field bees and most of 1 These young laying queens may be introduced into the colony by the ordinary indirect or caging method (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 447, p. 44) or together with a comb of brood and adhering bees from the nucleus from which she was mated. . 503 COMB HONEY. 37 the brood on the old stand in one hive body, placing the queen, remaining brood, and enough bees to care for it in the other hive body which is set beside the first. The supers are of course given to the queenless colony on the old stand, which after the proper interval of queenlessness is allowed to requeen itself or is requeened by the beekeeper as in (1): above. The colony containing the old queen may be used to strengthen the storing colony by shifting its position from one side of it to the other (p. 31), or used for increase. (3) Ten days before the honey flow is expected to begin, put most of the brood into a single hive body, on this a queen excluder, and over this a second hive body with a frame of brood and the queen, the other combs of this set being empty except perhaps a little brood and honey. Nine or ten days later remove the upper story, supply it with a bottom board, and place it close beside the original hive. Destroy queen cells if any are present in the queenless portion which remains on the old stand, give a ripe queen cell, virgin queen, or a young laying queen, and put on the supers. The brood chamber containing the old queen may be used to make increase or its flying bees may be united with the storing colony (p. 31). By any of these methods there is a break of 10 to 15 days in the continuity of brood emergence in the brood chamber left on the old stand and the colonies are requeened with young queens—each a strong factor in swarm control and when combined should with rare exceptions result in no swarming. REMOVING THE BROOD FROM THE HIVE, Since removing the brood brings about conditions quite similar to that of natural swarming (p. 28), such a management of the colonies is practically identical with that of natural swarming. The use of the brood that is removed (p. 29), the question of what should be used in the brood chamber instead of the removed brood (p. 32), the contrac- tion of the brood chamber (p. 33), etc., have been discussed under natural swarming and need not be repeated here. While some of the plans using this principle may be applied to all the colonies in the apiary before swarming actually begins, the usual practice is to apply them only to such colonies as are making preparations to swarm. It should not be used on weak colonies, on colonies having a small per- centage of sealed and emerging brood and few young bees, on colonies in which the queen is failing, or on any colonies during a very poor season. Under any of these conditions it is usually better to dis- courage swarming by destroying queen cells (p. 27), by removing one or two frames of brood, or, if some control measure is finally necessary, by requeening such colonies after an interval of queenless- ness. On the other hand, for strong colonies having a high percent- age of sealed and emerging brood and a good queen the method 503 38 COMB HONEY. usually gives excellent results, since by its use the workers, queen, and supers are kept together during the flow. The following are some of the various plans employing this principle of swarm control: (1) Find the queen and put the comb on which she is found to one side, then shake the bees from most of the other combs into or in front of their hive. As the combs of brood are removed put frames containing either narrow strips or full sheets of foundation or combs into the hive and replace the supers. When most of the shaken bees are in the hive, place the queen among them. Put all the brood and the few bees remaining thereon into another hive close beside the shaken colony (fig. 17). Enough bees should be left on the combs of brood to care for it; usually two combs are not shaken at all, but placed in the other hive with all the adhering bees. For further disposition of the brood see page 29. (2) In order to avoid the trouble of finding the queen, the above plan may be varied by shaking and brushing all the bees from the combs so as to be sure that the queen is among them. In this case the brood may be utilized by one of the following plans: (a) Use it to build up weaker colonies (p. 31) or (b) place it in a hive body over a queen excluder on top of the forced swarm or some colony not being used for comb-honey production that can spare enough bees to care for it. In a short time bees will pass through the excluder and cover the brood, after which the hive body containing it is removed, supplied with a cover and bottom board, and placed at one side of the foreed swarm so that the emerging bees may later be added to the swarm. Or (c) after the shaking is complete, remove the forced swarm and put the hive body containing the brood tem- ~ porarily back on the original stand to induce field bees to enter it. Then in the evening set it aside and restore the swarm to its position on the old stand. These field bees will be able to prevent the brood being chilled during the night but in returning from the fields the next day will enter the hive on the old stand. In the meantime enough young bees will have emerged to care for the brood. (3) Removing all the brood and substituting frames containing narrow strips or full sheets of foundation sometimes results in the colony swarming out the next day. This may be avoided by remov- ing the brood in two installments with an interval of a few days between the two operations. When the brood is not all removed, full sheets of foundation or empty combs should be used or an excessive amount of drone comb will be built. With sectional hives, stand the brood chamber on end, smoke the bees out of the lower section, and remove it. Destroy queen cells in the upper-hive section. These will almost universally be found pro- jecting into the space between the two sections of the brood chamber. 503 COMB HONEY. 39 Substitute a new hive section containing empty combs or foundation for the removed section. After a few days remove the supers, smoke the bees out of the upper section, remove it, and add it to the section that was removed before, which at the time of its removal was given the usual position beside the colony (fig. 17). (4) Use two hive bodies as a brood chamber throughout the year except during the honey flow. Have both as well filled with brood as possible previous to the flow. About 10 days before the honey flow is expected to begin, insert a queen-excluding honey board (fig. 2) between the two hive bodies. The queen is now confined to a single one of the hive bodies. After 10 days transfer the queen ! to the other hive body placed on the old stand and put on the supers. Remove the hive body in which the queen has been confined to one side of the colony on the old stand and supply it with a ripe queen cell (in a protector) or a virgin queen. When the young queen begins to lay, exchange places with the two hive bodies so that the one containing the young queen now becomes the storing colony, giving it the supers and field bees. Shift the hive containing the old queen from one side to the other of the colony on the old stand about once a week, so that the entire flying force of both are at work in the hive with the supers (p. 31). At the close of the honey flow the old queen may be killed unless she is especially valuable and the two divisions may be reunited. The period of 10 days during which no eggs are laid in the hive body used by the storing colony at the beginning of the honey flow should delay swarming at least until the young queen begins to lay. When the other hive body with the young queen is substituted, it has had a similar period of no egg laying in addition to having a young laying queen, making a desirable combination. Mechanical devices—A number of mechanical devices have been described for shifting bees from one brood chamber to another. These permit the bees to leave the hive when going to the fields and are so arranged that the returning bees are led to enter the new brood chamber. This is accomplished by means of switches in the bottom board or by a chute or tube so attached that the entrance to the old brood chamber is closed, allowing exit only through the tube which opens near the entrance of the new brood chamber. In either case the hives are so arranged that the bees returning from the field readily enter the new brood chamber. The queen is found and together with a comb of brood and adhering bees is put into the new brood chamber, and the supers are transferred from the old to 1Tt is not necessary to find the queen, since the presence of unsealed brood indicates in which hive body she is confined. She may be transferred to the other hive body by shaking all the bees from the combs she is known to occupy in with the bees of the other hive body. In this case some bees are returned to the shaken combs (p. 38) before this brood is set aside, to prevent its being chilled. 503 40 COMB HONEY. the new brood chamber. The young bees as they learn to fly are added to the swarm by the same device. Otherwise the manipula- tion is the same as the other. methods described. SEPARATING THE QUEEN AND BROOD WITHIN THE HIVE. In some swarm-control methods neither the queen nor the brood » is removed from the hive, but these are temporarily separated within the hive. These methods are ordinarily used only on colonies making preparations to swarm and are practically equivalent to the dequeening plan. The following methods make use of this principle of swarm control: (1) The queen may be placed in a wire-cloth cage within the hive or may be confined to a small comb surface within the brood chamber by means of queen-excluding zinc. No queen cells are per- mitted to mature, and the queen is liberated after 10 to 15 days. (2) The queen together with a comb containing a small amount of brood is placed in a lower hive body containing no other frames or combs. After destroying all queen cells the brood is placed in a second hive body, the two hive bodies being separated by a queen- excluding honey board and the supers adjusted above the brood as before. The queen, being separated from the brood by means of the excluder, lays few eggs in the comb on which she is confined during this period of separation. After a week or 10 days the queen cells are again destroyed, and the brood and queen are put back into a single hive body as before. This method gives results quite similar to the dequeening method (p. 35). If every season were alike in a given locality the beekeeper could work out a manipulation to be applied to each colony just before or at the beginning of the honey flow, which would result in practically no swarming. The wide variation in the seasons, however, renders it next to impossible to adopt a swarm-control measure that will prove most profitable every year. The means of control adopted must be such as to favor the domination of the storing instinct. Probably the plan of making weekly visits is the most widely used system of swarm control by manipulation. When a colony is found preparing to swarm, the brood is removed if conditions are such as to justify doing so (p. 37). Otherwise the removal of the queen is resorted to. With any of these methods of control the colony may rapidly restore former conditions, and even though it has been diverted from swarming may later again prepare to swarm and require a second manipulation. Generally speaking, when the honey flow is short, less radical measures are required. Colonies that have been supplied with young queens after a period of queenlessness have one factor 503 COMB HONEY. 41 (the queen) changed with at least some degree of permanency. Cclo- nies that have been compelled to construct a new set of brood combs from narrow strips of foundation have the most radical change of condi- tions as to brood rearing. Either of these changes alone is usually sufficient to insure no further preparations to swarm. Manipulation of the Supers. Proper manipulation of the comb-honey supers is not only a strong factor in the prevention of swarming but is also a stimulus to storing. The amount of room the colonies should have in the surplus apart- ment varies so much that the ordinary standard super is simply a unit in a large and flexible surplus apartment. If enough surplus room is given at the beginning of the season for the storage of the entire crop of honey, the space so given is too great for best results at the beginning of the honey flow, and little of it is needed at all if the season is poor. If, on the other hand, a single super js given and no other added until the first is completed, the room in the surplus apart- ment decreases from the time the super is given until the combs are completely drawn out, when there is little space left between the combs, the bees being practically crowded out. Thus while the popu- lation of the colony is increasing their room is being diminished—a condition highly conducive to swarming and less energetic work. After the super is filled, it is some time before the honey is ripened and sealed, ready to be removed. During this interval, if no other supers are given, there is no place for storage of the incoming nectar, and the comb builders must remain idle or waste their wax in build- ing burr and brace combs. To avoid loss in this way, empty supers are added as they are needed, and the comb builders move from one super to another as their work in each is completed. The surplus apartment, whether consisting of a single super or several supers, should at all times contain some space for the comb builders. If the honey flow is heavy and promises to continue, it is desirable to furnish not only sufficient room but to induce the bees to begin work in as many sections as possible, giving large comb surface for the storage and evaporation of the thin nectar, thus in a measure approximating extracted honey conditions. There is a danger, however, that if the bees are induced to extend their work through too many supers, the sections when completed will be less well filled and therefore lighter in weight. Also, if the honey flow should not continue as expected a rapid expansion of the surplus apartment results in a large number of unfinished sections, The rapidity of the expansion of work in the supers may to some extent be regulated by the position of each newly added super. If a rapid expansion is desirable, the empty super is placed below the 503 42 COMB HONEY. supers already on the hive, while if it seems best to crowd the bees” somewhat the empty super is placed above those already on the hive. When the empty super is placed above the partly finished ones, the bees do not begin work therein unless they need the room. This practice is always desirable during a slow honey flow or toward the close of any honey flow, but when nectar is coming in rap- idly does not result in a rapid expansion of comb building sufficient to avoid a more or less crowded condition, which in turn causes a loss of honey and increases the probability of swarming. If each super is supplied with one or two extracting combs (p. 16), this disadvan- tage of the practice of placing the empty super on top largely disap- pears, since the extracting combs are immediately available for the storage of nectar. When the empty supers are placed under the partly filled ones, work in them is commenced promptly, but this may be at the expense of the nearly completed sections, which by this plan are moved farther from the brood chamber as each empty super is added. In Fic. 19.—Arrangement of supers. (Original.) the case of the super in which the honey Js being sealed this distance is an advantage in so far as the whiteness of the cappings is con- cerned, but it may retard the completion of the work. An arrange- ment of the supers that to some extent avoids this difficulty is as follows: Except toward the close of the season, place each newly added super next to the brood chamber and keep the one nearest completion just above it with all others arranged above these two, the one in which least progress has been made being on top (fig. 19). Thus super No. 1 is raised up and No. 2 placed beneath it. When No. 3 is given, it is placed next to the brood chamber, while above it is No. 1 with No. 2 on top. If No. 4 is given, it is placed next to the brood chamber with Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in order above it. By this arrangement, if conditions justify doing so, strong colonies may be induced to expand their surplus apartment with great rapidity, since as soon as the foundation is well drawn in each newly added 503 : COMB HONEY. - 43 super it may be transposed to the top and an empty one put in its place. Such rapid expansion of work in the supers should not be attempted, however, except during a heavy honey flow. If early in the honey flow the bees are storing rapidly, strong colo- nies should be given a second super as soon as work has been fairly begun in the first. Colonies of medium strength may of course be allowed to do considerable work in the first super before the second is given, while a weak colony may have sufficient room for comb building until the first super is almost completed. The first super should contain some empty comb when given to the colony, and each succeeding super should be given in advance of the time when the bees would be in any way crowded without it. At no time should all the sections be removed and new supers containing only founda- tion be given, but the surplus apartment should contain sections in all the various stages of development. In this way there is no break in the work in the supers, and the critical periods, so far as the super room bears upon the problems of swarming and energetic work, are largely eliminated. During the latter part of the honey flow the reasons for further expansion of the surplus apartment in excess of the immediate needs of the colonies (p. 41) no longer exist. At the beginning of a good honey flow the maximum of new work consistent with well- filled sections is desirable, while toward the close of the flow the bee- keeper desires the minimum of new work consistent with sufficient room. The precise period when further expansion of the surplus apartment is no longer desirable and a concentration of the work already begun should take place is sometimes difficult to determine, and to do so requires a thorough knowledge of the locality and good judgment on the part of the beekeeper. It is usually desirable to remove the honey as soon after it is finished as can well be done. [If it is left on the hives too long after it is finished, it is likely to become discolored or “travel stained,’ while if it is taken off too soon some of the sections are not completed. It is desirable that the honey be removed by entire supers instead of by individual sections, therefore conditions should be made as favorable as possible for the completion of all the sections in a super without the more advanced ones becoming ‘‘travel stained.’’ The bees are more inclined to stain the white surface of the combs toward the close of the honey flow or during very slow flows. Trouble from this source is at such time intensified because of the uneven progress of work in the different sections, the more advanced sections there- fore being sealed some time before the super is sufficiently advanced to justify its removal. Another form of discoloration is brought about by the honey being sealed in close proximity to old and dark 503 44 - COMB HONEY. brood combs, in which case some of the darker wax from the old combs is sometimes apparently used for capping the honey. During a good honey flow all except the last supers may be left upon the hives until all or nearly all of the sections of honey are sealed, since (1) there is little trouble from ‘travel stain’’ when work is progressing rapidly, (2) all the sections in the super are ready to be sealed at about the same time, and (3) when there are several supers on each hive the one in which the honey is being sealed is at least. one super removed from the brood combs. Toward the close of the honey flow all supers having most of their sections finished should be removed and the sections sorted. The unfinished sections should be graded according to the degree of com- pletion, the various grades placed in supers and given to such colonies as are most likely to finish them. Every effort should be made at this time to contract the surplus apartment, concentrating the work upon the sections nearest completion. All supers in which work has not yet been started should be removed and as soon as possible the surplus apartment of each colony should be reduced to one super. Though little room is necessary during the close of the honey flow, there should always be some room for the storage of new nectar until it isripened. For such conditions extracting combs are valuable, since, instead of giving the last comb-honey super in which little work would be done, a set of extracting combs may be placed over the sections to afford room for the incoming nectar and comb surface for its ripening. CARING FOR THE CROP. Removing the Honey from the Hives. If the honey flow is of considerable duration the major portion of the crop is removed before the flow ceases. At this time the removal of the finished supers is comparatively easy because the bees can readily be driven from them and also because the operator is not hindered in his work by robbing bees. At the close of the honey flow all the supers remaining upon the hives should be removed promptly, since to leave them on would result not only in some of the honey being carried down into the brood chamber but also in badly propolized sections. After the honey flow has ceased, great care should be exercised to keep bees from robbing. The use of bee- escapes (fig. 12) greatly facilitates the removal of the honey at any time, but their use is especially desirable in removing the honey remaining on the hives at the close of the honey flow. By their use the honey may be removed and stored in the honey house with little disturbance or excitement among the bees. The supers of 503 COMB HONEY. 45 honey should of course be taken directly to the honey house or kept well covered ! from robbers. Before finally storing the supers of honey in the honey room those that are but partly filled may have their sections removed and sorted. The unfinished sections that can not be disposed of at a profit locally are usually put back into supers and the honey they con- tain is fed to the bees. This feeding is done by simply exposing the supers where the flying bees can have access to them. If there are few supers compared with the number of colonies they should be placed in piles and only a small entrance allowed, since if free access were given to a large number of bees they would tear the combs to pieces. When the bees have finished removing the honey from these unfinished sections the latter may be stored for future use as ‘‘bait”’ sections. Care of Comb Honey. In the honey room the supers of honey should be placed in piles in such a manner as to allow a free circulation of air between them. This may be done by ‘‘sticking them up” as lumber is piled to dry or by placing alternate supers crosswise. The air in the honey room should be kept as dry as possible. This is usually accomplished by means of a high temperature, the honey room being located on the sunny side of the building or directly under the roof. The windows should be opened only during dry weather. Ventilation of the honey room is of no value except when the air that is admitted contains less moisture than that already present. Otherwise ventilation may be a positive detriment. If a protracted period of rainy or damp weather should occur while the honey is in this storage it may be necessary to use artificial heat to dry the air in the honey room. Any great variation in temperature should be avoided, since it may cause a condensation of moisture on the surface of the cappings which will be absorbed by the honey. Some beekeepers find it necessary to fumigate comb honey to prevent damage by the larve of the wax moth. For this purpose sulphur fumes or bisulphid of carbon may be used. If bisulphid of carbon is used, great care should be taken not to bring it near a flame, as it is highly inflammable. Scraping Propolis from Sections. Before being packed for market the sections of honey should be removed from the supers and the wood scraped free of propolis. A 1 Honey from out-apiaries should be loaded for transportation in such a manner that the bees can not get at it, then before the horse is hitched to the wagon the load of honey should be drawn by hand some distance from the apiary if the slope of the ground will permit doing so. If this is not possible the horse may be attached by means of a long rope and the load drawn to a safe distance before the horse is hitched to the wagon. 508 46 COMB HONEY. convenient bench should be provided for this work, with a large shallow box or tray to catch the propolis as it is scraped from the sections. This work is usually done by hand, though a few producers have designed and are using machines for this purpose. Grading Comb Honey. The importance of properly grading and packing comb honey does not seem to be well understood by the average beekeeper. Some extensive buyers of comb honey find it profitable to regrade and repack practically all the comb honey they receive before sending it out to their trade. The producer of this honey of course bears this extra expense by receiving a lower price for his honey. The lack of uniformity of grading is to some extent a result of differences of opinion as to what should be the standard for the various grades. Grading rules have been of material aid toward greater uniformity, but various producers may use the same set of grading rules with very different results. It would be well if a single set of rules were in use, since honey from various localities may be sent to the same market. The grading rules in most common use are given in Farm- ers’ Bulletin 447, page 39. After scraping the propolis from the wood, each section of honey may be placed in a pile with others of its grade. Some put the sec- tions directly into the shipping cases as fast as they are scraped, but better grading can be done if each grade is put in a separate pile and the final grading all done by one person. By thus having a large number of sections in each grade from which to select there is greater opportunity for making the sections of honey in each case more nearly uniform as to weight and the various shades of finish. Such uniformity is especially desirable from the standpoint of the retailer. Sections containing only a few cells of pollen should be placed in a lower grade or sold as culls, while those containing a considerable amount of pollen should not be marketed in the form of comb honey. An excessive amount of pollen in the sections is usually caused by the use of very shallow brood combs, extreme contraction of the brood chamber, or hiving swarms on narrow strips of foundation in the brood frames with partly drawn comb in the sections (p. 32). Packages for Comb Honey. Comb honey is usually packed in cases holding 24 sections (fig. 20). Other sizes are sometimes used to meet special market require- ments. The markets have become accustomed to cases with glass fronts, by means of which the contents are displayed to advantage. However, in keeping with present practice in other package goods, 503 COMB HONEY. 47 considerable comb honey is now placed on the market having each section inclosed in acarton. This practice, while losing the advan- tage of displaying the honey, has a decided advantage in insuring security from dust and insects while in the markets as well as greater safety to the fragile comb when the package is finally delivered to the consumer. Marketing. Many beekeepers are able to dispose of their entire output of honey in their local markets, some- times creating quite a de- mand for their product by advertising and demon- strating. Comb honey that is to be sent to a distant market should be shipped before cold weather, since the combs become extremely fragile when cold. Small lots should be crated in “‘carriers’’ holding several cases to prevent breakage by rough handling of individual cases, while in larger shipments the cases are simply packed in the car in such a manner that the individual cases can not be thrown about by the movement of the car. O Fic. 20.—Shipping cases for comb honey. (From Phillips.) CIP Ad Sa ey Lae ee + ve yo Issued October 18, 1912, Eo DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS’ BULLETIN 512. THE BOLL WEEVIL PROBLEM, Wiest ecivwne ERENCE RO MEANS OF REDUCING DAMAGE. BY WwW. D. HUNTER, In Charge of Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. ; 1912 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DeparrmMent or AGRICULTURE, 3UREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, Washington, D. C., June 29, 1912. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a paper by Mr. W. D. Hunter, in charge of southern field crop insect investigations in this bureau, dealing with the boll weevil, especially with reference to means of reducing its damage. This manuscript is a revision of Farmers’ Bulletin 344, issued January 23, 1909, and is intended to supersede that publication. The data have been revised, certain new matter has been added, and the paper now includes results of investigations carried on since the original date of publication of Farmers’ Bulletin 344. I recommend that this manuscript be published as a Farmers’ Bulletin. Respectfully, L. O. Howarp, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. Hon. James WIson, Secretary of Agriculture. 512 2 CONTENT S: [iliReGhCti@iAR ekSGnaas ac aeee ANe wee cag a doko os Ae eee eee IDBIRYORs ¢ SAS Sa aE SoS oR eS CREO BECO D Oe a Ue ea HSS E Se See eee eee “PUSS STNELE Siac dre acerca ge OS ee er Monkipon which this bulletin js based 458 22.254. 4.) 2.2.25. 2222-4258 - Description and life history of the boll weevil. ~...............-----....--- MER McRrer irs TIM Peo tase. fm, es, 48 Semen fl oe. hs es ts a How nature assists in destroying the boll weevil............--.-...----------- Dissemination. .... ache fil Wicd YRS ret ie teal ap aa OS NA ee aR peer Ole eee ee AA Se ere a hates Bap Seite ce oes ge Soc Se Methods of destroying weevils in the fall: ...... ...1..--.-----2sese------+5- Destruction of weevils in hibernating places..........---.-.-.-.--- py ae, Se Locating fields to avoid weeyil damage.............-.------.----------+- LER TAD EN TLO TT se Oe ae ee emparaUU ee CAREY ChOP ls os aca stars 5 stsiers sale wen oe Sols Sea gie eens ames Additional expedients in hastening'the. crop../...--.----.-----2+sss-++-02- pmecial devices tor destroyine Weevils... 2.5 <5. soc. e sw ese geet ses ane TESTE [gC to a etch al SR ene TOG PETG WOE ETE eae Pee tet ee ae ea Sees. Coranelcal-wornt and WO WCCVI = 2. <<. om: fas cess cae aecgesteens- see Westrovaug, Lue weevil ImcoOttom seed —. 2... ss. en ne oe ew ewe os ees 2 Relation of means of controlling the boll weevil to the control of other ete CLS Re ert et Sate es te ae sph = i= Sipe eee REPS Dee Generslwconiral .arough, Qmarantines..\.....5-.5..2-s2- 26+ -o5+ 2 geese Pireniprs topoisom the boll weevil. 2.05 ses ee nace eaten n sete Degree rca spre eee ner ee ee re Oe a wee ease Simin cs oe aebeaot aoe SOe OURS Bae BARC SS Ope BASSE IES Re oer a eee eae ree Pe ciaiheal Mem Of SMA ALCAN 5. oa. scuwecinaae cele as sia saciid oe oss - eee oe 512 3 > bob bo ON HrGeele “I o> Oo 9. ILLUSTRATIONS: Map showing area infested by boll weevil in 1911 and du-ing various preceding ‘years. - 26 0l5idc 68.5 oO ee ee . Cotton. boll weevil: Beetle... .255°2°522. 4.3. ee eee . Cotton boll weevil: ‘Larva, pupa ..-. 6225222. Sa. Seo . Cotton square showing egg puncture of boll weevil and “flaring” of brats 22's ES. Ss oe ee ee ee ae eee . Cotton square showing boll-weevil larva in position ............------- . Chain cultivator, side views 2-22 ieee cee eee ee ee ee . Work of the chain cultivator: Cotton row before use of cultivator, showing dallen squares, crack, and rough condition of ground...-..-- . Work of the chain cultivator: Same row shown in fig. 7, after culti- vator has passed; majority of squares brought to middle, crack filled, and dust mulch established . ....2: 722222. 2---ssee- = see eee Apparatus for fumigating cotton seed in the sack...............-...- 512 4 33 38 THE BOLL WEEVIL PROBLEM, WITH SPECIAL REFER- ENCE TO MEANS OF REDUCING DAMAGE. INTRODUCTORY. This bulletin, dealing with work done under the direction of Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, is intended to cover in a general way the whole field of the control of the boll weevil. As this control is inseparably connected with the life his- tory and habits of the insect and, in fact, must be based thereon, attention is given to the principal features of the insect’s economy. in addition, information is given relating to the amount of damage done, the extent of the infested territory, and such other matters as are of special interest at this time. Like many of the most important injurious insects in this country, the cotton boll weevil is not a native of the United States. Its origi- nal home was undoubtedly in the plateau region of Mexico or Central America, and it may originally have fed upon some plant other than cotton. This is not necessarily the case, however, since there is evidence that the same region is the original home of the cotton plant itself. Previous to 1892 the insect had spread through Mexico, but little is known regarding the extent or rapidity of this disper- sion. The recor@s indicate, however, that it had probably caused the abandonment of cotton in certain regions. About 1892 the boll weevil crossed the Rio Grande near Brownsville, Tex. It may have flown across, or it is possible that it was carried over in seed cotton to be ginned at Brownsville. By 1894 it had spread to a half dozer: counties in southern Texas and was brought to the attention of the Bureau of Entomology. ae — ears aera aS KP i, ‘Savok Sulpod0id SHOTIvA SULINP PUB TIGL UL [fAveA [[OG vy} AQ pojsoyUT vore SuUTMOYS dey—'T “91 aLaay stk Sy i‘ Pa = i: wy, Say Wie Ne - CL a) () mt : "7 A) Wat LAT PLD AeA RSOSSA IY A SY | JS Sam ; ms ae) ; | [ Se 3 ; ah FoR ee ee gn Roa AN SES =, risk To a a al =e z 4 512 8 THE BOLL WEEVIL PROBLEM. is 0.06 bale, or 80 pounds of lint per acre each year. At prices current through the period this means an annual loss, without con- sidering the value of the seed, of at least $2.70 per acre which has been sustained by the cotton planters of Texas. Assuming that the area planted in cotton in Texas has averaged 10,000,000 acres, the annual loss for the State for the period from 1902 to 1911 has been $27,000,000. Another tangible indication of the manner in which the weevil has affected cotton production is revealed by a comparison of statistics from Louisiana and Texas. From 1899 to 1904 the acreage in Texas and Louisiana increased at about the same proportion, but the crop in Texas decreased at the same time that the crop of Louisiana was increasing. There is an exception to this statement in the years 1900 and 1904, in which the production in Texas did not decrease, but these years were exceptionally unfavorable for the weevil and at the same time very favorable for the general growth of the cotton. In 1907 the yield per acre in Texas (0.24 bale) was the smallest in her history. This followed a winter so mild that more than the usual number of weevils overwintered. Undoubtedly for several years the boll weevil has caused a loss of about 400,000 bales of cotton annually. Although farmers in older regions, in many cases, are increasing their production, there is loss in the newly infested regions which offsets that gain. = ee . Adult female stable fly as seen from above...........-.-.------------ . Adult female stable fly asseen from the side:....: 2.252.252 --= seer Legs ofa steer atiacked#by the stable fly 2-222. Sa222+2--+ - eee . Horses with one form of covering used to protect them from the stable fly - . The Hodge flytrap, showing where the flies enter...............---.-- . The Hodge flytrap fitted to a barn window. -..2-=.-.-. 2-32 ---2 eee . Pile of flies caught in a Hodge flytrap...........-..---.-------2-50- 540 4 WA Site E FLY, INTRODUCTORY. The wide distribution of the stable fly (Stomozys calcitrans L.), its intimate association with man, and its close resemblance to the so- called house fly or typhoid fly (Musca domestica L.) have led many to consider it identical with that species. Not until the stable fly becomes so numerous as greatly to harass live stock, or until the acute pain which accompanies the insertion of its proboscis is felt by the farmer himself, is man usually brought to a realization of the presence of a fly different from that distributor of typhoid germs, the common house fly. Severe outbreaks of the stable fly have led many to ob- serve the flies more closely and to note their identity. Thus many individuals in certain sections speak of the stable fly as the ‘‘wild fly,” “straw fly,” or ‘‘biting house fly,” to differentiate it from the ordinary house fly. The common name “stable fly” is applied to it because of its continual presence around stables, except during cold weather, and its comparative scarcity about the dwellings of man. Until very recently the stable fly received little attention at the hands of the entomologist or others. The recent demonstration by Drs. Rosenau and Brues of the possibility of the transmission of a distress- ing disease of man, known as infantile paralysis, through the agency of this fly, greatly stimulated interest in the study of the insect. A similar effect was also produced by the possible connection of this pest with the transmission of pellagra in man, as pointed out by Messrs. Jennings and King of the Bureau of Entomology. The inves- tigations of authorities in this and other countries indicate that an important relation exists between certain diseases of domestic ani- mals and this fly. Aside from the réle played by the insect in disease transmission, it is an all-too-common and persistent pest to domestic animals. It will thus be seen that the stable fly may be of impor- tance in three ways, namely, as a tormentor of live stock, as a carrier of diseases of domestic animals, and as a transmitter of diseases in man. DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE. The stable fly is one of the most widely distributed of insects. It appears to occur commonly in all parts of the world inhabited by man and the larger domestic animals. In those parts of the tropical, sub- 540 5 6 THE STABLE FLY. tropical, and temperate regions in which domestic animals are reared, especially where those animals are kept in considerable numbers, the fly is a pest of importance. The absence of severe cold in the winters and the moist warm conditions prevailing in many of the countries bordering on the Tropics allow almost continual breeding; hence in these regions the fly is of importance throughout the entire year. The stable fly has been in the United States for many years. Although it is probable that it was introduced from Europe with live stock brought here by the earliest colonists, we have no definite knowledge regarding its first occurrence in this country. The strong flight of the fly and its close association with domestic animals has permitted it to spread to all parts of the country. The abundance of the species appears to be dependent largely upon local and seasonal conditions. In the southern part of the United States the insect is a pest of more or less importance throughout the year, but is usually most abundant in the latter part of the summer and during the fall. In the North and West it seldom becomes suf- ficiently numerous to cause annoyance to stock until the latter part of the summer and the early fall, the injury diminishing rapidly after heavy frosts. It appears that the fly is of much more importance as a pest in the grain belt than elsewhere. This point will be discussed more fully in another part of the paper. From time to time climatic and other conditions have been favor- able for the production of flies in great numbers, but little definite information is at hand regarding severe outbreaks which occurred prior to 1912. Old residents in the north-central part of Texas state that exceedingly large numbers of flies were present during the sum- mer of 1867. Another outbreak occurred in parts of Texas in 1894 or 1895, and in 1905 the flies were again numerous enough to cause serious loss. Notes have been published from time to time, in early entomological papers, on the injuriousness of this insect. In September, 1888, we find in Insect Life a reference to it as a pest to horses in Oregon. The correspondent in this case stated that the fly made its appear- ance at Salem, Oreg., two or three years before, though this informa- tion can scarcely be considered as reliable. This same issue of Insect Life also includes the statement that in the spring of 1888 the fly was reported to have caused considerable annoyance to cattle in Maryland and New Jersey. In Kansas and Nebraska it has been determined that it is a pest of some importance every year throughout the grain belt of those States, but occasionally it appears in much greater numbers than normal. Statements made by farmers in other sections of the country where grain is grown extensively, notably in the Dakotas 540 THE STABLE FLY. 7 and Minnesota, indicate that the fly is sufficiently numerous nearly every year to cause considerable trouble. In the Southwestern States it sometimes becomes very abundant, although records of serious outbreaks have not been made. In central and southern Louisiana it is often very annoying to all live stock. This is especially true in the region where rice is grown extensively. It appears from investigations conducted in the central part of Florida that the stable fly is seldom present in sufficient numbers to attract attention. Prof. C. P. Gillette, of the Colorado Agricultural College, says in a recent letter, ‘‘Possibly the common stable fly is really the worst pest [of live stock in Colorado] on account of its being so abundant and ever present.’’? In northern Colorado and southern Wyoming, at altitudes of from 5,000 to 7,500 feet, the writer has observed the insect to annoy horses and cattle greatly during the latter part of summer. From a statement made by Prof. J. M. Aldrich we learn that it is troublesome to cattle in Idaho, and Prof. R. W. Doane states that it is one of the worst fly pests to live stock in California. THE SEVERE OUTBREAK OF THE STABLE FLY IN 1912. During the late summer and early fall of 1912 an unprecedented outbreak of this pest occurred in northern Texas. The area of greatest abundance was practically coextensive with regions where grain was extensively produced that season. The most severe injury was experienced in Grayson, Cook, Collin, and Denton Counties, in northern Texas. The fly was also abundant as far south as Hill County and as far west as Wichita County, and in parts of southern Oklahoma it also caused much alarm. In certain parts of Kansas and Nebraska it was also said to be more abundant than normal. In Texas the flies appear to have become seriously numerous about August 12 and the outbreak to have continued in its severe form until the end of August. Fles were, however, very numerous throughout September and the greater part of October, but rapidly diminished after cold weather began. Under a number of the suc- ceeding topics reference is made to conditions which prevailed during this outbreak. Some of these illustrate the severity of the pest during such an occurrence. A study of the conditions existing in northern Texas during 1912 showed that the flies were breeding to a great extent in straw stacks. Unusually heavy rains occurred in the early part of August, and as most of the straw was freshly threshed and had not become settled, the rain deeply penetrated the stacks. The straw became heated immediately and formed very attractive breeding places for flies. The grain crop of 1912 was one of the largest ever produced in Texas, and as the straw was also heavy a great number of straw stacks 540 8 THE STABLE FLY. were present to furnish their quota of the pest. In fact, the flies were so numerous around these stacks that many men in plowing their fields avoided, so far as possible, the portions adjacent to them. Although the stacks dried out rapidly on the surface, the straw beneath continued moist for several months, and flies continued to emerge from these stacks where the straw was not destroyed or where breeding was not otherwise prevented. Dr. L. O. Howard published a note a few years ago calling atten- tion to a report by Prof. Iches on an invasion by this fly of a large estate in the Province of Santa Fe, Argentina. This occurrence appears to have been very similar to the recent outbreak in Texas. The flies were found by Prof. Iches to be breeding in wheat and flax straw after threshing. HOSTS. Practically all warm-blooded animals are attacked by this insect. Some of our domestic species, however, are much freer from injury than are others, owing to protection afforded the host by its hair or by some habit. Mules in general seem to be more annoyed by the flies than any of the other domestic live stock. Horses and cattle are, however, heavily attacked and often suffer severe injury. Those animals which are not easily disturbed and irritated act as hosts for a greater number of flies, but the result is probably not so serious as with more nervous individuals, which are consequently more easily worried. Sheep and goats are attacked on parts of the body not protected by wool, particularly the legs. Hogs are often attacked, especially when they are free in pastures. The flies are not attracted to the hog pens as are house flies, and where the animals have access to mud they are seldom bitten to any great extent except when flies are extremely abundant. Dogs and cats have also been seen with flies feeding upon them. Dogs with thin hair are exceedingly sus- ceptible to injury and are greatly worried by the attacks. In some cases the flies become sufficiently numerous, especially on the ears, where they are inclined to feed most commonly, to cause the blood to trickle from the bites. In a few instances chickens have been seen with flies feeding upon their combs; however, healthy poultry are so active, as well as so largely protected, that they are seldom annoyed. Man is also frequently attacked by this pest, although the attack is usually quickly discovered on account of the pain caused by the insertion of the beak. During severe outbreaks men engaged in field work are often greatly annoyed by the flies, which not only attack exposed portions of the body but are able to bite through shirts or other comparatively thin garments as well. The flies also frequently attack the ankles of people, especially when low shoes are worn. 540 THE STABLE FLY. 9 CHARACTER OF INJURY AND LOSSES. As has been indicated, this fly is of importance in a number of ways. There is little doubt that it is a potent factor in disease transmission, although it has been definitely proven to carry only a few diseases. Among live stock there is no doubt that the tropical disease of camels, horses, and cattle known as surra is transmitted by this insect. This disease fortunately does not occur in this country, but unless great care is exercised in importing stock it may be introduced at any time. Another related disease of cattle, horses, and sheep, known as souma, and still another malady of hogs and cats are carried, at least in part, by this same insect. In this country anthrax in domestic animals and man is also probably disseminated to some extent by this fly. Some investigators also consider it to be an agent in transmission of septicemia in man and glanders in horses and other animals, and the disease known as infectious #nemia or swamp fever of horses is thought by some to be carried by this pest. A number of years ago it was found to act as an intermediate host for a species of roundworm which infests cattle. Thus it will be seen that the transmission of a for- midable array of diseases is chargeable to this one species of biting fly. Aside from its importance as a disease conveyor this insect is of much importance on account of the worry produced by its bites. During severe outbreaks this is probably the most important factor in bringing about losses. During periods of great abundance all live stock are compelled to keep up a constant fight against flies from early morning until dark. At such times the flies are not only present around barns but in towns and cities and open fields. Animals which are being worked in the streets or kept in stables suffer alike. During the severe outbreak which occurred in 1912 many horses and cattle became so weak that they gave up the fight against the pest and the flies swarmed over them in countless numbers. In a few of these cases, where the animals were not promptly protected from attack, they succumbed in a short time. The loss of blood during severe outbreaks is a very important consideration. When fully engorged the abdomen of the fly is greatly distended, and it has been found that the blood extracted at one feeding is soon digested and the fly is ready for another meal. Thus animals continually exposed must serve to engorge thousands of individuals each day, each of the flies ingesting several drops of blood during a meal. In the portion of the United States where Texas fever occurs, in addition to the live stock actually killed by worriment and loss of blood, a considerable number of cattle are lost from Texas fever. In most of these animals, although the disease organisms are latent in the blood, no apparent injury would result under conditions favorable to live stock. Under the strain of continually fighting the flies and 90491°—Bull. 540—13-——2 10 THE STABLE FLY. with the weakened condition brought about by the loss of blood, however, an acute form of Texas fever is induced. When animals begin to suffer from the fever they are less energetic in fighting the flies and consequently become the more ready victims. During the outbreak in 1912 acute Texas fever was certainly produced as a result of fly attack. Owing to the continual biting of the insect the fever could not be reduced in many cases and the animals speedily died. During severe outbreaks the loss brought about by the reduction of the milk supply in fly-infested zones is an important item. In the 1912 outbreak many dairymen found that their output of milk was reduced from 40 to 60 per cent, and that in some cases cows were completely dried up. For several months after the pest had abated, the effects of the outbreak were apparent in the reduced milk produc- tion. Even in cows which freshened several months after the pest had abated, the effect on milk yield was said to be still apparent. During 1912 all animals in the fly zone were greatly reduced in flesh. Cattle which were fat enough for market in many cases were so much reduced that they could not be sold. Horses and mules in many cases lost from 10 to 15 per cent in weight during the outbreak. Some dairy herds which were usually shown at the State fair suffered such marked injury that they were not fit for exhibit. In many cases the joints of both horses and cattle became so swollen and stiff, from standing in water where they sought protection from flies, that they could scarcely walk. The incessant stamping of the animals also had the effect of injuring the feet and joints. A number of liverymen found it necessary to discontinue making drives into the country, and some of their animals were completely disabled for regular work. Another source of loss to farmers was their inability to proceed with their usual farm plowing and other operations at the proper time. In many sections the flies were so bad on the horses that they could not stand both the work and flies. Some men resorted to night work as a means of escaping the attack, but this was too severe for the teams, as the flies allowed them no rest during the day. Numerous instances of horses becoming frantic from irritation were recorded; these often resulted in runaways and consequent destruction. Ani- mals which were not being worked sometimes received injuries from running into barbed wire fences in endeavoring to escape the flies. The total loss due to the outbreak in 1912 is difficult to estimate. It is believed that in northern Texas over 300 head of cattle, mules, and horses were killed directly or indirectly as the result of the fly attack. This actual death loss may be conservatively placed at $15,000. The loss due to the reduction in milk supply may reason- ably be placed at $10,000, and other losses far surpass these two items. Moreover, these were the losses experienced only in the few 540 THE STABLE FLY. et counties in northern Texas where the fly was most abundant and does not include the more or less serious injury sustained in practically all parts of the United States. ACTION OF ANIMALS ATTACKED. All animals are usually greatly annoyed by the attack of this fly. Less nervous individuals sometimes permit the flies to feed without particular effort to drive them away, while others of more nervous temperament are driven almost frantic by the attack. In general, mules seem to be worried rather more than horses, and most cattle are less irritated than either mules or horses. Sheep and goats are much annoyed by the presence of the insect, but because they are largely protected by the wool they are able to keep the flies off their legs by frequently moving them. A great difference in the degree of annoyance produced among dogs has been noticed. Some individuals are greatly irritated by the presence of a single fly and frequently change their positions, going from one place to another to seek pro- tection. Horses and mules that are being driven sometimes pay little attention to flies, while in other cases they may lie down and roll or even run away in their frantic efforts to escape. During times of unusual fly abundance animals, when free in pastures, frequently bunch up on knolls where they are exposed to the wind and appar- ently secure some protection by contact and concerted fighting. When streams or pools of water are accessible both horses and cattle, particularly the latter, take to them for protection. Cows often lie down in the water so as to be almost completely covered, and the coating of mud obtained in such situations offers some protection from fly attack. Stock often temporarily rid themselves of most of their annoyers by running through trees and brush. If permitted to reach stables or barns, the animals usually crowd within and remain inside throughout the day. During the severe outbreak in 1912 it was almost impossible to get some animals to leave the stables and go into pastures, even after nightfall, on account of their fear of the flies. Although the bunching of the horses in the stable affords some pro- tection, yet this by no means exempts them from fly injury, as the pest is often as bad within such places as without. Sheep and hogs exhibit similar habits in endeavoring to secure protection; they often lie in close groups in shady places and keep their heads and legs pro- tected by placing them against or beneath one another. When mud- holes are accessible, hogs largely escape the flies by lying in the water and becoming covered with mud. It is possible to determine, even at considerable distances, by watching the actions of the animals, whether the stable fly or horn fly is bothering cattle. When the stable fly is present the continual 540 if THE STABLE FLY. stamping of the feet and striking at the legs with the head and tail indicate the point of attack, while when the horn fly is present the animals pay particular attention to the back and sides. The bite of the stable fly is evidently much more severe than that of the horn fly, as it causes very great annoyance even when the flies are present in much fewer numbers. SUMMARY OF LIFE HISTORY. Like all other flies, this species has four stages in its life history, namely, the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The egg.—The eggs of this fly are elongate ovoid and of a creamy white color. They are about one twenty-fifth of an inch in length and under a mag- nifying glass show a distinct furrow along one side. - When placed on any moist sub- stance they hatch in from one to three days after being deposited. In hatching a small slit is made around one end of the groove, and the minute mag- got crawls out. Figure 1 shows four eggs on a piece of straw; the Fig. 1.—Eggs of the stable fly (Stomorys calcilrans) attached to a straw. two at the right Greatly enlarged. (Original). Hila hiateheee The larva, or maggot.—When first hatched the larve, or maggots, are about one-twelfth of an inch in length and, being translucent, are not easily seen with the naked eye. Development takes place fairly rapidly when the proper food conditions are available, and the growth is completed within eleven to thirty or more days. When full grown the larve (fig. 2) are pale yellow or nearly white and about four-fifths of an inch in length. They have the typical shape and action of most maggots of this group of flies. The hind end is large and the body tapers to the head. The larva moves quite rap- idly by means of minute projections on the edge of each segment along its underside. When exposed to the light it quickly dis- appears again in the straw or other matter in which it is breeding. 540 THE STABLE FLY. 13 The pupa.—When the larve are full grown they shorten and become thicker, and the skin contracts and hardens to form the case in which the transformation to the adult is to take place. This puparium, or pupal case, is rather soft and yellowish at first but soon becomes harder and changes to a reddish brown color. It is elongate oval, slightly thicker toward the head end, and from one-sixth to one-fourth of an inch in length (fig. 3). During this stage the insect is com- pletely dormant, the transformation from maggot to adult fly going on within the puparium. This rest- ing stage requires from six to twenty days, or in cool weather considerably longer. The adult.—When the fly has completed its de- velopment within the puparium it pushes its head against the end until the shell splits open. It then crawls out as an adult fly but so different from the fly ordinarily seen that one would scarcely recognize it. The color is pale and the head considerably pro- duced in front between the eyes. At this time the wings are only small, wrin- kled sacs. In a few minutes air is forced into the wings, and they slowly unfold, the fly becomes gradually darker in color, and its body becomes harder. Up to this time the beak is not visible, as it is bent downward between the legs. Tt soon becomes almost black and is brought forward in its natural position so that the tip may be seen from above. 2 C4 Fic. 3.—The stable fly: Pupa. sixteenthsof an inch in length. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) Fia. 2.—The stable fly: Larva or mag- got. Greatly en- larged. (Original.) When completely dried out the adults show four rather distinct, dark, longitudinal mark- ings on the thorax, as well as several dark spots on the abdomen. The male is usually slightly smaller than the female, the body of which measures from one-fourth to five- The adult,as seen from above, is shown in figure 4, and a side view of a female specimen engorged with blood is shown in figure 5. This insect is closely related to the house fly, as can be readily seen by its close resemblance to that insect. It may be distinguished from the house fly, however, by the long, sharp, biting mouth parts, é 540 14 THE STABLE FLY. a portion of which may be seen projecting forward from beneath the head. The proboscis of the house fly is short and broad and not capable of piercing. The stable fly is usually slightly stouter than the house fly, and the spots on the abdomen also aid in distinguish- ing it from that species. The horn fly is also related to this species but is of much smaller size, and the color is considerably different. When on a host these TS Fig. 4.—The stable fly: Adult female as seen from above. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) flies may be readily differentiated by the attitudes they assume. The stable fly usually attacks the lower portions of the legs of its host and nearly always sits with the head up. The horn fly is more inclined to feed on the back and sides of the animal and always feeds with the head downward, while the house fly may be seen sitting in any position but never with its head pressed into the hair as though feeding. 540 THE STABLE FLY. 15 DEVELOPMENT AND HABITS. BREEDING PLACES. Horse manure has long been considered the normal breeding medium for this pest. Investigations made during the outbreak in 1912 showed clearly, however, that the vast majority of the flies bred out in straw stacks, and investigations made around stables and barns indicate that while the fly breeds in pure horse manure it favors a mixture of this substance with straw. The fly was found to be breeding in much greater abundance in oat straw than in wheat straw. This appeared to be due to the softer stems and the greater amount of leaves in the oat straw, which furnished better food and allowed the stacks to become more compact. Rice straw was also found to furnish suitable breeding conditions, and there is little doubt that barley and rye also often serve as food for the immature stages. , Fic. 5.—The stable fly: Adult female, side view, engorged with blood. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) As has been stated, it was found by Prof. Iches to breed in great numbers in the débris left after thrashing flax. A careful exami- nation of portions of alfalfa stacks which were moist and readily accessible to numbers of flies showed that they were not infested. This was also found to be true of accumulations of weeds and bunches of grass in open fields. It is probable, however, that the insect may occasionally breed in broken-up masses of hay or dead grass, especially when they are permeated with liquids from manure. The manure piles commonly found by stables where horses are kept furnish suitable breeding conditions. This is especially true in the early spring, when the warmth of the manure appears to be very attractive to the flies for egg layimg. Cow-lot manure which has be- come broken up, especially when mixed with waste feed, is also utilized as a breeding place for the insect. This has also been found to be true 540 16 THE STABLE FLY. of ensilage, particularly when mixed with straw, as is often the case when the bottom of a silo is cleaned out. Experimentally, a few specimens have been reared from pure cow manure, but this substance seems to be unattractive to the adult and not favorable for the breed- ing of the larve on account of its very compact texture. A Russian investigator, Prof. Portchinski, has made the statement that the larvee have been found in the leaves of growing plants. This, however, must be avery rare occurrence. ‘This species has never been found breeding in human excrement and does not frequent malodorous places, which are so attractive to the house fly. Hence it is much less likely to carry typhoid and other germs which may be found in such places. The development of this insect is somewhat slower than that of the house fly, and it is therefore more essential, in order that it may breed out successfully, that the eggs be deposited in rather large accumu- lations of material. The larve are very sensitive to drought and soon succumb if the material in which they are breeding is not kept rather moist. HABITS OF THE ADULT. Both the male and female of this species feed on the blood of ani- mals. They appear to discover their host mainly by sight and usually, especially on cattle, pass quickly to the lower portion of the legs (fig. 6), particularly on the outside, where the hair is somewhat shorter than on other parts of the animal and where they are less likely to be struck by the tail of the host. When the flies are very abundant their attack is by no means confined to the legs, as both cattle and horses have been seen practically covered with flies on all parts of the body. They seldom remain on the host long without inserting the beak. Before blood is extracted they are easily dis- turbed and often move about several times before settling down for final engorgement. After the beak is well inserted and the blood begins to flow they usually become engorged in from two to five min- utes. During feeding the abdomen becomes greatly distended (see fig. 5) and often of a distinctly reddish color. When the appetite of the fly has been satisfied it withdraws its beak and flies rather slug- gishly to some near-by object, where it rests while digesting its meal. During this process numerous drops of clear liquid excrement are voided. This also takes place while the fly is feeding. The inser- tion of the beak is accompanied by a rather severe, sharp pain. This accounts for much of the worriment caused to the host by this species. After blood extraction has begun little or no pain is felt. When the proboscis is withdrawn a drop of blood usually exudes from the wound. Numerous small flies have been seen to frequent the blood which exudes in this way, and it is not improbable that the screw-worm fly may deposit its eggs on these spots and thus cause infestation of the host with these maggots. 540 THE STABLE FLY. 17 During warm weather the blood is digested rapidly and the flies may feed again the same day. When the weather is cooler they usually require about a day for the digestion of the blood. After partaking of a meal the flies, during hot weather, ordinarily alight on the walls of buildings or on foliage of plants in shady situations. When the temperature is lower they remain in the sunlight, but in all cases they tend to avoid strong wind. Adults frequently follow for considerable distances teams trav- ersing roads and, when engorged, settle on near-by objects. Other teams which pass along the same highways are thus frequently at- tacked by flies which have completed the di- gestion of their previ- ous meal, and this has given rise to the idea that the flies are breed- ing in weeds, grass, and hedges along the highways. This isalso a means by which the flies invade territory beyond that in which they develop. Adults have also been ob- served to travel many miles in the passenger coaches of railways. Few individuals are Fig. 6.—Legs of a steer attacked by the stable fly. (Author’s : 5 C illustration. ) carried in this way, but doubtless the spread of the species is aided and, what is more impor- tant, diseases might be spread in this way by infected flies. Feeding may take place a number of times. Experimentally, individual flies have been induced to engorge as many as 14 times. Flies have been observed to partake of water and to feed to some extent on succulent fruit. They commonly feed on the moisture on fresh manure and on rotting straw. Although man is occasionally bitten by these flies, horses and cattle seem to be preferred as hosts. 540 18 THE STABLE FLY. REPRODUCTION. Mating of the flies takes place while they are not on hosts, and egg laying soon follows, provided the flies have fed a sufficient number of times. It seems that at least three feedings on blood are necessary for the production of eggs. After the third meal is digested the flies seek suitable places for deposition. When the weather is cool addi- tional feedings are often necessary before eggs are produced. The adults appear to have a keen sense of smell and are able to detect moist straw and suitable manure very quickly. This is especially noticeable when a straw stack which is dry on the outside is opened up so as to expose the moist and rotting interior. Very soon after a stack is opened flies are seen to come to the moist straw in numbers and begin depositing eggs. They usually crawl into the loose straw, sometimes going to a depth of several inches. When laying eggs the fly greatly extends the ovipositor and uses it as an organ of touch in locating a suitable spot in which to deposit. The eggs are laid in irregular masses, although occasionally single ones are deposited. The female usually moves several times during deposi- tion so that each mass contains from a few to as many as 25 or more eggs. The greatest number of eggs which has been observed to be deposited before another meal of blood is taken is 122. After all of the eggs have been deposited the female again seeks a host, and this feeding is again followed by deposition. Three of such depositions commonly take place in this species. It is sometimes necessary, especially during cool weather, for a fly to become engorged twice before each deposition following the first. The greatest number of eggs which has been seen to be deposited by a single female during her life is 278. LENGTH OF LIFE OF THE ADULT. A considerable number of experiments have been made to determine the length of life of the adult fly. A knowledge of the longevity of the adult is important in order that its possibilities as a pest may be determined and that we may ascertain whether the species may act as a true host of disease organisms; that is, whether disease germs can multiply within the fly before being capable of producing the disease in a higher animal. Individuals kept in small tubes without food or water during hot weather died within two days. When water and sugar sirup were supplied to flies, in a screen cage about 1 foot square, one specimen out of a large number of males and females lived for 23 days. Individuals which had access to blood at frequent inter- vals lived 17 days, and a few specimens, among a considerable number which were kept in large cages with cattle and suitable material in which to deposit eggs, lived for 29 days. When flies had been sup- plied with fruit and moist straw, but had not had access to host animals, they frequently lived for 10 days. 540 THE STABLE FLY. 19 THE LARVA AND ITS HABITS. The larve begin feeding as soon as they hatch from the eggs and continue to do so throughout their growth. Portions of moist straw or other material in which they are breeding are torn off by their mandibles, which are located on the narrow or head end of the mag- got. When very small they frequently penetrate between the layers of the stalk or leaves of grain when moistened in the straw stack. When larger they frequently feed within the straws, and transforma- tion to the resting state sometimes takes place in this protected situa- tion. The duration of the larval stage has been found to vary from 11 to 30 days. During very cold weather this stage is probably consid- erably longer than one month. The character and abundance of food as well as the amount of moisture present have an important influence on the development of the maggots. The larve follow the moisture inward as the material in which they are breeding becomes dry on the surface. Pupation occurs anywhere in the breeding mate- rial; however, it frequently happens that the larve, when breeding in small masses of straw or manure, work downward as the material dries and pupate at the surface of the soil. LIFE CYCLE. It has been found that the complete development from the depo- sition of the egg to the emergence of the adult fly may be completed in 19 days. On the average the period is somewhat longer than this, generally ranging from 21 to 25 days where conditions are very favor- able. The longest period observed for complete development was 43 days, although it is certain that in the late fall and during the winter months a much longer period is often necessary. The finding of full- grown larve and pupe in straw during the latter part of March, 1913, in northern Texas shows that development may require about three months, as these stages almost certainly developed from eggs depos- ited the previous December. SEASONAL HISTORY. The stable fly is particularly abundant and injurious in the late summer and fall. This is especially true in the Northern States, where development begins later in the spring. Mr. C. T. Brues states that the flies first appear in noticeable numbers about June 1, in the vicinity of Boston, Mass. The fly has been observed to be sufficiently numerous to annoy cattle considerably at Dallas, Tex., as early as March 1, and in the western part of Texas it has been observed feeding on live stock in considerable numbers early in May. At Batesburg, S.C., Mr. E. A. McGregor found the adults to be commonly attacking live stock about the middle of March in 1913. In the extreme south- ern part of the United States, however, there is no month during the year in which flies are not annoying to horses and cattle. 540 90 THE STABLE FLY. The number of generations of this insect annually has not been determined, but it is estimated that seven broods may readily develop in one year in the Southern States. In the Northern States probably five broods is about the usual number. HIBERNATION. In the southern part of the United States there is no true hiber- nation of this insect. The adults have been found to emerge at various times throughout the winter, and during warm periods at Dallas, Tex., they have been observed to feed on animals. Mr. W. V. King reports that considerable numbers of adults were present throughout the winter of 1912-13 at New Orleans, La. In fact, they appeared to be even more numerous in midwinter than during the previous fall. At Victoria, Tex., Mr. J. D. Mitchell found them to annoy stock throughout the winter. Although no egg laying ap- peared to take place during the winter of 1912-13 at Dallas, Tex., it may sometimes occur at that latitude and probably occurs through- out the winter in the extreme southern part of the United States. It would seem that most of the dividuals which pass the winter successfully hatch from the eggs laid in the fall and continue develop- ment slowly during winter, emerging in early spring when conditions are favorable for further reproduction. Examinations of straw stacks in northern Texas, made during the latter part of March, 1913, showed a few full-grown larve and large numbers of puparia. These almost certainly developed from eggs deposited the previous Decem- ber. In the northern part of the United States it is doubtful if many flies emerge during the winter months, the wmter being normally passed in the larval and pupal stages. Near Boston, Mass., Mr. C. T. Brues observed adults to be active in heated stables in the dead of winter. These individuals probably bred out in refuse within the warm barns and were not hibernating adults. In 1913, at Clarksville, Tenn., Mr. D. C. Parman found that the adults began emerging about March 30. AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN RELATION TO FLY ABUNDANCE. A number of agricultural practices which are commonly in vogue in the United States are calculated to favor greatly the development of this species. As has been stated, this species breeds most com- monly in straw and horse manure or a mixture of these two sub- stances. The usual custom of allowing the manure from the horse stable to accumulate just outside of the stable doors absolutely insures the presence of a considerable number of stable flies at all times when climatic conditions are suitable for breeding. Allowing barnyards, especially around dairies, to become knee-deep in manure is also calculated to produce flies in abundance. 540 THE STABLE FLY. mA In the grain belt it is the general practice for farmers to thrash the grain in the fields by means of self-stacking thrashing machines. The individual stacks cover much ground and the straw is very loosely piled. In many cases for convenience a large number of stacks are formed in various parts of a field. This condition, when followed by more or less heavy summer and fall rains, is certain to produce great numbers of flies. In fact, this is precisely the condition which occurred in 1905 and in 1912, when the serious outbreaks of the fly occurred in Texas. In many instances straw stacks are not protected from live stock. The animals soon scatter the straw about and by adding manure to the straw still further favor the breeding of flies. These straw stacks are usually allowed to remain from one year to the next without any attention whatever. When the succeeding crop is planted the area occupied by the stacks is simply left uncul- tivated. In a number of instances 50,000 square feet have been found occupied by a single stack, and in many cases several of these stacks occurred in a field of 60 or more acres. ) in that it is elliptical, slightly longer, and comparatively smooth. The adult emerging therefrom is about the same size as the Tiphia wasp, or slightly larger, and the black abdomen is transversely striped with yellow. The co- coons of both of these parasites are frequently turned out by the plow, especially in fields badly infested with white erubs. The parasitic fly Pyrgota undata Wied.’ (fig. 10) attacks only the beetle, usually de- positing its egg with- in the body of the beetle us the latter flies from leaf to leaf or to the ground at night. The Jarve hatching from these eges gradually kill the beetle, although Fic. 11.—Cocoons of wasps that prey on white grubs: as a rule the latter. if Peis ll : b, Tiphia inornata, Natural size. a female, is capable of | copulating and of depositing eggs for some days after being para- sitized; consequently this parasite may not be so valuable as might at first be anticipated. Several fungous and bacterial diseases have been reported attacking the grubs and beetles, but the knowledge of these is as yet superficial. Occasional outbreaks of these diseases have been reported, and it is highly probable that they serve as valuable natural checks. In Europe certain of these diseases have been artificially grown and used to destroy the grub, but there seems to be a divergence of opinion 1JIt has been found that another species of Pyrgota (P. valida Warr.) is parasitic on the beetles, and this species may prove to be equally as important as P. undata, 543 16 COMMON WHITE GRUBS. as to their value when used in this manner, and the feasibility of their use for this purpose is still an open question. METHODS OF CONTROL. All general measures here discussed and recommended are pre- ventive rather than remedial, for once white grubs are present in a field of corn or other crop there is no means as yet known of pro- tecting that particular crop from its ravages. On the other hand, there are certain cultural and other practices which will greatly minimize the damage in succeeding years. Fic. 12.—Pasture sod overturned by swine in their search for white grubs, Lancaster, Wis., 1911. (Original.) UTILIZING HOGS AND POULTRY FOR DESTROYING THE GRUBS. An infested field may be thoroughly cleared of grubs by pasturing it with hogs, and this method should be followed wherever possible. Hogs are very fond of grubs and will root to a depth of a foot or more in search of them. (See fig. 12.) Such pasturing may be done at any time during the summer, but it should not be delayed later than the middle of October nor should it be practiced earlier in spring than April in the latitude of central Indiana or May in the latitude of Wisconsin, since at other times the grubs will probably be in their winter quarters, deep in the ground, and a large percentage may then escape the hogs. 543 COMMON WHITE GRUBS. 17 It should be noted here that the giant thorn-headed worm, an intestinal worm attacking swine, passes one of the early stages of its life within the white grub,and hogs become infested with these worms by feeding on infested grubs. The grubs in turn become infested through the excrement of infested swine. In the grub-infested locali- ties of Iowa, Illinois, and Wisconsin visited by the writer this intesti- nal worm is quite prevalent, but inasmuch as most of the swine in these regions are slaughtered before they are 1 year old the prevalence of the worms in this region is of little if any importance. Precau- tions should be taken, however, to protect the animals from infesta- tion where possible. In this connection Dr. S. A. Forbes says:” Pigs which have never been pastured are certain to be free from these para- sites, and grubs growing in fields which have not been pastured by pigs are like- wise certain to be free from them. The use of such pigs upon such fields would consequently be without danger from this source, and a little attention to these facts will avoid any injurious consequences. That is, if pigs not previously allowed to run out are turned into fields on which pigs have not been pastured within three years, there will be no danger that they will become infested by these thorn-headed worms.’ In 1912 the writer observed a field in which half of the corn was uninjured and free from grubs, while the other half was badly dam- aged. The previous year both halves of this field had been in timo- thy, but with this difference: The half where the injury occurred was left for hay and the other half was fenced off and pastured with dairy cows. The only plausible explanation seems to be that the tram- pling of the ground by the cows killed the eggs and grubs in the field, or else that the ground had been trampled sufficiently previous to the flight of the beetles to prevent them from entering the soil and laying eggs. Domestic fowls should be given the run of infested fields, and especially when the land is being plowed, for they are very fond of grubs and will destroy large numbers. During the years of great abundance of the beetles hogs should be turned into orchards and timber lots during the period of flight (May and June), since a majority of the beetles pass the day just below the surface of the soil beneath or near the trees upon which they have been feeding the night before, and will be eagerly sought and eaten by the hogs. 2 FALL PLOWING. Where it is impracticable to pasture hogs in an infested field much good can be accomplished by plowing the land in the fall. The plow- ing should be done late in fall, but, on the other hand, it should not be delayed until cold weather sets in or until the ground becomes chilled and frosty, for then the grubs will have gone down to their 1 Hehinorhynchus gigas. 2 Forbes, S. A. On the life history, habits, and economic relations of the white grubs and May beetles (Lachnosterna). Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 116, p. 479, August, 1907. 543, 18 COMMON WHITE GRUBS. winter quarters beyond the reach of the plow. Ordinarily the best time to plow is between October 1 and October 15. Jn 1913 deep plowing at.any time in the fall, especially in early fall, will be of special value in those regions where the grubs were so destructive in 1912, since the grubs will then have changed to pupe and adult beetles, and these will be destroyed if the pupal cells in which they pass the winter are disturbed. ROTATION OF CROPS. Since the beetles usually deposit their eggs in fields of grass, tim- othy, and small grains, the crops planted in these fields the year fol- lowing a season of beetle abundance should be those which are the least susceptible to grub injury, such as small grains, buckwheat, clover, alfalfa, and peas. Care should. always be exercised.in the selection of a crop to follow sod or old timothy ground, even though the beetles were not noticed as especially abundant the preceding year. Where hogs can be pastured on the land the fall or spring previous to planting, as discussed in another paragraph, the grubs will be practically eliminated. COLLECTING THE GRUBS AND BEETLES. Where it is possible to secure cheap labor, collecting the grubs after the plow is practicable, especially where the grubs are numerous. In Europe children are often employed to gather grubs in this manner and to collect the beetles as described below. Collecting the cockchafer or Maikiifer, a beetle very closely related to the May beetle, is a common practice in European countries, but so far as known the attempt to collect May beetles on an extensive scale in the United States has never been made. Three methods may be employed in beetle destruction: (1) Collecting from plants upon which they feed at night, (2) trapping at lights, and (3) poisoning their food plants. In Europe beetle collecting has proved of value largely because the years of abundance of the beetles have been definitely known in advance, while in America this has not been the case. Now, however, there is proof that the beetles occurring in such abundance in many parts of the United States in 1911 (the parents of the destructive generation of grubs in 1912) have a life cycle of three years, and it is reasonably certain that they will continue to be exceptionallye xbundant in these regions every. three years unless killed off by their natural enemies, by artificial means, or by unfavorable climatic con- ditions. Beetle collecting in the Old World has also proved prac- _ ticable, first, because of the organized cooperative movement by the farmers for the collection of the beetles; second, because a small bounty is paid for the beetles; and, third, because of laws which in some countries require each farmer to collect a certain quantity of the grubs or beetles each year. Individual action is useless, and only 943 COMMON WHITE GRUBS. 19 where whole communities or neighborhoods cooperate in the work is it effective. In collecting from food plants large cloth sheets are placed under the tree and the latter jarred, or in the case of large trees individual branches may be shaken by using a long pole provided with a hook at the end. The beetles are then gathered up from the sheet and placed in cans, bottles, or boxes and afterwards killed with carbon bisulphid. Jxilled in this manner they may be fed to chickens, pigs, etc., but if they are not. to be used for such purposes they may be killed by dropping them in cans containing water and just enough kerosene oil to cover the surface. Different species have different food preferences, but as a rule beetles are most abundant on the oak, walnut, poplar, hackberry, willow, ash, and elm. Collections may be made at any time during the night, but the best time for this work is in the early morning, before 4.30 o’clock, at a time when the beetles are easily jarred from the foliage. It is essential that col- lecting be begun as soon as the beetles appear in the spring—that is, before the beetles have begun to lay their eggs—and it should also be borne in mind that each female beetle destroyed early in the season means the destruction of from 50 to 100 grubs which she might have produced. Light traps have not as vet proven satisfactory as a means of control against May beetles, the prime objection to this method being that the light attracts the males to the almost total exclusion of the females. Further tests with this method must be made, and it is possible that the ight may prove attractive to the female beetles in years of unusual abundance if placed close to the trees or shrubs upon which they feed. SPRAYING. Spraying trees upon which the beetles feed, with Paris green or arsenate of lead, is effective against the beetles, but ordinarily this method is impracticable owing to the large size of the trees, whichgwould necessitate large and expensive power sprayers. With a more definite knowledge of the preferred food plants, it may be found practicable in some localities to plant low-growing trees and shrubs about fields as traps for the beetles, which might then be destroyed by spraying. SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. In those regions in which the grubs were so abundant and destrue- tive in 1912 certain special directions and precautions may prevent a repetition of the damage in 1915. As has already been stated, the parents of the grubs of 1912 appeared in the spring of 1911 and laid the eggs which hatched into the grubs. Practically no damage occurred that year, but in 1912, when about half grown, the grubs caused great loss. These grubs will continue active in the spring of 1913 and may injure certain early plantings, but by early June most of the grubs will have become more or less inactive and later 543 20 COMMON WHITE GRUBS. will change to the dormant or pupal stage, transforming to beetles about August. They will remain in the soil as beetles over winter, appearing above ground in the spring of 1914, Small grain may, with comparatively safety, be planted in 1913 on land infested in 1912. If infested ground must be utilized for corn, potatoes, or other sus- ceptible crops in 1913, planting should be delayed as long as possible, in which case injury will be minimized or may be wholly prevented. In 1914 a maximum acreage of such crops as corn and potatoes should be planted, and these should be kept thoroughly cultivated during the flight of the beetles. Land which is planted to small grain, timothy, and other crops which cover the ground with vegetation at the time of the flight of beetles should be planted in fields farthest from trees, and such fields should be planted the following year (1915) to crops least susceptible to white-grub injury, such as clover, alfalfa, small grains, and buckwheat. In addition, the methods which have already been discussed, namely, the use of hogs and domestic fowls, fall plowing, and the gathering of beetles and grubs, should be practiced. IN THE LAWN. No reliable remedy can be offered for the destruction of grubs in iawns. Where possible, poultry, especially turkeys, should be allowed the run of the infested area. Hogs will of course rid the ground of grubs, but they will likewise tear up the sod and are not usually desirable in cities. When badly infested, the removal of sod and the gathering of the grubs by hand, and later, fall plowing, will probably prove satisfactory. If the infestation is not severe, liberal applica- tions of commercial fertilizer will assist the grass in overcoming the grub injury. It has been demonstrated in Europe by Decoppet + that carbon bisulphid injected into the soil at a depth not exceeding 6 inches, at the rate of 1 to 13 ounces in six or eight holes per square yard, will considerably diminish the number of grubs. Decoppet experimented with an European white grub,? and it appears quite probable that this method would prove satisfactory for ouréwhite ‘ grubs when they appear in lawns. It might be mentioned here that carbon bisulphid may be injected with excellent results into the holes of the grub of the southern green June beetle, which is frequently quite destructive to lawns in the Southern States. In using carbon bisulphid care should be exercised never to permit a spark of fire to come near it, for it is extremely inflammable, and its vapor, mixed with air, is explosive. Holes in which the carbon bisulphid is in- jected should be closed with a plug of soil or sod immediately after the injection, to prevent the escape of the fumes. 1 Bul. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., 5me ser., t. 48, no. 176, pp. xxxy—xxxvi, June, 1912. Abstr. in Internat. Inst. Agr. (Rome), Bul. Bur. Agr. Intel. and Plant Diseases, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 1456-1457, 1912, and in U. S. Dept. Agr., Experiment Station Record, vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 661-662, 1912. 2 Melolontha sp. 543 O Issued July 26, 1913. U. S. DEPARFMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS’ BULLETIN 547. THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. BY LO. HOWARD, M. D., Px. D., Chief of the Bureau of Entomology. SSS _— ir ES << WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1913. w i LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, Washington, D. C., May 1, 1973. Str: I have the honor to transmit for publication a paper dealing with the yellow-fever mosquito. It is intended to be a companion to Farmers’ Bulletins _444 (Remedies and Preventives against Mosquitoes) and 450 (Some Facts about Malaria), and should therefore be published in the same series. This manuscript has been adapted from a Monograple of the Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies, by L. O. Howard, Harrison G. Dyar, and Frederick Knab, published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Respectfully, - L. O. Howarp, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. Hon. D. F. Houston, Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS. Page. Page. How to recognize the yellow-fever iBreedinys trabits= = 8 MOSOUIULOR == 22 ae Se See 3 Bee laying.) 302k eee 8 Different names by which it has The .@eeg\2. 3+. 2 eee 8 Bee IiGH leet. eee 4 Breeding iplacess2.-—— =o eee 9 Domesticity of the species_______-- 4 Behavior of Varve— "eae 10 abits, of the dmb s = 2 Ya: Se 5 Food habits of, larve222== ee 10 Mecdingpinabitges= ===. 5 Duration of early stages_______ 11 Time ofl Achiyity—2 3-4 4- == 6 Resistance of larve to adverse Length of life of adults_______ 6 conditions: 232) 3332 ss2e—5 11 Influence of temperature —-_~—~ 6 | Geographic distribution____________ i Distance of flight o1' 4s" seas i.) Original home. 22222 See 13 Distribution by artificial means— 7 | Discovery of the relations of this Wahine a 2 oes oe 52S 8 mosquito to yellow fever_____-_~_ 13 Relation of food to egg lay- Subsequent demonstration____-___-_-_~_ 16 AEDs en 5 RSs Sel eee 8) | Remediesze -U soe ee 16 ILLUSTRATIONS. | Page. Page. Fig. 1. Yellow-fever mosquito Fic. 3. Yellow-fever mosquito: Adult (Aedes calopus): Adult fe- female, side view__-------_ 5 pitt (ee ee 3 4. Yellow-fever mosquito: Egg_- 9 2. Yellow-fever mosquito: Adult 5. Yellow-fever mosquito : Larva_ 10 Lit (ne a eS 4 6. Yellow-fever mosquito : Pupa— ik 2 THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. (Aedes calopus Meig.) HOW TO RECOGNIZE THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. The only species of mosquito which has been shown to transmit yellow fever is a small form well known in the Tropics. It is some- what variable in size, but on the whole is so small as to require a mos- quito bar of 20 strands, or 19 meshes, to the inch to prevent its entrance to screened rooms. Both males and females can pass through a netting containing 16 strands, or 15 meshes, to the inch. Tt is.a strikingly marked, and, on the whole, when seen under the lens, a beautiful insect. Its gen- eral color is dark, but its thorax is marked with a silvery white, lyre- shaped pattern; the ab- domen is banded with silvery white, and there is a silvery white spot on each side of the abdomi- nal segments. The legs are banded alternately with black and pure white, and the long palpi “>? Fig, 1.—The yellow-fever mosquito (Aedes ‘calopus) : Adult female. Much enlarged. (Original.) of the male are also alternately banded with black and pure white. As with many other species of mosquito, the antenne of the male 95616°—Bull, 547——13 3 4 THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. are broadly feathered, while those of the female are only slightly feathered. The actompanying illustrations (figs. 1-3) well indicate the general appearance of the insect. DIFFERENT NAMES BY WHICH IT HAS BEEN CALLED. Popularly the yellow-fever mosquito has been called in the Tropics the house mosquito, the day mosquito, the banded-legged mosquito, and is now generally Bt we known as the yellow- fever mosquito. Some- times also it is known popularly by one of its discarded scientific names, the Stegomyia mosquito. Scientifically this spe- cies was first known as Culex fasciatus Fabr. After the.publication of Theobald’s Monograph : of the Mosquitoes of the A World it was known as Stegomyia fasciata Fabr. Later, after Blanchard pointed out . ge y : ee that the name fasciata / \ was preoccupied in the f same group, it was 4 Ni known as Stegomyia f ’ calopus. Recent inves- 4 ‘ tigations have shown Vs \ that Stegomyia is not a valid genus, and the insect is now known as Aedes calopus Meig. OTT a Tau. Fic, 2.—The yellow-fever mosquito: Adult male. Much enlarged. (Original.) DOMESTICITY OF THE SPECIES. The yellow-fever mosquito is mseparably associated with man in the Tropics. It is essentially a town mosquito, and normally it is never found at a great distance from habitations. It shows a very decided preference for human blood, and it must have blood for the development of its eggs. Both sexes inhabrt houses, and when there is a supply of water the entire life cycle takes place indoors. Its 547 THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. 5 long association with man is shown by many of its habits. It ap- proaches stealthily from behind. It retreats upon the slightest alarm. The ankles and, when one is sitting at a table or desk, the underside of the hands and wrists are favorite points of attack. It attacks silently, whereas other mosquitoes have a piping or humming note. The warning sound has doubtless been suppressed in the evolutionary process of its adaptation to man. It is extremely wary. It hides wherever it can, concealing itself in garments, working into the pockets and under the lapels of coats, and crawling up under the clothes to bite the legs. In houses it will hide in dark corners, under picture moldings, and behind the heads of old-fashioned bedsteads. Tt will enter closets and hide in the folds of garments. HABITS OF THE ADULT. FEEDING HABITS. The female sucks blood when it is available, and needs blood to develop her eggs. In captivity she has been kept alive for a long Fig. 3.—The yellow-fever mosquito: Adult female, side view. Much enlarged. (Original. ) time on honey or other sweet substance. She is attracted to portions of the body covered with perspiration. A female will bite within 18 to 24 hours after she emerges from the pupa. Virgin females will bite, but fertilized females are more greedy. After a meal of blood she is very sluggish; she flies with difficulty, seeking a hiding place for digestion. Several hours are consumed in digestion, and then the female is anxious for another meal of blood. The species normally sucks blood repeatedly. In 31 days a female is recorded to have sucked blood 12 times. By biting a number of different individuals the chances of becoming herself infected with yellow fever and trans- mitting the disease are greatly increased. The yellow-fever mosquito can subsist upon the blood of any warm- blocded animal, but shows a decided preference for man. It prefers the white race to dark races, and among the whites attacks by pref- erence young, vigorous persons of fine skin and good color rather 547 6 THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. than anemic or aged people. It will also feed upon birds, and it has been carried alive from Brazil to Europe by being fed upon canary birds. Instances are on record of the biting of corpses. TIME OF ACTIVITY. The popular name in the British West Indies, “ day mosquito,” is derived from the fact that this species is usually active and bites only in the daytime, although, where there is a light in the room, it may also bite at night. It is especially voracious early in the morning about sunrise and again late in the afternoon. It does not bite in the bright sunlight out of doors, and in fact is not in evidence in the open. On cloudy days it bites at all times. Antimosquito lotions for the skin, used in unscreened houses at night, are not so apt to be effec- tive against this species as against other semidomesticated species, such as Culea quinquefasciatus and the species of Anopheles, for the reason that at the time when the individual is soundest asleep, m the early morning hours, the lotion will largely have evaporated, and the yellow-fever mosquito begins to bite only when the sunlight first enters the room. LENGTH OF ‘LIFE OF ADULTS. Adult females have been kept alive for long periods by feeding them upon bananas and other fruit, upon honey, molasses, and other sweet substances. Beyond the fortieth day the mortality becomes great. They will live longer where the atmosphere is moist. Guiteras, in Cuba, kept five infected adults alive for 101 days and one for 154 days. The oldest male that has been kept in captivity lived for 72 days. The question of how long infected yellow-fever mosquitoes may be capable of conveying the disease has received some attention. Having acquired the infection from a yellow-fever sufferer they are dangerous after the twelfth day, and probably continue dangerous as long as they are capable of biting. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. The cessation of former yellow-fever epidemics in the southern United States on the appearance of the first cold weather in Novem- ber and December was due to the fact that the yellow-fever mosquito is killed by cold. It is, in fact, extremely sensitive to differences in temperature. It displays the greatest activity when the thermometer is in the neighborhood of 82° F. As the temperature rises or falls a few degrees above or below that point there is a markedly reduced activity. Beyond 102° F. heat is fatal. When the thermometer falls below 62° the mosquito becomes sluggish and will not feed. At from 547 THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. 7 54° to 57° F. it becomes torpid, flies with difficulty, and no longer stands firmly on its legs. It dies quickly when the temperature is at the freezing point. When exposed for a brief period to a tem- perature of 49° and then placed in a warm room it will revive, but it dies at a temperature of 39° maintained for more than an hour. It may be kept alive for some time at temperatures of 45° to 48°. DISTANCE OF FLIGHT. ~ The yellow-fever mosquito is a strong flier; nevertheless, it does not fly very far and, as has been already pointed out, is rarely found away from houses. It apparently never flies very high and is found by preference in the lower stories of houses. There is conflicting evi- dence regarding the effect of a strong current of wind on this species, and it is recorded that strong air currents produced by a mechanical ventilator had no effect upon flight. Other observers have searched for it in vain in situations exposed to the wind. The distance of flight has an important bearing upon the distance at which ships should be anchored from fever-infected ports, but with vessels anchored at given distances it is most difficult to deter- mine whether yellow-fever mosquitoes which may be found on board have flown from the shore or have been carried by boat parties visiting the vessel, perhaps concealed under coat collars or hidden in other parts of clothing. There is no positive evidence that vessels anchored more than half a mile from the shore will be visited by the ‘yellow-fever mosquito by natural flight. : DISTRIBUTION BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. Although, as indicated in the preceding section, the yellow-fever mosquito apparently does not fly far, it is readily carried to great distances accidentally by artificial means. Vessels, once infested, may carry the species to far-distant ports. The yellow-fever mosquito has been found in New York upon vessels coming from Vera Cruz, and it is by such carriage of infected mosquitoes that the early out- breaks of yellow fever in Philadelphia and other northern cities are to be accounted for. Railway trains also carry this mosquito, frequently in large num- bers. It has spread inland from Vera Cruz, first to Cordoba and later to Orizaba, entirely by means of the railway. Almost every summer the yellow-fever mosquito is carried in railroad cars from New Orleans, Mobile, and other southern cities, on through trains, to Washington, Baltimore, and New York. It has been seen and cap- tured on these trains by competent entomologists. BAT 8 THE YELLOW-FEVER MOSQUITO. MATING. The mating of the species usually occurs during flight, although the female sometimes alights during the act and before its comple- tion. The act requires but a fraction of a minute. Temperature has a great influence upon sexual activity. Below 68° F. mating seldom occurs. The same male may have frequent connections in rapid succession with various females. RELATION OF FOOD TO EGG LAYING. It seems certain that the female can not develop her eggs without having had a meal of blood. After a meal eggs will be deposited in a few days. If a fertilized female is fed upon sweet substances, the eggs will not develop. If afterwards, say after 15 or 20 days, she is fed blood, the eggs will then develop. 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